Heat Treatment

HEAT TREATMENT
1.0 Definition:
Heat treatment is a process in which a series of heating and cooling
operations are applied to metals and alloys in solid state so as to obtain certain
desired properties. The objective of this process is to make the metal better suited
structurally and physically for some specific applications.
All the metals in solid state can be subjected to heat treatment but the end
result may vary from metal to metal. Heat treatment results in considerable
changes in steel where as the properties of hot rolled copper is not much affected
by the process.
Heat treatment may be performed for any one or more of the following purposes.
1. Improvement of ductility,
2. Relieving internal stresses,
3. Refinement of grain size
4. To achieve desired chemical composition,
5. Increase hardness or reduce hardness.
Other effect of heat treatment includes improvement of machinability,

alterations in magnetic properties, modification of electrical properties, development
of re crystallized structure in cold worked metal.
1.1 Micro constituents of steel:

Before beginning the study of heat treatment of metals and alloys, we should
have a clear idea about metals and its micro constituents. The following are some
of the important micro constituents of steel.
1.1.1 Ferrite: It is a pure iron containing only 0.006% of carbon. Ferrite is strongly
magnetic at room temperature and becomes paramagnetic at 770oC.
Fig: 1.1
1.1.2 Cementite:It is a compound of iron and carbon. It is an extremely hard and
brittle. It contains 93.33% iron and 6.67% carbon. It is magnetic at room
temperature and become paramagnetic at 210 oC. it is also called iron-carbide.
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NETTUR TECHNICAL TRAINING FOUNDATION
1.1.3 Pearlite:It is an intimate mixture of ferrite and cementite and made up of
alternate layers of ferrite and cementite. 'Pearlite contains 88.5%ferrite and 11.5%
of cementite. Pearlite exists below 723C only.
Fig: 1.2
1.1.4 Austenite: It is a solid solution of carbon in iron. It can dissolve up to 2% of

carbon at 1148oC. It is soft and ductile but stronger and less ductile than pearlite. It
is a non-magnetic phase and exists at temperature above 727C.
Fig: 1.3
1.1.5 Martensite: It is a micro constituent of steel, which is obtained when steel is

cooled rapidly from Austenite phase to room temperature. It presents a needle like
appearance under microscope and very hard and brittle.
Fig: 1.4
1.1.6 Ledeburite: Similar to Pearlite it consists of mixture of two phases, Austenite

and Cementite and it exists between1148 and727 C. It forms in Cast iron only.
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1.1.7 Bainite: It forms when steel is cooled rapidly from Austenite phase to a
temperature of 650o to 500oC and held at that temperature for a Iong time. It is an
intimate mixture of
Ferrite and Cementite and appears in the form of tiny globules
Fig: 1.5
1.1.7 Troostite: When alloy steels are tempered Martensite structure decomposes
and a new structure called Troostite is formed. It has half hardness of Martensite.
Sorbite: When hardened steel is tempered at a temperature between 450 oC to
650oC, the Martensite structure gets softened and resulting structure is called
Sorbite.
1.2 Allotropic forms and structural transformation:
Iron is having two allotropic forms. They are alpha () iron; beta () iron and
delta () iron with body centered cubic structure (BCC) and gamma () iron with
face centered cubic structure (FCC). To find the allotropic changes molten pure iron
was allowed to cool and the transformations and corresponding temperatures were
found out. It is observed that above 1540 C iron exists only in liquid form. On
cooling the liquid iron temperature remains the same until the solidification takes
place completely. Solid iron thus formed by solidification is called as delta iron.
Once the solidification is completed, the temperature starts to drop at a constant
rate till 1395 C. The constant drop in temperature indicates that
there is no structural transformation in this region.
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At 1395 C again one transformation takes place. Delta iron transforms to gamma
iron at this temperature, and the temperature remains the same until the
transformation is completed. Again on further cooling the temperature continues to
drop constantly till 910 C. this shows there is no further structural transformation till
910 C.
On still further cooling at 910 0C, another phase change occurs from F.C.C. non-
magnetic gamma iron to B.C.C. non-magnetic alpha iron.
Beta iron is a nonmagnetic version of alpha iron and this form exists between
temperatures 910 C and 768 C. all these changes are reversible on heating of
iron.
Steels are categorized in to three according to the carbon content. They are
1. Low carbon steels - carbon content up to 0.3%
2. Medium carbon steels - carbon content 0.3 to 0.6%
3. High carbon steels - carbon content above 0.6%
According to the equilibrium diagram, carbon steels are classified as follows.
1. Hypo eutectoid steel - carbon content less than 0.83%
2. Eutectoid steel - carbon content 0.83%
3. Hyper eutectoid steel - carbon content above 0.83%
1.3 Iron-carbon equilibrium diagram:

An equilibrium diagram is the graphic representation of temperature and
composition upon the phases present in an alloy. It is constructed by plotting
temperature along the Y-axis and percentage of composition of the alloy along X-
axis. The diagram shows the range of temperatures and compositions within which
the various phase changes are stable and the boundaries at which the phase
change occurs. Iron-carbon equilibrium diagram indicates the phase changes that
occur during heating and cooling and the nature and amount of structural
components that exists at any temperature. Besides, it establishes a correlation
between the microstructure and properties of steel and provides a basis for the
understanding of the principles of heat treatment.
An iron carbon equilibrium diagram forms a basis for differentiating among
hypoeutectoid steel (less than 0.83% of carbon) eutectoid steel (0.83% of carbon)
and hypereutectoid steel (above 0.83% of carbon content).
Steel containing less than 0.83% carbon is hypoeutectoid steel and is
completely austenite above the upper critical temperature. As it is cooled below this
line the iron begins to change from FCC to BCC. As a result, small crystals of body
centered iron separate from the austenite. The BCC crystals retain only a small
amount of carbon and are referred as crystals of ferrite. As the cooling proceeds,
ferrite crystals grow in size at expense of austenite. By the time the steel has
reached the lower critical temperature, it is composed of approximately half ferrite
and half austenite. At this stage the austenite contains 0.83% carbon and since
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austenite can hold no more than 0.83% carbon in solid solution at 723C, as the
temperature drops further carbon begins to precipitate as cementite.
All hypoeutectoid steel when cooled from austenite state will transform in to ferrite
and pearlite in the same way explained. Consider the transformation of eutectoid
steel containing 0.83% carbon. It will remain austenite up to the point where both
UCT and LCT meet. The transformation will begin and end at the same
temperature (723C). Since eutectoid steel contains 0.83% carbon initially it follows
that the final transformed structure will be completely pearlite. Consider the
transformation of hypereutectoid steel. As the temperature drops and steel crosses
the UCT and nears LCT, the excess carbon above the amount required to saturate
austenite is precipitated as cementite along the grain boundaries. Thus the above
LCT line the structure consists of austenite and cementite. As the temperature
drops below 723 (LCT), the austenite has become less rich in carbon and because
of cementite formation. It contains only 0.83% carbon and it transform to pearlite as
it does go in the case of hypoeutectoid and eutectoid steels. The structure of
hypereutectoid steel at room temperature consists of cementite and pearlite. When
the steel is heated the same changes takes place in reverse order.
% Carbon
Fig.1.7
IRON CARBON EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAM
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Figure1.7 shows the equilibrium diagram for combinations of carbon in a solid
solution of iron. The diagram shows iron and carbons combined to form Fe-Fe 3C at
the 6.67%C end of the diagram. The left side of the diagram is pure iron combined
with carbon, resulting in steel alloys. Three significant regions can be made relative
to the steel portion of the diagram. They are the eutectoid E, the hypoeutectoid A,
and the hypereutectoid B. The right side of the pure iron line is carbon in
combination with various forms of iron called alpha iron (ferrite), gamma iron
(austenite), and delta iron.
Allotropic changes take place when there is a change in crystal lattice structure.
From 2802-2552F the delta iron has a body-centered cubic lattice structure. At
2552F, the lattice changes from a body-centered cubic to a face-centered cubic
lattice type. At 1400F, the curve shows a plateau but this does not signify an
allotropic change. It is called the Curie temperature, where the metal changes its
magnetic properties.
Two very important phase changes take place at 0.83%C and at 4.3% C. At
0.83%C, the transformation is eutectoid, called pearlite.
gamma (austenite) --> alpha + Fe3C (cementite)
At 4.3% C and 2066F, the transformation is eutectic, called ledeburite.
L(liquid) --> gamma (austenite) + Fe3C (cementite)
Equilibrium Calculations
1. Calculate the phases in the cast-iron portion of the diagram at the eutectic
composition of 4.3% C in combination with 95.7% ferrite at:
a. T = 3000F
b. T = 1670F
c. T = 1333F
Solutions
1. a. T = 3000F. At this temperature, the eutectic is all liquid.

b. T = 1670F. Since there is a change of the solubility line, there will be a
change in the austenite composition, that will transform to the eutectoid at 1333F.
The overall austenite and cementite composition will be:
austenite = (6.67 - 4.3) / (6.67 - 1.2) x 100 = 43.3%
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cementite = (4.3 - 1.2) / (6.67 - 1.2) x 100 = 56.7%
c. T = 1333F. At this temperature the austenite has a eutectoid composition and
will transform into pearlite. The compositions of proeutectoid cementite and
austenite are:
eutectoid austenite = (6.67 - 4.3) / (6.67 - 0.83) x 100 = 40.6%
proeutectoid cementite = (4.3 - 0.83) / (6.67 - 0.83) x 100 = 59.4%
The austenite has a eutectoid composition that is:
eutectoid ferrite = (6.67 - 0.83) / (6.67 - 0.025) x 100 = 88%
eutectoid cementite = (0.83 - 0.025) / (6.67 - 0.025) x 100 = 12%
Iron carbon diagram

Fig:1.8
1.4 TTT diagram:
TTT (time-temperature-transformation) diagram is also known as S-curve, C-
curve, Bains curve or isothermal transformation diagram. It shows the relationship
between temperature and time taken for a decomposition transformation to take
place in a metal when the transformation is isothermal (transformation is allowed to
occur at constant temperature). TTT diagram is used more particularly in the
assessment of decomposition of austenite in heat treatable steel.
The principal source of information of the actual process of austenite
decomposition under non-equilibrium conditions is the TTT diagram, which relates
the transformation of austenite to the time and temperature conditions to which it is
subjected. Many metallurgists realized that time and temperature of austenite
transformation had a profound influence on the transformation products and the
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subsequent properties of steel. For example the microstructure and properties of
quenched steel are different upon the rate of cooling which prevails during
quenching. As the cooling rate increases, the experimentally observed
transformation temperatures are lowered and metastable (non-equilibrium) phase
may be formed.
Steps to construct a TTT diagram.

1. Obtain a large number of relatively small specimens (cut form the same bar).
2. Place the sample in a molten salt bath held at the proper austenitizing
temperature.
3. Specimens are kept in the molten salt bath for long enough to complete
austenitizing.
4. After a given specimen has been allowed to react isothermally for a certain
time, it is quenched in cold water. The first specimen may be allowed to react
isothermally for two seconds second specimen for four seconds, third for eight
seconds, fourth for fifteen seconds, and so on up to say 15 hours. The more
the time given to a specimen to react isothermally, the more pearlite is formed.
5. The specimen is quenched in water. This stops the isothermal reaction by
evasing the remaining untransformed austenite to change almost instantly to
martensite.
6. When the data obtained from series of isothermal reaction curves over the
whole temperature range of austenite instability for a given composition of
steel is summarized, the result is TTT diagram for that steel.
TTT- Curve
Fig: 1.9
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1.5 The difference between Fe-C phase diagram and TTT diagram.
Many heat treatments of steel involve reaction conditions so far removed from
equilibrium that iron-carbon equilibrium diagram is of only limited use in the study of
steel cooled under non equilibrium conditions.
The iron carbon equilibrium diagram shows only the phase changes and
resulting microstructures corresponding to equilibrium conditions.
The usefulness of Fe-C diagram is restricted to fixing the austenitizing
temperature and predicting the phases that are eventually obtained at a
given composition (carbon percentage) and temperature.
1.6 Heat treatment process variables:

In heat treatment there are various parameters like heat treatment
temperature, holding time, rate of heating and cooling etc which may affect the
process and the results obtained. These parameters are termed as the heat
treatment process variables. The required variables for a particular process
depends on the factors like chemical compositions, size and shape of the object to
be treated, and the desired characteristics and properties.
Generally the object to be treated is put in a furnace at room temperature
and then heated to a predetermined temperature. The rate of heating can be
determined by dividing the total increment in temperature by the total time taken.
It can be determined in various stages in various temperature ranges. A
straight line as shown in fig1.11 represents the temperature time relation.
Temp
Time
Fig:1.10
But in actual practice the heating rate is not constant through out the process. It is
observed that the rate is high at lower temperature ranges and gradually decreases
when the temperature goes up. This is represented by a curve shown in Fig1.12.
Temp
Fig. 12
Time
Fig1.11
In order to minimize the problems of oxidation or grain growth two furnaces can be
employed. In the first furnace the object is heated to a moderate temperature at
which no considerable oxidation or grain growth takes place. Then the object is
transformed to the second furnace, which is maintained at the heat treatment
temperature. This helps to
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reduce the total holding time near higher temperature and to minimize the chances
of grain growth and oxidation. The heating curve for this process is given in the
fig1.13.
The heating rate for a particular object depends on the size and shape of the object
and the thermal conductivity of the metal. Since all the metals posses excellent
thermal conductivity, generally this parameter is not much significant. For particular
alloys like stainless steel, thermal conductivity plays an important role in
determining the heating rate. In order to avoid the development of internal stresses
for larger objects slower cooling rates
Heat treatment temp.
Temp pre heat treatment temp.
Time
Fig1.12
are applied. Lower heating rates ensure homogeneity of structure, which reduce
the holding time at heat treatment temperature. Complicated shapes, sharp
cornered objects, and objects with variable sections also are subjected to slower
heating rates. Smaller sized and simpler shaped objects can be subjected to higher
heating rates, and in such cases the homogeneity of the structure can be ensured
by increasing the holding time.
Heat treatment temperatures are chiefly governed by the chemical
composition of the steel, prior heat treatment if any, and the desired properties. In
carbon steel the austenitizing temperature decreases first with increase in carbon
content up to eutectoid composition and again rises with further increase in carbon
content. This austenitizing temperature can be obtained from the iron-carbon
equilibrium diagram. But with rapid heating the actual temperature is found to be
raised compared with the theoretical value obtained from the equilibrium diagram.
And it is found to be lower on rapid cooling. Hence while heat treatment,
temperatures slightly higher than the theoretical values are employed. In case of
alloy steels, some alloying elements may not dissolve or diffuse with ease. In such
cases higher heating temperatures are required. Iron carbide dissolves readily in
gamma iron compared to the carbides of other strong carbide forming elements.
Once heat treatment temperature is determined the holding time is decided
at a rate of 2-3 minutes /mm of section thickness. If an object is having variable
section thickness, the holding time is decided according to the thickest section
thickness. As mentioned earlier, objects heated up in higher heating rates require
longer holding time to ensure homogeneity of the structure, and objects heated up
in a slower heating rates can held at the heat treatment temperature for a shorter
time period. Heat treatment temperature and holding time are having an inverse
relationship. Greater the heat treatment temperature, shorter will be the holding
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time and vise versa. Alloy steels and alloys heavily enriched with alloying elements
are kept for a longer time at heat treatment temperature than plain carbon steels
and steels having lesser amount of alloying elements. In such cases holding time
will be increased by 25-40%.
While cooling a metal from heat treatment, the mode of cooling and rate of cooling
are controlled by those same factors, which control the mode and rate of heating.
Heavy sections, complicated shapes and heavily enriched alloys are cooled in a
slower rate. The size, shape distribution and relative proportions of micro
constituents can be controlled over a wide range by varying the cooling rates.
1.7 Cooling Curves
Carbon steel and the hardening thereof, weren't sufficiently understood until well into
the last century. Before that time, and especially centuries before, the whole process
was wrapped in secrecy, myth, ritual and magic. All knowledge was empirical and it
was difficult, if not impossible, to know which parts of a forging ritual were vital and
which weren't. Were swords forged in the winter necessarily better than those in the
summer? Did the wood source for charcoal really make much difference? Does
speaking the correct words at the right moment matter? What could you do if your anvil
got hexed?
Chemical composition was uncertain, if not unknown. So the best smiths could do was
follow a forging ritual, which had an acceptable rate of success. That parts of forging
rituals were silly, irrelevant and possibly counter-productive shouldn't preclude the
process of having a ritual in the first place.
Steel is a crystalline substance and as it's temperature changes, so too does it's
crystalline structure. That's what heat treatment does it changes the crystalline
structure by way of time and temperature.
There are a lot of different structures in steel but only three need your attention:
Austenite, Ferrite and Martensite. Austenite exists at high temperature and to the
left in the graphic below. Ferrite is to the right and Martensite at the bottom. We will
use the term, Ferrite, to include Pearlite and Cementite as Pearlite is a form of
Ferrite. Mostly, we're using Ferrite to mean any non-Austenite/Martinsite structure.
So you only need to learn three steel words.
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Fig:1.13
We're now ready to grapple with the central mystery of carbon steel--the Cooling
Path. Above are five Cooling Paths--A through D. Each line signifies a different rate
of cooling and thus different resultant steel structures. Steels with less than 0.3 %
carbon cannot be hardened effectively, while the maximum effect is obtained at
about 0.76 % due to an increased tendency to retain Austenite in high carbon
steels.
But first, let's back up and first look at some other diagrams. Following is a phase
diagram of carbon and iron. Indicated is our area of interest--1/2 to 1 percent of
carbon and a temperature range of maybe 1800F down to room temperature.
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Fig: 1.14
The Iron Age is based on this diagram--it's also color coded for temperature.
Cast iron and steel exist because of the strange and wonderful chemical
interactions between carbon and iron.
Fig:1.15
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Our area of interest, the blue line is 0.76% carbon.
The thing to take away from this graphic is that as steel cools it experiences
changes in crystalline structure.
Fig:1.16
Once heated, how steel cools (the path it takes) will determine it's properties.
Cooling Paths are a graphic representation of the function between time and
temperature. For each steel there is a graph called a TTT (time, temperature,
transformation) graph or sometimes it's called a Isothermal Transformation
Diagram. Let's call it TTT. Above is a portion of a generalized TTT graph. The red
line starting at the upper left denotes a partial cooling path.
Two things to notice here: First, the time axis at the bottom is a log (as in
logarithmic) scale. TTT graphs always use a log time scale and it may take some
getting used to. Notice the time scale at the top of the graph, it's the same, time-
wise as the scale at the bottom. Now does a log scale make more sense? And
finally, second, the cooling path is demonstrating a Austenite to Ferrite
transformation--which, during final heat treating is the transformation we'll try and
avoid.
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Fig:1.17
OK, we've got a Cooling Path for knife hardening, the blue line. This is a fairly
typical TTT graph for simple carbon steel. As previously mentioned, every steel has
it's own graph and by reading the graph you can come to conclusions about how to
best heat-treat the steel.
Here's the deal. When steel is heated above Critical the crystalline structure
changes to Austenite. Once steel is withdrawn from heat and cools to about 1350F,
the graph above comes into play. The goal is to get the temperature to fall fast
enough to miss the Nose and get into the Martensite range before the Time Limit.
In this case, that's less than a second (green dotted line). If you can get from
Austenite to Martensite without crossing the Nose you'll have a hard, strong steel.
The structure in the graph depicted by red lines is usually called an S Curve. We
want to avoid it except at the bottom--the Martensite range. That's it! That's the
whole thing creating a cooling path, with quenchants, which avoids the S Curve and
doesn't cause your blade to strain and crack. You have less than a second to get
the blade's temperature under a thousand degrees. And to do it in a way that
doesn't wreck the steel through heat shock. Do that and you've won the game!
That's what the Cooling Path is, that's what it's about.
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In the graphic above, there's a line called the Eutectoid Temperature, it's also called
the Lower Transformation Line. It's the same for all iron and steel and this
temperature, 1333F, is the temperature at which the clock starts in TTT graphs.
When the steel temperature falls below 1333F the Time axis becomes active.
Fig 1.18
Returning to our original graphic, there are two other cooling paths of interest:
Annealing and Normalization (A & B). Both of these cooling paths purposely cross
the S curve. Annealing is cooling very slowly, over a period of a day or so.
Normalizing is cooling a little faster, maybe 2 or 3 hours. At the bottom of the
cooling paths is a description of the resultant steel structure. It becomes apparent
that the cooling path chosen determines the structure and properties of the steel.
Line E is the Critical Cooling Path, the one that just touches the Nose. Anything to
the left of Line E will produce proper hardening. Line D is a generalized path for
water quenching, somewhere between Lines E and D would be the path for oil
quenching.
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Notice that every cooling path is just a graph of Temperature versus Time and that
Time is presented in log units. Getting these two things set in your mind will clear
up most of the heat-treating mysteries.
1.8 Heat Treatment Processes
1.8.1) Stress relieving:

The process is employed for relieving the internal stresses. No structural
changes take place in this process. Internal stresses are those stresses, which can
exist within the body in the absence of external forces. These are also known as
residual stresses or locked-in stresses. Internal stresses can be developed while
solidification of castings, welding, machining, shot peening, surface hammering,
electro plating, cold working etc internal stresses in certain conditions result in
adverse effects. The presence of residual stresses enhances the tendency of steel
towards warpage and dimensional instability.
The process consists of heating the steel to a predetermined temperature below
the lower critical temperature and holding at this temperature for sufficient time and
then cooling uniformly. Uniform cooling is utmost important since non-uniform
cooling itself will result in formation of residual stresses. For plain carbon steels the
maximum temperature is about 600 C. for high alloy steels higher temperatures
are employed. For hardened and tempered steels, a temperature 25-30 C below
the tempering temperature is employed.
1.8.2) Annealing:
Annealing is heating the steel to austenite phase and holding at the
temperature for a particular time and then cooling very slowly to room temperature.
Cooling is generally in the furnace itself by switching off the power supply. The
holding time and temperature depends on various factors like chemical composition
of steel, size and shape of the material and the desired final properties.
Purpose of annealing is
1)To reduce hardness,

2)To relieve internal stresses,
3)To improve machinability,
4)To facilitate further cold working by restoring ductility,
5)To produce necessary microstructure having the desired
mechanical, physical or other properties.
Annealing temperature:
Hypo eutectoid steel : 820-870 C
Eutectoid & hyper eutectoid steel : 790-840 C.
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Fig: 1.19
Soaking time: One hour for sections up to 25 mm thickness and 30 minutes for
every additional 25 mm thickness.
Cooling rate: For plain carbon steel :@50 C/hour
For alloy steels :@30 C/hour.
Types of annealing:
b) Full annealing
c) Isothermal annealing
d) Re crystallization annealing
e) Process annealing
f) Box annealing
g) Bright annealing
a) Full annealing:
The term annealing, until and unless specified means full annealing. The
process consists of heating steel to austenitic region and then cooling very slowly.
For hypo eutectoid steel a temperature 30-50 C above the UCT is employed. Steel
is held at this temperature to a predetermined time and then cooled very slowly
either in the furnace itself or in a container made of a heat insulating material. Since
the cooling rate s are very slow, the equilibrium conditions predicted as per the
equilibrium diagram are achieved. The steel is heated above UCT in order to
achieve homogenized austenitic structure.
Highly enriched alloy steels require a higher annealing temperature, than
plain carbon steels. For eutectoid steel, a complete austenitic structure can be
obtained by heating the steel above LCT. This process is normally not used for
hyper eutectoid steels. The reason for this is that heating above UCT followed by
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slow cooling will result in considerable coarsening of austenite grains and formation
of lamellar pearlite and cementite network formation through the grain boundaries.
Such a structure has inherent brittleness and poor mechanical properties.
b) Isothermal annealing:
In this process, hypo eutectoid steel is heated above UCT and held at that
temperature for some time. This is to enable complete austenite formation and to
avoid any possible thermal gradient present within the steel component. The steel
is then rapidly cooled to a temperature, which is less than LCT, usually between
600-700 C. fast cooling is achieved by transferring the steel to another furnace
maintained at the desired temperature. The required temperature is one at which
the super cooled austenite is having minimum stability within lamellar pearlitic
region. Steel is held at this temperature till all the austenite is transformed to
lamellar pearlite. After this the steel is cooled in air. The term isothermal implies the
transformation takes place at constant temperature. The microstructure obtained is
similar to that of full annealing.
Major advantage of this process over full annealing is that the time duration
of the processes cut down considerably. So the process is cheaper than full
annealing. Hyper eutectoid steel are not subjected to this process due to same
reasons as in full annealing. Hence this process can be termed a modified form of
full annealing. The structure is more homogenous since the transformation takes
place at constant temperature through out the steel.
The process result in improved machinability and better surface finish on
machining. Since it is difficult to cool uniformly, to the transformation temperature,
heavy components are not subjected to this process. This is mainly for small sized
components.
c) Re crystallization annealing:
It is the process of heating cold worked steel slightly above the re
crystallization temperature to produce a new grain structure with out phase change.
All steels that have been heavily cold worked are subjected to this process. There
crystallization temperature is below the LCT. It result in decrease in hardness or
strength and increase ductility. The process is frequently employed in industries
manufacturing steel wires, sheets and strips. The temperature for this process is
not fixed, since it depends on chemical composition, prior deformation, holding time
and initial grain size. The larger the degree of deformation the lower is the
recrystallization temperature. Recrystallization can be achieved even at lower
temperatures, by increasing the holding time. But since the effect of temperature is
predominant than that of holding time, it is always desirable to raise the
recrystallization temperature instead of increasing holding time. High carbon steels
and alloy steels require higher recrystallization temperature.
d) Process annealing:
In this process, steel is heated to a temperature below the LCT, and is held
at this temperature for sufficient time and then cooled. Since it is sub critical
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annealing, cooling rates are of little importance. The purpose of this is to reduce
hardness and to increase ductility, of cold worked steels so that further working may
be carried out easily. It is also termed as in-process annealing. Complete
recrystallization of cold worked steel may or may not take place in this process.
Thats the difference of this process with re crystallization annealing. This process
is being frequently applied to parts manufactured by cold forming operations such
as stamping, extrusion, drawing etc, as an intermediate step.
e) Box annealing:
Annealing may result in surface oxidation and thus scale formation in certain
metals. To minimize oxidation metal to be heat-treated is kept in a sealed container
and then annealed. The condition in side the container is controlled in such a way
that minimum oxidation takes place. This process is called box annealing.
f) Bright annealing:
Annealing may also result in discoloration of machined surfaces, which is not
desirable in many cases. In order to avoid this phenomenon, annealing has to be
done in a protective medium. Generally inert gases like nitrogen or argon are used
as a protective medium for annealing. Due to the presence of the protective
medium the metal will retain its original surface brightness even after annealing.
Since the metal retains the brightness after the treatment it is called bright
annealing.
1.8.3) Normalizing:
Full anneals are time consuming and considerable energy is needed to
maintain the elevated temperatures required during soaking and furnace cooling.
When the maximum softness is not required and cost savings are desirable,
normalizing may be specified.
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In this process steel is heated to about 600 C above UCT for both hypoeutectoid
and hypereutectoid steels and held at this temperature to produce uniform
austenite, and then removed from the furnace and allowed to cool in still air. The
result structure and properties depend on the subsequent cooling rate. Although
wide variations are possible depending upon the size and geometry of the metal,
fine pearlite with excess ferrite or cementite is generally produced.
One should note a key difference between full annealing and normalizing. In full
annealing furnace imposes identical cooling conditions at all locations within the
metal, which produces identical properties. With normalizing cooling will be different
at different locations. When subsequent processing involves a substantial amount
of machining that may be automated, the added cost of full anneal may be justified,
since it produces a product with uniform machinability at all locations.
1.8.4) Spherodizing:
Fig: 1.20
It is a heat treatment process, which result in structure consisting of globules
or spheroids of carbide in a matrix of ferrite. This is generally applied to high carbon
steel for minimum hardness, maximum ductility and highest machinability. The
process can be completed in short time by increasing the temperature. But at
higher Spherodizing temperatures, the dissolved carbide particles may reappear in
lamellar form during cooling.
High carbon steels and alloy steels are frequently spherodized in order to improve
machinability and ductility. Low carbon steels are not generally subjected to this
process. Low carbon steels on Spherodizing become very soft and gummy (sticky).
Spherodization of these steels therefore does not improve machinability.
1.8.5) Hardening:
This is the process of in which the carbon containing or alloys steels is

heated to the hardening temperature and then cooled rapidly to room temperature
by quenching in a suitable quenching medium such as water, oil or a salt bath. The
high hardness developed by the process is due to the phase transformation
21
accompanying the rapid cooling. Rapid cooling results the transformation of
austenite into non-equilibrium products at low temperatures. The product of low
temperature transformation of austenite is Martensite, which is a hard micro
constituent of steel.
Hardening temperature depends on chemical composition. For plain carbon
steels it depends on the carbon content only. Hypo eutectoid steels are hated to
about 30-50 C above the UCT, where as hyper eutectoid steels are heated about
30-50 C above the LCT. In hypo eutectoid steels ferrite and pearlite transforms to
austenite at hardening temperature and this austenite transforms to martensite on
rapid quenching from the hardening temperature. The presence of martensite
accounts for the high hardness of the quenched steel. For hyper eutectoid steel the
preferred hardening temperature is between LCT and UCT. There are two
advantages for the hardening temperatures in this range. First one is the formation
of cementite in the structure. Since cementite is harder than martensite, the
formation of two-phase structure will result in a higher hardness and wear
resistance than that obtained by martensite alone. Second one is that at this
particular temperature range fine martensite is attained in the final structure.
Successful hardening requires two condition to be met.
1. Formation of homogenous Austenite
2. Rapid cooling of steel in a suitable medium.
Fig: 1.21
22
Hardening temperature:
Medium carbon steel : 820- 870 C
High carbon steel : 790- 830 C
Alloy steel : 1000-1300 C
Soaking time is generally determined as one hour for every 25mm thickness.
The main purpose of hardening is to develop high hardness. This enables
steel to cut other material. Wear resistance also is improved by this process. That is
the sole purpose of this process for components like gears, shafts and bearings.
Tensile strength and yield strength are improved considerably when structural
steels are hardened. Yield strength is more important since that determines the
safe limit of maximum permissible stresses. Since yield strength is the limit of
stress to which elasticity is maintained, an increase in it will result in the increase of
stress levels, which a material can withstand with out loss of elasticity. This is a
very important property of steels.
Fig: 1.22
Internal stresses are developed in hardened steel due to the rapid cooling
from the heat treatment temperature. Hence the hardened parts are rarely used as-
hardened condition since in hardened condition steels are brittle. Hardening is
there fore followed by another process known as tempering. This reduces internal
stresses and brittleness and makes the hardened steel relatively stable. Hardening
followed by tempering results in improved wear resistance and optimum
combination of strength and ductility and enhanced elastic characteristics.
The properties of hardened steel developed by hardening depend on various

factors.
Chemical composition,
Size and shape of steel part,
Hardening cycle (heating and cooling rates),
Homogeneity and grain size of austenite,
23
Quenching media,
Surface condition of the steel part.
Hardening methods:
Method of hardening mainly depends on quenching procedures. Various
methods of quenching are:
a) Conventional or direct quenching:

This is the simplest form of quenching and is extensively used hardening
method. The process is cooling the steel part from the hardening temperature in the
quenching medium and allowed to cool till the temperature of the quenching bath.
In addition to the development of internal stresses the hardened steel parts develop
a tendency towards distortion and cracking due to drastic cooling rates involved.
Cooling rates cane be controlled by selecting a less severe quenching medium, oil
in place of water for example. But only smaller sections can be quenched using a
quenchant having lesser quenching power. Hence this method is adopted only for
simpler shaped and smaller sized parts.
b) Quenching in stages in sequence in different media:

This method consists of quenching the steel part from hardening
temperature in a quenching bath maintained at a predetermined temperature. The
medium used is water in general. The part is then transferred quickly to a milder
quenching medium where it is cooled to the room temperature. Oil and air are
preferred for the second stage of quenching. Since the cooling rates are not so
severe, the amount of internal stresses developed are considerably less than that
developed in direct quenching.
c) Spray quenching:
It is a specific hardening method in which steel part is rapidly cooled from
hardening temperature by spraying the quenchant continuously. The rate of heat
extraction from the steel is much higher compared to direct quenching process. It is
because a continuous stream of quenchant is always in contact with steel surface.
So the possibility of formation of a vapor blanket is reduced. Water is the most
commonly used quenching media in this method.
d) Hardening with self-tempering:

Tempering in order to achieve an optimum combination of hardness,
strength and toughness always follows hardening. In general hardened steel
possess uniform mechanical properties through out the section. But for certain
applications this condition is not desirable. For example, parts, which are to be
subjected to impact loads, must have a soft and tough core and a hardened and
toughened case. Such condition can be achieved by a process known as hardening
with self-tempering.
In this process the steel part is quenched from hardening temperature and
after some time it is withdrawn from the quenching bath. Hence the steel is not
24
allowed to cool down completely. So a considerable amount of heat is retained in
the core portion. Now the steel part is cooled in a milder quenching media such as
air or oil. The first quenching results in formation of Martensite. Cooling during
second quenching result in homogenization of temperature. The core is now cooled
at a much slower rate and hence the transformation is from austenite to pearlite.
The Martensite already formed will be tempered by itself with out any further
tempering treatment. Thus the process results in the formation of a soft and tough
core with a hardened and toughened case.
The process is usually applied for chisels, hammers, shafts, gears etc. the
close control of time in the first quench is the only problem associated with this
operation. It is difficult to know the amount of heat content left after the first quench.
An estimation of the temperature can be done by observing the temper color of the
surface.
1.8.6) Tempering:
Hardened steels possess many undesired properties like internal stresses
and high degree of brittleness. These are not desirable for certain service
conditions. It is essential to achieve a relatively stable condition in such cases.
Such a stable state can be achieved by providing thermal energy to the hardened
steel. This process is called tempering. In this process the hardened steel is heated
to a particular temperature below LCT followed by cooling the steel in air at any
desired rate.
The process results in marginal reduction of hardness, strength and wear
resistance. Hence the very purpose of hardening is challenged. But this is
adequately compensated by the following factors.
1. Reduction of internal stresses,

2. Restoration of ductility and toughness and
3. Transformation of restored austenite.
The higher the tempering temperature, the more is the restored ductility and
tougher the steel. The tempering temperature should be selected in such a way that
optimum combinations of these properties are achieved. Hardening followed by
tempering is he only conventional process to improve elastic limit of steel.
1.8.7) Case hardening and Surface hardening:

In actual service a metal part is never subjected to uniform stresses through
out the section. It the surface which have the nicks scratches, tool marks etc.
rotating shafts have maximum at the surface. Wear seizure and galling also occur
at the surface and produce stress raisers. Hence load-bearing components require
better properties at the surface than the interior (core). Core should be relatively
soft to provide resistance to brittle failure of the component and it should be tough
enough to resist impact loads while surface is hard and wear resistant.
Case hardening may be defined as the process of hardening a steel in such
a manner that the surface layer know as the case is harder than the remaining
material known as core. This can be achieved by two methods.
25
1. By changing the chemical combination of the surface of steel which is
called as case hardening
2. With out changing the chemical combination at the surface which is
called as surface hardening
A) Case hardening:
In this method the surface of the steel to be hardened is induced with carbon
and nitrogen by various methods. The chemical composition of steel at the surface
is changed by the diffusion of induced carbon or nitrogen or other elements. Two
different types of case hardening methods are
a) Carburizing
b) Cyaniding and
c) Nitriding.
a) Carburizing:
Is the most widely used method and is used on steels having a carbon
content of 0.1-0.25%. The process is generally carried out in a temperature range
of 900-930 C. The surface layer is enriched with 0.7-0.9% of carbon. The diffusion
of carbon is done by heating the steel above the transformation temperature in
contact with a material rich with carbon. This material may be solid liquid or
gaseous. Since the solubility of carbon in austenite is more, a fully austenite face is
desired for the process. The process is divided in to different categories according
to the carbon source used.
Fig:1.23
i) Pack Carburizing:
26
Fig: 1.24
This method is also known as solid Carburizing. It is the oldest method of
Carburizing. In this process the steel components, which are to be treated, are
packed with 80% granular coal and 20% Barium Carbonate (BaCO3), in heat
resistant boxes. Barium Carbonate is used as an energizer. The box containing
steel component and the carbon source is heated to 930 C in an electrical
chamber furnace. The holding time depends on the case depth required. The
following reactions take place on heating.
1. Energizer decomposes to give Carbon Monoxide gas to the steel surface.
BaCO3 BaO +CO2,
CO2 + C 2CO
2. Carbon monoxide reacts with surface f the steel.

2CO + Fe FeC + CO2
3. Diffusion of carbon into steel.
4. CO2 formed in step 2 reacts with carbon in the coal.

CO2 + C 2CO
For a given temperature the depth of penetration depends on diffusion and

can be related to time t by the equation Case depth = k t where k is a
constant. Generally the time varies from 6 to 8 hours and the case depth obtained
is 1 to 2mm. Since the result depends on the quality of coal, there is a factor of
uncertainty.
27
Fig:1.25
ii) Gas Carburizing:
This is the most widely used method of Carburizing. It is carried out in retort
type, sealed quench type or continuous pusher type furnace. These are either gas
fired or electrically heated. Temperature varies from 870-950 C. Gas atmosphere
is produced from liquid (methanol) or gaseous (Propane & Methane). An
endothermic gas generator is used to supply endothermic gas. A mixture of
propane or methane with air is cracked in hot retort of an endogas generator to
form carrier gas. Furnace chamber is purged with this gas to maintain a slight
positive pressure. This prevents the infiltration of atmospheric air from entering the
furnace. The presence of this gas prevents the oxidation of steel surface. When the
material is heated up to Carburizing temperature, propane and methane is
introduced in to the furnace to maintain specific carbon potential. Measuring the
dew point or carbon dioxide by infrared absorptiometry or measuring oxygen by an
electrolytic potential technique using a zirconia probe computes carbon potential.
1. C3H8 2CH4 + C (cracking of hydrocarbon)

2. CH4 + Fe Fe(C) + 2H2
3. CH4 + CO2 2CO + 2H2
4. 2CO + Fe Fe(C) + CO2
Carburizing occurs due to the conversion of CO to CO2 through reaction

no.4. Hydrogen created during the step 2 and 3 reacts with CO2 and increase CO
concentration.
H2 + CO2 CO + H2O
iii) Liquid Carburizing:

This process is also known as salt bath Carburizing. In this process
Carburizing occurs through molten Cyanide (CN) in low carbon steel. Pot type
furnace, which is heated by gas or oil, is used for this process. Bath temperature is
maintained between 815 and 900 C. the life of the pot depends on the quality of
material, operating temperature and mode of operation. This may be continuous or
intermittent. Continuous process gives better end results. Bath surface is covered
28
with graphite or coal to reduce radiation losses and excessive decomposition of
cyanide. In this process heating time is shorter and heat transfer is rapid. There is
complete uniformity of the carburized layer. The process results in a thin and clean
hardened layer (0.08mm). Extensive safety precautions are needed to avoid
explosion. Other than Sodium Cyanide and Potassium Cyanide the bath contains
chlorides of Sodium and Potassium and Barium. Barium Chloride acts as an
activator.
1. BaCl2 + 2NaCN Ba(CN)2 + 2NaCl

2. Ba(CN)2 + Fe Fe(C) + Ba(CN)2
iv) Vacuum Carburizing:
It is the process of Carburizing carried out either in vacuum or in reduced
pressure. The main advantage of this process is tremendous energy saving. The
process is carried out in two stages. The job is introduced into the furnace and the
furnace is then evacuated and then heated up to Carburizing temperature, which
normally lies between 925-1050 C. Then a gaseous hydrocarbon such as
methane or propane is introduced in to the furnace. Compared with the
conventional Carburizing only 1% of gases are required. The surface of the steel
cracks when it comes in contact with the gas, and as a result carbon is deposited
on the surface, which is immediately absorbed by the surface. The process
continues till the required case depth is achieved. It is an energy saving process
and the Carburizing cycles are shorter than conventional method.
b) Cyaniding:
In this process the parts to be treated are immersed in a liquid bath at 800-
960 C of Sodium Cyanide (NaCN) with the concentration of 25-90%. A measured
amount of air is then passed through the molten bath. NaCN reacts with oxygen
and get oxidized.
1. 2NaCN + O2 2NaCNO
2. 2NaCNO + O2 Na2CO3 + CO + 2N
3. 2CO CO2 + C
Carbon and nitrogen formed in atomic form diffuses in steel to form a thin wear
resistant layer of carbonitride. Usually this process requires 30-90 minutes for
completion. For obtaining case depth from 0.5 to 2mm, process is carried out at
higher temperature 950 C in a bath containing 8% of NaCN, 82% of BaCl2 and
10% of NaCl. This process takes 1.5-6hrs for completion. For a case depth of 0.13
to 0.35mm the bath is maintained at a temperature of 850 C. the higher the
temperature at a given cyanide level the higher is the percentage of carbon
diffusion. After cyaniding the pieces are taken out and quenched in water or oil. The
parts are then subjected to low temperature tempering. This process is not suitable
for parts, which are subjected to shock, fatigue and impact because the addition of
nitrogen has adverse effects on such properties of steel.
29
c) Nitriding:
It is the process of producing a hard surface layer in alloy steels, which
contains strong nitride forming elements. Since Nitriding is carried out in the ferritic
region below 590 C, and hence there is no phase transformation. The parts are to
be subjected to proper heat treatment prior to Nitriding. All machining and grinding
operations are finished before Nitriding. There are different methods of Nitriding.
i) Gas Nitriding:
In this process anhydrous ammonia gas is passed in to the furnace at about
550 C. The gas dissociates to from nascent nitrogen and hydrogen.
2NH3 2[N] Fe + 3H2

The treatment time varies from 50 to 100 hours depending on the case
depth required. The steel part is allowed to cool in the furnace itself after the
treatment in the presence of ammonia. The furnace container is made of heat
resisting alloy steel. The hard layer achieved by this process imparts good wear
resistance, hot hardness and corrosion resistance. During this process a very brittle
white layer may be formed on the surface due to high nitrogen potential. Keeping
the nitrogen potential at a desired level can eliminate this.
Fig:1.26
ii) Plasma Nitriding:

Plasma Nitriding is also known as ion Nitriding. In this process the steel
component is kept at 450 C, in vacuum at a negative potential in the order of 1kv
with respect to the chamber. Then a mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen is passed at
a pressure of
0.2 8m bar .As a result plasma formation of these gases take place. Time
required for achieving a case depth of 4microns is about 20 hours at 450 C. The
formation of the white later can be avoided since a close control of nitrogen is
possible.
30
B) Surface hardening:
In this process no chemical changes takes place. Large sized objects are
subjected to heating followed by rapid cooling. The process is classified according
to various methods of heating the steel. They are
i) Flame hardening:
It is the simplest form of surface hardening. The process consists of heating
large work piece with oxy-acetylene or oxy-fuel flame, followed by spraying of jet of
water as coolant. The hardened parts are reheated to a temperature of 180-200 C
in a furnace or oil bath for stress relieving. This reheating will not result in reduction
of hardness. The hardness obtained is due to martensite and lower bainite
formation.
Over heating of the work has to be avoided since that may lead to cracking on
quenching and excessive grain growth in the region just bellow the hardened
surface. The carbon content of steel that can be flame hardened varies from 0.3 to
0.6%. High carbon steels also may be subjected to this process but greater care is
required to avoid cracking. A case depth of 3 mm can be achieved in normal
conditions. There are four different methods for doing flame hardening. They are
1. Stationary,
2. Progressive,
3. Spinning and
4. Progressive spinning.
There is little scaling, decarburization and distortion in flame hardening. Since the
heating and cooling is too fast, the core remains unaffected.
ii) Induction hardening:
Fig:1.27
In the process of induction hardening, the heating of the component is achieved by
electro magnetic induction. This process is generally used for hardening of
crankshafts, camshafts, gears, axils etc. a conductor (coil) carries alternate current
of high frequency, which is then induced in the enclosed steel part placed within the
magnetic field. Thus induction heating takes place and the heat generated affects
only the outer surface of the material. The heating process takes only few seconds.
Immediately after heating the surface is quenched by using a cold-water jet. During
31
quenching martensitic structure is formed, which makes the surface hard and wear
resistant. The original toughness and ductility of the core remains the same. The
hardening temperature for plain carbon steels is about 760 C. For alloy steels a
higher temperature range is required.
iii) Electron beam hardening:

This process is used where other processes cannot be used due to
associated distortion. The work is kept in vacuum at 0.06m bar pressure. An
electron beam is focused on the surface to heat it. In the beginning the energy in
put is kept high and with time it is gradually reduced to avoid melting. A case depth
of 0.75mm can be achieved in this process. Control of voltage, current, beam, dwell
time and focus are computer oriented.
iv) Laser hardening:

In this process as the name implies a laser beam is used to heat the work.
Since the intensity of the laser beam is high the work may tend to melt if the high
intensity beam is directly used. To avoid this a lens id used to reduce intensity by
producing a defocused spot or scans of 1-25mm width. A 1kW laser produces a
circular spot whose diameter may vary from 0.5 mm to 0.25mm. Industrial lasers
are available up to 20kW. A case depth of 0.75mm can be achieved. The case
depth is controlled by time and energy density. It takes lesser amount of time
compared with induction and flame hardening methods. No separate quenching is
required in laser beam hardening. Self-quenching takes place by the effect of
surrounding unheated portion. The effect of heat in the surrounding surface is less
and hence lesser is the chances of distortion.
1.8.7) Austempering:
This is a special heat treatment process in which austenite is transformed to
bainite. Austempering consists of heating the steel above the austenitizing
temperature. It is then quenched in a bath maintained at a temperature above the
martensite forming point, within the bainitic range- between 200-400 C. the steel is
quenched in and maintained the constant temperature in the bath itself till all the
austenite is transformed to bainite. Once transformation is completed the steel part
is taken out of the bath and cooled in air at any desired rate. Since the
transformation takes place at constant temperature, the process is referred as
isothermal quenching or isothermal hardening. In order to form lower bainite, which
has superior mechanical properties compared with tempered martensite, the
temperature preferred is generally on the lower side of the bainitic region.
32
The process results in a better ductility at high hardness levels, improved
impact and fatigue strength and freedom from distortion. Since the transformation
takes place at
Fig:1.28
constant temperature through out the section the structure formed is
homogenized through out the section, and so are the properties. Cooling rate and
holding time are two important factors in this process. It is essential that the steel
have to be cooled at such a high rate so that austenite to pearlite transformation
does not take place. So the cooling rate is more than the upper critical cooling rate
and this imposes restriction on chemical composition and size. Hence only
comparatively thinner sections can be austempered successfully.
1.8.8) Martempering:
This process also involves heating the steel up to austenitizing region followed by
quenching in a bath maintained above the M S point. Normally between 180 and
250 C. steel is kept in the bath till the temperature through out the section equals
the temperature of the bath. As soon as this temperature is achieved the steel part
is taken out of the bath and cooled in air. This cooing rate should be sufficiently
high and holding time considerably low to prevent pearlite to bainite transformation.
Hence martensite is formed in the second stage of cooling. Process results in
minimum internal stresses reduced tendency toward distortion and cracking and
improved mechanical properties, compared with conventional quenching and
tempering method. In order to improve the properties, martempered pieces are
generally subjected to tempering.
Alloy steels are best suited for this process. Any steel that can be oil quenched can
be martempered successfully. A large number of steels satisfy this requirement.
Presence of alloying elements increase the incubation period and this provide
sufficient holding time.
1.8.9) Sub zero treatment or cryogenic treatment:

The desired microstructure after hardening is martensite. But in actual
practice it is very difficult to have a complete martensitic structure. Some amount of
33
austenite is present in the hardened steel and it is referred as retained austenite.
Retained austenite reduces mechanical properties to a great extent and it is found
difficult to achieve higher degree of hardness even after the cooling rates employed
are greater than the critical cooling rate. Retained austenite may convert in to
martensite on subsequent thermal cycles, which may lead to dimensional instability
of the steel part. Hence it is essential to transform the retained austenite in to
martensite to improve the strength of the hardened steel.
A process known as subzero treatment is used for this purpose. Retained
austenite is fully converted in to martensite in this process, thus improving
hardness, wear resistance and dimensional stability. In this process steel is cooled
to sub zero temperature, which is lower than the M f. For most of the steels this lies
between 30 to -70 C. When the steel is cooled to sub zero temperatures from
higher temperature ranges, the metal produces a loud noise or cry. The name
cryogenic is originated from this phenomenon. Considerable amount of internal
stresses are developed during this process and hence to be followed with
tempering immediately. Transformed martensite also gets tempered during this
tempering treatment.
Retained austenite gets stabilized if the hardened steel is kept at room
temperature for several hours. Heating the hardened steel mildly (to 100-150 C)
also will result in the stabilization of retained austenite. In such cases sub zero
treatment is found to be less effective. The reason is stabilized austenite does not
transform completely to martensite. There fore the treatment has to be performed
immediately after hardening. Mechanical refrigeration units, dry ice or liquefied
gases such as liquid Nitrogen is used for cooling in this process. This process is
employed for parts, which require high impact strength and fatigue strength along
with high degree of dimensional stability. Case hardened steels also are subjected
to sub zero treatment.
1.8.10) Vacuum hardening:

It is the process of heating and cooling the work pieces under vacuum
conditions. Inert gases like Nitrogen or argon is used for quenching. The gas used
should have high degree of purity. This can be guaranteed by the use of a liquid
source. The advantage of using inert gas is that it will not react with metal surface.
The objective of vacuum is to prevent unwanted gases form contaminating and
oxidizing the metal surface. Since oxygen is not present the parts subjected to this
treatment can be bright and scale free. By incorporating gas or oil quenching
features in vacuum furnace, most of the metals and alloys can be subjected to
vacuum hardening. Since the work pieces subjected to this process retains
brightness and clean appearance. In some cases even the polishing and sizing can
be avoided. There is only a negligible deformation in this process.
34
Furnace operation in vacuum hardening:
The furnace is loaded with the work and then the air is sucked out and
vacuum is created. Then a required quantity of inert gas pumped in to the furnace,
before the heat is on. The furnace leak has to be checked before switching the heat
on. The load is the preheated to 1200F and when the temperature is balanced, a
second preheat temperature of 1500F is employed and maintained until an
equilibrium is reached again. Once the equilibrium is reached, the pressure in the
furnace is raised to the required degree with nitrogen of high degree of purity from
a liquid source. Now the metal is ready to austenitized and temperature is raised to
1850F. The soaking time is decided depending on the cross sectional area. After
soaking period, the furnace is allowed to fill with nitrogen and then the cooling fan
starts automatically. The load is allowed to cool to the room temperature.
Fig 1.29
35
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Heat Treatment

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Heat Treatment

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HEAT TREATMENT

Other effect of heat treatment includes improvement of machinability,

1.1 Micro constituents of steel:

1.1.4 Austenite: It is a solid solution of carbon in iron. It can dissolve up to 2% of

1.1.5 Martensite: It is a micro constituent of steel, which is obtained when steel is

1.1.6 Ledeburite: Similar to Pearlite it consists of mixture of two phases, Austenite

1.3 Iron-carbon equilibrium diagram:

gamma (austenite) --> alpha + Fe3C (cementite)

At 4.3% C and 2066F, the transformation is eutectic, called ledeburite.

L(liquid) --> gamma (austenite) + Fe3C (cementite)

1. a. T = 3000F. At this temperature, the eutectic is all liquid.

Iron carbon diagram

Steps to construct a TTT diagram.

1.6 Heat treatment process variables:

Heat treatment temp.

Temp pre heat treatment temp.

1.7 Cooling Curves

1.8 Heat Treatment Processes

1.8.1) Stress relieving:

1)To reduce hardness,

This is the process of in which the carbon containing or alloys steels is

The properties of hardened steel developed by hardening depend on various

a) Conventional or direct quenching:

b) Quenching in stages in sequence in different media:

d) Hardening with self-tempering:

1. Reduction of internal stresses,

1.8.7) Case hardening and Surface hardening:

2. Carbon monoxide reacts with surface f the steel.

4. CO2 formed in step 2 reacts with carbon in the coal.

For a given temperature the depth of penetration depends on diffusion and

1. C3H8 2CH4 + C (cracking of hydrocarbon)

Carburizing occurs due to the conversion of CO to CO2 through reaction

iii) Liquid Carburizing:

1. BaCl2 + 2NaCN Ba(CN)2 + 2NaCl

2NH3 2[N] Fe + 3H2

ii) Plasma Nitriding:

ii) Induction hardening:

iii) Electron beam hardening:

iv) Laser hardening:

1.8.9) Sub zero treatment or cryogenic treatment:

1.8.10) Vacuum hardening:

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