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1. Applied to label edges, vise jaws, and edges of tool rests where
extra light reflection is important
2. Used to show tool and equipment moving edges, more clearly
Danger signs
WHITE LEETERS
- Used where an immediate hazard exists
- Colors are red, black, and white
RED BACKGROUND DANGER
WHITE PANEL
BLACK LETTERS DO NOT WATCH ARC
OF WELDER WITHOUT
Caution signs
YELLOW LETTERS
ACETYLENE
RED BACKGROUND
YELLOW PANEL
FLAMMABL EGAS
BLACK LETTERS
NO SMOKING
BLACK BORDER
NO OPEN FLAME
White Letters
START
White Tag
Danger tags
White Letters
White tag
Caution tags
Yellow letters
Black square
CAUTION
Yellow tag
White letters
OUT OF
ORDER
5
Black square
White tag
a. Keep all hand tools sharp, clean, and in safe working order.
b. Report any detective tools, machines, or other equipment to the
instructor.
c. Keep all guards and safety devices securely in place.
d. Operate a hazardous machine only after receiving instruction on how to
operate the machine safety.
e. Report all accidents to the instructor regardless of their nature or
severity.
f. Turn off power before leaving a machine tool.
6
g. Make sure all guards and barriers are in place and adjusted properly
before starting a machine tool
h. Disconnect the power from machine tools before performing the
maintenance tasks of oiling or cleaning.
8. Eye safety
b. Size this usually results from moving an object that may be within your
weight capacity, but too long, high, or wide to lift safely.
c. Shape usually results from moving an object that may be within your
weight capacity, but has a cylindrical or other odd shape that makes safe
lifting difficult.
8
e. When lifting or carrying with another worker, make sure the load is equally
distributed, and carry long objects at the same level and on the same side
of the body.
f. Set the load down by using leg and back muscles together, slowly lower
the load by bending your knees, and release your grip only after the load
is securely positioned.
d. Removing rings and other jewelry when working in the shop, and avoid
wearing safety glasses that have wire frames.
c. Do not drink alcoholic beverages or use drugs on the job, and do not
show up for work with a hangover.
Caution: Even at the hangover stage, alcohol impairs judgment and endangers co-
workers, and drugs that are both physically and psychologically damaging
d. Pay attention all the time because the majority of accidents happen to
beginners in their first few months of work.
a. Since oxygen under pressure may react violently in the presence of oil
or grease, all oxygen fittings and equipment should kept free of oil and
grease.
Caution: Do not use detergent solutions to test for leaks around oxygen cylinders. Many
detergents contain oil.
d. Never use acetylene from a cylinder that is lying on its side because
acetone withdrawn with the acetylene could damage equipment and
can cause interior welds.
k. Keep all cylinders away from electrical contact and any welding arc.
b. Do not touch live electrical parts or electrodes with your bare hands or
exposed skin.
Note: To prevent harmful body shocks, keep ands, feet, and clothing
dry, and use a dry board or rubber mat when water, moisture, or
perspiration cannot be
f. Know cable loads and do not use welding cables at currents in excess
of their capacity.
Note: Worn cables that can be taped provided the tape has an
electrical resistance that is the equal to the original insulation.
13
UNIT 2: SAFETY
Caution: Toxic hazards and contaminants are usually present in fumes and vapors.
c. Keep work area, equipment, and clothing dry because even a slight
amount of moisture can conduct enough electricity to cause a severe
shock.
open-circuit voltages from two machines are increased and can cause
a severe shock.
g. Disconnect and lock out all electric power sources before doing any
work on electrical equipment.
h. When working in high places, carefully examine work area for electrical
hazards because a shock in such conditions could cause a fall and
severe injury.
i. Keep welding cables free of conduits, motors and any other equipment
that could cause a short circuit.
a. Never drag a welding cable through oil, and never pull on a cable to
force it over an obstruction.
b. Use only clean, dry rags to clean welding cables, and never use
gasoline or an oily rag to clean a cable.
c. When not in use, keep welding cables free of kinks and properly stored
on a flat surface off the floor.
a. Stationary filter lens this type hood has a fixed lens housing with the
shaded lens held in by a spring retainer from where a lens can be
slipped out and replaced as welding requires
b. Flip-front filter lens this type hood has lens housing with a front side
that can be flipped up so that it leaves a clear-glass lens that permits
the hood to be worn while chipping.
16
a. Determine the electrode size and amperage range for the electrode
because electrode size and amperage used dictate the lens protection
required.
c. A rule of thumb is that the larger the diameter of the electrode, the
higher the number required for a lens shade.
b. A welders cap has a flexible bill that can be slipped around to cover
either ear and keep sparks or metal splatter out of the ear opening.
d. Boots should be made of heavy leather with uppers that reach above
the ankle to help prevent burns from sparks and spatter.
Note: Although steel-toed boots are not required, they are highly
recommended.
e. Heavy leather gloves with gauntlets are required for all welding and
cutting activities.
h. Wear a face shield when required, but do not substitute a face shield
for safety glasses because safety glasses should be worn at all times in
the welding
Caution: Always position your head out of the way of rising fumes.
a. Base metal the metal or alloy that is welded, brazed, soldered, or cut
e. Filler pass reminder of the beads required to compete the joint from the
root bead out to the cap pass
f. Roof bead a weld bead that extends into or includes parts or all of the
joint root
2. ADVANTAGES OF SMAW
d. SMAW well suited for maintenance and repair work in small shops, on
farms, and in garages
3. PRINCIPLES OF SMAW
b. The heat of the arc melts the base metal and the metal in the electrode so
that the two fuse together to create the weld
b. The arc stream creates a molten pool or crater that tends to flow away
from the arc and cool and solidify as it moves.
c. Flux from the electrode covering forms a slag on the top of the weld to
protect it from contaminants during cooling.
22
b. The wire core melts in the arc stream and droplets of metal are
transferred across the arc to make the molten puddle and provide the filler
metal to fill the gap or groove between two base metals.
c. The flux covering also melts in the arc stream to stabilize the arc, to
provide a shielded around the arc to keep it free from atmospheric
impurities, and to form a slag covering to protect the weld.
b. SMAW acquaints the beginner with the welding machines and electrical
accessories used in other arc welding processes
d. SMAW acquaints the beginner with the basic concepts of shielding and
how shielding improves and protects a weld
e. SMAW helps the student develop the manual dexterity required to work
with other arc welding processes
f. SMAW gives the beginner an added welding skill that will add versatility to
job getting resumes
WELDING PROCESSES
The welding engineer chooses the joining process with full-knowledge of its
limitations. The choice as a compromise among available alternatives,
dictated by factors, and evaluated ultimately on cost and quality basis.
Type of material
Dimension of material, especially thickness & its shape or form
23
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), also called tungsten inert gas (TIG), was an
electric arc between a tungsten electrode (NONCONSUMABLE) and the work.
Shielding is obtained from an inert gas or inert gas mixture. Filler metal may
be added as needed.
Welding can be done in all positions, and is especially well adapted to welding
metal as thin as 0.13 mm (0.005 in).
OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), also called metal gas or MIG welding, uses
the heat of an electric and between a continuous filler-metal electrode and
the workpiece.
In all gas metal arc welding, the electrode wire is fed automatically to the gun
at a controlled rate. Welding guns or torches used with GMAW are
considerably more complex then the electrode holders used SMAW.
The electrode tip, weld puddle, arc and adjacent areas of the workpiece are
protected from atmospheric contamination by a gaseous shield obtained a
25
combustion and decomposition of the flux covering the molten metal in the
weld puddle is shielded a covering of molten flux (slag) obtained from the
electrode covering.
a. Basic circuit current must travel in a complete loop from the power
supply to the arc and back to the power supply, and the circuit must be
grounded
b. Polarity this is the direction that current flows through a basic welding
circuit. And is expressed as negative or positive in relation to DC current
Note: DCEN was formerly termed DCSP, direct current, straight polarity
Note: DCEP was formerly termed DCRP, direct current, reverse polarity
d. Duty cycle- sizes of welding machines are rated in accordance with their
amperage capacity at 60 percent duty cycle
Cables are insulated copper, extra-flexible leads that carry the current from
the power source to the electrode, and they vary in size or diameter
according to machine capacity and length requirements.
a. Training for welding should start early in high school and include courses
in shop math, mechanical drawing, print reading, physics and chemistry
b. Some welding machine operators can learn their jobs in a few days or
weeks but employers prefer applicants who have high school, vocational
and or post-secondary training in welding
c. Welders and cutters need manual dexterity, good eyesight, and good
eye-hand coordination
d. The specialist welder will become highly skilled in one or two welding
processes and work on special products or projects.
1. Welding inspector;
2. Welding tester;
3. Equipment salesperson
4. Sales troubleshooter
5. Welding instructor
a. In its latest report, 3 out of 4 welding jobs are held by welders ad cutters,
while welding machine operators hold 1 out of 4
- The technique most basic to all arc welding is to start and maintain an arc
so that current is forced across the gap between the electrode tip and the
base metal, and beginners should develop the skill of starting and
maintaining an arc with a proper gap or arc length
- The scratch method for starting an arc is the simplest method for most
beginners and the scratch method works according to the ff.
a. Move the electrode across the base metal at an angle like you would
use to strike a match
c. When the arc starts, raise the electrode slightly to make a long arc,
and then return to normal arc length
Note: in the job sheets that follow, travel angle is usually presented in a side
view.
Note: in the job sheets that follow, work angle is usually presented in a front
view
30
a. Arc gap usually be slightly less than the diameter of the electrode
c. Too much gap be spotted visually because it causes excess spatter and
poor penetration
d. Too much gap will cause filler metal to melt off in large wobbly drops, and
slag will be difficult to remove
e. With too little gap, the arc will not start, or the electrode may freeze to
the weld puddle and stick there
metal uniformly out from under the electrode tip which in turn provides
good penetration
d. Side-to-side weave used with all types of electrodes to make fill passes
on vertical fillet and V-groove butt welds, and also sometimes used with
fill-freeze and low-hydrogen electrodes to make the first pass on these
joints
f. Box weave used with all types of electrodes to make the fill pass on
vertical fillet and V-groove butt welds, and is similar to the side-to-side
weave, but with a distinct pause and slight upward motion at each edge
of the weld to make complete crater fill-up and eliminate undercutting
i. Padding used with all types of electrodes to build up metal surfaces with
one or more layers of weld beads, and can be used on either flat or
curved surfaces as overlapping straight beads or overlapping weave
beads
c. Gradually the slag off the end of the weld about to back
d. Restart the arc about in front of the forward end of the crater
e. Move the electrode quickly back to the back crown of the crater and
immediately resume welding in the direction of travel
a. Option 1:
1. Just before the bead reaches the end of the plate, draw the electrode
slowly up and slightly backward over the completed weld
2. Make sure the motion is low enough to allow the crater to fill and that
the backward motion is far enough that the crater remains on top of
the bead about to back from the end of the weld
b. Option 2
1. Break the arc about 1 or 2 from the end of the weld by quickly
shortening the arc and pulling it sideways out of the crater
3. Move to the end of the plate, restart the arc, and weld back toward
the bead
5. Weld back over the crater and stop the arc by pulling up and slightly
backward as the two beads run together and the crater forms properly
on top of the bead
35
b. When a weld deposit is too large to make a normal tie-in, the end of the
first bead should be ground and feathered
UNIT 8:
b. The first two digits of 4-digit numbers and the first three digits of 5-digit
numbers indicate minimum tensile strength.
d. The last digit (0 through 8) together with the next-to-last digit indicate
the type of covering and current to be used; mid steel electrodes are also
classified as fast-freeze, fill-freeze, and low hydrogen
e. The last letter and digit (EXXXX-A1) indicate the approximate alloy in the
deposit
Examples:
-A1 % Mo
-B1 % Cr, % mo
-B2 1-1/4% Cr, % Mo
-B3 2-14% Cr, 1% Mo
-C1 2-1/2% NI
g. Fourth digit refers to the type of current to be used and indirectly to the
kind of coating, as given below.
O-Oxygen SN-Tin
K-Potassium Ti-Titanium
Si-Silicon V-Vanadium
Na-Sodium Zn-Zinc
S-Sulfur
c. NON-FERROUS ELECTRODES
Used for welding non-ferrous metals and alloys such as aluminum,
copper, brass, etc.
a. FAST FILL
- Metal rapidly deposits
- Best suited to high speed welding on horizontal surfaces
- Slowly solidifies
- Is not well suited for out of position welds
- Downhill position is permissible
- Arc penetration is shallow
- The bead is smooth
- The covering electrodes contain approximately 50% iron powder
Sample Electrodes:
E7024, E7020-A1
Welding Techniques:
39
Polarity:
Use AC for highest speeds best operating characteristics. DCRP can be used.
But this type of current promotes arc blow and complicates control of the
molten puddle.
- Solidifies rapidly
- For all purpose specially vertical and overhead positions
- For any mild steel
- Deep penetration
- Weld bead is flat
Sample electrodes:
E8010, E7010-G
Polarity: unless otherwise specified, use DCRP with EXX10, and use AC with
EXX11 electrodes can be used on DCRP with a current about 10% below AC
values
o Follows electrodes
o Sheet metal electrode
- Can be used in all welding position
Sample electrodes:
E6012, E6013
Welding Techniques:
Use DCSP for best performance in all positions.
a. RUTILE
- All position general-purpose electrode with good fusion and
penetration
- Well suited for bridge gaps on poor fit-ups job
40
Welding Technique:
Polarity:
Use either AC or DC straight polarity (DC-)
Ex: E6012
Recommended current:
3/32 -2.4 -60-85
1/8 -3.2 -90-130
5/3 -2-4 -140-180
3/16 -5 -200-240
b. HIGH RUTILE
- An easy to weld
- All position electrode
- Gives good penetration
Welding Technique:
Polarity:
Carbon 0.1%
Manganese- 0.4%
Silicon 0.3%
Ex: E6013
Recommended current:
-6 -260-300
41
c. LOW HYDROGEN
- Carbon-0.07%-0.09%
- Manganese-1.01%-3%
- Silicon-0.2%-0.3%
- Sulfur-0.02%
- Phosphorus-0.02%
Recommended Current
3/34 -2 -40-60
3/32 -2.4 -70-90
1/8 -3.2 -100-130
5/32 -4 -130-170
3/16 -5 -180-200
-6 -6 -220-240
Ex: E7016/EST
Carbon-0.05%
Manganese-0.7%
Silicon-0.4%
Sulfur-0.03%
Phosphorus-0.03%
Recommended current:
Ex: E7018
a. CELLULOSIC TYPE
Welding technique:
Use AC/DC (+) for E6011 and for E6010 use (DC+)
Cabon-0.1%
Manganese-0.4%
Silicon-0.2%
Carbon content-0.0%
Recommended current:
1. Shielding Gas
Shields from impurities
2. Arc Stabilizer
Dictate the current to the weld
3. Increase deposition rate
43
UNIT 9:
d. Voltage high-poor penetration with flat bead, wed zone not shielded
g. Speed fast irregular bead, poor penetration, undercut, and not enough
weld metal in joint, causing a weak joint
b. Arc blow can be caused by high amperage, and he major problem areas
are thick plates, corners, deep grooves, and the start and finish of joints
46
2. Change current to AC
4. Wrap ground cable around the workpiece and pass ground current
through it to neutralize the magnetic field
a. Both pinholes and porosity can be caused when arc length is too long and
travel speed is too fast
c. Remedies for pinholes and porosity include using a shorter arc length and
keeping the puddle molten for a longer period so that the gases may be
boil out before the metal freezes
d. Other remedies include using dry electrodes and cleaning the surfaces of
base metals
b. The remedies for weld spatter are to reduce current and shorten the arc
length
a. Incomplete penetration can be cause by a faulty joint design, but can also
be caused by insufficient welding current, too large an electrode, or too
fast a welding speed
c. If the joint is not faulty, other remedies include increasing the weld
current, reducing welding speed, and using a smaller diameter electrode
b. Other causes of slag inclusion are high flow rate of molten metal, rapid
chilling, or a weld current that is too low
c. The remedy for slag inclusion sometimes calls for using preheating and a
higher welding current or increasing the size of the weld area to allow the
weld to tie in completely with base metal
a. POROSITY
Causes
Remedy
Causes
Remedy
a. Increase current
b. Weld at slower travel speed
c. Use smaller electrode to adjust to groove size
d. Use deep penetration electrodes (e.g., E-6010)
c. SLAG INCLUSIONS
Cause
Remedy
d. UNDERCUTTING
Cause
Remedy
Cause
a. Irregular weaving
b. Overheating
c. Too long arc
d. Improper travel speed
Remedy
f. SPATTERING
Cause
a. Excessive current
b. Too long an arc
50
c. Arc blow
d. Improper electrode angle
Remedy
a. Decrease current
b. Maintain shot arc
c. Use AC current
d. Hold electrodes more perpendicular to the surface of workpiece
g. WELD CRACKS
Cause
Remedy
GROOVE WELD
BEVEL ANGLE: The angle formed between the prepared surface of a member
and a place perpendicular to the surface of the member
51
GROOVE ANGLE: The total included angle of the groove between parts to be
joined by a groove weld
Distortion
Improper set up and jigging Redesign to allow for expansion and
Excessive heat in weld area connection forces
Wrong welding procedure Reduce heat in work
Dissimilar metals being joined Use chill plate for heat dissipation
Skip weld
Change to lower heat input electrode
Cracking
High carbon steel or poor quality Avoid excessive heat input
base metal Use convex weld bead
Wrong bead configuration Use more crack resistant electrode
Improper electrode Preheat and post heat slowly
Too fast coding Back step to fill craters
Crater Redesign joint
Rigidity of joint; stressed weld
Poor Appearance
Current either too high or too low Readjust current setting
Faulty electrode Change electrodes
The welding inspectors primary job is to inspect the fabricators work to see
that it meets the requirements of the contract. To be able to do this, he must
be familiar with acceptance standards, which spell out the acceptable limits
for discontinuities. If a particular type of discontinuity is permissible in the
welds to be inspected, the acceptance standards, code or specification must
specify the criteria used to discriminate between acceptable imperfections
and defects.
Type of discontinuity
Size of discontinuity
53
Location of discontinuity
Type of Discontinuities
Porosity
Inclusions, both metallic and nonmetallic
Underfill
Incomplete fusion
Incomplete joint penetration
Overlap
Undercut
Lamination and tie lamination
Semas and laps
Lamellar tearing
Crack
Arc strike
Porosity
Result when gas is entrapped in solidifying metal. This will be discussed only
with respect to welds (although porosity is also commonly seen in castings).
The entrapped gas comes from either the gas used in the welding process or
the gas released from chemical reactions occurring during the welding
process. Proper welding technique avoids gas formation and entrapment.
Faulty or dirty materials may produce gas. The gas becomes trapped in the
form of porous discontinuities in the weld.
Piping porosity is an elongated gas discontinuity extending from the weld root
toward surface and is also evidence of the presence of surface
contamination.
Inclusions
Nonmetallic (Slag and Oxides) Inclusions: These type of inclusions result from
faulty welding or cleaning techniques and/or the failure of the designer to
provide proper access for welding within the joint. Molten slag and oxides will
flow to the top of the weld if allowed. Sharp notches in joint boundaries or
between passes often cause slag to become entrapped under the molten
weld metal. Parallel lines of elongated slag inclusions, sometimes called
wagon tracks because of their radiographic appearance, often result if the
welder produces a convex root pass in an open root pipe joint and fails to
adequately clean the slag on either side of this weld pass.
Copper inclusion result if copper backing bards or backing shoes arc used,
such as is electro slag welding. Improper application of the plasma arc
welding process could result in overheating of the copper constricting nozzle
which could also cause copper inclusions in the weld.
55
Incomplete Fusion is the failure of the liquid weld metal to fuse into the
entire groove face of the joint or to adjacent weld beads. Incomplete fusion is
usually caused by insufficient application of heat to all faces of the joint.
However, incomplete fusion can be caused by the presence of oxides which
inhibit by remaining tightly secured to the base metal.
Incomplete Joint Penetration results when the weld metal fails to extend
completely through the joint thickness. The amount of joint penetration
required in any joint should be specified on drawings. Whether that amount of
joint penetration can be obtained depends upon the accessibility of the heat
source and filler rod to the face area. This discontinuity can also result from
improper joint designs.
Overlap
Overlap is the protrusion of weld metal beyond the toe or weld root of the
weld joint without fusion. The resulting discontinuity is a sever mechanical
notch on the surface. This discontinuity is similar to incomplete fusion with
the difference being the location where the fusion failed to take place.
Overlap us caused by the inability of the weld metal to fuse with the surface,
especially when tightly adhering oxides cover the base metal. Overlap results
from lack of control of the welding process in the form of insufficient heat
( current too low), inadequate travel speed, improper selection of welding
materials (lack of deoxidizers), or improper preparation of the joint (failure to
remove mill scale or other surface coatings).
Weld Flaws
57
OVERLAP
Both undercut and overlap are readily corrected. If shallow, that is, not a
depth in excess of the base metal thickness tolerance, it can be ground out to
a shallow dish. If depth exceeds the thickness tolerance, undercut is repaired
by welding. As with all other corrective welding, it is to be carried out using
the original procedure. For deep, narrow undercut, it may be beneficial to
grind the undercut channel to more favorable shape for welding.
They most often appear near the centerline of the material thickness. Since it
would open as a sandwich, metal containing laminations cannot reliably carry
stress in the through-thickness direction.
Seams and laps are linear base metal discontinuities found in rolled products
which result from improper steelmaking practices. Seams and laps differ from
laminations in that they always appear on the rolled surfaces. When they are
parallel to the principal stress, they are generally not considered to be a
critical defect. When perpendicular to the applied or residual stress they will
often propagate as a crack. Welding over seams and laps can cause cracking.
Lamellar Tearing
Massive welds poorly located adjacent to a thick plate will transmit weld
shrinkage stresses into the plate in its weakest direction; creating tears
parallel to the surface which then are linked together by shear fractures,
forming steps connected by risers perpendicular to the surface. The
phenomenon is called lamellar tearing, because the plate opens up as though
it were made of stacked sheets or lamellae. The engineer should change the
joint design to bring the shrinkage stresses more in line with the rolling
direction.
A reduction in the amount of weld required will also reduce the tendency for
this type of discontinuity.
Lamellar tears may extend over long distances and are located more deeply
than underhead cracks, which differ in shape, cause and location.
60
Cracks
May occur in the weld or base metal, or both, when localized stresses exceed
the strength of the material. Cracking is generally associated with
discontinuities in welds and base metals, with notches, with high residual
stresses, and often with hydrogen embrittlement. Welding-related cracks
often look as though the metal were brittle. There is little evidence at the
crack boundaries that the metal deformed before it cracked. Cracks can be
classified as either hot cracks or cold cracks.
Longitudinal cracks lie parallel to the weld axis. They are called longitudinal
cracks, whether they are centerline cracks in the weld metal or too cracks in
the heat affected zone of the base metal.
Transverse cracks are perpendicular to the weld axis. They may remain within
the weld metal or extend from the weld metal into the adjacent heat affected
zone and the remainder of the base metal. In some weldments, transverse
cracks will form in the heat affected zone of the base metal and not in the
weld.
Toe cracks are generally cold cracks. They begin and grow from the weld toe
where residual stresses are high, especially when the weld exhibits excessive
reinforcement or convexity.
Root cracks are longitudinal cracks in the weld root. They are generally a
form of hot cracking.
61
Underbead and heat-affected zone cracks are usually cold cracks that form in
the heat affected zone of the base metal. They are most often short but they
may join to form a continuous crack, especially when three simultaneous
conditions are present: 1. Hydrogen, 2. High-strength material (Rockwell C
hardness of 30 or higher), and 3. High residual stress. Underbead and heat
affected zone cracks can be either longitudinal or transverse.
In the previous sections, there has been discussion relative to the importance
of the welding inspector being capable of effectively communicating with
others involved in the fabrication of some welded product. Much of this
communication is achieved through the use of various types of documents
which describe what attributes that product must exhibit. While these
documents provide the basis upon which the inspection will be performed,
confusion could open if there is tremendous amount of material involved. If
the welding inspector must spend a great deal of time studying this
information, it may detract from the actual inspection.
1. Reference line
2. Arrow
3. Basic weld symbols
4. Dimensions and other data
5. Supplementary symbols
6. Finish symbols
7. Tail
8. Specification, process, or other reference
the next element of the welding symbol is the arrow. This line is connected to
one end of the reference line and points to one side of the weld joint. This
gives significance to the terms arrow side, while the opposite side is called
the other side. Once the arrow side and other side have been assigned by the
placement of the arrow, it is now possible to specify information relating to
either or both sides.
This rule will never change, no matter which end of the reference line is
attached to the arrow or which direction the arrow may point. Even with the
arrow oriented in different directions and at either end of the reference line,
the operations will be performed on the side of the joint to which the arrow
points.
Once the reference line and arrow are in place, the next element of the actual
weld configuration will be. Weld symbols depicting arrow side welds will
appear below the reference line and those referring to other side welds will
65
appear above the reference line. It is also interesting to note that some of the
weld symbols are placed such that the reference line splits them in half. This
simply implies the weld has no side sign finance, meaning that it makes no
difference which side is called the arrow side. With the exception of the
surfacing weld, which always appears as an arrow side weld, all other types
can be shown as arrow side, other side or both sides.
Most of the weld symbols appear muck like the actual weld configuration,
which makes it easier to remember exactly what type of weld is specified by
a particular weld symbol.
Another feature which should be noted for all of those weld symbols which
represent welds having only one of the two members prepared is that the
perpendicular side of the symbol will always appear on the left side(e.g.,
bevel, J- and flare bevel grooves). For these groove welds, the designer can
designate which of the two member actually receives the preparation by
using an arrow with a break in the line. The rule is that the last segment of
the arrow points to that member receiving the specified preparation.
After designating the type of groove weld required and at which side or sides
of the joint if will be deposited, other information is necessary. Most of this
data relates to dimensional requirements. Groove weld features needing
dimensions includes the joint configuration, weld size and the extent of
welding.
Groove weld dimensions: some of the groove weld dimensions are placed
within or slightly outside the weld symbol. A dimension appearing within the
weld symbol indicates the required root opening, while a dimension
appearing just outside.
The dimensions which are enclosed in parentheses refer to the groove weld
size for joint penetration required. For groove welds, absence of dimensions
for depth of preparation or weld size implies that the required weld is to have
complete joint penetration.
The final piece of dimensional information necessary for a groove weld is the
required length. This detail is always shown on the welding to the right of the
weld symbol. If no dimension is shown, it is assumed that the specified weld
is to be the entire length of the joint. If a dimension is present to the right of
the weld symbol, it refers to the length of the groove weld segment required.
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Another feature identical to the groove weld application is that the length of a
fillet weld is dimensional to the right of the weld symbol.
No dimension to the right of the fillet weld symbol indicates that the fillet
weld is to be continuous for the entire length of the joint. A specific length of
fillet weld is denoted by that single dimension appearing to the right of the
weld symbol.
Intermittent fillet welds may be applied to both sides of a joint in one of two
ways. If the individual segments are directly opposite each other, it is
refereed to as chain intermittent welding. Staggered intermittent welding is
when the segments on either side of the joint coincide with spaces between
individual segments on the other side of the joint. In both types of
intermittent welds, the pitch distance refers to the center-to-center spacing
on that side of the joint only.
Dimensions for plug welds includes: plug weld size, depth of filling, pitch
distances between adjacent plugs; and groove angle for tapered plug holes.
The plug weld size dimension appears to the left of the weld symbol. Pitch
distance are shown to the right of the plug weld symbol. If the h ole is to be
tapered to provide better root access, rectangular dimension appears just
outside (above or below) the weld symbol.
Spot and seam welds can also be describe using welding symbols. The size of
a spot or seam weld is shown as a dimension to the left of the weld symbol,
this size refers to the diameter of the spot or width of the scam. Another way
in which the degree of welding can be described is by specifying the required
shear strength of the resulting spot weld.
The pitch distance of adjacent spot welds is shown in the same manner as for
plug and slot welds. The required number of spots is shown by the number
enclosed in parentheses just outside the weld symbol.
Two other types of welds requiring attention are the back and backing welds.
While both are represented by the same weld symbol, they differ in that the
back weld is deposited after one side has been welded and the backing weld
is deposited before depositing the opposite side. Some treatment, such as
back gouging, may be required before application of a back weld and after
the deposition of a backing weld. There are tow ways to describe the
sequencing of these welds. They can be differentiated by using a symbol with
a note in the tail or simply use multiple reference lines to show a sequence of
operations.
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Another type of backing which is commonly used with the gas tungsten are
process is referred to as the consumable insert.
C= Chipping
G=Grinding
H=Hammering
M=Machining
R=Rolling
The letters outside the contour symbols indicate the method of mechanical
finishing producing the desired contour. The letter designations for the
various methods are showed below.
C = Chipping
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G = Grinding
H = Hammering
M = Machining
R = Rolling
The final element of the welding symbol is referred to as the tail. When used,
the tail is placed on the end of the rectangular line opposite the arrow. Some
of the typical information which could be included in the tail are: procedure
number, process type, specification number, filler metal type, reference to
other drawing details, need for NDE, etc.
All of the discussion thus far has dealt with the use of various weld symbols
along with other elements to create a welding symbol capable of describing
the requirements for welding some particular weld joint. It sometimes
becomes important to convey more detailed explanations of exactly how a
weld is to be performed. For one thing, it is often convenient to describe the
order, or sequence, of the entire welding operation. This becomes more
important when the weld joint in question requires measures to prevent
excessive distortion or reduce the possibility of cracking due to high restraint.
Brazing symbols
The use of welding symbols can also be applied to various brazing joints as
well, with some minor changes.
When a brazing symbol is used, there are certain dimensions which should be
specified to fully describe the important aspects of the brazing joint. A
dimension within the square groove symbol describes the amount of
clearance between the two members when fit up. The dimension appearing
to the right of the braze symbol refers to the amount of overlap, and the
dimension appearing to the left of the braze symbol indicates the size of the
reinforcing fillet on the outside of the joint.
While the symbols from some of the braze joints are identical to those used
for welding, the scarf groove is a joint design specifically for and with brazing.
With this type of joint the angle of the scar is shown as an angular dimension
the right of the braze symbol.
Summary
The welding inspector spends a great deal of time communicating with others
involved in the welded fabrication of various structures and components. The
use of welding and nondestructive examination symbols is an important part
of that communication process because this is the Shorthand of welding
and inspection used to convey information from the designer to those
involved in the production and inspection of that product. So, the welding
inspector is expected to understand the many features of these symbols so
that weld and inspection requirements can be determined.
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Single Double
V - Groove
U- Groove
Bevel Groove
J- Groove
The square groove weld, in which the "groove" is created by either a tight fit
or a slight separation of the edges. The amount of separation, if any, is given
on the weld symbol.
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The V-groove weld, in which the edges of both pieces are chamfered, either
singly or doubly, to create the groove. The angle of the V is given on the weld
symbol, as is the separation at the root (if any).
If the depth of the V is not the full thickness--or half the thickness in the case
of a double V--the depth is given to the left of the weld symbol.
If the penetration of the weld is to be greater than the depth of the groove,
the depth of the effective throat is given in parentheses after the depth of
the V.
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The bevel groove weld, in which the edge of one of the pieces is chamfered
and the other is left square. The bevel symbol's perpendicular line is always
drawn on the left side, regardless of the orientation of the weld itself. The
arrow points toward the piece that is to be chamfered. This extra significance
is emphasized by a break in the arrow line. (The break is not necessary if the
designer has no preference as to which piece gets the edge treatment or if
the piece to receive the treatment should be obvious to a qualified welder.)
Angle and depth of edge treatment, effective throat, and separation at the
root are described using the methods.
The U-groove weld, in which the edges of both pieces are given a concave
treatment. Depth of edge treatment, effective throat, and separation at the
root are described using the methods.
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The J-groove weld, in which the edge of one of the pieces is given a concave
treatment and the other is left square. It is to the U-groove weld what the
bevel groove weld is to the V-groove weld. As with the bevel, the
perpendicular line is always drawn on the left side and the arrow (with a
break, if necessary) points to the piece that receives the edge treatment.
Depth of edge treatment, effective throat, and separation at the root are
described using the methods.
The flare-V groove weld, commonly used to join two round or curved parts.
The intended depth of the weld itself are given to the left of the symbol, with
the weld depth shown in parentheses.
The flare bevel groove weld, commonly used to join a round or curved piece
to a flat piece. As with the flare-V, the depth of the groove formed by the two
curved surfaces and the intended depth of the weld itself are given to the left
of the symbol, with the weld depth shown in parentheses. The symbol's
perpendicular line is always drawn on the left side, regardless of the
orientation of the weld itself.
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Common supplementary symbols used with groove welds are the melt-thru
and backing bar symbols. Both symbols indicate that complete joint
penetration is to be made with a single-sided groove weld. In the case of
melt-thru, the root is to be reinforced with weld metal on the back side of the
joint. The height of the reinforcement, if critical, is indicated to the left of the
melt-thru symbol, which is placed across the reference line from the basic
weld symbol.
When a backing bar is used to achieve complete joint penetration, its symbol
is placed across the reference line from the basic weld symbol. If the bar is to
be removed after the weld is complete, an "R" is placed within the backing
bar symbol. The backing bar symbol has the same shape as the plug or slot
weld symbol, but context should always make the symbol's intention clear.
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