Binding Mechanisms

Rapid Prototyping Journal
Binding mechanisms in selective laser sintering and selective laser melting

JP. Kruth, P. Mercelis, J. Van Vaerenbergh, L. Froyen, M. Rombouts,
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Binding mechanisms in selective laser sintering
and selective laser melting
J-P. Kruth, P. Mercelis and J. Van Vaerenbergh
Department of Mechanical Engineering, K.U. Leuven, Leuven, Belgium, and
L. Froyen and M. Rombouts
Department of Metallurgy and Materials Engineering, K.U. Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
Abstract
Purpose This paper provides an overview of the different binding mechanisms in selective laser sintering (SLS) and selective laser melting (SLM),
thus improving the understanding of these processes.
Design/methodology/approach A classification of SLS/SLM processes was developed, based on the binding mechanism occurring in the process, in
contrast with traditional classifications based on the processed material or the application. A broad range of commercial and experimental SLS/SLM
processes found from recent articles as well as from own experiments was used to explain the different binding mechanism categories.
Findings SLS/SLM processes can be classified into four main binding mechanism categories, namely solid state sintering, chemically induced
binding, liquid phase sintering partial melting and full melting. Most commercial processes can be classified into the latter two categories,
which are therefore subdivided. The binding mechanism largely influences the process speed and the resulting part properties.
Research limitations/implications The classification presented is not claimed to be definitive. Moreover some SLM/SLM processes could be
classified into more than one category, based on personal interpretation.

Originality/value This paper can be a useful aid in understanding existing SLS/SLM processes. It can also serve as an aid in developing new SLS/SLM
processes.
Keywords Sintering, Lasers, Coating processes
Paper type Research paper
1. Introduction long-term use. RM concerns the production of long-term

consistent components (e.g. a dental implant) while RT
Selective laser sintering (SLS) is a layer manufacturing concerns the production of long-term consistent tools (e.g. a
process that allows generating complex 3D parts by plastic injection mould insert).
consolidating successive layers of powder material on top of RM and RT technologies can be classified in a number of
each other (Kruth et al., 1996, 2001). Consolidation is ways (Levy et al., 2003). Traditionally the technologies are
obtained by processing the selected areas using the thermal being classified according to the materials they process
energy supplied by a focused laser beam. Using a beam (plastics, metals, ceramics or composites). In this survey, a
deflection system (galvano mirrors), each layer is scanned classification according to the SLS binding mechanism is
according to its corresponding cross section as calculated used.
from the CAD model. The deposition of successive powder Figure 2 shows a possible classification of SLS technologies
layers with a typical thickness of 20 till 150 mm is realized according to the binding mechanism. Most SLS technologies
using a powder deposition system. can be classified using this type of classification, however
Figure 1 shows a schematic example of an SLS system. some do not fit in only one section. For example SLS of glass
Commercial machines differ for example in the way the reinforced polymers (e.g. Duraforme GF being PA12 nylon
powder is deposited (roller or scraper), the atmosphere (Ar or material with 50 weight per cent glass) can be seen as liquid
N2) and in the type of laser they use (CO2 laser, lamp or phase sintering (LPS) of composite powder grains regarding
diode pumped Nd:YAG laser, disk or fibre laser). the polymer as a binder and the glass particles as a structural
material. However, it can also be looked at as if it was a kind
of Full Melting of a single component composite powder,
2. Definitions and classification
since the polymer does not just act as a binder material but
Unlike rapid prototyping, rapid manufacturing (RM) and constitutes the major phase of the structural material being
rapid tooling (RT) pursue the production of objects for glass filled polymer. Basically it is a structural material that is
fully molten, be it that its glass particles remain solid.
The Emerald Research Register for this journal is available at Next paragraph will shortly describe the different binding
www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregister mechanisms and illustrate them with some examples of
corresponding technologies.
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/1355-2546.htm
3. Different binding mechanisms

Rapid Prototyping Journal This paragraph will discuss the state-of-the-art in SLS and
11/1 (2005) 26 36
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited [ISSN 1355-2546]
SLS-derived technologies. According to the binding
[DOI 10.1108/13552540510573365] mechanism, SLS technologies (and derived technologies like
26
Binding mechanisms in selective laser sintering Rapid Prototyping Journal
J-P. Kruth et al. Volume 11 Number 1 2005 26 36
Figure 1 A typical SLS machine layout diffusion (Van der Schueren, 1996). However, it is a slow
process and therefore preheating of the powder material is
necessary to increase the diffusion rate of atoms and to obtain
an acceptable laser scanning velocity.
The National Academy of Science of Belarus, the Baikov
Institute of Metallurgy (Russia) and the University of Leuven
(Belgium) together investigated SSS of titanium powder using
soft laser radiation (Gusarov et al., 2001). The
phenomenon was simulated using numerical models and the
results were experimentally justified. To avoid problems
related to SLM, titanium powder was consolidated using low
intensity laser light (100-300 W/cm2) for a long period of time
(5 s). Since the temperature of the particles stayed well below
the melting point of Ti, the only mechanism occurring was
SSS. The degree of sintering was quantified using the ratio of
neck diameter to powder particle diameter (D/2R in Figure 3).
It was concluded that the degree of sintering was low as long
as the temperature reached stayed below the a/b-transition
temperature (8908C). Rising above this temperature, thus
forming b-phase titanium resulted in a strong rise in sintering
selective laser melting (SLM) and direct metal laser sintering degree. This could be explained by the high self-diffusion
(DMLS)) can be classified into four categories. However it coefficient of the b-phase compared to the a-phase.
has to be noticed that this classification is not absolute and the Phenix Systems (France) commercializes an SLS-like
borders are not always very clear. system that realizes SSS using a high temperature process
chamber reaching up to 9008C (www.phenix-systems.com).
The compacted powder, which is close to the SSS
3.1 Solid state sintering temperature, is sintered due to the energy contribution of a
Solid state sintering (SSS) is a thermal process that occurs at Nd:YAG laser source. This way, ceramic materials can be
temperatures between TMelt/2 and TMelt, where TMelt is the processed as well as metal powders. To obtain the desired
melting temperature of the material. Various physical and characteristics, a post sintering operation is necessary. Figure 4
chemical reactions occur, the most important being diffusion shows some ceramic parts.
(Van der Schueren, 1996). It involves neck formation between
adjacent powder particles (Figure 3). The main driving force
for sintering is the lowering of the free energy when particles 3.2 Chemically induced binding
grow together. A gradient in vacancy concentration between At the Fraunhofer Institute IPT (Aachen, Germany) the
the highly curved neck (high vacancy concentration) and the direct production of SiC ceramic parts has been investigated
flat surfaces (low vacancy concentration) causes a flux of (Klocke and Wirtz, 1997). No binder elements were used and
vacancies from the neck and a flux of atoms towards the neck the laser-material interaction times were very short, thus
thus increasing the neck size. excluding the diffusion processes occurring in SSS. When
The main advantage of SSS is that a wide variety of heating the SiC particles to a very high temperature, partial
materials can be processed this way. As long as the disintegration of the SiC into Si and C occurs. The free Si
temperature is high enough to provide the necessary kinetic forms SiO2, which acts as a binder between the SiC particles.
energy for the transport of vacancies across the grain The parts are thus composed of a mixture of SiC and SiO2.
boundaries, all powder materials will consolidate via volume Afterwards an infiltration step using Si yields full dense parts.
Figure 2 Classification of SLS-technologies according to binding mechanisms
27
Figure 3 Left: neck formation in SSS (Van der Schueren, 1996), right: neck formation between two stainless steel powder particles
Figure 4 Solid state sintered ceramic parts

Next to SiC, also other ceramics were tested, e.g. Al2O3 and 3.3 Liquid phase sintering partial melting
ZiSiO4. Figure 5 shows a ceramic casting shell produced by This category unites many different kinds of technologies.
SLS. Most of these technologies combine a structural material
Another example of chemical induced binding is the remaining solid throughout the process and a binder material
consolidation of Al powder in a N2 atmosphere whereby an being liquefied. In some cases, however, the solid and the
AlN binder phase is formed. This reaction is not yet used in liquid phases result from the same material. A first group of
selective laser processing, but Sercombe used it in an SLS technologies is characterized by a clear distinction between
post-curing process, after polymer debinding and before the binder and structural materials.
infiltration (Sercombe and Schaffer, 2003a) (see paragraph
Coated grains). 3.3.1 Different binder and structural materials
Technologies can be further divided into three groups
Figure 5 SLS-produced investment casting shell for impeller wheel according to the type of powder grains that is used.
Separate grains. These technologies use different binder and
structural grains. The structural material can be a metal as
well as a ceramic material; the binder materials however are
mostly metals. Binder particles are usually much smaller than
the structural ones. Therefore, the high surface-to-volume
ratio of the grains in combination with its relatively low
melting point favors the preferential melting of the binder
material (Karapatis, 2002).
The combination of small binder particles and larger
structural particles has the additional benefit of better packing
with small pores favoring the spreading of the liquid binder by
capillary forces and causes a rearrangement of the particles.
Generally a green part is produced which is still porous and
brittle. Therefore, a post treatment consisting of a furnace
post-sintering, hot isostatic pressing (HIP) or an infiltration
with a low melting point material is usually necessary. The last
solution is most commonly used because of its effectiveness
and its relative ease.
28
Figure 6 shows the LPS mechanism schematically. The separate WC and Co powders (Figure 9) (Laoui et al., 2000;
solid line represents a conventional furnace sintering process. Kruth et al., 1998).
The LPS mechanism, as it occurs in SLS, is represented by Figure 10 shows an example of aWC-Co injection-
the first part of the dashed line, since only the rearrangement moulding insert.
phase takes place. The process is frozen at this stage resulting Some polymer-based powders also consist of composite
in a porous green product. A thermal post-treatment in a powder grains. An example is glass filled polymer powder
furnace may be used to complete the cycle. (www.3dsystems.com). Figure 11 left shows the
Many different material combinations have been tested in microstructure of a sintered sample, indicating the spherical
the past. At the University of Leuven, metal-metal composites glass particles (some of which are removed from the nylon by
were tested as well as metal-ceramic composites (Kruth et al., grinding) and some zones of remaining porosity (filled with
1998; Laoui et al., 2000). Some examples of metal-metal the samples embedding material). The right side picture
composites are Fe-Cu and stainless steel-Cu. As for the metal- shows a low-weight, high-strength sandwich panel, which was
ceramics combinations, WC-Cu, WC-Co, WC-CuFeCo, made from the glass filled nylon material.
TiC-Ni/Co/Mo, ZrB 2-Cu and TiB2-Ni were tested. Coated grains. A third possibility to combine a binder and a
Figures 7 and 8 (left) show the cross sections of a stainless structural material is to coat the structural material with the
steel-Cu and a WC-Co green part. binder phase. This ensures that the laser radiation, hitting the
Composite grains. Composite powder grains contain both the powder particles, is preferentially absorbed by the binder
binder and the structural material within each individual material that is to be melted: in the case of separate grains it
powder grain. The powder may be obtained by mechanically may happen that the structural material (e.g. Fe) absorbs
alloying a mixture of two different powders, causing powder more laser energy than the binder material (e.g. Cu) causing
particles to be repeatedly milled, fractured and welded together. the structural material to melt before the binder does (Kruth
Figure 9(a) shows an initial powder mixture of WC and Co et al., 2003a). Moreover a more effective bonding of the
particles. Mechanical alloying results in WC-Co powder structural particles is realized since the binder material
particles with a micro grain composite structure in which the already surrounds all structural particles. Coated powders
two different phases (WC and Co) can still be identified exist both with metal and polymer binder coatings.
(Figure 9(b)). Such composite grains result in a higher SLS At the University of Leuven, experiments with Cu coated
green density and a better surface roughness than a mixture of steel powder turned out to be successful despite the fact that
the powder coating process was hard to control (Van der
Schueren, 1996).
Figure 6 Mechanism of LPS Polymer coated steel powders (DirectSteel and LaserForm)
are commercially produced by 3D Systems (www.3dsystems.
com), formerly DTM Corporation. Most polymer coated
powders need an additional debinding step in which the
polymer is burnt out. Afterwards an infiltration step is
possible. Figure 12 shows a cross section of an SLS part made
from polymer coated stainless steel powder (LaserForm),
after polymer debinding and infiltration with bronze.
However, polymer coated powders may also be applied
without debinding in order to produce, e.g. polymer/metal,
composite parts. An example of this is polyamide coated copper
powder used on DTM machines to produce copper reinforced
polyamide moulds for injection moulding (Burning, 1998).
At the University of Queensland, an aluminium sintering
process was developed in collaborations with 3D Systems
(Sercombe and Schaffer, 2003a, b). Since the strong oxide
Figure 7 LPS of stainless steel-Cu powder mixture (a: nonmolten steel layer on the grains prohibits direct sintering of Al powder, an
particle, b: molten Cu, c: porosity) indirect procedure was developed. Nylon coated Al grains are
fused together using the LPS mechanism. Next, the nylon
binder is decomposed. A small amount of magnesium added
to the powder mixture makes it possible to form aluminium
nitride instead of aluminium oxide when heating up to 5408C.
The aluminium nitride acts as a rigid skeleton, which is
necessary during the infiltration phase. The infiltrant being
used is a ternary eutectic aluminium alloy (Al-13.8Si-4.7Mg),
having a lower melting point than the basic aluminum alloy.
Relative part densities up to 95 per cent were obtained.
Figure 13 shows the different processing steps.
A last type of coated powders are the sand powders developed
DTM-3D Systems (SandForm) as well as by EOS GmbH
(Direct Croning) (www.eos-gmbh.de). The powders offered
are standard Si of Zr sands, coated with a small phenolic layer,
responsible for fusing the sand grains together. These powders
are used to produce moulds and cores for metal casting.
29
Figure 8 LPS of WC-Co powder mixture, left: before infiltration (a: nonmolten WC particle, b: molten Co, c: porosity), right: after infiltration with copper
Figure 9
3.3.2 No distinct binder and structural material mechanism can arise as well with metals as with polymers,
Technologies in this group do not exhibit a clear distinction although the consolidation of polymer powders results also
between binder and structural phases. Rather than the from other mechanisms (consolidation at the glass transition
distinction between binder and structural material, there is a temperature, which is lower than the melting temperature,
distinction between molten and non-molten material areas. polymer chain rearrangement and cross-linking).
Therefore partial melting is a better name for these The partial melting phenomenon was modeled by
technologies than liquid phase sintering. Karapatis (2002). Using a simple thermal model, skin and
Single phase, partially molten. When the heat supplied to a core temperatures of the powder particles were calculated.
powder particle is insufficient to melt the whole particle, only This way the minimal pulse energy to fully melt the particle
a shell at the grain border is molten. The core of the grain can be calculated. Below this value, the core temperature
stays unaffected. This way the molten material acts as a never exceeds the melting temperature and only partial
binder between the non-molten particle cores. This binding melting is obtained.
30
Figure 10 Bronze infiltrated WC-Co injection moulding insert brings an improvement in mechanical properties and surface
quality. Figures 16 and 17 show the difference in porosity
between a 50 and a 20 mm powder. In both cases shot penning
enhances surface quality and improves the density of the top
layer. Different parameter sets are used for the parts skin and
core, in order to obtain a rigid and hard shell and at the same
time a higher building speed (by fast scanning of the core).
Table I concludes the third bonding category by
summarizing some important mechanical properties of
commercially available materials.
3.4 Full melting

Driven by the need to produce near full dense objects, with
mechanical properties comparable to those of bulk materials
and by the desire to avoid lengthy post processing cycles,
SLM has been developed. Polymers as well as metals can be
completely molten by a laser beam. However, the appellation
SLM is reserved for metallic materials. Therefore, polymers
will not be discussed in this section.
All metals may be thought of as candidate material however
large differences exist in the ease of processing (e.g. laser
Fusing powder mixture. Powders consisting of multiple phases absorption, surface tension and viscosity of the liquid metal,
can be classified in this group when they are only partially etc.). For each new material, a process-window needs to be
molten. For example at the University of Leuven experiments determined experimentally, in order to ovoid scan track
were done with a Fe-Fe3P-Ni-Cu powder mixture, aiming at instabilities (sphereodisation of the liquid melt pool, also
the production of full density parts (Kruth et al., 2003b). The known as balling) and part porosity. Therefore, the range of
addition of a melting point lowering additive like Fe3P is commercially available SLM metals is still limited today.
favourable in making the process more energy efficient. For Figure 18 shows an example of such a process window for an
instance, alloying pure Fe with a small amount of P lowers the iron based powder mixture.
melting point of pure Fe (1,5388C) to the eutectic temperature
3.4.1 Single component, single material powder
of the Fe-P system (1,0488C, Figure 14). Moreover, the
The Fraunhofer Institute ILT (Miller, 2002) as well as the
dissolution of P in Fe also has the benefit of a lower surface
Universities of Osaka (Abe et al., 2000) and Leuven,
tension of the melt, resulting in a better wetting behaviour. Ni is
performed a lot of investigation on SLM of pure titanium
added for its marked strengthening effect.
powder. Figure 19 shows a titanium part that was produced
A closer look at the microstructure reveals that not all the
with SLM. It can be seen that the part density is almost 100
powder particles are molten (see Figure 15). The final part
per cent, however the picture also reveals a crack (bottom left)
consists of a low melting point P-rich phase (no. 3), a high melting
caused by thermal stress, which needs to be reduced in the
point phase with no significant amount of P (no. 2), some
future. It is expected that commercial titanium SLM will be
remaining porosities (no. 4) and some remaining unmolten Fe
offered soon.
powder particles (no. 1). Therefore, the process cannot be called
full melting and the name partial melting is preferred. 3.4.2 Single component, alloyed powder particles
EOS DMLS process also belongs to this category (www.eos- These powders consist of a single kind of grains, consisting of
gmbh.de). The recent introduction of 20 mm metal powders alloyed materials. Many different kinds of alloys have been
Figure 11 Left: cross section of a glass filled nylon part, right: light-weight sandwich panel made from glass filled nylon
31
Figure 12 Bronze infiltrated Laserform ST 100 part Figure 15 Micrograph of multiphase steel powder: (1) unmolten Fe
particle, (2) high melting P-poor phase, (3) low melting P-rich phase, (4)
pores
Figure 13 Steps in Aluminium SLS: (a) green part (nylon binder not
visible); (b) aluminium nitride skeleton surrounding the aluminium
grains; and (c) infiltrated part
Figure 16 DMLS Direct-Metal 50V-2 grain size 50 mm, porosity 10-15

per cent: a and c before shot-penning, b and d after shot peening (a and
b: cross section, c and d: top view)
Figure 14 Phase diagrams of Fe-P and Cu-P showing the temperature

lowering effect of the added P
Figure 17 DMLS Direct-Steel 20V-2 grain size 20 mm, porosity ,5 per

cent, in the ZX plane
32
Table I Commercial SLS metal powder systems and their mechanical properties
J-P. Kruth et al.
Reference SLS materials

3D Systems EOS EOS EOS
Reference DTM DTM 3D Systems LaserForm EOS DirectMetale DirectMetalTM EOS DirectMetalTM EOS
Reference Al 7075 Zn Rapid RapidSteel LaserForm ST ST 200 3D Systems Ni-Bronze 100-V3 50-V2 DirectsteelTM 20-V2 Directsteele
Steel: P20 Mg Cu 0.5 Steel 1.0 2.0 100 (St. Steel) (St. Steel) LaserForm A6 (Electrolux) (Bronze) (Bronze) 50-V1 (Bronze) 20-V1
Binding mechanisms in selective laser sintering
Grain size 50 45 23a 20a 100 100 50 50 20 20

(mm)
Infiltrantb C B B B B E
Tensile 950 570 475 580 510 435 610 162 199 199 499 450 600
Strength
33
(MPa)
Yield 751 502 255 413 305 na 470 124 na na na na na
Strength
0.20 per
cent
Youngs 210 65 210 263 137 142 138 60 na 50 110 80 130
modulus
(GPa)
Notes: ad50; bC Copper, B Bronze, E epoxy resin

Rapid Prototyping Journal
Volume 11 Number 1 2005 26 36
Figure 18 SLM process window for an iron based powder mixture tested and some are already commercially available trough the
three German manufacturers of SLM machines (Concept
Laser GmbH (www.concept-laser.de), Trumpf (www.trumpf.
com) and MCP-HEK (www.mcp-group.de). The Fraunhofer
Institute ILT for example has investigated Stainless Steel
1.4404 and Tool Steel 1.2343 (Over et al., 2001). Figure 20
shows an example of a stainless steel part.
Next to the steel powders, a titanium alloy
(TiAl6V4) also was tested for the manufacturing of
medical implants.
Figure 21 compares the mechanical properties of parts
made of steel 1.4404 with those of the bulk material. It
can be concluded that mechanical properties are
comparable to bulk material apart from the ductility,
which is strongly reduced. This might be overcome applying
the right heat treatment. More detailed data are presented
in Table II.
3.4.3 Fusing powder mixture

Depending on the degree of melting one can classify some
processes using powder mixtures under SLM (all powder
particles melt) or partial melting (some powder particles
Figure 19 Cross section of a Ti part produced by SLM remain nonmolten). The powders and sintered parts depicted
in Figure 15 shows that the border between partial melting
and full melting is rather vague, at least when near-full
density parts are aimed for.
4. Conclusions
Over the last decade rapid prototyping techniques gained a
wide acceptance. Among the different RP techniques, SLS
had the advantage of being able to process a wide range of
materials. This large variety of materials gradually allowed to
extend the field of applications, from simple visual
prototyping to functional prototyping, and even RT and RM
applications.
In recent years, the idea of full melting metal powders was
explored, supported by the continuously improving process
parameters (smaller layer thickness, smaller spot size, etc.),
resulting in mechanical properties being much better than
those of early time selective laser sintered parts and
comparable with bulk metal properties. RT and specially
RM technologies are still limited in use, but they are steadily
Figure 20 Cross section of a stainless steel 1.4404 part produced by SLM
34
Figure 21 Comparison of SLM part properties and standard bulk material properties for stainless steel 1.4404
Table II Mechanical properties of available SLM metals

Material Stainless Steel 1.4404 Tool Steel 1.2343 TiAl6V4
Tensile Strength (MPa) 480-520 780-840 1200-1400
Elongation (per cent) 10-15 2-3 1-2
Hardness 220-250 HV0.1 50-54 Rockwell 380-420 HV0.3
Surface finish (mm) Rz 30-60 Rz 30-60 Rz 30-60
Accuracy (mm) ^0.1 ^0.1 ^ 0.1
Density (per cent) ca. 100 ca. 100 ca. 100
growing. It can be expected that in the next decade they will Kruth, J.P., Van der Schueren, B., Bonse, J.E. and Morren, B.
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continuous improvement of material properties and accuracy metal powder sintering, Annals of the CIRP, Vol. 45/1.
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Miller, F. (2002), Schneller Zahn aus Titan, Fraunhofer P. Mercelis obtained a MSc degree in Mechanical
Magazin. Engineering at the University of Leuven and is currently
Over, C., Meiners, W., Wissenbach, K., Lindemann, M. working as a PhD candidate at the department of Mechanical
and Hammann, G. (2001), Selective laser melting: a Engineering at the University of Leuven. He is part of the
new approach for the direct manufacturing of metal parts research group on production processes. His research focuses
and tools, Proc. Int. Conf. Laser Assisted Net Shape mainly on process monitoring and control in Selective Laser
Engineering. Sintering and Selective Laser Melting of metal powders.
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manufacturing of aluminium components, Science,
Vol. 301, pp. 1225-7. J. Van Vaerenbergh obtained a MSc degree at the Karel de
Sercombe, T.B. and Schaffer, G.B. (2003b), The production Grote-Hogeschool, Antwerp (B). He is currently working as a
of alumium SLS prototypes via infiltration, paper research engineer at the Department of Mechanical
presented at the International Conference on Advanced Engineering at the University of Leuven (B). He is part of
Research in Virtual and Rapid Manufacturing. the research group on production processes. His research
Van der Schueren, B. (1996) Basic contributions to the focuses mainly on selective laser sintering and selective laser
development of the selective metal powder sintering process melting, including the development of advanced scanning
PhD thesis University of Leuven, Leuven. strategies, process optimization and the investigation of new
materials.
L. Froyen is Professor of Materials Science and Engineering

About the authors and Vice-Dean of the Faculty of Engineering at the University
of Leuven (B). He is mainly doing research on solidification
J-P. Kruth is Full Professor at K.U. Leuven where he is

responsible for Production Engineering. His main research processes, powder metallurgy and materials behavior in
activities are: CAD, CAPP, CAM, production processes, microgravity.
metal cutting, non-traditional machining, rapid prototyping,
dimensional metrology, quality control, reverse engineering. M. Rombouts has a first degree and a MSc degree in Materials
He is Active Member of CIRP, Fellow of SME, Honorary Engineering obtained at the University of Leuven (B). She is
member Romanian Society of Mech. Eng., Member Belgian currently working as a PhD candidate at the Department of
Royal Academy Council of Applied Sciences, Board Member Metallurgy and Materials Engineering at the University of
BSMEE, Member IMEKO/BEMEKO, Member K.VIV and Leuven (B). Her research focusses mainly on metallurgical
founding board member of the companies MATERIALISE aspects of selective laser sintering and selective laser melting
N.V. (. 1997), METRIS N.V., MIH N.V. and numerical modeling of the SLS/SLM process.
36
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Binding Mechanisms

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Binding Mechanisms

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Rapid Prototyping Journal

Binding mechanisms in selective laser sintering and selective laser melting

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classified into more than one category, based on personal interpretation.

Keywords Sintering, Lasers, Coating processes

Paper type Research paper

1. Introduction long-term use. RM concerns the production of long-term

3. Different binding mechanisms

Figure 2 Classification of SLS-technologies according to binding mechanisms

Figure 4 Solid state sintered ceramic parts

3.4 Full melting

Figure 16 DMLS Direct-Metal 50V-2 grain size 50 mm, porosity 10-15

Figure 14 Phase diagrams of Fe-P and Cu-P showing the temperature

Figure 17 DMLS Direct-Steel 20V-2 grain size 20 mm, porosity ,5 per

Reference SLS materials

Grain size 50 45 23a 20a 100 100 50 50 20 20

Notes: ad50; bC Copper, B Bronze, E epoxy resin

3.4.3 Fusing powder mixture

Figure 20 Cross section of a stainless steel 1.4404 part produced by SLM

Table II Mechanical properties of available SLM metals

L. Froyen is Professor of Materials Science and Engineering

J-P. Kruth is Full Professor at K.U. Leuven where he is

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