I.E.S.

Cervantes

PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY

UNIT 1

SCIENTIFIC METHOD
MEASURING
MAGNITUDES

Arantza Rubio Mier

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3 ESO
Physics and Chemistry Unit 1- Scientific method. Measuring magnitudes

INDEX

1. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL CHANGES................................................. 3

2. SCIENTIFIC METHOD .......................................................................... 3

2.1. Observation .................................................................................. 4
2.2. Consideration of the problem........................................................ 4
2.3. First hypotheses ........................................................................... 4
2.4. Experimentation ........................................................................... 5
2.5. Confirmation of the hypotheses .................................................... 6

3. THE MATTER AND ITS PROPERTIES .................................................. 7

4. PHYSICAL MAGNITUDES. UNITS OF MEASUREMENT ........................ 7

4.1. Magnitude .................................................................................... 7
4.2. The International System of Units (SI)........................................... 8
4.3. Scientific Notation ........................................................................ 9
4.4. Conversion factors...................................................................... 10

5. MEASURING INSTRUMENTS. PRECISION AND SENSITIVITY ........... 10

6. SIGNIFICANT DIGITS AND ERROR .................................................... 12

6.1. Rounding numbers..................................................................... 12
6.2. Experimental errors.................................................................... 13
6.3. Error calculation ........................................................................ 13

7. ORGANIZATION AND ANALYSIS OF EXPERIMENTAL DATA ............. 14

7.1. Tables and graphs ...................................................................... 14
7.2. Types of functions and graphs .................................................... 15

ACTIVITIES.................................................................................................. 16

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1. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL CHANGES

We can see the all things are continuously changing. There are two types of
changes in the environment: chemical and physical.

Physical changes are those changes that do not produce a new substance.

If you break a bottle, you still have a glass. Some common

examples are: breaking, cutting, bending and changes
states, such as melting, freezing, condensing, etc.

Chemical changes are those changes that result in the production of another
substance.

If you burn a paper, you are carrying out a chemical reaction that releases
carbon. Common examples of chemical changes that you may be somewhat
familiar with are: digestion, respiration, photosynthesis, oxidation, burning
and decomposition.
Sometimes strange changes occur and indicate that new substances are being
formed:

- Emergence of new colours (example: colorless +

colorless pink)
- Heat release (Example: cold + cold hot)
- Emergence of gases (sometimes with odor)
or/and smoke (Example: solid + liquid gas)

2. SCIENTIFIC METHOD

The scientific method is a process aimed at explaining phenomena,

establishing relations among the facts and stating laws which explain the
physical phenomena of the world and allow us to obtain, with this knowledge,
useful applications for mankind.

Scientists use the scientific method as a planned way of working. Their

achievements are accumulative and they have brought mankind to our present
cultural situation. Without Science there is no Culture!

Although we can say that there is not only one scientific method, some factors
are common to all of them: a brilliant idea on the part of mankind, the
complementary work of the scientists and the sciences, reliability, the use of
mathematic tools, etc.

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In general, the scientific method involves five steps:

2.1. Observation

Observing is different from looking. Normally when you look you see very little.
If you go into a room and afterwards you are asked to describe the people,
clothes, objects, etc. you have seen, you will realise, when you try to do so, how
little you have observed.

Intellectual curiosity promotes observation and makes us ask ourselves

questions. Why does this happen in this way? How does it happen? Our mind
is activated and we are faced with a problem.

Galileo observed a lamp swinging in a church and his brain began to pose
questions:

- Does it take as long to make a wide swing as a

short one?
- Does a lamp hanging from a short rope take as
long to swing back and forwards as one on a long
rope?
- If a heavy lamp were hung on the same rope,
would it take as long to swing back and forwards
as a lighter lamp?

2.2. Consideration of the problem

When we try to explain what we have observed a problem arises due to our
curiosity and need to understand our environment. In order to solve this it is
essential to be up to date, to know what is already known about the topic and
what parts of the problem have already been solved and confirmed by Science.
Before beginning, all the possible information related to the phenomenom
should be collected.

With a well trained and well prepared brain, with scientific curiosity and a
capacity for observation, we will feel the desire to understand what we
observe. This is how certain questions and hypotheses first arise and then a
mental design of how to approach the tests which will lead us to the statement
of laws.

It is probable that Galileo at the very moment at which he saw the lamp
swinging considered the test of finding out what the oscillation time of a
pendulum depended on.

2.3. First hypotheses

The questions which arise from an observation of: Why? How? What factors or
variables explain the phenomenom? etc, are answered with a hypothesis.

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A hypothesis is an answer in advance, which is presented as a possible

explanation to a problem which arises when trying to explain a phenomenom
and which should be verified by experimentation.

Galileo assumed that although the mass of the pendulum varied it would take
the same time to complete an oscillation because he had already proved that
when he threw different masses from the Tower of Pisa, they took the same
time to fall to the ground.

2.4. Experimentation

It is necessary to extract the essential of the phenomenom being studied and

design a simplified replica of it.

The variables which intervene in the phenomenom are modified one by one and
their effect on the phenomenom is tested. It is essential to modify one cause at
a time see the effect which it triggers. Then it is necessary to record all the
data. The variable that is modified by the scientist is called the independent
variable. The variable which changes as a consequence of having varied the
independent variable is called dependent variable.

Galileo did not begin to swing a lamp in his house; he simply

took several balls and made them swing one by one tying them
to a rope. He repeated the oscillation, the length of the rope,
the mass which swings, the angle (separation from the
vertical). To measure the mass, the length and the separation
was easy for him, but to measure the small amount of time
was very difficult in that era. Galileo did it by counting his
heart beats.

After having finished all the experiments, the data obtained should be recorded
in tables and turned into graphs to be able to better study their relations. The
independent variable is usually placed in the first column and the dependent
variable in the second column.

For example, Galileo probably collected his data in a table like this:

Length Period
1
2
3
4

From analyzing the data, we obtain a relation which is expressed in the form of
a mathematical formula. The mathematical equations and their graphs are a
great help in understanding and handling the concepts.

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The values of the independent variable are usually placed on the X axis
(abscissa) and those of the dependant variable on the Y axis (ordinate)

2.5. Confirmation of the hypotheses

If the experiments confirm the hypotheses, these are true and the laws
(formulas) deduced are valid. Then anyone can test them and they always
apply, everywhere, under the stated conditions.

A large number of confirmed hypotheses expressed in mathematical laws

constitute part of a General Theory which explains all of them: the law of the
pendulum is part of Newtons Universal Law of Gravitation.
Galileo assumed that the pendulum took the same time to make one oscillation
whether it was separated more or less from the vertical and that this time did
not depend on the mass.

Galileo had found out that a mass of 1 kg and another of 10 kg took the same
time to fall from the tower of Pisa even though they were thrown from different
heights on the tower. The experiments demonstrated his hypothesis. He
obtained this formula:

S = k t2

The space travelled, s, is directly proportional to the square of the fall time
If first hypotheses are not fulfilled, new ones must be made and all the
experiments must be re- thought to see if the new hypotheses are confirmed.

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3. THE MATTER AND ITS PROPERTIES

Matter is anything that has mass and a volume. It can be weighed and occupies a
place in space.

Its properties serve to identify and measure substances. Matter has two types
of properties:

a) Characteristic properties: they serve to identify and classify substances.

They dont depend on the amount of substance. Characteristic properties
would be:
- Colour.
- Hardness: it is the resistance of a substance to be scratched. It can
be hard (difficult to be scratched) or soft (easy to be scratched)
- Density: it indicates how tightly packed the substances are. It is
calculated by dividing the mass by the volume.
- Freezing/melting point and boiling/condensing point are the
temperatures at which the matter changes state. For example, the
melting point of the water is 0C

b) Non-characteristic properties (general properties): they serve to measure

the substances, but not to identify them. They would be the weight,
length, mass, temperature, etc.

4. PHYSICAL MAGNITUDES. UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

4.1. Magnitude

Measurement of any physical quantity involves comparison with a certain

basic, arbitrarily chosen, internationally accepted reference standard called
unit.

Magnitude is a bodys property that can be measured and expressed with a

number and a unit.

In physics we have fundamental and derived magnitudes:

- Fundamental magnitudes are the physical magnitudes, which are
self explanatory, like length , mass, time, etc.
- Derived magnitudes are also physical magnitudes, which are
explained through fundamental magnitudes, like area, density,
etc.

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4.2. The International System of Units (SI)

The International System of Units (abbreviated SI from French: Systme

international d'units) is the modern form of the metric system. The SI was
established in 1960, based on the metric system (metre-kilogram-second
system).

SI is the world's most widely used system of measurement, used in both

everyday commerce and science. There are only three countries that have not
adopted this system: Burma, Liberia and the United States

The SI constitutes a catalogue of units in which the measurements of different

magnitudes should be expressed. This system established seven fundamental
physical magnitudes

International System of Units

Magnitude Unit Unit symbol
Length Metre m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Temperature Degree Kelvin K
Electric current Ampere A
Luminous intensity Candela cd
Amount of substance Mole mol

It is necessary to translate all the units into the International System of Units
(SI) to do the calculations.

Multiples and submultiples of the units are commonly used. Here you can see
the names and the symbols of the multiples and submultiples of the physical
units:

Multiples and
submultiples
Tera (T) 1012
Giga (G) 109
Mega (M) 106
Kilo (k) 103
Mili (m) 10-3
Micro () 10-6
Nano (n) 10-9
Pico (p) 10-12

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4.3. Scientific Notation

Scientific notation is a way of writing numbers that are too big or too small to
be conveniently written in standard form. Scientific notation has a number of
useful properties and is commonly used in calculators and by scientists,
mathematicians and engineers.

The format for writing a number in scientific notation is fairly simple: (first digit
of the number) followed by (the decimal point) and then (all the rest of the
digits of the number), times (10 to an appropriate power). The conversion is
fairly simple. All numbers are written in the form of:

(a times ten raised to the power of b),

Examples:

Write 0.000 000 000 043 6 in scientific notation:

In scientific notation, the number part (as opposed to the ten-to-a-power

part) will be "4.36". So I will count how many places the decimal point
has to move to get from where it is now to where it needs to be:

Then the power on 10 has to be 11: "eleven", because that's how many
places the decimal point needs to be moved, and "negative", because I'm
dealing with a SMALL number. So, in scientific notation, the number is
written as 4.36 1011

Convert 4.2 107 to decimal notation:

Since the exponent on 10 is negative, I am looking for a small number.

Since the exponent is a seven, I will be moving the decimal point seven
places. Since I need to move the point to get a small number, I'll be
moving it to the left. The answer is 0.000 000 42

Convert 0.000 000 005 78 to scientific notation:

This is a small number, so the exponent on 10 will be negative. The first

"interesting" digit in this number is the 5, so that's where the decimal
point will need to go. To get from where it is to right after the 5, the
decimal point will need to move nine places to the right. Then the power
on 10 will be a negative 9, and the answer is 5.78 109

Convert 93,000,000 to scientific notation:

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This is a large number, so the exponent on 10 will be positive. The first

"interesting" digit in this number is the leading 9, so that's where the
decimal point will need to go. To get from where it is to right after the 9,
the decimal point will need to move seven places to the left. Then the
power on 10 will be a positive 7, and the answer is 9.3 107

4.4. Conversion factors

The conversion factor is a fraction in which the numerator and the

denominator have the same value (they are equal values expressed in different
units), and so the conversion factor is equal to the unit.
Using conversion factors we can go from some units to other equivalent ones
with little risk of making a mistake. We just have to multiply repeatedly by
successive factors, until we get to the units we require.

Example:

5. MEASURING INSTRUMENTS. PRECISION AND SENSITIVITY

Instruments are used to measure the matter properties. They can be rulers,
scales, chronometers, thermometers, test tubes, etc.

Measuring instruments have two characteristics:

Precision of an instrument is the minimum value of the magnitude that can be

appreciated.

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The sensitivity is the smallest change in a measurement that an instrument is

capable of detecting.

For example, a laboratory scale can measure the weight of a hair, but a kitchen
scale cant. We say that the laboratory scale is more sensitive than the kitchen
scale.

Measurement uncertainty is the maximum error that is affected as a result of

instrument precision

In an ideal world, measurements are always perfect: there, wooden boards can
be cut to exactly two meters in length and a block of steel can have a mass of
exactly three kilograms. However, we live in the real world, and here
measurements are never perfect. In our world, measuring devices have
limitations.

The imperfection inherent in all measurements is called an uncertainty. In the

Physics 152 laboratory, we will write an uncertainty almost every time we make
a measurement. Our notation for measurements and their uncertainties takes
the following form:

(measured value uncertainty) proper units

where the is read `plus or minus.'

V = 50 10 cm3 V= 80 10 cm3

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6. SIGNIFICANT DIGITS AND ERROR

Significant digits of an experimental measure are the ones that the instrument
provides. The result is formed by all the digits that are not affected by the
error, plus the last digit, which must be estimated

For example: if a scale measures 13.26 g, it means that the possible error is in
the hundredth digit.

The following rules allow us to know how many significant digits are:

Nonzero digits are always significant. Example: 1,237 m has 4

significant digits
All final zeros after the decimal point are significant. Example: 14,00 m
has 4 significant digits
Zeros at the beginning of a number are not considered significant
digits. Example: 0,030 g has 2 significant digits (number 3 and the last
zero)

6.1. Rounding numbers

A rounded number has about the same value as the number you start with,
but it is less exact.

How to round off numbers:

Decide which is the last digit to keep

Leave it the same if the next digit is less than 5 (this is called rounding
down)
But increase it by 1 if the next digit is 5 or more (this is called rounding
up)

Examples Because ...

1.239 rounded to 3 significant digits is 1.24
134.9 rounded to 1 significant digit is 100
0.0165 rounded to 2 significant digits is
0.017
... the next digit (9) is 5 or more
... the next digit (3) is less than 5
... the next digit (5) is 5 or more

When you have to solve any mathematical operation with experimental

data, the result must have an appropriate number of significant digits:
- Addition or subtraction: the result can not have more decimal
digits than the data that contains the less number of them.
Example:
24,38 + 5,4 = 29,78. We have to round off this result to 29.8
(because 5,4 has one decimal digit)

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- Multiplication and division: the result can not have more

significant digits than the data that contains the less number of
them. Example:
24,31 3,6 = 87,516. We have to round off this result to 88
(because 3,6 has two significant digits)

6.2. Experimental errors

Experimental errors are errors, usually of inaccuracy, which inevitably occur in

any laboratory experiments. There are two types according to their origin:

a) Systematic errors: they usually come from the measuring instruments.

They may occur because:
there is something wrong with the instrument or its data handling
system, or
because the instrument is wrongly used by the experimenter

b) Accidental or random errors: they are caused by unknown and

unpredictable changes in the experiment. These changes may occur in the
measuring instruments or in the environmental conditions. They are
impossible to control, so we have to repeat each measure several times in order
to minimize the error and then we have to do the arithmetic mean.

6.3. Error calculation

- The absolute error is the difference between the measured value and the
actual value

Ea = Xmeasured Xaccepted

We usually dont know the actual value, so we will take the arithmetic
mean
- Relative error expresses the relative size of the error of the
measurement in relation to the measurement itself

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The percent error can be obtained by multiplying the relative error by 100

7. ORGANIZATION AND ANALYSIS OF EXPERIMENTAL DATA

7.1. Tables and graphs

Tables and graphs are both ways to organize and arrange data so that it is
more easily understood by the viewer.

In graphs and tables the components that are being compared or measured are
called variables. It is often useful to describe variables as either dependent or
independent. The dependent variables are what can be seen to be changing in
relation to the particular levels of the independent variables. The independent
variables (if they have been identified) go in the left hand columns of the table,
the dependent variables on the right

Example: we want to study the elongation of a spring according to the mass

that is hanging on one end

Elongation (cm) Mass (g)

1,5 10
3 20
4,5 30
6 40
7,5 50

Graphs are

a way of exploring the relationships in data

a way of displaying and reporting data, making it easier to report
patterns and relationships, shapes of distributions, and trends.

It is good practice (but only a convention) to put the dependent variable on the
horizontal (x) axis and the independent on the vertical (y) axis.

Example:

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60

50

40

Mass (g)
30

20

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Elongation (cm)

7.2. Types of functions and graphs

- Linear: These are functions of the form:

y = m x + b,

where m and b are constants. Graphs of these functions are straight lines. m
is the slope and b is the y intercept. If m is positive then the line rises to the
right and if m is negative then the line falls to the right.

- Quadratic: these are functions of the form Y = k x2 and the graph

is a parabola
- Inverse: these are functions of the form y = k/x and the graph is a
hyperbole

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ACTIVITIES

ACTIVITY 1- Determine if each is a physical or chemical change.

a) Glass breaking
b) hammering wood together to build a playhouse
c) a rusting bicycle
d) melting butter for popcorn
e) separating sand from gravel
f) spoiling food
g) mixing lemonade powder into water
h) mowing the lawn
i) corroding metal
j) bleaching your hair

ACTIVITY 2- Find three examples of Chemical and Physical changes in

everyday life. Explain why each of these changes are either chemical or
physical

ACTIVITY 3- Ana has inflated a balloon. Then she has observed what happens
while putting it in the sun. Later, she has introduced the balloon into the
freezer.
a) What is Ana researching?
b) Which is her initial hypothesis?
c) Which are the variables involved in the experiment?
d) Does the experiment confirm her hypothesis?

ACTIVITY 4- Indicate if the following properties are characteristic or non-

characteristic:

PROPERTY TYPE PROPERTY TYPE

Solubility Flammability
Temperature Length
Melting point Colour
Density Taste
Weight Surface
Electric conductivity Mass

ACTIVITY 5- We have three containers with water, alcohol and olive oil.
Indicate which is which

PROPERTY CHARACTERISTIC? A B C
Mass 3 kg 4 kg 3 kg
Colour Colorless Colorless Yellow
Flammability Yes No Yes No
Substances

Which properties have helped you to identify the substances? Why?

Which property has not served you to identify the substances? Why?

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ACTIVITY 6- Indicate whether the following bodies are of the same substance

A B C
Mass 500 g 25 kg 0.1 kg
Volume 0.5 L 25 L 0.1 L
Density (kg/L)

ACTIVITY 7- A king gave an amount of gold to a jeweller to make him a crown.

The crown he created had a mass of 3200 g and a volume of 200 mL. Did the
jeweller deceive the king by not using all of the gold? Data: density of gold =
19.2 kg/L

ACTIVITY 8- Find three fundamental magnitudes and three derived

magnitudes. Write their units in the SI

ACTIVITY 9- Translate into the International System Units by using

conversion factors:
a) 25 mm
b) 12,56 cg
c) 90 km/h
d) 4,6 g/cm3
e) 1,53 h
f) 2,3 g
g) 2 L
h) 11,3 g/mL
i) 12 nm
j) 2,5 dm2/min
k) 12,3 m/min
l) 1000,3 kg/cm3

ACTIVITY 10- Express the following in scientific notation:

a) 3292000 cm h) 6028 L
b) 0,00002893 m i) 0.2105 g
c) 4932 g j) 700000000 km
d) 0,00384 km k) 880052000 m
e) 8800000000 m l) 0.009003 cd
f) 0.0015 kg m) 790001 mm
g) 8002000 Hz n) 0.0556 cm

ACTIVITY 11- Express the following as a full number

a) 2,39 108 mm
b) 8,4739 10-4 kg
c) 5,35 103 g
d) 9,492 10-5 L
e) 1,056 10-2 mg
f) 6,8403 103 g

ACTIVITY 12- Determine how many significant digits are in each value

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a) 640 cm f) 20,900 cm
b) 200,0 mL g) 0,00000056 g/L
c) 0,5200 g h) 0.04002 kg/m3
d) 1,005 kg i) 790001 mm
e) 10000 L j) 665,000 kg

ACTIVITY 13- Perform the following calculations and express the result in the
correct units and number of significant digits

a) 47,0 m : 2,2 s g) 22,0 m + 5,28 m + 15,5 m

b) 140 cm 35 cm h) 0,042 kg + 1,229 kg + 0,502 kg
c) 5,88 kg : 200 m3 i) 170 cm2 + 3,5 cm2 28 cm2
d) 0,0050 m2 0,042 m j) 0.003 L + 0.0048 L + 0.100 L
e) 300,3 L : 180 s k) 24.50 dL +4.30 dL + 10.2 dL
f) 33,00 cm2 2,70 cm l) 3200 mg + 325 mg 688 mg

ACTIVITY 14- Calculate the percent error in a length measurement of 4,25 cm

if the correct value is 4,08 cm

ACTIVITY 15- The actual density of a certain material is 7,44 g/cm3. A

student measures the density of the same material as 7,30 g/cm3. What is the
percent error of the measurement.

ACTIVITY 16- Round off to two decimal digits the following numbers:

a) 27,548 g) 365,102
b) 0,0485 h) 13,2568
c) 7,257 i) 0,01456
d) 0,432 j) 6,458
e) 1,621 k) 0,4512
f) 1,812 l) 1,525

ACTIVITY 17- Fernando has done eight measures of weight using a bathroom
scale. Here are the results:

72 71 73 71 72 72 73 71
Calculate:
a) The precision of this scale
b) The arithmetic mean
c) The absolute error of each measurement (the accepted value is the
arithmetic mean)
d) The relative error of each measurement

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ACTIVITY 18- Fill in the following table

INSTRUMENT NOMBRE NAME MEASURES SI UNIT PRECISION

Probeta 1 mL

Ruler Length

Calibre o pie
m 0.1 mm
de rey

Vaso de
precipitados

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ACTIVITY 19- Construct a table from the following expressions and make a
graph:
a) s = 0.42 t2 (e = space in m, t = time in s)
b) x = 0.02 m (x = elongation in m, m = mass in kg)

ACTIVITY 20- The following table has the results of an experiment made with
mass (g) and volume (cm3)

Mass 39 78 117 156 195

Volume 5 10 15 20 25

a) Make the corresponding graph

b) Write the function and indicate the type
c) Calculate the mass of 12 cm3 of this object

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