Construction and Building Materials 68 (2014) 599610

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Construction and Building Materials

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Review

On the production of red clay bricks from waste materials: A critical

update
Sergio Neves Monteiro a,, Carlos Maurcio Fontes Vieira b
a
Military Institute of Engineering, IME, Materials Science Department, Praa General Tibrcio, 80, Praia Vermelha, Urca, CEP 22290-270, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
b
State University of the North Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro UENF, Av. Alberto Lamego 2000, CEP 28013-602, Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ, Brazil

h i g h l i g h t s

 An up-to-date list of works on waste incorporation into clay ceramics is discussed.

 Fuel-containing wastes may reduce energy to produce clay bricks to less than 1 kW h.
 Brick production in Brazil uses mostly wood as fuel bringing neutral CO2 emission.
 For the next 2 decades Brazilian bricks will be mainly fabricated by ring.
 Thereafter geopolymerization might replace ring and cementing in brick production.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Recently, the production of bricks from waste materials was reviewed by Zhang in Construction and Building
Received 16 January 2014 Materials. The main focus was a division into three producing methods: ring, cementing and geopolymer-
Received in revised form 7 June 2014 ization. Both ring and cementing methods were indicated to consume signicant amount of energy and
Accepted 3 July 2014
release large quantities of greenhouse gases. Based on these drawbacks and taking into account the need
to protect clay resources, it was concluded that geopolymerization seems to be the trend to follow. Most of
the reviewed works on the ring method, published since 1987, were related to wastes incorporated into clay
Keywords:
ceramics. In the present work, starting from previous review articles, additional information was added to
Clay ceramic
Waste incorporation
extend the knowledge, not covered by Zhang, on the incorporation of wastes into clay ceramics. The particular
Firing energy case of Brazil, in which large and easy to mine clay deposits support an extensive network of ceramic indus-
Environmental emission tries, is surveyed. Fuel containing wastes contribute to save in ring energy, while uxing wastes improve the
Brazilian brick production ceramic properties. At least for the next decades, clay ceramic incorporation seems to be the most realistic
Properties solution for recycling industrial wastes in countries, such as Brazil, with vast clay resources.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
2. Previous reviews on waste incorporated clay ceramics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
3. Recent works on waste incorporated clay ceramics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
3.1. Fuel or organic wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
3.2. Fluxing or inorganic wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602
4. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
5. Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608

1. Introduction

Corresponding author. Tel.: +55 21 2546 7042; fax: +55 22 2546 7049.
In a recent work, Zhang [1] presented a relevant state-of-the-art
E-mail addresses: sergio.neves@ig.com.br (S.N. Monteiro), vieira@uenf.br
review on the utilization of waste materials to produce bricks. An
(C.M.F. Vieira).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.07.006
0950-0618/ 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
600 S.N. Monteiro, C.M.F. Vieira / Construction and Building Materials 68 (2014) 599610
extensive list of publications associated with several different
types of wastes was introduced to the reader with corresponding
summary of processing methods and main results. Zhang [1]
divided the methods of brick production into 3 categories: ring,
cementing and geopolymerization and these were discussed in
terms of specic advantages and drawbacks. In particular the ring
method, in most cases related to the conventional clay brick pro-
duction, has the advantage of easy execution using well known
and traditional procedures and equipments. By contrast, making
bricks through ring, as pointed out by Zhang [1], has the draw-
backs of consuming a signicant amount of energy, on average
2.0 kW h, per brick, and release a large quantity of greenhouse
gases, about 0.41 kg of CO2, quoting the work of Reddy and Jaga-
dish [2]. Another environmental concern noted by the author
was a shortage of clay in many parts of the world. This motivated
countries such as China to start limiting the use of bricks made
from clay. In conclusion, Zhang [1] indicated that the geopolymer-
ization method, which is claimed to consumes much less energy
and is associated with a smaller carbon footprint, seems to be
the trend to follow. As a long term future prognostic, one cannot
disagree on Zhang [1] conclusions. However, many aspects of his
review work deserve a second opinion regarding the ring method.
The reader should pay attention to two points in the present
work. First, although Zhangs proposal by its title production of
bricks from waste material [1] may appear limited to specic pro-
cess of fabrication of rectangular blocks, it certainly concerns to the
recycling of wastes. Regardless the type of red ceramic piece
(brick, tile, pipe, block, etc.) the important point is the feasibility
of incorporating a given waste. Results in terms of advantages
and drawbacks to the red ceramic, as compared to cementing
and geopolymerization, were the main focus of Zhang review
[1], not the shape of the product. A second point to be noticed is
that a number of quoted articles in the present work is written
in Portuguese. Far from trying to bring difculty to the reader,
the idea is of emphasize the waste incorporation into red ceramic
as a more relevant recycling procedure in Portuguese speaking
countries. In particular, the reasons for Brazil will be further high-
lighted along this presentation. It will be shown that today, and for
the next two decades, different from some other countries, the
advantages strongly justify the recycling of wastes by incorpora-
tion into red clay ceramic.
2. Previous reviews on waste incorporated clay ceramics
Perhaps by considering beyond the scope of his review, Zhang
[1] failed to quote previous review articles that are now worth
mentioning. Indeed, in 1997 Dondi et al. [3,4] presented an earlier
two parts review on the recycling of industrial urban wastes into
clay ceramics for brick production. This review was based on a lit-
erature survey since 1977 covering works from selected countries
such as Italy, UK, Spain, Germany and USA. Works from other coun-
tries were disregarded. The main focus of Dondi et al. [3,4] review
was a classication of the wastes into 5 categories associated with
the major characteristics, which affects the clay brick. These are:
fuel; y-ash; uxing; plasticity reducing and plasticifying wastes.
The reader might be particularly interested in several earlier refer-
ences in the review of Dondi et al. [3,4], not mentioned by Zhang
[1], presenting a substantial amount of information in terms of
waste characterization, process parameters and properties of
incorporated ceramics.
More recently, an up-to-date review was presented by Vieira
and Monteiro [5] on the incorporation of wastes into clay ceramics.
In this later review, modications were introduced in the original
Dondi et al. [3,4] categories to allow a wider variety of wastes to
be considered. Additionally to fuel and uxing wastes, a more
general category of property affecting wastes embodied the earlier
proposed y-ash, plasticity reducing and plasticifying waste cate-
gories. The consideration of a category such as fuel wastes in both
reviews [35] enables an important distinction of residues with
heat power enough to sensibly contribute to a saving in the cera-
mic processing and reduce the red clay brick embodied energy.
Several works investigated the incorporation of oily residues from
industry and petroleum operations [616]. These works reported
practical advantages such as the increase in processing speed,
reduction in equipment wear, enhancement of mechanical proper-
ties and saving in fuel consumption. Blast furnace sludge was
included as fuel waste because it still has a signicant amount,
up to 25%, of coke [17,18]. Sludge from pulp and paper making
industry, also considered as a fuel waste, contributed to a saving
in energy during the ring stage of incorporated clay ceramics
[19,20]. The category of uxing wastes, discussed in Vieira and
Monteiro review [5], comprised industrial residues that would
form low melting temperature phases and thus improve the linear
shrinkage, water absorption and mechanical strength of clay
ceramics. These are the sludge from ornamental rock processing
[2130], glassy residues [3137], and ux-containing residues
[3840].
The general category of wastes, without heat power or uxing
action, that affect the ceramic properties encompass distinct indus-
trial types. As in the rst two categories, several works failed to be
reviewed by Zhang [1]. These works investigated the following
types of wastes: spent ceramic powder, also known as grog or
chamotte [4148], water treatment sludge [4955], steel slag
[5661], ashes [6269], electrolytic/galvanic sludge [7076], cata-
lyst reject [77], textile industrial slurry [78], metallurgical smelting
sand rejects [79,80], tannery sludge [81], construction/demolition
leftover [82,83].
3. Recent works on waste incorporated clay ceramics
After Vieira and Monteiro review [5], many other works were
dedicated to the incorporation of wastes into clay ceramics. Zhang
[1] listed 8 papers in a more recent period after 2008 up to 2012
but several additional ones might deserve to be reviewed. These
recent additional papers will be also chronologically listed. How-
ever, as a general classication, they are divided into two catego-
ries regarding the type of incorporated waste: (3.1) fuel or
organic and (3.2) uxing or inorganic. To shorten the summary of
each paper, both the amount of incorporation (wt%) and process-
ing/ring temperature (C) will be shown inside parenthesis.
Whenever available, changes in the microstructure and properties
will be indicated.
3.1. Fuel or organic wastes
Pinheiro and Holanda [84] investigated clay ceramics (uniaxial-
ly pressed/8001000 C) incorporated (up to 30 wt%) with encap-
sulated petroleum waste. The authors showed that for 30 wt%
incorporation in ring at 1000 C, the linear shrinkage decreases
(3.6%), the water absorption decreases (16.5%) and the compressive
strength also decreases (8.2 MPa). As for the structure, no incorpo-
rated ceramic showed surface stains and black core defects that
might result from the petroleum waste. These results justify the
petroleum waste incorporation as a technically adequate
procedure, which causes less environmental impact. Hajjaji and
Khalfaoui [85] investigated the effects of oil shale addition (up to
20 wt%) into clay ceramic (extruded/7001075 C). The results
showed that the oil shale addition lead to development of anor-
thite and diopside and a drastic decrease of the ceramic glassy
phase. SEM microstructures revealed shrinkage and weak cohesion
 S.N. Monteiro, C.M.F. Vieira / Construction and Building Materials 68 (2014) 599610
between the glassy phase and anorthite, probably responsible for
the occurrence of annular empty spaces. The authors found that
the ceramic properties experienced a marked change up to
12 wt% addition because of the glassy phase, but remained practi-
cally unchanged for higher additions, with water absorption
around 15% and bending strength at about 30 MPa, due to calcium
silicates formation.
Qi et al. [86] conducted different experiments to evaluate the
microstructure and properties of ultra-lightweight ceramic pellets
(sintering/9501160 C) produced from mixtures of clay and dehy-
drated sewage sludge (up to 90 wt%). In special, the authors con-
sidered the optimum condition to be 2030 wt% sludge addition
associated with a preheating at 400 C for 20 min and ring at
1150 C for 10 min, which resulted in a ceramic with 0.331 g/cm3
of density. This particular, ultra-lightweight clay ceramic, dis-
played a cellular structure and water absorption of 5.3 wt%. A
bloating phenomenon was found by SEM to be associated with gas-
eous bubbles. Toxic metal leaching values below the detection
limit were considered suitable for practical civil engineering. Eli-
che-Quesada et al. [87] studied the production of clay bricks (uni-
axial press molded/950 C) incorporated with different industrial
wastes: urban sewage sludge (15 wt%), malt bagasse (2.5 wt%),
brewing sludge (5 wt%), olive mill wastewater (6.5 wt%), and coffee
ground (3 wt%) residues. The authors found that each type of waste
has a distinct effect on the incorporated clay brick. For instance,
water absorption increased to above 35% and the compressive
strength decreased by a maximum of 19% when sewage sludge,
brewing sludge and bagasse were incorporated. The incorporation
of coffee grounds and olive mill wastewater was even more bene-
cial by showing similar compressive strength together with 19%
improvement in thermal conductivity in comparison with pure
clay bricks. Microstructural study by SEM showed that the incorpo-
ration of brewing sludge as well as the bagasse increased the open
porosity, while the coffee grounds and olive wastewater increased
the closed porosity and micropores.
Teixeira et al. [88] reported on the incorporation (up to 30 wt%)
of a sludge, generated in a Brazilian water treatment plant, into
clay ceramics (uniaxially pressed/8501200 C). The chemical and
mineralogical composition of the sludge varied according to the
month of its production. The properties of the incorporated ceram-
ics were impaired with respect to pure clay ceramic. The exural
strength decreased to 8 MPa for 20% sludge incorporation at
1150 C. However, the authors concluded that the sludge can be
incorporated into clays up to 10 wt% and red at temperatures
lower than 1000 C to produce hollow bricks. Firing above this
temperature permits up to 20 wt% of incorporation to produce
not only bricks but also roof tiles. Devant et al. [89] analyzed the
possibility of improving the fabrication and properties of sewage
sludge (up to 23.8 wt%) incorporated red clay ceramics
(extruded/980 C) by adding (16.7 wt%) forest waste into the bin-
ary mixture. Considering a ternary pseudo diagram, the authors
found the optimal ternary mixture to be 10 wt% sludge, 10 wt% for-
est waste and 80 wt% clay. A clay body with such composition
would have a compressive viscosity of 96 kP/cm2, thermal conduc-
tivity of 0.31 W/m K and porosity of 59.4%. This mixture met the
technological limit for an extrudable material and the resulting
ceramic would present a relatively high compressive strength with
low thermal conductivity, suitable for building construction.
Leaching and outgassing tests favor the environmental aspects
associated with the production of sludge and forest waste incorpo-
rated clay ceramics. Raut et al. [90] reviewed 18 specic works on
the production of bricks both of red clay and dried cement, incor-
porated with industrial and agricultural solid wastes. Regarding
the red clay bricks incorporated with organic wastes, of interest
in this section, only the recent works of Mucahit and Sedat [91],
using paper processing residues (up to 30 wt%) added to bricks
601
(compressed/1100 C) and Kadir et al. [92], incorporating cigarette
butts (10 wt%) into clay bricks (pressed/1050 C), need to be
quoted. As for the latter [92], the reader should pay attention to
the incorrect authors names and journal quotations in Raut et al.
[90] reference number [2].
Cusid and Soriano [93] studied the valorization of waste water
treatment plants sludges by pelletizing through a ceramization pro-
cess (sintering/1050 C) to obtain a material, Pellexpended, simi-
lar to expanded clay used as construction material. Although not
incorporated into a clay matrix, the pelletizing is associated with a
ring process to recycle a worldwide common waste as a clay-like
product. The authors claimed to have developed a new lightweight
material with open porosity of 62% and low thermal conductivity
of 0.91.2 W/m K. Leaching tests revealed, after ring, undetectable
amounts of hazardous metal, with the exception of vanadium. Tox-
icity tests also showed negative results. Firing emissions were found
surprisingly lower than those for clay bricks incorporated with sew-
age sludge. The authors also concluded that the ceramization of the
sludge pellets is a promising valorization technique worth consider-
ing from both economical and technological perspectives.
Dias et al. [94] characterized a blast furnace sludge for clay cera-
mic fabrication. Thermal analysis was conducted up to 1025 C at a
heating rate of 10 C/min under air. The authors found that the
sludge has a high content of coke and its combustion generates
enough heat to sensibly contribute to the ceramic ring process.
Fig. 1 shows the differential scanning calorimetric (DSC) and ther-
mogravimetric (TG) curves for the sludge.
In this gure, the energy associated with the DSC exothermic
peak at 725 C was calculated as 6.648 kJ/kg, which corresponds
to a saving in fuel for the ceramic ring. Gas analysis indicate that
CO, CO2, NO and SO2 were emitted from 450 to 1150 C. It was rec-
ommended that sludge incorporation should be restricted to less
than 10 wt% to avoid excess of acid gaseous emission to the
atmosphere.
Cusid and Cremades [95] investigated the environmental
effects of using clay bricks (extruded/1050 C) incorporated (up
to 60 wt%) with sewage sludge. Additionally, ceramic coating, cera-
mic mixtures of sludge-forest residue-clay as well as ceramics
incorporated with paper industry sludge were also investigated.
Based on leaching, outgassing and offgassing tests, the authors
concluded that contents of sludge seem to have no inuence on
the environmental characteristics of structural clay ceramics for
building materials. The inert capacity of these ceramics comes
from the partial vitrication of most heavy metals. These lighter
and more thermal-acoustical insulating materials could be used,
up to 25 wt% of sludge incorporation, without restrictions other
Fig. 1. DSC and TG curves for the blast furnace sludge. Reproduced with permission
from [94].
602 S.N. Monteiro, C.M.F. Vieira / Construction and Building Materials 68 (2014) 599610
than the regulation of technical properties required by each coun-
try. Herek et al. [96] characterized clay ceramic bricks (extruded/
900 C) incorporated (up to 20 wt%) with textile laundry sludge.
The results showed that the sludge incorporation impaired the
main properties by decreasing the bending strength (3.05 MPa)
and increasing the water absorption (26%). Leaching and solubili-
zation tests indicated that sludge incorporated ceramics are inert
with respect to the Brazilian environmental norm. Images by
SEM showed that the pore size increased with the amount of laun-
dry sludge. The authors concluded that the addition of textile
wastewater sludge into clay ceramic bricks is advantageous as it
recycles a hazardous residue in a secondary raw material.
De la Casa et al. [97] reported on clay bricks and masonry
(extruded/10001050 C) incorporated (up to 16 wt%) with two-
phase olive mill waste, known in Spain as alperujo. The authors
found a saving in fuel due to the alperujo energy input above
1000 kJ/kg for 12 wt% incorporation. A higher porosity was
observed by SEM with pores of greater size from the combustion
of organic matter. They concluded that the incorporation causes
no problem to the processing stages of extrusion, drying and ring.
After ring the water absorption increased (12.05%), while the
bending strength decreased (11.6 MPa). Moreover, valorization of
the alperujo could be achieved in facing clay bricks incorporated
with lower amounts and in masonry units for amounts above
6 wt%. These latter are either equivalent to the traditional masonry
units or exhibit lower thermal conductivity.
Eliche-Quesada et al. [98] investigated the valorization of resi-
dues from biodiesel production by incorporation into porous clay
bricks (mold-pressed/1050 C). Two distinct types of residues were
separately added to clay: spent earth from biodiesel ltration (up
to 20 wt%) and glycerin (up to 15 wt%). The results indicated that
both residues incorporations decreased the compressive strength
(25 MPa) and increased the water absorption (23%), but still keep-
ing values within those required by the European standards. Ther-
mal conductivity was found to decrease (0.09 W/m K) in both
residues incorporated bricks. The incorporation increased open
porosity as observed by SEM and produced larger pores. The
authors concluded that the biodiesel residues are suitable as sec-
ondary raw material in clay ceramic brick production. The same
research group of Eliche-Quesada et al. [99] studied a variety of
wastes, some with organic content, sawdust (up to 10 wt%), others
organicinorganic, spent earth from oil ltration (up to 30 wt%)
and compost (up to 30 wt%) and another inorganic, marble residue
(up to 20 wt%) incorporated into clay bricks (uniaxial pressing/950
and 1050 C). The results showed for the two ring temperatures a
tendency of the bulk density to decrease (1.51.6 g/cm3); the
apparent porosity to increase (3745%); water absorption to
increase (2431%) and compressive strength to decrease (10
35 MPa) for the highest percentage of incorporation depending
on the waste. SEM analysis showed at 1050 C a more compact
and better-developed microstructure with nearly spherical and
isolated pores. The authors concluded that it is possible to obtain
ceramic bricks with 5 wt% sawdust; 10 wt% compost as well as
15 wt% of both spent earth from oil ltration and marble residue,
within standards for bricks and mechanical properties similar to
clay bricks without incorporated wastes.
Kizinievic et al. [100] analyzed the incorporation (up to 40 wt%)
of a sludge waste, from a water treatment plant in Lithuania, into
clay ceramic products (manually formed/10001050 C). A mixture
of 6065% clay and 3540% sand was used as ceramic matrix. After
5 wt% of sludge incorporation, both linear shrinkage (17.5%) and
the water absorption (28.8%) increased. As for the compressive
strength (14 MPa) and density (1.34 g/cm3), both decreased above
5 wt% incorporation. In addition of changing the technological prop-
erties the sludge, mostly composed of Fe2O3, acts as a pigment that
dyes the clay ceramic with a more intense red color. As for the
40 wt% sludge incorporation, SEM observation showed a total open
porosity of 44.5%. Barbieri et al. [101] reported on a preliminary
study of valorization of agricultural biomass wastes by incorpora-
tion into clay bricks. These wastes were grape seeds (5 and 8 wt%),
cherries seeds (5 and 8 wt%), sawdust (5 wt%), and sugarcane ash
(5 wt%), separately incorporated into clay ceramics (uniaxial press-
ing/9501000 C). The authors concluded that grape and cherries
seeds as well as the sawdust incorporation bring an energetic sup-
port during their combustion in the ring stage. The sugarcane ash
incorporation of 5 wt% improves the mechanical properties
(28 MPa) due to its high silica content (61%), which acts as ller
and reduces the clay body plasticity. Any of these biomass wastes
incorporated in an amount of 5 wt% changes slightly the technolog-
ical properties. The sawdust promotes the highest water absorption
(20%). This might permit to obtain bricks with insulating
characteristic.
3.2. Fluxing or inorganic wastes
Lafhaj et al. [102] presented results on the incorporation of
Novosol processed river sediments from the north region of
France (up to 45 wt%) into clay bricks (extruded/1010 C). For
bricks incorporated with 45 wt% of treated (phosphate added and
650 C calcinated) sediments, the plasticity index decreased
(10.55), while the water absorption increased (40%) and the
strength decreased (25.58 MPa). Based on these properties and
the French standards for freezing and thawing resistance as well
as eforescence and heavy metal leaching, the authors concluded
that 35 wt% incorporation seems to be the most effective one.
Montero et al. [103] investigated the addition (up to 35 wt%) of cal-
cium carbonate sludge, obtained from stone industry, into clay
ceramic tiles (uniaxial pressing/9751050 C). The main advanta-
ges of this addition were the cost reduction and the possibility of
recycling a sludge whose disposal increases everyday in Spain.
After ring, it was observed the appearance of white nodules
accompanied by small chips or craters. The authors concluded that
these tiles could be applied as construction materials despite the
increase in water absorption (35.2%) and decrease in the bending
strength (5.0 MPa). In another work of the same group, Montero
et al. [104] investigated the addition of marble residue (up to
35 wt%) and sewage sludge (up to 10 wt%) into clay ceramic tiles
(uniaxial pressing/9751050 C). It was found that these wastes
react easily with clay providing a better sintering of the ceramic.
The authors concluded that, although impairing both water
absorption (41%) and bending strength (4.9 MPa), the selection of
the adequate sewage sludge or marble residue content into the
clay ceramic body permits to attend the usual standards applied
to construction materials.
Acchar et al. [105] studied the recycling of a spent catalyst
reject, generated by the Brazilian petroleum industry, through its
incorporation (20 wt%) into red clay products (extruded/700
1150 C). By ring at 1150 C, the ceramic exural strength reached
12 MPa while the water absorption was 5% with 10% of porosity.
Large quartz grains and signicant amount of pores were observed
by SEM. The results of technical properties suggested that the
reject incorporation constitutes a valid effort to environmental
amelioration. Torres et al. [106] reported on the incorporation
(up to 40 wt%) of two types of natural granite stone cutting and
polishing sludges into bodies composed of two distinct clays to
produce roof tiles (extruded/9501050 C). The results of 10 wt%
incorporation provided excellent properties associated with less
than 6% of water absorption and 38 MPa for bending strength.
SEM/EDS results conrm the existence of Fe particles and high
degree of homogeneity in the granite sludge incorporated micro-
structure. The authors indicated that the sludges can be used to
replace natural non-plastic raw material in traditional clay ceram-
 S.N. Monteiro, C.M.F. Vieira / Construction and Building Materials 68 (2014) 599610
ics fabrication. This will contribute to preserve non-renewable nat-
ural resources, while minimizing the negative environmental
impact due to the sludges disposal.
Cultrone and Sebastian [107] evaluated the technical properties
of clay bricks (solid molded/800 and 1000 C) pure or added with
5 wt% of y ash. The addition of y ash particles led to a reduction
in the density (2.53 g/cm3) of bricks and improvement in their
durability. Vitrication effects shown by SEM were less evident
in incorporated bricks with high carbonate content. The texture
of bricks with and without y ash was found the same. Moreover,
less decay was caused by salt crystallization in the structural pores.
The authors concluded that this addition could have practical
implications as a mean of recycling y ash and achieving cost sav-
ing in brick production. Chen and Lin [108] studied the incorpora-
tion of sewage sludge ash (up to 50 wt%) and nano-SiO2 particles
(up to 3 wt%), as strengthening additives, into clay ceramics (uni-
axial pressing/1000 and 1100 C). Results indicated that the water
absorption (12%) of the incorporated (porcelain) clay ceramic was
reduced at 1100 C. With the nano-SiO2 addition, the bending
strength was increased (8 MPa) at 1000 C, while the linear shrink-
age decreased ( 0.5%) and water absorption increased (20%). A
tendency of precipitates to morph from ne to coarse was revealed
by SEM as the ring temperature increased. Based on these results,
the authors concluded that the nano-SiO2 particles contributed to
improve the ceramic properties.
Christogerou et al. [109] studied the introduction (up to 15 wt%)
of boron wastes from Turkey boron ore processing into clay ceram-
ics (pressed/800950 C). The authors indicated that up to 900 C
and 5 wt% of waste introduction the incorporated ceramic showed
comparable properties with those of the pure (neat) clay ceramic
used as reference. At a ring temperature of 950 C the ceramic
properties were improved. The water absorption was reduced
(12%) and the bending strength increased (24.5 MPa). The porosity
remained high with a cloud of pores widespread in a glassy matrix.
It was concluded that the use of boron waste is feasible in small
percentages (<5 wt%). Loryuenyong et al. [110] investigated the
incorporation (up to 45 wt%) of recycled glass waste, from struc-
tural glass walls, into clay bricks (mold formed/10001200 C).
The results indicated that, with proper amount of waste and ring
temperature, clay bricks with suitable properties could be
obtained. In particular, a compressive strength as high as 41 MPa
and water absorption as low as 2% were achieved from bricks with
15 wt% waste red at 1100 C. With 45 wt% of waste, the water
absorption increases and the strength is signicantly reduced.
New cristoblalite and albite phases at 1100 C were observed by
SEM to increase with glass waste incorporation. These bricks with
up to 30 wt% waste were able to meet the minimum requirements,
even for some load-bearing structures.
Maschio et al. [111] compared the properties of an incinerated
paper mill sludge (up to 60 wt%) mixed with glass cullet (up to
40 wt%) both neat and incorporated (7090 wt%) into clay ceram-
ics (uniaxially pressed/11001140 C). The results indicated that
clay ceramics incorporated with 70 wt% of 60/40 mixture of
sludge/cullet red above 1120 C display a stable sintering process
associated with good hardness (5.7 GPa) and strength (54 MPa).
These ceramics showed by XRD analysis a structure with free
quartz, anorthite and diopside. Therefore, they might be suitable
for the industrial production of tiles. Lin and Luo [112] investigated
the incorporation (up to 50 wt%) of a catalyst waste into clay
ceramics (uniaxial pressing/9001200 C) to produce pavement
tiles. The authors indicated that the water absorption (20%) and
the porosity (30%) of the clay ceramics increased with the amount
of waste while the loss on ignition decreased. Hardness of both the
neat and waste incorporated clay ceramics strongly depends on the
amount of waste and ring temperature. It was concluded that the
603
catalyst waste might be incorporated up to 10 wt% in pavement
tiles.
Sokolar and Smetanova [113] reported on the incorporation
(70 wt%) of y ash from brown coal into clay ceramic tiles (uniax-
ially pressed/10001150 C). The authors indicated that y ash
milling to 63 lm improved the sintering ability of the y ash-
added clay body. A 1.3 wt% of deocculant/uxing agent increased
the green body exural strength and decreased the water content.
The red tiles with milled y ash displayed lower water absorption
(8%) at 1150 C and higher exural strength (34.1 MPa). A more
dense microstructure of deocculated tiles was observed by SEM.
Fly ash-incorporated clay bodies can be frost resistant with water
absorption above 10% due to positive pore size distribution. Andr-
eola et al. [114] reported on the incorporation (up to 20 wt%) of
cleaned cathode ray tube glass, from dismantled TV and PC, into
clay ceramics (press sintered/1210 C). The glass waste replaced
both feldsphatic and inert components need to improve a tradi-
tional clay ceramic body. The obtained incorporated ceramics
showed main properties, water absorption (15%) and strength
(10%) similar to commercial ceramic materials used in oor and
wall tiles.
Machado et al. [115] investigated the incorporation (up to
90 wt%) of an electric arc furnace steel dust, which contains high
amounts of iron and zinc as well as signicant amounts of lead,
chromium and cadmium, into structural clay ceramics (mold com-
pressed/800 and 1100 C). For the maximum 90 wt% incorporation
and 1100 C ring, signicant changes are observed in the water
absorption (7.5%), porosity (23.8%), density (3.19 g/cm3), linear
shrinkage (11.5%) and bending strength (0.44 MPa). Structural
analysis by XRD indicated formation of diopside due to Ca and
Mg in the steel dust. The authors indicated that, up to 20 wt% of
dust, the incorporated clay ceramic may be used for brick and roof
tile production with a limited risk of cadmium contamination. Hoj-
amberdiev et al. [116] investigated the utilization of a muscovite
granite waste added (up to 30 wt%) to a clay-type of matrix (uniax-
ially pressed/8001150 C) containing kaolin (6065 wt%) together
with grog (up to 10 wt%), bentonite (05 wt%) and loess (0
10 wt%). The authors concluded that the waste resembles conven-
tional non-plastic materials and can be benecially used in the
production of both ooring and facing tile ceramics. The ooring
ceramic tile sample containing 30 wt% waste and red at 1150 C
showed higher bending (32.04 MPa) and compressive
(54.24 MPa) strengths in association with a favorable lower water
absorption (3.66%). SEM and XRD analyses revealed small acicular
mullite crystals embedded in glassy matrix. Both types of tile
ceramics satised the standards and could be industrially used as
a low cost raw material.
Furlani et al. [117] reported on the characterization of distinct
clay matrices (uniaxially pressed/10401140 C) incorporated with
a waste composed of a xed 60/40 ratio of incinerated paper mill
sludge and glass cullet. This xed composition waste was incorpo-
rated in amount up to 90 wt% into the clay. The authors observed
that the ceramics containing kaolin in their matrices displayed
the best exural strength (43 MPa) and Vickers hardness
(5.1 GPa) overall behavior. The best properties of incorporated
ceramics, using red or yellow clays as matrices, were obtained on
products red above 1080 C. Ceramics with 60 wt% waste showed
by SEM prismatic elongated structures attributed to diopside,
akermanite or augite. A certain amount of vitreous phase was also
observed. Both the ceramic performance and optimum tempera-
tures are affected by the type and amount of clay added. Sokolar
and Vodoka [118] studied the inuence of two distinct (brown coal
and uidized) y ashes addition (60 wt%), on the technical proper-
ties of clay ceramics (uniaxially pressed/1080 C). The authors
found that 60 wt% incorporation of the uidized y ash reduces
604 S.N. Monteiro, C.M.F. Vieira / Construction and Building Materials 68 (2014) 599610
the ring shrinkage ( 3%) while increasing the ceramic porosity
(44.4%). Moreover, the water absorption increased (30.3%) and
the bending strength decreases (8.9 MPa). A higher volume of
pores was observed by SEM. In conclusion, it is possible to use a
maximum of 20 wt% of y ash and still meet the requirements
for ceramic tiles. As for the environmental impact, the uidized
y ash addition dramatically increases the content of SO2 in the
ue gases during the ceramic ring. El-Maghraby et al. [119] used
natural granite (up to 35 wt%) sieved to 200 mesh to completely
replace uxing and inert components of a clay ceramic (uniaxially
pressed/1220 C). The authors showed technical advantages in
terms of reduction in water absorption (2.47%) and increasing
bending strength (31.81 MPa) with higher granite content of
35 wt%. Based on SEM observations, the authors suggested that
the increase in strength is related to coarse needle-like secondary
mullite. Both environmental and economical advantages con-
rmed the feasibility of granite addition into a clay ceramic
formulation.
In the aforementioned important review paper of Raut et al.
[90], the recent work of Caroline et al. [120] on recycled slag of
welding ux (10 wt%) incorporation into clay bricks deserves to
be quoted in this section. Pedroti et al. [121] conducted an assess-
ment of clay ceramics (press molding/850 and 1050 C) incorpo-
rated with variable amounts (0100 wt%) of granite wastes. An
investigation was conducted with experimental design using the
Simplex method for all possible waste mixtures with two distinct,
weak and strong, clays. It was found that the incorporation of
17 wt% of waste gave the highest strength (30 MPa) in association
with the lowest water absorption (15%) for mixtures rich in
strong clay red at 1050 C. Moreover, it was suggested that
new heating systems might reduce emissions that impact human
health. Machado et al. [122] studied the incorporation (up to
50 wt%) of a sheelite residue, from ore mining, into clay ceramics
(uniaxial compaction/8501000 C). Results with 50 wt% incorpo-
ration and ring at 1000 C indicated water absorption (22%)
below the standard and bending strength (6 MPa) within the norm.
Fig. 2. Optical-dilatometry results for the glass waste. Reproduced with permission from [125].
The authors indicated the possibility of using a maximum of
30 wt% of residue for clay brick production.
Vieira et al. [123] evaluated a clay ceramic (uniaxial pressing/
1050 C) incorporated (20 wt%) with powder waste from the sinter-
ing plant of a steel-making industry. As compared to the neat clay
ceramic, the waste incorporation increased the amount (11%) and
average size (1 lm) of the porosity and introduced structural defects
such as microcracks observed by SEM. The authors suggested that
the inert nature of the waste as well as its different coefcient of
thermal expansion with respect to the clay matrix be responsible
for the additional structural defects that could impair the technical
properties. Silva et al. [124] investigated the incorporation (up to
20 wt% of ashes), resulting from the incineration of elephant grass,
into clay ceramics (uniaxial pressing/850 C). The authors indicated
that the particle size of the ash is coarser than the convenient size for
incorporation. The ashes are mainly composed of quartz and calcium
compounds that sensibly reduced the linear shrinkage (13%) but, up
to 20 wt%, did not change the water absorption (26%) and bending
strength (4 MPa). It was concluded that the ring temperature of
850 C is not enough to provide consolidation of the ceramic micro-
structure, as observed by SEM.
Caldas et al. [125] reported on the incorporation (up to 10 wt%)
of a at glass waste (glass cullet) into clay ceramics (press molded/
850 and 1050 C). The authors found that the microstructure of
both neat clay and 10 wt% cullet incorporated ceramics did not
present signicant differences. However, glass particles observed
by SEM indicated the possibility of uxing action. Indeed, ring
at 1050 C of the incorporated ceramic is associated with micro-
structural evidences of vitrication. Moreover, optical-dilatometry
images, Fig. 2, show that the glass cullet has a softening point at
810 C from which viscous ow allows ceramic pores to be pene-
trated and closed as a glassy phase.
Partial vitrication of a 10 wt% incorporated ceramic, Fig. 3, can
be attributed to a uxing behavior of the cullet forming glassy
phase (white arrow), which might improve the material technical
properties .
 S.N. Monteiro, C.M.F. Vieira / Construction and Building Materials 68 (2014) 599610
Gadioli et al. [126] studied the incorporation (up to 30 wt%) of
granite waste, generated by an ornamental stone industry, into
clay ceramics (uniaxial pressing/1050 C) for rustic wall tile pro-
duction. The authors indicated that the water absorption (13%)
remained constant and below the standards, while the linear
shrinkage (6%) and bending strength (8%) decreased with 30 wt%
waste incorporation. Quartz particles from the waste were consid-
ered as possibly causing the reduction in strength. In spite of
changes in properties, all formulations up to 30 wt% of waste
attended the Brazilian standards for rustic wall tiles. Alto et al.
[127] investigated the degradation by salt spray of red clay ceramic
(press-molding/650850 C) incorporated (up to 10 wt%) with
ornamental rock waste. For ceramics incorporated with 10 wt%,
the water absorption (22%) was above the standard but the exural
strength (2 MPa) was within the norm, even after degradation by
salt spray. A statistical Weibull analysis indicated that 5 wt% waste
incorporated ceramics red at 850 C were considered by the
authors as more suitable than the neat clay ceramic for use in
red bricks subjected to degradation by marine environment.
Prez-Villarejo et al. [128] investigate the recycling of ashes
from a biomass incinerator by incorporation (up to 50 wt%) into
clay bricks (press-molded/950 C). Although for 50 wt% incorpora-
tion the water absorption was increased (30%) and the compressive
strength decreased (14%), bricks with ash content up to 20 wt% met
the European Union standards. SEM observation showed, with
increasing amount of ash, an increase in open porosity as a result
of the connection of macropores. The authors concluded that incor-
porating ashes into clay ceramics reduces both environmental
problems and total cost of raw material. He et al. [129] studied
the effect of a red mud incorporation, generated in the Bayer pro-
cess of alumina production, incorporated (up to 80 wt%) into clay
ceramics (press molded/10001100 C). An increase in the ceramic
density and linear shrinkage as well as decrease in water absorp-
tion were obtained with increasing amount of red mud incorpora-
tion. Indeed, for 80 wt% incorporation and ring at 1050 C, a
marked change occurred in density (1.85 g/cm3), linear shrinkage
(28% and water absorption (10%). The compressive strength
increased up to 40 MPa for 20 wt% of red mud incorporation. Based
on SEM observation, this was attributed to the formation of glassy
phases from uxing agents in the red mud at higher red temper-
atures. However, incorporation beyond 40 wt% decreased the
strength by limiting the formation of glass phase. The optimum
parameters for production of common clay bricks were 20 wt%
incorporation and ring at 1050 C for 2 h.
Prez-Villarejo et al. [130] studied the incorporation (up to
90 wt%) of a red mud, derived from a aluminum industry in Spain,
into clay ceramics (uniaxial force/950 C). Neat clay and pure red
Fig. 3. SEM micrograph of a 10 wt% cullet incorporated clay ceramic red at
1050 C. Reproduced with permission from [125].
605
mud were also studied. The authors claimed that the ceramic tech-
nical properties display interesting values. In particular, the com-
pressive strength of about 45 MPa for the neat clay ceramic
decreased to 15 MPa for 12 wt% incorporation, Fig. 4, but then
increased up to an amazing 70 MPa for 90 wt% red mud incorpora-
tion, although the pure red red mud strength was only 45 MPa.
Adding the red mud to the clay ceramic structure, up to 50 wt%
and ring at 950 C for 1 h, improved the properties: strength
(52.54 MPa), water absorption (21%) and shrinkage (0.46%), due
to the production of a great amount of vitreous phase in the micro-
structure, as analyzed by SEM. In fact, the optimal proportion of
mud to clay was found to be 50 wt%.
Arsenovic et al. [131] investigated the possibility of using the
sludge from hot dip galvanizing Serbian plants (3 and 6 wt%) incor-
porated into clay bricks (extruded/8701020 C). As main results,
the authors found that the compressive strength increases
(31 MPa at 1020 C) with ring temperature but decrease with
6 wt% incorporation (13.5 MPa at 870 C). The water absorption
decreases (7.8 at 1020 C) but increases (13.7% at 870 C) with
6 wt% incorporation. SEM analysis revealed that the addition of
the sludge decreases the bond ability of the mixture, while increas-
ing the brick porosity. It was concluded that the bricks showed sat-
isfactory mechanical and toxic elements leaching characteristics.
Eliche-Quesada et al. [99], an already presented work in Section 3.1,
also studied the incorporation of a uxing inorganic waste
obtained from marble residue (up to 20 wt%) incorporated into
clay bricks (uniaxial pressing/950 and 1050 C). TGA/DTA analysis
showed, in addition to an initial 2.6% loss of moisture, a residue
weight loss of 43% associated with a strong decomposition of
CaCO3 into CaO and CO2. A 20 wt% addition of marble residue
reduces the brick bulk density (1.871.69 g/cm3) at 950 C and
the compressive strength (8050 MPa) at 1050 C. SEM observa-
tion showed open porosity at 950 C in contrast with a more closed
porosity and denser microstructure at 1050 C.
Lin et al. [132] investigated the incorporation (up to 30 wt%) of
a solar panel glass waste into clay bricks (sintered/7001000 C).
The results indicated that increasing the amount of waste
improved the main brick properties by decreasing the water
absorption (10%) and increasing the compressive strength
(29.4 MPa). In fact, bricks containing 30 wt% of waste red at
1000 C met the Chinese standards for rst-class brick. The salt
crystallization and wet-dry tests showed that the waste incorpora-
tion had high benecial effects by increasing the brick durability.
The authors concluded that the waste is suitable for the partial
replacement of clay in brick production. Mymrine et al. [133]
investigated the joint incorporation of oil-contaminated diatomite
residue (2535 wt%), galvanic sludge (2025 wt%) and glass waste
(520 wt%) into a red clay ceramic (uniaxially pressed/950
Fig. 4. Variation of the clay ceramic compressive strength with red mud incorpo-
ration. Reproduced with permission from [130].
606 S.N. Monteiro, C.M.F. Vieira / Construction and Building Materials 68 (2014) 599610
1100 C). The results showed that a relatively high bending
strength of 22.9 MPa was obtained for a combined mix of 30 wt%
diatomite residue, 20 wt% sludge, 20 wt% glass waste and 30 wt%
clay ceramic red at 1100 C. Microstructural observation by SEM
revealed porosity and glass-like surfaces. Moreover, the trans-
formed glassy phases explained the very low lixiviation and solu-
bility of heavy metals from the ceramic structure. The authors
concluded that, up to 25 wt%, the rejects of oily diatomite and gal-
vanic sludge, which has a total heavy metal content over 60%, can
be used in combination with glass waste and clay for producing an
environmentally friendly ceramic to be applied as an economically
attractive construction material.
Acchar et al. [134] evaluated the incorporation (up to 20 wt%) of
untreated coffee husk ashes, rich in alkaline and alkaline-earth
metals as ux, into clay ceramic tiles (uniaxially pressed/1100
1200 C). The authors indicated that ceramics incorporated with
about 10 wt% ashes and red near 1180 C presented technical
properties, linear shrinkage (6%), water absorption (2%) and ex-
ural strength (24 MPa), that fall within the range specied by the
Brazilian standards for oor tiles. SEM analysis revealed spherical
isolated pores and typical morphology of mullite needles and leu-
cite crystals. It was concluded that the ashes can advantageously
replace feldspars as uxing agents with the potential to reduce
not only natural clay consumptions but also industrial production
and landll costs as well as disposal area requirements. Stathopo-
ulos et al. [135] investigated the stabilization of an electric arc fur-
nace dust by its incorporation (2.5 and 5.0 wt%) into clay ceramics
(extruded/850950 C). The results showed that the dust addition
increased the compressive strength from 2.8 MPa, for neat clay
ceramic, to 3.3 MPa, for the 5 wt% dust incorporated ceramic.
EDS/SEM microstructural analysis revealed the contribution of
Zn-rich particles to the clay ceramic. In addition, the amount of
heavy metals leached from pilot scale clay blocks was within the
European regulatory limits. A 5 wt% incorporation could provide
a high utilization potential for the Greek annual dust generation
in the industrial sector of clay block production.
Vieira et al. [136] investigated the incorporation of an electric
arc furnace dust, collected from an integrated steel plant in Argen-
tina, into red clay ceramics (uniaxial pressing/850 C). The incorpo-
ration was performed in amounts of up to 20 wt% separately mixed
with two types of clays, one from Argentina and another from Bra-
zil. The dust was found to act as a non-plastic material, which
could adjust the workability of the mixture. The water absorption
(14% Brazil and 10% Argentina) and diametral compression
(12 MPa Brazil and 7 MPa Argentina) were not signicantly
affected by the incorporation. The authors attributed the differ-
ences between both ceramics, processed from Argentinean and
Brazilian clays, to the comparatively higher amount of SiO2 in the
Argentinean one. They indicated to be technological feasible to
recycle the dust up to 20 wt% into red ceramics fabricated from
both types of clays.
Quijorna et al. [137] characterized the sintering behavior of a
slag obtained from electric arc furnace dust to investigate its
potential as a clay substitute in ceramic processes. This so-called
Waelz slag, named after the commercial Waelz process for recov-
ering volatile hazardous metallic wastes, was uniaxially pressed
and red at temperatures in the range of 8501050 C. In general,
an increase of the ring temperature promotes densication and
decreases the open porosity (14%), while maintaining an almost
constant shrinkage ( 26%) and density (2.5 g/cm3). An effective
sintering of the slag started around 9501000 C by viscous ow
of uxing compounds producing a glassy phase, which contributes
to the xation of heavy metals. Indeed, at 1050 C, SEM images
show the formation of liquid phase that bonds the grains. Above
950 C, a weight gain related to gaseous emissions was observed.
Firing of the slag affects not only its physical properties but also
its leaching behavior and gaseous emissions through the release
of volatile compounds.
De la Casa and Castro [138] used washed olive pomace ashes (5
and 10 wt%) to replace clay in bricks manufacture (extruded/1000
1050 C). After ring, the bricks with 10 wt% of ash presented a
decrease in linear shrinkage (1.50.9% at 1050 C); increase in
water absorption (814% at 1000 C); decrease in bulk density
(2.01.79 g/cm3 at 1025 C) and decrease in bending strength
(19.99.4 MPa at 1050 C). It was also found that lighter masonry
units formed with 10 wt% incorporation of washed olive pomace
ashes feature a decrease in thermal conductivity (0.840.68 W/
m K) and a red bending strength (10.2 MPa), which is high
enough for low density clay masonry.
4. Discussion
It is unquestionable the relevance of Zhangs review article [1]
as a contribution to the practical recycling of wastes by incorpora-
tion into ceramic pieces (bricks) used as construction and building
materials. Zhangs main points of concern limited commercial
bricks with waste, the method for producing bricks from waste
materials, the potential contamination from the used waste, the
absence of standards, and the slow acceptance of waste-added
bricks by industry and public are shared by most researchers
working on this subject. It is also shared Zhangs statement that
for wide production and application of waste-added bricks, further
research and development is needed. As for the government policy
and public education, these are relevant points but still open to
questions. In many countries, the role played by the market forces
should also be considered.
Certainly in the case of China, a governmental authority and
disciplined public education would favor the adoption of measure-
ments aligned with the countrys interest. There, it could effec-
tively be a greater acceptance of waste-added bricks by both the
industry and the end consumer. Moreover, in order to protect its
clay resource and the environment, China could defacto limit the
use of red clay bricks. In this case, the cementing and geopoly-
merization methods of producing construction bricks might in a
short time substitute ring, as preconized by Zhang [1]. On the
contrary, countries like Italy, Spain, India, Brazil, leading after
China the world production of clay ceramics for building con-
struction, face different conditions. For instance, in the case of Bra-
zil, the annual production of clay items (blocks, roof tiles, bricks,
stoneware pipes, pots, ornamental ware and house utensils) is esti-
mated to be around 180 million tons [139]. The countrys ofcial
reserves of common clay amount to 3.7 billion tons. Therefore, at
the current consumption, it would take more than 20 years to
exhaust the Brazilian clay deposits. From an environmental point
of view, this is not only a short time but also a reason for concern
regarding soil degradation associated with clay mining. Indeed, the
adverse effects of quarrying such as damages to landscape and dis-
posal of related wastes are now punishable by law. For the Brazil-
ian economy the red clay ceramic industry has been a traditional
sector for employment and building construction. Today, the cost
of a common 200  200  100 mm hollow clay brick is very low
(0.15 US dollars apiece). As the clay deposits are depleted and
the environmental legislation enforced, this price will eventually
raise and other materials/methods of brick fabrication might, in a
long term, prevail in Brazil.
The production method, which was the core subject of Zhangs
review [1], deserves to be critically discussed for its implication in
future and ongoing research work. A realistic scenario in Brazil
indicates that other industrial methods such as cementing and
geopolymerization for brick, tile and block production are not com-
peting against red clay ceramic, both today and within the next
 S.N. Monteiro, C.M.F. Vieira / Construction and Building Materials 68 (2014) 599610
few decades. Whatever the method and the country, the incorpora-
tion of waste should be pursued as an important contribution to
save natural clay and protect the environment. However, some
points presented and discussed by Zhang [1], especially the draw-
backs of high energy consumption, and large footprint associated
with the ring method need to be re-examined. As aforemen-
tioned, Zhang [1] indicated that a red clay brick is known on aver-
age to have an embodied energy of approximately 2.0 kW h and
release about 0.41 kg of CO2 [1,2]. The change in these parameters
due to the incorporation of waste was not discussed by Zhang [1].
Actually, considering the relatively small sample of 25 reviewed
articles by Zhang [1] on the ring method, only the work of Seng-
upta et al. [140] made a comment regarding the reduction of pro-
cess fuel associated with the incorporation of sludge from an
Indian petroleum efuent treatment plant. In a communication
paper, not reviewed by Zhang [1], the same Indian research group
[141] indicated that the caloric value of the dried sludge is
18,213 kJ/kg. In principle, depending on the incorporated amount,
this could sensibly reduce the energy consumed for red ceramic
production.
Numerous other articles [620,84102] investigated the incor-
poration of wastes with a carbonaceous content, which might pro-
vide a sensible energetic contribution to the ceramic process. For
instance, Eliche-Quesada et al. [87] indicated that the high heating
value of the bagasse from beer brewing was 19,045 kJ/kg. Even
sludges from steelmaking industry [94] with 6648 kJ/kg, Fig. 1,
could help in reducing the energy consumed for red clay ceramic
production. Therefore, one may expect that a brick incorporated
with fuel-containing waste would require less than 2 kW h for its
fabrication. A comparative analysis of clay brick embodied energy
needs to be discussed in terms of weight rationalized values as pre-
sented in most technical works [142149]. For instance, Manfredi-
ni and Sattler [148] indicated a minimum of 0.291 kW h/kg, which
would correspond to 0.48 kW h for a reference clay brick with
1.65 kg. Just for comparison, using his same average brick with
Zhangs [1] indication of 2.0 kW h, then a much higher rationalized
value of 1.21 kW h/kg is obtained. As a consequence, it is also pos-
sible to fabricate red clay bricks with much lower embodied
energy than that for a cement brick, with 1.5 kW h/kg, as indicated
by Zhang [1].
In the particular case of Brazil, the reader should be informed of
two special industrial characteristics. First, the production of a
common clay brick is usually carried out at ring temperatures
as low as 600 C [150]. Second, most ring fuel, 97% [139], is from
biomass. A preference exists for reforestation wood, which is much
cheaper than any fossil fuel. Thus, at least in Brazil, a red clay
brick requires a minimum of 0.30 kW h/kg [148]. Moreover, the
mixture of steelmaking wastes with clay (a common practice in
the state of Minas Gerais) is reported to save 30% in volume of bio-
mass (wood) as ring fuel [149]. Consequently, the incorporation
of fuel-containing waste could result in a brick requiring much less
than 1 kW h. As aforementioned, this is lower than the energy of
1.5 kW h [1] to produce 1 kg of a Portland cement brick of concrete.
It is important to mention that cement is normally fabricated in
kiln rotary type of furnaces with limited technical possibility of
reducing the energy consumption by using wood as fuel. The
reported lower values for red bricks [143150] might also be
equivalent to the energy to produce a geopolymer brick. Such latter
energy has not yet been fully calculated. As for the release of
greenhouse gases, the typical Brazilian case of ring clay ceramics
using wood as fuel corresponds to a neutral emission of CO2.
Indeed, the CO2 emitted during ring is compensated by a similar
amount absorbed during the growth of the tree.
Regarding the environmental requirements, two situations
deserve to be discussed. First, the release during ring of toxic ele-
ments that may exist in the waste. Numerous recent works
607
[86,93,95,105,112,115,118,129131,133,135,137] investigated the
incorporation of wastes containing toxic elements as well the cor-
responding impact to the environment. Both drawbacks and
advantages were reported.
In some cases a toxic compound in the waste may be decom-
posed during ring and then emitted to the atmosphere as a dan-
gerous pollutant. For example, Sokolar and Vodova [118] reported
that the incorporation of CaSO4 containing ashes from a Czech
Republic power plant increases the SO2 content to over 4000 ppm
in the ue gases during ring above temperatures around 860 C.
Heavy metals containing wastes may also represent a source of con-
tamination through leaching of red ceramics exposed to an
aggressive ambient. For instance, Quijorna et al. [137] indicated
that the sintering of a slag from electric arc furnace, with potential
as clay substitute in red ceramics, although reducing the leaching
behavior of Zn, Pb and Ba, increase that of Cr and Mo.
By contrast, the ring of waste-incorporated clay ceramics
could also improve both the environmental requirements and the
technical properties. For example, in the work of Caldas et al.
[125] ux-containing wastes contribute to form lower temperature
glassy phases, Fig. 2, that may retain toxic elements inside an envi-
ronment-inert ceramic structure, Fig. 3. In the work of Mymrine
et al. [133], the combination of a galvanic sludge (60.2 wt% of
heavy metals) with glass waste resulted in an inert clay ceramic
after incorporation. Indeed, leaching and solubilization tests failed
to detect, within the precision of 0.050.1 mg/L, any heavy metal
extraction out of the ceramic structure. As for the technical proper-
ties, from relatively lower up to higher amounts, waste incorpora-
tion can improve the linear shrinkage, water absorption and
mechanical strength. The example of red mud incorporation in
the work of Prez-Villarejo et al. [130] conrms this improvement
up to 90 wt%, Fig. 4, due to the formation of a glassy phase.
As a nal remark, it is worth mentioning a relevant point
regarding geopolymerization. For countries without facilities
which exist in Brazil, such as huge clay deposits and extensive
reforestation areas, it is acceptable that geopolymerization might
be the adequate method to produce bricks. However, geopolymer-
ization is restricted to wastes containing solid aluminosilicate
materials like metal processing slag, red mud, y and bottom ashes
as well as mining tailing, stone processing sludges and grog (brick
wastes). By contrast, many fuel-containing wastes, such as water
treatment plant sludge, biomass, petroleum residues, blast furnace
dust and paper mill sludge are not appropriated for geopolymer-
ization. A signicant amount of these fuel-containing wastes, espe-
cially those with relatively high carbonaceous content, are already
being incorporated by Brazilian red clay ceramic industries [145
149]. Therefore, one should not expect in a near future any practi-
cal contribution of geopolymerization in the Brazilian production
of bricks for building construction.
5. Conclusions
 An extensive list of articles on the incorporation of wastes in
red clay ceramics has been presented, as a critical update, in
complement to the recent review by Zhang [1].
 It is shown that the particular case of Brazil, different than that
of China, the production of construction building clay pieces
(bricks, tiles, blocks) by ring is, and probably will be for the
next two decades, more advantageous than cementing or
geopolymerization.
 The incorporation of fuel-containing waste, in association with
a relatively low ring temperature of 600 C, a common practice
in many ceramic industries in Brazil, contribute to reduce the
embodied energy to produce a clay brick to much less than
the average of 2 kW h indicated by Zhang [1].
608 S.N. Monteiro, C.M.F. Vieira / Construction and Building Materials 68 (2014) 599610

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