STUDY OF BASIC ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTS

AIM:
To study the various electronic components and equipments.

THEORY:
ELECTRONICS:
It is the branch of science which relates to the conduction of electricity through vaccum,gases
and semiconductors.The electronic devices are fairly complex,they are made of simple components
such as Resistors,capacitors and inductors come under passive components and tube devices and
semi-conductor devices fall under active components.
COMPONENTS:
PASSIVE COMPONENTS:
Resistor
A resistor is used to restrict the amount of current flow through a device. Resistors
are 2 terminal passive components. They are basically of 2 types 1) Fixed Resistor
and 2) Variable Resistors
RESISTANCE
Resistance by definition is the opposition to free flow or motion of any substance. The
exact term is electrical resistance which we commonly refer to as resistance. The
electrical resistance of a material is the opposition to free flow of electrons inside that
material. Electrical resistance vary with different materials and it is measured in units of
Ohms.

1) Fixed Resistor
Fixed resistors are those whose values cannot be changed after
manufacturing.
2) Variable Resistors
Variable resistors are those whose values can be changed after manufacturing.

Rheostat
 A rheostat is used to control the current flow with two contacts. Applicable in
controlling lamp brightness, capacitor charge rate, etc.

Potentiometer
A potentiometer is used to control the voltage flow and has three contacts. Have
applications in changing a mechanical angle change to an electrical parameter.

Preset
Presets are low cost variable resistors that are used to control the charge flow with
the help of a screw driver. Applications where the resistance is determined only at the end of
the circuit design.

CAPACITORS:
A capacitor is a component that stores electric energy .It consists of two conducting plates
separated by an insulator.The conducting surfaces are called electrodes and the insulating medium is
called dielectric. It is applicable as a filter, that is, to block DC signals and allow AC signals.Its
unit is farad.

CAPACITOR POLARIZED
Capacitor can be used in a timer circuit by adding a resistor.

CAPACITANCE
Capacitance is the ability of a body to store an electrical charge. Any object that can be electrically
charged exhibits capacitance. A common form of energy storage device is a parallel-plate capacitor.
TYPESOF CAPACITORS:
1) Fixed Capacitors
Fixed Capacitors are classified into several types depending upon the dielectric material
used.Some of them are
Paper capacitors
Film capacitors
Mica capacitors
Glass capacitors
Ceramic capacitors
Tantalum capacitors
2)Variable Capacitors
Variable capacitors consist of a set of movable plates with air as dielectric.The change of
capacitance is obtained by changing the position of the moving plates with respect to fixed
plates. Used to vary the capacitance by turning the knob. A type of variable capacitor is
the trimmer capacitor that is small in size.
Trimmer capacitors
Ceramic trimmer capacitors
Mica trimming capacitors

INDUCTOR
An inductor is a passive electronic component that storesenergy in the form of a magnetic field.
In its simplest form, an inductor consistsof a wire loop or coil. The inductance is directly proportional to
the number ofturns in the coil. Inductance also depends on the radius of the coil and on the type of
material around which the coil is wound. an inductor can be defined as an energy storage device
which stores energy in form of magnetic field.

INDUCTANCE
Inductance is one of the basic factors that affect electrical circuits.Any wire or coil has a
certain inductance associated with it which is caused by the magnetic field that is set up when the
current flows.Energy is stored in the field,and action of the coil is to exhibit a resistance to change of
the current flow within the conductor or coil. If a changing flux is linked with a coil of a conductor
there would be an emf induced in it. The property of the coil of inducing emf due to the changing flux
linked with it is known as inductance of the coil. Due to this property all electrical coil can be referred
as inductor.
TYPES
1) Fixed Inductors
Air core inductor
Iron core inductor
Ferrite core inductor
2) Variable Inductors
ACTIVE COMPONENTS
DIODES
Diode
A diode is used to allow electric current to flow in only one direction.

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

LED is used to emit light when a current is passed through the device.

Zener Diode:
After a breakdown voltage, the device allows current to flow in the reverse direction as well.

Photo Diode:
Photodiode works as a photo-detector and converts light into its corresponding voltage or
current.

Tunnel Diode:
Tunnel Diode is known for its high-speed operation due to its application in quantum
mechanical effects.
Schottky Diode:
The Schottky Diode is known for its large forward voltage drop and hence has great
applications in switching circuits.

TRANSISTORS
NPN Transistor
This is a transistor with a layer of P-doped semiconductor fixed between two layers
of N-doped semiconductors that act as the emitter and collector

PNP Transistor
This is a transistor with a layer of N-doped semiconductor fixed between two layers of P-
doped semiconductors that act as the emitter and collector.

Phototransistor
The working of a phototransistoris similar to that of a bipolar transistor with a difference
that it converts light into its corresponding current. The phototransistor can also act as a
photodiode if the emitter is not connected.

Field Effect Transistor

Like a transistor, a FET has three terminals, the Gate, Source and Drain. The device has an
electric field that controls the conductivity of a channel of one type charge carrier in a
semiconductor substance.

N-Channel Junction FET

The Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET) is the simplest type of FET with
applications in Switching and voltage variable resistor. In an N-channel JFET an N-type
silicon bar has two smaller pieces of P-type silicon material diffused on each sides of its
middle part, forming P-N junctions.

P-Channel Junction FET

P-channel JFET is similar in construction to N-channel JFET except that P-type
semiconductor base is sandwiched between two N-type junctions. In this case majority
carriers are holes.

Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET

MOSFET is a three terminal device and is controlled by a gate bias. It is known for its low
capacitance and low input impedance.
Enhancement MOSFET
The enhancement MOSFET structure has no channel formed during its construction.
Voltage is applied to the gate, so as to develop a channel of charge carriers so that a current
results when a voltage is applied across the drain-source terminals. Abbreviated as e-
MOSFET.

Depletion MOSFET
In the depletion-mode construction a channel is physically constructed and a current
between drain and source is due to voltage applied across the drain-source terminals.
Abbreviated as d-MOSFET.

AUDIO AND RADIO DEVICES

EQUIPMENTS
1) CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE
2) MULTIMETER

RESULT:
Thus the study of basic electronic components and equipments have been studied.

Colour coding of resistors

Color coding is used in electronics to identify between different components. In the
case of resistors, color coding is used to identify a specific resistance value, for example a
100 ohms resistor or a 1 kilo ohms resistor with 5% tolerance. Electronic components like
resistors are very small in size and its difficult to print its value directly on to the component
surface. Hence a standard was formed in 1920 by then Radio Manufacturers Association
(now part of EIA Electronic Industries Alliance) to identify values and ratings of electronic
components by printing color codes on them. Color coding technique makes it easy to print
values (based on color codes) on small components, such as resistors and facilitates cost
effective manufacturing.
This technique of color coding has 2 disadvantages. The first one appeals to general
users where it becomes difficult to distinguish between colors (for example Red and
Brown ) when the component is over heated. But this is not a major concern as the exact
value can be easily identified using a multimeter (in case of confusion). The next drawback
is for a specific group of people color blind people can not identify the device using color
codes. However they too can depend on multimeter to identify resistance values.
How to Identify Resistor Color Code
The figure below shows the layout of the bands, the multiplier and the tolerance value of a
resistor. For a 6-band resistor, an additional temperature coefficient band is provided.

The gap between the multiplier and the tolerance specifies the left and right side of the
resistor. So here are the key points;
4 band resistor has 3 color bands on left side and one color band on right side. First two
bands represent significant digits, the 3rd band represents multiplier and the fourth band
on right side represents tolerance.
5 band resistor - has 4 color bands on left side and one color band on right side. Here the
first 3 color bands represent significant digits, fourth one represent multiplier and the 5th
one on right side represents tolerance.
6 band resistor has 4 color bands on left side and 2 color bands on right side. Here the
first 3 color bands represents significant digits, fourth one represents multiplier, 5th one
represents tolerance and the 6th one represents temperature coefficient of the resistor.
In a 4-band resistor, the first two bands represent the first two digits of the resistor. The
multiplier band indicates the value that is to be multiplied with the first two digits. The
tolerance band after the multiplier band indicates the range of accuracy of the resistor. It is
represented in units of percentage. In case of 5 band resistor, the decimal multiplier will be
assigned to the fourth band and tolerance value will be assigned to the fifth band. Finally in
case of a 6 band resistor, the last band (i.e 6th band) represents temperature
coefficient. .The sixth temperature coefficient band increases the precision of the resistance
value. Temperature coefficient tells us the behavior of resistor under different heating
conditions (means the variation in resistance values under normal conditions and over
heated conditions)It is defined in units of ppm/K.
Resistor Color Code Chart
We have presented 3 charts below which are exactly resistor color code charts for 4 band,
5 band and 6 band resistors respectively.
4-Band Resistor Color Code Identification
Let us consider the color code for the resistor with the bands BROWN-BLACK-RED-GOLD.
Brown corresponds to the value 1 in the color chart. Black represents 0 and Red
represents the multiplier 100. Thus the value of the resistance to the corresponding color
code is 10*100 = 1000 ohms or 1 kilo ohm with the tolerance band being Gold which
represents a tolerance of +/- 5%. Thus the actual value of the 1 kilo ohm can be between 950
ohms and 1050 ohms.
Band 1 First digit value of resistor
Band 2 Second digit value of resistor
Band 3 Decimal Multiplier
Band 4 Tolerance Value
5-Band Resistor Color Code Identification
Let us consider the color code for the resistor with the bands YELLOW-VIOLET-BLACK-
BROWN-GREY. Yellow corresponds to the value 4 in the color chart. Violet represents 7
and Black represents the value 0. Brown represents the multiplier 10. Thus the value of
the resistance to the corresponding color code is 470*10 = 4700 ohms or 4.7 kilo ohm with
the tolerance band being Grey which represents a tolerance of +/- 0.05%.
Band 1 First digit value of resistor
Band 2 Second digit value of resistor
Band 3 Third digit value of resistor
Band 4 Decimal Multiplier
Band 5 Tolerance Value
6-Band Resistor Color Code Identification
Here also, if we can consider the same color code used for the 5-band, with an additional
temperature coefficient band with a blue color. This shows that the resistor has a value of
4.7 kilo ohms, with tolerance +/- 0.05% and with a temperature coefficient of 10 ppm/K.
Band 1 First digit value of resistor
Band 2 Second digit value of resistor
Band 3 Third digit value of resistor
Band 4 Decimal Multiplier
Band 5 Tolerance Value
Band 6 Temperature Coefficient

Note:- Nowadays with advances in printing technology, its possible to print numeric values
on small components as well. If you look at an SMD resistor (surface mount), you will see
the resistance value printed directly on the surface of the resistor.

FULL WAVE

Theory

A Full Wave Rectifier is a circuit, which converts an ac voltage into a pulsating dc voltage
using both half cycles of the applied ac voltage.

It uses two diodes of which one conducts during one half cycle while the other conducts during
the other half cycle of the applied

ac voltage.
During the positive half cycle of the input voltage, diode D1 becomes forward biased and D2
becomes reverse biased. Hence D1 conducts

and D2 remains OFF. The load current flows through D1 and the voltage drop across RL will be
equal to the input voltage.

During the negative half cycle of the input voltage, diode D1 becomes reverse biased and D2
becomes forward biased. Hence D1 remains

OFF and D2 conducts. The load current flows through D2 and the voltage drop across RL will
be equal to the input voltage.
Ripple Factor
The ripple factor for a Full Wave Rectifier is given by
 The average voltage or the dc voltage available across the load resistance is

RMS value of the voltage at the load resistance is

Efficiency
Efficiency, is the ratio of dc output power to ac input power

The maximum efficiency of a Full Wave Rectifier is 81.2%.

Transformer Utilization Factor
Transformer Utilization Factor, TUF can be used to determine the rating of a transformer
secondary. It is determined by considering

the primary and the secondary winding separately and it gives a value of 0.693.
Form Factor
Form factor is defined as the ratio of the rms value of the output voltage to the average value of
the output voltage.
Peak Factor
Peak factor is defined as the ratio of the peak value of the output voltage to the rms value of the
output voltage.

Peak inverse voltage for Full Wave Rectifier is 2Vm because the entire secondary
voltage appears across the non-conducting diode.

This concludes the explanation of the various factors associated with Full Wave
Rectifier.

HALF WAVE

Theory

The Half wave rectifier is a circuit, which converts an ac voltage to dc voltage.

In the Half wave rectifier circuit shown above the transformer serves two purposes.

1. It can be used to obtain the desired level of dc voltage (using step up or step
down transformers).
2. It provides isolation from the power line.

The primary of the transformer is connected to ac supply. This induces an ac voltage

across the secondary of the transformer.

During the positive half cycle of the input voltage the polarity of the voltage across
the secondary forward biases the diode. As a result a

current IL flows through the load resistor, RL. The forward biased diode offers a very
low resistance and hence the voltage
 drop across it is very small. Thus the voltage appearing across the load is practically
the same as the input voltage at every instant.

During the negative half cycle of the input voltage the polarity of the secondary
voltage gets reversed. As a result, the diode is reverse biased.

Practically no current flows through the circuit and almost no voltage is developed
across the resistor. All input voltage appears across the diode

itself.

Hence we conclude that when the input voltage is going through its positive half
cycle, output voltage is almost the same as the input voltage

and during the negative half cycle no voltage is available across the load. This
explains the unidirectional pulsating dc waveform obtained

as output. The process of removing one half the input signal to establish a dc level is
aptly called half wave rectification.

Peak Inverse Voltage

When the input voltage reaches its maximum value Vm during the negative half cycle
the voltage across the diode is also maximum. T

his maximum voltage is known as the peak inverse voltage. Thus for a half wave
rectifier

Let Vi be the voltage to the primary of the transformer. Vi is given by

where Vr is the cut-in voltage of the diode.

Ripple Factor

Ripple factor is defined as the ratio of rms value of ac component to the dc

component in the output.
 Ripple factor

Vav the average or the dc content of the voltage across the load is given by

RMS voltage at the load resistance can be calculated as

Ripple Factor

Efficiency

Efficiency, is the ratio of the dc output power to ac input power

 Thus

Transformer Utilization Factor

Transformer Utilization Factor, TUF can be used to determine the rating of a

transformer secondary.

In half wave rectifier the rated voltage of the transformer secondary is

But actually the RMS current flowing through the winding is only .

Form Factor

Form factor is given by,

Peak Factor
 Peak factor is given by,

ere are the Most Commonly Terms and definitions used in Electronics and
Electronics Engineering:

A (amp)- Ampere
AC/DC-Alternating current or direct current
ADC -Analog-to-digital converter
AFT -Automatic fine tuning
AFC -Automatic flow controller, used in controlling the flow of
gasses under pressure into a vacuum system
AGC-Automatic gain control
AM/FM -Amplitude modulation or Frequency modulation
AMM -Analog Multimeter Ap -Power gain
Apc-Automatic phase
antilog Antilogarithm
control
-Capacitance or capacitor cmil -Circular mil Av -Voltage gain
CAD -Computer aided design AVC -Automatic volume
CPU- Central processing control
CAM -Computer aided unit AWG -American wire
manufacture C (Q)-Coulomb gauge
CATV -Cable TV CR cr - AC- Alternating current
Junction diode A/D-Analog to digital
CB -Common base configuration
CRO- Cathode ray Oscilloscope AF-Audio frequency
CB- Citizen's band
CRT -Cathode ray tube
CC -Common AFC -Automatic
CT -Total capacitance
collector frequency control
cw -Continuous transmission
CE-Common emitter Ah -Ampere hour
E DC- or Erms Difference in
cm Centimeter AM-Amplitude
potential
modulation
Ai -Current gain
HF- High frequency c -Centi (10-2)
e -Instantaneous difference in
hp -Horsepower
potential
Hz -Hertz
ECG- Electrocardiogram
I -Current
ECL -Emitter coupled logic i -Instantaneous current
EHF- Extremely high frequency IB -DC Base current
IC -DC Collector current
EHV- Extra high voltage
IC- Integrated circuit
ELF- Extremely low frequency Ie- Total emitter current
Ieff- Effective current
EMF-Electromotive force IF- Intermediate frequency
EMI-Electromagnetic interference Imax -Maximum current
EW- Electronic warfare
G- Gravitational force
G -Conductance
G- Giga (109 )
JFET-Junction field effedt
transistor
L- Coil, inductance
LC- Inductance-capacitance
LCD- Liquid crystal display
L-C-R -Inductance-capacitance- kV- Kilovolt
resistance
LDR- Light-dependent resistor
LED- Light emitting diode
LF- Low frequency
LM- Mutual inductance
LNA- Low noise amplifier
LO -Local oscillator
LSI- Large scale integration
LT -Total inductance
N -Number of turns in an
inductor
N-Revolutions per minute
n-Nano (10-9)
N- Negative
NA- Nanoampere
NC- Normally closed
NCNo- connection
NEG, neg Negative
NF-Nanofarad
nH -Nanohenry
nm- Nanometer
NO-Normally open
NPN- Negative-positive-negative MSI- Medium scale integrated
Ns- Nanosecond
NW- Nanowatt
OP AMP- Operational amplifier P- Pico (10-12)
R-Potentiometer
R- Resistance
RAM- Random access memory
RC- Resistance-capacitance, also PA- Public address or power
Radio controlled
Rcvr-Receiver
Rect- Rectifier
Ref- Reference
Rf- Radio frequencies
RF-Radio frequencies
RFI-Radio frequency interference Pav-Average power
RL-Load resistor
RLC- Resistance-capacitance-
inductance
RMS, rms- Root mean square
ROM-Read only memory
Rpm- Revolutions per minute
Imin -Minimum current
I/O- Input/output
IR- Infrared
IR- Resistor current
IS -Secondary current
IT -Total current
K- Coefficient of coupling
k- Kilo (103 )
kHz- Kilohertz
kVA- Kilovoltampere
kW- Kilowatt
kWh-Kilowatt-hour
M-Mega (106 )
M -Mutual conductance
MI -Mutual inductance
m- Milli (10-3 )
mA-Milliampere
mag- Magnetron
max Maximum
MF- Medium frequency
MH- Millihenry
MHz -Megahertz
min Minimum
mm- Millimeter
mmf -Magnetomotive force
mW- Milliwatt
MOS -Metal oxide semiconductor
MOSFET -Metal oxide
semiconductor field effect
transistor
MPU- Microprocessor unit
circuit
mV Millivolt
P- Power
p- Instantaneous power
P- Positive, also peak
amplifier
PA- Picoampere
PAL- Programmable Array Logic
PAM, pam- Pulse amplitude
modulation
Pap-Apparent power
PCB- Printed circuit board
PCM, pcm-Pulse-code
modulation
PDM-Pulse-duration modulation
PF-Picofarad
PLD-Programmable Logic Device
T- Tera (1012)
T -Torque
T -Transformer
t- Time in seconds
TC- Time constant, also
temperature coefficient
TE-Transverse electric
Temp-Temperature
THz-Terahertz
TM-Transverse magnetic
TR-Transmit-receive
TTL-Transistor-transistor logic
TWT-Travelling wave tube
TV - Television
W Watt
XC -Capacitive reactance
XL -Inductive reactance
Y -Admittance
Z Impedance
Zin -Input impedance
Zo -Output impedance
Zp -Primary impedance
Zs -Secondary impedance
ZT -Total impedance
B -Flux density
BCD -Binary coded decimal
bfo -Beat frequency oscillator
BJT -Bipolar junction transistor V- Vacuum tube
BW-Bandwidth
d- Deci (10 )
-1
D/A or D-A-Digital to analog
DC-Direct current
DIP-Dual in-line
package
DMM -Digital Multimeter
DPDT -Double pole double throw VCO-Voltage controlled oscillator
DTL-Diode transistor logic
DVM-Digital voltmeter
Frequency
FET-Field effect transistor
FF-Flip Flop
fil -Filament
FM- Frequency modulation
fr -Frequency at resonance
fsk -frequency-shift keying
FSD- Full scale deflection
H- Henry
H- Magnetic field intensity
H -Magnetizing flux
h- hecto (102 )
PLL-Phase locked loop
PM- Phase modulation, also
Permanent magnet
PNP-Positive-negative-positive
POT, pot-Potentiometer
P-P-Peak to peak
PPM-- Pulse-position modulation
PRF-Pulse repetition frequency
PRT-Pulse repetition time
Pw- Pulse width
PWM, pwm- Pulse width
modulation
Q-Charge, also quality
q-Instantaneous charge
SCR-Silicon controlled rectifier
SHF-Super high frequency
SIP-Single in-line package
SNR-Signal-to-noise ratio
SPDT-Single pole double throw
sq cm- Square centimeter
SSB- Single sideband
SW-Short wave
SWR-Standing-wave ratio
SYNC, sync-Synchronous
UHF- Ultra high frequency
UHV-Ultra high voltage
UJT-Unijunction transistor
UV-Ultraviolet
V, v-Volt
v- Instantaneous voltage
VA- Volt ampere
Vav-Voltage (average value)
VBE-DC voltage base to emitter
Vc-Capacitive voltage
VCE-DC voltage collector to
emitter
VHF-Very high frequency
VIn -Input voltage
VL- Inductive voltage
VLF- Very low frequency
Vm, Vmax -Maximum voltage
VOM-Volt ohm milliameter
Vout -Output voltage
Vp -Primary voltage
VS-Source voltage
VSWR-Voltage standing wave
ratio
VT-Total voltage
h -Hybrid

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