ABSTRACT

This write-up studies the system protection of the Nigerian Power System. In

this study, the various types of faults that often occur within the Nations power

system were discussed along with the protective measures and devices for guarding

against and/or curbing them. The study was particularly narrowed down to Nsukka

town, and the various faults peculiar to the town studied with a view to finding the

major causes of fault within the locality. Fault records which include the daily fault

reports made to the PHCN, (Power Holding Company of Nigeria), Nsukka

undertaking and the yearly fault summary of the same utility company were analysed

and conclusions drawn to the major causes of fault in the locality. The economic

aspect of the various protection measures against the fault types were considered as

well; this was found to be very insignificant when compared to life and property.

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 INTRODUTION

The inordinate increase in the demand for electrical energy is instrumental to the

incessant power outage often witnessed within the nations power system. Hence is

the need for good power system protection which can be described as the automatic

tripping of associated circuit breakers, which functions to isolate faulty

equipment/elements, thus maintaining the smooth operation of the remaining part(s)

of the system as well as limiting/ avoiding any possible damage to the elements due to

over-current and mechanical forces.[ ]

Power system protection being concerned with the total protection of a system

from fault(s), therefore curtails the use of sensitive devices such as relays, fuses,

switchgears etc. to bring about system protection. For adequate system protection

against fault, a good knowledge of the causes of the various faults as well as the

currents resulting from them is needed, for a steady and uninterrupted power supply.

The system protection of an area depends to a large extent on the faults peculiar to

the area. In other words, whatever protection measures that must be taken will

definitely depend on the predictable and most frequently occurring faults of the area.

For instance, Nsukka town located in Enugu State of Nigeria, lies within the rain

forest zone of the country were a reasonably high degree of rain fall is experienced for

the greater part of the year. This then implies that the majority of faults which occur

in this area must be consequences of weather conditions.

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General Consideration for Protection

Fault occurrence in a system often have expensive cost implication on the side

of both the utility company and the consumer; hence the maintenance of an

uninterrupted power supply to consumers, should be of utmost importance to any

reasonable utility company. No meaningful power system protection could be realized

without a good knowledge of the causes of the various fault that occur within the

system.

Consumers on their own part contribute seriously to fault occurrence through

the lots of illegal connections they make. Most often these illegal connection causes

transformer overloading and the subsequent breaking down of transformer insulation

which results to total breakdown of the power machine. Another issue to consider is

the effect of climatic changes on the locality being supplied as well as the generating

and the transmission environment. Climatic factors such as lighting and thunderstorm

can cause serious flash-over and mechanical damages, thus resulting in dangerous

fault currents which can endanger the consumer and his apparatus/gadgets. Tropical

atmospheric temperature also causes serious evaporation and evapo-transpiration from

the dams and reservoirs used in power generation; in addition to this, periods of high

and low tide also affect the power generated and transmitted. [2]

Essence of Protection in Power Systems

The basic aim of protection is to maintain continuity of power supply. This

can be achieved if the protection scheme operates in such a way as to prevent some

fault effects such as

i Damage to functional/healthy plants

ii Splitting and total collapse of a system as a result of loss of synchronism

between the system generators and stations.

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iii Total damage/condemnation of any machine/plant in the fault path

iv Damage to industrial machine used in the production of goods and services.

Discriminative protection is therefore needed to selectively discriminate and

isolate as fast as possible, any part of the power system where a fault has occurred so

that protective devices do not operate unnecessarily. Though not enough, alternative

power supply outlets from power sources to load centers are also indispensable in

ensuring stable and uninterrupted supply.

METHODS OF PROTECTION

An effective protection is one that has good selectivity (discrimination) i.e. it

should be able to pick out and cause only the faulty element to be disconnected. By

this reasoning, the protection methods applied to a system can indirectly be referred to

as methods of discrimination.

In terms of protection, some systems are said to be absolutely protected while

others are relatively protected. Absolute protection applies to unit systems in which

case system protection applies to only the zone or element intended to be protected,

while relative protection applies to non-unit systems where several relays and/or

associated equipment are used to provide protection covering more than one zone. [ ]

Discrimination is of two kinds viz:

a. Discrimination as to the type of fault and

b. Discrimination as to the fault location.

Details of these two are deibrately omitted since they can be found elsewhere in

published literature. [ ]

Fault Types and Protection Measures

Power system fault is any condition which interferes with the normal flow of

current and hence brings about the electrical failure of the primary equipment of the

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power system. Primary equipment can be described as the system equipment which

operates on the power system voltage. [ ]

Electrical failure is of two viz:

i. Conducting path failure: This result to open circuit faults.

ii. Insulation failure: This results to short circuit faults.

FAULT CLASSIFICATION.

In terms of system balance, power system faults can be classified as

symmetrical or unsymmetrical. Symmetrical faults are those faults in which system

balance is not lost irrespective of their occurrence in the system while the

unsymmetrical faults are those conditions which result to total system imbalance. [ ]

Power system faults can as well be categorized into two main types depending

on the circuit condition viz.:

(a) Open circuit faults and (b) Short circuit faults.

Details of these two are deibrately omitted since they can be found elsewhere in

published literature. [ ]

Protection measures are the protection practices carried out in a power system

to forestall the severity of a fault on the system; whereas fault severity is a measure of

the degree of the disturbance as well as damage caused on the system by the fault

current. Hence no protection measure can be effective without putting into

consideration the magnitude of the fault current as well as its duration. In other to

make a good assessment of the magnitude of the fault current, the following need be

considered seriously: Power system configuration, Fault type and The earthing system

employed.

Power System Configuration: This includes the topographical arrangement of the

system generators, transformers, cable circuits as well as switchgears in service for a

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given period of time. Due to changes in the magnitude and distribution of fault

current, system configuration is liable to change during the course of the fault. Hence

a power system should be configured in such a way as to maintain its stability as

much as possible intimes of fault; by setting the system tripping relays to a high

degree of accuracy such that faults can be cleared without altering the healthy state of

the remaining parts of the system.

Fault Type: System fault magnitude and its distribution is greatly determined by the

type of fault and its position on the power system; for example short-circuit faults are

often much more severe than open-circuit faults. The position of a fault determines its

distribution in the sense that a fault occurring at an overhead-junction point, always

has a greater distribution than one occurring along a single distribution line (e.g.

single phase-to-earth fault). The simultaneous occurrence of one or more fault types

also has a good influence on the fault magnitude.

Earthing System Employed: The power system earthing arrangement has great

influence on the system faults which involve the flow of earth currents e.g. the single

or two-phase-to-earth faults. Power system may be single- or multi- point earthed and

such systems may be earthed solidly or through an impedance which is used to limit

the earth-fault current to a very low and at time negligible value.

The wide range of possible system fault conditions as well as the relevant

protection practices pertinent to each condition, gives rise to the range of protection

measures of a power system, whereas the components making up a protective system

are known as protective devices.

In the Nsukka town power system, absolute (unit) system protection is

practiced, i.e. protection is only applied to a particular equipment or element. The

system protection of an area depends to a large extent on the faults peculiar to the

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area. In other words, whatever protection measures that must be taken will definitely

depend on the predictable and most frequently occurring faults of the area.

Faults Peculiar to Nsukka Town

As already mentioned, since the town lies in the rain forest zone of the

country, the majority of faults which occur in this area are consequences of weather

condition. Such faults often occur as a result of trees or branches of a tree falling on

power (HT or LT) lines, thereby causing either the short-circuited phase fault(s) or the

open-circuited phase fault(s); and lightning strokes which introduces an over

voltage/fault current on power lines (over head lines), thus resulting in flashovers to

the earth. Heavy rainfall at times causes an electric pole to fall; this may have a

consequential effect of wooden cross-arm breakage which can result to a severe

shorted-circuited phase or over-current faults. At times, due to sagging power lines,

the wind often cause short-circuited phase faults by jamming or marrying two or

three phases together. Bush turning, often during the dry season, can result to fault

when a wooden electric pole is consumed by fire. Other causes of fault experienced in

Nsukka town can be termed constructional causes, such are: Termites eating up

wooden poles, vehicles hitting (by accident) electric poles and the action of vandals

on the properties of the utility company. Snakes even cause LT lines to bridge. [12]

There are also in-station faults which occur in the switchyard. These faults,

though rare, are said to occur when power equipment, such as the transformer,

develops a fault. Such faults include: transformer differential fault, buchholz fault,

high winding temperature, earthfault, over-current and /or over-voltage fault.

Transformer differential fault occurs when there is an imbalance in the transformer

phases such that the normal input to output power ratio is altered; Buchholz fault

occurs when moisture develops within the transformer oil; this fault is taken care of

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by an action known as bleeding the transformer. High winding temperature is said to

occur when the transformer oil becomes unusually heated up; this fault is taken care

of by reducing the loads on the transformer. Each of the station faults has a relay that

monitors it and sensitizes the switchgear for a trip-action when the need arises.

Of these, faults due to lightning strokes on overhead lines are more rampant in

Nsukka town. Faults due to lightning can be flashovers between a phase and the earth

(Earth fault) or between two or more phases (short-circuit phase fault). Earthfault is a

condition when the line potential is neutralized as a result of the line getting in contact

with the earth; this is the fault described by the laymen as phase failure [12]; while

short-circuit phase fault is condition where by two or more phases get in contact, thus

resulting to over-current flowing through one of the phases; this often has the effect of

melting the line and a resultant open circuiting when the line melts and opens. The

flow of an overcurrent through a line, often results to a condition known as up-riser

cut; this often happens when the fuse (HRC) in the distribution/feeder pillar fails to

open on the occurrence of an overcurrent. Up-riser is the cable carrying power form

the distribution substation (transformer) to the LT distribution lines for distribution to

the various homes.

Protection Measures and Devices

Prevention they said is better than cure. This statement applies in virtually all

area of human endeavor including Nsukka power system. For this reason, a variety of

protection measures are carried out to avert the factors and possible conditions which

results to fault on the power system.

The possible causes of faults in Nsukka power system and the protection

measures often carried out to prevent them are shown in table 1.1.

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Table 1.1: Some causes of faults in Nsukka power system and protection measures against
them.
Causes of fault Protection measures

Trees/tree branches falling Tree cutting/trimming: This is an action of cutting

on power lines down the branches of a tree near a power line (LT
or HT), and possibly felling down the tree if it is to
close to the line.
Lightning strokes (Always Use of surge arresters/lighting protectors; and earth
affects the HT lines) wires/rods; since this cause often affects the HT
lines, J.P. fuses are used to protect the transformers
against the resultant over current of flashovers.
Heavy rainfall (This may Stay wires and stay poles are used as anchor to the
cause an electric pole to fall) electric pole.
Sagging of power lines (this Line separators (dry slender woods) are used to
causes phase jamming/short prevent sagging.
circuiting)
Bush burning Clearing of grasses/bush around the base of electric
poles; climbing stems are as well destroyed if
found on any pole.
Termites, accidents (vehicle) Concrete poles are often used in place of wooden
and vandals poles; and where wooden poles must be used; it is
mounted on a concrete base. Careful choice is
made in selecting the site and location to plant an
electric pole, and not near the road. Proper public
awareness programmes are often embarked upon to
help in forestalling the action of vandals.

In the Nsukka power system, the protective devices used are generally

classified into two viz: Outdoor and Indoor protection devices. The indoor protection

devices are those situated inside the control room and they include relays,

switchgears/breakers and fire extinguishers for use against any fire outbreak, as well

as sand for safely absorbing any oil spillage; while the outdoor protection devices

include all protection devices in the switchyard, outside the control room, as well as

those found at substations (distribution transformers) and the distribution boards of

residential houses.

Protection devices outside the control room but within the switchyard include:

current transformers, voltage transformers, isolators and circuit breakers. The

protection devices of a substation include: the J and P (Johnson and Philip) fuse, HRC

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(high rupture capacity) fuse, cross arm/separations, isolators, surge arresters and line

straps/stay wires, while that for residential distribution board is the cut-out fuse.

FAULT DATA AND ANALYSIS

An idea of the rate of occurrence of fault on a power system is very necessary

to the system engineer for predicting the system performance, and thus be able to

make adequate provision for effective protection measures. It is for this reason that

utility companies always keeps a record of system faults.

The Nsukka power system is wholly controlled by the PHCN Nsukka

undertaking since there is no independent power station in the locality. Hence the

fault data collected and being used for this work is from the PHCN Nsukka

undertaking.

Appendix III shows a one month daily fault report to the PHCN Nsukka

undertaking station. Fault reports are made on a daily basis by the customers of the

utility company who can best be described as laymen in terms of language used in

making the report; while the actual description of the fault, 3rd column is made by the

PHCN workmen (fault men) after clearing the fault.

The utility company also keeps a monthly record of the summary of faults

reported, under the following headings:

Surge arrester failure, Earth faults, Short Circuit faults, Open Circuit faults and

Unclassified faults.

Surge arrester failure:

Surge arresters are used for protecting HT power lines and transformers from

lightning strokes; while JP fuses, positioned on the incoming cables of a sub-station,

functions to intercept any overcurrent due to lightning stroke on the HT lines, from

flowing into the transformer.

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Earthfaults:
This results when the potential of a phase is neutralised as a result of the phase being

in contact, either physically or by induction (as flashover to earth), with the earth.

Short-circuit faults:
When two or more phases get in contact, a resultant overcurrent flows through one of

the phases; this often has either of the following effects:

a. A spark and possible melting with a resultant open circuiting of a phase

b. Hrc fuse cut
c. Upriser cut.

Open-circuit faults:
Open circuit fault occurs when a conduction path fails. It may be a single-phase, two-

phase, or three-phase path failure; but the most rampant is the single-phase open-

circuit fault.

Unclassified faults:
This is the name given to faults occuring as a result of a failure in the operation of any

of the power equipment within the switchyard.

Appendix IV shows the fault summary report for the year 2006.

Methods of Analysis

Since a fault results to the interruption of power flow, which most often is

expensive and at times embarrasses the customer in terms of delay in his work or

business venture, such that he lodges a report with the utility company, it is the

assumption of the company that about 90% of the total faults that occur in an area of

operation is reported. [12]

There are several methods which can be used in the analysis of fault data, but

in this research work with Nsukka town as case study, the method of analysis

employed is the fault tree method. A detailed description of fault tree method is

deliberately omitted to avoid digression, since it can be found elsewhere in published

literature [15, 16]

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Predicted Analysis

Oral discussion with some members of staff of the PHCN Nsukka undertaking

reveals that fault occurrence in Nsukka town is said to be seasonal, because the

greatest number of fault reports are always made during the rainy season. Hence one

can easily conclude that the most rampant faults peculiar to Nsukka town are

consequences of weather/atmospheric conditions.

Analysis Proper

The fault tree method has a lot of basic concepts, some which are briefly

explained to aid in the easy understanding of the analysis. The entire analysis using

the fault tree method is aimed at finding out all the possible causes of an undesirable

event (fault) which can best be described as the top event of the analysis.

An undesirable event ranges from minor system abnormalities, which affects

safety and availability, to the catastrophic events which can be very costly, in terms of

life and economy. In order to find the undesirable event, there is always the need to

make a preliminary risk analysis. This is so because if the event is too general, the

analysis tends to be unrealistic due to the complex nature of such an event, but if the

event is too specific, the analysis may as well fail to identify the important element(s)

of the system. Appendix V shows some of the most commonly used fault tree gate

symbols, names and meanings.

In the analysis, the monthly data summary of appendix IV is considered. The

fault tree diagrams of the various classifications are as described below:

Figure: 4.1 shows the fault tree diagram for Surge arrester failure,

Figure 4.2 shows the fault tree diagram for Earthfaults,

Figure 4.3 shows the fault tree diagrams for Short Circuit faults,

Figure 4.4 shows the fault tree diagram for Open Circuit faults.

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 JP fuse
cut

Lightning Over voltage

stroke developing
from the
tranformer

Fig.4.1: Fault tree diagram for JP fuse-cut.

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 Earthfault

Phase-to-earth
connection

Phase-to-ground
Solid
earthed
system

Lightning
flashover to
earth
Phase-to-neutral

Phase-to-Phase
Wet tree/ short-circuit and
branch on consequential
power line wire cut

Wind Tree/tree
jamming branch
phase and bridging phase
neutral and neutral
together together

Wire Tree branch

twisting falling on
Pole fall
power line

Fig.4.2: Fault tree diagram for Earthfault condition.

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 HRC fuse/Upriser
cuts

Phase-to-
phase short-
circuit
Overloading a
phase Phase
imbalance within
the transformer

Tree/branch
bridging two Electromagnetic
or more lines attraction

Wind causing Pole fall or

wire jam/ collapse
bridging

Fig.4.3: Fault tree diagrams for HRC/up-riser/line cuts,

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 Wire bridging/twisting

Phase-to-phase Phase-to-neutral
bridging bridging

Wind
Tree/branch
causing wire
Pole jamming two or
to jam/bridge
fall/collapse more phases
Snakes Electromagnetic together
attraction

Tree/branch
Wind causing jamming two or
wire to more phases
jam/bridge together

Fig.4.4: Fault tree diagram for Wire bridging/twisting.

From the fault tree diagrams of the various fault classifications, it can easily be

deduced that the basic causes of faults in Nsukka town are rooted to the atmospheric

conditions of the locality.

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 CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, the speed of fault clearance in distribution system is not as

important a factor as it is in the transmission system where system stability is much

required. Simple back-up protections which are often inherent in the main protection

are required for high reliability. Fuses are often used more than switchgears which

are very expensive to procure, maintain and replace.

In distribution systems, the consequences of mal-operation or failure to

operate are in general less serious than those of transmission and generation systems.

The primary function of protection in a distribution system is to maintain continuity

of supply to the individual consumers who are customers of the utility company;

hence is the need for discriminative protection, without which it will be impossible to

maintain a reliable modern power system.

The Nsukka power system, a distribution system, has the primary function of

ensuring steady power supply to its customers (inhabitants of Nsukka locality). This

primary function is to an appreciable degree achieved by ensuring that some

protection measures such as tree cutting/trimming, use of surge arresters, use of stay

wire and/or poles, as well as bush clearing are met.

From the fault analysis of chapter 4, it is seen that the greatest problem facing

the Nsukka power system is that of faults due to inclement weather conditions. These

faults can either be the severe short-circuited phase faults, open-circuited phase faults

or a combination of both.

Finally, the cost of protection can never be overestimated when one puts into

consideration the life of the working personnel; hence the security to life first, and

equipment, underscores the absolute need for the best protection ever possible.

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