CONCEPTS OF MATTER
solid, liquid and gas, and plasma. However, advances
Matter has many definitions, but the most common
is that it is any substance which has mass and
occupies space. All physical objects are composed of
matter, in the form of atoms, which are in turn
composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Photons have no mass, so they are an example of
something in physics is not comprised of matter.
They are also not considered "objects" in the
traditional sense, as they cannot exist in a stationary
state.
Before the 20th century, the term matter included
ordinary matter composed of atoms and excluded
other energy phenomena such as light or sound. This
concept of matter may be generalized from atoms to
include any objects having mass even when at rest,
but this is ill-defined because an object's mass can
arise from its (possibly massless) constituents'
motion and interaction energies. Thus, matter does
not have a universal definition, nor is it a
fundamental concept in physics today. Matter is also
used loosely as a general term for the substance that
makes up all observable physical objects.
All the objects from everyday life that we can bump
into, touch or squeeze are composed of atoms. This
atomic matter is in turn made up of interacting
subatomic particlesusually a nucleus of protons
and neutrons, and a cloud of orbiting electrons.
Typically, science considers these composite
particles matter because they have both rest mass
and volume. By contrast, massless particles, such as
photons, are not considered matter, because they
have neither rest mass nor volume. However, not all
particles with rest mass have a classical volume,
since fundamental particles such as quarks and
leptons (sometimes equated with matter) are
considered "point particles" with no effective size or
volume. Nevertheless, quarks and leptons together
make up "ordinary matter", and their interactions
contribute to the effective volume of the composite
particles that make up ordinary matter.
Matter commonly exists in four states (or phases):
in experimental techniques have revealed other
previously theoretical phases, such as BoseEinstein
condensates and fermionic condensates. A focus on
an elementary-particle view of matter also leads to
new phases of matter, such as the quarkgluon
plasma. For much of the history of the natural
sciences people have contemplated the exact nature
of matter. The idea that matter was built of discrete
building blocks, the so-called particulate theory of
matter, was first put forward by the Greek
philosophers Leucippus (~490 BC) and Democritus
(~470380 BC).
Matter should not be confused with mass, as the
two are not quite the same in modern physics. For
example, mass is a conserved quantity, which means
that its value is unchanging through time, within
closed systems. However, matter is not conserved in
such systems, although this is not obvious in
ordinary conditions on Earth, where matter is
approximately conserved. Still, special relativity
shows that matter may disappear by conversion into
energy, even inside closed systems, and it can also
be created from energy, within such systems.
However, because mass (like energy) can neither be
created nor destroyed, the quantity of mass and the
quantity of energy remain the same during a
transformation of matter (which represents a certain
amount of energy) into non-material (i.e., non-
matter) energy. This is also true in the reverse
transformation of energy into matter.
Different fields of science use the term matter in
different, and sometimes incompatible, ways. Some
of these ways are based on loose historical
meanings, from a time when there was no reason to
distinguish mass and matter. As such, there is no
single universally agreed scientific meaning of the
word "matter." Scientifically, the term "mass" is
well-defined, but "matter" is not. Sometimes in the
field of physics "matter" is simply equated with
particles that exhibit rest mass (i.e., that cannot
travel at the speed of light), such as quarks and
leptons. However, in both physics and chemistry,
matter exhibits both wave-like and particle-like
properties, the so-called waveparticle duality.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF MATTER
The Four Aristotelian Elements
Western chemistry grew up around old alchemical
ideas of Earth, Air, Fire, and Water the so called
Aristotelian elements a concept that originated
with the ancient Greeks and others.
Matter, the stuff from which our physical world is
formed, presents to us as various types of material.
On a first analysis, the possible phases are:
gaseous, such as air
liquid, such as water
solid, such as rock
However, for classification purposes it is useful to
divide materials into:
mixtures: variable composition
pure substances: stoichiometric
composition
Physical techniques, such as: distillation, filtration,
crush-&-sort, selective dissolution, chromatography,
etc., can be used to separate the individual
components of a mixture into chemically pure
substances, and physical methods such as turbulent
mixing can be used to blend pure substances
together into mixtures.
Matter, the stuff from which our physical world is
formed, presents to us as various types of material.
On a first analysis, the possible phases are:
gaseous, such as air
liquid, such as water
solid, such as rock
However, for classification purposes it is useful to
divide materials into:
mixtures: variable composition
pure substances: stoichiometric
composition
Physical techniques, such as: distillation, filtration,
crush-&-sort, selective dissolution, chromatography,
etc., can be used to separate the individual
components of a mixture into chemically pure
substances, and physical methods such as turbulent
mixing can be used to blend pure substances
together into mixtures.
The Chemical Classification of Matter: Updated
However, the above graphic is a little over simple for
our purposes, and can be usefully expanded to a
classification system is both derived from and is
compatible with the classification system employed
in The Chemical Thesaurus reaction chemistry
database:

Properties and Changes of Matter
The different types of matter can be distinguished
through two components: composition and
properties. The composition of matter refers to the
different components of matter along with their
relative proportions. The properties of matter refer
to the qualities/attributes that distinguish one
sample of matter from another. These properties are
generally grouped into two categories: physical or
chemical.
Figure 1: Visual With Examples
Physical (Properties and Changes)
Physical Property: A physical property is one that is
displayed without any change in composition.
(Intensive or Extensive)
Intensive properties: A physical property that
will be the same regardless of the amount of
matter.
density: m/v
color: The pigment or shade
conductivity: electricity to flow through the
substance
malleability: if a substance can be flattened
luster: how shiny the substance looks
Extensive Properties: A physical property that will
change if the amount of matter changes.
mass: how much matter in the sample
volume: How much space the sample takes
up
length: How long the sample is
Physical Change: Change in which the matter's
physical appearance is altered, but composition
remains unchanged. (Change in state of matter)
Three main states of matter are: Solid,
Liquid, Gas
o Solid is distinguished by a fixed
structure. Its shape and volume do
not change. In a solid, atoms are
tightly packed together in a fixed
arrangement.
o Liquid is distinguished by its
malleable shape (is able to form
into the shape of its container), but
constant volume. In a liquid, atoms
are close together but not in a
fixed arrangement.
o Gas is made up of atoms that are
separate. However, unlike solid &
liquid, a gas has no fixed shape and
volume.
Example 1: Physical Change
When liquid water (H2O) freezes into a solid state (ice), it
appears changed; However, this change is only physical as
the the composition of the constituent molecules is the
same: 11.19% hydrogen and 88.81% oxygen by mass.
 Figure 2: Ice Melting is a physical change

Chemical (Properties and Changes)

Chemical Property: Any characteristic that

gives a sample of matter the ability/inability
to undergo a change that alters its
composition. Examples: Alkali metals react
with water; Paper's ability to burn.
Chemical Change: Change in which one or
more kinds of matter are transformed to
new kinds of matter with altered
compositions (or Chemical Reaction).

Example 2: Chemical Change

Magnesium + Oxygen Magnesium Oxide

2Mg+O22MgO

Iron + Oxygen Iron Oxide/ Rust

4Fe+3O22Fe2O3

Using the components of composition and properties, we have the ability to distinguish one sample of matter from
the others.
KINDS/ FORMS OF ENERGY
Energy has a number of different forms, all of which
measure the ability of an object or system to do
work on another object or system.
In other words, there are different ways that an
object or a system can possess energy.
Here are the different basic forms:
Kinetic Energy:
Consider a baseball flying through the air. The ball is
said to have "kinetic energy" by virtue of the fact
that its in motion relative to the ground. You can see
that it is has energy because it can do "work" on an
object on the ground if it collides with it (either by
pushing on it and/or damaging it during the
collision).
The formula for Kinetic energy, and for some of the
other forms of energy described in this section will,
is given in a later section of this primer.
Potential Energy:
Consider a book sitting on a table. The book is said
to have "potential energy" because if it is nudged
off, gravity will accelerate the book, giving the book
kinetic energy. Because the Earth's gravity is
necessary to create this kinetic energy, and because
this gravity depends on the Earth being present, we
say that the "Earth-book system" is what really
possesses this potential energy, and that this energy
is converted into kinetic energy as the book falls.
Thermal, or heat energy:
Consider a hot cup of coffee. The coffee is said to
possess "thermal energy", or "heat energy" which is
really the collective, microscopic, kinetic and
potential energy of the molecules in the coffee (the
molecules have kinetic energy because they are
moving and vibrating, and they have potential
energy due their mutual attraction for one another -
much the same way that the book and the Earth
have potential energy because they attract each
other). Temperature is really a measure of how
much thermal energy something has. The higher the
temperature, the faster the molecules are moving
around and/or vibrating, i.e. the more kinetic and
potential energy the molecules have.
Chemical Energy:
Consider the ability of your body to do work. The
glucose (blood sugar) in your body is said to have
"chemical energy" because the glucose releases
energy when chemically reacted (combusted) with
oxygen. Your muscles use this energy to generate
mechanical force and also heat. Chemical energy is
really a form of microscopic potential energy, which
exists because of the electric and magnetic forces of
attraction exerted between the different parts of
each molecule - the same attractive forces involved
in thermal vibrations. These parts get rearranged in
chemical reactions, releasing or adding to this
potential energy.
Electrical Energy
All matter is made up of atoms, and atoms are made
up of smaller particles, called protons (which have
positive charge), neutrons (which have neutral
charge), and electrons (which are negatively
charged). Electrons orbit around the center, or
nucleus, of atoms, just like the moon orbits the
earth. The nucleus is made up of neutrons and
protons.
Some material, particularly metals, have certain
electrons that are only loosely attached to their
atoms. They can easily be made to move from one
atom to another if an electric field is applied to
them. When those electrons move among the atoms
of matter, a current of electricity is created.
This is what happens in a piece of wire when an
electric field, or voltage, is applied. The electrons
pass from atom to atom, pushed by the electric field
and by each other (they repel each other because
like charges repel), thus creating the electrical
current. The measure of how well something
conducts electricity is called its conductivity, and the
reciprocal of conductivity is called the resistance.
Copper is used for many wires because it has a lower
resistance than many other metals and is easy to use
and obtain. Most of the wires in your house are
made of copper. Some older homes still use
aluminum wiring.
The energy is really transferred by the chain of
repulsive interactions between the electrons down
the wire - not by the transfer of electrons per se.
This is just like the way that water molecules can
push on each other and transmit pressure (or force)
through a pipe carrying water. At points where a
strong resistance is encountered, its harder for the
electrons to flow - this creates a "back pressure" in a
sense back to the source. This back pressure is what
really transmits the energy from whatever is pushing
the electrons through the wire. Of course, this
applied "pressure" is the "voltage".
As the electrons move through a "resistor" in the
circuit, they interact with the atoms in the resistor
very strongly, causing the resistor to heat up - hence
delivering energy in the form of heat. Or, if the
electrons are moving instead through the wound
coils of a motor, they instead create a magnetic field,
which interacts with other magnets in the motor,
and hence turns the motor. In this case the "back
pressure" on the electrons, which is necessary for
there to be a transfer of energy from the applied
voltage to the motor's shaft, is created by the
magnetic fields of the other magnets (back) acting
on the electrons - a perfect push-pull arrangement!
Electrochemical Energy:
Consider the energy stored in a battery. Like the
example above involving blood sugar, the battery
also stores energy in a chemical way. But electricity
is also involved, so we say that the battery stores
energy "electro-chemically". Another electron
chemical device is a "fuel-cell".
Electromagnetic Energy (light):
Consider the energy transmitted to the Earth from
the Sun by light (or by any source of light). Light,
which is also called "electro-magnetic radiation".
Why the fancy term? Because light really can be
thought of as oscillating, coupled electric and
magnetic fields that travel freely through space
(without there having to be charged particles of
some kind around).
It turns out that light may also be thought of as little
packets of energy called photons (that is, as
particles, instead of waves). The word "photon"
derives from the word "photo", which means "light".
Photons are created when electrons jump to lower
energy levels in atoms, and absorbed when electrons
jump to higher levels. Photons are also created when
a charged particle, such as an electron or proton, is
accelerated, as for example happens in a radio
transmitter antenna.
But because light can also be described as waves, in
addition to being a packet of energy, each photon
also has a specific frequency and wavelength
associated with it, which depends on how much
energy the photon has (because of this weird duality
- waves and particles at the same time - people
sometimes call particles like photons "wavicles").
The lower the energy, the longer the wavelength
and lower the frequency, and vice versa. The reason
that sunlight can hurt your skin or your eyes is
because it contains "ultraviolet light", which consists
of high energy photons. These photons have short
wavelength and high frequency, and pack enough
energy in each photon to cause physical damage to
your skin if they get past the outer layer of skin or
the lens in your eye. Radio waves, and the radiant
heat you feel at a distance from a campfire, for
example, are also forms of electro-magnetic
radiation, or light, except that they consist of low
energy photons (long wavelength and high
frequencies - in the infrared band and lower) that
your eyes can't perceive. This was a great discovery
of the nineteenth century - that radio waves, x-rays,
and gamma-rays, are just forms of light, and that
light is electro-magnetic waves
Sound Energy:
Sound waves are compression waves associated
with the potential and kinetic energy of air
molecules. When an object moves quickly, for
example the head of drum, it compresses the air
nearby, giving that air potential energy. That air then
expands, transforming the potential energy into
kinetic energy (moving air). The moving air then
pushes on and compresses other air, and so on down
the chain. A nice way to think of sound waves is as
"shimmering air".
Nuclear Energy:
The Sun, nuclear reactors, and the interior of the
Earth, all have "nuclear reactions" as the source of
their energy, that is, reactions that involve changes
in the structure of the nuclei of atoms. In the Sun,
hydrogen nuclei fuse (combine) together to make
helium nuclei, in a process called fusion, which
releases energy. In a nuclear reactor, or in the
interior of the Earth, Uranium nuclei (and certain
other heavy elements in the Earth's interior) split
apart, in a process called fission. If this didn't
happen, the Earth's interior would have long gone
cold! The energy released by fission and fusion is not
just a product of the potential energy released by
rearranging the nuclei. In fact, in both cases, fusion
or fission, some of the matter making up the nuclei
is actually converted into energy. How can this be?
The answer is that matter itself is a form of energy!
This concept involves one of the most famous
formula's in physics, the formula,

E=mc2.
This formula was discovered by Einstein as part of
his "Theory of Special Relativity". In simple words,
this formula means:
The energy intrinsically stored in a piece of matter at
rest equals its mass times the speed of light squared.
When we plug numbers in this equation, we find
that there is actually an incredibly huge amount of
energy stored in even little pieces of matter (the
speed of light squared is a very very large number!).
For example, it would cost more than a million
dollars to buy the energy stored intrinsically stored
in a single penny at our current (relatively cheap!)
electricity rates. To get some feeling for how much
energy is really there, consider that nuclear weapons
only release a small fraction of the "intrinsic" energy
of their components.
Fig 1: Filtration
Mixture of Solids and Liquids
Sedimentation and Decantation
Sedimentation is the process of separating an
insoluble solid from a liquid in which it is suspended
by allowing it to settle to the bottom of the
container. If this also involves pouring off of the
liquid leaving the solid behind, it is
called decantation.
Filtration
Filtration is used for separating insoluble solids from
a liquid.
When a mixture of chalk and water is poured
through a filter paper in a funnel, chalk particles
remains as residue in the filter paper, while the
water gets collected in the beaker below as filtrate.
(see Fig. 1)

Separation of Mixtures Evaporation

In a mixture, since the constituent substances do not
lose their identity, they can be separated easily by
physical methods, taking advantage of the
differences in their physical properties.
Evaporation is used for recovering dissolved solid
substances from solutions by evaporating the
solvent. The solute dissolves out and is left behind.
Salt/sugar can be recovered from a salt/sugar -water
mixture by evaporation. The water evaporates to
leave the solute behind. Copper sulphate, potash
alum, potassium nitrateetc. can also be recovered
from their aqueous solutions by evaporation.

Fig 2: Distillation
Crystallisation
Crystallisation is a sophisticated form of evaporation
technique in which crystals of the solute are
encouraged to develop during the process of
dissolving out from the solution as the solvent
evaporates.
Distillation
Distillation is the process of heating a solution
containing soluble solids to form vapours of the
liquid and then cooling the vapours to get the liquid
back.
A mixture of common salt and water is taken in
a distillation flask and heated. Steam rises up and
comes out into the condenser, which is a coaxial
tube with a central tube for vapour to pass through,
and and outer tube through which cold water
circulates to form a cold water jacket. Steam
condenses in the central tube and collects in
a receiver as distillate. (see Fig. 2)
Fig 3: Sublimation of ammonium
chloride.(Source: NCERT, Science IX, p. 8)
Mixture of Solids
Sublimation
Sublimation is a process in which some solids, on
heating, are transformed directly to vapour without
passing through the liquid phase, and vice versa. This
technique can be used to separate a mixture of
solids, one of which can undergo sublimation. The
vapours are then cooled separately to get the
sublimed solid back. (Fig. 3)
Sublimation is used in the separation of substances
likeammonium
chloride, iodine, napthalene, camphor andsulphur.
Extraction
In some cases, one substance in the mixture is
soluble in a particular liquid solvent whereas the
other(s) is(are) insoluble in it. The process of
dissolving out the soluble component from a
mixture, and subsequently treating the solution to
get the solid, is called extraction.
Magnetic Separation
This method of separation is exemplified by the
separation of iron filings.
A mixture with iron filings as one of the components
can be separated using a magnet to attract the iron
particles away from the mixture.

Fig 4: Chromatography
Chromatography
Chromatography is an advanced technique of
separation in which individual components of a
mixture are separated from each other using the
property of differential migration (different rates of
flow). Here, a mobile phase, carrying the mixture, is
passed through a selectivelyadsorbent stationary
phase, which can retain the components of the
mixture to different degrees. (Fig. 4)
Mixture of Liquids
Fractional Distillation
Fig 5: Fractional Distillation
Fractional distillation is the process of separating
two or more miscible liquids by a modified
distillation process, in which the distillates are
collected as fractions having different boiling points.
The separation of the liquids by this method is based
on the difference in their boiling points. (Fig. 5)
Fractional distillation makes use of a fractionating
column or distillation column, a tube which provides
different temperature zones inside it during
distillation, the temperature decreasing from
bottom to top. It provides surfaces on which
condensations (of less volatile liquids) and
vaporizations (of more volatile liquids) can occur
before the vapours enter the condenser in order to
concentrate the more volatile liquid in the first
fractions and the less volatile components in the
later fractions.
Fractional distillation is very effective is separating
mixtures of volatile components, and is widely used
in laboratories and industries.
Crude petroleum is separated by the process of
fractional distillation into different fractions like
gasoline, lubricating oil, kerosene, diesel etc.
Fig 6: Gravity Separation. (Source:
NCERT, Science IX, p. 20)
Gravity Separation
In gravity separation, a mixture of two immiscible
liquids can be separated using a separating funnel,
the working of which is based on the differences in
the densities of the liquids. The heavier liquid which
settles below is drained out first from below the
funnel into a beaker, and then the lighter liquid is
drained out into another beaker.
CHEMICAL LAWS OF MATTER
Avogadro's Law
Equal volumes of gases under identical temperature
and pressure conditions will contain equal numbers
of particles (atoms, ion, molecules, electrons, etc.).
Boyle's Law
At constant temperature, the volume of a confined
gas is inversely proportional to the pressure to which
it is subjected.
PV = k
Charles' Law
At constant pressure, the volume of a confined gas is
directly proportional to the absolute temperature.
V = kT
Conservation of Energy
Energy can be neither created nor destroyed; the
energy of the universe is constant. This is the First
Law of Thermodynamics.
Conservation of Mass
Also known as Conservation of Matter. Matter can
be neither created nor destroyed, though it can be
rearranged. Mass remains constant in an ordinary
chemical change.
Dalton's Law
The pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the
sum of the partial pressures of the component
gases.
Definite Composition
A compound is composed of two or more elements
chemically combined in a defined ratio by weight.
Dulong & Petit's Law
Most metals require 6.2 cal of heat in order to raise
the temperature of 1 gram-atomic mass of the metal
by 1C.
Faraday's Law
The weight of any element liberated during
electrolysis is proportional to the quantity of
electricity passing through the cell and also to the
equivalent weight of the element.
First Law of Thermodynamics
Conservation of Energy. The total energy of the
universe is constant and is neither created nor
destroyed.
Gay-Lussac's Law
The ratio between the combining volumes of gases
and the product (if gaseous) can be expressed in
small whole numbers.
Graham's Law
The rate of diffusion or effusion of a gas is inversely P is the absolute pressure
proportional to the square root of its molecular
mass. V is the volume of the vessel

n is the number of moles of gas

Henry's Law R is the ideal gas constant

The solubility of a gas (unless it is highly soluble) is T is the absolute temperature

directly proportional to the pressure applied to the
gas.

Multiple Proportions

Ideal Gas Law When elements combine, they do so in the ratio of

small whole numbers. The mass of one element
The state of an ideal gas is determined by its combines with a fixed mass of another element
pressure, volume, and temperature according to the according to this ratio.
equation:

Periodic Law
PV = nRT
The chemical properties of the elements vary
where periodically according to their atomic numbers.

Second Law of Thermodynamics

Entropy increases over time. Another way of stating

this law is to say that heat cannot flow, on its own,
from an area of cold to an area of hot.