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Physical methods:-
Electrolytic deposition
Atomization: Water Atomization, Gas Atomization, Vacuum Atomization, Centrifugal Atomization,
Rotating disk Atomization, Ultrasonic Atomisation
Advantages of HERF Processes
i) Production rates are higher, as parts are made at a rapid rate.
ii) Die costs are relatively lower.
iii) Tolerances can be easily maintained.
iv) Versatility of the process it is possible to form most metals including difficult to form metals.
v) No or minimum spring back effect on the material after the process.
vi) Production cost is low as power hammer (or press) is eliminated in the process. Hence it is
economically justifiable.
vii) Complex shapes / profiles can be made much easily, as compared to conventional forming.
viii) The required final shape/ dimensions are obtained in one stroke (or step), thus eliminating
intermediate forming steps and pre forming dies.
ix) Suitable for a range of production volume such as small numbers, batches or mass production.
Limitations:
i) Highly skilled personnel are required from design to execution.
ii) Transient stresses of high magnitude are applied on the work.
iii) Not suitable to highly brittle materials
iv) Source of energy (chemical explosive or electrical) must be handled carefully.
v) Governmental regulations/ procedures / safety norms must be followed.
vi) Dies need to be much bigger to withstand high energy rates and shocks and to prevent cracking.
vii) Controlling the application of energy is critical as it may crack the die or work.
viii) It is very essential to know the behavior or established performance of the work metal initially.
Applications:
i) In ship building to form large plates / parts (up to 25 mm thick).
ii) Bending thick tubes/ pipes (up to 25 mm thick).
iii) Crimping of metal strips.
iv) Radar dishes
v) Elliptical domes used in space applications.
vi) Cladding of two large plates of dissimilar metals.
Blending and conditioning in PM
Blending: mixing powder of the same chemical composition but different sizes
Mixing: combining powders of different chemistries
Blending and mixing are accomplished by mechanical means:
Except for powders, some other ingredients are usually added are called as conditioning:
Lubricants: to reduce the particles-die friction
Binders: to achieve enough strength before sintering
Deocculants: to improve the ow characteristics during feeding
Friction is characterized by coefficient of friction () which is the ratio of the frictional resistance force ()
to the normal force (p).
= /p
= .p (Coulombs friction law)
The value of the coefficient of friction () depends on:
Work metal being formed
Tool material
Surface roughness of the work and the tool
Speed of deformation
Temperature
Type of lubricant used
According to Tresca model of friction we can write: = m k, where m is called friction factor. m varies
between 0 and 1. If m =1 we have the interfacial shear stress equal to the shear yield strength. In such a
situation, we have sticking friction. The surfaces get interlocked with each other so that they could not
slide against each other. Material beneath the surface undergoes shear deformation. The die material
should not deform plastically and the work material could undergo plastic deformation. Sticking friction
could happen at normal stresses greater than the flow stress by at least a factor of 3. Under the
circumstances, the soft work material penetrates into the surface of the die material.
According to Coulomb model, the frictional stress increases with coefficient of friction, as the shear force
is proportional to normal pressure. According to Tresca model, the frictional shear force is independent of
the normal pressure, because, the shear stress is proportional to shear yield strength, which is a constant. In
mixed mode of friction, both Coulombic model and Tresca model could happen simultaneously. It has
been experimentally verified that when a cylindrical work piece is upset, along the outer circumference
there is sticking friction, and inside towards axis of forming there is sliding friction. This can be due to
the run out of the lubricant and hence the metal-to-metal contact along the periphery.
Twist Compression Test (TCT) is widely used as a laboratory screening test for evaluating metal
working lubricants
In the TCT, a rotating annual tool is pressed against a fixed sheet metal specimen with selected
pressure and sliding speed to simulate the metal forming process.
The coefficient of friction (COF, ) is estimated as a function of time by the ratio of friction force
and normal force.
Coulomb law of friction
Coulomb friction, named after Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, is a model to describe friction forces. It is
described by the equation:
Ff = Fn where, Ff is either the force exerted by friction, or, in the case of equality, the maximum possible
magnitude of this force.
is the coefficient of friction, which is an empirical property of the contacting materials,
Fn is the normal force exerted between the surfaces
For surfaces at rest relative to each other = s, where s is the coefficient of static friction. This is usually
larger than its kinetic counterpart. The Coulomb friction may take any value from zero up to F f, and the
direction of the frictional force against a surface is opposite to the motion that surface would experience in
the absence of friction. Thus, in the static case, the frictional force is exactly what it must be in order to
prevent motion between the surfaces; it balances the net force tending to cause such motion. In this case,
rather than providing an estimate of the actual frictional force, the Coulomb approximation provides a
threshold value for this force, above which motion would commence.
For surfaces in relative motion = k, where k is the coefficient of kinetic friction. The Coulomb friction
is equal to Ff, and the frictional force on each surface is exerted in the direction opposite to its motion
relative to the other surface.
This approximation mathematically follows from the assumptions that surfaces are in atomically close
contact only over a small fraction of their overall area, that this contact area is proportional to the
normal force (until saturation, which takes place when all area is in atomic contact), and that frictional
force is proportional to the applied normal force, independently of the contact area (you can see the
experiments on friction from Leonardo Da Vinci). Such reasoning aside, however, the approximation is
fundamentally an empirical construction. It is a rule of thumb describing the approximate outcome of an
extremely complicated physical interaction. The strength of the approximation is its simplicity and
versatility though in general the relationship between normal force and frictional force is not exactly
linear (and so the frictional force is not entirely independent of the contact area of the surfaces), the
Coulomb approximation is an adequate representation of friction for the analysis of many physical
systems.