Optics and Lasers in Engineering 87 (2016) 5974

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Optics and Lasers in Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/optlaseng

Digital photoelasticity of glass: A comprehensive review

Ramesh Kn, Vivek Ramakrishnan
Department of Applied Mechanics, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The recent advances in digital photoelasticity have made it possible to use it conveniently for the stress
Received 10 January 2016 analysis of articles and components made of glass. Depending on the application, the retardation levels to
Received in revised form be measured range from a few nanometres to several thousand nanometres, which necessitates different
13 March 2016
techniques and associated equipments. This paper reviews the recent advances in the photoelasticity of
Accepted 15 March 2016
Available online 31 March 2016
glass with a focus on the techniques/methods developed in the last decade. A brief introduction to the
residual stress in glass is provided initially to bring out its tensorial nature. The subsequent sections are
Keywords: organised thematically rather than chronologically, for better readability and easy access of information.
Digital photoelasticity & 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Tempered glass
Float glass
Residual stress
Scattered light

1. Introduction
Glass is one of the oldest man made materials and history of
glass making can be traced back to third century B.C. Over the last
decade, there has been an explosion in the use of glass ranging
from structural applications to bio-medical engineering. One of
the main concerns in the applicability of glass is its brittle nature
and failure under tensile stress. Over the years, researchers have
understood that the structural behaviour of glass can be regulated
to a large extent by controlling the residual stress in them [14].
Residual stresses are introduced in glass articles during manu-
facturing when they are cooled from the glass transition tem-
perature to the room temperature. The residual stresses affect the
bending strength and fragmentation properties of glass. Hence,
their measurement and control are very important in glass
industries.
Photoelasticity is based on the phenomenon of stress/strain-
induced birefringence and basically provides principal stress dif-
ference and their orientations. This technique has been in use for
stress measurement in glass since it exhibits stress-induced bire-
fringence. Though birefringence in glass was rst observed by
Arago [5] in 1811, it was Seebeck [6] who rst performed sys-
tematic studies on the birefringence in glass specimens of different
shapes with different thermal treatments. Initial signicant con-
tributions were made by Brewster [7,8], who independently per-
formed thorough investigation on the photoelastic effect in glass.
The roles of Arago, Seebeck and Brewster on the discovery of
n
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: kramesh@iitm.ac.in (Ramesh K.).
photoelastic effect in glass is detailed in Ref. [9]. Over the years, a
number of photoelasticity based measurement techniques and
commercial equipments have been developed for residual stress
measurements and on-line quality inspection of glass. One of the
earliest monographs [1] on the topic appeared in 1993, which
gives an exhaustive discussion on the various techniques adopted
till then.
In 1999, Mckenzie and Hand [10] surveyed the available optical
methods for glass stress analysis, which is relevant for the users of
photoelastic analysis in glass industries. The use of digital com-
puters for photoelastic analysis was still in its infancy during that
period. The advent of affordable high quality digital image acqui-
sition and processing systems led to the emergence of digital
photoelasticity [1114]. The recent reviews [15,16] focussed on
specic issues in the use of 2D transmission photoelasticity for
retardation measurements in glass. In 2008, Aben et al. [17] have
briey reviewed the use of modern photoelastic technology for the
residual stress measurement in glass articles.
The last decade has seen rapid advancements in glass stress
analysis using photoelasticity. A range of photoelastic techniques
are available that can be used for either quick approximate esti-
mation or to carry out detailed studies in cases that demand
accuracy of the evaluated parameters. A comprehensive review of
the techniques/methods will enable users to make an informed
choice and may also aid them to develop newer techniques lead-
ing to the advancements in the topic. The review is organised
thematically rather than chronologically, to facilitate easy access of
information to the user. Glass literature is aplenty with domain
specic terminologies, which usually deters a generic stress

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.optlaseng.2016.03.017
0143-8166/& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
60 Ramesh K., V. Ramakrishnan / Optics and Lasers in Engineering 87 (2016) 5974
analyst. A brief introduction to the residual stress in glass is pro-
vided initially to bring out its tensorial nature.
2. Residual stress in glass
Usually, the residual stresses are introduced in glass plates
either by thermal or chemical means. The thermal residual stres-
ses are created during their manufacturing process when they are
cooled from the glass transition temperature to the room tem-
perature. These residual stresses affect the structural as well as the
optical properties of glass. Usually for structural applications,
presence of compressive residual stresses on the surface of glass is
benecial as it improves the strength and fragmentation char-
acteristics. Whereas, for optical applications, this is detrimental as
it alters the refractive index. Hence, the measurement of residual
stresses in glass articles is important. For structural applications,
the minimum residual stress requirements are prescribed by ASTM
[18,19]. The residual stress in glass vary from 0 to 1 MPa in
moulded glass lens, 70120 MPa in thermally tempered glass
plates to as high as 1000 MPa in chemically tempered glass plates.
Generally, the problems involving stress analysis of glass can be
classied into three at glass, axi-symmetric and generic three-
dimensional problems.
The glass literature generally labels the residual stresses in a
manner that could be understood in a processing unit as thickness,
membrane and edge stresses. Stress is a tensor of Rank 2 and it is
desirable that these stresses are also identied as suitable tensorial
components. The subsequent sections provide an overview of the
nature of residual stress in various glass articles.
2.1. Flat glass
Thermal residual stresses in plate glass are generally divided
into two thickness and membrane stresses [1,2]. The thickness
stresses are the stresses induced due to the thermal gradients
across the thickness of the glass plates. Membrane stresses are
introduced due to the thermal gradients along the surface of the
plate. Membrane stresses near the edge of the glass plate is termed
as edge stress. In glass literature [1,20], one would also nd a term
surface stress which denotes the combined effect of the thickness
and membrane stresses on the glass surface. Nomenclature of
Fig. 1. Schematic illustration of the nature of residual stress in a heat treated glass plate. A rectangular block A is considered at the zone away from the edges to illustrate the
nature and variation of thickness stress. Blocks B and C located at the edges illustrate the nature of edge stresses.
residual stress as thickness, membrane and edge stress is con-
venient as the reason for their formation can be identied and
controlled separately. Further, in measurement, the optical meth-
ods lend themselves to measure these separately.
Fig. 1 illustrates the nature of residual stresses in a heat treated
glass plate in typical blocks taken at selected locations. For a block
at A which is taken away from the edges, the variation of thickness
stress components on x and y planes are shown. Tensorially these
are y and x components for the coordinate system shown in
Fig. 1. Variation of x and y across the thickness of the plate is
parabolic in nature with compression near the surface and tension
in the central region. The maximum tensile stress is usually half
the magnitude of the surface compressive stress [21]. The com-
pressive stress near the surface increases the bending strength of
glass, whereas the tension in the mid-plane affects its fragmen-
tation properties. The magnitude of thickness stress is found to
depend on the cooling process [2224] and the dimensions of the
glass plate [25]. It is reported that the stress state is hydrostatic
(x E y) at zones away from the edges and cut-outs [1,2].
Membrane stresses are created due to the non-uniformity in
cooling across the surface of the glass plate. They are constant
throughout the thickness of the plate [1]. Among the membrane
stresses, the stresses near the edge are of interest to the glass
manufacturers [21]. Block B (Fig. 1) is taken along the edge parallel
to the y-direction and the edge stress component for a typical
section in the x plane are illustrated. Tensorially it is y and is
compressive in nature. Similarly, block C (Fig. 1) is taken along the
edge parallel to the x-direction and x is the edge stress for a
typical section in the y-plane. The z component is usually
neglected owing to the small thickness.
Edge stresses are created since the edges of the glass plate act
as additional cooling surfaces and cool down faster compared to
the central region. They are generally compressive in nature and
are benecial to arrest crack growth and improves the glass
strength. Recently, Aben et al. [26,27] reported a correlation
between edge stress and surface stress in tempered glass plates.
This allows one to determine one type of stress when the other
is known.
2.1.1. Visualisation and measurement using photoelasticity
In photoelastic measurements, only those stress components in
a plane perpendicular to the light path contribute to photoelastic
 Ramesh K., V. Ramakrishnan / Optics and Lasers in Engineering 87 (2016) 5974 61

Fig. 2. Generic optical arrangement in a circular polariscope. Illustration of the typical viewing directions for measuring different types of stress (a) Thickness stress (light
direction along the x-axis) (b) Dark eld isochromatic fringe patterns corresponding to thickness stress in a oat glass slice. (c) Membrane stress (light direction along the z-
axis). (d) Dark eld isochromatic fringe patterns corresponding to edge stress in a tempered glass plate.

Fig. 3. Schematic illustration of the nature of residual stress in chemically strengthened glass (a) Chemically strengthened glass bar (b) Nature of residual stresses on a
section of the bar (c) Dark eld isochromatics corresponding to the bar shown in Fig. 3(a) when it is viewed such that light passes through y-direction. The surfaces in the x-z
plane are ground and polished to a depth of 1 mm to remove the strengthened layers. (d) Magnied view of the isochromatic fringes near the edge (courtesy: Ref. [30]).

effect. Fig. 2 shows the optical arrangement in a circular polari-
scope with two different orientations of the glass plate. The
thickness stress component of y is directly measurable by placing
the glass plate such that the light passes through the width (x
direction) of the glass (Fig. 2(a)). Fig. 2(b) shows dark eld iso-
chromatics corresponding to the thickness stresses in a commer-
cial oat glass slice. They appear as straight fringes with increasing
gradient towards the edges. When this oat glass slice is rotated
and observed such that light passes through the z-direction, no
perceivable fringes are observed since the integrated retardation is
close to zero owing to the parabolic variation of the residual stress
components x and y.
Membrane stresses in tempered/heat strengthened glass plates
can be viewed by placing the glass such that the light passes
through the glass thickness (z direction) as shown in Fig. 2(c).
Fig. 2(d) shows the dark eld isochromatic fringes near the edge of
a tempered glass plate. It can be clearly seen that the edge of the
glass plate is highly stressed compared to the other regions. The
fringe pattern represents integrated effect of |x-y| and at the
edge of the plate, it corresponds to y. The fringe order decreases
sharply with distance from the edge.
The optical information obtained using the polariscope is
related to the stress values by the stress-optic law given by [11],
NF
1
2 1
h
where, ( 1
2 ) is the principal stress difference, N is the fringe
order, F is the material stress fringe value and h is the effective
length of the light path. Hence, if one knows the fringe order and
the material stress fringe value, principal stress difference can be
obtained. Determination of material stress fringe value is called
photoelastic calibration which is discussed in Section 3.
2.1.2. Chemically-strengthened glass
In chemically tempered glass, residual stresses are introduced
by ion-exchange process where the original glasses are immersed
in a molten alkali salt at temperatures below the glass transition.
The alkali ions close to the surface of the glass are exchanged with
those from the molten salt during the thermally activated inter-
diffusion process. If the ionic radius of the penetrating ions is
larger than the ions leaving, then the surface of the glass is sub-
jected to compression [1,2831]. Here, a zone of very high
62 Ramesh K., V. Ramakrishnan / Optics and Lasers in Engineering 87 (2016) 5974
compressive stresses is created at the surface of the glass with a
depth of less than 1 mm.
Fig. 3(a)-(b) shows the schematic illustration of the nature of
residual stresses in a chemically tempered glass bar. The com-
pressive stresses close to the edge AB in terms of stress compo-
nents is only x. Fig. 3(c) shows the dark eld isochromatics [30]
corresponding to the bar shown in Fig. 3(a) when it is viewed such
that light passes through y-direction. The viewing surfaces (xz
plane) are ground and polished to a depth of 1 mm to remove the
strengthened layers before observation. Fig. 3(d) shows the mag-
nied view of the isochromatics near the edge and it can be seen
that the fringe gradient is very high close to the edge. The use of
chemically strengthened glasses are increasing due to their
advantages like high surface compression, unaffected optical
quality and ability of the tempering process to strengthen thin
glasses of any complicated shapes.
2.2. Axi-symmetric glass articles
Similar to the glass plates, residual stresses are also introduced
in axi-symmetric glass articles like tumblers, glass cooking ware
and bulbs during their manufacturing process. In articles such as
tumblers, residual stresses of the order of 90 MPa are introduced
for improving their strength and resistance [32]. Though the nat-
ure of the stresses introduced is similar to the glass plates, their
quantication becomes quite complex and concepts of tensorial
tomography are needed to interpret them.
In a general three dimensional photoelastic model, the princi-
pal stress difference as well as the principal stress orientations
vary along the light path. If the principal stress directions remain
constant or when the birefringence is weak, the optical informa-
tion can be linked to the stress distribution by integral Wertheim
law [1,32], which is given by,
Z Z
 
cos 2 C x
y dz and sin 2 2C xy dz 2 tension [34,35], four point bending [34,3638], concentrated force
where light propagates in the z-direction, C is the stress-optic
coefcient (C /F), x, y and xy are the components of the
stress tensor and is the wavelength of light. Eq. (2) is valid if is
less than approximately of the wavelength and the angle of
rotation of the principal stress directions is less than /6. In the
case of axial symmetry, should be less than of the wavelength
[1]. This equation nds use in several techniques for glass stress
measurement.
Fig. 4(a) shows the magnied view of dark eld integrated
photoelastic fringe patterns in a section of the wall of a glass
Fig. 4. Dark eld isochromatics: (a) Section of a glass tumbler recorded in monochromatic light and (b) convex lens recorded in a plane polariscope under white light.
tumbler. Dark eld integrated fringe pattern in a convex lens
obtained using a plane polariscope is shown in Fig. 4(b). To record
these patterns, the glass articles are immersed in a bath of
immersion liquid which has the same refractive index as that of
the glass sample. The residual stresses in the glass tumbler are
intentionally introduced to improve its strength. Quantication of
stresses in axi-symmetric articles is dealt in Section 4.4.1. Residual
stresses in the lens affect its optical properties especially the
refractive index [33]. These stresses need to be relieved by careful
control of the annealing process. However, optimisation of the
total time period is also gaining importance in precision moulding
of glass lens. Use of birefringence measurement for improved
numerical modelling is discussed in Section 5.
3. Stress-optic coefcient of glass
3.1. Measurement of glass stress-optic coefcient C
Unlike in conventional photoelasticity where material stress
fringe value (F, N/mm/fringe) is widely used for quantifying the
photoelastic behaviour; in glass literature [1,3445] one nds the
use of photoelastic constant C (TPa
1). For most glasses, the value
of C lies in the range of 24 TPa
1 [1] whereas for commonly used
photoelastic materials like epoxy it is in the order of 50 TPa
1.
Hence, the birefringence in glass is weak and its accurate deter-
mination poses a challenge.
Early methods for the determination of photoelastic constant
(usually called photoelastic calibration) are detailed in Ref [1].
Calibration is performed on simple specimens with known stress
state. The standard test method for measuring the stress-optic
coefcient of glass using conventional photoelasticity is detailed in
Ref. [34]. The specimens used in general are glass bre under
at a point [1,39], uni-axial tension/compression [4044] and
cylinder/disc under diametral compression [45,46]. Considering
the easiness of specimen preparation and accuracy of loading, the
use of beam under four point bending is preferable. Table 1 lists
the various approaches used for the calibration of glass.
Early methods involved the use of compensators for point by
point retardation measurements [34,38,4043]. Recently, Ramesh
et al. [36] have explored the use of recent advances in digital
photoelasticity for the photoelastic calibration of glass. They used
a beam specimen and recommended the use of phase shifting for
accurate estimation of C and carrier fringe method for quick
 Ramesh K., V. Ramakrishnan / Optics and Lasers in Engineering 87 (2016) 5974 63

Table 1
Methods for photoelastic calibration of glass reported in literature.

Fig. 5. (a) Dark eld isochromatics in glass beam free of residual stress under no-load. Composite fringes obtained by the superposition of glass and the carrier under (b) no-
load (c) loaded condition. (d) Dark eld isochromatics in a commercially oat lass beam under no-load. Composite fringes obtained by the superposition of glass and the
carrier under: (e) no-load (f) loaded condition.
64 Ramesh K., V. Ramakrishnan / Optics and Lasers in Engineering 87 (2016) 5974
calibration applications. In both approaches, the emphasis was on
the use of whole eld data for accurate measurement.
Usual methods for calibration demand glass samples free of any
residual stresses. If the sample has residual stress, it has to be
removed by a carefully controlled annealing cycle which is time-
consuming in an industrial scenario. Further, it is also reported [48]
that the photoelastic constant value of glass depends even on the
thermal history. Fontana [48] found that the stress optic coefcient
of annealed soda lime glass is lower than that of un-annealed glass.
Hence, it is desirable to develop methods that can be used to cali-
brate glass with residual stress. In 2010, Nielsen et al. [49,50] used a
scattered light polariscope, SCALP, to calibrate tempered glass plate
by measuring the surface stress change on loading.
Vivek and Ramesh [37] improved the method of carrier fringes
in Ref. [36] to calibrate oat glass with residual stress. It would be
of interest to see how the fringe patterns differ in a specimen with
residual stress compared to a stress free specimen. Fig. 5(a)
(c) shows the photoelastic fringe pattern in the glass and the
composite fringes obtained by the superposition of glass and car-
rier. When the glass beam is loaded, the composite fringes rotate
(Fig. 5(c)). This deviation from the vertical is used for the deter-
mination of retardation. Fig. 5(d)(f) shows the photoelastic fringe
pattern in a oat glass with residual stress and the composite
fringes obtained by the superposition of glass and carrier. The
deviation of the composite fringes shown in Fig. 5(f) with respect
to the ones shown in Fig. 5(e) is used to determine the photo-
elastic constant. Mathematical details used for the estimation can
be found in Refs. [36,37].
3.2. Inuence of glass composition on stress-optic coefcient C
The value of the photoelastic constant depends on the com-
position of glass. The inuence of the composition on its photo-
elastic constant was rst studied by Pockels [51] who studied the
effect of lead oxide content in int glass. They concluded that as
the percentage of lead oxide increases, the photoelastic constant
decreases. It was found that as the percentage content of PbO
reaches about 75%, the photoelastic constant approaches zero
(C 0) and beyond this it behaves like a negative crystal (Co 0).
The inuence of additives on the properties of silica, borate and
phosphate based glasses have been extensively discussed in the
glass literature [1,4245,5254] but the studies on uoride and
chalcogenide glasses [40,41] are few. Photoelastic behaviour of
borosilicate glasses was studied by Filon [52], who found that C
increase with the addition of boric oxide whereas it decreases with
increase in the percentage of potassium oxide. It is reported that
common oxide glass formers (SiO2, B2O3 and P2O5) have positive
values of C and the addition of alkali and alkaline earth oxides
lowers it to some extent [1]. But the addition of oxides such as
PbO, Bi2O3 and Tl2O can lower it to zero or even negative. Balm-
forth and Holland [53] found that replacing soda by lime resulted
in small but signicant increase in the stress-optical coefcient.
Matusita et al. [54] studied the photoelastic constants of borate
glasses and found that Boron trioxide B2O3 glass has a very high
stress-optical coefcient of 11 TPa1 and lead oxide-boron trioxide
PbO-B2O3 glass has a stressoptical coefcient of zero.
Recently, there is considerable focus on developing zero stress-
optic glasses which, as the name implies, exhibit zero birefrin-
gence even in the presence of applied stress. Applications of such
glasses include optical instrumentation and projection systems.
Owing to environmental regulations, the conventional use of lead
has now decreased and there have been studies to understand and
develop alternate materials to form zero stress-optic glasses.
Guignard et al. [42,55] discovered a correlation between stress-
induced birefringence and the ratio of metal oxygen bond metal-
licity to the metal coordination number. This provides a criterion
to choose the composition of oxide glass so as to minimise C. Using
this correlation, Guignard and Zwanziger [56] have found that
barium tellurite glasses also exhibit zero stress-optic behaviour.
Recently, Galbraith and Zwanziger [57] proposed a new composi-
tion of barium and lead phosphates to develop glass whose stress-
optic response is non-dispersive over the optical range. Their
results suggest that with appropriate glass compositions, the
stress optic response can be controlled over a range of wave-
lengths. For optical glasses with very low photoelastic constant
(o0.1 TPa
1), Tarkes and Ramesh [39] proposed the use of con-
centrated force acting on an edge of glass in conjunction with
phase shifting for photoelastic calibration.
4. Methods for photoelastic parameter evaluation in glass
The range of birefringence levels that one encounters in glass
applications is wide. Retardations may vary from 0.01 fringe order in
optical lens, close to 2 fringes in thermally tempered glass plates to
more than 15 fringes in chemically tempered glass. Hence, the
methods adopted for retardation measurement is dependent on the
problem at hand. In order to make reliable measurements in cases
where the retardation is low, various methods of augmenting the
basic information are usually employed. With modern developments
in phase shifting, it is also possible to measure very low retardations
directly, provided high quality optical elements are used.
4.1. Transmission photoelasticity
4.1.1. Compensation techniques
Compensation techniques may either involve an additional
birefringent plate (called compensator or tint plates) to augment
the total retardation or use the optical elements in the polariscope
itself. External compensators are designed such that their effective
thickness can be varied thereby varying the retardation. The
commonly used compensators are wedge, polythene square,
Babinet-soleil compensators, standard strain discs and Berek
compensators [10]. Compensators have been used conventionally
for qualitative analysis of residual stress in glass or to determine
the retardation at a point. Standard strain discs and tint plates can
be used to assess the retardation in the glass by comparing colours
using a standard chart. Birefringent wedges, polyurethane square
and tint plate can also be used for determination of the sign of
stress near the edge of the glass plate.
4.1.2. Carrier fringe method
The use of carrier fringes in photoelasticity was rst introduced
by Rupeng [58]. They are usually used to amplify the retardation in
the model when it is low for measurement and this aspect has
been used for analysing glass as it is weakly birefringent. Usually
used carrier specimens are beam under four point bending, C-
shaped specimen under tension or a tensile specimen subjected to
eccentric loading. Early methods used carrier fringes as compen-
sators for point by point measurement as discussed in Section
4.1.1. Recently, Ajovalasit et al. [59] have shown that the method of
carrier fringes could be used for automated measurements of
residual retardation near the edge of a tempered glass plate.
Retardation measurement is based on the principle that the
intensity of light depends only on the retardation when the carrier
and glass plate are oriented in such a way that their principal
stress directions are perpendicular/parallel to each other. The
novelty in their work is that the measurement of retardation is
simplied into the measurement of spatial deviation of the com-
posite fringe pattern with respect to the reference carrier fringes.
Naveen et al. [60] made observations that retardation obtained
from this method is dependent on the carrier fringe density and
 Ramesh K., V. Ramakrishnan / Optics and Lasers in Engineering 87 (2016) 5974 65

Fig. 6. Composite fringe obtained by the superposition of the glass and the carrier. (a) Edge Stress in tempered glass (b) Magnied image showing the deviation of composite
fringes (c) Thickness stress in oat glass (d) Magnied image showing the deviation of composite fringes. Skeletons of the composite fringes are also shown in (b) and (d).

suggested the use of a high density carrier. Fig. 6(a) shows the
composite fringes obtained by the superposition of the tempered
glass and the carrier. If the principal stresses in the carrier and the
glass plate are mutually perpendicular to each other, the retarda-
tion in the glass can be given by,
j y
yi j
N g x
p
where, p is the pitch of the carrier, (y
yi ) gives the deviation in
the carrier (Fig. 6(b)).
Retardation measurement using carrier fringes involves the
identication of the composite fringe corresponding to the reference
carrier fringe. This can be difcult at higher carrier fringe density
using monochromatic light. Vivek and Ramesh [61] have devised a
method for fringe identication under such circumstances based on
the fact the fringe orders are less than 0.5 away from the edge. This
will aid automated edge stress measurement. Measurement of
thickness stresses in commercial oat glass has also been achieved
using the carrier fringe method [62]. Fig. 6(c) shows the composite
fringes obtained by the superposition of a slice of oat glass and the
carrier. It is interesting to note that after the superposition of the
glass and the carrier, the composite fringe pattern is parabolic and
resembles the stress variation in glass. Hence, it is possible for one to
use this qualitatively for residual stress visualisation as well as for
quick estimation [1,62]. However, this method could be used only
when the residual retardation in the model is constant in the
direction perpendicular to the carrier fringes. A technique for iden-
tication of the composite fringe and the corresponding carrier
fringes for thickness stress measurement was also developed for
cases where identication of corresponding fringes is difcult [62].
4.1.3. Three fringe photoelasticity(TFP)/RGB photoelasticity
TFP/RGB Photoelasticity [6365] involves the use of a single
colour image recorded using white light for fringe order estimation.
This technique is useful especially in situations where multiple
acquisitions are difcult. Fringe order at any point on the photo-
elastic model is obtained by comparing the colour components at
that point with those in a calibration table. The most direct method
is to calculate the least squares error term (ei) for each row i in the
calibration table using the colour difference formula and identify
the fringe order corresponding to the minimum value of ei using the
following colour difference equation [63],
q elastic parameters of high accuracy for a variety of problems
ei R
Ri 2 G
Gi 2 B
Bi 2 4 [73,74]. The ten-step phase shifting method intelligently combines
where R, G and B represent the red, green and blue colour com-
ponents. The use of Eq. (4) leads to false estimation of fringe order
at some locations due to the repetition of colours and hence, the
spatial continuity of N is lost. This can be eliminated by incorpor-
ating fringe order continuity using modied window search
method given by [66,67].
3 q
 
ei R
Ri 2 G
Gi 2 B
Bi 2 ; N A N p
N; N p N 5
where, N is 0.4. The average value of the fringe orders of all the
neighbouring resolved pixels is used as Np in Eq. (5). Rening pro-
cess is started from points that are correctly resolved during the
least squares stage itself and are usually called seed points.
Although TFP is now extended to higher fringe orders [66,68], as the
retardation levels are low in glass, resolving three fringe orders
itself is sufcient.
Ajovalavit et al. [69] have demonstrated the use of TFP/RGB
photoelasticity for membrane stress measurement in tempered
glass plate. They proposed the use of another glass plate with
higher retardation for colour code generation (called self-cal). This
approach however, requires phase shifting for measuring the
retardation in the glass specimen used for calibration. They also
concluded that for commonly used glasses that exhibit normal
dispersion of birefringence, colour code generated using a poly-
carbonate specimen in conjunction with colour adaptation [70,71]
gives good results for fringe orders less than 3.
The accuracy of fringe order results can be improved by the use
of a tint plate superimposed with the glass [72]. Tint plate used is a
tensile plate having a uniform retardation of 1 fringe order. The
accuracy is enhanced in zones where the retardation in the glass is
less than 0.5 fringe orders. However, the method is dependent on
the alignment of the principal stress directions in the glass and the
tint plate. To retain the advantage of the tint plate method, this
misalignment should not be greater than 15.
4.1.4. Phase-shifting techniques
Phase shifting is a technique in which specic phase shifts are
introduced by rotating the optical elements of the polariscope,
which results in the modulation in the phase information over the
domain. This is captured as intensity variation in the digitally
acquired images.
Among the various phase shifting techniques, the ten-step
phase shifting has demonstrated its capability to obtain photo-
66 Ramesh K., V. Ramakrishnan / Optics and Lasers in Engineering 87 (2016) 5974

a four-step plane polariscope approach for isoclinic data evalua- One of the key aspects of the ten-step method is to use
tion and a six-step circular polariscope based method for iso- unwrapped theta values in the calculation of the fractional retar-
chromatics data evaluation. Table 2 shows the optical arrange- dation i.e., theta values obtained from Eq. (6) is unwrapped using
ments of the ten-step phase shifting technique and the corre- suitable unwrapping methodology and this unwrapped theta is
sponding intensity equations. These optical arrangements are used to calculate the fractional retardation using Eq. (7). Several
carefully selected to minimise the inuence of quarter-wave plate other phase shifting methods reported are a subset of this. For
mismatch error. In Table 2, and refer to the orientation of the instance, the last six arrangements in Table 2 correspond to the
polarizer and analyser, and refer to the orientation of the slow six-step phase shifting technique [75,76]. Aben et. al. [77] have
axis of the rst and second quarter wave plates respectively. Ia and proposed a method to determine the direction of rst principal
Ib represents the amplitude of light and background light intensity stress uniquely using six-step phase shifting provided the retar-
respectively. Phase retardation and the principal stress direction in dations are less than half the wavelength.
the model are represented as and . The isoclinic angle and the Four step methods [7881] were also proposed by researchers
retardation are given by [73], to evaluate the photoelastic parameters. Since, the orientation of
  principal stresses near the boundary of glass plate is known,
I
I
c tan
1 4 2 6 Ajovalasit et al. [82] used Tardy's and Senarmont's phase shifting
I3
I1
with three images, for automated measurement of edge residual
  stress in tempered glass plates. Tardy's method correspond to the
I 9
I 7 sin 2c I 8
I 10 cos 2c
c tan
1 7 steps 5, 6 and 8 of the ten-step method shown in Table 2. Senar-
I 5
I 6
mont phase shifting employs a slightly different optical arrange-
ment as it does not use the rst quarterwave plate. They have
Table 2 reported that if the quarter wave plate error is zero, Tardy's phase
Optical arrangement for ten-step PST and corresponding intensity equations. shifting method is more precise than Senarmont phase shifting.

Fig. 7(a)(j) shows the ten phase shifted images of a tempered
Step Intensity equation
glass plate. Fig. 7(k) shows the isochromatics results obtained by
1 /2 0 post processing these images using Eqs. (6) and (7). The fringe
I 1 I b I a sin 2 2 sin 2 2
2 5/8 /8 2 order steadily increases towards the edge and the maximum value
I 2 I b I2a sin
2 1
sin 4

3 3/4 /4 being 1.3. Since the edge of the tempered glass plate is chamfered,
I 3 I b I a sin 2 2 cos 2 2
4 7/8 3/8 2 the fringe order at the edge can be obtained by appropriate
I 4 I b I2a sin 2 1 sin 4
/2 /4 /2
extrapolation techniques [18]. Fig. 7(l) shows the isoclinic values in
5 3/4 I 5 I b I2a 1 cos
/2 /4 the glass plate as a binary representation in steps of 10.
6 3/4 0 I 6 I b I2a 1
cos
7 /2 3/4 0 0 I 7 I b I2a 1
sin 2 sin
A Grey eld polariscope (GFP) has been developed for auto-
8 /2 3/4 /4 /4 I 8 I b I2a 1 cos 2 sin
mated measurement of retardation using photoelasticity [8385].
9 /2 /4 0 0 I 9 I b I2a 1 sin 2 sin The rst version of GFP is essentially a circular polariscope without
10 /2 /4 3/4 /4 I 10 Ib I2a 1
cos 2 sin the second quarter wave plate. The analyser is rotated con-
tinuously and a large number of images ( 8) are captured. By post

Fig. 7. (a)(j) Ten-step phase shifted images of a tempered glass plate corresponding to the arrangements in Table 2 (k) whole eld isochromatic fringe order results
(l) binary representation of isoclinics in steps of 10.
 Ramesh K., V. Ramakrishnan / Optics and Lasers in Engineering 87 (2016) 5974
processing the captured images, both retardation as well as the
isoclinic parameter are evaluated. The use of grey eld polariscope
for the measurement of residual stress in glass has been demon-
strated in Ref. [83,84]. Fig. 8 shows the image of a toughened glass
plate depicting the fringe patterns, obtained using GFP. The sen-
sitivity of GFP is claimed to be 70.002 fringes. However, the need
for multiple images makes it unsuited for dynamic applications.
In 2004, Lesniak et al. [86] developed a novel polariscope,
christened as poleidoscope, by combining a polariscope and a
kaleidoscope. It consists of an objective lens produced by sec-
tioning conventional convex lens into quadrants followed by dif-
ferent sets of optical elements for each quadrant. This enables
simultaneous acquisition of four phase shifted images for
Fig. 8. Toughened glass image obtained using GFP (Courtesy: Ref. [83]).
Fig. 9. (a) Three dimensional illustration of the scattered light polariscope. Faint red lines in the monitor depicts the tracked light path. (b), (c) Schematic optical
arrangement of the portable scattered light polariscope. (adapted from [96]).
67
photoelastic parameter evaluation. Simultaneous acquisition of
images makes it suitable for real time stress inspection in glass
industries [83]. These four steps are equivalent to steps 6, 7, 9 and
10 of the ten-step method with a difference that it uses circularly
polarised light of single handedness only. Hence, the accuracy of
this four step phase shifting method is sensitive to the quarter
wave plate errors [76] and demands use of high quality elements.
4.2. Scattered light photoelastic method
Scattered light photoelasticity [8789] is used for three-
dimensional stress analysis of a model by optical slicing. The inten-
sity of the scattered light is generally weak and is directly propor-
tional to the square of the amplitude obtained by projecting the light
ellipse in a plane perpendicular to the direction of observation. In the
scattered light photoelastic technique, the primary beam may be
unpolarised, plane polarised or elliptically polarised [1].
The rst successful attempt to use scattered light photo-
elasticity for stress measurement in glass was by Bateson et al. [90]
who used a HeNe laser light of 633 nm wavelength. The extreme
parallelism and coherence of the laser light beam improved the
denition of the fringes and in turn the accuracy of measurement,
compared to conventional light sources. Bradshaw [91] proposed a
method for determining stress proles in thin specimens of che-
mically tempered glass by progressively etching the surface com-
pressive layer and measuring the change in the magnitude of the
centre tensile stress using scattered light technique. Several
authors have also developed scattered light polariscopes for stress
measurement in at glass [9294]. However, all these methods/
equipments developed were bulky and were suitable only for
laboratory measurements.
68 Ramesh K., V. Ramakrishnan / Optics and Lasers in Engineering 87 (2016) 5974
A major stride in the industrial applicability of scattered light
photoelasticity for glass stress measurements was brought about
by Aben et al. [17,95]. They developed a portable scattered light
polariscope for measuring the stress prole across the thickness of
glass specimens. Optical measurement scheme of the portable
scattered light polariscope (SCALP) is shown in Fig. 9(a). A laser
beam is passed through the glass panel being tested, at an angle
(Fig. 9(b)). The intensity of the scattered light along the laser beam
is recorded with a CCD camera. The camera is placed in such a way
that the direction of observation is perpendicular to the plane of
incidence (Fig. 9). The software module incorporates a light path
detection algorithm to track the laser beam inside the glass. The
use of oblique light incidence can lead to the refraction of light
from the glass surface. This is eliminated by the use of suitable
contact liquid and a compact glass prism, which is elegantly
designed to eliminate refraction of incident as well as the scat-
tered light beams. All these components are embedded in the
polariscope in a compact manner which makes is portable and can
even be used as a handy probe for stress measurement in glass.
The retardation in the laser beam as it passes through the glass
plate, assuming plane stress condition, is governed by the integral
Wertheim law (Eq. (2)) [96,97]. If the residual stress state is iso-
tropic (x y) then a single measurement is sufcient and the
residual stress is given by [96],
0h
h0
C sin 2
where, h0 is the length of the light path, C is the stress-optic
coefcient of glass, is the optical retardation in nm and
0
0h ddhh0 .
If x a y, one needs to make two orthogonal measurements at
each point. Then, the individual stress components can be com-
puted by [96],
02 01 cos 2 0 02 cos 2
x and y 1
C1
cos 4 C1
cos 4
where 1 and 2 are the optical retardations measured by placing
0 0
SCALP along x and y axes. 1 ddh d2 h
0 0
0 ; 2
1 h
dh
0 .
The scattered light polariscope gives accurate results for oat
glass whose refractive index is close to 1.5. For glass samples of
higher refractive indices, improved light path detection algorithms
are used owing to the refraction of the light beam.
Scattered light polariscope is now being widely used for testing
and research. Nielsen et al. [49] have used it to characterise the
stress state in commercially toughened glass. They have found that
the residual stress in tempered glass is highly non-uniform, with a
variation in the surface stress as high as 35 MPa in 19 mm glass
specimens. Soulie et. al [97] have studied the nature of residual
stresses in tempered glass discs of thickness 4.9 mm used in
optical industry. Chen et al. [23] and Anton et al. [98] have studied
the inuence of process parameters on the isotropy in tempered
glass and stress inhomogeneity respectively. In 2014, Zaccaria and
Overend [99] have studied the mechanical performance of che-
mically and thermally treated (bi-treated) glass. Vivek and Ramesh
[100] studied the inuence of thermal cycling on the residual
stress generated in rectangular glass specimens.
Recently, Castellini et al. [101] have explored the use of laser
sheet scattered light method for on-line monitoring of through-
the-thickness residual stress in tempered glass. This method is
non-contact and does not require a glass prism and contact liquid
since the laser sheet is introduced through the edge of the glass
plate. However, this method cannot be applied in cases where the
edges are not optically transparent due to prior machining. In
2015, Hodemann et al [102] have introduced a micron-scale con-
focal scattered light photoelastic method for the measurement of
stress prole in chemically strengthened glass panels. This method
Fig. 10. Optical arrangement in a grazing angle surface polariscope (GASP) (Cour-
tesy: Ref. [105]).
gives a very high spatial resolution, however, it requires lapping
and polishing of one edge of the glass plate.
4.3. Surface guided wave methods
Guided wave photoelastic methods have been developed for the
measurement of stress at the surface of glass. There are different
methods to measure surface stresses in homogeneous glasses and
stratied glasses. Differential refractometry is used to determine the
surface stress in homogeneous glasses and initial developments were
proposed by Guillemet and Acloque [103] and Kishii [104]. For
8 stratied glasses, surface wave guided methods (also called Mirage
methods) were proposed. Here polarised light is guided through the
surface of the glass using prism of high refractive index. The gradient
of the refractive index causes the resurgence of the rays out of the
panel. Polarisation of the output light depends on the distance tra-
velled and the stress on the glass surface. An apparatus based on this
method is called Epibiascope [103].
The commercially available grazing angle surface polariscope
(GASP) also works on a similar principle [21,105]. The set-up is
9 designed such that light is incident on the prism at the critical
angle, which on entering the glass plate, travels through its surface
(Fig. 10). A Babinet compensator is placed near the eye piece of the
polariscope. The tilt in the fringes (similar to the one in Fig. 5(c))
can be linked to the surface stress values through a chart provided
by the manufacturer. However, this cannot be used for chemically
strengthened or patterned glass.
4.4. Integrated photoelasticity
Integrated photoelasticity is used for the measurement of
stresses in glass articles of complicated shapes having complex
stress distributions [1,17,106119]. The model is immersed in an
immersion liquid and polarised beam of light is passed through it.
The use of integrated fringe pattern to determine the stresses in
three-dimensional specimens was rst proposed by Neumann
[106]. Integrated photoelasticity is tensor eld tomography in
which the unknown quantity at each point is a tensor of rank two,
thus making the problem much more complicated.
The propagation of polarised light through a three dimensional
inhomogeneous birefringent medium is a function of the stress
distribution between the point of entrance and the point of exit. In
generic cases, both principal stress differences and their orienta-
tions can vary in a general way which makes the problem com-
plex. In integrated photoleasticity, one experimentally measures
three parameters along the light path labelled as , and . These
are termed as characteristic parameters which represent the
parameters of an optically equivalent model consisting of a retar-
der (, ) and a rotator ()[107]. The quantities that represent the
stress eld in the model are then obtained from these character-
istic parameters, from multiple measurements along different light
paths, by using the concept of inverse Radon transform [108,109].
 Ramesh K., V. Ramakrishnan / Optics and Lasers in Engineering 87 (2016) 5974
Fig. 11. (a) Illustration of the formation of integrated fringe pattern in an axi-symmetric tempered glass tumbler, (b) dark eld isochromatics and (c) axial stress z obtained
by the method elaborated in Section 4.4.1.
4.4.1. Axi-symmetric stress distribution
If the problem is axi-symmetric, then the tensor eld tomo-
graphy can be reduced to scalar eld tomography for determining
a single component of the stress tensor eld. The axi-symmetric
3D specimen is investigated in an immersion bath and measure-
ments of the isoclinics and optical retardation are to be per-
formed in two parallel sections along the axis of the axi-
symmetric specimen at a small distance z apart [111]. By
applying Integral Wertheim law for the two parallel sections and
by using equations of equilibrium the axial stress (along z-direc-
tion) is obtained as [109],
Z C Z B Z B  of integrated photoelasticity, scattered light method and surface
1 V1
z dy0 V 02 dx0
V 2 dx0
10
A Cz l l C
where V2 and V 02 represent the variables cos2 for the main and
the auxiliary sections respectively and V1 represent sin2 in Eq.
(2). A and C represents the points of entrance and exit of a light
beam in any direction y0 . l and B represent the radial distance of the
light beam and the edge of the specimen from the z-axis along x0 .
The component of stress z and its distribution can be determined
by Radoninversion techniques [114,115]. Similarly, if the specimen
can be rotated during measurements around different axes, dis-
tribution of all the normal stresses (x and y) can be determined.
If a specimen of any arbitrary cross-section is of prismatic form
and has no stress gradient in the direction of its axis z, then in Eq.
(10) one has V 2 V 02 0 and the distribution of z can be deter-
mined on the basis of photoelastic measurements in a single
section. In addition, knowledge that the stress distribution is
parabolic is used advantageously in devising the algorithm. Fig. 11
(a) shows the formation of integrated fringe pattern in a tempered
glass tumbler. As light travels through the tumbler, it accumulates
retardations, which are recorded as fringe patterns for a small
section in the z-direction as shown in Fig. 11(b). The axial stresses
determined using appropriate algorithms [17,109] is shown in
Fig. 11(c). The value of compressive stress on the surface is
100 MPa. These stress measurements are sensitive to the immer-
sion uid used and to limit the error in surface stress measure-
ments below 5%, one has to use immersion uids of precision of
about 0.001 in matching the refractive index [116]. Integrated
69
photoelasticity have been used for the measurement of residual
stress in glass articles like glass tumblers, bottles, CRT glass bulbs
and high pressure lamps [17,110,116,117].
In some problems, the linear approximation of the photoelastic
tomography is not valid. An example being the residual stress
measurement in glass articles of complicated shapes. Aben and
Errapart [118] have proposed a non-linear method of photoelastic
tomography using differential evolution algorithm for measure-
ment under such circumstances.
In cases, where the stress distributions are non-axisymmetric
residual stress measurement can be carried out using a combination
stress measurement [119]. Aben et al. [109] illustrated that a
tomographic method can be elaborated for the measurement of
three-dimensional stress eld in glass of any arbitrary shape, based
on the linearised solution of equations of integrated photoelasticity.
4.4.2. Peculiarities in inhomogeneous birefringent models
Aben et al. [120,121] reported the presence of peculiarities in the
integrated fringe pattern in inhomogeneous birefringent models.
The appearance of these peculiarities (called interference blots) can
be attributed to the rotation of the principal birefringence axes.
Because of this, the optical retardation cannot take all the values
between 0 and , which causes blurring or even complete dis-
appearance of fringes, making their ordering ambiguous. These
interference blots can be seen in the integrated fringe pattern near
the wall-to-bottom region of a tempered glass tumbler [121].
4.5. Other photoelastic methods
Apart from the conventional transmission arrangements, there
have also been attempts to explore other techniques for glass
stress measurements. Tomlinson et al. [122] have used a range of
photoelastic methods including reection photoelasticity and
magneto-photoelasticity to study the spontaneous fracture of
automotive glass. The stress distribution in the automotive glass
under load was measured using a birefringent coating in con-
junction with a grey eld polariscope.
70 Ramesh K., V. Ramakrishnan / Optics and Lasers in Engineering 87 (2016) 5974

The use of magneto-photoelasticity to evaluate the stress-
distribution along the light path in three-dimensional models was
rst proposed by Aben [123]. The conventional transmission
arrangement along with a magnetic eld in the direction of light
propagation yields information about the stress distribution along
the light path. This technique is useful especially in cases where the
integrated retardation is zero or close to zero eventhough the
stresses are non-zero. In 1998, Clarke et al. [124] adapted magneto-
photoelastic technique for measuring the residual stress in tough-
ened glass plates. Tomlinson et. al. [125,126] have developed a
pulsed magneto-polariscope, which is capable of data acquisition in
continuously varying magnetic elds. They used this set-up to
determine unique set of three characteristic parameters for each eld
strength in thermally toughened glass discs [127]. This approach is
particularly useful to characterize the stress distribution in regions
where parabolic assumption of the thickness stress is insufcient.
Recently, Sung et al. [128] have proposed a method called
Transmissivity Extremities Theory of Photoelasticity (TEToP) by
integrating white light photoelasticity and spectrometry. In this
method, initially, a systematic relationship of transmissivity with
stress and wavelength is established and then a stress quantifying
formula is derived. The use of TEToP to measure stress in low
birefringence materials is demonstrated by performing experi-
ments on a thin glass substrate used for liquid crystal display.
5. Birefringence measurement for optical glass moulding
Conventionally photoelasticity has been used to validate the
results obtained from numerical simulation of the manufacturing
processes of glass articles especially the tempering of glass
[22,129131]. Owing to the increase in demand of optical lens,
there has been considerable focus recently on the studies on
optical glass moulding. Chen et al. [132] have validated the
numerical simulation of glass moulding process by measuring the
birefringence in thin slices from the moulded lenses. Similarly, Yi
et al. [133] have compared the integrated birefringence values in a
moulded glass lens. In 2014, Tao et al. [134] have used the whole
eld measurement capability of digital photoelasticity to validate
the numerical simulation of aspherical moulding of lens.
Ramesh and Tarkes [135] customised the commercially avail-
able glass polariscope (AP-07) for residual stress measurement in
glass lens. The optical arrangement of the modied set-up is
shown in Fig. 12(a), which facilitates easy placement of lens in an
immersion bath. Fig. 12(b) and (c) shows the integrated

Fig. 12. (a) Schematic arrangement of the customized set-up for residual stress analysis in lens by modifying automatic polariscope AP- 07. Integrated retardation in optical
lens made using (b) Isothermal glass moulding (c) Non-isothermal glass moulding process. (d) (f) Numerically simulated birefringence values for different heat transfer
parameters for a ow rate of 50 L/min in glass disks. (g) Experimentally measured retardation. (Courtesy: Ref. [136]).
 Ramesh K., V. Ramakrishnan / Optics and Lasers in Engineering 87 (2016) 5974 71

retardation in optical lens manufactured by isothermal and non-
isothermal glass moulding processes respectively measured using
the set-up in Fig. 12(a). It is interesting to note that the retardation
distribution is axi-symmetric in the former whereas it is non axi-
symmetric in the latter. This is a very useful information to select
appropriate numerical model for simulation. Modelling of iso-
thermal process is simple as axi-symmetric model can be used.
Recently, Tarkes Dora et al. [136] have proposed digital pho-
toelasticity assisted numerical simulation approach for determin-
ing process parameters required for numerical simulation of pre-
cision glass moulding. Heat transfer mechanism in such problems
is complex and it is difcult to determine the equivalent heat
transfer coefcients, which is essential for numerical simulation.
Hitherto, these values are usually assumed. The novelty in their
work is that, they used integrated birefringence measured using
digital photoelasticity to arrive at the thermal boundary condition
values. In numerical simulation, the equivalent heat transfer
coefcient is varied (Fig. 12(d)(f)) till the integrated retardation
matches with experimental values (Fig. 12(g)). It can be seen that
the numerical and experimental results match closely using the
heat transfer coefcient of heqv 18 W/(m2K).
6. Conclusions and future directions
used for testing and research. Surface guided waves have also been
used for the determination of surface stress in at glass.
Simplication of the complicated problem of tensorial eld
tomography to scalar eld tomography has made the use of inte-
grated photoelasticity convenient for stress measurement in axi-
symmetric glassware. Several researchers have also explored the
use of magneto-photoelasticity and hybrid method like TEToP for
stress measurement in glass. Over the years several commercial
equipments have been made for glass stress measurement using
digital photoelasticity. A summary of these is given in Appendix A.
With the recent advances in digital photoelasticity, it is expected
that more challenging problems in glass will be solved in the years
to come. Development of zero stress-optic glasses is important for
optical applications. Birefringence measurements in precision lens
moulding can have a greater impact on the development of better
models for numerical simulation. The problem of nickel sulphide
(NiS) inclusions has been there for a long time. Optical techniques
like photoelasticity can be used for monitoring the delayed phase
transformation in NiS inclusions, thus eliminating the chances of
catastrophic failure. The use of bolted glass connections have also
been increasing for faade applications. Digital photoelasticity has
the potential to enhance the understanding of structural behaviour
of glass especially near the bolted joints and holes which will
denitely pave the way for efcient concepts and designs.

Digital photoelasticity has now matured for evaluating photo-

elastic parameters over the entire model domain with a considerable
level of accuracy. Various methods used for the retardation mea-
surement in glass have been surveyed in this paper with a focus on
the work done in the last decade. Since the range of retardations to
be measured in glass is wide, several techniques have been adopted,
depending on the problem. Early methods involving point to point
methods are now being replaced by digital photoelastic methods.
The accuracy of the stress measurement using photoelasticity
depends on the accuracy of the measured photoelastic constant. This
is now enhanced by the use of recent advances in digital photo-
elasticity. Among the various transmission photoelastic techniques,
the use of phase shifting technique (PST), where it is applicable
serves as a benchmark technique as it gives accurate results. Single
acquisition based techniques using carrier fringes and white light
based TFP/RGB photoelasticity have also been used. A major stride in
the use of scattered light photoelasticity was brought about by the
development of compact scattered light polariscope which is now
Appendix A
A.1 Commercial equipments for glass stress measurement
Equipments for the measurement of the stresses in glass have
been developed right from the 1950s. With time, several equip-
ments have been developed for laboratory measurements as well as
for on-line monitoring of stress in glass [137140]. Most of primitive
devices have now been replaced by modern equipments that used
advanced hardware and processing softwares. Table A.1 shows a list
of prominent modern devices, their manufacturers and suitability. A
polariscope called Grazing Angle Surface Polariscope (GASP) has been
developed by Strainoptics Inc. [105] for measuring the surface
stresses in the glass plate (Fig. 10). The use of GASP is restricted to
at or almost at (radius of curvature 4200 mm) surfaces. The use
of the commercially available Grey Field Polariscope (GFP) for stress
measurement in glass is discussed in Section 4.1.4.

Table A.1
Commercial equipments for glass stress inspection/measurement.

SI Equipment Manufacturer Methodology Suitability Refs.

1. AP-07 GlasStress Ltd Phase shifting Stress in panels/axi-symmetric articles [17,26,27,32,36,117,136,142]

2. SCALP GlasStress Ltd Scattered light method Thickness stress prole in at glass [17,23,26,27,49,95100,141]
3. Edge stress metre Sharples Senarmont compensation Edge Stress in at glass [143]
4. Edge Master Stressphotonics Phase shifting - poleidoscope Edge stress in at glass [144]
5. Lammaster Stressphotonics Phase shifting - poleidoscope Thickness stress in glass slice [145]
6. GFP Stressphotonics Phase shifting - poleidoscope Real time laboratory systems [8385,122,146]
7. GES/PES Edge stress metre Strainoptics Spectral content analysis Edge stress in at glass [147]
8. DIAS 1600 Strainoptics Thickness stress in glass slice [147]
9. GASP Strainoptics Refractometry Laboratory Surface stress measurement [17,21,105,147]
10. Stress scanner Strainoptics Real time monitoring of membrane stress [147]
11. Strainviewer Strainoptics Qualitative Stress inspection [147]
12. CSG 100 polarising Strainoptics Visualise fringe pattern in chemically [147]
microscope tempered glass
13. Surface stress metre Luceo Refractometry Surface stress in thermally/chemically [148]
tempered glass
14. Straineye Luceo Rotating analyser/Senarmont/sensitive Qualitative Stress inspection [148]
colour methods
15. Strainmatic Ilis gmbh. Senarmont phase shifting Integrated birefringence in glass panels/ [149]
articles
72 Ramesh K., V. Ramakrishnan / Optics and Lasers in Engineering 87 (2016) 5974
Recently, a portable scattered light polariscope SCALP and its
variants have been developed by GlasStress Ltd which can be used
to measure the stresses along the entire thickness of the glass
plate [141]. The working principle of SCALP is discussed in Section
4.2. Several automated polariscopes have also been developed
which works on the phase shifting method. One such polariscope
is the Automated Polarisope AP-07 [142] supplied by GlasStress
Ltd, which works based on six-step phase shifting method (steps
510 of Table 2). It can be employed to nd the residual stresses in
at glass, as well as axi-symmetric specimens. A new non-
destructive gradient scattered light method has been recently
proposed by Hodemann et al. [150] for micron-scale stress prole
measurement in chemically strengthened glass.
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