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AARON.InexaminingtheBiblicalaccountofAaron,wemustdealseparatelywiththedifferentsourcesoftheHexateuch.

1.InJ,Aaronplaysaverysubordinatepart.He,NadahandAhihu,alongwith70elders,accompaniedMosesupMt.Sinai(Ex19:24,
24:9).Intheformerpassageheisdistinguishedfromthepriests,whoareforbiddentocomeuphewouldseem,therefore,tohavebeenan
elderorsheikh,perhapssomewhatsuperiortothe70.In32:25Aaronletthepeoplelooseforaderisionamongtheirenemies.Whatthis
referstoisnotknownitwasnotthemakingofthegoldenbull,whichintheeyesofthesurroundingnationswouldbeonlyanactofpiety.
Inotherpassages,whichcannotbeassignedeithertoEorP,thementionofAaronisprobablyduetoalaterhand.In4:1316Mosesis
allowedtonaveAaronasaspokesman.ButtheLevite(v.14)issuspicious:forMoseswasalsoofthetribeofLevi,andthedescriptionis
superfluous.TheversesprobablybelongtoatimewhenLevitehadbecomeatechnicaltermforonetrainedinpriestlyfunctions,andwhen
suchpriestlyofficialstracedtheirdescentfromAaron.InthenarrativesoftheplaguesAaronisasilentfigure,merelysummonedwithMoses
fourtimeswhenPharaohentreatsfortheremovaloftheplagues(8:8,25,9:27,10:16).IneachcaseMosesaloneanswers,andinthelastthree
healonedeparts.In10:3MosesandAaronwentintoannouncetheplague,butMosesaloneturnedandwentout(v.6).Theoccurrenceof
Aaronsnameseemstobedue,ineachcase,tolaterredaction.
2.InE,AaronisthebrotherofMiriam(15:20).HewassenttomeetMosesinthewilderness,andtogethertheyperformedsignsbefore
thepeople(4:2731).TheydemandedreleasefromPharaoh,andonhisrefusalthepeoplemurmured(5:1,2,4,20f.).LittleofEhassurvived
inthenarrativeoftheplagues,andAaronisnotmentioned.In17:10,12heandHurheldupMoseshands,inorderthatthestaffmightbe
liftedup,duringthefightwithAmalek.AndwhileMoseswasonthemountain,thesametwowereleftintemporaryauthorityoverthepeople
(24:13f.).Aaronisrelatedtohaveabusedthisauthority,inmakingthegoldenbull(32:16,2124).[Thenarrativeiscomposite,andinits
presentformmustbelaterthanE.Ithassomeconnexionwiththestoryof1K12:2630,forJeroboamswords,whicharesuitablein
referencetotwobulls,areplacedinAaronsmouth.]In18:12Aaron,withtheelders,wascalledtoJethrossacrificeanincidentwhichmust
heplacedattheendofthestayatHoreb.InNu12AaronandMiriamclaimedthatthey,nolessthanMoses,receivedDivinerevelationsonly
Miriam,however,waspunished.InJos24:5thereisageneralreferencetothepartplayedbyAaronintheExodus.

ItisnoteworthythatthereisnotawordsofareitherinJorE,whichsuggeststhatAaronwasapriest.Butitisprobablethatbythetimeof
EthebeliefhadbeguntogrowupthatAaronwasthefounderofanhereditarypriesthood.Dt10:6occursinaparenthesiswhichseriously
interruptsthenarrative,andwhichwasperhapsderivedfromE(cf.Jos24:33).
3.InD,Aaronwasprobablynotmentioned.Dt10:6hasbeenreferredto32:50isfromPandtheonlyremainingpassage(9:20)appears
tobealaterinsertion.

4.OutsidetheHexateuch,twoearlypassages(1S12:6,8,Mic6:4)refertoAaronmerelyastakingaleadingpartintheExodus.
5.InP,theprocessbywhichthetraditiongrewupthatMosesdelegatedhispriesthoodtoAaronisnotknown.Buttheeffectofitwasthat
thegreatmajorityofLevites,i.e.trainedofficialpriests,atlocalsanctuariesthroughoutthecountrytracedtheirdescenttoAaron.Thepriests
ofJerusalem,ontheotherhand,weredescendantsofZadok(1K1:39,2:27)andwhenlocalsanctuarieswereabolishedbyJosiahsreforms,
andthecountrypriestscameuptoseekalivelihoodatJerusalem(seeDt18:68),theZadokitepriestschargedthemwithimageworship,and1/172
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andthecountrypriestscameuptoseekalivelihoodatJerusalem(seeDt18:68),theZadokitepriestschargedthemwithimageworship,and
allowedthemonlyaninferiorpositionasservants(see2K23:9,Ezk44:915).ButattheExilethepriestswhowereinJerusalemwere
carriedoff,leavingroominthecityformanycountry(Aaronite)priests,whowouldestablishthemselvesfirmlyinofficialprestigewiththe
meagreremnantofthepopulation.Thus,whentheZadokitepriestsreturnedfromBabylon,theywouldfinditadvisabletotracetheirdescent
fromAaron(seeEzr2:61f.).Butbytheirsuperiorityincultureandsocialstandingtheyregainedtheirascendancy,andthecountrypriests
wereoncemorereduced,undertheancienttitleofLevites,toaninferiorposition.

ThisexplainsthegreatimportanceassignedtoAaroninthepriestlyportionsoftheHexateuch.Referencemustbemadetootherarticles
forhisconsecration,hispurelypriestlyfunctions,andhisrelationtotheLevites(seearticlesPriestsandLevites,Sacrifice,Tabernacle).Buthe
alsoplaysaconsiderablepartinthenarrativeoftheExodusandthewanderings.HisfamilyrelationshipsarestatedinEx6:20,23,25,Lv
10:4.HebecameMosesspokesman,nottothepeoplebutto
Pharaoh(7:1),inwhosepresencehechangedthestaffintoareptile(contrastserpentin4:3J).Prelatesthe2ndplague(combinedwithJ),
the3rdandthe6th,ineachofwhichAaronisconspicuous.AaronaswellasMosessufferedfromthemurmuringsofthepeople(Ex16:2,Nu
14:2,16:3,41,20:2)bothwereconsultedbythepeople(Nu9:6,15:33)andtobothwereaddressedmanyofGodscommands(Ex9:810,
12:1,43,Lv11:1,13:1,14:33,15:1,Nu2:1).Aaronstayedaplaguebyofferingincense(Nu16:4648).[Onthecombinednarrativesinchs.
16,17seeAaronsRod,Korah].AtMeribahkadeshhe,withMoses,sinnedagainstJ(Nu20:113),butthenatureofthesinisobscure(see
Gray,Com.p.262f.).HewasconsequentlyforbiddentoenterCanaan,anddiedonMt.Hor,aged123,Eleazarhissonbeingclothedinthe
priestlygarments(Nu20:2229,33:38f.,Dt32:50).
6.IntheNT:Lk1:5,Ac7:40,He5:4,7:11,9:4.

A.H.MNeile.
AARONSROD.InaverycomplicatedsectionoftheHexateuch(Nu1618),dealingwithvariousrevoltsagainsttheconstituted
authoritiesinthewildernessperiod,theexclusiverightofthetribeofLevitothedutiesandprivilegesofthepriesthoodismiraculously
attestedbytheblossomingandfruitbearingofAaronsrod.Asrepresentinghistribe,ithadbeendepositedbyDivinecommandbeforetheark
alongwith12otherrodsrepresentingthe12seculartribes,inorderthatthewillofJinthismattermightbevisiblymadeknown(seeNu
16:111withG.B.GraysCom.).Therodwasthereafterorderedtobelaidupinperpetuitybeforethe(arkofthe)testimonyforatoken
againsttherebels(17:10).LaterJewishtradition,however,transferredit,alongwiththepotofmanna,toaplacewithintheark(He9:4).

A.R.S.Kennedy.
AB.SeeTime.
ABACUC.TheformofthenameHabakkukin2Es1:40.
ABADDON.AwordpeculiartothelaterHeb.(esp.Wisdom)andJudaisticliteraturesometimessynonymouswithSheol,more
particularly,however,signifyingthatlowestdivisionofSheoldevotedtothepunishmentofsinners(seeSheol).Properly,itsGr.equivalent
wouldbeapleia(destruction),asfoundintheLXX.InRev9:11Abaddonispersonified,andissaidtobetheequivalentofApollyon
(destroyer).AbaddondiffersfromGehennainthatitrepresentsthenegativeelementofsupremelossratherthanthatofpositivesuffering.

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ShailerMathews.
ABADIAS(1Es8:35).AnexilewhoreturnedwithEzracalledObadiah,Ezr8:9.
ABAGTHA(Est1:10).OneofthesevenchamberlainsoreunuchssentbyAhasuerus(Xerxes)tofetchthequeen,Vashti,tohisbanquet.
ABANAH.TheriverofDamascusmentionedbyNaaman,2K5:12.ItisidentifiedwiththeBarada,ariverrisingontheeasternslopeof
theAntiLebanon,whichrunsfirstsouthward,thenwestward,throughtheWadyBaradaandtheplainofDamascus.About18milesfrom
Damascus,afterdividingfanwiseintoanumberofbranches,itflowsintotheMeadowLakes.

R.A.S.Macalister.
ABARIM(thepartsbeyond).AtermusedtodescribethewholeeastJordanlandasviewedfromWesternPalestine.Fromtherethe
landbeyondJordanrisesasagreatmountainchaintoaheightof3000feetandmorefromtheJordanvalley.HenceAbarimisjoinedwith
mount(Nu27:12,Dt32:49)andmountains(Nu33:47)alsowithIyye,heapsof(Nu21:11).SeealsoJer22:20andEzk39:11(RVAV
passages).
E.W.G.Masterman.
ABBAistheemphaticformoftheAram.wordforfather.Itisfoundinthe
Gr.andEng.textofMk14:36,Ro8:15,andGal4:6(ineachcaseAbb,hopatr,Abba,Father).Aram.hasnoarticle,andtheemphatic
affixisusuallytheequivalentoftheHeb.article.Bothcanrepresentthevocativecase(forHebrewseeDavidsonsSyntax,21f.)andabba
occursinthePesb.ofLk22:42,23:34forpater.ThearticularnominativeisfoundinNTsixtytimesforthevocativeandsowehaveho
patrforpater(Moulton,Gram.ofNTGreek,p.70).JesusoftenaddressedGodasFatherormyFather.InbothcasesHewouldprobably
useAbbaforabbmaybeusedforb(Targ.onGn19:34).InMk14:36,hopatrisperhapsaglossaddedbytheEvangelist,asinMk
5:41,7:11,34headdsanexplanationoftheAram.:butinRo8:15andGal4:6theGentileChristianshadlearnedforimportunitytousethe
Aram.wordAbbaastheJewsinprayerborrowedKyriemou(myLord)fromtheGreek,anduseditalongwithHeb.
wordsformymaster,myfather(Schttgen,Hor.Heb.252).

J.T.Marshall.
ABDA(servant,sc.oftheLord).1.FatherofAdoniram,masterofSolomonsforcedlevy(1K4:6)2.ALevite(Neh11:17)called
Obadiahin1Ch
9:16.
ABDEEL.FatherofShelemiah(Jer36:26),oneofthoseorderedbyJeboiakimtoarrestJeremiahandBaruch.
ABDI.1.GrandfatherofEthan,1Ch6:44.2.FatherofKish,2Ch29:12.3.AJewwhohadmarriedaforeignwife,Ezr10:26=
Oabdius,1Es9:27.
ABDIAS(2Es1:39).Obadiahtheprophet.
ABDIEL(servantofGod).SonofGuni(1Ch5:15)
ABDON(servile).1.ThelastoftheminorjudgesJg12:1315.2.AfamilyofBenjamites,1Ch8:23.3.AGibeonitefamily,1Ch8:30,
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ABDON(servile).1.ThelastoftheminorjudgesJg12:1315.2.AfamilyofBenjamites,1Ch8:23.3.AGibeonitefamily,1Ch8:30,
9:36.4.AcourtierofJosiah,2Ch34:20in2K22:12calledAchbor.5.ALeviticcityofAsher(Jos21:30,1Ch6:74),perhaps(v.d.Velde)
AbdehE.ofAchzibonthehills.
ABEDNEGO.Dn1:7,etc.probablyacorruptionofAbednebo,i.e.servantofNebo.
ABEL.Gn4:210.TheHeb.formHebheldenotesvapourorbreath(cf.Ec1:1,EVvanity),whichissuggestiveasthenameofa
sonofAdam(man).
ButitisperhapstobeconnectedwiththeAssyr.aplu,son.AbelwasasonofAdamandEve,andbrotherofCain.Butthenarrative
presupposesalongperiodtohaveelapsedinhumanhistorysincetheprimitiveconditionofthefirstpair.Thedifferencebetweenpastoraland
agriculturallifehascometoberecognizedforAbelwasakeeperofsheep,butCainwasatilleroftheground(seeCain).Theaccount,aswe
haveit,ismutilated:inv.8Heb.hasandCainsaiduntoAbelhisbrother(notasAVandRV).LXXsuppliesthewordsLetuspassthrough
intotheplain,butthismaybeameregloss,anditcannotbeknownhowmuchofthestoryislost.
NothingissaidinGn.ofAbelsmoralcharacter,orofthereasonwhyhisofferingexcelledCainsintheeyesofJcerealofferingswere
asfullyinaccordwithHebrewlawandcustomasanimalofferings.He11:4givesfaithasthereason.InHe12:24thebloodofsprinkling
speakethsomethingbetterthanthebloodofAbel,inthatthelattercriedforvengeance(Gn4:10).

InMt23:35||Lk11:51AbelisnamedasthefirstofthetruemartyrswhosebloodhadbeenshedduringtheperiodcoveredbytheOT,the
lastbeingZachariah(wh.see).InJn8:44itispossiblethatJesuswasthinkingofthestoryofAbelwhenHespokeofthedevilasamurderer
fromthebeginning,i.e.theinstigatorofmurderasheisoflies.
A.H.MNeile.
ABEL.Awordmeaningmeadow,andenteringasanelementintoseveralplacenames.In1S6:18areferenceinAVtoAbelisinthe
RVcorrectedgreatstone.Elsewherethenameisfoundonlywithtoqualifyingepithets.

R.A.S.Macalister.
ABEL(OF)BETHMAACAH.WhereShebatookrefugefromJoab(2S
20:1418)itwascapturedbyBenhadad(1K15:20),andbyTiglathpileser(2K15:29)correspondingtothemodernAbil,westofTellel
Kadi,andnorthofLakeHuleh.
R.A.S.Macalister.
ABELCHERAMIM(meadowofthevineyards).ThelimitofJephthahsdefeatoftheMidianites(Jg11:3)Siteunknown.

R.A.S.Macalister.
ABELMAIM (meadow of waters).An alternative name for Abel of Bethmaacah, found in 2 Ch 16:4, which corresponds to 1 K
15:20,quotedunderthathead.
R.A.S.Macalister.
ABELMEHOLAH(meadowofthedanceorcircle).AplaceintheJordanvalley,thelimitofGideonspursuitoftheMidianites(Jg 4/172
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ABELMEHOLAH(meadowofthedanceorcircle).AplaceintheJordanvalley,thelimitofGideonspursuitoftheMidianites(Jg
7:22)intheadministrativedistrictofTaanachandMegiddounderSolomon(1K4:12)thenativeplaceofAdriel,husbandofMerab,Sauls
daughter(1S18:19),andofElisha(1K19:16).Thesuggestedidentificationsareuncertain.SeeMooresJudges,p.212.

R.A.S.Macalister.
ABELMIZRAIM(meadowoftheEgyptians).ThesceneofthemourningforJacob(Gn50:11).Theonlycluetoitssituationisits
beingbeyondJordan.
ABELSHITTIM(meadowoftheacacias).IntheplainsofMoab(Nu
33:49)otherwiseShittim,thelast(Jos3:1)transJordanicstagewherethe
Israelitesencamped.IdentifiedwithGhoresSeisaban,eastoftheJordan,oppositeJericho.ItwasthesceneoftheoffenceofBaalpeor(Nu
25:1).HenceJoshuasenthisspies(Jos2:1).

R.A.S.Macalister.
ABI.Thenameofaqueenmotherofthe8thcent.(2K18:2),calledAbijahintheparallelpassage2Ch29:1.ThereadinginKingsisthe
moreprobable.
ABIAH.SeeAbijah.
ABIALBON.SeeAbiel.
ABIASAPH(=fatherhasgathered),Ex6:24=EBIASAPH(=fatherhasincreased),1Ch6:23,37,9:18.Thenameofadivisionof
theKorahiteLevites,mentionedonlyinthegenealogiesofPandtheChronicler.Accordingto1Ch9:19,26:1(inthelatterpassageread
EbiasaphforAsaph),asectionofthedivisionactedasdoorkeepers.
ABIATHAR.SonofAhimelech,whowasheadofthefamilyofpriestsinchargeofthesanctuaryatNob(1S21:1).AllexceptAbiathar
weremassacredbySaul(1S22:20).Whentherestobeyedthekingssummons,hemayhaveremainedathometoofficiate.Onhearingofthe
slaughterhetookrefugewithDavid,carryingwithhimtheoracularephod(1S23:6seealso1S23:9,30:7).
AbiatharandZadokaccompaniedtheoutlawinhisprolongedwanderings.During
Absalomsrebelliontheyandtheirsonsrenderedyeomanservicetotheoldking(2S15:17).At2S8:17(soalso1Ch18:16[where,
moreover,AbimelechshouldbeAhimelech]24:6)thenamesofAbiatharandhisfatherhavebeentransposed.Abiatharsadhesionto
Adonijah(1K1:7,19,25)wasofgreatimportance,notonlybecauseofhispositionaspriest,butalsoowingtohislongfriendshipwithking
David.Solomon,therefore,assoonashecouldsafelydoit,deposedAbiatharfromthepriesthood,warnedhimthatanyfuturemisconduct
wouldentailcapitalpunishment,andrelegatedhimtotheseclusionofAnathoth(1K2:26).Hissons(2S8:17)lostthepriestlyofficealong
withtheirfather(1K2:27cf.1S2:2736).AtMk2:26theerroneousmentionofAbiatharisduetohishavingbeensointimatelyassociated
withthekingindayssubsequenttotheonementioned.

J.Taylor.
ABIB(thegreenearmonth,Ex13:4etc.).SeeTime.
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ABIDA(fatherhathknowledge).AsonofMidian(Gn25:4,1Ch1:33).
ABIDAN(fatherisjudge).RepresentativeofthetribeofBenjaminatthecensusandoncertainotheroccasions,Nu1:11,2:22,7:60,
65,10:24.
ABIEL.1.FatherofKishandNer,andgrandfatherofSaul(1S9:1,14:51).Thelatterpassageshouldrun,Kish,thefatherofSaul,and
NerthefatherofAbner,weresonsofAbiel.2.OneofDavidsheroes(1Ch11:32),fromBetharabahinthewildernessofJudah(Jos15:6,61,
18:22).Abialbon(2S23:31)isatranscriberserror,theeyehavingfallenonalbonbelow:somecodicesoftheLXXhaveAbiel:possiblythe
originalwasAbibaal.
J.Taylor.
ABIEZER(fatherishelp).1.Thenameoccursalsointheabbreviatedform
Jezer.HeiscalledthesonofHammolecheth,sisterofMachir,thesonofManasseh
(1Ch7:18).Hisdescendantsformedoneofthesmallestclansbelongingtothe
GileaditebranchofthetribeofManasseh,thebestknownmemberofwhichwasGideon.AccordingtoJg6:24,8:32,theAbiezriteswere
settledatOphrahtheywerethefirsttoobeythesummonsofJoshuatofightagainsttheMidianites.2.AnAnathothite,oneofDavids
thirtysevenchiefheroes,whohadcommandofthearmyduringtheninthmonth(2S23:27,1Ch27:12).

W.O.E.Oestenley.
ABIGAIL,orABIGAL.1.WifeofNabal(1S25:14).ShedissuadedDavidfromavenginghimselfonthesurlyfarmer,andsoonafter
thelattersdeathmarriedDavid(1S25:3942),andaccompaniedhimtoGathandZiklag(1S27:3,30:5,18).AtHebronsheborehimason,
whosenamemayhavebeenChileab(2S3:3),orDaniel(1Ch3:1),orDodiel(theLXXat2S3:3hasDaluya).2.StepsisterofDavid,mother
ofAmasa(2S17:25,1Ch2:16f.).

J.Taylor.
ABIHAIL(fatherismight).1.Asthenameofamanitoccurs(a)in1Ch5:14asthatofaGaditewhodweltinthelandofBashan.(b)
ItwasalsothenameofEsthersfather,theuncleofMordecai(Est2:15,9:29).
2.Asthenameofawomanitoccursthreetimes:(a)1Ch2:29,thewifeof
Abishur,ofthetribeofJudahthisisitsonlyoccurrenceinpreexilicwritings.(b)
Nu3:35,adaughterofthesonsofMerari,ofthetribeofLevi,themotherof
Zuriel,aprinceamongthefamiliesofMerari.(c)2Ch11:18,themotherofRehoboamswife,Mahalath,anddaughterofEliab,Davids
eldestbrother.

ItisawomansnameinMinan(SouthArabian)inscriptions,whereitoccursintheformIlihail.

W.O.E.Oesterley.

ABIHU(heisfather).SecondsonofAaron(Ex6:23,Nu3:2,26:60,1Ch6:3,24:1)accompaniedMosestothetopofSinai(Ex24:1,6/172
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ABIHU(heisfather).SecondsonofAaron(Ex6:23,Nu3:2,26:60,1Ch6:3,24:1)accompaniedMosestothetopofSinai(Ex24:1,
9)admittedtothepriestsoffice(Ex28:1)slainalongwithhisbrotherNadabforofferingstrangefire(Lv10:1,2,Nu3:4,26:61,1Ch24:2).
ABIHUD(fatherismajesty).ABenjamite(1Ch8:3).
ABIJAH.1.SonandsuccessorofRehoboam(2Ch13:1),alsocalledAbijam(1K14:31).TheaccountsofhimintheBooksofKings
andChroniclesarediscrepant.Thedifferencebeginswiththenameofhismother,which2Ch.givesasMicaiah,daughterofUrielofGibeah,
while1K.makeshertohavebeenMaacah,daughterofAbishalom.AsthelatterisalsothenameofAsasmother(1K15:10,2Ch15:16),
thereisprobablysomeconfusioninthetext.Beyondthis,theBookofKingstellsusonlythathereignedthreeyears,thathewalkedinthesins
ofhisfather,andthathehadwarwithJeroboam,kingofIsrael.2.Samuelssecondson(1S8:2).TheRVretainsthespellingAbiahin1Ch
6:28.3.AsonofJeroboamI.whodiedinchildhood(1K14).4.OneoftheheadsoffathershousesofthesonsofEleazar,whogavehis
nametothe8thofthe24coursesofpriests(1Ch24:3,10,2Ch8:14).TothiscourseZacharias,thefatherofJohntheBaptist,belonged(Lk
1:5).ThenameoccursalsointhelistsofpriestswhowentupwithZerubbabel(Neh12:4),andofthosewhosealeduntothecovenantin
thetimeofNehemiah(10:7).5.AsonofBecher,sonofBenjamin,1Ch7:8.6.WifeofHezron,eldestsonofPerez,sonofJudah,1Ch2:24,
RVAbiah.7.WifeofAhaz,andmotherofHezekiah(2Ch29:1),namedAbiin2K18:2.
H.P.Smith.
ABILENE.MentionedinLk3:1,andalsoinseveralreferencesinJosephus,asatetrarchyofLysanias[wh.see].Itwassituatedinthe
AntiLebanon,anditscapitalwasAbila,atownwhoseruinsarefoundtodayonthenorthernbankoftheriverBarada,nearavillagecalled
SkWadyBarada.ItisoneofthemostpicturesquespotsontherailroadtoDamascus.TheancientnameistodaypreservedinaLatin
inscriptiononadeeprockcuttinghighupabovetherailway.ByaworthlessMoslemtradition,Abelissaidtohavebeenburiedhere.

E.W.G.Masterman.
ABILITY.InAVabilityiseithermaterial(Lv27:8,Ezr2:69,Ac11:29)orpersonal(Dn1:4,Mt25:15)capacity.Themod.meaning
(mentalpower)isnotfoundinAV.
ABIMAEL(perhaps=fatherisGod).OneoftheJoktanidsorS.Arabians(seeart.Joktan),Gn10:28(J),1Ch1:22.
ABIMELECH(fatheriskingorperhapsMelechisfather).1.KingofGerar.AccordingtoE(Gn20)hetookSarahintohisharem,
butonlearningthatshewasAbrahamswife,restoredheruninjuredandmadeampleamends.Subsequentlyheenteredintoacovenantwith
Abraham(21:22ff.).J(12:10ff.,26:1ff.)givestwovariantsofthesametradition.TheBookofJubilees,inthesectionparallelto12:10ff.,
exoneratesAbrahamfromblame,andomitstheothertwonarratives!2.ThesonofGideon.Hismotherbelongedtooneoftheleading
CanaanitefamiliesinShechem,althoughJg8:31callsheraconcubine,andJotham(9:18)brandsherasamaidservant.OnGideonsdecease,
Abimelech,backedbyhismaternalrelatives,gatheredabandofmercenaries,murderedhisseventyhalfbrothersononestone,andwas
acceptedaskingbythemixedCanaaniteandIsraelitepopulationofShechemandtheneighbourhood.ButJothamsowedtheseedsof
dissensionbetweenthenewrulerandhissubjects,andthelattersoontookoffencebecausethekingdidnotresideamongthem.Attheendof
threeyearstheywereripeforrevolt,andfoundaleaderinGaal,sonofEbed.Abimelechdefeatedhim,tookthecity,andsowedthesitewith
salt,intokenthatitshouldnotagainbebuiltupon.Thebez,thenexttownattackedbyhim,fellintohishands,buthewasmortallywounded
byawomanwhilstassaultingthecitadel(Jg9:5054,2S11:21).HissignificanceinthehistoryofIsraelconsistsinthefactthathisshortlived
monarchywastheprecursorofthedurableonefoundedsoonafter.3.1Ch18:16:readAhimelech.4.Ps34(title):readAchish(cf.1S21:13).
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J.Taylor.
ABINADAB(fatherisgenerous).1.ThesecondsonofJesse(1S16:8,
17:13,1Ch2:13).2.AsonofSaulslaininthebattleofMt.Gilboa(1S31:2=1
Ch10:2).3.OwnerofthehousewhitherthearkwasbroughtbythemenofKiriathjearim(1S7:1),whenceitwassubsequentlyremovedby
David(2S6:3f.,1Ch13:7).
ABINOAM(fatherispleasantness).ThefatherofBarak(Jg4:6,12,5:12).
ABIRAM(fatheristheExaltedOne).1.AReubenite,whowithDathanconspiredagainstMoses(Nu16:1etc.,Dt11:6,Ps106:17).
Seeart.Korah.2.ThefirstbornsonofHieltheBethelite,whodiedwhenhisfatherrebuiltJericho(1K16:34).
ABISHAG.AbeautifulyoungShunammitesswhoattendeduponDavidinhisextremeoldage(1K1:2ff.,15).AfterDavidsdeath,
AbishagwasaskedinmarriagebyAdonijahtherequestcosthimhislife(1K2:1325).
ABISHAI.SonofZeruiah,Davidsstepsister(2S17:25,1Ch2:16).HisbrotherswereJoabandAsahel(2S2:18).Hewasahot
tempered,ruthlesssoldier.
AccompanyingDavidintoSaulscamp,hewouldfainhavekilledthesleeper(1S26:7).Aneditorialaddition(2S3:30)associateshimwith
JoabinthebloodrevengetakenonAbner.Abishaiwassecondincommandofthearmy(2S10,18),andifwemakeaslightnecessary
correctionat2S23:18f.,wefindthathewasfirstofthefamousthirty.Heiscreditedwiththeslaughterofthreehundredfoes,andDavidonce
owedhislifetoAbishaisinterposition(2S23:18,21:16f.).Notwithstandingtheirrelationshipandtheirusefulness,therewasanatural
antipathybetweenthekingandthetwobrothers(2S3:39).

J.Taylor.
ABISHALOM.SeeAbsalom.
ABISHUA.1.SonofPhinehasandfatherofBukki(1Ch6:4f.,50,Ezr7:5)calledin1Es8:2Abisue,andin2Es1:2Abissei.2.A
Benjamite(1Ch8:4cf.Nu26:38ff.).
ABISHUR(fatherisawall).AJerahmeelite(1Ch2:28f.).
ABISSEI.SeeAbishua,No.1.
ABISUE.SeeAbishua,No.1.
ABITAL(fatherisdew).WifeofDavidandmotherofShephatiah(2S3:4=1Ch3:3).
ABITUB.ABenjamite(1Ch8:11).
ABIUD(i.e.Abihud).AnancestorofJesus(Mt1:13.)
ABJECT.InPs35:15abjectoccursasanoun,asinHerbertsTemple
Servantsandabjectsfloutme.

ABNER.Saulscousin(1S9:1,14:51)andcommanderinchief(1S17:55,26:5).HesetIshboshethonhisfathersthrone,andfought8/172
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ABNER.Saulscousin(1S9:1,14:51)andcommanderinchief(1S17:55,26:5).HesetIshboshethonhisfathersthrone,andfought
longandbravelyagainstDavidsgeneral,Joab(2S2).Afteraseveredefeat,hekilledAsabelinselfdefence(2S2:23).Hebehaved
arrogantlytowardsthepuppetking,especiallyintakingpossessionofoneofSaulsconcubines(2S3:7).Resentingbitterlytheremonstrances
ofIshbosheth,heenteredintonegotiationswithDavid(2S3:812),andthen,onDavidsbehalf,withtheeldersofIsrael(2S3:17).
Dreadingthelossofhisownposition,andthirstingforrevenge,JoabmurderedhimatHebron(2S3:26f.).Davidgavehimapublicfuneral,
dissociatedhimselffromJoabsact(2S3:3137),andafterwardschargedSolomontoavengeit(1K2:5).Abnerwasdestituteofalllofty
ideasofmoralityorreligion(2S3:8,16),butwastheonlycapablepersononthesideofSaulsfamily.

J.Taylor.
ABOMINATION.FourHebrewwordsfromthreedifferentrootsarerenderedinEVbyabominationand,occasionally,abominable
thing.Inalmostallcases(forexceptionsseeGn43:32,46:34)thereferenceistoobjectsandpracticesabhorrenttoJ,andopposedtothe
moralrequirementsandritualofHisreligion.AmongtheobjectssodescribedareheathendeitiessuchasAshtoreth(Astarte),Chemosh,
Milcom,theabominationsoftheZidonians(Phnicians),Moabites,andAmmonitesrespectively(2K23:13)imagesandother
paraphernaliaoftheforbiddencults(Dt7:25,27:15,andofteninEzk.)andthefleshofanimalsrituallytaboo(seeesp.Lv11:10ff.andart.
CleanandUnclean).SomeofthepracticesthatareanabominationuntoJ,aretheworshipofheathendeitiesandoftheheavenlybodies(Dt
13:14,17:4andoften),thepracticeofwitchcraftandkindredarts(Dt18:12),grossactsofimmorality(Lv18:22ff.),falsificationofweights
andmeasures(Pr11:1),andevildevicesgenerally(Pr15:26RV).
Oneofthefourwordsabovereferredto(piggl)occursonlyasatechnicaltermforstalesacrificialflesh,whichhasnotbeeneatenwithin
theprescribedtime(Driver,whowouldrenderrefusemeatinLv7:18,19:7,Ezk4:14,Is65:4).

A.R.S.Kennedy.
ABOMINATIONOFDESOLATION.AtermfoundonlyinMk13:14and
itsparallelMt24:15.Itisobviouslyderived,asSt.Matthewindicates,fromDn11:31,12:11,cf.9:27.Inthesepassagesthemostnatural
referenceistothedesecrationoftheTempleunderAntiochusEpihanes,whenanaltartoOlympianZeuswaserectedonthealtarofburnt
sacrifices.AsinterpretedintherevisionbySt.Luke(21:20),thereferenceintheGospelistotheencompassingofJerusalembytheRoman
army.Itisverydifficult,however,toadjustthisinterpretationtotheexpressionofMk.standingwhereheoughtnot,andthatofMt.
standingintheholyplace.Otherinterpretationswouldbe:(1)thethreatenederectionofthestatueofCaligulaintheTempleor(2)the
desecrationoftheTempleareabytheZealots,whoduringthesiegemadeitafortressor(3)thedesecrationoftheTemplebythepresenceof
Titusafteritscapturebythatgeneral.Whileitisimpossibletoreachanyfinalchoicebetweenthesedifferentinterpretations,itseemsprobable
thatthereferenceofMk13:14ispriortothedestructionofJerusalem,becauseofitsinsistencethattheappearanceoftheabominationof
desolation(orthe
abominationthatmakesdesolate)istobetakenasawarningforthosewhoareinJudatofleetothemountains.Itwouldseemtofollow,
therefore,thatthereferenceistosomeevent,portendingthefallofJerusalem,whichmightalsobeinterpretedbytheChristiansasa
premonitionoftheParousia(2Th2:112).ItwouldseemnaturaltoseethiseventinthecomingoftheRomans(Lk21:20),orintheseizureof
theTemplebytheZealotsunderJohnofGiscala,beforethecitywascompletelyinvestedbytheRomans.Ameasureofprobabilityisgivento
thelatterconjecturebythetradition(Eusebius,HEiii.v.3)thattheJewishChristians,becauseofaDivineoracle,fledfromJerusalemduring
theearlycourseofthesiege.

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ShailerMathews.
ABRAHAM.AbramandAbrahamarethetwoformsinwhichthenameofthefirstpatriarchwashandeddowninHebrewtradition.The
changeofnamerecordedinGn17:5(P)isaharmonistictheory,whichinvolvesanimpossibleetymology,andcannotberegardedas
historical.OfAbrahamnobetterexplanationhasbeensuggestedthanthatitispossiblyadialecticororthographicvariationofAbram,which
inthefullerformsAbirmandAburamuisfoundasapersonalnamebothinHeb.andBabylonian.ThehistoryofAbraham(Gn11:2725:18)
consistsofanumberoflegendarynarratives,whichhavebeensomewhatlooselystrungtogetherintoasemblanceofbiographicalcontinuity.
Thesenarratives(withtheexceptionofch.14,whichisassignedtoaspecialsource)areapportionedbycriticstothethreemaindocumentsof
Genesis,J,E,andPandtheanalysisshowsthatthebiographicarrangementisnotduesolelytothecompilerofthePent.,butexistedinthe
separatesources.Inthemwecanrecognize,amidstmuchdiversity,theoutlinesofafairlysolidandconsistenttradition,whichmaybe
assumedtohavetakenshapeatdifferentcentres,suchasthesanctuariesofHebronandBeersheba.
1.TheaccountofJopenswiththeDivinecalltoAbraham,inobediencetowhichheseparateshimselffromhiskindredandmigratesto
Canaan(12:18).
IntheproperJahwistictraditionthestartingpointoftheExoduswasHarraninMesopotamia,butin11:28ff.(cf.15:7)wefindcombined
withthisanotherview,accordingtowhichAbrahamcamefromUroftheChaldeesinS.Babylonia.Inpassingwemaynotetheremarkable
factthatbothtraditionsalikeconnectthepatriarchwithfamouscentresofBabylonianmoonworship.
ArrivedinCanaan,AbrahambuildsaltarsatShechem,wherehereceivesthefirstpromiseoftheland,andBethel,wheretheseparation
fromLottakesplaceafterwhichAbrahamresumeshissouthernjourneyandtakesuphisabodeatHebron(ch.13).Thisconnexionisbroken
in12:1020bytheepisodeof
AbrahamssojourninEgypt,whichprobablybelongstoanolderstratumofJahwistictraditionrepresentinghimasleadinganomadiclifein
theNegeb.TothesamecyclewemayassignthestoryofHagarsflightandtheprophecyregardingIshmael,inch.16here,too,thehomeof
AbrahamisapparentlylocatedintheNegeb.Inch.18wefindAbrahamatHebron,whereinatheophanyhereceivesthepromiseofasonto
beborntoSarah,andalsoanintimationofthedoomimpendingovertheguiltycitiesofthePlain.ThedestructionofSodomandGomorrah,
andthedeliveranceofLot,aregraphicallydescribedinch.19,whichcloseswithanaccountoftheshamefuloriginsofMoabandAmmon.
Passingoversomefragmentarynoticesinch.21,whichhavebeenamalgamatedwiththefullernarrativeofE,wecometothelastsceneofJs
record,themissionofAbrahamsservanttoseekabrideforIsaac,toldwithsuchdramaticpowerinch.24.Itwouldseemthatthedeathof
Abraham,ofwhichJsaccounthasnowherebeenpreserved,musthavetakenplacebeforetheservantreturned.Anoteisappendedin25:1ff.
astothedescentof16ArabiantribesfromAbrahamandKeturah.

2.OfEsnarrativethefirsttracesappearinch.15,acompositeanddifficultchapter,whosekernelprobablybelongsrathertothis
documentthantoJ.InitspresentformitnarratestherenewaltoAbrahamofthetwogreatpromisesonwhichhisfaithrestedthepromiseof
aseedandofthelandofCanaanandtheconfirmationofthelatterbyanimpressiveceremonyinwhichGodenteredintoacovenantwith
thepatriarch.ThemainbodyofElohistictradition,however.Isfoundinchs.2022.WehavehereanoticeofAbrahamsarrivalintheNegeb,
followedbyasojourninGerar,whereSarahshonouriscompromisedbythedeliberateconcealmentofthefactthatsheismarried(ch.20)a
variantformoftheJahwisticlegendof12:1020.TheexpulsionofHagar,recordedin21:921,isanequallyobviousparalleltoJsaccountof
theflightofHagarinch.16,althoughinEtheincidentfollows,whileinJitprecedes,thebirthsofbothIshmaelandIsaac.Thelatterpartof
ch.21isoccupiedwiththenarrativeofAbrahamsadventuresintheNegebespeciallyhiscovenantwithAbimelechofGerarwhichleads
uptotheconsecrationofthesanctuaryofBeershebatotheworshipofJahweh.Herethenarrativehasbeensupplementedbyextractsfroma 10/172
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uptotheconsecrationofthesanctuaryofBeershebatotheworshipofJahweh.Herethenarrativehasbeensupplementedbyextractsfroma
Jahwisticrecensionofthesametradition.ToE,finally,weareindebtedforthefascinatingstoryofthesacrificeofIsaacinch.22,whichmay
befairlydescribedasthegemofthiscollection.

3.InP,thebiographyofAbrahamismostlyreducedtoachronologicalepitome,basedonthenarrativeofJ,andsupplyingsomegapsleft
bythecompilerintheolderdocument.Therearejusttwoplaceswherethemeagrechronicleexpandsintoelaboratelycircumstantial
description.Thefirstistheaccount,inch.17,oftheinstitutionofcircumcisionasthesignofthecovenantbetweenGodandAbraham,round
whicharegatheredallthepromiseswhichintheearlierdocumentsareconnectedwithvariousexperiencesinthepatriarchslife.Thesecond
incidentisthepurchaseofthecaveofMachpelahafterthedeathofSarah,recordedatgreatlengthinch.23:thisispeculiartoP,andwas
evidentlyofimportancetothatwriterasaguaranteeofIsraelsperpetualtenureofthelandofCanaan.

4.Suchis,inoutline,thehistoryofAbrahamastransmittedthroughtherecognizedliterarychannelsofthenationaltradition.Wehaveyet
tomentionanepisode,concerningwhichthereisgreatdiversityofopinion,thestoryofAbrahamsvictoryoverthefourkings,andhis
interviewwithMelchizedek,inch.14.Itismaintainedbysomethatthischapterhearsinternalmarksofauthenticitynotpossessedbytherest
oftheAbrahamictradition,andaffordsafirmfootholdforthebeliefthatAbrahamisahistoricpersonageofthe3rdmillenniumb.c.,
contemporarywithHammurabi(Amraphel?)ofBabylon(c.2300).Otherstakeadiametricallyoppositeview,holdingthatitisalateJewish
romance,foundedonimperfectlyunderstooddataderivedfromcuneiformsources.Theargumentsoneithersidecannothegivenhereitmust
sufficetoremarkthat,evenifconvincingproofofthehistoricityofch.14couldbeproduced,itwouldstillheaquestionwhetherthat
judgmentcouldbeextendedtotheverydifferentmaterialoftheundisputedHebrewtradition.Itismuchmoreimportanttoinquirewhatisthe
historicalvalueofthetraditionwhichliesimmediatelybehindthemorepopularnarrativesinwhichthereligioussignificanceofAbrahams
characterisexpressed.Thatthesearehistoryinthestrictsenseofthewordisapropositiontowhichnocompetentscholarwouldassent.They
arelegendswhichhadcirculatedorallyforanindefinitetime,andhadassumedvariedforms,beforetheywerecollectedandreducedto
writing.Theonlyquestionofpracticalmomentiswhetherthelegendshaveclusteredroundthenameofahistoricpersonality,theleaderofan
immigrationofAramantribesintoPalestine,andatthesametimetherecipientofanewrevelationofGodwhichpreparedthewayforthe
uniquereligioushistoryandmissionofIsrael.ItcannotbesaidthatthisviewofAbrahamhasasyetobtainedanydirectconfirmationfrom
discoveriesinAssyriologyorarchology,thoughitisperhapstruethatrecentdevelopmentsofthesesciencesrendertheconceptionmore
intelligiblethanitformerlywas.Andthereisnothing,eitherinthetraditionitselforinourknowledgeofthebackgroundagainstwhichitis
set,thatisinconsistentwiththesuppositionthattotheextentjustindicatedthefigureofAbrahamishistorical.Ifitbetheessenceoflegend,
asdistinctfrommyth,thatitoriginatesintheimpressionmadebyacommandingpersonalityonhiscontemporaries,wemaywellbelievethat
thestoryofAbraham,bearingasitdoesthestampofethicalcharacterandindividuality,isatruelegend,andthereforehasgrownuparound
somenucleusofhistoricfact.

5.Fromthereligiouspointofview,thelifeofAbrahamhasasurprisinginnerunityasarecordoftheprogressivetrialandstrengthening
offaith.Itisalifeofuncloudedearthlyprosperity,brokenbynoreverseoffortuneyetitisrootedinfellowshipwiththeunseen.Hegoes
throughlife,ithasbeenwellsaid,listeningforthetruetr,whichisnotshutupinformalprecepts,butrevealedfromtimetotimetothe
conscienceandthisleaninguponGodswordisdeclaredtobeinJahwehssightaproofofgenuinerighteousness.HeistheFatherofthe
faithful,andtheFriendofGod.Andthatinwardattitudeofspiritisreflectedinacharacterofsingularloftinessandmagnanimity,an
unworldlyanddisinteresteddispositionwhichrevealsnomoralstruggle,butisneverthelessthefruitofhabitualconversewithGod.Thefew

narrativeswhichpresentthepatriarchinalessadmirablelightonlythrowintobolderreliefthoseidealfeaturesofcharacterinvirtueofwhich
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narrativeswhichpresentthepatriarchinalessadmirablelightonlythrowintobolderreliefthoseidealfeaturesofcharacterinvirtueofwhich
AbrahamstandsinthepagesofScriptureasoneofthenoblesttypesofHebrewpiety.

J.Skinner.
ABRAHAMSBOSOM.ItwasnaturalfortheJewstorepresentAbrahamaswelcominghisrighteousdescendantstotheblissof
heaven.Itwas,also,notunusualforthemtorepresentthestateoftherighteousasafeast.IntheparableofLk16:19ff.Jesususesthese
figurestorepresenttheblessednessofthedeadLazarus.HewasrecliningatthefeastnexttoAbraham(cf.Mt8:11).ARabbiofthethird
century,AddaBarAhaba,usespreciselythisexpressionasasynonymforenteringParadise.OtherJewishwritingsoccasionallyrepresent
AbrahamasinawayoverseeingtheentranceofsoulsintoParadise.
AbrahamsBosom,therefore,mayveryfairlybesaidtobeasynonymforParadise,wheretherighteousdeadliveineternalbliss.Thereis
noclearevidencethattheJewsofJesusdaybelievedinanintermediatestate,anditisunsafetoseeinthetermanyreferencetosucha
belief.
ShailerMathews.
ABRECH.Awordofdoubtfulsignification,tr.Bowtheknee,inAVandRV(Gn41:43thenhemadehim[Joseph]torideinthe
secondchariotwhichhehadandtheycriedbeforehim,BowthekneeandhesethimoverallthelandofEgypt).Thewordshouldbeeither
HebreworEgyptian.AnAssyr.etymologyhasbeenproposed,viz.abarakku,thetitleofoneofthehighestofficialsintheAssyrianEmpire,
butnosuchborrowingsfromAssyriaareknowninEgypt.Hebrewaffordsnolikelyexplanation.Egyptianhithertohasfurnishedtwothatare
possible:(1)Praise!butthewordisrareanddoubtful(2)abrak,apparentlymeaningAttention!Haveacare!(Spiegelberg).Thelast
seemstheleastimprobable.

F.Ll.Griffith.
ABRONAH.Astationinthejourneyings(Nu33:34,35).
ABSALOM(fatherispeace).ThirdsonofDavid,byMaacah,daughterofTalmai,kingofGeshur(2S3:3).HissisterTamarhaving
beenwrongedbyherhalfbrotherAmnon,andDavidhavingfailedtopunishthecriminal,AbsalomassassinatedAmnonandfledtoGeshur,
wherehespentthreeyears(ch.13).Joabprocuredhisrecall,buthewasnotadmittedintohisfatherspresence.Inhisusualimperiousfashion
henextcompelledJoabtobringabouthisfullrestoration(14:29ff.).Thenheassumedthepositionofheirapparent(15:1cf.1S8:11,1K
1:5),andbeganunderminingtheloyaltyofthepeople.Four(notforty)yearsafterhisreturnhesetupthestandardofrebellionatHebron,a
townwhichwaswellaffectedtowardshimbecauseitwashisbirthplace,andaggrievedagainstDavidbecauseitwasnolongerthemetropolis.
Theoldkingwastakenbysurprise,andfledtotheeastoftheJordan.OnenteringJerusalem,Absalompubliclyappropriatedtheroyalharem,
thusproclaimingthesupersessionofhisfather.BytheinsidiouscounselofHushaitimewaswastedincollectingalargearmy.Buttimewas
onDavidsside.Hisveteransralliedroundhimhisseasonedcaptainswerebyhisside.WhenAbsalomofferedbattle,nearMahanaim,the
kingsonlyanxietywaslesthissonshouldbeslain.Thisreallyhappened,throughJoabsagency.Thefathersnatural,butunseasonable,
lamentationwascutshortbythesoldiersbluntremonstrance(2S19:5ff.).Onthefaceofthehistoryitisclearthat,ifAbsalomlacked
capacity,hepossessedcharm.Hisphysicalbeautycontributedtothis:2S14:2527isprobablyagloss,butcertainlyrestsonareliable
traditionthepollingofthehairwasareligiousact.Accordingto2S18:18,Absalomhadnoson:thisismorereliablethanthestatementin2

S14:27.Itissaidthatlatergenerations,followingPr10:7,alwaysavoidedthenameAbsalom,preferringtheformAbishalom(whichappears
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S14:27.Itissaidthatlatergenerations,followingPr10:7,alwaysavoidedthenameAbsalom,preferringtheformAbishalom(whichappears
in1K15:2,10).

J.Taylor.
ABSALOM(inApocr.).1.ThefatherofMattathias,oneofthecaptainswhostoodbyJonathanatHazor(1Mac11:70=Jos.Ant.XIII.
v.7).ItisperhapsthesameAbsalomwhosesonJonathanwassentbySimontosecureJoppa(1Mac.13:11=Jos.Ant.XIII.vi.4).2.An
envoysentbytheJewstoLysias(2Mac11:17).
ABUBUS.FatherofPtolemythemurdererofSimontheMaccabee(1Mac16:11,15).
ABYSS.TheJewisheschatologyofthetimeofChristconceivedoftheabodeofdepartedspiritsasagreatabyss,inthemidstofwhich
wasalakeoffire,intendedprimarilyasaplaceofpunishmentfortheangelsandgiants,andaccordinglyforsinners.Theabyssexistedbefore
thecreation,andwasthehomeofthevariousenemiesofGod,suchasthedragonandthebeast.IntheNTitisusedonlyinApocalypse(AV
bottomlesspit)andinRo10:7andLk8:31(AV
deep).

ShailerMathews.
ACACIA.SeeShittimTree.
ACCABA,1Es5:30=Hagab,Ezr2:46.
ACCEPTANCEdenotesthebeinginfavourwithanyone.InEVthenounisfoundonlyinIs60:7,butacceptandacceptableareused
frequentlybothinOTandNTtoexpresstheacceptanceofonemanwithanother(Gn32:20,Lk4:24),butabovealltheacceptanceofman
withGod.InOTtheconditionsofacceptancewithGodaresometimesceremonial(Ex28:38,Ps20:3).Butofthemselvestheseare
insufficient(Gn4:5,7,Am5:22,Jer6:20,14:10,12),andonlymoraluprightness(Pr21:3,Job42:8)andthesacrificesofasincereheart(Ps
19:14,119:108cf.40:6ff.,51:15ff.)arerecognizedastrulyacceptablewithGod.InNTthegroundsoftheDivineacceptancearenever
ceremonial,butalwaysspiritual(Ro12:1,Ph4:18,1P2:5).JesusChrististhetypeofperfectacceptance(Mk1:11||,He10:5ff.).InHimas
theBeloved,andthroughHimastheMediator,mensecuretheirreligiousstandingandfundamentalacceptancewithGod(Eph1:6).In
servingHim(Ro14:18),andfollowingHisexample(1P2:20,21),theybecomemorallyacceptableintheFatherssight.

J.C.Lambert.
ACCESS(Gr.prosagg).ThewordoccursonlyinRo5:2,Eph2:18,3:12,andthequestion(regardingwhichcommentatorsaremuch
divided)iswhetheritoughttobeunderstoodinthetrans.senseasintroduction,thebeingbroughtnearbyanother,orintheIntrans.senseas
accessorpersonalapproach.Thetrans.senseismostinkeepingwiththeordinaryuseofthevb.prosaginclassicalGr.(cf.itsusein1P
3:18thathemightbringustoGod)theideasuggestedbeingthatofaformalintroductionintoaroyalpresence.Access,moreover,does
notsowellexpressthefactthatwecannotapproachGodinourownright,butneedChristtoIntroduceuscf.by[RVthrough]whom(Ro
5:2),throughhim(Eph2:18),inwhom(3:12).ThewordaccessdoesnotoccurinHebrews,butthewriterhasmuchtosayonthesubject
ofourapproachtoGodthroughChrist,esp.
forthepurposeofprayer(4:14ff.)andworship(10:19ff.).
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J.C.Lambert.
ACCO.Jg1:31.SeePtolemais.
ACCOS(1Mac8:17).GrandfatherofoneoftheenvoyssenttoRomebyJudasMaccabusinb.c.161.AccosrepresentstheHeb.
Hakkoz,thenameofapriestlyfamily(1Ch24:10,Ezr2:61).
ACCURSED.SeeBan.
ACELDAMA.SeeAkeldama.
ACHAIA.ThisnamewasoriginallyappliedtoastripoflandontheN.coastofthePeloponnese.OnannexingGreeceandMacedoniaas
aprovinceinb.c.146,theRomansappliedthenameAchaiatothewholeofthatcountry.Inb.c.27twoprovinceswereformed,Macedonia
andAchaiaandthelatterincludedThessaly,tolia,Acarnania,andsomepartofEpirus,withEubaandmostoftheCyclades.Itwas
governedinSt.Paulstimebyaproconsulofthesecondgrade,withheadquartersatCorinth(Ac18:12).Hellas(Ac20:2)isthenativeGreek
namecorrespondingtotheRomanAchaia.TherewereJewishsettlementsinthisprovince,atCorinth,Athens,etc.(Ac17:17,18:4,7),and
theworkofSt.PaulbeganamongstthemandwascarriedonbyApollos(1and2Cor.passim,Ac
17:16ff.,18,19:1).
A.Souter.
ACHAICUS.ThenameofamemberoftheChurchatCorinth.Hewaswith
StephanasandFortunatus(1Co16:17f.)whentheyvisitedSt.PaulatEphesusand
refreshedhisspirit.Nothingmoreiscertainlyknownofhim.Asslaveswereoftennamedfromthecountryoftheirbirth,itisaprobable
conjecturethathewasaslave,borninAchaia.

J.G.Tasker.
ACHAN.SonofCarmi,ofthetribeofJudah(Jos7:1).ItisbroughthometoJoshua(Jos7:812)thatthedefeatatAiwasduetothefact
ofJahwehscovenanthavingbeentransgressed.Aninquiryisinstituted,andAchanissingledoutasthetransgressor.Heconfessesthatafter
thecaptureofJerichohehadhiddenpartofthespoil,thewholeofwhichhadbeenplacedundertheban(chrem),i.e.devotedtoJahweh,and
wasthereforeunlawfulformantotouch.Accordingtotheusageofthetimes,bothheandhisfamilyarestoned,andtheirdeadbodiesburned
thelatteranevenmoreterriblepunishmentintheeyesofancientIsrael.ThesentenceiscarriedoutinthevalleyofAchor(troubling).
AccordingtoJos7:25,26,thisvalleywassocalledafterAchan,thetroublerofIsrael.LaterhisnamewaschangedtoAchartocorrespond
morecloselywiththenameofthevalley(1Ch
2:7).
W.O.E.Oesterley.
ACHAR.SeeAchan.

ACHBOR(mouseorjerboa).1.AnEdomite(Gn36:38).2.AcourtierunderJosiah,sonofMicaiah(2K22:12,14),andfatherof
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ACHBOR(mouseorjerboa).1.AnEdomite(Gn36:38).2.AcourtierunderJosiah,sonofMicaiah(2K22:12,14),andfatherof
Elnathan(Jer26:22om.LXX,36:12).CalledAbdon(2Ch34:20).
ACHIACHARUS,thenephewofTobit,wasgovernorunderSarchedonus=Esarhaddon(To1:21etc.).ThenearestHebrewnameis
Ahihud(1Ch8:7).
ACHIAS.AnancestorofEzra(2Es1:2),omittedinEzr.and1Es.
ACHIM(perhapsashortenedformofJehoiachim),anancestorofourLord(Mt1:14).
ACHIOR(brotheroflight).AgeneraloftheAmmonites(Jth5:5etc.),afterwardsconvertedtoJudaism(ch.14).
ACHIPHA(1Es5:31).HischildrenwereamongthetempleservantsorNethinimwhoreturnedwithZerubbabelcalledHakupha,
Ezr2:51,Neh7:53.
ACHISH.ThekingofGathtowhomDavidfledforrefugeafterthemassacreofthepriestsatNob(1S21:10).In1S27:2heiscalled
thesonofMaoch(possibly=sonofMaacah,1K2:39).HereceivedDavidwithhisbandof600men,andassignedhimthecityofZiklag
intheS.ofJudah.DespitethewishesofAchish,theotherPhil.princesrefusedtoletDavidtakepartinthefinalcampaignagainstSaul.
[AchishshouldbereadforAbimelechinPs34(title).]
ACHMETHA.TheEcbatanaoftheGreeksandRomans,modernHamadan.
ItwasthecapitalofMedia(inOldPersianHaghmatna).Itismentionedbutonceinthecanonicalbooks(Ezr6:2),astheplacewherethe
archivesofthereignofCyrusweredeposited.ItisseveraltimesmentionedintheApocrypha(2Mac9:3,To3:7,6:7,14:13f.,Jth1:1ff.).

J.F.McCurdy.
ACHOR(meqkhr,ValeofGrief).HereAchan(wh.see),withhisfamily,wasstonedtodeath.Itlayontheboundarybetween
JudahandBenjamin(Jos15:7etc.).GutheidentifiesitwiththeplainsouthofJericho,betweenthemountainsonthewest,andJordanandthe
DeadSeaontheeast.WdyKelt,atremendousgorgewhichbreaksdownfromthemountainW.ofJericho,probablyformedtheboundary
betweenJudahandBenjamin.Inthemouthofthisvalley,itseemslikely,theexecutiontookplace.

W.Ewing.
ACHSAH(1Ch2:49,AVAchsa).ThedaughterofCaleb.HerfatherpromisedherinmarriagetothemanwhoshouldcaptureDebiror
KiriathsepherafeataccomplishedbyOthniel,thebrotherofCaleb.Herdowryofasouthland(Negeb)wasincreasedbythegrantofthe
upperspringsandthenethersprings(Jos15:1619,Jg1:915).
ACHSHAPH.About17milesE.ofTyre,nowcalledIksaforKesaf,onN.E.
borderofterritoryassignedtoAsher(Jos19:25).ItskingjoinedJabinsconfederacy,whichwasdefeatedbyJoshua,andtherulerofAchshaph
wasamongsttheslain(Jos11:1,12:20).
J.Taylor.

ACHZIB.1.AtowninAsher(Jos19:29),fromwhichthenativescouldnotbedislodged(Jg1:31):itlayonthecoastbetweenAcreand
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ACHZIB.1.AtowninAsher(Jos19:29),fromwhichthenativescouldnotbedislodged(Jg1:31):itlayonthecoastbetweenAcreand
Tyre.TheearlygeographerscalleditEkdippanowezZib.2.IntheS.oftheShephelah(Jos15:44),nearMareshah.Mic1:14predictsthat
AchzibshallbetothekingsofJudahachzab(deceptive),astreamwhosewatersfailwhenmostneeded(cf.Jer15:18).

J.Taylor.
ACRA.SeeJerusalem,I.3,II.2.
ACRE.SeeWeightsandMeasures.
ACROSTIC.Acrosticpoems,i.e.poemsinwhichinitiallettersrecurringatregularintervalsfollowsomedefinitearrangement,occurto
thenumberof14intheOTanotherinstanceisSir51:1330.Alltheseareofasimpletype,andaresoplannedthattheinitialsrecurringat
fixedintervalsfollowtheorderoftheHebrewalphabetthusthefirstsectionofthepoembeginswiththefirstletteroftheHebrewalphabet,
alephthesecondwiththesecondletter,bethandsoondowntothetwentysecondandlastletter,taw.Theintervalbetweentheseveralletters
consistsofaregularnumberoflines.InPss111,112thisintervalisonelineinPss25,34,145,Pr31:1031,Sir51:1330,andinthe
fragment,whichdoesnotclearlyextendbeyondthethirteenthletter,containedinNah1,theintervalis2linesinLa4itis2longerlines,in
chs.1and2itis3longerlinesinPss9and10(asinglecontinuouspoem),andinPs37,itis4lines.InLa3,wheretheintervalbetweeneach
successiveletterofthealphabetis3longlines,eachofeachsetofthreelinesbeginswiththesameletterandsimilarlyinPs119,wherethe
intervalis16lines,eachalternatelinewithineachsetof16beginswiththesameletter.
CertainlyinLa2,3and4,and,accordingtotheorderoftheversesintheLXX,inPr31,probablyalsoinPs34(wherethesenseseemsto
requirethetranspositionofv.16andv.15)andinPs9,thesixteenthandseventeenthlettersoftheHebrewalphabetoccupyrespectivelythe
seventeenthandsixteenthplacesintheacrosticscheme.Thereasonforthisisunknown.
Comparativelyfewofthesepoemshavecomedowntousintact.Theyhavesufferedfromaccidentalerrorsoftextualtransmission,and
probablyalsofromeditorialalterations.Insomecasesanentirestrophehasdroppedoutofthetextthusthesixthstrophe(of2lines)has
fallenoutbetweenv.6andv.7inPs34,andthefourteenthbetweenv.13andv.14ofPs145,thoughinthelattercaseitstillstoodinthe
HebrewMSfromwhichtheGreekversionwasmade.Occasionallylineshavebeeninserted,as,apparently,inmorethanoneplaceinPs37,
andinNah1:2.ButsuchcorruptionofthetextisreallyseriousonlyinPs9f.,Nah1,andSir51:1330.

TheearliestofthesefifteenpoemsareprobablyLa2and4,whichmayhavebeenwrittenintheearlierhalfofthe6thcent.b.c.butthe
customofwritingsuchpoemsmayhavebeenmuchmoreancient.PerhapsthelatestofthepoemsisSir
51:1330(aboutb.c.180),buttheJewscontinuedtocomposesuchpoemslongafterthis.

TheEnglishreaderwillfindthestrophesclearlydistinguished,andtheinitialHebrewletterswiththeirnamesinEnglishlettersindicated,
intheRVofPs119.UnfortunatelytheRVdoesnotgivetheinitialsintheotherpoemsbuttheywillbefound,inthecaseofthePsalms,in
(forexample)KirkpatricksPsalms
(CambridgeBible),CheynesBookofPsalms,DriversParallelPsalter.ForLa2and4seeExpositor,1906(April)[G.A.Smith]forNah1,
Expositor,1898(Sept.),pp.207220[G.B.Gray],orDriver,CenturyBible,p.26f.Commonthoughitisinotherliteraturesandwithsuch
medivalJewishpoetsasIbnEzra,nodecisiveinstanceofthetypeofacrosticinwhichtheinitialletterscomposeaname,hasbeenfoundin
theOT,thoughsomehavedetectedthenameSimeon(orSimon)thusgiveninPs110,Pss25and34containeachanadditionalstropheatthe
closeofthealphabeticstrophesineachcasethefirstwordoftheverseisapartoftheHebrewverbpdh,toredeem,andithasbeen
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closeofthealphabeticstrophesineachcasethefirstwordoftheverseisapartoftheHebrewverbpdh,toredeem,andithasbeen
suggestedthattheauthororacopyisthasthusleftusacluetohisnamePedahelbutinterestingasthissuggestionis,itisforseveralreasons
doubtful.

G.B.Gray.
ACTSOFTHEAPOSTLES

1.Summaryofcontents.ThefifthbookofourNTgivesthehistoryoftheChurchfromtheAscensiontillc.a.d.61.Itmaybedivided
intotwoparts,oneofwhichdescribestheearlyhistory(ActsofPeterandActsoftheHellenists),andtheotherthelifeofSt.Paul(Actsof
Paul)fromhisconversiontohisimprisonmentatRome.Thetwopartsoverlapeachotheryetacleardivisionoccursat13:1,fromwhich
pointforwardsthePaulinejourneysaredescribedbyonewhoforaconsiderablepartofthemwasafellowtraveller.Theparallelismbetween
PeterandPaulisverystriking,correspondingdeedsandeventsbeingrelatedofeachandthispeculiaritywasthoughtbytheTbingenschool
tobetrayafictitiousauthor,whocomposedhisnarrativesoastoshowtheequalityofPeterandPaul.Thoughthisconclusionisarbitrary,the
parallelismshowsusthattheauthor,whoeverhewas,selectedhisfactswithgreatcareandwithasetpurpose.
2.Unityofauthorship.From16:10onwards,thewriter,whonevernameshimself,frequentlybetrayshispresenceasafellowtraveller
byusingthepronounwe.ItisgenerallyconcededthatthesewesectionsaregenuinenotesofacompanionofSt.Paul.Butsomeassertthat
theauthorofActswasalaterwriterwhoincorporatedinhisworkextractsfromadiarycontemporarywiththeeventsdescribed.Thesecritics
seeinthebooktracesoffourstrata,andassertthatitisacompilationofthesamenatureasthePentateuch,theBookofEnoch,andthe
ApostolicConstitutions.Nownodoubtourauthorusedsources,insomepartsofhisbookwrittensources.Butifhewerea2ndcent.compiler,
weoughttobeabletodetectinterpolationsfromdifferencesofstyle(aswedoinApost.Const.),andoftenfromanachronisms.Moreover,
seeingthathewasatleastamanofgreatliteraryability,itisremarkablethathewassoclumsyastoretainthepronounweifhewasalate
writercopyinga1stcent.source.Hisstyleisthesamethroughout,andnoanachronismshavebeenreallybroughthometohimhisinterests
arethoseofthe1st,notofthe2ndcentury(8).Further,theThirdGospelisclearly,fromidentityofstyleandtheexpressclaiminAc1:1(cf.
Lk1:3),byourauthor,andyettheGospelisnowgenerallyadmittedtohavebeenwrittenbyc.a.d.80.Thuswemay,withHarnack,dismiss
thecompilationtheory.

3.Theauthor.Internalevidence,iftheunityofauthorshipbeadmitted,showsthatthewriterwasaclosecompanionofSt.Paul.Now,
ifwetakethenamesoftheApostlescompanionsgivenintheEpistles,weshallfindthatallbutfourmustbeexcluded,whetherashaving
joinedhimafterhisarrivalatRome(fortheauthormadethevoyagewithhim,27:1),orasbeingmentionedinActsinamannerinconsistent
withauthorship(so,e.g.,Timothy,Tychicus,Aristarchus,Mark,Prisca,Aquila,Trophimusmustbeexcluded),orashavingdesertedhim,oras
beingRomanChristiansandrecentfriends.Twoofthefour(CrescensandJesusJustus)areinsignificant,andhadnospeciallyintimate
connexionwiththeApostle.WehaveonlyTitusandLukeleft.NeitherismentionedinActsbothwereimportantpersons.Butfor2Ti4:10f.
wemusthaveconjecturedthattheseweretwonamesforthesameperson.Wehavethentochoosebetweenthem,andPatristicevidence(4)
leadsustochooseLuke.ButwhyisTitusnotmentionedinActs?Itcannotbe(asLightfootsuggests)thathewasunimportant(cf.2Co.
passim),butperhapsLukessilenceisduetoTitusbeinghisnearrelation(Ramsay)cf.Exp.T.XVIII.[1907]285,335,380.
TheauthorwasaGentile,notaJew(Col4:10f.,14),aconclusiontowhichaconsiderationofhisinterestswouldleadus(8seealsoAc
1:19intheirlanguage).Hewasaphysician(Col4:14),andhadquiteprobablystudiedattheUniversityofAthens,whereheseemsquiteat
homethoughnotpresentatthe
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homethoughnotpresentatthe
Atheniansceneshedescribes(Ac17:16ff.).Hisnativecountryisdisputed.APrefacetoLuke,thoughttobenotlaterthanthe3rdcent.,says
thathewasbynationaSyrianofAntiochandEusebius(HEiii.4),usingavaguephrase,saysthathewas,accordingtobirth,ofthosefrom
AntiochwhilelaterwriterslikeJeromefollowEusebius.CertainlyweshouldneverhaveguessedthisfromthecoldwayinwhichtheSyrian
AntiochismentionedinActs.Some(Rackham,Rendall)conjecturethatPisidianAntiochisreallymeant,asthescenesintheneighbourhood
ofthatcityaresovividthatthedescriptionmightwellbebyaneyewitness.Butthewesectionshadnotyetbegun,andthisseemsdecisive
againstthewriterhavingbeenpresent.Others(Ramsay,Renan)believethewritertohavebeenaMacedonianofPhilippi,sincehetookso
greataninterestintheclaimsofthatcolony(16:12).Indeed,Ramsay(St.Paul,p.202ff.)propoundstheingeniousconjecturethatLuke,
havingmetPaulatTroasaccidentally(16:10itcouldnothavebeenbyappointment,asPaulhadnotmeanttogothere),wasthecertainman
ofMacedoniawhoappearedinthevision(16:9)itmusthavebeensomeonewhomtheApostleknewbysight,forotherwisehecouldnot
havetoldthathewasaMacedonian.Thisisaverytemptingconjecture.Lukeneednothavebeenanewconvertatthattime.Ontheother
hand,itmustbesaidthatagainsthishavingbeenanativeofPhilippiarethefactsthathehadnohomethere,butwenttolodgewithLydia
(16:15),andthatheonlysupposedthattherewasaJewishplaceofprayeratPhilippi(16:13RV).HisinterestinPhilippimayratherbe
accountedforbyhishavingbeenleftinchargeoftheChurchthere(17:1,20:5intheintervalbetweenSt.PaulsleavingPhilippiandhis
returntherethepronountheyisused).YethewasquiteprobablyaMacedonian[Ac27:2isnotagainstthis],ofaGreekfamilyoncesettled
atAntiochhewasaGentilenotwithoutsomecontemptfortheJews,andcertainlynotaRomancitizenlikeSt.Paul.HisGreeknationality
showsitselfinhiscallingtheMaltesebarbarians(28:2),i.e.nonGreekspeaking,andinmanyotherways.
4.Patristictestimony.ThereareprobablereferencestoActsinClementofRome(c.a.d.95),whoseemstoreferto13:22,20:35etc.
andinIgnatius(c.a.d.110),whoapparentlyrefersto4:41alsoinPolycarp(c.111)almostcertainlyintheMartyrdomofPolycarp(c.a.d.
155)andfullquotationsarefoundattheendofthe2ndcent.inTertullian,ClementofAlexandria,andIrenus,allofwhomascribethebook
toLuke.SoalsotheMuratorianFragment(c.a.d.200).Moreover,theapocryphalActs,someofthemofthe2ndcent.,arebuiltonour
canonicalActs,andtheirauthorsmusthaveknownthelatter.

5.Style.Thebookisnotachronologicalbiographytherearefewindicationsoftime(11:28,24:27cf.Lk3:1),yetthewriteroftenuses
vaguephraseslikeaftersomedays,whichmayindicateintervalsofdays,months,oryears.Heseizescriticalfeatures,andpassesover
unessentialdetails.ThushedoesnotrelatetheeventsoftheyearsspentbySt.PaulinTarsus(9:30),probablyasbeingyearsofeducationin
whichnostrikingeventoccurred.SohetellsuspracticallynothingofthemissionaryjourneythroughCyprus(13:6),thoughmuchworkmust
havebeendoneamongtheJewsthenwhilegreatspaceisgiventotheepochmakinginterviewwithSergiusPaulus.Thewriterleavesagood
dealtobeunderstoodhestatesfacts,andleavesthereadertodeducethecausesorinferenceshereportsdirectionsorintentions,andleavesit
tobeinferredthattheywerecarriedintoeffect,e.g.13:8(noreasongivenforElymasopposition,itisnotexplicitlysaidthatPaulpreachedto
theproconsul),13:13(thereasonforMarksdeparturenotstated,noryetforPaulandBarnabasgoingtoPisidianAntioch),16:35(noreason
givenforthePhilippiprtorschangeofattitude),17:15(notsaidthattheinjunctionwasobeyed,butfrom1Th3:1weseethatTimothyhad
rejoinedPaulatAthensandwassentawayagaintoMacedonia,whencehecameinAc18:5toCorinth),20:16(notstatedthattheyarrivedin
timeforPentecost,butitmustbeunderstood),27:43(itmustbeinferredthattheinjunctionwasobeyed).

6.Crisesinthehistory.Thesemaybebrieflyindicated.TheyincludetheDayofPentecost(thebirthdayoftheChurch)the
appointmentoftheSeven(amongthemNicholas,aproselyteofrighteousness,i.e.aGentilewhohadbecomeacircumcisedJew)the
conversionofSt.PaultheepisodeofCornelius(whowasonlyaproselyteofthegate,orGodfearing,onewhowasbroughtintorelation
withtheJewsbyobeyingcertainelementaryrules,such,probably,asthoseof15:29,butnotcircumcised[thisisdisputedseeNicolas]this
means,therefore,afurthersteptowardsPaulineChristianity)thefirstmeetingofPaulandBarnabaswithaRomanofficialinthepersonof
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means,therefore,afurthersteptowardsPaulineChristianity)thefirstmeetingofPaulandBarnabaswithaRomanofficialinthepersonof
SergiusPaulusinCyprus,theinitialstepinthegreatplanofSt.PaultomakeChristianitythereligionoftheRomanEmpire(see7
henceforwardtheauthorcallsSaulofTarsusbyhis
Romanname,onewhichhemusthaveborneallalong,forthepurposesofhisRomancitizenship)theCouncilofJerusalem,thevindication
ofPaulineteachingbytheChurchthecalltoMacedonia,notasbeingapassingfromonecontinenttoanother,fortheRomanshadnotthis
geographicalidea,noryetasapassingovertoastrangepeople,butpartlyasastepforwardsinthegreatplan,theenteringintoanewRoman
province,andespeciallytheassociationforthefirsttimewiththeauthor(3)theresidenceatCorinth,thegreatcityontheRomanhighway
totheEast,whereGalliosactionpavedthewayfortheappealtoCsarandtheapprehensionatJerusalem.Thesearerelatedatlength.
Anothercrisisisprobablyhintedat,theacquittalofSt.Paulforevenifthebookwerewrittenbeforethattookplace(9),thereleasemust
havebecomefairlyobvioustoalltowardstheendofthetwoyearssojournatRome(cf.Ph2:24).

7.MissionaryplanofSt.Paul.(a)TheauthordescribestheApostleasbeginningnewmissionaryworkbyseekingouttheJewsfirst
onlywhentheywouldnotlistenheturnedtotheGentiles,13:5,14,14:1,16:13(nosynagogueatPhilippi,onlyaplaceofprayer)17:1f.(the
wordsashiscustomwasaredecisive)17:10,16f.,18:4,8,19,19:8f.,28:17wemayperhapsunderstandthesameatplaceswhereitisnot
expresslymentioned,14:7,21,25,ortheJewsmayhavebeenweakandwithoutasynagogueinthoseplaces.(b)St.PaulutilizestheRoman
Empiretospreadthegospelalongitslinesofcommunication.HewasjustifiablyproudofhisRomancitizenship(16:37,22:25ff.etc.cf.Ph
1:27[RVm]3:20,Eph2:19).HeseemstohaveformedthegreatideaofChristianitybeingthereligionoftheRomanEmpire,thoughnot
confinedtoit.HencemaybeunderstoodhiszealforGentileliberty,andhisbreakingawayfromtheideaofJewishexclusiveness.Inhis
missionaryjourneysheconfineshimself(iftheSouthGalatiantheorybeacceptedseeart.Galatians[Epistlestothe])tothegreatroadsof
trafficintheEmpire.HeutilizestheGreeklanguagetospreadChristianinfluence,justastheRomanEmpireusedittospreaditscivilization
inthefarEast,whereitneverattemptedtoforceLatin(foreventheRomancoloniesintheEastspokeGreek,keepingLatinforstate
occasions).PaulandBarnabas,then,preachedinGreektheyclearlydidnotknowLycaonian(cf.Ac14:11with14:14).TheScriptureswere
nottranslatedintothelanguagesofAsiaMinor,whichwereprobablynotwrittenlanguages,norevenintoLatintillalaterage.
Followingthesameidea,theauthorrepresentstheRomanofficialsinthecoloniesasmorefavourabletoSt.Paulthanthemagistratesof
theordinaryGreekcities.ContrasttheaccountoftheconductoftheGreekmagistratesatIconiumandThessalonicawhowereactiveagainst
him,oroftheCourtoftheAreopagusatAthenswhowerecontemptuous,withthesilenceabouttheactionoftheRomanmagistratesof
PisidianAntiochandLystra,ortheexplicitstatementsaboutSergiusPaulus,Gallio,Felix,Festus,ClaudiusLysiasandJuliusthecenturion,
whoweremoreorlessfairorfriendly.EventheprtorsatPhilippiendedbyapologizingprofuselywhentheydiscoveredPaulsstatus.
8.Thewritersinterests.Itisinterestingtoobservethese,astheywillleadustoanapproximatedateforthework.Thereisnobetter
testthansuchaninquiryforthedetectionofaforgeryorofacompilation.TheprincipalinterestisobviouslySt.Paulandhismission.Tothis
thepreliminaryhistoryoftheTwelveandofthebeginningsofChristianityleadsup.ThewriteremphasizesespeciallySt.
PaulsdealingswithRomanofficials.Ofminorinterestswenoticemedicine,asweshouldexpectfromthebelovedphysicianandtherival
scienceofsorcerythepositionandinfluenceofwomen(1:14,8:3,12,9:2,13:50,16:14,17:4,12,34,21:5,9,22:4etc.inAsiaMinor
womenhadamuchmoreprominentpositionthaninGreeceproper)theorganizationoftheChurch(2:41ff.,4:31ff.,6:1ff.,8:5ff.,15:2ff.,
19:1ff.etc.)Divineinterventiontooverrulehumanprojects(noteespeciallytheremarkablewayinwhichSt.PaulwasledtoTroas,16:68)
andnavigation.Thislastinterestcannotbutstrikethemostcursoryreader.Thevoyagesandharboursaredescribedminutelyandvividly,
whilethelandjourneysareonlyjustmentioned.Yetthewriterwasclearlynoprofessionalsailor.Hedescribesthedriftingin27:27asazigzag
coursewhenitmusthavebeenstraightheissurprisedattheirpassingCyprusonadifferentsidewhengoingwestwardfromthatonwhich
theyhadpasseditgoingeastward(27:4,21:3),thoughthatwas,andis,thenormalcourseinautumnforsailingvessels(Ramsay,St.Paul,p. 19/172
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theyhadpasseditgoingeastward(27:4,21:3),thoughthatwas,andis,thenormalcourseinautumnforsailingvessels(Ramsay,St.Paul,p.
317).IthasbeentrulyremarkedbyRamsay(ib.p.22)thatthewritersinterestsandviewsareincompatiblewiththeideaofa2ndcent.
compilere.g.theviewoftheRomanofficials,andtheoptimistictone,wouldbeimpossibleafterthepersecutionofDomitianoreven(we
mayadd)afterthatofNero.

9.Date.Fromthereasoningof2,8(seealso12)wemustrejecttheideaofa2ndcent.compiler,anddecidebetweenadateatthe
endofthetwoyearsatRome,28:30f.(Blass,Salmon,Headlam,Rackham),andalaterdate7080a.d.
(Ramsay,Sanday,Harnack,andmostofthosewhoascribethebooktoLuke).(a)Fortheformerdatewenotethatthereisnoreferenceto
anythingaftertheRomanimprisonment,tothemartyrdomofJamestheLordsbrotherina.d.62,ortotheNeronianpersecutionina.d.64,or
tothedeathofPeterandPaul(contrasttheallusiontoPetersdeathinJn21:19),ortotheFallofJerusalemina.d.70.Alsothereisgood
reasontobelievefromthePastoralEpistles,fromEcclesiasticalhistory,andfromapriorireasons,thatSt.Paulwasreleasedsoonafterthe
twoyearsbutweshouldgatherthatourauthordidnotknowforcertaintheresultoftheappealtoCsar.Hecouldhardlyhaveknownthatthe
ApostlesexpectationthathewouldnotagainseetheEphesianelderswasfalsified,orhewouldnothaveleft20:38withoutremark[butsee
Paul,i.4(d)].Theoptimistictone(8),contrastingsogreatlywiththatoftheApocalypse,pointsinthesamedirectionasalsodoesthe
absenceofanyreferencetothePaulineEpistles,whichweshouldexpectif15or20yearshadelapsedsincetheywerewrittenandofany
explanationoftheapparentcontradictionbetweenGalatiansandActs(seeart.Galatians[Epistletothe]).Ontheotherhand,itisquitelikely
thataclosecompanionofSt.Paulwouldbethelasttohave,aslongashewaswithhim,acopyofhiscorrespondence.(b)Forthelaterdate,
a.d.7080,itissuggestedthatLukecontemplatedathirdvolume,andsoendedhissecondabruptly(cf.1:1,properlyfirsttreatise,not
formerbutinlateGreekcomparativesandsuperlativeswerefrequentlyconfused,cf.1Co13:13RVm).ItisalsothoughtthatLk21:20
musthavebeenwrittenafterthetakingofJerusalem,andthatafortiori
ActsmustbelaterandthattheatmosphereoftheFlavianperiodmaybedetectedinit.ForanallegedborrowingofActsfromJosephus,and
forfurtherremarksonthedate,seeartt.Luke[Gospelacc.to]andTheudas.Tothepresentwritertheearlierdategivenaboveseemsthemore
probable.
10.Sources.Theauthorhadexceptionalopportunitiesofgettinginformation.
Forthelastpartofthebookhewashisowninformant,orhehadaccesstoSt.Paul.
JohnMarkwouldtellhimofthedeliveranceofSt.Peterandofthemissionto
Cyprus(12:113:13).FortheActsoftheHellenists(chs.68)andfortheCorneliusepisodehewouldhavePhiliptheEvangelistasan
authority,forhespenttwoyearsatCsareaandperhapsalsoCorneliushimself.HehadperhapsvisitedtheSyrianAntioch,andcouldget
fromtheleadersoftheChurchthere(e.g.Manaen)informationabouttheeventswhichhappenedthere.Thefirstfivechaptersremain.Herehe
hadtodependentirelyonothershemayhaveusedwrittendocumentssimilartothosementionedinLk1:1,thoughhemayalsohave
questionedthoseatJerusalemwhohadwitnessedtheevents.Dr.BlassthinksthatLukehereusedanAramaicdocumentbyMarkthisispure
conjecture,anditisquiteuncertainifLukeknewAramaic.
11.TheBezancodex.ThisgreatUncialMS(D,nowatCambridge),supportedbysomeMSSoftheOldLatinVersion,presentsa
strikinglydifferenttextfromthatoftheothergreatGreekMSS,andhasalsomanyadditions,especiallyinActs.Dr.Blasstheoryisthatthe
variationsinActscomefromLukeshavingmadetwodraftsofthebook,thoughhewouldadmitthatsomeofthereadingsofDare
interpolations.HethinksthattheBezanActsrepresentsthefirstdraft,theBezanLuketheseconddraft.ButtheBezantextofActsistoo
smooth,anditsreadingsaretoooftenobviouslyaddedtoeasearoughphrase,forittobeoriginal.Itismoreprobablethatitrepresentsa
revisionmadeinAsiaMinorinthe2ndcent.byonewhowasveryfamiliarwiththelocalitiesdescribed.Manyscholars,however,thinkthatit
preservesalargenumberoftrueandauthenticreadingswhichhavebeenlostintheothergreatMSSbutthisseemsdoubtful.In11:28this20/172
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preservesalargenumberoftrueandauthenticreadingswhichhavebeenlostintheothergreatMSSbutthisseemsdoubtful.In11:28this
MS(supportedbyAugustine),byinsertingwe,makesthewritertohavebeenpresentatSyrianAntiochwhenAgabusprophesied.
12.AccuracyofActs.Thisismostimportant,asitwouldbealmostimpossibleforalatewritertoavoidpitfallswhencoveringso
largeaground.Instancesofremarkableaccuracyare:(a)theproconsulinCyprus(13:7),whichhadonlybeenundertheruleoftheSenatefor
ashorttimewhenSt.Paulcamethere,andafterwardsceasedtobesogovernedotherwisethegovernorwouldhavebeenaproprtor.An
inscriptioninCyprusisdatedintheproconsulshipofPaulus.(b)SotheproconsulinAchaia(18:12)thisprovincehadbeenoffandon
unitedtoMacedonia.Atonetimeseparatedandgovernedbyaproprtorandthenunited,afewyearsbeforeSt.Paulsvisitithadbeenagain
separatedandgovernedbyaproconsul.(c)ThefirstmenatPisidianAntioch(13:50),i.e.theDuumviriandtheFirstTen.Thislasttitlewas
onlygiven(ashere)toaboardofmagistratesinGreekcitiesoftheEastinRomancoloniesinItalythenamewasgiventothosewhostood
firstontheSenateroll.(d)ThefirstmaninMalta(28:7)and(e)the
politarchs(rulersofthecity)atThessalonica(17:6probablyalocal
Macedoniantitle),arebothattestedbyinscriptions.(f)TheoldCourtoftheAreopagusatAthens(17:19),whichreallyruledthecity,though
itwasafreecity,asthedemosorpopularassemblyhadlostitsauthority.(g)TheAsiarchsatEphesus(19:31RVm),thepresidentsofthe
CommonCounciloftheprovinceincitieswheretherewasatempleofRomeandtheEmperortheysuperintendedtheworshipofthe
Emperor.TheirfriendlinesstoSt.Paulisasuresignofanearlydate,forthebookcouldonlyhavebeenwrittenwhiletheImperialpolicywas
stillneutraltoChristianity,oratleastwhilethememoryofthattimewasstillgreen.ContrasttheenmitybetweenChristianityandthisRome
worshipdepictedinRev2:13,13:15etc.No2ndcent.authorcouldhavewrittenthus.(h)Thedetailsofthelastvoyage,thoroughlytestedby
Mr.SmithofJordanhill,whosailedoverthewholecourse.AgainstallthisitisallegedthattherearecontradictionsbetweenActsand
Galatians(seeart.onthatEpistle)butthesevanishonexamination,especiallyifweaccepttheSouthGalatiantheory.Instancesofminute
accuracysuchasthosegivenaboveshowthatwehaveinActsahistoryofgreatimportanceandonethatismosttrustworthy.Theaccuracy
canonlycomefromthebookbeingagenuinecontemporaryrecord.

A.J.Maclean.
ACUB(1Es5:31).HissonswereamongthetempleservantswhoreturnedwithZerubbabel.CalledBakbuk,Ezr2:51,Neh7:53.
ACUD(1Es5:30).HissonswereamongthetempleservantswhoreturnedfromcaptivitywithZerubbabel.CalledAkkub,Ezr2:45
omittedinNeh7.
ADADAH(Jos15:22).AcityofJudahintheNegebperhapsacorruptreadingforArarah,i.e.Aroerof1S30:28.
ADAH.1.OneofthetwowivesofLamech,andmotherofJabalandJubal(Gn4:19,20).Thenamepossiblymeansbrightness(cf.
Arab.ghadt),LamechsotherwifebeingnamedZillah=shadow,darkness2.DaughterofElon,aHittite,andoneofthewivesofEsau
(Gn36:2).InGn26:34(P)thedaughterofElontheHittite,whomEsautakestowife,isnamedBasemath(wh.see).
ADAIAH(Jehovahhasadorned).1.ThematernalgrandfatherofJosiah,2K22:1.2.ALevite,1Ch6:41,calledIddoinv.21.3.A
sonofShimei(inv.13Shema)theBenjamite,1Ch8:21.4.ThesonofJeroham,apriest,andheadofafamilyinJerusalem,1Ch9:12.5.The
fatherofMaaseiah,acaptainwhohelpedtooverthrowtheusurpationofAthaliah,2Ch23:1.6.OneofthefamilyofBani,whotookastrange
wifeduringtheExile,Ezr10:29.7.AnotherofadifferentfamilyofBani,whohadcommittedthesameoffence,Ezr10:39.8.Adescendantof
JudahbyPharez,Neh11:5.9.ALeviteofthefamilyofAaron,Neh11:12probablythesameasNo.4.

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ADALIA(Est9:8).ThefifthofthesonsofHaman,puttodeathbytheJews.
ADAM.Thederivationisdoubtful.ThemostplausibleisthatwhichconnectsitwiththeAssyr.admu,make,producemanisthusa
creatureonemadeorproduced.Somederiveitfromarootsignifyingred(cf.Edom,Gn25:30),menbeingofaruddycolourinthe
districtwherethewordoriginated.TheBiblicalwriter(Gn2:7)explainsit,accordingtohisfrequentpractice,byaplayonthewordadmh,
groundbutthatisitselfderivedfromthesamerootred.ThewordoccursintheHeb.31timesinGn1:55:5.Inmostoftheseitisnota
propername,andtheRVhasrightlysubstitutedmanorthemaninsomeverseswhereAVhasAdam.Butsincethenamesignifies
mankind,homo,Mensch,notaman,vir,Mann(see5:2),thenarrativeappearstobeadescription,notofparticularhistoricaleventsinthe
lifeofanindividual,butofthebeginningsofhumanlife(ch.2),humansin(ch.3),humangenealogicaldescent(4:1,25,5:15).Inafew
passages,ifthetextissound,thewriterslipsintotheuseofAdamasapropername,butonlyin5:35doesitstandunmistakablyforan
individual.
1.Thecreationofmanisrelatedtwice,1:2627(P)and2:7(J).Theformerpassageistheresultofphilosophicalandtheologicalreflexion
ofalatedate,whichhadtaughtthewriterthatmanistheclimaxofcreationbecausehispersonalitypartakesoftheDivine(andin5:3this
prerogativeishandedontohisoffspring)butthelatteriswrittenfromthenaveandprimitivestandpointoflegendarytradition,whichdealt
onlywithmansreceptionofphysicallife(seenextarticle).

2.Mansprimitivecondition,2:825(J).Thestoryteaches:thatmanhasworktodoinlife(2:15)thatheneedsacounterpart,ahelpwho
shallbemeetforhim(vv.18,2124)thatmanissupremeoverthebeastsintheintellectualability,andthereforeintheauthority,whichhe
possessestoassigntothemtheirseveralnames(vv.19,20)thatman,inhisprimitivecondition,wasfarfrombeingmorallyorsocially
perfecthewassimplyinastateofsavagery,butfromamoralstandpointinnocent,becausehehadnotyetlearnedthemeaningofrightand
wrong(v.25)andthisblissfulignoranceisalsoportrayedbythepleasuresofaluxuriantgardenorpark(vv.814).

3.TheFall,2:16f.,3(J).Buttherecameapointinhumanevolutionwhenmanbecameconsciousofacommandtheearliestgermofa
recognitionofanought(2:16f.,3:3)andthisatoncecausedastressandstrainbetweenhisloweranimalnature,picturedasaserpent,and
hishigheraspirationsafterobedience(3:15)[N.B.Theserpentisnowhere,intheOT,identifiedwiththedeviltheideaisnotfoundtillWis
2:23]byadeliberatefollowingofthelowernatureagainstwhichhehadbeguntostrive,manfirstcausedsintoexist(v.6)withtheinstant
resultofafeelingofshame(v.7),andtheworldwideconsequenceofpain,trouble,anddeath(vv.1419),andthecessationforeverofthe
formerstateofinnocentignoranceandbliss(vv.2224).

OntheBabylonianaffinitieswiththestoryofAdam,seeCreation,Eden.

A.H.MNeile.
ADAMINTHENT
A.IntheGospels.1.InMt19:46||Mk10:68JesusreferstoGn1:27.HisanswertothePhariseesisintendedtoshowthatthe
provisionmadefordivorceintheMosaiclaw(Dt24:1)wasonlyaconcessiontothehardnessofmenshearts.Thetrueranddeeperviewof
marriagemustbebasedonamoralitywhichtakesitsstandupontheprimevalnatureofmanandwoman.AndwithHisquotationHecouples
onefromGn2:24(seealsoEph5:21).ThesameresultisreachedinMt.,butwithatranspositionofthetwopartsoftheargument.
2.InLk3:38theancestryofJesusistraceduptoAdam.AsaGentilewritingforGentiles,St.Luketookeveryopportunityofinsisting 22/172
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2.InLk3:38theancestryofJesusistraceduptoAdam.AsaGentilewritingforGentiles,St.Luketookeveryopportunityofinsisting
upontheuniversalpowerofthegospel.Jesusisnot,asinSt.MatthewsGospel,adescendantofAbrahamonly,butofthemantowhomall
mankindtracetheirorigin.Butfurther,thesameEvangelistwhorelatesthefactoftheVirginbirth,andrecordsthatChristwas,inHisown
properPerson,SonofGod(1:35),claims,bytheclosingwordsofthegenealogy,thatthefirstman,andhenceeveryhumanbeing,issonof
God.AsJesusisbothhumanandDivine,sothegenealogypreservesthetruththatallmankindpartakeofthistwofoldnature.

B.IntheEpistles.ThetruthtaughtbySt.LukeistreatedinitsredemptiveaspectbyhismasterSt.Paul.
1.1Co15:22.ThesolidarityofmankindintheirphysicalunionwithAdam,andintheirspiritualunionwithChrist,involvesrespectively
universaldeathandlifeasaconsequenceofAdamssinandofChristswork.

2.InRo5:1221thisistreatedmorefully.(a)vv.1214.ThereisaparallelismbetweenAdamandChrist.Bothhadauniversaleffect
uponmankindinthecaseofAdambyatransmissionofguilt,andthereforeofdeaththecorrespondingstatementconcerningChristis
postponedtillv.19,becauseSt.Paulinterveneswithaparenthesisdealingwiththosewholivedbeforeanyspecificcommandsweregivenin
theMosaiclaw,andyetwhosinned,owingtothetransmittedeffectsofAdamsfall,andthereforedied.TheApostle,withoutattemptingfully
toreconcilethem,placessidebysidethetwoaspectsofthetruththehereditarytransmissionofguilt,andmoralresponsibilityandthus
deathmadeitswaytoallmen,becauseallsinned.(b)vv.1517.Thecontrastisfargreaterthanthesimilarityinquality(v.15),in
quantity(v.16),incharacterandconsequences(v.17).(c)Summaryoftheargument(vv.1821).
3.1Co15:4447.IntheforegoingpassagesSt.PauldealswiththepracticalmoralresultsofunionwithAdamandChristrespectively.
Theseverses(a)gobehindthat,andshowthatthereisaradicaldifferencebetweenthenatureofeach(b)lookforward,andshowthatthis
differencehasavitalbearingonthetruthofmansresurrection.

(a)vv.3644.Itisshown,byillustrationsfromnature,thatitisreasonabletobelievemantoexistintwodifferentstates,onefarhigher
thantheother.Invv.44b,45St.PauladaptsGn2:7(LXX),andreadsintothewordsthedoctrinalsignificancethatthebodyofthefirst
representativemanbecamethevehicleofapsychicalnature,whilethebodyoftheSecondistheorganofapneumaticalnature.The
secondhalfofhisstatementthelastAdambecamealifegivingspiritappearstobebasedonareminiscenceofMessianicpassages
whichspeakoftheworkoftheDivineSpirit,e.g.Is11:1,2,JL2:2832.
(b)Butasthelivingsoul(psyche)precededthelifegivingspirit(pneuma),soitiswiththedevelopmentofmankind(v.46).Asthefirst
manhadanatureinconformitywithhisoriginfromclay,whiletheSecondhasHisoriginfromheaven(v.47),sothenatureofsomemen
remainsearthy,whilethatofsomehasbecomeheavenly(v.48).Butfurther,inhispresentstatemanistheexactcounterpartofthefirstman,
becauseofhiscorporateunionwithhimbutthetimeiscomingwhenheshallbecometheexactcounterpartoftheSecondMan(cf.Gn
2:25f.),becauseofourspiritualunionwithHim(v.49).

4.InPh2:6thereisanimpliedcontrastbetweenChristJesus,whodeemeditnotathingtobesnatchedattobeonanequality
withGod,andAdam,whotookfruitfromthetreeofknowledgeofgoodandevil,whichGodsaidhadmadehimasoneofus(Gn3:22).

5.On1Ti2:13f.seeEveandonJude14seeEnoch.
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A.H.MNeile.
ADAM(city).AcityintheJordanvalley,besideZarethan(Jos3:16)usuallyidentifiedwithJisredDamieh,neartheconfluenceof
theJabbokandtheJordan,wheretherewasonceabridge.Hiram,Solomonsworkerinbrass,mayhavehadhisfurnacehere(cf.1K7:46).
G.L.Robinson.
ADAMAH.AfortifiedcityofNaphtali(Jos19:36)identifiedbyConderwithAdmahontheplateaunorthofBethsheanplacedbythe
PalestineexplorersatedDamieh,5milesS.W.ofTiberias.SeeAdaminekeb
ADAMANTistwice(Ezk3:9,Zec7:12)usedinAVandRVastr.ofshmir,whichiselsewhererenderedeitherbrier(Is5:6,7:23,24,
25,9:18,10:17,27:4,32:13)ordiamond(Jer17:1).Diamond,whicharosefromadamantbyavarietyofspelling(adamant,or
adimant,thendiamantordiamond),hasdisplacedadamantasthenameofthepreciousstone,adamantbeingnowusedrhetoricallyto
expressextremehardness.
ADAMINEKEB.ThepassAdami(Jos19:33),ontheborderofNaphtali.NeubauerandG.A.SmithidentifyitwithedDamieh,5
milesS.W.ofTiberias.SeeAdamah.

G.L.Robinson.
ADAR(Ezr6:15,Est3:7,13,8:12,9:1,15ff.,1Mac7:43,49,2Mac15:36,Est10:13,13:6,16:20).The12thmonthinthelaterJewish
Calendar.SeeTime.
ADASA.AtownnearBethhoron(1Mac7:40,45,Jos.Ant.XII.x.5),nowtheruinAdasehnearGibeon.
ADBEEL.ThethirdsonofIshmael(Gn25:13,1Ch1:29),eponymoftheN.Arab.tribe,whichappearsincuneiforminscrip.asIdibail
orIdibial,andwhichhaditssettlementsS.W.oftheDeadSea.
ADDAN(1Es5:36).Someoftheinhabitantsofthisplacereturnedwith
Zerubbabel,butwereunabletoprovetheirtrueIsr.descentbyshowingtowhatclanorfamilytheybelonged(Ezr2:59).Thenamedoesnot
appearinthelaterlistsinEzr10,Neh10.InNeh7:61itappearsasAddon.
ADDAR.1.AtownontheborderofJudahsouthofBeersheba(Jos15:3).Thesiteisunknown.2.SeeArd.
ADDER.SeeSerpent.
ADDI.AnancestorofJesus,Lk3:28.
ADDO.ThegrandfatheroftheprophetZechariah(1Es6:1).SeeIddo.ADDON.Neh7:61.SeeAddan.
ADDUS.1.HissonsreturnedwithZerub.(1Es5:34)omittedintheparallellistsinEzr2,Neh7.2.SeeJaddus.
ADIDA.AtownintheShephelah(Jos.Ant.XIII.vi.5)fortifiedbySimontheHasmonan(1Mac12:38,13:13).SeeHadid.

ADIEL(ornamentofGod).1.ASimeoniteprince,1Ch4:36ff.2.Apriest,1Ch9:12.3.ThefatherofAzmaveth,Davidstreasurer,124/172
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ADIEL(ornamentofGod).1.ASimeoniteprince,1Ch4:36ff.2.Apriest,1Ch9:12.3.ThefatherofAzmaveth,Davidstreasurer,1
Ch27:25.
ADIN(Ezr2:15,8:6,Neh7:20,10:16,1Es5:14m,8:32).SeeAdinu.
ADINA.AReubenitechief,1Ch11:42.
ADINO.ThepresentHeb.textof2S23:8iscorrupt,thetruereadingbeingpreservedintheparallelpassage1Ch11:11Jashobeam,the
sonofaHachmonite,helifteduphisspear.Thelastclause,hrrethhanth,wascorruptedintohadnhaetsn,andthentaken
erroneouslyasapropername,beingtreatedasan
alternativetotheprecedingJoshebbasshebeth,aTahchemonite(seeJashobeam).
ADINU(1Es5:14,calledAdinin8:32).HisdescendantsreturnedwithZerub.tothenumberof454(1Es5:14,Ezr2:15)or655(Neh
7:20).Asecondpartyof51(Ezr8:6)or251(1Es8:32)accompaniedEzra.Theyarementionedamongthechiefsofthepeoplewhosealed
thecovenant(Neh10:16).
ADITHAIM(Jos15:36).AtownofJudahintheShephelah.Thesiteisunknown.
ADLAI.ThefatherofShaphat,oneofDavidsherdsmen,1Ch27:29.
ADMAH(Gn10:19,14:2,8,Dt29:23,Hos11:8).OneofthecitiesoftheCiccarorRound.Itisnotnoticedasoverthrowninthe
accountofthedestructionofSodomandGomorrah(Gn19),butisincludedintheircatastropheinthetwolaterpassages.
ADMATHA(Est1:14).Oneofthesevenwisemenorcounsellorsof
Ahasuerus,whoweregrantedadmittancetothekingspresence(cf.2K25:19).
ADMIRATION.ThiswordinAVmeansnomorethanwonder,asRev17:6Iwonderedwithgreatadmiration(RVwithagreat
wonder).
ADNA(pleasure).1.AcontemporaryofEzra,whomarriedaforeignwife(Ezr10:30).2.TheheadofthepriestlyhouseofHarim(Neh
12:15).
ADNAH.1.AManassiteofficerofSaulwhodesertedtoDavidatZiklag(1Ch12:20).2.AnofficerinJehoshaphatsarmy(2Ch17:14).
ADONIBEZEK(perhapsacorruptedformofAdonizedek,Jos10:127).AkingofBezek(adifferentplacefromthatmentionedin1S
11:8),whowasdefeatedbySimeonandJudah.Themutilationinflicteduponhimthecuttingoffofthethumbsandgreattoeswasinorder
torenderhimharmless,whileretaininghimasatrophybuthediedonreachingJerusalem.Adonibezekboastedofhavingmutilatedseventy
kingsinasimilarmanner.Thepassage(Jg1:57)whichspeaksofAdonibezekdoesnotappeartobeintacttheoriginalformprobablygave
moredetails.

W.O.E.Oesterley.
ADONIJAH(JahisLord).1.ThefourthofthesixsonsofDavidwhowereborninHebronhismotherwasHaggith,anamewhichis
possiblyofPhilistineorigin(2S3:4).ThestoryofAdonijah(typicalofmanyanOrientalcourtintrigue)isrecordedin1K1,2:136ashere
recounteditpermitsofmorethanoneinterpretation,forthatthispassagehasbeensubjectedtoaneditorialprocesscanscarcelybedoubted,25/172
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recounteditpermitsofmorethanoneinterpretation,forthatthispassagehasbeensubjectedtoaneditorialprocesscanscarcelybedoubted,
and,infaceofthedifficultiesofinterpretationbroughtaboutbythis,weareforcedtoreconstructthecourseofeventstosomeextent.

AfterthedeathofAbsalom,Adonijahbecametherightfulheirtothethronetherewasnosortofdoubtabouthisright,itwastakenfor
grantedbothbyhimselfandbythepeopleatlarge(1K2:15).ButBathsheba,itappears,wasanxioustosecurethesuccessionforherson,
Solomonwiththisobjectinview,she,assistedbytheprophetNathan,headsapartyatthecourtinimicaltotheclaimsofAdonijah.Itwould
nothavebeenlongbeforethefriendsofAdonijahdiscoveredtheintriguethatwasonfootandAdonijah,learningtheperilhewasinoflosing
hisrightfulsuccession,concertsmeansforcounteractingthemachinationsofhisenemies.Theold,trustedservantsofthekingdom,Joaband
Abiathar,rallyroundhim,asonewouldexpecthegathershisfriendstogetheratthestoneofZoheleth,andbythevisibleactofsacrificing,
proclaimshiskingshipthislastwas,however,anactofunwisdom,asitgaveahandletohisenemies,forkingDavidwasstillalive.These,
naturallyonthealert,representthegatheringtoDavid,nowveryaged,asanattempttousurpthethronewhileheisyetaliveBathsheba
reminds
DavidofhispromisethatSolomon,herson,shouldsucceedhimonthethrone(1:17)[thismayormaynothavebeenthecasethereisno
referencetoitelsewhere,anditcertainlydoesnotaccordwithwhatwereadin1:6,2:15]David,rememberingperhapstherebellionof
Absalom(whomAdonijahseemstohaveresembledintemperamentaswellasinoutwardappearance),iseasilyprevailedupontotransferthe
successiontoSolomon(1:33ff.).EvensoitisverydoubtfulwhetherBathshebawouldhavesucceededinherplanhaditnotbeenthatshewas
enabledtogainBenaiahtohersideascaptainofthekingsbodyguard(theCherethitesandPelethites),Beuaiahwasthemanuponwhomthe
issuereallydepended,forhecommandedtheonlyarmedtroopsthatwereimmediatelyavailable.Inanemergencysuchasthis,everything
woulddependuponwhocouldstrikethefirstdecisiveblow.HadtheoldcommanderinchiefJoabhadtimetoassemblehisforces,nodoubt
theissuewouldhavebeendifferentbutBathshebaandherfriendshadlaidtheirplanstoowell,andtheywontheday.Adonijahispardoned
(1:52,53)itwouldnavebeendangerous,owingtotheattitudeofthepeople(2:15),toputhimtodeathuntilSolomonwassecureonthe
thronebutashewasrightfulheir,thesafetyofSolomonsthronecouldneverbeguaranteedaslongasAdonijahwasalive.Bathshebawasnot
thewomantobeobliviousofthisfact,accordinglysherecommencesherintriguessherepresentstoSolomonthatAdonijahisdesirousof
marryingAbishagtheShunammite,themaidenwhowasbroughttoDavidinhisoldage(1:3,4),andwho,accordingtoOrientalideas,was
regardedasoneoftheroyalwives.SuchadesirewasnaturallyinterpretedbySolomonasanintentionofseekingthekingdom(2:22),and
selfpreservationcompelledhimtodecreeAdonijahsdeath,asentencewhichwascarriedoutbyBenaiah(v.25).
TheaboveisnotinentireaccordwiththeBiblicalaccount,whichinitspresentformgivesrisetoanumberofseriousdifficulties.Weshall
mentionbuttwoofthese.TherequestwhichAdonijahasksBathshebatoconvey(2:17)wasthemostgrievousinsultthatcouldhavebeen
offeredtothekingAdonijahwouldhaveknownpreciselywhattheresultwouldbe,viz.deathtohimself,unlesssupportedbyanarmybut
thereisnohintthathecontemplatedanarmedrising.Secondly,Bathshebaisquitethelastpersonhewouldhaveaskedtopreferthisrequest
asmotheroftheking,andprimemoverinthesuccessfulconspiracywhichhadrobbedhimofhissuccession,hewouldknowbetterthanto
placehimselfsogratuitouslywithinherpower.
Adonijahisoneofthosemenwhosecruelfateandtragicdeath,bothundeserved,mustcallforthdeepsympathyandcommiseration.

2.Perhaps=Adonikam,oneofthosethatsealedthecovenant(Neh9:38,10:16).
3.Oneofthosesent,inthethirdyearofJehosbaphat,toteachtheLawinthecitiesofJudah(2Ch17:79).

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W.O.E.Oesterley.
ADONIKAM(myLordhasarisen),Ezr2:13,8:13,Neh7:18,1Es5:14,8:39.TheheadofaJewishfamilyaftertheExileapparently
calledinNeh10:16Adonijah.
ADONIRAM,ADORAM.Thelatternameoccurs2S20:24,1K12:18,andisprobablyacorruptionofAdoniram.Adoniram
superintendedtheleviesemployedinthepublicworksduringthereignsofDavid,Solomon,andRehoboam.Hewasstonedtodeathbythe
rebelliousIsraeliteswhensenttothembyRehoboam(1K12:18).
ADONIS.ThephraserenderedbyEVpleasantplants,andbyRVmplantingsofAdonis(Is17:10),alludestotheminiaturegardens
whoserapiddeclinesymbolizedthedeathofthisgod,orratherthespringverdureofwhichheisapersonification.Thisphaseofthemyth,
whichtheGreeksobtainedfromtheSemiticTammuzcult,throughthePhnicians,wherethegodwasworshippedunderthetitleofAdon
(lord),isusedbyIsaiahtodepictthefadinghopeofIsrael.SeeTammuz.

N.Koenig.
ADONIZEDEK.KingofJerusalematthetimeoftheinvasionofCanaanbytheIsraelitesunderJoshua.AftertheGibeoniteshad
succeededinmakingaleaguewithIsrael,heinducedfourotherkingstounitewithhimagainsttheinvaders.Joshuacameunexpectedlyupon
thealliedkings,andutterlyroutedthem.TheywerediscoveredinacaveatMakkedah,andbroughtbeforeJoshua,whoorderedthemtobe
slain.Theirbodieswerehungupuntiltheevening,whentheyweretakendownandflungintothecavewheretheyhadhidthemselves.The
mouthofthecavewasfilledupwithgreatstones(Jos10:127).SomehaveidentifiedAdonizedekwithAdonibezekofJg1:5.
ADOPTION.ThetermadoptionisfoundfivetimesinSt.Paulsletters(Ro8:15,22,9:4,Gal4:5,Eph1:5),andnotelsewhereinthe
NT.InRo9:4referenceismadetothefavouredpositionoftheJewsasthechosenpeople.Tothembelongedtheadoption,thepositionofsons
(Ex4:22).IntheremainingpassagesSt.PaulusesthewordtodescribetheprivilegesoftheChristianasopposedtotheunbeliever.Heis
trying,asarule,tobringhometoGentilereadersthegreatchangewroughtbythecomingofChrist.ThoughW.M.Ramsayhasattemptedto
identifypeculiaritiesofSyroGreeklawinGal4,andthoughitistruethatnowordismorecommoninGreekinscriptionsofHellenistic
times:theidealikethewordisnativeGreek,yetSt.PaulsuseofthetermseemstobebasedonRomanlaw.SeeHastingsERE,s.v.

AdoptioninRomanlawcouldbeeffectedbyamodifiedformofthemethodofsaleknownasmancipation.TheRomanMancipation
requiredthepresence,first,ofalloftheparties,thevendorandthevendee.Therewerealsonolessthanfivewitnessesandananomalous
personage,thelibripens,whobroughtwithhimapairofscalestoweightheuncoinedcoppermoneyofRome.Certainformalgestureswere
madeandsentencespronounced.The(purchaser)simulatedthepaymentofapricebystrikingthescaleswithapieceofmoney,andthe
(vendor)ratifiedwhathadbeendoneinasetformofwords(Maine,AncientLaw,vi.).Thewitnesseswerenecessary,especiallyintheage
beforewrittendocuments,tovouchfortheregularityoftheprocedure,andtoensurethegenuinenessofthetransaction.
SomeofthedetailsoftheprocedurearesaidtobereflectedinthelanguageofSt.Paul.Toredeemthoseunderthelaw(Ga4:5)suggests
thatGodsactioninsendingHisSontobuyoutmankindfromslaverytotheLaw,maybeillustratedbytheadoptingparentspurchaseofa
sonfromhisnaturalfather.

Again,Dr.W.E.Ball(Contemp.Rev.,1891)haspointedoutthattheworkoftheSpirit(Ro8:16)isparalleltotheplaceofthefive
witnessesintheprocessofadoption.TherealityofGodsadoptionisassuredbytheSpiritswitness.Dr.Ballbringsoutthegeneralforceof
themetaphorthus.Anyonewhowasmadeasonbyadoption,severedallhisformerties.Evenhisdebtsappeartohavebeencancelled.The27/172
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themetaphorthus.Anyonewhowasmadeasonbyadoption,severedallhisformerties.Evenhisdebtsappeartohavebeencancelled.The
adoptedpersonbecameintheeyesofthelawanewcreature.Hewasbornagainintoanewfamily.Bytheaidofthisfigure,theGentile
convertwasenabledtorealizeinavividmannerthefatherhoodofGod,brotherhoodofthefaithful,theobliterationofpastpenalties,theright
tothemysticinheritance.ThefigureofadoptiondescribesclearlytheeffectofGodsrevelationofHimselfasFather.
St.Paulspeaksofadoption,asbothpresent(Ro8:15)andfuture(v.23).WithPfleidererwemustdistinguishthreemomentsinadoption.It
involveshereandnow,freedomfromtheLaw,andthepossessionofthespiritofadoptionwhichenablesustoaddressGodasourFather.
Adoptionwillbecompletedbytheredemptionofourbody,theinheritancewithChristinglory.Believershavethisblessing(adoption)
already,butonlyinaninwardrelationandasDivineright,withwhich,however,theobjectiveandrealstatedoesnotyetcorrespond(Meyer
onRo8:23).WithSt.Paulsviewofadoptionnowandadoptionhereaftercompare1Jn3:2.InEph1:5adoptionseemstomeanthat
conformingtothecharacterofChristwhichbeginshereandistoheperfectedinthefuture.
ThatthewordadoptiondoesnotrepresentbelieversaschildrenofGodbynature,isundeniable.Butitwouldbeamistaketopressthe
termasgivingacompleteaccountofSt.PaulsviewsoftherelationsofGodtoman.RomanlawaffordedSt.Paulillustrationsratherthan
theories.ItisnotclearwhetherinRo8:15heconceivesthespiritofsonshipwhichcriesAbba,Father.tobereceivedinbaptismorat
conversion,orontheotherhandtobethenaturalcryofthehumanheart.Butinanycase,hehasfoundtheloveofGodinChrist,andthe
changeinhislifeissuchthatthecompletechangeproducedinamansconditionbyadoptionisonlyapalereflexoftheApostlesexperience.
See,further,Inheritance.

H.G.Wood.
ADORA(1Mac13:20).ThesameasAdoraim.
ADORAIM(2Ch11:9).AcityofJudahfortifiedbyRehoboamontheS.W.ofhismountainkingdomnowDra,asmallvillageatthe
edgeofthemountainsW.ofHebron.
ADORAM.SeeAdoniram.
ADORATION.ThewordisnotfoundinAVorRV,andevenfortheverbRVsubstitutesworshipinBel4butboththeideaandits
expressioninactarefrequent.

AmongsttheHebrewstheposturesandgesturesexpressiveofadorationunderwentslightchangeinthecourseoftime.Kissingthestatue
ofagod(1K19:18,Hos13:2cf.Job31:27)wasanearlyArab.custom,andbecameatechnicalmeaningofadoratioamongsttheRomans
butinthisusagethesenseisidenticalwiththatofworship.Adorationproperwasexpressedbyprostrationtotheground,orevenbylying
pronewiththefacetouchingtheground(Gn17:3,Jos5:14,Job1:20,Ps95:6,99:5,Dn3:5).Aselsewhere,thisposturewasnotatfirst
confinedtointercoursewithGod.Asanactofspecialcourtesyitwasadoptedtowardskings(2S14:4),towardsstrangersofmysterious
quality(Gn18:2),asanexpressionofcloseandrespectfulattachment(1S20:41),orwiththedesigntoconciliate(Gn33:3,1S25:23,Est
8:3,Mt18:26),ortohonour(2K4:37).SatbeforetheLord
(2S7:18)mayrefertoaspecialandsolemnmodeofsitting,asin1K18:42theArabsaresaidtohavesatduringapartoftheirworshipin
suchawaythattheheadcouldeasilybebentforwardandmadetotouchtheground.

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OutsidetheChristiansphere,prostrationcontinuedintheEasttobeamarkofsubmissionandhomage,renderedtosuchmenaswerefor
anyreasonorevenbyconventioninvestedinthoughtwithDivinequalitiesorpowers.TheNT,byexampleandlessfrequentlybyprecept,
confinesthisfullestmodeofworshiptoGod,andprotestsagainstitsusetowardsmen.Jairusact(Mk5:22,Lk8:41)waspromptedbyintense
yearning,afathersselfabandonmentinthesoresicknessofhischild,andmustnotbetakenasimplyingafullrecognitionofChrists
Divinity.LikeMaryspostureatBethany(Jn11:32),itwasapreparationfortheattitudeofthedisciplesaftertheirvisittotheemptytomb(Mt
28:9).WhateverCorneliusintended(Ac10:25f.),Peterfoundanopportunitytolaydowntherulethatnomanunderanycircumstancesisan
appropriateobjectofadorationandJohnrepeatsthatruletwicenotfarfromtheendofScripture(Rev19:10,22:8f.).Theattempttoalienate
fromGodHispeculiarhonoursisaworkofSatan(Mt4:9)andadorationnaturallyfollowsaconvictionofthepresenceofGod(1Co14:25).

R.W.Moss.
ADRAMMELECH.1.AdrammelechandAnammelech(wh.see),thegodsofSepharvaimtowhomthecolonists,broughttoSamaria
fromSepharvaim,burnttheirchildreninthefire(2K17:31).Thereisnogoodexplanationofthename:itwasoncesupposedtobeforAdar
malik,Adartheprince.ButAdarisnotknowntobeaBabyloniangod,andcompoundDivinenamesarepracticallyunknown,norwere
humansacrificesofferedtoBabyloniangods.

2.AdrammelechandSharezer(wh.see)aregivenin2K19:37asthesonsofSennacheribwhomurderedtheirfather.[TheKethibhof
Kingsomitshissons].
TheBabylonianChroniclesays:Onthe20thofTebet,Sennacherib,kingofAssyria,waskilledbyhissoninaninsurrectionandallother
nativesourcesagreeinascribingthemurdertooneson,butdonotnamehim.AdrammelechisimpossibleasanAssyrianpersonalname,and
probablyarisesherefromsomecorruptionofthetext.ThesonsofSennacheribknowntousareAshurndinshum,kingofBabylon,b.c.700
694Esarhaddon,whosucceededhisfather,b.c.681ArdiBlit,CrownPrince,b.c.694Ashurshumushabshi,forwhomSennacheribbuilta
palaceinTarbisiAshurilumuballitsu,forwhomSennacheribbuiltapalaceinAsshurandSharetirAshur.PossiblyArdiBlitisintended.

C.H.W.Johns.
ADRAMYTTIUM.AtownofMysia(intheRomanprovinceofAsia)onthe
AdramytteneGulf,originallyanativeState,andonlylaterHellenizedbythe
Delians,whohadbeendrivenawayfromhomebytheAthenians(422b.c.).InRomantimesitwasaplaceofconsiderableimportanceboth
politicallyandintellectually.Itpossessedaharbour,andashipbelongingtotheplacecarriedSt.PaulfromCsareabySidonandCyprusto
Myra(Ac27:26).

A.Souter.

ADRIA(morecorrectlyHadria).ThenamewasatfirstconfinedtothenorthernpartofwhatwecalltheAdriaticSea,ortoastretchof
landnearthat,andwasderivedfromaonceimportantEtruscancity,Atria,situatedatthemouthofthePo.Therestofwhatwecallthe
AdriaticSeaappearstohavebeenatthattimeincludedinthetermIonianSeaorIonianGulf.Itwasonlylater,withthegrowthofthe
SyracusancoloniesonthecoastsofItalyandIllyria,thatthenameHadriacametoincludethewholeAdriatic,andeventhen,atfirst,it
wasthepracticetocallthesouthernmostparttheIonianSea.ThisreductionoftheIonianSeatoapartofHadrialed,whenthename
IonianSeawastransferredtotheSicilianSeaintheW.ofGreece,toamisuseoftheterm
Hadria.ItwasextendedtoincludetheTarentineGulf,theSicilianSea,the
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Hadria.ItwasextendedtoincludetheTarentineGulf,theSicilianSea,the
CorinthianGulf,andeventhewatersbetweenCreteandMalta,asinAc27:27.

A.Souter.
ADRIEL.SonofBarzillai,theMeholathite.HemarriedMerab,theeldestdaughterofSaul,whoshouldhavebeengiventoDavidasthe
slayerofGoliath(1S18:19,2S21:8[inthelatterMichalisamistakeforMerab]).
ADUEL.AnancestorofTobit,To1:1avariantformofAdiel,1Ch4:36.
ADULLAM.AcityintheShephelah,assignedtoJudahnamedbetweenJarmuthandSocoh(Jos15:35etc.).Itisprobablythemodern
IdelMa,about8milesN.W.ofBeitJibrn.Rehoboamfortifiedit(2Ch11:7),andthechildrenofJudahreturnedtoitafterthecaptivity
(Neh11:30).TheCaveofAdullam,therefugeofDavid(1S22:1etc.),musthavebeenoneofthoseintheadjoiningvalley.Adullamite(Gn
38:1etc.)=aninhabitantofAdullam.

W.Ewing.ADULTERY.SeeCrimes,Marriage.
ADUMMIM.TheAscentof(Jos15:7,18:17),isthesteeppassinwhichtheroadascendsfromJerichotoJerusalem.Itsmodernname,
TalatedDumm,theascentofbloodorred,ismostprobablyduetotheredmarlwhichissodistinctiveafeatureofthepass.Inthispass,
notoriousforrobberiesandmurders,isthetraditionalinnofLk10:34.
ADVENT.SeeParousia.
ADVERTISE.Ru4:4Ithoughttoadvertisethee,i.e.informtheesoNu24:14.
ADVOCATE(Gr.parakltos).ThewordoccursonlyinthewritingsofSt.John:fourtimesinhisGospel(14:16,26,15:26,16:7)ofthe
HolySpirit,andonceinhis1stEpistle(2:1)ofJesus.ItisunfortunatethatourEnglishVersionshaverendereditintheformerComforter
(RVmorAdvocate,orHelper,Gr.
Paraclete)andinthelatterAdvocate(RVmorComforter,orHelper,Gr.Paraclete).
Comforter,thoughatrueandbeautifuldesignationoftheHolySpirit,isanimpossiblerendering.Itistruethatparakaleinmeanseither
comfort(Mt5:4,2Co1:4,7:6)orcalltoonesside(Ac28:20),butparakltosmustbeassociatedwiththelattersignification.Itisa
passiveform,anddenotesnotonewhocomforts(parakalei)butonewhoiscalledintoaid(parakaleitai).Itwasaforensicterm,
signifyingthecounselforthedefenceandcorrespondingexactlytoouradvocate(Lat.advocatus).Singularlyenough,theGreekspeaking
FathersmostlytookthewordintheimpossiblesenseofComforter,influencedperhapsbythefalseanalogyofMenahem(Consolator),a
JewishnamefortheMessiah.Cf.CyrilofJerusalem,Cat.xvi.20:HeiscalledParakletosbecauseHecomforts(parakalei)andconsolesand
helpsourinfirmity.WereitunderstoodinitsliteralsenseofStrengthener(Confortator),Comforterwouldbeafairrenderingbutasa
matteroffactitoriginatedinanerrornordoesitsuggestthetrueideatotheEnglishreader.ItshouldbeobservedthatcomfortlessinJn
14:18lendsitnosupport.RVgivesdesolateliterally,asinthemarginofbothVersions,
orphans.
ThesubstitutionofAdvocateforComforterrevealsawealthofmeaninginourLordsaddresstotheElevenonthatnightinwhichHe
wasbetrayed.DuringHisearthlyministryHehadbeenGodsAdvocatewithmen,pleadingGodscausewiththemandseekingtowinthem
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forHim.Hewasgoingaway,butGodwouldnotbeleftwithoutanAdvocateontheearth.IwillpraytheFather,andanotherAdvocatehe
willgiveyou,thathemaybewithyonforevertheSpiritofTruth.Notreceived,becauseunrecognized,bytheunspiritualworld,the
Advocatewouldberecognizedandwelcomedbybelievers(Jn14:16,17,25,26).AndHewouldtestifytothemaboutJesus,theunseenLord,
andtheywouldrepeatHistestimonytotheworld(15:26,27).AndHewouldmaketheirtestimonyeffective,convictingthe,worldregarding
sin,righteousness,andjudgment(16:811).

JesustoldtheEleventhatitwasexpedientforthemthatheshouldgoaway,sinceHisdeparturewastheconditionoftheadventofthe
Advocate(16:7)and1Jn2:1furnishesaprofoundcommentaryonthisdeclaration.Jesusinthedaysof
HisfleshwasGodsAdvocateontheearth,pleadingwithmenforGod.TheHolySpirithastakenHisplace,andperformsthisoffice.But
JesusisstillanAdvocate.HeistheAdvocateofsinnersupinheaven,pleadingtheircausewithGod,and,inthelanguageofSt.Paul(Ro
8:34),makingintercessionforthem.

AndthusitwasexpedientforusthatHeshouldgoaway,thatwemightenjoyadoubleadvocacytheHolySpiritshere,pleadingwithus
forGodandthatofJesusinthecourtofheaven,pleadingwithGodforus.Therearethreedispensationsinthehistoryofredemption,each
richerandfullerthanthelast:(1)TheOTdispensation,underwhichmenknewonlyofGodinhighheaven(2)thatoftheIncarnation,under
whichtheFathercameneartomeninJesusChristandbyHisgraciousadvocacyappealedtotheirhearts(3)thatoftheHolySpirit,under
whichtheHolySpiritistheFathersAdvocatehere,andJesusourAdvocateabove,ourFriendbeforethethroneoflove.

DavidSmith.
AEDIAS(1Es9:27).Oneofthosewhoagreedtoputawaytheirstrangewives.ThenameisprobablyacorruptionforElijahofEzr
10:26.
NEAS.ThenameofaparalyticatLyddawhowascuredbyPeter(Ac9:33,
34).
NON.Jn3:23,meaningspringsasitenearSalim[wh.see].
SORA(Jth4:4).AnunknownSamaritantown,possiblymod.Asireh,N.E.ofShechem.
AGABUS.AChristianprophetofJerusalem(Ac11:27ff.,21:10f.),whosepredictionofafamineoverthe(civilized)worldoccasioned
thesendingofalmsfromAntiochtoJerusalem.Thefaminehappened,notsimultaneouslyinallcountries,inClaudiusreign(Suetonius,
Tacitus).AgabusalsoforetoldSt.Paulsimprisonment,bybindinghisfeetandhandswiththeApostlesgirdle(cf.Jer
13:1ff.).

A.J.Maclean.
AGAD(formerlybuterroneouslyreadAgan).AcityofNorthern
BabyloniaandthecapitalofSargon,thefounderofthefirstSemiticempire(c.b.c.3800).AswasfirstdiscoveredbyGeorgeSmith,Agad
wastheSemiticAkkadu(seeAkkad).ItstoodnearSipparaorSepharvaim(wh.see),andmayhavebeeninlatertimesasuburbofthelatter
town.
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A.H.Sayce.
AGAG.1.Nu24:7,probablyacopyistserror:LXXhasGog.2.1S15,thekingofAmalek,whomSauldefeatedandsparedsomeGr.
MSSnamehisfatherAser(15:33).Whetherhemethisfatebravelyortimidlycannotbedeterminedfromtheextanttext(v.32).Samuel
consideredhimtobeunderthebanofextermination,andthereforekilledhimasareligiousact(v.33).

J.Taylor.
AGAGITE.ThedesignationofHaman(Est3:1,10,8:3,5,9:24).Josephus(Ant.XI.vi.5)callshimanAmalekite.TheepithetinEsther
indicatesthat,as
AgagwasSaulsadversary,soHamanwasthefoeofthisotherBenjamite.TheLXXreadsBugaios,3:1,8:5,omitsat3:10,andat9:24,16:10
hasMacedonian,awordofevilconnotationafterAntiochusEpiphanes.

J.Taylor.
AGAIN.TheEng.wordagainmeansinAVeitherasecondtime,asPh4:16,yesentonceandagainorback,asinMt11:4go
andshowJohnagainthosethingswhichyedohear(i.e.gobackandshowJohn).
AGAPE.SeeLoveFeast.
AGAR.ThesonsofAgararementionedinBar3:23theyarecalledHagarenesinPs83:6,andHagritesin1Ch5:19,20,27:31.Their
countrylayeastofGilead.
AGATE.SeeJewelsandPreciousStones.
AGE,AGED,OLDAGE.IntheOTadvancingageisrepresentedbywordsofdifferentrootmeanings.Theagedmaniszqen,perhaps
greybearded(Gn48:10,2S19:32,Job12:20,32:9,Ps71:18,Jer6:11)oldageisalsosbhh,i.e.hoaryheadedness(Gn15:15,1K
14:4cf.Gn42:38,Ps71:18).AccordingtotheMishna(Ab.v.21)thelatterwordimpliesagreaterage(70)thantheformer(60).ButinJob
15:10(cf.29:8)yshsh,i.e.veryaged,marksafurtheradvanceinyears,ofwhichthesignisawitheringofstrength.Ps90:10istheonly
passageinwhichadefiniteperiodisfixedforhumanlife.Theideathathaleoldage(kelach)isablessingisexpressedinJob5:26the
contrastisfurnishedbythegloomypicture(30:2)ofthefatherswhoseoldagelacksvigour.

Thewisdomoftheoldwasproverbial(Job12:12,32:7),thoughtherewereexceptions(Job32:9,Ps119:100).Theexperienceoftheolder
menfittedthemforpositionsoftrustandauthorityhencebyanaturaltransitionofthoughteldersbecameanofficialtitleEx3:16,Ac
11:30).Respectistobeshowntotheold(Lv19:32,Pr23:22),andthedecayofreverenceforageisanevilomen(Dt28:50,1K12:8,Is
47:6).ItwastothegrandmotherofObedthattheHebrewwomensaidheshallbeanourisherofthineoldage(Ru4:15)thedutiful
affectionofchildrenschildrenilluminedthegraciousmessageofIsraelsGod:eventooldageIamhe,andeventohoarhairswillIcarry
you(Is46:4).

J.G.Tasker.
AGEE.ThefatherofShammah,oneoftheThree(2S23:11).
AGGABA(1Es5:29).InEzr2:45Hagabah,Neh7:48Hagaba.
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AGGABA(1Es5:29).InEzr2:45Hagabah,Neh7:48Hagaba.
AGGUS.Theformusedin1Es6:1,7:3and2Es1:40forHaggai(wh.see).
AGIA(1Es5:34).InEzr2:57,Neh7:59Hattil.
AGONY(Lk22:44)isnotatranslationbutatransliterationoftheGreekagnia,equivalenttoSt.Matthewssorrowfulandsoretroubled
(26:37)andSt.Marksgreatlyamazedandsoretroubled(14:33).TheworddoesnotmeanagonyintheEnglishsense.Agnwasa
contest,andagniathetrepidationofacombatantabouttoenterthelists.ChristsAgonyinGethsemanewasthehorrorwhichoverwhelmed
HimasHefacedthefinalordeal.

DavidSmith.
AGRAPHA.SeeUnwrittenSayings.
AGRICULTURE.Throughoutthewholeperiodoftheirnationalexistence,agriculturewastheprincipaloccupationoftheHebrews.
Accordingtothepriestlytheory,thelandwasthepropertyofJHispeopleenjoyedtheusufruct(Lv25:23).Inactualpractice,thebulkofthe
landwasownedbythetownsandvillagecommunities,eachfreehusbandmanhavinghisallottedportionofthecommonlands.Theremainder
includedtheCrownlandsandtheestatesofthenobility,atleastunderthemonarchy.HusbandrytheBiblicaltermforagriculture(2Ch
26:10)washighlyesteemed,andwasregardedasdatingfromtheveryearliesttimes(Gn4:2).ItwasJHimselfwhotaughtthe
husbandmanhisart(Is28:26).

Ofthewiderangeoftopicsembracedbyagricultureinthewidersignificanceoftheterm,someofthemoreimportantwillbetreatedin
separatearticles,suchasCart,Flax,Food,Garden,Olive,Ox,Thorns,Vine,etc.Thepresentarticlewilldealonlywiththemorerestricted
fieldofthecultivationoftheprincipalcereals.Thesewere,inthefirstrank,wheatandbarleylessimportantwerethecropsofmilletand
spelt,andthoseofthepulsefamilylentils,beans,andthelike.

1.TheagriculturalyearbeganinthelatterhalfofOctober,withtheadventoftheearlyrains,whichsoftenthegroundbakedbythe
summerheat.Thenthehusbandmanbegantopreparehisfieldsforthewinterseedbymeansoftheplough.Fromthedetailsgiveninpost
Biblicalliterature,itisevidentthattheHebrewploughdifferedbutlittlefromitsmodernSyriancounterpart(seePEFSt,1891).Theessential
partorbodyofthelatter,correspondinginpositiontothemodernploughtailorstilt,consistsofapieceoftoughwoodbentandpointedat
thefoottoreceiveanironsheathorshare(1S13:20),theupperendbeingfurnishedwithashortcrosspiecetoserveasahandle.Thepoleis
usuallyintwoparts:onestoutandcurved,throughthelowerendofwhichthebodyispassedjustabovetheshareattheotherendis
attachedthelighterpartofthepole,throughtheupperendofwhichastoutpinispassedtoserveasattachmentfortheyoke.Theploughwas
usuallydrawnbytwoormoreoxen(Am6:12),orbyasses(Is30:24),buttheemploymentofoneofeachkindwasforbidden(Dt22:10).The
yokeisashortpieceofwoodthebarofLv26:13(RV)fittedwithtwopairsofconvergingpegs,thelowerendsconnectedbythongs,to
receivethenecksofthedraughtanimals.Twosmallerpegsinthemiddleoftheuppersideholdinpositionaringofwillow,rope,orother
material,whichispassedovertheendofthepoleandkeptinpositionbythepinabovementioned.Astheploughmanrequiredbutonehandto
guidetheplough,theotherwasfreetowieldtheoxgoad,alightwoodenpoleshodatoneendwithanironspikewherewithtopricktheoxen
(cf.Ac9:5),andhavingattheotherasmallspadewithwhichtocleantheploughshare.Gardens,vineyards(Is5:6RV),andpartstoodifficult
toploughwereworkedwiththehoeormattock(Is7:25).
Theprevailingmodeofsowingwasbyhand,asintheparableoftheSower,theseedbeingimmediatelyploughedin.Itwaspossible,
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Theprevailingmodeofsowingwasbyhand,asintheparableoftheSower,theseedbeingimmediatelyploughedin.Itwaspossible,
however,tocombinebothoperationsbyfixingaseedboxtotheploughtail.Theseedpassedthroughanapertureatthebottomoftheboxand
wasconductedbyapipealongthetail.Itthusfellintothedrillbehindtheshareandwasimmediatelycoveredin.ThepatriarchAbrahamwas
creditedbyJewishlegendwiththeinventionofthisformofseedingplough(Bk.ofJubilees11:23ff.).Thismodeofsowingisprobably
referredtoinIs28:25(thewheatinrowsRV).Thereisnoevidencethatharrowswereusedforcoveringintheseed.

2.Duringtheperiodofgrowththecropswereexposedtoavarietyofrisks,suchasthedelayorscantyfallofthespringrains(thelatter
rainoftheOT,Am4:9),blastingbythehotsiroccowind,mildew,hailthesethreearenamedtogetherinHag2:17cf.Dt28:22,Am4:9
andworstofallavisitationoflocusts.
Theproductivenessofthesoilnaturallyvariedgreatly(cf.Mt13:8).Underfavourableconditions,asintheHauran,wheatissaidtoyielda
hundredfoldreturn.

3.OwingtothewiderangeofclimaticconditionsinPalestine,thetimeoftheharvestwasnotuniform,beingearliestinthesemitropical
Jordanvalley,andlatestintheuplandsofGalilee.Theaverageharvestperiod,reckonedbytheHebrewlegislation(Lv23:15,Dt16:9)to
coversevenweeks,maybesetdownasfromthemiddleofApriltothebeginningofJune,thebarleyripeningaboutafortnightsoonerthan
thewheat.

Thestandingcornwasreapedwiththesickle(Dt16:9RV),thestalksbeingcutconsiderablyhigherupthanwithus.Thehandfulsofears
weregatheredintosheaves,andtheseintoheaps(notintoshocks)fortransportationtothethreshingfloor.Thecornersofthefieldwereleftto
bereaped,andthefallenearstobegleaned,bythepoorandthestranger(Lv19:9f.,Dt24:19,Ru2:2ff.).

Forsmallquantitiestheearswerestrippedbybeatingwithastick(Ru2:17,Jg6:11RV),otherwisethethreshingwasdoneatthevillage
threshingfloor.Thiswasalarge,speciallyprepared(Jer51:33RV)spaceonanelevatedsituation.
Hitherthecornwasbroughtonassesoronacart(Am2:13),andpiledinheaps.
Enoughsheavesweredrawnouttoformalayer,6to8ft.wide,allroundtheheap.Overthislayerseveraloxen,unmuzzledaccordingtolaw
(Dt25:4),andharnessedtogetherasrepresentedontheEgyptianmonuments,mightbedriven.Moreeffectivework,however,wasgotfrom
thethreshingdragandthethreshingwagon,bothstillinuseintheEast,theformerbeingthefavouriteinSyria,thelatterinEgypt.The
formerconsistsoftwoorthreethickwoodenplanksheldtogetherbyacoupleofcrosspieces,thewholemeasuringfrom5to7ft.inlengthby
3to4ft.inbreadth.Theundersideofthedragissetwithsharppiecesofhardstone(cf.Is41:15),whichstriptheearsasthedrag,onwhichthe
driversitsorstands,isdrivenoverthesheaves,andatthesametimecutupthestalksintosmalllengths.Thethreshingwagonissimplya
woodenframecontainingthreeormorerollerssetwithparallelmetaldiscs,andsupportingaseatforthedriver.Theformerinstrumentwas
usedbyAraunahtheJebusite(2S24:22),whilethelatterisprobablyreferredtointhethreshingwheelofPr20:26(RV).Bothare
mentionedtogetherintheoriginalofIs28:27.

Afterthethreshingcamethewinnowing.Bymeansofafiveorsixprongedfork,thefanoftheOTandNT,themassofgrain,chaff,
andchoppedstrawistossedintotheairinthewesterneveningbreeze.Thechaffiscarriedfarthestaway(Ps1:4,thelightmorselsofstrawtoa
shorterdistance,whiletheheavygrainsofwheatorbarleyfallatthewinnowersfeet.Afterbeingthoroughlysiftedwithavarietyofsieves
(Am9:9,Is30:28),thegrainwasstoredinjarsforimmediateuse,andincisterns(Jer41:8),orinspeciallyconstructedgranaries,thebarns
ofMt6:26.
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4.Ofseveralimportantmatters,suchasirrigation,theterracingofslopes,manuringofthefields,theconditionsoflease,etc.regarding
whichVogelsteinstreatiseDieLandwirtschaftinPalstinaisamineofinformationfortheRomanperiodthereislittledirectevidencein
Scripture.Agriculture,asisnatural,bulkslargelyinthelegislativecodesofthePentateuch.Someoftheprovisionshavealreadybeencited.
Tothesemaybeaddedthesolemninjunctionagainstremovinganeighbourslandmarks,theuprightstonesmarkingtheboundariesofhis
fields(Dt19:14,27:17),thehumanitarianprovisionregardingstrayedcattle(Ex23:4,Dt22:1ff.),thelawthateveryfieldmustliefallowfor
oneyearinseven(Ex23:10f.see,forlaterdevelopment,SabbaticalYear),thelawforbiddingthebreedingofhybridsandthesowingofa
fieldwithtwokindsofseed(Lv19:19RV),andthefarreachingprovisionastotheinalienabilityoftheland(Lv25:8ff.).

ThefactthatnodepartmentofhumanactivityhasenrichedthelanguageofScripture,andinconsequencethelanguageofthespirituallife
inallafterages,withsomanyappropriatefiguresofspeech,isastrikingtestimonytotheplaceoccupiedbyagricultureinthelifeandthought
oftheHebrewpeople.

A.R.S.Kennedy.
AGRIPPA.SeeHerod,Nos.6,7.
AGUE.SeeMedicine.
AGUR.SonofJakehauthorofthewholeorpartofPr30,oneofthelatestsectionsofthebook.Hisnamemaysignifyhirelingor
assemblercf.Vulg.VerbaCongregantisfiliiVomentis.Somehavethoughtthatmassa(AVtheprophecy,RVtheoracle),which
otherwiseisoutofplace,isthenameofhiscountry(Gn25:14).
J.Taylor.
AHAB.1.SonofOmri,andthemostnotedmemberofhisdynasty,kingofIsraelfromabout875toabout853b.c.Theaccountofhimin
ourBookofKingsisdrawnfromtwoseparatesources,oneofwhichviewshimmorefavourablythantheother.Fromthesecularpointof
viewhewasanableandenergeticprincefromthereligiouspointofviewhewasadangerousinnovator,andapatronofforeigngods.His
alliancewiththePhnicianswascementedbyhismarriagewithJezebel,daughterofEthbaal,kingofTyre(1K16:31),whowasalso,ifwe
maytrustJosephus,priestofAstarte.AtalaterdateAhabenteredintoalliancewithJudah,givinghisdaughterAthaliabinmarriageto
Jehoram,sonofJehoshaphat(2K8:18).Hiswealthisindicatedbytheivorypalacewhichhebuilt(1K21:1,22:39).

ThereignofAhabwasmarkedbyfrequentwarswiththeSyriankingdomofDamascus.Benhadad,thekingofthatcountry,wasso
successfulthatheclaimedsuzeraintyoverIsraelaclaimwhichAhabwasatfirstdisposedtoadmit(1K
20:2ff.).ButwhenBenhadadwentsofarastothreatenSamariawith
indiscriminateplunder,Ahabresisted.Intwocampaignshedefeatedtheinvaders,eventakingtheirhaughtyleaderprisoner.Contrarytothe
adviceofthepropheticparty,hetreatedhiscaptivemagnanimously,andconcludedanalliancewithhim,stipulatingonlythatthecities
formerlytakenfromIsraelshouldberestored.Thealliancewasonefortradeandcommerce,eachpartyhavingbazaarsassignedhiminthe
capitaloftheother(1K20:34).ItisnotimprobablealsothatcommonmeasuresofdefencewereplannedagainsttheAssyrians,whowere
showinghostileintentionsintheregionoftheLebanon.InthebattleofKarkar,whichwasfoughtagainsttheseinvadersintheyear854,Ahab
waspresentwithtenthousandtroops.ThiswelearnfromtheAssyrianinscriptions.

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ThereligiousinnovationforwhichAhabisheldresponsiblebytheHebrewwriters,wastheintroductionofthePhnicianBaalasoneof
thegodsofIsrael.ItisclearthatAhabhadnoideaofdisplacingJahwehaltogether,forhegavehischildrennameswhichindicatedhis
devotiontoHim.Buttopleasehiswifeheallowedhertointroduceandfostertheworshipofherowndivinities.Herthoughtwasthatwiththe
religionofherowncountryshewouldintroduceitsmoreadvancedcivilization.ThechampionofJahwehsexclusiverighttotheworshipof
IsraelwasElijah.Thisprophet,byhisboldchallengetothepriestsofBaal,rousedtheangerofJezebel,andwasobligedtofleethecountry(1
K1719).Otherprophetsdonotseemtohavebeendisturbed,forwefindthematthecourtofAhabinthelastyearofhislife(22:6).These,
however,weresubservienttothecrown,whileElijahwasnotonlyaprotestantagainstreligiouschanges,butthechampionofthecommon
people,whoserightsweresosignallyviolatedinthecaseofNaboth.

Ahabdiedfightingforhispeople.TheSyrianwarhadagainbrokenoutapparentlybecauseBenhadadhadnotkepthisagreement.Ahab
thereforetriedtorecoverRamothgilead,beingassistedbyJehoshaphatofJudah.InthefirstencounterAhabwasslain,hisreputationfor
couragebeingvindicatedbythedirectionofhisadversarytohissoldiersFightneitherwithsmallnorwithgreat,butonlywiththekingof
Israel(1K22:31).

2.AfalseprophetroastedinthefirebythekingofBabylon(Jer29:21f.).

H.P.Smith.
AHARAH.SeeAhiram.
AHARHEL.AdescendantofJudah(1Ch4:8).
AHASBAI.FatherofEliphelet(2S23:34),andamemberatthefamilyofMaacah,settledatBethmaacah(20:14),oranativeofthe
SyriankingdomofMaacah(10:6,8).
AHASUERUS(oldPers.Khshayrsh).ThePersianking(b.c.485465)knowntoGreekhistoryasXerxes.ComplaintsagainsttheJews
wereaddressedtohim(Ezr4:6).ItishewhofiguresintheBookofEstherDn9:1erroneouslymakeshimfatherofDariustheMede,
confusingthelatterwithDariusHystaspis,thefatherofXerxes.TheAhasuerusofTo14:15isCyaxares.

J.Taylor.
AHAVAwasasettlementinBabylonialyingalongastreamofthesamename,probablyalargecanalneartheEuphrates.Noneofthe
conjecturesastotheexactlocalitycanbeverified.ItwasherethatEzramusteredhispeoplebeforetheirdepartureforJerusalem(Ezr8:15,
21,31).SomedistrictnorthornorthwestofBabylon,nearthenorthernboundaryofBabylonia,ismostprobable.

J.F.McCurdy.
AHAZ,sonandsuccessorofJotham,kingofJudah,cametothethroneabout
b.c.734.Theonlynotableeventofhisreign,sofarasweknow,wastheinvasionmadebyhisnorthernneighbours,PekahofIsraelandRezin
ofDamascus.ThesetwokingshadmadeanallianceagainsttheAssyrians,andweretryingtocompelAhaztojointhecoalition.Hisrefusalso
exasperatedthemthattheyplannedhisdepositionandtheappointmentofacreatureoftheirowntothethrone.Ahazdidnotventuretotake
thefield,butshuthimselfupinJerusalemandstrengtheneditsfortifications.Itwasperhapsatthistimeofneedthathesacrificedhissonasa36/172
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thefield,butshuthimselfupinJerusalemandstrengtheneditsfortifications.Itwasperhapsatthistimeofneedthathesacrificedhissonasa
burntofferingtoJahweh.Isaiahtriedtoencouragethefaintheartedking,pointingoutthathisenemieshadnoprospectofsuccessorevenof
longexistence.ButAhazhadmorefaithinpoliticalmeasuresthaninthepropheticword.HesentamessagetoTiglathpileser,kingof
Assyria,submittinghimselfunreservedlytohim.Theembassycarriedsubstantialevidenceofvassalageintheshapeofallthegoldandsilver
fromthepalacetreasuryandfromtheTemple(2K16,Is7).

Tiglathpileserwasalreadyonthemarch,andatoncelaidsiegetoDamascus,thusfreeingJerusalemfromitsenemies.Twoyearslaterthe
AssyriankingenteredDamascus,andwasvisitedtherebyAhaz.TheresultofthevisitwastheconstructionofanewaltarfortheTempleat
Jerusalem,andapparentlytheintroductionofAssyriandivinities(2K16:10ff.).
H.P.Smith.
AHAZIAH.TwokingsofthisnamearementionedintheOT,oneineachoftheIsraelitekingdoms.

1.AhaziahofIsraelwasthesonofAhab,andruledafterhimonlytwoyearsorpartsofyears.Heissaidtohavebeenaworshipperof
Baal,thatis,tohavecontinuedthereligiouspolicyofhisfather.Byafallfromawindowofhispalacehewasseriouslyinjured,and,after
lingeringawhile,diedfromtheaccident.TheMoabites,whohadbeensubjecttoIsrael,tookthisopportunitytorevolt.Ahaziahisaccusedof
sendingmessengerstoinquireofthecelebratedoracleatEkron,andissaidunexpectedlytohavereceivedhisanswerfromElijah(2K1).

2.AhaziahofJudahwassonofJehoramandgrandsonofJehoshaphat.Undertheinfluenceofhismother,whowasadaughterofAhah
andJezehel,itisnotsurprisingtoreadthathewalkedinthewaysofAhab.Allthatweknowofhimisthathecontinuedtheleaguewith
Israel,andthat,goingtovisithisuncleJehoraminJezreel,hewasinvolvedinhisfateattherevoltofJehu(2K9:27).

H.P.Smith.
AHBAN.AJudahite,sonofAbishur(1Ch2:29).
AHER(another).ABenjamite(1Ch7:12).
AHI(brother).1.AGadite(1Ch5:15).2.AnAsherite(1Ch7:34).Butthereadingisinneithercasefreefromdoubt.
AHIAH.SeeAhijah.
AHIAM.OneofDavidsheroes(1Ch11:35).
AHIAN(fraternal).AManassite,describedassonofShemida(1Ch7:19)butthenameisscarcelythatofanindividualnoteinthe
contextAhiezerandShechem,andcf.Nu26:31ff.
AHIEZER(brotherishelp).1.SonofAmmishaddai,oneofthetribalprinceswhorepresentedDanatthecensusandoncertainother
occasions(Nu1:12,2:25,7:66,7:71,10:25(P)).2.ThechiefoftheBenjamitearcherswhojoinedDavidatZiklag(1Ch12:13).
AHIHUD(brotherismajesty).1.TheprinceofthetribeofAsher(Nu34:27(P)).2.ABenjamite(1Ch8:6,7).
AHIJAH.1.1S14:3,18is(AVAhiah),apriest,sonofAhitub,whohadchargeoftheoracularephodandconsulteditforSaul[read
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AHIJAH.1.1S14:3,18is(AVAhiah),apriest,sonofAhitub,whohadchargeoftheoracularephodandconsulteditforSaul[read
ephodforarkatv.18].AhijahisprobablytoheidentifiedwithAhimelech(21:1).2.1K4:3,oneofSolomonssecretaries,whoconducted
thekingscorrespondenceandwroteouthisdecrees.HisfatherShishaseemstohaveheldthesameofficeunderDavid.3.1K11:29f.,12:15,
2Ch10:15,aprophetofShiloh,whoforetoldthedivisionofthekingdomandtheelevationofJeroboam.Subsequentlyhepredictedthedeath
ofJeroboamsson(1K14:2ff.).4.1K15:27,33,fatherofBaasha.5.1Ch2:25hasanAhijah,sonofJerahmeel,butishopelesslycorrupt.
TheLXXgetsridofthename.6.1Ch8:7(AVAhiah),sonofEhud,aBenjamite:atv.4Ahoah,butLXXAhijah,7.1Ch11:36,oneof
Davidsheroes,fromPalon,anunknownlocality:perhapsGilohshouldberead,seeingthatPalonhasalreadybeenmentioned(v.27).8.1Ch
26:20,aLevite,overseeroftheTempletreasures.Butweoughtprobablytosubstitutethewords,theirbrethren.9.Neh10:26(RVAhiah),a
laymanwhojoinedNehemiahinsigningthecovenant.

J.Taylor.
AHIKAM.OneofthedeputationsentbykingJosiahtoHuldahtheprophetess(2K22:12,14,2Ch34:20).Laterheusedhisinfluence
toprotectJeremiahfromtheviolenceofthepopulaceduringthereignofJehoiakim(Jer26:24).
AHILUD.1.FatherofJehoshaphat,thechroniclerunderDavidandSolomon(2S8:16,20:24,1K4:3,1Ch18:15).2.FatherofBaana,
oneofSolomonstwelvecommissariatofficers(1K4:12).
AHIMAAZ.1.Saulsfatherinlaw(1S14:50).2.SonofZadok.HeandJonathanwerestationedoutsideJerusalemtolearnAbsaloms
plansafteranadventurousjourneytheysucceededinwarningDavid(2S15:27,36,17:1721).Ahimaazwaseagertocarrythetidingsof
AbsalomsdefeatbutJoabpreferredtosendbyanEthiopianslavetheunwelcomenewsoftheprincesdeath.Obtainingleavetofollow,
Ahimaazoutstrippedthisman,wasrecognizedbythewatchmanthroughthestyleofhisrunning,butlefttheEthiopiantodisclosetheworst(2
S18:1932).ItmaybethesamepersonwhoappearslaterasSolomonssoninlawandcommissionerinNaphtali(1K4:15).

J.Taylor.
AHIMAN.1.OneofthesonsofAnak,atHebron(Nu13:22):thethreeclaus,ofwhichthiswasone,wereeitherdestroyedbyJudah(Jg
1:10),orexpelledbytheclanCaleb(Jos15:14).2.AfamilyofLeviteswhohadchargeofthatgateofthe
Templethroughwhichthekingentered(1Ch9:17f.)

J.Taylor.

AHIMELECH.1.SonofAhitub,andgrandsonofPhinehas.HeeithersucceededhisbrotherAhijahinthepriesthood,ormoreprobably
wasthesamepersonunderanothername(1S14:3,18).ForhisfateseeDoeo.In2S8:17and1Ch18:16,24:6thenamesofAbiatharand
Ahimelechhavebeentransposed.2.AHittite,whojoinedDavidwhenafugitive(1S26:6).
AHIMOTH.AKohathiteLevite(1Ch6:25).
AHINADAB.SonofIddo,oneofthe12commissariatofficersappointedbySolomon(1K4:14).
AHINOAM.1.DaughterofAhimaazandwifeofSaul(1S14:50).2.AJezreelitesswhomDavidmarriedafterMichalhadbeentaken
fromhim.ShewasthemotherofDavidsfirstborn,Amnon(1S25:43,27:3,30:5,2S2:2,3:2,1Ch
3:1).
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3:1).
AHIO.1.SonofAbinadab(No.3),andbrotherofUzzah.Hehelpedtodrivethecartonwhichthearkwasplacedwhenremovedfrom
Ahinadabshouse(2S6:3,4,1Ch13:7).2.AsonofJeiel,andbrotherofKish,thefatherofSaul(1Ch8:31,9:37).3.ABenjamite(1Ch
8:14).
AHIRA.PrinceofNaphtali,namedatthecensusandoncertainotheroccasions(Nu1:15,2:29,7:78,83,10:27(P)).
AHIRAM.TheeponymofaBenjamitefamilytheAhiramites,Nu26:38(P).ThenameoccursinthecorruptformsEhiinGn46:21
(P),andAharahin1Ch8:1.
AHISAMACH.ADanite,fatherofOholiab(Ex31:6,35:34,38:23(P)).
AHISHAHAR.ABenjamite(1Ch7:10).
AHISHAR.SuperintendentofSolomonshousehold(1K4:6).
AHITHOPHEL.Davidscounsellor(2S15:12,1Ch27:33),whoseadvicewasdeemedinfallible(2S16:23).BeingBathshebas
grandfather,hehadbeenalienatedbyDavidscriminalconduct(11:3,23:34),andreadilyjoinedAbsalom(15:12).Ahithopheladvisedthe
princetotakepossessionoftheroyalharem,thusdeclaringhisfathersdeposition,andbeggedforabodyofmenwithwhomhemightatonce
overtakeanddestroythefugitivemonarch(17:13).Hushaithwartedthismove(17:11).Disgustedatthecollapseofhisinfluence,and
foreseeingthatthislackofenterprisemeantthefailureoftheinsurrection,Ahithophelwithdrew,sethisaffairsinorder,andhangedhimself
(17:23).

J.Taylor.
AHITOB(1Es8:2).AnancestorofEzra,sonofAmariasandfatherofSadduk.SeeAhitub,No.3.
AHITUB.1.SonofPhinehasandgrandsonofEll,thefatherofAhimelechorAhijah,thepriestwhowasputtodeathbySaul(1S14:3,
22:9,20).2.Acc.to2S
8:17(=1Ch18:16)thefather,acc.to1Ch9:11,Neh11:11thegrandfather,ofZadokthepriestwhowascontemporarywithDavidand
Solomon.Itisverydoubtful,however,whetherthenameAhitubhereisnotduetoacopyistserror.Thetextof2S8:17shouldprobablyrun:
andZadokandAbiatharthesonofAhimelech,thesonofAhitub.3.EvenmoredoubtattachestoanotherAhitub,fatherofanotherZadok(1
Ch6:11,12cf.1Es8:2,2Es1:1).4.AnancestorofJudith,Jth8:1.
AHLAB.AcityofAsher(Jg1:31).ThesitehasbeenIdentifiedwiththelaterGushHalaborGiscala,nowelJshinUpperGalileebut
thisis,ofcourse,uncertain.
AHLAI.1.Thedaughter(?)ofSheshan(1Ch2:31,cf.v.34).2.ThefatherofZabad,oneofDavidsmightymen(1Ch11:41).
AHOAH.SonofBela,aBenjamite(1Ch8:4).SeeAhijah(6).ThepatronymicAhohiteoccursin2S23:9.
AHOLAH,AHOLIAB,AHOLIBAH,AHOLIBAMAH.TheformsinAVofthecorrectRVOholah,Oholiab,Oholibah,Oholibamah
(wh.see).
AHUMAI.AdescendantofJudah(1Ch4:2).
AHUZZAM.AmanofJudah(1Ch4:6).
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AHUZZAM.AmanofJudah(1Ch4:6).
AHUZZATH.ThefriendofAbimelech,thePhilistineofGerar,mentionedontheoccasionwhenthelattermadealeaguewithIsaacat
Beersheba(Gn26:26).Thepositionofkingsfriendmaypossiblyhavebeenanofficialone,andthetitleatechnicalone(cf.1K4:5,1Ch
27:33).TherenderingoftheLXXgivesadifferentconception,thatofpronubus,orfriendofthebridegroom.
AHZAI.Apriest(Neh11:13)=Jahzerah(1Ch9:12).
AI.1.AplacebetweenwhichandBethelAbrahamwasstationedbefore(Gn12:8)andafter(13:3)hissojourninEgypt.Therepulseof
theIsraeliteattemptonthecity(Jos7:25)ledtotheexposureofthecrimeofAchanwhenthatwasexpiated,thecitywascapturedand
destroyed(8:128)byaruse.Itneverreappearsinhistory,thoughitcontinuedtobeinhabited:itistheAiathinIsaiahsdescriptionofthe
marchoftheAssyrian(10:28),andtheAijaofNeh11:31.In1Ch7:28Azzah,enumeratedamongthecitiesofEphraim,isinmanyMSS
Ayyah,whichisanotherformofthename.This,however,cannotinanycasebethesameplace,whichwaswithinthetribeofBenjamin(Jos
18:23,whereAvvimispossiblyacorruptionforthenameofthiscity).AftertheExile,AiandBethelbetweenthemsuppliedacontingentof
223tothenumberthatreturned(Ezr2:28),andthecitywasoncemoresettledbyBenjamites(Neh11:31).Thatthecitywasinsignificantis
definitelystatedinJos7:3,andindicatedbythefactthatinthelistofcapturedcitiesitisalmosttheonlyoneofwhichthesituationis
specified(Jos12:9).Itscapture,however,madeadeepimpressionontheCanaanites(Jos9:3,10:1).Astoitsidentification,theonly
indicationtoguideusisitsproximitytoBethel(agreedbyalltobeBeitin),ontheeastofthatplace(asfollowsfromGn12:8).Varioussites
havebeenproposedTurmusAya(whichcontainsanelementresemblingthename,butthesituationisimpossible)KhurbetHayan(which
alsohasasimilarname,buttheantiquitiesoftheplacearenotknowntobeoldenough)DeirDiwan(whichisintherightplace,butalso
possiblynotanoldenoughsite)andetTell(amoundwhosenamehasthesamemeaningasthewordAi[heap].Possiblythislastisthe
mostlikelysite.

2.Awhollydistinctplace,mentionedinaprophecyagainsttheAmmonites,Jer49:3(perh.aclericalerrorforAr).

R.A.S.Macalister.
AIAH.1.SonofZibeon(Gn36:24,1Ch1:40).2.FatherofRizpah,Saulsconcubine(2S3:7,21:8,10,11).
AIATH,Is10:28
AIJA,Neh11:31.SeeAi,No.1.
AIJALON.1.Acityallottedto,butnotoccupiedby,Dan(Jos19:42,Jg1:35).WefinditinthehandsofRehoboam(2Ch11:10)later
thePhilistinestookit(2Ch28:18).ItmaybethemodernYlo,3milesN.E.ofLatrn,14milesfromJerusalem.2.Anunknowntownin
Zebulun(Jg12:12).

W.Ewing.
AIJELETHHASHSHAHAR,Ps22(title).SeePsalms.
AIN.1.AtownintheneighbourhoodofRiblah(Nu34:11),probablythemodernelAinnearthesourceoftheOrontes.2.Atownin
Judah(Jos15:32),orSimeon(Jos19:7),whereAinaridRimmonshouldbetakentogether.ItisprobablyUmmerRammn,totheN.of
Beersheba.
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Beersheba.

W.Ewing.
AIN.ThesixteenthletteroftheHeb.alphabet,andsousedtointroducethesixteenthpartofPs.119.
AKAN.AdescendantofEsau(Gn36:27)calledin1Ch1:42Jakan.
AKATAN(1Es8:38).FatherofJoannes,whoreturnedwithEzracalledHakkataninEzr8:12.
AKELDAMA(AVAceldama).Thenameofthepottersfield(Ac1:19),purchasedfortheburialofstrangerswiththebloodmoney
returnedbyJudas(Mt27:3).ThetraditionalsiteisattheE.sideoftheWadyerRababi(thesocalledValleyofHinnom)ontheS.sideof
thevalley.ItisstillknownasHakkedDumm(fieldofblood).whichrepresentstheoldnameinsoundandmeaning.Theidentificationhas
notbeentracedearlierthantheCrusaders,whoerectedhereacharnelhouse,theruinsofwhichstillremainavaultabout70feetlongand20
feetwide(internaldimensions)erectedoverandcoveringtheentrancetosomeoftheancientrockcuttombswhichaboundinthevalley.The
skullsandboneswhichoncethicklystrewedthefloorofthischarnelhousehaveallbeenremovedtoamodernGreekmonasteryadjacent.
Thereisnoevidencerecoverableconnectingthissitewiththeworkofpotters.

R.A.S.Macalister.
AKKAD(ACCAD),AKKADIANS.Akkad(u)IstheSemiticequivalentoftheSumerianAgad,thecapitalofthefounderofthefirst
Semiticempire.ItwasprobablyinconsequenceofthisthatitgaveitsnametoNorthernBabylonia,theSemiticlanguageofwhichcametobe
knownasAkkaduorAkkadian.IntheearlydaysofcuneiformdeciphermentAkkadianwasthenameusuallyappliedtothenonSemitic
languageofprimitiveBabylonia,butsomecuneiformtextspublishedbyBezoldin1889(ZAp.434)showedthatthiswascalledbythe
BabyloniansthemselvesthelanguageofSumerorSouthernBabylonia,whileatextrecentlypublishedbyMesserschmidt(Orient.Ltztg.
1905,p.268)statesthatAkkaduwasthenameoftheSemitictranslation.WhenBabyloniabecameaunitedmonarchy,itsrulerstookthetitle
ofkingsofSumerandAkkadinSemitic,KengiandUriinSumerian,whereUriseemstohavesignifiedtheupperregion.InGn10:10
Accadisthecity,notthecountrytowhichitgaveitsname.

A.H.Sayce.
AKKOS(AVAccoz),1Es5:38.SeeHakkoz.
AKKUB.1.AsonofElioenai(1Ch3:24).2.ALevite,oneoftheportersattheE.gateoftheTempletheeponymofafamilythat
returnedfromtheExile(1Ch9:17,Ezr2:42,Neh7:45,11:19,12:25)calledin1Es5:28Dacubi.3.ThenameofafamilyofNethinim(Ezr
2:42)calledin1Es5:30Acud.4.ALevitewhohelpedtoexpoundtheLaw(Neh8:7)calledin1Es9:48Jacubus.
AKRABATTINE(1Mac5:3).TheregioninIdumanearAkrabbim.
AKRABBIM(lesscorrectlyAcrabbimJos15:3AV,ScorpionPass).ThenamegiventoanascentonthesouthsideoftheDeadSea,a
verybarrenregion.
ALABASTER.SeeJewelsandPreciousStones.
ALAMOTH,Ps46(title),1Ch15:20.SeePsalms.
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ALAMOTH,Ps46(title),1Ch15:20.SeePsalms.
ALBEIT.Albeitisacontractionforallbeit,andmeansalthoughitbe.ItoccursinEzk13:7,Philem19,andintheApocrypha.
ALCIMUS(theGreekforvaliant,suggestedbytheHebrewEliakim,Godsetsup)wassonornephewofJosebenJoeser,pupilto
AntigonusofSocho(b.c.190).AntiochusV.(Eupator),kingofSyria,appointedhimhighpriest(b.c.162).
Eitherbecausehewasnotofhighpriestlyfamily(thoughofthestockofAaron,1Mac7:14),or,moreprobably,fromhisHellenizing
tendencies,hisappointmentwasstoutlyopposedbyJudasMaccabus,andreceivedhutscantyrecognitionat
Jerusalem.DemetriusSoter,cousinandsuccessortoAntiochus,inresponsetoAlcimusssolicitations,reinstatedhimbythemeansofNicanor,
theSyriangeneral.Henowreceived,moreover,considerablelocalsupportfromtheHellenizingparty.Itwasnot,however,tillthedefeatand
deathofJudasatElasathathewasinapositiontocommencehisHellenizingmeasures,andshortlyafterwardshediedofparalysis(b.c.160).

A.W.Streane.
ALCOVE.RVm(Nu25:8)forRVpavilion,AVtent.SeePavilion.
ALEMA(1Mac5:26).AcityinGileadsiteunknown.
ALEMETH.1.AsonofBechertheBenjamite(1Ch7:8).2.AdescendantofSaul(1Ch8:36,9:42).
ALEPH.FirstletterofHeb.alphabet,andsousedtointroducethefirstpartofPs119.
ALEXANDER.1.SonofSimonofCyrenelikehisbrotherRufus,evidentlyawellknownman(Mk15:21only).2.Oneofthehigh
priestlyfamily(Ac4:6).3.ThewouldhespokesmanoftheJewsintheriotatEphesus,whichendangeredthemaswellastheChristians(Ac
19:33)notimprobablythesameasthecoppersmith(2Ti4:14)whodidSt.Paulmuchevil,andwhowasprobablyanEphesianJew
possiblythesameastheAlexanderof1Ti1:20(seeHymenus),inwhichcasewemayregardhimasanapostateChristianwhohadrelapsed
intoJudaism.

A.J.Maclean.
ALEXANDERTHEGREAT.AJewishtradition,reportedbyJosephusandtheTalmud,relatesthatwhilsttherenownedMacedonian
conquerorwasbesiegingTyre(b.c.333),rivalembassiesfromtheJewsandtheSamaritanssolicitedhisprotection.Atthecloseofthesiegehe
setoutforJerusalem,andwasmetoutsidebytheentirepopulation,withthehighpriestattheirhead.Recognizingthelatterasthepersonwho
hadappearedtohiminadreamandpromisedhimvictory,thekingprostratedhimself.Hethenenteredthecity,offeredsacrifice,wasshown
thepassagesinDanielrelatingtohimself,grantedthepeopleunmolesteduseoftheircustoms,promisedtobefriendtheireasternsettlements,
andwelcomedJewstohisarmy(Ant.XI.viii.).Theobjectionstothisstoryare:(1)thatalthoughtherearereferencestoAlexanderandhis
successorsinDaniel(2:40ff.,7:7,8:5,8,21,11:3f.),theywerenotwrittentillthe2ndcent.b.c.and(2)thattheaccountsgivenbyArrianand
Curtiusdonotmentiontheseevents.ItisalsomostlikelythatwhenJosephusdeclaresthatAlexandergavetotheJewsinAlexandriaequal
privilegeswiththeMacedonians(c.Ap.ii.4),heisanticipatingbysomeyearswhathappenedunderthePtolemys.

ThedeepimpressionmadebyAlexanderssuccessesisevincedbythenumerouslegendsconnectedwithhisnameinlaterJewish
literature.ButhisrealimportancetotheBiblicalstudentconsistsinthishebroughttheJewsintocontactwithGreekliteratureandlife.

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J.Taylor.
ALEXANDERBALAS.AlowbornyouthcalledBalas,livinginSmyrna,wasputforwardbytheenemiesofDemetriusI.assonof
AntiochusIV.,kingofSyria.IntheirstruggleforthethronetherivalssoughttooutbideachotherforthesupportofJonathanMaccabus,who
electedtosidewithAlexander,andwasappointedhighpriestbyhim(b.c.153).JonathandefeatedApollonius,oneofthegeneralsof
Demetrius,andreceivedstillfurtherhonours(1Mac10).But
AlexanderBalascaredmoreforsensualpleasuresthanforkinglyduties:hisfatherinlawPtolemyturnedagainsthim,andAlexander,fleeing
toArabia,wasassassinatedthere(1Mac11:17).

J.Taylor.
ALEXANDRIAwasfounded(b.c.332)byAlexandertheGreatafterhisconquestofEgypt.Recognizingtheinconveniencecausedbythe
wantofaharbourfor600milesalongtheshore,heselectedasthesiteofanewportthevillageofRhacotis,lyingonastripoflandbetween
LakeMareotisandthesea.ThisheunitedtothelittleislandofPharosbyahugemoleaboutamilelong,andthusheformedtwosplendid
havens,whichspeedilybecamethecommercialmeetingplaceofAfrica,Asia,andEurope.Thecitywaslaidoutinshapeliketheoutspread
cloakofaMacedoniansoldierincircumferenceabout15miles:anditwasdividedintoquartersbyamagnificentstreetnearly5mileslong,
and100feetwide,runningfromE.toW.,andcrossedbyanotherofsomewhatlesserdimensionsfromN.toS.Oneofthesequarters(Soma,
thebody)receivedthecorpseofAlexander,andpreserveditembalmedintheRoyalMausoleum.ThePtolemys,whosucceededtothe
EgyptianportionofAlexandersdividedempire,madeAlexandriatheircapital,andbytheirextensivebuildingoperationsrenderedthecity
famousforthemagnificenceandbeautyofitspublicedifices.BesidestheRoyalPalace,theRoyalMausoleum,theTempleofNeptune,the
GreatTheatre,theGymnasium,andthevastNecropolis,Alexandriapossessedthreeotherstructuresforwhichitwascelebrated.(1)The
Museum,whichwasnotaplacewherecollectionswerelaidoutforinstruction,butaspotwherethefinearts,science,andliteraturewere
studied.TheMuseumofAlexandriabecameincourseoftimepracticallythecentreoftheintellectuallifeoftheworld.Itansweredvery
largelytowhatweassociatewiththeideaofagreatmodernuniversity.IthaditsstaffofStatepaidprofessors,itsprofessorialdininghall,its
shadedcloisters,whereeagerstudentsfromallpartsoftheworldwalkedtoandfro,listeningtolecturesfrommenlikeEuclid,Eratosthenes,
andHipparchus.(2)TheLibrary,whichwasthegreatesttreasureofthecity,wasfoundedbythefirstPtolemy.Hissuccessorsincreasedthe
numberofvolumestillthecollectionembracedupwardsof700,000MSS,inwhichwereinscribedtheintellectualeffortsofGreece,Rome,
AsiaMinor,Palestine,andevenIndia.Thevalueofthisunrivalledcollectionwasimmense.TheLibrarywasintwoportionsand,inthesiege
ofAlexandriabyJuliusCsar,thepartstoredintheMuseumwasburnedaloss,however,whichwaslargelymadeupbythepresentationto
Cleopatra,byMarkAntony,oftheRoyalLibraryofPergamum.TheotherportionwasstoredintheSerapeum,whichin1895wasdiscovered
tohavebeensituatedwherePompeysPillarnowstands.
HistoryisundecidedastowhetherthiscelebratedLibrarywasdestroyedina.d.391byBishopTheophilusorbytheCaliphOmarina.d.641.
(3)ThethirdstructurewhichattractedtheattentionoftheworldtoAlexandriawasthePharos(Lighthouse),erectedbyPtol.II.Philadelphus,
ontheislandwhichhadbeenjoinedtothemainlandbyAlexander.Risinginstoreysofdecreasingdimensionstoaheightof450490ft.,
adornedwithwhitemarblecolumns,balustrades,and
statues,itwasjustlyreckonedoneoftheSevenWondersoftheWorld.Thoughitwasdestroyedbyanearthquakeina.d.1303,ithas
neverthelessexercisedapermanentinfluenceonmankind.Theideaofhumanitytothemarinerwhichitembodiedwasacceptedbyalmost
everycivilizednation,andthethousandsoflighthousesthroughouttheworldtodaycanallbetracedtothegraciousthoughtfulnesswhich
wasdisplayedinthecostlyerectionofthisfirstPharos.

Initstimesofgreatestprosperity,Alexandriahadapopulationofbetween800,000and1,000,000.Trade,amusement,andlearning
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Initstimesofgreatestprosperity,Alexandriahadapopulationofbetween800,000and1,000,000.Trade,amusement,andlearning
attractedtoitinhabitantsfromeveryquarter.ItwasanamalgamofEastandWest.ThealertnessandversatilityoftheGreekwerehereunited
withthegravity,conservativeness,anddreaminessoftheOriental.Alexandriabecame,nexttoRome,thelargestandmostsplendidcityinthe
world.Amongstitspolyglotcommunity,theJewsformednoinconsiderableportion.JewishcolonistshadsettledinEgyptinlargenumbers
afterthedestructionofJerusalem(Jer42:14),andduringthePersianperiodtheirnumbersgreatlyincreased.ThePtolemys,withone
exception,favouredthem,andassignedaspecialquarterofthecitytothem.MorethananeighthofthepopulationofEgyptwasJewish.Their
businessinstinctsbroughttothemthebulkofthetradeofthecountry.Theypracticallycontrolledthevastexportofwheat.Somehadgreat
shipswithwhichtheytradedoveralltheMediterranean.St.PaultwicesailedinashipofAlexandria(Ac27:6,28:11).TheJewswereunder
theirowngovernororAlabarch,andobservedtheirowndomesticandreligiouscustoms.Theirgreatcentralsynagoguewasanimmenseand
mostimposingstructure,whereallthetradeguildssattogether,andthe70elderswereaccommodatedin70splendidlybejewelledchairsof
state.

ItwasinAlexandriathatoneofthemostimportanteventsinthehistoryofreligiontookplace,whentheHebrewScripturesweretranslated
intotheGreektongue.ThelegendarytalesnarratedbyJosephusregardingtheaccomplishmentofthistaskmaybedismissedasbaseless.But
itisundisputedthatduringthereignsoftheearlierLagid(somewherebetweenb.c.250and132)theSeptuagintmadeitsappearance.Itis
certainlynottheproductofasyndicateoftranslatorsworkingharmoniously,asJewishtraditionasserted.Theworkisofveryunequalmerit,
thePentateuchbeingthebestdone,whilesomeofthelaterbooksarewretchedlytranslated.ThetranslationwasregardedbytheJewswith
mingledfeelings,execratedbyonesectionasthegrossestdesecrationoftheholyoracles,extolledbyanothersectionasthemeansbywhich
thebeautiesoftheLawandtheProphetscouldbeappreciatedforthefirsttimebytheGreekspeakingGentileworld.TheLXXbecame,under
Godsprovidence,amostvaluablepreparationforthetruthsofChristianity.ItfamiliarizedtheheathennationswiththeGodofrighteousness
asHehadbeenrevealedtotheJewishrace.Itpavedthewayforthegospel.ItformedtheBibleoftheearlyChurch.IntheEasternChurchto
dayitistheonlyorthodoxtextoftheOT.
ThewarsofthePtolemyswiththeSeleucidatAntiocharedescribedinDn11.PtolemyII.PhiladelphuslefthismarkonPalestineinthe
citiesofPhiladelphia(=Rabbathammon,Dt3:11),Ptolemais(Ac21:7=Acco,Jg1:31),Philoteria,etc.UnderPtolemyIII.EuergetesI.(b.c.
247222)thefamoussteleofCanopuswasinscribed.WithPtolemyIV.Philopatorthedynastybegantodecline,andhisoppressionsofthe
Jews(largelymythical)arenarratedin3Maccabees.UnderPtolemyV.EpiphanestheAlexandriansupremacyoverPalestinewasexchanged
forthatofAntiochusIII.theGreat(Dn11:1417).InhisreignthecelebratedRosettastonewaserected.ThetensucceedingPtolemyswere
distinguishedforalmostnothingbuttheireffeminacy,folly,luxury,andcruelty.Thecityincreasedinwealth,butsankmoreandmorein
politicalpower.JuliusCsarstormedAlexandriainb.c.47,andafterabriefspelloffalsesplendourunderCleopatra,itfellafterthebattleof
ActiumintothehandsoftheRomans,anditsfortuneswerehenceforthmergedwiththoseoftheEmpire.

Butwhileitspoliticalpowerwasthuspassingaway,itwasdevelopinganintellectualgreatnessdestinedtoexerciseaprofoundinfluence
throughsucceedingcenturies.AmongitsJewishpopulationtherehadarisenanewschoolwhichsoughttoamalgamateHebrewtraditionand
Greekphilosophy,andtomaketheOTyieldupPlatonicandStoicdoctrines.ThisattemptedfusionofHebraismandHellenismwasbegunby
Aristobulus,andreacheditsclimaxinPhilo,acontemporaryofJesusChrist.TheJewsfoundintheGentilewritingsmanybeautifuland
excellentthoughts.TheycouldlogicallydefendtheirownproudclaimtobethesoledepositariesandcustodiansofDivinetruthonlyby
assertingthateveryrichandluminousGreekexpressionwasborrowedfromtheirScriptures.PlatoandPythagoras,theydeclared,weredeeply
indebttoMoses.TheGreeksweremerelyreproducersofHebrewethics,andHebrewreligiousandmoralconceptions.Thenextstepwasto
rewritetheirownScripturesintermsofGreekphilosophy,andthemostsimplewayofdoingthiswasbyanelaboratesystemofallegory.
PhilocarriedtheallegorizingoftheOTtosuchanextentthathewasabletodeduceallthespuriousphilosophyherequiredfromthemost
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PhilocarriedtheallegorizingoftheOTtosuchanextentthathewasabletodeduceallthespuriousphilosophyherequiredfromthemost
matteroffactnarrativesofthepatriarchsandtheirwives.Butitwasafalseissue.Itwasbasedonalogicalfigment,andPhilosvoluminous
works,giftedandlearnedthoughhewas,merelyrevealthattherewasnohopeeitherforGreekphilosophyorforHebrewreligious
developmentalongtheselines.Theresultsoftheallegoricalmethodofinterpretation,however,wereseeninChristianChurchhistory.We
readofasynagogueoftheAlexandriansinJerusalem,furiouslyhostiletoSt.Stephenwithhisplaindeclarationoffacts(Ac6:9).Apollosof
Alexandria(Ac18:2428)neededtobemoreaccuratelyinstructedinChristiandoctrine,thoughwehavenodirectevidencethathewasa
discipleofPhilo.TheEp.totheHebrewsshowstracesofAlexandrianinfluence,andthereareevidencesthatSt.Paulwasnotunfamiliarwith
Alexandrianhermeneuticsandterminology(cf.Gal4:2431).ButthereisnoproofthatSt.PaulevervisitedAlexandria.Heseemstohave
refrainedfromgoingthitherbecausethegospelhadalreadyreachedthecity(cf.Ro15:20).EusebiuscreditsSt.Markwiththeintroductionof
ChristianityintoEgypt.Inthe2ndand3rdcents.AlexandriawastheintellectualcapitalofChristendom.The
AlexandrianschooloftheologywasmadelustrousbythenamesofPantnus,Clement,andespeciallyOrigen,who,whilecontinuingthe
allegoricaltradition,strovetoshowthatChristiandoctrineenshrinedandrealizedthedreamsandyearningsofGreekphilosophy.Theevil
tendenciesofthemethodfoundexpressionintheteachingsoftheAlexandrianheretics,BasilidesandValentinian.Alexandriabecamemore
andmorethestrongholdoftheChristianfaith.HereAthanasiusdefendedcontramundumthetrueDivinityofChristintheNicene
controversy,andthecitysinfluenceonChristiantheologyhasbeenprofound.Ina.d.641,AlexandriafellbeforeAmrouinthe7thcent.it
begantodecline.ThecreationofCairowasanotherblow,andthediscoveryin1497ofthenewroutetotheEastviatheCapeofGoodHope
almostdestroyeditstrade.Atthebeginningofthe19thcent.Alexandriawasamerevillage.Todayitisagainalargeandflourishingcity,
witharapidlyincreasingpopulationofover200,000,anditsportisoneofthebusiestontheMediterraneanshore.

G.A.FrankKnight.
ALGUM.SeeAlmug.
ALIAH.AdukeofEdom(1Ch1:51)calledinGn36:40Alvah.
ALIAN.AdescendantofEsau(1Ch1:40)calledinGn36:23Alvan.
ALIEN.SeeNations,Stranger.
ALLAMMELECH.AtownofAsher,probablynearAcco(Jos19:26).Siteunidentified.
ALLAR(1Es5:36).OneoftheleadersofthoseJewswhocouldnotshowtheirpedigreeasIsraelitesatthereturnfromcaptivityunder
Zerubbabel.ThenameseemstocorrespondtoImmerinEzr2:59,Neh7:61,oneoftheplacesfromwhichtheseJewsreturned.In1Es
Cherub,Addan,andImmerappearasCharaathalanleadingthemandAllar.ALLEGORY.SeeParable.
ALLELUIA.SeeHallelujah.
ALLEMETH,AVAlemeth,lCh6:60Almon,Jos21:18.ALeviticalcityofBenjamin.ItisthepresentAlmtonthehillsN.of
Anathoth.
ALLIANCE.InthepatriarchalagealliancesbetweentheChosenPeopleandforeignnationswerefrequent.Manyoftheagreements
betweenindividualsrecordedinGenesisimplied,orreallywere,treatiesbetweenthetribesorclansrepresented(Gn21:22ff.,31:44ff.).
DuringtheperiodoftheJudgesconfederationsbetweenthemoreorlessisolatedunitsofwhichthenationwascomposedwereoftenmade
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DuringtheperiodoftheJudgesconfederationsbetweenthemoreorlessisolatedunitsofwhichthenationwascomposedwereoftenmade
underthepressureofacommondanger(Jg4:10,6:35).WhenIsraelbecameconsolidatedunderthemonarchy,allianceswithforeignerswere
ofamoreformalcharacter,e.g.SolomonstreatywithHiram(1K5,9).HismarriagewithPharaohsdaughterprobablyhadapolitical
significance(3:1,9:16).ThepolicyofalliancebetweenIsraelandPhniciawascontinuedbyOmriandAhab(16:31)Am1:9speaksofitas
acovenantofbrethrenitrested,nodoubt,onreciprocalcommercialinterests(cf.Ac12:20).AsaandBaashacontendedforalliancewith
Benhadad(1K15:19),andJudahandIsraelthemselvesarealliedduringthereignsofJehoshaphatandAhab.Suchafriendshipisdenounced
in2Ch25,PekahandRezinareunitedagainstJudah(2K16:5,Is7).WiththeappearanceofAssyria,relationswithforeignnationsbecome
importantandcomplicated.ThetemptationistostaveoffthedangerfromtheeastbyalliancewithDamascusorEgypt.Sennacheribassumes
thatthiswillbethepolicyofHezekiah(2K18:21,
24).Theprophetsfromthefirstsettheirfacesagainstit(Dt17:16,Hos8:9,Is20,30,Jer2:18,36).ItisthehiringofloversinplaceofJ,
leadingtosinandidolatry(2K16),andispoliticallyunsound,restingonabrokenreed.Thepartiesbeingsounequal,theallyeasily
becomesthetributary(16:7).AftertheReturn,EzraandNehemiahopposeanyalliancewiththepeopleoftheland.Inlatertimes,forashort
periodonly,didthenationgainsufficientindependencetomakeanallianceinthiscaseitwaswithRome(1Mac8:17,15:16).

C.W.Emmet.
ALLON.1.TheheadofafamilyofSolomonsservants(1Es5:34).HemaybethesameasAmi(Ezr2:57),orAmon(Neh7:59).2.A
Simeoniteprince(1Ch4:37).
ALLONBACUTH(oakofweeping).TheplacewhereDeborah,Rebekahsnurse,wasburieditwasnearBethel(Gn35:8).
ALLTOBREAK.Thisphrase(Jg9:53)meansaltogetherbroke.Theallisusedforaltogether,asin1K14:10tillitbeallgoneand
thetoisnotthesignoftheinfin.,butanadverblikeGerm.zer,meaningthoroughly.Thus,Hisbresttobrokenwithhissadilbowe
Chaucer,KnightsTale,2759.Thecorrectspelling(asintheoriginaled.ofAV)isalltobrake.
ALLOW.ToallowgenerallymeansinAVtoapprove,asRo7:15thatwhichIdoIallownot.ButinAc24:16ithasthemod.sense,
admit.
ALLOY.RVm(Is1:25)forEVtin.SeeMiningandMetals.
ALMIGHTYistheregularrenderingofShaddai,whichoccursaltogether45timesintheOT6timesqualifyingEl(God)and39times
[31oftheseinJob]standingbyitself.IntheHexateuchitsuseisalmostconfinedtoP,accordingtowhichsourceitisthenamebywhichGod
revealedHimselftothepatriarchs(Ex6:3,cf.Gn17:1,35:11).Themeaningandderivationarealikeobscure.TheLXXusuallyrenderby
Pantokratr(Almighty)6timesbyafancifulderivationtheyparaphrasebyHethatissufficient.ButinGn.ElShaddaiisalways
representedintheLXXbyapronoun,my(orthy)GodinEzk10:6itismerelytransliterated.Othersuggestedrenderingsarethe
Destroyer,i.e.theStormGod,thePourer,i.e.theRainGod,theMountain(cf.RockasatitleofGodinDt32:4,18,30,31),or
Lord.Thelasttwohavethemostprobabilityontheirside,anditishardtochoosebetweenthembutthefactthatinBabyloniantheGreat
Mountain(shadurabu)isacommontitleofBelseemstoturnthescaleinfavouroftheformerofthetwomeaningsproposed:someslight
confirmationisperhapsaffordedby1K20:23.Incompositionthewordoccursintwopersonalnames:Zurishaddai(Nu1:6)and
Ammishaddai(Nu1:12)perhapsalsoinShedeur(Nu1:5).Thefirst(ShaddaiismyRock)isspeciallyinterestingifthemeaninggiven
aboveiscorrect.
IntheNT,withtheexceptionof2Co6:18(aquotationfrom2S7:14),thenameisconfinedtotheApocalypse.ThatitrendersShaddai
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IntheNT,withtheexceptionof2Co6:18(aquotationfrom2S7:14),thenameisconfinedtotheApocalypse.ThatitrendersShaddai
ratherthanSabaothseemsproved(inspiteof4:8fromIs6:3)bythefactthatitalwayseitherstandsaloneorqualifiesGod,neverLord.
ThewriterisfondofpilingupthetitlesorattributesofGod,andamongthemhisfavouriteisthatancienttitlewhichcarrieshimbacktothe
patriarchalage,thetitleElShaddai.

H.C.O.Lanchester.
ALMODADwas,accordingtoGn10:26(1Ch1:20),theoldestsonofJoktan(wh.see).Joktanistheeponymofthetribesandpeoplesof
easternandsouthernArabia.FromthepositionofAlmodadinthelistofsons,itwouldappearthatheistobelocatedinthesouthofthe
peninsula.Asyetthenamecanneitherbeexplainednoridentifiedwithanyknownregion.

J.F.McCurdy.
ALMON.SeeAllemeth.
ALMONDIBLATHAIM.Astationinthejourneyings(Nu33:46,47),prob.identicalwithBethdiblathaim(Jer48:22).Themeaning
ofDiblathaimisadoublecakeoffigsitsapplicationtoatownmayindicatetheappearanceoftheplaceorneighbourhood.
ALMOND(shqd).ThefruitinGn43:11,Ex25:33,34,37:1920,Nu17:8thetreeinEc12:5,Jer1:11.Luz(Gn30:37),
mistranslatedhazel,iscertainlythealmonditisthenameofthealmondinmodernArabic.Thealmond(Amygdaluscommunis)isin
Palestinetheearliestharbingerofspring,burstingintobeautifulwhiteblossomlateinJanuaryinJerusalem,beforeitsleavesappear.Henceits
nameandsymbolism:shqdmeanstowakenorwatch,andinJer1:11,12thereisaplayonthewordalmond(shqd),andIwillhasten
(shqd).Probablythewhitenessoftheblossomfromalittledistancethedelicatepinkatthebasesofthepetalsbeingvisibleonlyoncloser
inspectionsuggesteditscomparisontothewhitehairofage(Ec12:5).Thefruitisagreatfavourite.Itiseatengreenbeforetheshell
hardens,especiallybychildren,andtheripekernelsareeatenbythemselvesorwithnutsandpuddings,andarealsomadeintosweetmeats
withsugar,bothasalmondicingandburntalmonds.ApresentofPalestinealmondswouldbesuretobeappreciatedinEgypt(Gn43:11),
astheydidnotgrowinthelattercountry.

E.W.G.Masterman.
ALMS,ALMSGIVING.Analms(Ac3:3)issomethingfreelygiven,inmoneyorinkind,totheneedy,frommotivesofloveandpity
fortherecipient,andofgratitudetotheGiverofall.Hencewhatisgivenorpaidtothepoorundertheauthorityandcompulsionoflaw,asthe
modernpoorrate,isnotalms.ForsuchlegalprovisioninOTtimesseePoor.Muchmightbeofthehumanespiritwhichpervadesthewholeof
theHebrewlegislation,andinparticularthelegislationofDt,ofwhich,inthisrespect,15:1maybetakenastheepitome:Thoushaltsurely
openthinehanduntothybrother,tothyneedyandtothypoor(RV).Thewritingsoftheprophets,also,arefullofgenerousadvocacyofthe
rightsofthepoor.InthelaterpreChristiancenturiesalmsgivingbecameoneofthemostprominentofreligiousduties(Ps112:9,Pr14:21,
19:17,31:20,Job29:12f.).Thesentimentofthe2ndcent.b.c.bywhichtimeitissignificantthattheHebrewwordforrighteousnesshad
acquiredthespecialsenseofalmsgivingasinthetruetextofMt6:1(seeRV)isfullyreflectedintheBooksofSirach(7:10,17:22,29:11ff.
)andTobit(seeesp.4:711).Fromthistimeonwards,indeed,almsgivingwasconsideredtopossessanatoningorredemptiveefficacy(Sir
3:30alms[RValmsgiving]makethanatonementforsins,To4:10,12:9almsdeliverethfromdeath,cf.Dn4:27).Afterthecessationof
sacrifice,almsgivingappearstohaverankedamongtheJewsasthefirstofreligiousduties,moremeritoriouseventhanprayerandfasting.
ArrangementsweremadebytheJewishauthoritiesforthesystematiccollectionanddistributionofthealmsofthepeople.Anoffertoryforthe
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ArrangementsweremadebytheJewishauthoritiesforthesystematiccollectionanddistributionofthealmsofthepeople.Anoffertoryforthe
pooralsoformedarecognizedpartofthesynagogueservice.

AlmsgivingoccupiesaprominentplaceintheteachingofourLord,whorebukestheostentatiouscharityofHisday(Mt6:14),
emphasizestheblessednessofgiving(Ac20:35),itsopportunities(Mt25:35ff.),anditshighestmotive,inmyname(Mk9:41).Intheearly
ChristiancommunityofJerusalemtheneedsofthepoorwereeffectivelysupplied,foritsmembershadallthingscommon,neitherwasthere
amongthemanythatlacked(Ac4:32,34).TheneedforcarefuldistributionoftheChurchsalmsledtotheinstitutionofthediaconate(Ac
6:1ff.).TheprovisionofapoorsfundforthebehoofofthemotherChurchwasmuchinthethoughtsoftheApostleoftheGentiles(1Co
16:1ff.,2Co9:1ff.),anduntilaperiodwithinlivingmemorythecareofGodspoorcontinuedtobethealmostexclusiveprivilegeofthe
ChristianChurch.
A.R.S.Kennedy.
ALMUG,orALGUM(1K10:11,12,2Ch2:8,9:10,11thetwonamesareprobablyvariantsofthesameword,causedbytransposition
ofletters,asiscommoninHeb.andArabic).ThistreewasimportedbySolomonfromOphir(1K10:11,12)andfromLebanon(2Ch2:8)
forstaircases,balustrades,andmusicalinstruments.Thereisnothingcertainknownofthenatureofthiswood,butasJewishtraditionstates
thatitwasaredwood,redsandalwood(Pterocarpussantalinus)nowusedchieflyforitscolouringpropertieshasbeenverygenerally
accepted.

E.W.G.Masterman.
ALOES(ahlim,Pr7:17,Nu24:6[lignaloes]ahloth,Ps45:8,Ca4:14alsoal,Jn19:39).Thisisthemoderneaglewood(a
namederivedfromtheSkr.aguru)ithasnothingtodowiththefamiliarbitteraloesofmedicine,orwiththeAmericanaloe,nowmuch
cultivatedingardensinPalestine,butarecentimportation.ThiseaglewoodisobtainedfromplantsoftheorderAquilariace,butthefragrant
partsarethosewhicharediseasedtheodoriferousqualitiesareduetotheinfiltrationwithresin,andthebestkindssinkwhenplacedinwater.
Thedevelopmentofthischangeinthewoodishastenedbyburyingitintheground.Atradeinthiswoodhasgoneonfromearlytimesit
comesfromIndia,theMalayPeninsula,etc.,andhaslongbeenafavouritewiththeArabs,whocallitelud.

Theuseoftheword(translatedlignaloes,Nu24:6)byBalaamcreatesadifficulty.Eitherhemusthavereferredtothetreefrommere
hearsay,orsomeotherplantofthesamenamemayatthattimehavegrownintheJordanvalley,or,asseemsmostprobable,theHeb.word
hasbeenwronglytranscribed.Bothpalmsandterebinthshavebeensuggestedassuitablealternatives.

E.W.G.Masterman.
ALPHAANDOMEGA.AtitleofGodinRev1:8,21:6,ofJesusin22:13[itspresencein1:11AVisnotJustifiedbytheMSS].Alpha
wasthefirst,andOmegathelastletteroftheGreek,asAlephandTawwerethefirstandthelastoftheHebrewalphabet.IntheTalmud,
FromAlephtoTawmeantFromfirsttolast,includingallbetween.Cf.Shabb.51.1(onEzk9:6):DonotreadMySanctuary,butMy
saints,whoarethesonsofmenwhohavekeptthewhole
LawfromAlephtoTaw.

Thisexplainsthetitle.IneachinstanceSt.JohndefinesIt.Rev1:8IamtheAlphaandtheOmega,saiththeLordGod,whichis,and
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Thisexplainsthetitle.IneachinstanceSt.JohndefinesIt.Rev1:8IamtheAlphaandtheOmega,saiththeLordGod,whichis,and
whichwas,andwhichistocome,theAlmighty(AVthebeginningandtheendingisaninterpolationfrom21:6,22:13),i.e.theEternal,the
Contemporaryofeverygeneration.Rev21:6IamtheAlphaandtheOmega,thebeginningandtheend22:13IamtheAlphaandthe
Omega,thefirstandthelast(cf.Is44:6,48:12),thebeginningandtheend,i.e.Hewhocomprehendsandembracesallthings,fromwhomall
comeandtowhomallreturn,thefonsetclausula,thestartingpointandthegoalofhistory(cf.Col1:17).TheascriptionofthistitletoJesus
aswellastoGodinawritingsoearlyastheApocalypsestrikinglyatteststheviewofourLordsPersonwhichprevailedintheprimitive
Church.

AureliusPrudentiusmakesfineuseofthetitleinhishymnonTheLordsNativity(Cordenatusexparentis),thusrenderedbyNeale:
OftheFatherslovebegotten

Eretheworldsbegantobe,

HeisAlphaandOmega,

Hethesource,theendingHe,

Ofthethingsthatare,thathavebeen,

Andthatfutureyearsshallsee,

Evermoreandevermore.

DavidSmith.
ALPHABET.SeeWriting.
ALPHUS.1.ThefatherofJamestheApostle(Mt10:3=Mk3:18=Lk6:15=Ac1:13),commonlyidentifiedwithJamestheLittle,
sonofMaryandbrotherofJosesorJoseph(Mk15:40=Mt27:56).TheidentificationisconfirmedbyJn19:25,ifitbeallowedthatClopasis
thesamenameasAlphus.Andthisismostlikely.BothnamesprobablyrepresenttheAramaicChalphai(cf.1Mac11:70).St.Johns
Clopasisalmostatransliteration,whileAlphusisthenameinaGreekdress,thedisguisebeingmoreapparentifitbewritten,withWH,
Halphus.
2.ThefatherofLevithetaxgatherer(Mk2:14),afterwardsMatthewthe
ApostleandEvangelist(Mt9:9,10:3).ItisremarkablethatinMk2:14Codex
BezandsomecursivesreadJamesforLevi,andthereisatradition(Chrysost.inMatth.xxxiii.)thattheApostlesMatthewandJameshad
bothbeentaxgatherers.ItisperhapspossiblethatAlphusthefatherofJameswasidenticalwithAlphusthefatherofLevi,andthatthetwo
taxgathererApostleswerebrothers.NothingisrecordedofAlphusyet,iftheseidentificationsbeallowed,greatwashisglory.Hewas
evidentlyhimselfabelieverhissonJoses,thoughundistinguished,wasevidentlyabelieveralsohissonJameswasanApostlehisson
MatthewwasanApostleandanEvangelistandhiswifeMarywasoneofthefaithfulwomenwhostoodbytheCrossandvisitedthe
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MatthewwasanApostleandanEvangelistandhiswifeMarywasoneofthefaithfulwomenwhostoodbytheCrossandvisitedthe
Sepulchre(Mk16:1).

DavidSmith.
ALTAR.1.Theoriginalpurposeofanaltarwastoserveasameansbywhichthebloodofananimalofferedinsacrificemightbe
broughtintocontactwith,orotherwisetransferredto,thedeityoftheworshipper.Forthispurposeintheearliestperiodasinglestonesufficed.
Eitherthebloodwaspouredoverthisstone,whichwasregardedasthetemporaryabodeofthedeity,orthestonewasanointedwithpart,and
therestpouredoutatitsbase.Theintroductionoffiretoconsumethefleshinwholeorinpartbelongstoalaterstageinthehistoryof
sacrifice(wh.see).Butevenwhenthisstagehadlongbeenreached,necessitymightcompelatemporaryreversiontotheearliermodus
operandi,aswelearnfromSaulsprocedurein1S14:33f.Fromthealtarofasinglegreatstone(1S6:14)thetransitionwaseasytoanaltar
builtofunhewnstones(Ex20:25,Dt27:5f.RV),whichcontinuedtohethenormaltypeofHebrewaltartotheend(see1Mac4:41Jos.BJ
V.v.6).

2.Anothertypeofprehistoricaltar,towhichmuchlessattentionhasbeenpaid,haditsoriginintheprimitiveconceptionofsacrificeas
thefoodofthegods.Assuchitwasappropriatelypresentedonatable.Nowthenearestanalogytothediscofleatherspreadontheground,
whichwasandisthetableoftheSemiticnomad,wasthesmoothfaceofthenativerock,suchasthatonwhichManoahspreadhisoffering(Jg
13:19f.,cf.6:20f.).Thewellknownrocksurfaces,inPalestineandelsewhere,withtheirmysteriouscupmarkstypicalspecimensare
illustratedPEFSt,1900,32ff.,249toreceivethesacrificialblood,canscarcelybeotherthanprehistorictablealtars.Thesimilarlymarked
tablestonesofSyriandolmensalsobelonghere.Afurtherstageintheevolutionofthetablealtarisseenintheelaboratestructuresrecently
discoveredwithintheWestSemiticarea.Inthesetherockiscutawaysoastoleavethealtarstandingfree,towhichrockcutstepsleadup,an
arrangementforbidden,frommotivesofdecency,bytheearliestlegislation(Ex20:26,withwhichcf.28:42f.andparall.fromalaterdate).
Theuppermoststepservedasaplatformfortheofficiatingpriest.Someshowcuphollowsforlibationsofblood(seeillust.inMoores
JudgesinSBOTp.83),whilethatfirstdiscoveredatPetrahasadepressionforthealtarhearth(PEFSt,1900,350ff.withsketchseealso
Ariel).Itsdimensionsare9ft.by6,withaheightabovetheplatformof3ft.ThealtarsofthemoreimportantsanctuariesundertheHebrew
monarchy,suchasBethel,wereprobablyofasimilarnature.AdescriptionofthealtarofburntofferingoftheTabernaclewillbegiven
underTabernacleforthecorrespondingaltarsoftheTempleofSolomonanditssuccessors,andofEzekielssketch,seeTemple.

3.Athirdvarietyofprimitivealtaristhemoundofearth(Ex20:24),acopyinminiatureofthehilltopswhichwereatalltimesfavourite
placesofworship(seeHighPlace).

4.Allthetypesofaltarabovedescribedwereintendedfortheordinaryopenairsacrificialservice,detailsofwhichwillbefoundunder
Sacrifice.ThereisnoclearreferenceearlierthanJeremiahtotheuseofincense,andnoreferenceatalltoanyaltarofincenseinthelegitimate
worshipbeforetheExile,for1K7:48initspresentformisadmittedlylate,andthealtarof1K6:20mustbethetableofshewbread(see
Temple,Shewbread).

5.Fromwhathasalreadybeensaid,itisevidentthatanaltarwastheindispensablerequisiteofeveryplaceofworship.Itwasnotuntilthe
7thcent.b.c.thatJosiahsucceededinabolishingthehighplacesanddestroyingordesecratingtheiraltars(2K23:5ff.),inaccordancewith
thefundamentaldemandoftheDeuteronomiclawcode(Dt12:1ff.).Intheolderhistoricalandpropheticalwritings,however,andeveninthe

earliestlegislation(seeEx20:24RV),thelegitimacyofthelocalaltarsisnevercalledinquestion.Onthecontrary,religiousleaderssuchas 50/172
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earliestlegislation(seeEx20:24RV),thelegitimacyofthelocalaltarsisnevercalledinquestion.Onthecontrary,religiousleaderssuchas
SamuelandElijahshowtheirzealfortheworshipofJbytheerectionandrepairofaltars.

6.AsaltarstowhichaspecialinterestattachesmaybementionedthaterectedbyDavidonthethreshingfloorofAraunah(2S24:18ff.),
thesiteofwhichismarkedbythepresentmosqueoftheDomeoftheRockthealtarerectedbyAhazafterthemodelofoneseenbyhimat
Damascus(2K16:10ff.)thesacrificialandincensealtarstothehostofheaveninthecourtsandprobablyevenontheroofoftheTemple(2K
23:12,Jer19:13)andfinally,thealtartoOlympianZeusplacedbyAntiochusEpiphanesonthetopofthealtarofburntoffering(1Mac
1:54).

7.Referencemustalsobemadetoaltarsasplacesofrefugeforcertainclassesofcriminals,attestedbothbylegislation(Ex21:13f.)and
history(1K1:51,2:28seemorefully,Refuge[Citiesof]).Theoriginandprecisesignificanceofthehornsofthealtar,ofwhichtherefugee
laidhold(1Kll.cc.),andwhichplayedanimportantpartintheritual(Ex29:12,Lv4:7ff.),havenotyetreceivedasatisfactoryexplanation.
Asmalllimestonealtar,showingthehornsintheformofroundedknobsatthefourcorners,hasjustbeendiscoveredatGezer(PEFSt,1907,
p.196,withillust.).

A.R.S.Kennedy.
ALTASHHETH.Pss57,58,59,65,(titles).SeePsalms.
ALUSH.Astationinthejourneyings(Nu33:13,14).
ALVAN.SonofShobal,aHorite(Gn36:23)calledin1Ch1:40Alian,inGn36:40Alvah,1Ch1:51Aliah,oneofthedukesof
Edom.
AMAD(Jos19:26only).AcityofAsher.ThesiteisdouhtfulthereareseveralruinscalledAmudinthisregion.
AMADATHUS(Est12:6,16:10,17).SeeHammedatha.
AMAL.AdescendantofAsher(1Ch7:35).
AMALEK,AMALEKITES.Atribewhichroamed,fromthedaysofthe
ExodustillthetimeofkingSaul,overtheregionfromthesouthernboundaryofJudahtotheEgyptianfrontierandthepeninsulaofSinai.
TheyarenotcountedamongthekindredoftheIsraelites,andprobablywereamongtheinhabitantsoftheregionwhomtheHebrewand
Aramanimmigrantsfoundalreadyintheland.WiththisagreesthestatementofapoemquotedinNu24:20Amalekwasthefirstofthe
nations.

IsraelfirstmetwiththeAmalekitesintheregionnearSinai,whenAmaleknaturallytriedtopreventtheentranceofanewtribeintothe
region(cf.Ex17:816).Thebattlewhichensuedproducedsuchaprofoundimpression,thatoneofthefewthingswhichthePentateuch
claimsthatMoseswroteisthebanofJahwehuponAmalek(Ex17:14).ItappearsfromDt25:1719thatAmalekmadeotherattacksupon
Israel,harassingherrear.OnthesouthernborderofPalestinetheAmalekitesalsohelpedatalatertimetopreventIsraelsentrancefrom
Kadesh(Nu13:29,14:25).

DuringtheperiodoftheJudges,AmalekitesaidedtheMoabitesinraiding
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DuringtheperiodoftheJudges,AmalekitesaidedtheMoabitesinraiding
Israel(Jg3:13),andatalatertimetheyhelpedtheMidianitestodothesamething(6:3,33,7:12).Thiskeptalivetheoldenmity.KingSaul
attemptedtoshattertheirforce,andcapturedtheirking,whomSamuelafterwardsslew(1S15).AlthoughSaulissaidtohavetakenmuch
spoil,theAmalekiteswerestillthereforDavidtoraidduringthatpartofSaulsreignwhenDavidwasanoutlaw(1S27:8).Theboundariesof
thehabitatoftheAmalekitesatthistimearesaidtohavebeenfromTelem,oneofthesoutherncitiesofJudah(Jos15:24),toShurontheway
toEgypt(1S15:4).MostmoderncriticsalsoreadTelemforHavilahin1S15:7,andforofoldin1S27:8.

Itwasformerlysupposed,onthebasisofJg5:14and12:15,thattherewasatonetimeasettlementofAmalekitesfarthernorth,inthehill
countryofEphraim.Thatis,however,improbable,forinbothpassagesthetextseemstobecorrupt.In5:14Amalekiscorruptedfromthe
Hebrewforvalley,andin12:15fromthepropernameShalim.IndividualAmalekites,nevertheless,sojournedinIsrael(2S1:8,13).
In1Ch4:42ff.thereisaremarkablestatementthataremnantoftheAmalekiteshadescapedanddweltinEdom,andthat500Simeonites
attackedandsmotethem.PerhapsthisaccountsforthepriestlygenealogieswhichmakeAmalekadescendantofEsauandasubordinate
Edomite.tribe(cf.Gn36:12,16and1Ch1:36).PerhapsherewelearnhowthepowerfulAmalekoftheearliertimefadedaway.Ps83:7a
latecompositionreferstotheAmalekitesasstillaidingIsraelsenemiesbutthisisprobablyapoeticalimitationofancientconditions.

Ontheirclosekindred,theKenites,seeKenites.
GeorgeA.Barton.
AMAM(Jos15:26only).AnunknowncityofJudah,inthedesertsouthofBeersheba.
AMAN.1.ThepersecutorofAchiacharus(To14:10).2.Est12:6,16:10,17.SeeHaman.
AMANA(Ca4:8).ProbablythemountainsneartheriverAbanaorAmana,beingconnectedwithHermonandLebanonorelseMount
Amanusinthenorthof
Syria.
AMARIAH(Jsaidorpromised).1.Zeph1:1,greatgrandfatheroftheprophetZephaniah,andsonofaHezekiahwhomaybethe
king.Thisistheonlyinstanceofthenamethatiscertainlypreexilic.2.1Ch6:7,52,grandfatherofZadokthepriest.3.1Ch23:19,24:23,a
LeviteinDavidstime.4.1Ch6:11,Ezr7:3(Amarias,1Es8:2,2Es1:2),sonofAzariah,whoissaidtohaveministeredinSolomons
temple.Thelistsinwhich2and4occurareveryuncertain,andthenamemayrefertothesamepersoninboth.5.2Ch19:11,ahighpriestin
thereignofJehoshaphat.6.2Ch31:16,aLevite,agateporter,inHezekiahstime.7.Neh12:2,18,10:3,apriestlyclanwhichreturnedto
Jerusalem,andsealedthecovenantunderNehemiah(probablythesameasImmer,1Ch24:14,Ezr2:37,10:20,Neh7:40[Meruth,1Es
5:24]).8.Ezr10:42,aJudahite,oneofthesonsofBani(v.34,cf.1Ch9:4)whohadtakenstrangewives.9.Neh11:4,aJudahitewhooffered
todwellinJerusalem.10.Neh12:12,whereMeraiahisprobablyacorruptionofAmariah(whichisfoundinSyr.andLuc.).

A.H.MNeile.
AMARIAS(1Es8:2).AnancestorofEzra,calledAmariahinEzr7:3.

AMASA.1.ThesonofIthraanIshmaelite,andofAbigailthesisterofkingDavid.HecommandedthearmyoftherebelAbsalom(2S52/172
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AMASA.1.ThesonofIthraanIshmaelite,andofAbigailthesisterofkingDavid.HecommandedthearmyoftherebelAbsalom(2S
17:25)butwascompletelyroutedbyJoabintheforestofEphraim(18:68).Davidnotonlypardonedhim,butgavehimthecommandofthe
armyinplaceofJoab(19:13).HewastreacherouslyslainbyJoabatthegreatstoneofGibeon(2S20:912).2.AnEphraimitewhoopposed
thebringingintoSamariaoftheJewishprisoners,whomPekah,kingofIsrael,hadtakeninhiscampaignagainstAhaz(2Ch28:12).
AMASAI.1.AKohathite(1Ch6:25,35)theeponymofafamily(2Ch29:12).2.Oneofthepriestswhoblewtrumpetsontheoccasion
ofDavidsbringingthearktoJerus.(1Ch15:24).3.OneofDavidsofficersatZiklag(1Ch12:18),possiblytobeidentifiedwithAmasa,No.
1.
AMASHSAI(Neh11:13).ApriestofthefamilyofImmer.
AMASIAH.OneofJehoshaphatscommanders(2Ch17:16).
AMAZIAH.1.SonofJehoashofJudah.Hecametothethroneaftertheassassinationofhisfather.Itisrecordedinhisfavour(2K4:6)
thatalthoughheputthemurderersofhisfathertodeathhesparedtheirchildrensomethingunheardofuptothattime,weinfer.Oursources
knowofasuccessfulcampaignofhisagainstEdom,andanunsuccessfuloneagainstIsrael.Inthisheseemstohavebeentheaggressorand
afterrefusingtoheartheadviceofJehoash,whomhehadchallengedtoatrialofstrength,hehadthemortificationofseeinghisowncapital
plundered.Theconspiracybywhichheperishedmayhavebeenpromptedbyhisconductinthiswar.Inthematterofreligionhereceives
qualifiedpraisefromtheauthorofKings(2K14:3f.),whiletheChronicleraccuseshimofgrossapostasy(2Ch25:14ff.).2.Thepriestat
BethelwhoopposedtheprophetAmos(Am7:10ff.).
3.ASimeonite(1Ch4:34).4.AMerarite(1Ch6:45).

H.P.Smith.
AMBASSADOR,AMBASSAGE.Asdiplomaticagentsofsovereignsorotherpersonsinhighauthority,ambassadorsarefrequently
mentionedinOTandApocryphafromthedaysofMoses(seebelow)tothoseoftheMaccabees(1Mac
9:70,11:9,14:21,15:17).Insulttotheirpersonswasasufficientcasusbelli(2S
10:4ff.).Inseveralpassages(e.g.Nu20:14,21:21,Dt2:26,Jg11:12,19,2S5:11,2K19:9)themessengersofEVarepractically
ambassadors,astheHeb.wordiselsewhererendered(2Ch35:21,Is30:4,Ezk17:15).Jos9:4,however,shouldbereadasinRVm.The
ambassadorofJer49:14(=Ob1)isprobablyanangel.InNTthewordisusedonlymetaphorically(2Co5:20,Eph6:20).

Ambassage,themissionofanambassador(2Mac4:11RV),isusedalsoasacollectiveforambassadorsthemselves(Lk14:32,19:14
RV).In1Mac14:23readwithRVthecopyoftheirwords.

A.R.S.Kennedy.
AMBER(chashmal,Ezk1:4,27,8:2).Thetranslationamberismuchquestioned,ametallicsubstancebeinggenerallyconsidered
moreprobable.Prof.Ridgeway(Encyc.Bibl.,s.v.)has,however,shownthatambermaywellhavebeenknowntoEzekiel.Theamber
commonlyseenistheopaqueyellowvarietyfromtheBaltic,aresinoussubstancechangedbylongsubmersioninthesea.Itisafavourite
ornament,innecklacesandbracelets,intheOrient,especiallyamongJewesses,andiscreditedwithmedicinalvirtues.

E.W.G.Masterman.
AMBUSH.SeeWar.
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AMBUSH.SeeWar.
AMEN.AHebrewformofaffirmationusuallytranslatedintheLXXbyanequivalentGreekexpression(Nu5:22,Dt27:15sobeit,
Jer28:6(36:6)truly),butsometimestransliterated(1Ch16:36)asinEnglish.Itisanindicationofsolemnassent,chieflyinprayer,tothe
wordsofanother,ontheparteitherofanindividual(Nu5:22)orofanassembly(Dt27:15)sometimesreduplicated(Ps41:13),sometimes
accompaniedbyarubricaldirection(Ps106:48).FromthesynagogueitpassedintotheliturgicaluseofChristiancongregations,andisso
referredtoin1Co14:16the(customary)Amenatthygivingofthanks(?Eucharist).TheusepeculiartotheNTisthatascribedtoour
LordintheGospels,wherethewordverilyfollowedbyIsayintroducesstatementswhichHedesirestoinvestwithspecialauthority
(Mt5:18,Mk3:28,Lk4:24etc.)asworthyofunquestioningtrust.TheFourthGospelreduplicatesaformwhich,thoughChristmayHimself
havevariedthephraseinthismanner,isneverthelessstereotypedbythisEvangelist(Jn1:51and24otherplaces),andmarksthepeculiar
solemnityoftheutterancesitintroduces.TheimpressioncreatedbythisidiommayhaveinfluencedthetitleoftheAmengiventotheLord
intheEpistletoLaodicea(Rev3:14).AstrikinglysimilarphraseisusedbySt.Paulin2Co1:20throughhim(i.e.JesusChristaspreached)
istheAmenthesealofGodspromises.Itsuseindoxologiesisfrequent.

J.G.Simpson.
AMETHYST.SeeJewelsandPreciousStones.
AMI.TheheadofafamilyofSolomonsservants(Ezr2:57)calledinNeh7:59Amon.
AMITTAI(true).FatheroftheprophetJonah(2K14:25,Jon1:1).
AMMAH(2S2:24only).AhillnearGiah,inthewildernessofGibeon.Siteunknown.
AMMI(mypeople).ThenametobeappliedtoIsraelinthetimeofrestoration.ItistotaketheplaceofLoammi(=notmypeople),
thenamegiveninthefirstinstancebyHoseatoGomersthirdchild,butinthepropheticfragment,Hos1:911[inHeb2:13],referredtothe
peopleofIsrael.
AMMIDIOI.OneofthefamiliesthatreturnedwithZerubbabel(1Es5:20)omittedintheparallellists(Ezr2=Neh7).
AMMIEL(kinsmanisGod).1.SonofGemalli,andspyofthetribeofDan(Nu13:12(P)).2.FatherofMachir(2S9:4f.,17:27).3.
ThesixthsonofObededom,whowithhisfamilyconstitutedoneofthecoursesofdoorkeepersinthetimeofDavidtothemwasallotted
chargeoftheS.gate(oftheTemple)andthestorehouse(1Ch26,esp.vv.5,15).4.SeeEliam,1.
AMMIHUD(kinsmanismajesty).1.AnEphraimite,fatherofElishama
(Nu1:10,2:18,7:48,53,10:22(P)).2.ASimeonite,fatherofShemuel(Nu34:20
(P)).3.ANaphtalite,fatherofPedahel(Nu34:28(P)).4.AccordingtotheQerof2S13:37andtheAV,thenameofthefatherofthe
GeshuritekingTalmai(KethibhandRVAmmihur).5.SonofOmri,fatherofUthai(1Ch9:4).
AMMIHUR.SeeAmmihud,No.4.
AMMINADAB.1.SonofRamandfatherofNahshon(Ru4:19f.=lCh
2:10,Mt1:4,Nu1:7,2:3,7:12,10:14)fatherinlawofAaron(Ex6:23).2.Sonof
KohathandfatherofKoran(1Ch6:22).3.AchiefofaLeviticalhouse(1Ch
15:10f.).
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15:10f.).
AMMINADIBoccursinAVandRVmofaveryobscurepassage,Ca6:12,mysoulmademelikethechariotsofAmminadib.RVand
AVmdonotregardthetermasapropername,butrendermysoulsetmeon(RVamong)thechariotsofmywilling(RVprincely)people.
AMMISHADDAI.ADanite,fatherofAhiezer(Nu1:12,2:25,7:56,71,10:25(P)).
AMMIZABAD.SonofBenaiah(1Ch27:6).
AMMON,AMMONITES.ApeopleinhabitingtheterritorybetweenthetribeofGadandtheArabiandesert,fromtheIsraelitish
conquestofPalestinetothe4thcent.b.c.,andperhapstillthe1stcent.a.d.

InGn19:38theAmmonitesaresaidtohavedescendedfromacertainBenAmmi,butintheAssyrianinscriptionsShalmaneserII.,Tiglath
pileserIII.,and
SennacheribcallthemBethAmmon,placingthedeterminativeformanbeforeAmmon.ExceptinPs83:7,whichislate,thepeopleare
nevercalledAmmonintheHebrewOT,butthechildrenofAmmon,orAmmonites.

ThereallyimportantfeatureofthestoryofGn19isthatitrevealsaconsciousnessthattheIsraelitesregardedtheAmmonitesastheir
kindred.ThepropernamesofindividualAmmonites,sofarastheyareknowntous,confirmthisview.Probably,therefore,theAmmonites
formedapartofthatwaveofAramanmigrationwhichbroughttheHebrewsintoPalestine.Perhaps,liketheHebrews,theyadoptedthe
languageofthepeopleinwhoselandtheysettled,thuslaterspeakingaCanaanitedialect.ThegenealogywhichtracestheirdescentfromLot
probablysignifiesthattheysettledinthelandofLot,orLotan,calledbytheEgyptiansRuten,whichlaytotheeastoftheDeadSeaandthe
Jordan.

InDt2:20theAmmonitesaresaidtohavedisplacedtheZamzummim,asemimythicalpeople,ofwhomweknownothing.Jg11:1229
representsAmmonashavingconqueredallthelandbetweentheJabbokandtheArnon,andakingofAmmonissaidtohavereprovedIsrael
fortakingitfromthem.Thestatementislate,andofdoubtfulauthority.IsraelfoundtheAmoritesinthisterritoryatthetimeoftheconquest,
andwehavenogoodreasontosupposethattheAmmoniteseverpossessedit.Theirhabitatwasinthenortheasternportionofthisregion,
aroundthesourcesoftheJabbok.Rabbah(modernAmman)wasitscapitalandcentre.
AtthetimeoftheconquesttheGaditeIsraelitesdidnotdisturbtheAmmonites(Nu21:24,Dt2:37),orattempttoconquertheirterritory.
DuringtheperiodoftheJudgestheAmmonitesassistedEglonofMoabinhisinvasionofIsrael(Jg3:13),andattemptedtoconquerGilead,
butweredrivenbackbyJephthahthejudge(11:49,3036,12:13).Later,Nahash,theirking,oppressedthetownofJabeshinGilead,andit
wasthevictorywhichdeliveredthiscityfromtheAmmonitesthatmadeSaulIsraelsking(1S11).SaulandNahashthusbecameenemies.
Consequently,later,NahashbefriendedDavid,apparentlytoweakenthegrowingpowerofIsrael.WhenDavidsucceededSaulinpower,
Hanun,thesonofNahash,provokedhimtowar,withtheresultthatRabbah,theAmmonitecapital,wasstormedandtaken,theAmmonites
werereducedtovassalage,andterriblevengeancewaswreakeduponthem(2S1012).Afterwards,duringAbsalomsrebellion,asonof
NahashrenderedDavidassistanceatMahanaim(2S17:27).Zelek,anAmmonite,wasamongDavidsheroes(2S23:37).Thesefriendly
relationscontinuedthroughthereignofSolomon,whotookasoneofhiswivestheAmmoniteprincessNaamah,whobecamethemotherof
Rehoboam,thenextking(1K11:1,14:21,31).AfterthereignofSolomontheAmmonitesappeartohavegainedtheirindependence.

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InthereignofAhab,Basa,sonofRehob,theAmmonite,wasamemberoftheconfederacywhichopposedtheprogressofShalmaneser
intotheWest(cf.KAT342).Accordingto2Ch20:1,theAmmonitesjoinedwithMoabandEdomininvadingJudahinthereignof
Jehoshaphat.BeforethereignofJeroboamII.theAmmoniteshadmadeanotherattempttogetpossessionofGilead,andtheirbarbaritiesin
warfareexcitedtheindignationoftheprophetAmos(Am1:1315),ChroniclesrepresentsthemasbeatenalittlelaterbyJothamofJudah,
andaspayingtributetoUzziah(2Ch26:8,27:5).WhennextwehearoftheAmmonites,NebuchadnezzarofBabylonisemployingthemto
harasstherefractoryJudankingJehoiakim(2K24:2).PerhapsitwasatthisperiodthattheAmmonitesoccupiedtheterritoryofGad(Jer
49:1ff.).Later,thedominationoftheBabyloniancompelledAmmonandIsraeltobecomefriends,forAmmonconspiredwithKingZedekiah
againstNebuchadnezzar(Jer27:3),andduringthesiegesofJerusalemmanyJudanshadmigratedtoAmmon(Jer40:11).TheBabylonian
kingregardedbothAmmonandJudahasrebels,forEzekielrepresentshimascastinglotstoseewhetherheshouldfirstattackRabbahor
Jerusalem(Ezk21:20ff.,cf.Zeph2:8,9).

PerhapstherewasasettlementofAmmonitesinIsraelitishterritory,forDt23:3ff.recognizesthedangerofmixturewithAmmonites,while
Jos18:24seemstoindicatethattherewasinpostexilictimesavillageinBenjamincalledthevillageoftheAmmonites.

AfterthedestructionofJerusalem,Baalis,kingofAmmon,sentamantoassassinateGedaliah,whomNebuchadnezzarhadmadegovernor
ofJudah(Jer40:14).Again,140yearslater,theAmmonitesdideverythingintheirpowertopreventtherebuildingofthewallsofJerusalem
byNehemiah(Neh2:10,19,4:3,7).NehemiahandEzrafomentedthisenmitybymakingillegalthemarriagesof
AmmonitishwomenwithIsraelitishpeasantrywhohadremainedinJudah(Neh13:23).

BetweenthetimeofNehemiahandAlexandertheGreatthecountryeastoftheJordanwasoverrunbytheNabatans.Perhapsthe
Ammoniteslosttheiridentityatthistime:for,thoughtheirnameappearslater,manyscholarsthinkitisusedoftheseArabs.Thusin1Mac
5:6ff.JudasMaccabusissaidtohavedefeatedtheAmmonitesPs83:7reckonsthemamongIsraelsenemieswhileJustinMartyr(Dial.
Tryph.19)saystheAmmoniteswerenumerousinhisday.AsJosephus(Ant.I.xi.5)usesthesamelanguageoftheMoabitesandAmmonites,
thoughelsewhere(XIV.i.4)heseemstocallthemArabians,itispossiblethattheAmmoniteshadlosttheiridentityatthetimeofthe
Nabataninvasion.Theircapital,Rabbah,wasrebuiltintheGreekstylebyPtolemyPhiladelphusofEgyptinthe3rdcent.b.c.andnamed
Philadelphia.ItsruinsamidthemoderntownofAmmanareimpressive.ThegodoftheAmmonitesiscalledintheOTMilcom,avariationof
Melek,king.WhentheJews,justbeforetheExile,toavertnationaldisaster,performedchildsacrificetoJawhehasMelekorking,the
prophetsstampedthisritualasofforeignorAmmoniteoriginonaccountofthesimilarityofthename,thoughperhapsitwasintroducedfrom
Phnicia(cf.G.F.JudgesinEncyc.Bibl.iii.3188ff.).TheAmmonitesappeartohavebeenaruthless,semisavagepeople.Sucharitemay
havebeenpractisedbythemtooifso,itisallthatweknowoftheircivilization.

GeorgeA.Barton.
AMNON.1.EldestsonofDavidbyAhinoamtheJezreelitess.HedishonouredhishalfsisterTamar,andwas,onthataccount,slainby
herbrotherAbsalom(2S3:2,13:1f.).2.SonofShimon(1Ch4:20).
AMOK.ApriestlyfamilyinthetimeofZerubbabelandofJoiakim(Neh12:7,20).
AMOMUM.Rev18:13RVm.SeeSpice.

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AMON.1.SonandsuccessorofManassehkingofJudah.Hereignedtwoyearsorpartsofyears.OurBiblicalbooksknowonlythathe
carriedonthereligiouspracticesofhisfather.Hewasputtodeathbyapalaceconspiracy,buttheassassinswerepunishedbythepopulace,
whoplacedJosiahonthethrone(2K21:19ff.).IthasbeensuggestedthathisnameisthatoftheEgyptiansungod(seenextart.).2.A
governorofSamaria(1K22:26).3.SeeAmi.

H.P.Smith.
AMON(Gr.Ammon,Egyp.Amn).AnEgyptiandivinity,who,primarilyworshippedasthegodoffertility,andlaterasAmenrasetn
nteru(Amon,thesungod,thekingofthegods),wasthelocaldeityofThebes.WiththesubjugationofthepettyprincesoflowerEgyptby
AahmesI.ofThebes(c.b.c.1700),hebecametheEgyptiannationalgod.Hissupremacy,recognizedfor1100yearsbyallEgyptianrulers
withtheexceptionofAmenophisIV.(c.b.c.1450),cametoanendwithEsarhaddonsinvasionofEgypt(b.c.670cf.Jer46:25f.)andthe
destructionofThebesbyAshurbanipal(c.b.c.662cf.Nah3:8).Aftertheseeventshewasrelegatedtotheranksofthelocalgods.SeeNo,
NoAmon.

N.Koenig.
AMORITES.AnancientpeoplewhosepresencecanbetracedinPalestineandSyriaandalsoinBabylonia.FromDt3:9itappearsthat
theirlanguagedifferedonlydialecticallyfromCanaanite,whichwasHebrew.Thisviewisconfirmedbymanypropernamesfromthe
monuments.TheywereaccordinglyofthesameraceastheCanaanites.ContracttabletsofthetimeofHammurabi(b.c.2250)showthat
AmoriteswereinBabyloniaatthattime(cf.Meissner,Altbab.Privatrecht,No.42).Atthisperiodtheircountrywasdesignatedbythe
ideogramMARTU.IthaslongbeenknownthatthisideogramstoodforPalestineandSyria.Atthattime,then,theAmoriteswerealreadyin
theWest.
Becauseoftheidentityoftheirpropernames,itisbelievedthattheAmoriteswereidenticalinracewiththatSemiticwaveofimmigration
intoBabyloniawhichproducedthefirstdynastyofBabylon,thedynastyofHammurabi(cf.Paton,SyriaandPalestine,2529).Patonholds
thatanAmoriticwaveofmigrationoverranBabyloniaandtheMediterraneancoastaboutb.c.2500,butJohns(Expos.,April,1906,p.341)
holdsitprobable,alsoonthebasisofpropernames,thattheAmoriteswereinbothBabyloniaandtheWestbeforethetimeofSargon,b.c.
3800.
Aboutb.c.1400welearnfromtheelAmarnatabletsthatthegreatvalleybetweentheLebanonandAntiLebanonranges,whichwas
afterwardscalledCleSyria,wasinhabitedbyAmorites,whoseprincewasAziru(cf.KIB,v.Nos.
42,44,and50).AtsometimetheyseemtohaveoverrunPalestinealso,forintheEdocumenttheyareregardedasthepreIsraelitish
inhabitantsofthemountainlandofPalestine,whomtheHebrewsconquered(cf.Nu13:29,Jos24:8,18).Thiswasalsotheviewoftheprophet
Amos(2:9,10),and,inpart,ofEzekiel(16:8,45).TheJdocument,ontheotherhand,regardstheCanaanites(wh.see)astheoriginal
Inhabitantsofthecountry.AstheJdocumentoriginatedinthesouthernkingdomandtheEdocumentinthenorthern,somehaveinferredthat
theAmoriteswereespeciallystronginNorthernPalestinebuteventheJdocument(Jg1:34,35)recognizesthattheAmoriteswerestrongin
theValleyofAijalon.InJg1:36AmoritesisprobablyacorruptionofEdomites.(SoG.F.MooreinSBOT.)
BothJ(Nu32:39)andE(Nu21:13)representthetransJordanickingdomofkingSihon,thecapitalofwhichwasatHeshbon,andwhich
extendedfromtheArnontotheJabbok,asAmoritic,andseverallaterBiblicalwritersreflectthisview.Thiskingdomwasovercomebythe
IsraeliteswhentheyinvadedCanaan.AftertheIsraelitishconquesttheAmoritesdisappearfromourview.
GeorgeA.Barton.
AMOS
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AMOS

1.Theman.Amos,theearliestoftheprophetswhosewritingshavecomedowntous,andtheinitiatorofoneofthegreatestmovements
inspiritualhistory,wasaherdsman,orsmallsheepfarmer,inTekoa,asmalltownlyingontheuplandssomesixmilessouthofBethlehem.
Hecombinedtwooccupations.Thesheepherearedproducedaparticularlyfinekindofwool,thesaleofwhichdoubtlesstookhimfromone
markettoanother.Buthewasalsoapincherofsycomores.Thefruitofthistreewashastenedinitsripeningprocessbybeingbruisedor
pinched:andasthesycomoredoesnotgrowatsogreataheightasTekoa,thissubsidiaryoccupationwouldbringAmosintotouchwithother
politicalandreligiouscircles.Thesimplelifeoftheuplands,theisolationfromthedissipationofawealthiercivilization,thealoofnessfrom
allpriestlyorpropheticguilds,haddoubtlessmuchtodowiththedirectnessofhisvisionandspeech,andwiththespiritualindependence
whichfoundinhimsonobleanutterance.WhilehewasthusanativeofthekingdomofJudah,hispropheticactivityawokeinthekingdomof
Israel.OfthisawakeninghegivesamostvividpictureintheaccountofhisinterviewwithAmaziah,thepriestofBethel(7:1017).Hehad
gonetoBetheltosomegreatreligiousfeast,whichwasalsoabusinessmarket.ThedirectcallfromGodtotestifyagainsttheunrighteousness
ofbothkingdomshadprobablycometohimnotlongbeforeandamidstthethrongatBethelheproclaimedhisvisionofJehovahstanding
withaplumblinetomeasurethedeflectionofIsrael,andpreparedtopunishtheiniquityofthehouseofJeroboamII.Thenorthernkingdom
hadnopleasantmemoriesofanotherprophetwhohaddeclaredthejudgmentofGoduponsin(2K9:25ff.)andAmaziah,thepriest,thinking
thatAmoswasoneofapropheticandofficialguild,contemptuouslybadehimbegonetoJudah,wherehecouldprophesyforhire,(7:12).The
answercameflashingback.Amosdisclaimedallconnexionwiththehirelingprophetswhosewordwasdictatedbytheimmediatepolitical
andpersonalinterest.Hewassomethingbetterandmorehonestnoprophet,neitheraprophetsson,butaherdsmanandadresserof
sycomores,calledbyGodtoprophesytoIsrael.Hereinliesmuchofhisdistinctiveness.Theearlierpropheticimpulsewhichhadbeen
embodiedinthepropheticguildshadbecomeprofessionalandinsincere.Amosbroughtprophecybackagainintothelineofdirectinspiration.

2.Thetimeinwhichhelived.Am1:1maynotbepartoftheoriginalprophecy,butthereisnoreasontodoubtitsessentialaccuracy.
AmoswasprophesyinginthoseyearsinwhichUzziahandJeroboamII.werereigningcontemporaneously,b.c.775750.Thisdateisofgreat
importance,becausefewpropheticwritingsaresointerpenetratedbythehistoricalsituationasthoseofAmos.Fornearly100yearspriorto
histimeIsraelhadsufferedseverelyfromtheattacksofSyria.ShehadlostthewholeofherterritoryeastofJordan(2K10:32f.)shehad
beenmadelikedustinthreshing(13:7).ButnowSyriahadmorethanenoughtodotodefendherselffromthesouthwardpressureof
AssyriaandtheresultwasthatIsraeloncemorebegantobeprosperousandtoregainherlostterritories.UnderJeroboamII.thisprosperity
reacheditsclimax.Thepeoplerevelledinit,givingnothoughttoanyfurtherdanger.EvenAssyriawasnotfeared,becauseshewasbusywith
thesettlementofinternalaffairs,rebellionandpestilence.Amos,however,knewthattherelaxationofpressurecouldbebuttemporary.He
sawthattheAssyrianwouldeventuallypushpastDamascusdownintoPalestine,andbringinthedayofaccountandalthoughhenowhere
namesAssyriaastheagentofGodsanger,thereferencesareunmistakable(5:27,6:7,14,7:17).

ItisthiscarelessprosperitywithitsaccompanyingunrighteousnessandforgetfulnessofGodthatisneveroutoftheprophetsthoughts.
Thebookisshort,butthepictureofatimeofmoralanarchyiscomplete.Theoutwardreligiousobservancesarekeptup,andthetemplesare
throngedwithworshippers(5:5,9:1)tithesandvoluntaryofferingsaredulypaid(4:4,5,5:22).Butreligionhasdivorceditselffrommorality,
thestatedworshipofGodfromreverenceforthecharacterofGod(2:8).Therichhavetheirwinterhousesandtheirsummerhouses(3:15),
housesbuiltofhewnstone(5:11),andpanelledwithivory(3:15).Theydrinkwinebythebowlful(6:6),andthefinesunjustlyextortedfrom
thedefencelessarespentinthepurchaseofwineforthesocalledreligiousfeast(2:8).Lazy,pamperedwomen,kineofBashan,areforemost
inthisunholyoppression(4:1).Thereisnosuchthingasjusticetheverysemblanceofitistheoppressionoftheweakbythestrong.The
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righteousaresoldforsilver,andthepoorforapairofshoes(2:6)thehousesofthegreatarestoredwiththespoilsofrobbery(3:10)bribery
andcorruption,thebesettingsinsoftheEast,arerampant(5:12).Commercesharesintheprevailingevilweightsarefalsifiedandfoodis
adulterated(8:5,6).
Immoralityisopenandshameless(2:7).SmallwonderthattheprophetdeclaresasthewordoftheLord,Ihate,Idespiseyourfeasts,andI
willtakenodelightinyoursolemnassemblies(5:21).Whiletheobservancesofreligionaremaintained,thesoulofreligionhasfled.Those
whoareresponsiblefortheevilconditionofthingsarenotgrievedfortheafflictionofJoseph(6:6).

3.Contentsofthebook.Thebookisframeduponadefiniteplan,whichisclearerintheopeningsectionthaninthosewhichfollow.

(i)1:22:16treatsofthejudgmentuponthenationsfortheirsins.Damascus,Gaza,Tyre,Edom,Ammon,Moab,Judah,andIsraelareall
passedunderreview.TheassumptionisthateachpeopleissubjecttothedominionofJehovah.Punishmentwillbevisiteduponeachforthe
violationofsomebroadanduniversallyrecognizedprincipleofhumanity.

(ii)Chs.3,4,5,threethreateningdiscourses,eachintroducedbyHearyethisword.
(iii)79:10,aseriesoffivevisions,interruptedin7:1017bytheaccountof
AmaziahsattempttointimidateAmos.Thevisionsare(a)thedevouringlocusts(7:13)(b)theconsumingfire(7:46)(c)theplumbline
(7:79)(d)thebasketofsummerfruit(8:13)(e)thesmittensanctuary,anddestructionoftheworshippers(9:110).
9:1115isinstrikingcontrasttothetoneoftherestofthebook.Insteadofthreateningstherearenowpromises.ThelineofDavidwillbe
restoredtoitsformersplendourthewastecitiesshallbebuiltupthesettledagriculturallifeshallberesumed.ThisEpilogueisgenerally
acknowledgedtobealateadditiontotheprophecy.Itcontainsnomoralfeature,norepentance,nonewrighteousness.Ittellsonlyofapeople
satisfiedwithvineyardsandgardens.Thesearelegitimatehopesbuttheyarehopesofagenerationofotherconditionsandofotherdeserts
thanthegenerationofAmos(G.A.Smith,TwelveProphets,i.195).
4.TheologyofAmos.InhisreligionsoutlookAmoshadmanysuccessors,buthehadnoforerunner.Hisoriginalityiscomplete.

(i)HisviewofJehovah.HithertoJehovahhadbeenthoughtofasaDeitywhosepoweroverHisownpeoplewasabsolute,butwho
ceasedtohaveinfluencewhenremovedfromcertaingeographicalsurroundings(1K20:23).Theexistenceofothergodshadnotbeen
questionedevenbythemostpiousoftheIsraelitestheydeniedonlythattheseothergodshadanyclaimoverthelifeofthepeopleof
Jehovah.ButAmoswillnothearoftheexistenceofothergods.JehovahistheGodofthewholeearth.Hissupremeclaimisrighteousness,
andwherethatisnotconcededHewillpunish.HerulesoverSyriaandCaphtor,MoabandAmmon,justastrulyasoverIsraelorJudah(1,2,
6:14,9:7).NaturetooisunderHisrule.EverynaturalcalamityandscourgearetracedtothedirectexerciseofHiswill.Amosthereforelays
downagreatphilosophyofhistory.Godisallrighteous.AlleventsandallpeoplesareinHishands.Politicalandnaturalcatastropheshave
religioussignificance(6:14).

(ii)TherelationshipofJehovahtoIsrael.Amos,incommonwithhiscountrymen,consideredtherelationofJehovahtoIsraeltobea
specialone.Butwhiletheyhadregardeditasanindissolublerelationshipofprivilege,abondthatcouldnotbebrokenprovidedthestated
sacrificesweremaintained,Amosdeclarednotonlythatitcouldbebroken,butthattheveryexistenceofsuchabondwouldlayIsraelunder
heaviermoralresponsibilitiesthanifshehadbeenoneoftheGentilenations(3:2).Asheropportunitieshadbeengreater,sotoowouldher

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punishmentforwastingthembeproportionatelysevere.Jehovahsfirstdemandsweremoralityandjusticeandkindliness,andanysacrificial
systemthatremovedtheemphasisfromthesethingsandplaceditontheobservanceofritualwasanabomination(5:2125).

(iii)Theinevitablejudgment.ItishiscertaintyofthemoralcharacterofGodthatmakesAmossosureofthecomingcatastrophe.
ForthefirsttimeinHebrewliteratureheusestheexpressionthedayoftheLordaphrasethatmayalreadyhavebeencurrentinamore
genialandprivilegedsensetoindicatethedaythatwillutterlydestroythenations(2:1416,3:1215,4:2,3,13).Withthisbroadviewof
history,aviewfromwhichtheideaofspecialprivilegeisexcluded,heseesinthenorthernpowertheinstrumentofJehovahsanger(5:27,
6:14)apowerthateveninitsselfaggrandisementisworkingoutJehovahspurpose.
5.Style.ItwasthecustomformanyacenturytoaccepttheverdictofJerome,thattheprophetwasrusticandunskilledinspeech.That,
however,isanythingbutthecase.ThearrangementofthebookiscleartheHebrewispureandtheknowledgeoftheoutsideworldis
remarkable.Thesurveyofthenationswithwhichtheprophecyopensisfullofprecisedetail.Amosknows,too,thattheAramansmigrated
fromKir,andthePhilistinesfromCaphtor(9:7)hehasheardoftheswellingsoftheNile(8:8,9:5),andregardsthefactwithacuriousdread.
HehasbeenacloseobserverofthesocialconditionsinIsrael.Muchofhisimageryisdrawnfromnature:earthquakesandtheeclipseofthe
sun,thecedarsandtheoaks,theroaringofthelion,thesnaringofbirds,thebiteoftheviperonceonlydoeshedrawacomparisonfrom
shepherdlife(3:12).

6.Religioussignificance.Amostruesignificanceinreligioushistoryisthatwithhimprophecybreaksawayonitstrueline,individual,
direct,responsibletononesaveGod.ThewordoftheLordhadcometoAmosandhecouldnotbutspeak(3:8).Suchacauseproducedan
inevitableeffect.InthatdirectvisionofJehovah,Amoslearnedthetruthswhichhewasthefirsttoproclaimtotheworld:thatJehovahwas
theGodofthewholeearththatthenationswereinHiskeepingthatjusticeandrighteousnesswereHisgreatdemandsthatprivilege,ifit
meantopportunity,meantlikewiseresponsibilityandliabilitytothedoomofthosewhohaveseenandhavenotbelieved.

R.BruceTaylor.
AMOZ(Amts).FatheroftheprophetIsaiah(2K19:2,Is1:1etc.),tobecarefullydistinguishedfromAmos(Ams)theprophet.
AMPHIPOLIS.AtowninapartofMacedoniaformerlyreckonedtoThrace,ontheriverStrymon,about3milesfromitsmouth,where
theharbourEionwassituated.Itwasaplaceofgreatstrategicandmercantileimportance.Itunderwentvariousvicissitudes,butretainedits
importancebasedonitsabundantsuppliesofexcellentwine,figs,oil,andwood,itssilverandgoldmines,itswoollenfabrics.TheRomans
raisedittotherankofafreetownandthechieftownofthefirstdistrictoftheprovinceMacedoniathroughittheViaEgnatiapassed.The
verbintheGreek(Ac17:1)seemstoindicatethatSt.Paulpassedthroughitwithoutpreachingthere.

A.Souter.
AMPLIATUS(AVAmplias).GreetedbySt.Paul(Ro16:8),perhapsoftheimperialhousehold(LightfootonPh4:22),andaprominent
Christian(SandayHeadlam).Thename,acommonslavedesignation,isfoundinscribedinthecatacombs.

A.J.Maclean.

AMRAM.1.ALevite,sonofKohathandgrandsonofLevi(Nu3:1719,1Ch6:2,3,18).HemarriedJochebedhisfatherssister,by
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AMRAM.1.ALevite,sonofKohathandgrandsonofLevi(Nu3:1719,1Ch6:2,3,18).HemarriedJochebedhisfatherssister,by
whomhebegatAaronandMoses(Ex6:1820)andMiriam(Nu26:59,1Ch6:3).TheAmramitesarementionedinNu3:27,1Ch26:23.2.
AsonofBaniwhohadcontractedaforeignmarriage(Ezr10:34).
AMRAPHEL.ThekingofShinar(Gn14:1).Hehasbeenidentified(bySchraderandusually)withHammurabi,kingofBabylonia,but
apartfromthedifficultiesduetodifferencesofspelling,thereisnoevidencethatHammurabiwaseveralliedwithakingofElamandaking
ofLarsatoinvadetheWest.Boscawen
suggestsAmarPal,theideographicwritingofSinmuhallit,thefatherof
Hammurabi,forwhomsuchanallianceismorelikely.SeeChedorlaomer.

C.H.W.Johns.
AMULETSANDCHARMS.1.Thecustomofwearingamulets(amuletumfromArab.root=tocarry)ascharmstoprotectthewearer
againstthemaligninfluenceofevilspirits,andinparticularagainsttheevileye,isalmostaswidespreadasthehumanraceitself.Children
anddomesticanimalsaresupposedtobespeciallysubjecttosuchinfluence,andtodayintheArabicborderlandsthereishardlyachild,or
almostananimal,whichisnotdefendedfromtheevileyebyacharm(Doughty).TheJewswereinthisrespectliketherestoftheworld,and
intheTalmuditissaidthatninetyninedeathsoccurfromtheevileyetoonefromnaturalcauses(seeMagicDivinationandSorcery).

2.RVhassubstitutedamuletsforAVearringsinIs3:20,theHeb.wordbeingelsewhereassociatedwithserpentcharming.Thereis
nothingtoindicatetheirprecisenatureorshape.OurknowledgeofearlyPalestinianamuletshasbeengreatlyincreasedbytherecent
excavationsatGezer,Taanach,andMegiddo.Thesehavebroughttolighthundredsofamulets,bewilderingintheirvarietyofsubstanceand
formbeadsofvariouscolours(thebluevarietyisthefavouriteamuletatthepresentday),pendantsofslate,piecesofcoral,bronzehells(cf.
Ex28:33,39:25),atinyebonyfishfromtheMaccabanperiod,ayellowglasspendantwithgoodlucktothewearerinreversedGreek
letters(PEFSt,1904,illust.p.354),asmallroundsilverboxwithblueenamel(ib.1903,illust.p.303),etc.TheinfluenceofEgypt,where
amuletswerewornbymenandgods,bythelivingandthedead,isshownbythegreatnumberofscarabsandHoruseyesunearthedatGezer
andTaanach.
3.Theconsecratedtokens(2Mac12:40RV)foundbyJudasMaccabusonthebodiesofhissoldierswereheathencharmsagainstdeath
inbattle,thepeculiarGr.wordbeingatr.oftheAram.wordforamulet.TheMishna(c.a.d.200)showsthatinNTtimesafavouritecharm
(qemia,whenceourcameo)consistedofapieceofparchmentinscribedwithsacredorcabalisticwriting,andsuspendedfromtheneckina
leathercapsule.Inthisconnexionitmaybenotedthatphylacterysignifiesanamulet,andlikethemezuzahordoorpostsymbol,wasoften
soregarded.

4.Inantiquityjewelswerewornquiteasmuchforprotectiveasfordecorativepurposes,beingsupposedtodrawtheattentionofthespirit
fromthewearer.Apopularformofjewelamuletwasthemoonshapedcrescentingoldandsilver,likethosewornbytheJerusalemladies(Is
3:18RV),andthecrescentsandpendantswornbytheMidianitechiefsandhungfromthenecksoftheircamels(Jg8:21,26RV).Theear
ringsofGn35:4,also,wereevidentlymorethanmereornaments,sothatAVandRVmaybothberightintheirrenderingsearrings,
amuletsofIs3:20.

FortheamuletswornbytheheathenArabsseeWellhausen,ResteArab.Heidenthums(1887),143ff.,andformodernJewishamuletsthe
art.AmuletinHastingsDB.
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A.R.S.Kennedy.
AMUSEMENTS.SeeGames.
AMZI.1.AMerarite(1Ch6:46).2.ApriestinthesecondTemple(Neh
11:12).
ANAB.AcityofJudahintheNegebhills(Jos11:21,15:50),inhabitedfirstbytheAnakim.NowtheruinAnabnearDebir.
ANAEL.BrotherofTobitandfatherofAchiacharus(To1:21).
ANAH.1.AdaughterofZibeon,andmotherofOholibamah,oneofEsauswives(Gn36:2,14,18,26(R)).Someancientauthorities
(includingLXX.Sam.Pesh.)readsoninsteadofdaughter,whichwouldidentifythisAnahwith2.AsonofZibeon(Gn36:24(R),1Ch
1:40,41).3.AHoriteduke,brotherofZibeon(Gn36:20,29(R),1Ch1:38).IfwetakeAnahasaneponymratherthanapersonalname,and
thinkofrelationshipsbetweenclansratherthanindividuals,itisquitepossibletoreducetheabovethreereferencestoone.InregardtoNo.2
thenoteisappended,ThisisAnahwhofoundthehotsprings(AVwronglythemules)inthewilderness,ashefedtheassesofZibeonhis
father(Gn36:24).
ANAHARATH(Jos19:19),mentionedwithShionandRabbithontheeastsideofthePlainofEsdraeloninIssachar.Itisperhapsthe
modernenNaurahintheValleyofJezreel.
ANAIAH(Jhathanswered).1.ALevite(Neh8:4),calledAnaniasin1Es9:43.2.Oneofthosewhosealedthecovenant(Neh
10:22).
ANAK,ANAKIM.EarlyinhabitantsofthehighlevelsofJudah,whomtraditioncreditedwithcolossalheight.ThewordAnakis
properlyaracename,and,beingoftenusedwiththearticle,itisreallyanappellative,probablymeaningthelongnecked(people).Inthe
genealogizingnarrativeofJos15:13,14therewerethreesonsorclansofAnakSheshai,Ahiman,andTalmai.Thesewerealldrivenoutby
Caleb(cf.Jg1:20).Jos11:21givesthemawiderhabitat,asscatteredoverthehillcountryofPalestinegenerally,whencetheywere
exterminatedbyJoshua.InGaza,Gath,andAshdodsomeremnantsweretobefoundafterJoshuastime(11:22).SeealsoArba.
J.F.McCurdy.
ANAMIM.Apeople,notyetidentified,namedinGn10:13(1Ch1:11)amongthedescendantsofMizraim,andthereforetobefound
somewhereinEgypt.

J.F.McCurdy.
ANAMMELECH.AgodworshippedbycaptivestransplantedfromSepharvaimtoSamariabytheAssyrians(2K17:24).Ashuman
sacrifice(v.31)wasthemostprominentriteconnectedwiththegodsworship,thename,whichmightbeinterpretedasmeaningAnuis
prince,inallprobabilityowesitsorigintoascribalendeavourtoidentifythegodwithMolech,inwhosecultasimilarpracticeexisted.See
alsoAdrammelech.

N.Koenig.
ANAN.1.Oneofthosewhosealedthecovenant(Neh10:26).2.1Es5:30=Hanan,Ezr2:46,Neh7:49.
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ANAN.1.Oneofthosewhosealedthecovenant(Neh10:26).2.1Es5:30=Hanan,Ezr2:46,Neh7:49.
ANANI.AsonofElioenai(1Ch3:24).
ANANIAH.1.Neh3:23,thefatherofMaaseiah,andgrandfatherofAzariah,whotookpartinrebuildingthewallsofJerusalem.2.A
towninhabitedbyBenjamitesaftertheCaptivity(Neh11:32).PossiblythemodernBeitHanina,avillage2milesN.ofJerusalem.
ANANIAS.ThisnameoccursseveraltimesintheApocrypha:in1Es9:21,
29,43,48(representingHananiandHananiahofEzr10:20,28,Anaiahand
HananofNeh8:4,7)andinTo5:12f.,Jth8:1.Itisthenameofthreepersonsin
NT.1.ThehusbandofSapphira,whointhevoluntarycommunismoftheearlyChurchsoldapossessionandkeptpartofthepricefor
himself,pretendingthathehadgiventhewhole(Ac5:1ff.).Thesuddendeathofhusbandandwife,predictedbySt.Peter,wasthesignalproof
ofGodsangeronthisJudaslikehypocrisy.2.AdevoutmanaccordingtothelawatDamascus,adisciplewhoinstructedandbaptizedSaul
ofTarsusafterhisconversion,restoringtohimhissightbyimpositionofhandshehadbeenwarnedbytheLordinavision(Ac9:10ff.,
22:12ff.).3.ThehighpriestatthetimewhenSt.PaulwasarrestedatJerusalem(Ac23:2ff.),aSadducee,sonofNedebus,andarapacious
oppressor.HehadbeenintroubleatRome,butwasacquitted,andwasnowattheheightofhispower.HepressedtheprosecutionagainstSt.
PaulatCsarea(Ac24:1ff.).IntheJewishwarhewasmurderedbyhiscountrymeninJerusalem,outofrevengeforhisproRoman
tendencies.

A.J.Maclean.
ANANIEL.OneoftheancestorsofTobit(To1:1).
ANATH.ThefatherofShamgar(Jg3:31,5:6).AntisthenameofagoddessworshippedinPal.(cf.Jg1:33,Jos15:59,Is10:30)itis
foundonEgyptianmonumentsfromthe18thdynasty.
ANATHEMA.SeeBan.
ANATHOTH.1.AtowninBenjamingiventotheLevites(Jos21:18)themodernAnta,21/4milesN.ofJerusalem,aninsignificant
villagewithconsiderableruins.ItwasthehomeofAbiathar(1K2:26)andofJeremiah(Jer1:1)reoccupiedaftertheexile(Neh7:27,
10:19).2.ABenjamite,sonofBecher(1Ch7:8).

W.Ewing.
ANCESTORWORSHIP.Everypeoplewhosereligiousbeliefshavebeeninvestigatedappearstohavepassedthroughthestageof
Animism,thestageinwhichitwasbelievedthatthespiritsofthoserecentlydeadwerepotenttohurtthosetheyhadleftbehindonearth.The
ritesobservedtodayatanIrishwakehavetheirorigininthisfearthatthespiritofthedeadmayinjuretheliving.Thereareseveraltracesofa
similarbeliefintheOT.Whenadeathtookplaceinatentorhouse,everyvesselwhichhappenedtobeopenatthetimewascountedunclean
(Nu19:15).Itremainedcleanonlyifithadacoveringtiedoverit.Theideawasthatthespiritofthedeadperson,escapingfromthebody,
mighttakeupitsabodeinsomeopenvesselinsteadofenteringthegloomyrealmsofSheol.Manymourningcustomsfindtheirexplanationin
thissamedreadofthespiritbutlatelysetfreefromitshumanhome.Theshavingoftheheadandbeard,thecuttingofthefaceandbreast,the
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tearingofthegarmentsapparentlyasurvivalofthetimewhenthemournerstrippedoffallhisclothesareduetotheeffortofthesurvivor
tomakehimselfunrecognizablebythespirit.

ButtoadmitthattheOTcontainstracesofAnimismisnotthesameastodeclarethatatonestagetheIsraelitespractisedAncestor
worship.Scholarsaredividedintotwogroupsonthesubject.Some(Stade,GVIi.451Smend,Alttest.Relig.112f.)affirmthatAncestor
worshipwasoftheverysubstanceoftheprimitivereligionofIsrael.Othersdonotatalladmitthisposition(Kautzsch,inHastingsDB,Extra
Vol.614aW.P.Paterson,ib.ii.445b).TheevidenceadducedforAncestorworshipasastageinthereligiousdevelopmentofIsraelproceeds
ontheselines:

(a)SacrificeswereofferedatHebrontoAbraham,andatShechemtoJoseph,longbeforetheseplaceswereassociatedwiththeworshipof
Jehovah.Whenapurerfaithtookpossessionofmenshearts,theoldsacredspotsretainedtheirsanctity,butnewassociationswereattachedto
them.Atheophanywasnowdeclaredtobethefactunderlyingthesacrednessandtheconnexionwiththefamousdeadwasthusbroken.In
thesamewaysacredtreesandstones,associatedwiththeoldCanaanitishworship,hadtheirevilassociationsremovedbybeinglinkedwith
somegreateventinthehistoryofIsrael.Butthisexistenceofsacredplacesconnectedwiththeburialofagreattribalornationalherodoesnot
atallproveAncestorworship.Itispossibletokeepfreshagreatmansmemorywithoutbelievingthathecaneitherhelporhinderthelifeof
thoseonearth.

(b)Evidencefrommourningcustoms.Itisheldthatthecuttingandwounding(Jer16:6,41:5),thecoveringofthehead(Ezk24:17,Jer
14:3),therendingofthegarments(2S1:11,3:31),thewearingofsackcloth(2S21:10,Is15:3),aretobeexplainedasapersonaldedication
tothespiritofthedead.Butallthis,aswehaveseen,canbeexplainedastheeffortsotoalterthefamiliarappearancethatthespirit,on
returningtoworkharm,willnotrecognizetheobjectsofitsspite.Thenthecustomsthathadtodowithfood,thefastingforthedead(1S
31:13,2S3:35)thebreakingofthefastbyafuneralfeastaftersundown(Hos9:4,2S3:35,
Jer16:7),theplacingoffooduponthegrave(Dt26:14)donotprovethat
AncestorworshipwasacustomoftheHebrews.Theyonlyshowthattheattemptwasmadetoappeasethespiritofthedead,andthatthiswas
donebyasacrifice,which,likeallprimitivesacrifices,wasafterwardseatenbytheworshippersthemselves.Whenthesefuneralriteswere
forbidden,itwasbecausetheywereheathenishandunfittingforapeoplethatworshippedthetrueGod.
(c)Theteraphim,itissaid,weresomeformofhouseholdgod,shapedinhumanform(1S19:13,16),carriedaboutasoneofthemost
preciouspossessionsofthehome(Gn31),consultedindivination(Ezk21:21),presumablyasrepresentingtheforefathersofthefamily.But
nothingisknownwithcertaintyregardingtheteraphim.Thattheywereofhumanformisaveryboldinferencefromtheevidenceaffordedby
1S19:13,16.ThevarietyofderivationsgivenbytheJewsofthewordteraphimshowsthattherewascompleteignoranceastotheirorigin
andappearance.

(d)In1S28:13thespiritofSamuel,calledupbythewitchofEndor,iscalledelohim.Butitisveryprecarioustobuildonanobscure
passageofthiskind,especiallyastheuseofthewordelohimissowide(appliedtoGod,angels,andpossiblyevenjudgesorkings)thatno
inferencecanbedrawnfromthispassage.
(e)Itisarguedthattheobjectoftheleviratemarriage(Dt25:5ff.)wastopreventanydeceasedpersonbeingleftinSheolwithoutsomeone
onearthtoofferhimworship.Butthemotivestatedinv.6,thathisnamebenotputoutinIsrael,issosufficientthattheconnexionofthe
leviratemarriagewithAncestorworshipseemsforced.
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leviratemarriagewithAncestorworshipseemsforced.

ThecasefortheexistenceofAncestorworshipamongtheHebrewshasnotbeenmadeout.AsabranchoftheSemiticstock,theHebrews
were,ofcourse,heirsofthecommonSemitictradition.Andwhilethattraditiondidcontainmuchthatwassuperstitiouswithregardtothe
powerofthedeadtoworkevilontheliving,itdoesnotappearthattheworshipofancestors,whichinotherraceswassooftenassociatedwith
thestageofAnimism,hadaplaceinHebrewreligion.
R.BruceTaylor.
ANCHOR.SeeShipsandBoats.
ANCIENTOFDAYSoccurs3timesinDaniel(7:9,13,22)asatitleofGodinHiscapacityasJudgeoftheworld.IntheVisionofthe
GreatAssizesHeisdepictedasaveryoldandmajesticfigure,withwhitehairandwhiteraimeot,seatedonafierythrone,andhavingthe
booksoftherecordsofmanopenedbeforeHim.ThepictureisnodoubtsuggestedbythecontrastbetweentheEternalGod
(Ps55:19)andthenewfangleddeitieswhichwerefromtimetotimeintroduced
(Jg5:8,Dt32:17),ratherthan,asHippolytus(quotedbyBehrmann,DasBuchDaniel,p.46)suggests,bytheideaofGodasmakingtheages
oldwithoutturningoldHimself.InthetroubloustimeswhicharerepresentedbytheBookofDaniel,itwasatonceacomfortandawarningto
rememberthatabovethefleetingphasesoflifetheresatOnewhoremainedeternallythesame(Ps90:13,102:2427).Atthesametimeitis
worthrememberingthatthephraseinitselfhasnomysticalsignificance,but,byanidiomcommoninHebrewasinotherlanguages,ismerely
aparaphraseforanoldman.
H.C.O.Lanchester.
ANDREW.OneofthetwelveApostles,SimonPetersbrother(Jn1:40).HebelongedtoBethsaidaofGalilee(v.44),theharbourtown
ofCapernaum(seeBethsaida),andwasafishermanonthelakeincompanywithSimon(Mt4:18=Mk1:16),whosehomehealsoshared
(Mk1:29).EreheknewJesushehadbeeninfluencedbythepreachingofJohntheBaptist,andbecamehisdisciple,anditwasonhearingthe
BaptiststestimonythatheattachedhimselftoJesus(Jn1:3540).HebroughthisbrotherSimontothenewlyfoundMessiah(v.41),thus
earningthedistinctionofbeingthefirstmissionaryoftheKingdomofheavenanditseemsthat,likethefavouredthree,heenjoyedaspecial
intimacywiththeMaster(Mk13:3).TraditionaddsthathewascrucifiedatPatrinAchaia,andhungaliveonthecrossfortwodays,
exhortingthespectatorsallthewhile.

DavidSmith.
ANDRONICUS.AChristiangreetedbySt.Paul(Ro16:7)asakinsman,
i.e.asafellowcountryman(cf.Ro9:3,16:11,21),whohadbeenimprisonedforChristdistinguishedasanApostle(inthelargestsenseofthe
name),andabelieverfromearlydays,havingperhapscometoRomeafterthepersecutionofAc11:19).
A.J.Maclean.
ANEM(1Ch6:73only).AtownofIssachar,noticedwithRamoth.ItappearstoanswertoEnGannim(wh.see)intheparallellist(Jos
21:29).
ANER.1.OneofthethreeAmoritechieftains,theothertwobeingMamreandEshcol,whowereincovenantwithAbraham(Gn14:13,65/172
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ANER.1.OneofthethreeAmoritechieftains,theothertwobeingMamreandEshcol,whowereincovenantwithAbraham(Gn14:13,
24).AsMamreisanoldnameforHebron(Gn23:2),andEshcolisthenameofavalleynotfarfromHebron(Nu13:23),itisnaturalto
supposethatAneralsowasthenameofalocalitywhichgaveitsnametoaclan.2.(1Ch6:70only).AtownofManasseh,westofJordan.
Thesiteisdoubtful.
ANGEL

1.OldTestament.ThatintheOTtheexistenceofangelsistakenforgranted,andthatthereforenoaccountoftheiroriginisgiven,isto
beexplainedbythefactthatbeliefinthemisbaseduponanearlierAnimism,suchasiscommontoallracesintheprepolytheisticstageof
culture.ThewholematerialforthedevelopmentofIsraeliteangelologywasathandreadytobeused.Itmustthereforenotcausesurpriseif
wefindthatinitsearlierstagesthedifferentiationbetweenJahwehandangelsshouldbeoneofdegreeratherthanofkind(seeAngelofthe
Lord).ThisisclearlybroughtoutintheearliestoftheBiblicaldocuments(J),e.g.inGn18hereJahwehisoneofthreewhoarerepresented
ascompanions,Jahwehtakingtheleadingposition,thoughequalhonourisshowntoallthatthetwomenwithJahwehareangelsisdirectly
assertedin19:1,wherewearetoldthattheywenttoSodom,afterithadbeensaidin18:33thatJahwehwenthisway.Moreover,Jahwehs
originalidentitywithanangel,accordingtotheearlyHebrewconception,isdistinctlyseenbycomparing,forexample,suchapassageasEx
3:2withv.4intheformeritistheangeloftheLordwhoappearsintheburningbush,inthelatteritisGodthereis,furthermore,direct
identificationinGn16:10,13,21:17ff.Intheearliestdocumentinwhichangelsarementioned(J)theyappearonlybytwosorthrees,inthe
laterdocument(E)theyappearingreaternumbers(Gn28:12,32:1,2)thisisjustwhatistobeexpected,forJ,theearlierdocument,
representsJahwehinalessexaltedform,whoHimselfcomesdowntoearth,andpersonallycarriesoutHispurposesbydegrees,however,
moreexaltedconceptionsofHimobtain,especiallyastheconceptionofHischaracteristicofholinessbecomesrealized,sothatHispresence
amongmencomestoappearincongruousandunfitting,andHisactivityisdelegatedtoHismessengersorangels(seeAngeloftheLord).

(a)TheEnglishwordangelistoospecificfortheHebrew(malakh)forwhichitistheusualequivalentforintheHebrewitisusedin
referencetomen(e.g.Gn32:4(3),Dt2:26,Jg6:35,Is33:7,Mal1:1),aswellastosuperhumanbeings.Besidesthewordmalakhthereare
severalotherexpressionsusedforwhatwouldcomeunderthecategoryofangels,viz.:sonsofGod(beneelohim),Gn6:2,4sonsofthe
mighty(beneelim),Ps89:7(8),29:1mightyones(gibborim),JL
4:11(3:11EV)theholyones(qedoshim),Zec14:5keepers(shmerim),Is62:6watchers(irim),Dn4:14(17).Therearealsothethree
expressions:thehostofJahweh(zebaJahweh ),Jos5:14thehostoftheheight(zebamarom),Is24:21thehostofheaven(zeba
shamaim),Dt17:3(seealsoCherubim,Seraphim).

(b)Angelsarerepresentedasappearinginhumanform,andashavingmanyhumancharacteristics:theyspeaklikemen(1K19:5)they
eat(Gn18:8)theyfight(Gn32:1,JL4:11,(3:11),cf.2S5:24)theypossesswisdom,withwhichthatofmeniscompared(2S14:17,20)
theyhaveimperfections(Job4:18).Ontheotherhand,theycanbecomeInvisible(2K6:17,Ps104:4),andtheycanfly,if,asappearstobe
thecase,seraphimaretobeincludedunderthecategoryofangels(Is
6:8).

(c)Thefunctionsofangelsmaybebrieflysummarizedthus:theyguidemen,
e.g.anangelguidesthechildrenofIsraelontheirwaytothepromisedland(Ex23:20ff.,seebelow),anditisbytheguidanceofanangelthat
AbrahamsservantgoesinquestofawifeforIsaac(Gn24:7,40)inJob33:23anangelguidesamaninwhatisrighttheyaremore
especiallytheguidesoftheprophets(1K13:18,19:5ff.,2K1:3,15,Zec1:9)theybringevilanddestructionuponmen(2S24:16,17,2K
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19:35,Ps35:6,78:49,Job33:22inPr16:14thewrathofakingislikenedtoangelsofdeath)ontheotherhand,theyaretheprotectorsof
men(Ps34:8,(7),91:11),andsavethemfromdestruction(Gn19:15ff.)theirpowerissuperhuman
(2K6:17,cf.Zec12:8)theyreporttoGodwhatisgoingonupontheearth(Job
1:6,2:1),forwhichpurposetheyarerepresentedasridingonhorseback(Zec1:8
10,cf.Ps18:11(10),Is19:1)theirchiefdutyaboveisthatofpraisingGod(Gn28:12,Ps103:20).Angelicbeingsseemtobereferredtoas
watchmeninIs62:6andDn4:14(17).AnearlymythologicalelementregardingangelsisperhapsreechoedinsuchpassagesasJg5:20,Is
40:25,26,andelsewhere.

(d)InEzekiel,angels,underthisdesignation,arenevermentioned,thoughtheangelologyofthisbookehowsconsiderabledevelopment
othernamesaregiventothem,buttheirmainfunction,viz.messengersofGod,isthesameasintheearlierbooksforexample,in2:2itisa
spirit,insteadofanangel,whoactsasanintermediarybeing,see,too,3:12ff.,11:5ff.in8:1ff.,40:1avisionisattributedtothehandof
theLordin40:3ff.,itisamanofasupernaturalkindwhoinstructstheprophetandagain,in9:5ff.,men,thoughclearlynotofhuman
kind(seev.11),destroythewickedinJerusalem.InEzk.,aswellasinZec.,angelstakeupaverydefinitepositionofintermediatebeings
betweenGodandman,oneoftheirchieffunctionsbeingthatofinterpretingvisionswhichDivineactioncreatesinthemindofmeninboth
thesebooksangelsarecalledmen,andinboththeearlierideaoftheAngeloftheLordhasitscounterpartintheprominentpositiontaken
upbysomeparticularangelwhoistheinterpreterofvisions.InZec.differentordersofangelsareforthefirsttimementioned(2:3,4,3:16,
4:1).InDanielthereisafurtherdevelopmenttheangelsaretermedwatchers(4:13,17),andprinces(10:13)theyhavenames,e.g.
Michael(10:13,12:1),Gabriel(8:16),andtherearespecialangels(princes)whofightforspecialnations(10:20,21).AsinZec.soinDaniel
therearedifferentordersamongtheangels,butinthelatterbookthedifferentcategoriesaremorefullydeveloped.

IntheattitudetakenupintheselaterbookswemayseethelinkbetweentheearlierbeliefanditsdevelopmentinpostBiblicalJewish
literature.Themainfactorswhichcontributedtothisdevelopmentwere,firstly,BabylonduringtheCaptivity,Babylonianinfluenceuponthe
JewsasserteditselfinthisaswellasinotherrespectsaccordingtoJewishtraditionthenamesoftheangelscamefromBabylon.Secondly,
PersianinfluencewasofamarkedcharacterinpostexilictimestheZoroastrianbeliefthatOrmuzdhadahostofpureangelsoflightwho
surroundedhimandfulfilledhiscommands,wasareadymadedevelopmentoftheJewishbelief,handeddownfrommuchearliertimes,that
angelswerethemessengersofJahweh.Laterstill,acertainamountofGreekinfluencewasalsoexerciseduponJewishangelology.

2.TheApocrypha.SomeofthecharacteristicsofangelshereareidenticalwithsomeofthosefoundintheOT,viz.:theyappearin
humanform(2Es1:40),theyspeaklikemen(To5:6ff.),theyguidemen(v.21),theybringdestructionuponmen(1Mac7:41,42)onthe
otherhand,theyhealmen(To3:17),theirpowerissuperhuman(12:19,Bel34ff.,Three26),andtheypraiseGod(2Es8:21,Three37).The
angelologyoftheApocryphais,however,farmorecloselyalliedtothatofEzk.,Zec.,andDanielthantheangelologyofthesetothatofthe
restoftheOTthiswillbeclearlyseenbyenumeratingbrieflythemaincharacteristicsofangelsasportrayedintheApocrypha.
In2Esdrasanangelfrequentlyappearsasaninstructorofheavenlythingsthusin10:28anangelcausesEsdrastofallintoatrancein
ordertoreceiveinstructioninspiritualmattersin2:42,afteranangelhasinstructedEsdras,thelatteriscommandedtotellotherswhathehad
learnedsometimesanangelisidentifiedwithGod,e.g.in5:40,41,7:3,butusuallythereisverydistinctdifferentiationsometimestheangel
seemsalmosttobethealteregoofEsdras,arguingwithhimself(cf.5:21,22,12:3ff.).InTo12:615therearesomeimportantdetails,here
anangelinstructsinmanneroflife,butmorestrikingistheteachingthathebringstoremembrancebeforeGodtheprayersofthefaithful,and
thathesuperintendstheburialofthedeadhehasaname,Raphael,andisoneofthesevenholyangels(archangels)whopresenttheprayers
ofthesaints,andwhogoconstantlyinandoutbeforethepresenceofGodthatthereareranksamongtheangelsisthustaughtheremore
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ofthesaints,andwhogoconstantlyinandoutbeforethepresenceofGodthatthereareranksamongtheangelsisthustaughtheremore
categoricallythaninthelaterBiblicalbooks.Further,theideaofguardianangelsischaracteristicoftheApocryphathatindividualshave
theirguardianangelsisclearlyimpliedinTo5:21,thatarmieshavesuchistaughtin2Mac11:6,15:23,whilein2Mac3:25ff.occursa
JewishcounterpartoftheRomanlegendofCastorandPolluxthereispossibly,inSir17:17,anindicationthatnationsalsohavetheir
guardianangelsifso,itwouldbethelinealdescendantoftheearlyIsraelitebeliefinnationalgods.Thedealingsofangelswithmenareofa
veryvariedcharacter,forbesidesthedetailsalreadyenumerated,wehavethesefurtherpoints:inBar6:3ff.anangelistobethemeans
wherebytheIsraelitesinBabylonshallbehelpedtowithstandthetemptationtoworshipthefalsegodsofthelandinTo6:7,16,17anangel
describesamethodwherebyanevilspiritmaybedrivenawayinv.8anangelgivesaremedyforhealingblindnessinBel34ff.anangel
takestheprophetHabakkukbythehairandcarrieshimfromJudahtoBabylonia,inorderthathemaysharehisdinnerwithDanielinthe
lionsdenand,oncemore,inThree26,27anangelsmitestheflameofthefurnaceintowhichthethreeheroeshadbeencast,andmakesa
coolwindtoblowinitsplace(cf.Dn3:23ff.).

Itwillthusbeseenthattheactivitiesofangelsare,accordingtotheApocrypha,ofaveryvariedcharacter.Onefurtherimportantfact
remainstobenoted:theyarealmostinvariablythebenefactorsofman,theirpowerfartranscendsthatofman,sometimesanangelis
identifiedwithGod,yetinspiteofthis,withonepossibleexception,2Mac4:1013,noworshipiseverofferedtothemthisistruealsoofthe
OT,exceptingwhenanangelisidentifiedwithJahwehintheNTthereisatleastonecaseoftheworshipofanangel,Rev22:8,9,cf.Col
2:18.TheangelologyoftheApocryphaisexpandedtoanalmostunlimitedextentinlaterJewishwritings,moreespeciallyintheBookof
Enoch,intheTargums,andintheTalmudbutwiththesewearenotconcernedhere.

3.NewTestament.(a)IntheGospelsitisnecessarytodifferentiatebetweenwhatissaidbyChristHimselfonthesubjectandwhatis
narratedbytheEvangelists.Christsteachingregardingangelsmaybesummedupthus:Theirdwellingplaceisinheaven(Mt18:10,Lk12:8,
9,Jn1:51)theyaresuperiortomen,butintheworldtocometherighteousshallbeonanequalitywiththem(Lk20:36)theycarryawaythe
soulsoftherighteoustoaplaceofrest(Lk16:22)theyare(asseemstobeimplied)ofneithersex(Mt22:30)theyareverynumerous(Mt
26:53)theywillappearwithChristatHissecondcoming[itisinconnexionwiththisthatmostofChristsreferencestoangelsaremadeMt
13:39,16:27,24:31,25:31,Mk8:38,Lk9:26,cf.Jn1:51]therearebadaswellasgoodangels(Mt25:41),thoughitisusuallyofthelatter
thatmentionismadetheyarelimitedinknowledge(Mt24:36)thereareguardianangelsofchildren(Mt18:10)theyrejoiceatthetriumph
ofgood(Lk15:10).TurningtotheEvangelists,wefindthatthemainfunctionofangelsistodeliverGodsmessagestomen(e.g.Mt1:20,
2:10,28:5,Lk1:28,24:23).OnonlyoneoccasionareangelsbroughtintodirectcontactwithChrist(Mt4:11,withtheparallelpassageMk
1:13),anditisnoteworthythatinthecorrespondingverseintheThirdGospel(Lk4:13)thereisnomentionofangels.Thusthemain
differencesbetweenChriststeachingonangelsandthatwhichwentbeforearethattheyarenotactiveamongmen,theirabodeandtheirwork
areratherintherealmsabovetheyarenottheintermediariesbetweenGodandmen,foritiseitherChristHimself,ortheHolySpirit,who
speaksdirectlytomenmuchemphasisislaidontheirpresencewithChristatHissecondcoming.Ontheotherhand,theearlierbeliefis
reflectedintheGospelangelophanles,whichareamarkedcharacteristicoftheNativityandResurrectionnarrativesthoughhere,too,a
distinctandsignificantdifferenceisfoundinthattheangelisalwaysclearlydifferentiatedfromGod.

(b)IntheActsthereseemstobeareturntotheearlierbeliefs,angelicappearancestomenbeingfrequentlymentioned(5:19,7:30,11:13,
12:8etc.)theiractivityintheaffairsofmenisinsomewhatstartlingcontrastwiththesilenceofChristonthesubject.Itispossiblethatmost
ofthereferencesintheActswillpermitofanexplanationinthedirectionoftheangelicalappearancesbeingsubjectivevisions(e.g.8:26,
10:3,27:23,24)butsuchoccurrencesasarerecordedin5:19,20,12:7(bothbelongingtothePetrineministry)wouldrequireadifferent
explanationwhilethatmentionedin12:23wouldseemtobethepopularexplanationofaneventwhichcouldeasilybeaccountedfornowin68/172
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explanationwhilethatmentionedin12:23wouldseemtobethepopularexplanationofaneventwhichcouldeasilybeaccountedfornowin
otherways.Themention,in12:15,ofwhatiscalledSt.Petersangelgivessomeinsightintothecurrentpopularviewsconcerningangelsit
seemsclearthatadistinctionwasmadebetweenanangelandaspirit(Ac23:8,9).
(c)InthePaulineEpistlestheoriginofangelsisstatedtobetheircreationby
Christ(Col1:16)asintheActs,theyareconcernedwiththeaffairsofmen(1Co4:9,11:10,Ro8:38,1Ti5:21)atthesametimeSt.Paul
emphasizestheteachingofChristthatGodspeakstomendirectly,andnotthroughtheintermediacyofangels(Gal1:12,cf.Ac9:5)inCol
2:18awarningagainsttheworshippingofangelsisuttered,withwhichcomparetheworshippingofdemonsin1Co10:21inaccordance
withChriststeachingSt.PaulspeaksofthepresenceofangelsattheSecondComing(2Th1:7).

(d)IntheEp.totheHebrewsthestandpoint,aswouldbeexpected,isthatoftheOT,whileintheApocalypsetheangelologyisthat
commontootherapocalypticliterature(cf.alsothearchangelofJude9).
W.O.E.Oesterley.
ANGELOFTHELORD(JAHWEH),calledalsotheAngelofGod.Heoccupiesaspecialanduniquepositionheisnotmerelyone
amongtheangels,albeitagreatone,butonesuigeneris,inaspecialwayJahwehsrepresentativeamongmen.Hemayberegardedasinsome
sensetheguardianangelofthenationofIsrael,inthatheappearstobethenationsrepresentativeatimportantcrises(e.g.Gn22:11,15ff.,Ex
3:2,14:19,23:23,Nu22:22,Jg6:11,2K1:3,Zec1:9).

Heappearsinhumanform,andmostofthecharacteristicsofangelsgenerallyarehis.Themaindifficultywithregardtohimisthatwhile
insomepassagesheisidentifiedwithJahwehHimself(e.g.Gn48:15,16,Jg6:1124),inothersthereisadistinctdifferentiation,(e.g.Gn
16:11,21:17,24:7inthislastheisspokenofashavingbeensentfromJahweh)thisdifferentiationbecomesmoreandmoremarkedinthe
laterbooks(e.g.Zec1:12).Thecontradictionherepresentedcanbeadequatelyexplainedonlyonthesuppositionthattheevolutionofthought
onthesubjectmusthaverunsomewhatonthefollowinglines.FromtheearliestangelologyoftheHebrews,itselftheoffspringofstillearlier
Animisticconceptions(seeAngel),thereemergedthefigureofJahwehoriginally,i.e.longbeforethetimeofMoses,Jahwehmust,inthe
popularmind,havebeenregardedasbelongingtotheangelichost,andbydegreesHeassumedamoreandmoreexaltedpositionas
subjectiverevelationincreased,themorefullydidthepersonalityofJahwehbecomerealized,andHissuperioritytotheangelsrecognized,
thoughintheprocessitwasinevitablethatthedifferentiationshouldnotalwaysbecomplete.Whenultimately,undertheMosaicdispensation,
theholycharacterandtherealnatureofJahwehbegantobeapprehended,thebeliefthatHepersonallyappearedamongmennecessarily
becamemoreandmoreuntenablehence,whileJahwehHimselfrecededfurtherfrommen,Hismessenger,orangel,appearedinHisstead,
andbecameHisrepresentativeinallHisdealingswithmen.Whatmusthavebeensucharevolutioninthetimehonouredfaithwouldmeet
withmanyretrogrademovementsbeforeitfinallytriumphed,asisshownbysuchpassagesasJg6:19ff.
Somesuchprocessmustbepredicatedinordertounderstandtheotherwiseunaccountablecontradictionreferredtoabove.
TheangeloftheLordspokenofintheNT(e.g.Mt1:20,Lk2:9)mustnotbeconfoundedwiththeOTAngelofJahwehanOTparallel
istobefoundratherinsuchapassageasZec3:6,7,wheretheangelisoneofakind,nottheonlyoneofhiskind.

W.O.E.Oesterley.

ANGELSOFTHESEVENCHURCHES(Rev1:20,2,3).1.Accordingtoonesetofopinions,theseangelsweremen,andthe
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ANGELSOFTHESEVENCHURCHES(Rev1:20,2,3).1.Accordingtoonesetofopinions,theseangelsweremen,andthe
majorityofwritershaveheldthemtobe(1)thepresidingpresbytersorbishopsoftheirrespectivechurches.Butwhilethisviewisattractive
andpopular,thereasonsagainstitarestrong.Humanofficialscouldhardlybemaderesponsiblefortheirchurchesastheseangelsare.A
bishopmightbecalledanangel,i.e.amessenger,ofGodorofChrist(cf.Hag1:13,Mal2:7,2Co5:20),butwouldhebecalledtheangelof
thechurch?Aboveall,itiscertainthatattheearlydatetowhichtheApocalypseisnowgenerallyassignedasettledepiscopatewasunknown.
(2)Othershavesupposedthattheangelswerecongregationalrepresentatives,churchmessengersordeputies(whichwouldbeinharmony
withthepropermeaningofthewordangel),oreventhepersonwhoactedasReadertotheassembledchurch(noticehethatreadethinv.
3).Butiftheresponsibilityputupontheangelsistoogreatforbishops,itismuchtoogreatforanylesserfunctionaries.Besides,thegloryand
dignityassignedtothemasthestarsofthechurches(1:20)isinconsistentwithapositionlikethatofamereReaderordeputy.

2.Agoodmanyhaveheldthatangelsistobeunderstoodinitsordinary
Scripturalapplication,nottomen,buttocelestialbeings.Insupportofthisare(1)thefactthatthroughouttherestofthebooktheGr.word,
whichisofveryfrequentoccurrence,isinvariablyusedinthissense(2)ourLordsutteranceinMt18:10,whichsuggestsadoctrineof
angelicguardianship(3)thefactthatinDaniel,towhichtheApocalypseissocloselyrelated,theguardianshipofangelsisextendedto
nations(12:1).Theobjections,however,areserious.NodefiniteScripturalteachingcanbeadducedinfavouroftheideathatchurcheshave
theirguardianangels.Messagesintendedforchurcheswouldhardlybeaddressedtocelestialbeings.Moreover,itisscarcelyconceivablethat
suchbeingswouldbeidentifiedwithparticularchurchesinalltheirinfidelitiesandshortcomingsandtransgressions,astheseangelsare(see,
e.g.,3:1,15ff.).
3.Themostprobableview,accordingly,isthattheangelsarepersonificationsoftheirchurchesnotactualpersonseitheronearth
orinheaven,butidealrepresentatives.Itisthechurch,ofcourse,thatreceivestheletter,theThouofaddresshavingmanifestlya
collectiveforce,anditistothechurchitselfthattheletterissent(cf.1:11,wherethereisnomentionoftheangels).Theideaofangelswas
suggested,nodoubt,bythelaterJewishbeliefsonthesubject,butitisusedinafigurativemannerwhichsuitsthewholefigurative
treatment,wheretheglorifiedJesuswalksamongthegoldencandlesticks,andsendstothechurchesmessagesthatarecouchedinhighly
metaphoricallanguage.Itmightseemtobeagainstthisidealviewthatthesevenchurches,ascandlesticks,aredefinitelydistinguished
fromthesevenangels,asstars(1:12,16,20).Butitisquiteinkeepingwiththeinevitabledistinctionbetweenanactualandanideal
churchthattheyshouldbethuscontrastedasalampandastar.

J.C.Lambert.
ANGER.InOTangerrepresentsaboutadozenHeb.roots,whichoccurasnouns,vbs.(onceangeredisusedtransitively,Ps106:32),
andadjs.Byfarthemostfrequentwordsareanaph(lit.tosnort)anditsderiv.nounaph,whichisusedoftheangerbothofmen(Gn27:45,
30:2,Ex11:8,32:19etc.)andGod(Ex4:14,32:22,Ps6:1,7:6etc.).InNTangerisofmuchlessfrequentoccurrence,andrepresentsonly2
roots:(1)thenounorg(wh.,however,isusuallytr.wrath),thevb.orgizomai,theadj.orglos(onlyinTit1:7),andthetrans.vb.parorgiz
(Ro10:19,theonlycaseofatrans,useofangerinNT)(2)thevb.chola(lit.tobefullofbile,fr.chol,bile),usedonlyinJn7:23to
expressthebitterangeroftheJewsagainstJesus.Withregardtothedistinctionbetweenorgandthesynon.thumos,itistobenotedthat
whileorgisveryoftentr.wrath,thumosisnevertr.anger,andwhenthetwowordsoccurtogether,thumosineachcaseiswrath(Ro2:8,
Eph4:31,Col3:8)andorganger(Eph4:31,Col3:8)orindignation(Ro2:8).Thumosisthemoreviolentword,denotingangerasa
strongpassionoremotion,whileorgpointsrathertoasettledmoralindignation.ThusorgisusedofthesorrowfulangerofJesus(Mk3:5)
thumosoftherageofHisenemies(Lk4:28cf.Ac19:28).And,outsideoftheApocalypse,thumosisappliedalmostexclusivelytothewrath
ofmen(theonlyexceptionbeingRo2:8),whileorginthegreatmajorityofcases(Mt3:7,Jn3:36,Ro1:18etc.)denotestherighteous
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ofmen(theonlyexceptionbeingRo2:8),whileorginthegreatmajorityofcases(Mt3:7,Jn3:36,Ro1:18etc.)denotestherighteous
indignationofGod.

J.C.Lambert.
ANGER(WRATH)OFGOD.ItmightseemthattheideaoftheDivineanger,manifestingitselfinjudgmentsofdestruction,belongsto
anearlyandanthropomorphicstageofreligion.Yet,onthewhole,theBiblicalconceptionwillbefoundconsistentandprofoundlyethical.
GodisholyatermwhichseemstounitealltheunapproachableperfectionsofDeity,especiallyHismajestyandawfulpurity.HeistheHoly
OneofIsrael,incovenantrelationwithanationtowhomHehasrevealedHimselfasholy,andwhomHewillfashionwithslowredemptive
purposeintoanholypeople.Moreover,Godisrighteous,amoralgovernorandlawgiver,demandingobedienceandpunishingtransgression
ofHiscommands.TheDivineholinessisnotanelementinanabstractconceptionofDeity:itisnotapassiveperfection,butanactive
attributeofaselfrevealingandredeemingGod.Itfollowsthatonesideofthisactivityisnecessarilyareactionagainst,arepudiationof,what
isunholyandunrighteousinHiscreatures.ThisdispositiontowardssinistheangerorwrathofGod.InthehistoryofIsraelitappearsasa
terriblefactorinthedisciplineofthenationtorighteousness:theungrateful,therebellious,andespeciallytheidolatrous,aredestroyedbyfire
andsword,pestilenceandfamine(Ps78,Dt32:1543).SojealousisGodforHisholiness,thatevenaccidentalprofanationofitssymbol,
theArk,isvisitedbyextremepenalty(1S6:18,20,2S6:7).ButtheangeroftheLord,thoughfierce,isalsojust:itisprovokedbymoral
causesandformoralends,andisavertedbypenitenceandmoralacquiescenceintherighteousnessofHisjudgments(Ex32,Lv10:8,Nu
25:11,Dt13:17).PsalmistandProphetdwelluponthesubordinationoftheDivineangertotheDivinemercy.Godisslowtoanger(Ps
103:8,145:8,JL2:13,Jon4:2,Nah1:3),andHisangerpassesaway(Ps30:6,Is12:1,Jer3:12,Mic7:18).

YetthewrathofGodremainsanessentialelementofHisrevelationthroughtheprophets,arealDivineattribute,conplementary,not
antithetictotheDivinemercy(Is1:1820,5:25,42:25,54:8).IntheNT,althoughthestresshasshiftedtotheloveofGodrevealedtothe
worldinJesusChrist,theangerofGodstillholdsplace.TheteachingofJesus,whilerefusingtoseeinallphysicalillstheDivinedispleasure
againstsin(Lk13:15,Jn9:3),containsimpressivewarningoftheterriblerealityofGodsjudgments(Lk13:36,Mt25:30,41,Lk12:5).In
St.Paulswritingsthisconceptionofjudgment,heldinreserveagainstunrepentantsin,isexpressedinthephrasethewrathofGod,or,more
simply,thewrath(Ro1:18,Eph5:6,Col3:6,Ro2:8,5:8).Thereisacomingdayofwrath(Ro2:5,cf.Mt3:7)sinfulmanunredeemedby
Christisnecessarilyavesselofwrath,achildofwrath(Ro9:22,Eph2:3).

ItistruethattheNTreferencestoGodsangeraremainlyeschatologicalandcontainfigurativeelements(seeesp.Rev6:16thewrathof
theLamb,11:18,14:10,16:19,19:15).ButforthesignificanceoftheDivinewrathasanethicalnecessityinGod,thoughHisfundamental
attributeislove,itmayhenotedthat(1)thewriterthroughwhomtherevelationoftheDivineloveattainsitsculminatingexpression(Godis
love,1Jn4:8)declaresalsoofhimthatobeysnottheSon,thewrathofGodahidethonhim(Jn3:36).(2)TheEpistlewhichshowshowin
ChristthealoofnessandterrorofIsraelsworshiparedoneawayinfavouroffullandfreeaccesstoathroneofgrace,has,astheclimaxto
itsglowingdescriptionofChristianprivilege,thesolemnwarningourGodisaconsumingfire(He12:1828).
S.W.Green.
ANGLE.Is19:8,Hab1:15.ThesameHeb.wordistranslatedbookinJob
41:1.

ANIAM.AmanofManasseh(1Ch7:19).
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ANIAM.AmanofManasseh(1Ch7:19).
ANIM(Jos15:60only).AtownofJudah,inthemountainsnearEshtemoh.Itseemsprobablethatitisthepresentdoubleruinof
Ghuwein,westofEshtemoh.
ANISE(RVdill,Mt23:23)isthefamiliarplantAnethumgraveolens,oneoftheUmbellifer.ItisindigenousinPalestine,andis
extensivelyusedbothincookingandintheformofdillwaterasadomesticremedyforflatulence.ItisexpresslystatedinJewishwriters
thatthedillwassubjecttotithe.
E.W.G.Masterman.
ANKLECHAINS,ANKLETS.SeeOrnaments,1.
ANNA(theGreekformofHeb.Hannah,whichmeansgrace).Thenameofanagedprophetess(Lk2:3538),oneofthegodlyremnant
inIsraelwhointhedarkdayswhichprecededtheMessiahsadventwerelookingforthedayspringfromonhighandwaitingforthe
consolationofIsrael.ShewasthedaughterofPhanuel,andbelongedtotheancienttribeofAsher,whosewomenwerecelebratedfortheir
beauty,whichfittedthemforweddingwithhighpriestsandkings.Shehadattainedagreatage,upwardsofahundredyears,sinceshehad
beenawifeforsevenyearsandawidowforeightyfour(seeRV).Shebadgivenherselftoalifeofdevotion,frequentingtheTempleand
worshippingwithfastingsandsupplicationsnightandday(cf.1Ti5:6).AtthePresentationoftheInfantMessiah(Lk2:2224)sheentered
thesacredcourt,and,hearingSimeonsbenedictionandprophecy,tookuptherefrainofpraiseandtalkedabouttheHolyChildtohergodly
intimates,quickeningtheirhopeandpreparingawelcomefortheSaviourwhenHeshouldbyandbybemanifesteduntoIsrael.

DavidSmith.
ANNAS.1.Highpriestfroma.d.6to15,anastuteandpowerfulecclesiasticalstatesman.AtthetimeofourLordstrialhewasmerely
highpriestemeritus,andhissoninlawCaiaphas,theactinghighpriest,presidedexofficiooverthemeetingoftheSanhedrin(Jn18:24,Mt
26:67).Nevertheless,sincethehighpriestemeritusretainednotonlyhistitle(cf.Jn18:15,16,19,22,Ac4:6),butallhisobligationsand
manyofhisprerogatives,itisnotsurprisingthatthemasterfulAnnastookanactiveandindependentpartintheproceedings.AfterJesus
arrestatdeadofnight,theyledhimtoAnnasfirst(Jn18:13).TheSanhedrinmightnotmeetuntildaybreak,andtheintervalseemedwell
employedinapreliminaryexaminationoftheprisonerbytheskilfulveteran(Jn18:12,1923).Subsequentlybetookpartalsointhetrialof
PeterandJohn(Ac4:6).2.1Es9:32=Ezr10:31Harim.

DavidSmith.
ANNIS.TheeponymofafamilythatreturnedwithZerubbabel(1Es5:16).
OmittedinEzr.andNeh.
ANNUS.ALevite(1Es9:48=Neh8:7Bani).
ANNUUS(1Es8:48).ThenamedoesnotoccurinEzr8:19.
ANOINTING,ANOINTED.1.TheHebrewsdistinguishedbetweenanointingwithoilinthesenseofitsapplicationtothebodyin
ordinarylife(suk),andanointingbypouringsacredoilontheheadasariteofconsecration(mshach).Asregardstheformer,oliveoil,alone
ormixedwithperfumes,waslargelyusedintheeverydaytoiletoftheHebrews,althoughamongthepooritsusewouldbereservedforspecial
occasions(Ru3:8).Toabstainfromanointinginthissensewasoneofthetokensofmourning(2S14:2),itsresumptionasignthatmourning72/172
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occasions(Ru3:8).Toabstainfromanointinginthissensewasoneofthetokensofmourning(2S14:2),itsresumptionasignthatmourning
wasatanend(12:20).Honourwasshowntoaguestbyanointinghisheadwithoil(Ps23:5,Lk7:46),andstillmorebyanointinghisfeet(Lk
7:38).FormedicinalanointingseeOil.

2.Anointingasareligiousritewasappliedtobothpersonsandthings.Kingsinparticularwereconsecratedfortheirhighofficebyhaving
oilpouredupontheirheads,apracticewhichseemstohaveoriginatedinEgypt.ThoughfirstmetwithinOTinthecaseofSaul(1S10:1,cf.
David,2S2:4,5:3,Solomon,1K1:39etc.),theritewaspractisedinCanaanlongbeforetheHebrewconquest.Bythepouringofthe
consecratedoiluponthehead(see2K9:3),therewaseffectedatransferencetothepersonanointedofpartoftheessentialholinessandvirtue
ofthedeityinwhosenameandbywhoserepresentativetheritewasperformed.BytheHebrewstheritewasalsobelievedtoimpartaspecial
endowmentofthespiritofJ(1S16:13,cf.Is61:1).HencethesacrosanctcharacterofthekingastheLordsanointed(Heb.meshiach
[Jahweh],whichbecameinGreekmessiasor,translated,christosbothMessiahandChrist,therefore,signifyingtheanointed).The
applicationofthishonorifictitletokingsaloneintheoldestliteraturemakesitprobablethatthesimilarconsecrationofthepriesthood(Ex
29:7,40:1315,LV8:112)wasalaterextensionoftherite.Onlyoneexceptionalinstanceisrecordedoftheanointingofaprophet(1K
19:16Is61:1ismetaphorical).
Inthecaseofinanimateobjects,wefindearlymentionoftheprimitiveandwidespreadcustomofanointingsacredstones(Gn28:18etc.,
seePillar),andinthePriestsCodethetabernacleanditsfurnitureweresimilarlyconsecrated(Ex30:29ff.,40:9).For2S1:21seeWar.See
alsoMary,No.2.

A.R.S.Kennedy.

ANON.Acontractionforinone(moment),anonmeansatonce,asMt13:20hethatreceivedtheseedintostonyplaces,thesameis
bethatheareththeword,andanon(RVstraightway)withjoyreceivethit.
ANOS.1Es9:34=Vaniah,Ezr10:36.
ANSWER.Anansweris(1)anapologyordefence,as2Ti4:16atmyfirstanswernomanstoodbymesoperhaps1P3:21the
answerofagoodconscience(2)oracle,Divineresponse,asRo11:4whatsaiththeanswerof
God?
ANT(nemlh,Arab.namlah).AntsareexceedinglyabundantalloverPalestine,where,throughtheirvastnumbers,theyperforma
mostimportantrle,bycontinuallychangingthesurfacesoilinthewayearthwormsdoinnortherncountries.Nomoreaptillustrationof
diligence(Pr6:68)couldbefoundthantheselittleinsects,which,inallbutthewettestweather,canbeseenscurryingbackwardsand
forwardsonthelongtrackstheyhavemade.SomecommonvarietiesofPalestineants(Aphnogasterbarbara,A.structorandPheidole
megacephala)storeupgreatquantitiesofvariouskindsofseeds,whichtheyareable,insomeunknownway,topreventgerminatingandmake
useofasfood(Pr30:25).Wholetroopsoftheselittleinsectsmaybeseencarryingseeds,oftenmanytimestheirownsizeandweight,froma
distantgardenorcornfield.Thewriterhasevenseenaprocessionofantscarryingtheirharvestunderthethicknessofabroadmudwall
whichboundedthecornfield,andthenacrossawideandfrequentedroad.Thestoresofseedssocollectedhavebeenfoundsogreatthatthe
Mishnalaiddownrulesinregardtotheirownership.Iftheywerediscoveredinthefieldbeforereaping,theybelongedtotheowner,butif
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afterwards,theywereallorinpartforthepoor.ThesagacityoftheantinthisandotherrespectsiswidelyrecognizedbothinOrientallore
asinPr30:24,25andevenmoreforciblybythemodernnaturalist.

E.W.G.Masterman.
ANTELOPE(RV).Adoubtfultranslationofte,Dt14:5andIs51:20.Tradition,ouronlyguidehere,isinfavourofOx[wh.see].

E.W.G.Masterman.
ANTHOTHIJAH.AmanofBenjamin(1Ch8:24).
ANTICHRIST.ThegreatopponentandcounterpartofChrist,bywhomheisfinallytobeconquered.ThewordappearsonlyintheNT
(1Jn2:1822,4:3,2Jn7),buttheideawaspresentinJudaismanddevelopedwiththegrowthoftheMessianichope.
1.Theoriginoftheconception.WhiletheprecisetermAntichristislackinginJewishliterature,theideaofanopponentwho
persecutesGodspeopleandisultimatelytobeconqueredbytheMessiah,isanintegralpartofthatgeneralhope,borninProphetism,which
developedintoMessianismintheNTperiod.AsinthecaseofsomanyelementsofMessianism,thebeginningoftheopponentideamay
fairlybesaidtohavebeenDn11:36(cf.alsoZec1214),wherethereferenceistoAntiochusIV.butitwouldbeamistaketoseeinthe
AntichristconceptionoftheJohannineliteratureanunprecedenteddescriptionofdistinctpersonalities.Thereseemstohavebeenrathera
graduallydevelopingantiMessianicscheme,whichatmanypointsduplicatedthedevelopingMessianichope.Thisgeneralconception,which
playedanimportantrleinearlyChristianity,wasprobablyduetothesynthesisofatleastfivefactors,eachindependentinorigin.

(a)ThehistoricalopponentsoftheJews,suchasAntiochusIV.,Pompey,andtheRomanEmpireingeneral(cf.thepositionofGogin
Propheticthought).ThesenaturallyarousedthemostintensehatredonthepartoftheJews,particularlythoseundertheinfluenceof
Pharisaism.TheirhostilitywasregardedasextendingnotonlytotheJewsasanation,butasheathen,toJehovahhimself,andparticularlyto
HisplansfortheJewishpeople.ThispoliticalhatredofthePhariseesenteredintotheAntichristexpectation,justastheirpoliticalhopewent
intotheMessianicprogramme.Bothaliketendedtogrowtranscendental.
(b)ThedualismofBabyloniaandPersia,especiallyasitwasexpressedbythedragon,betweenwhomandtheagentsofrighteousness
therewastobeafighttothedeath.Thisdragonconceptionmaywithmuchprobabilitybeseennotonlyintheidentificationoftheserpentof
theTemptationwiththedevil,butalsointhebeastoftheJohannineApocalypse,thegreatopponentoftheChrist,andintheseamonsterof
Rabbinism.

(c)TheBeliar(orBelial)myth,whichunderliestheNTthought(cf.2Co6:15),aswellasJewishfears.ThefirstreferencetoBeliarseems
tohavebeeninJubilees1:20,butthemythisnotunlikethatoftheBabylonianTiamat,queenoftheabyss,whowasconqueredbyMarduk.
SubsequentlyhewasidentifiedwithSatan,whowasalsoidentifiedwiththedragon(cf.Ascens.Is4:3,4,Rev12:10).Thisidentificationwas
thefirststeptowardsthefullydevelopedexpectationoftheTalmud,ofaconflictbetweenGodandthedevil.
(d)BeliefinthereturnfromdeathofthepersecutingEmperorNero.Thisexpectationseemstohavebeenwidelydiffusedthroughoutthe
RomanEmpireinthelatterpartofthefirstChristiancentury(Sib.Or.iv.119150,v.363ff.),andliesbehindthefiguresofRev13,16,and
17.HeisapparentlytoreturnwiththekingsofParthia,butheisalso,inRev17:811,identifiedwiththebeastoftheabyss(cf.Sib.Or.v.28
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17.HeisapparentlytoreturnwiththekingsofParthia,butheisalso,inRev17:811,identifiedwiththebeastoftheabyss(cf.Sib.Or.v.28
34).

(e)ThemythofSimonMagus,orthatofthefalseprophet.ThismythseemstohavebeencommoninChristiancircles,andSimonMagus
(wh.see)becamethetypical(Jewish)prophetandmagicianwhoopposedChristianity.

2.Synthesisoftheelements.Thesevariouselementspossesssomuchincommonthatitwasinevitablethattheyshouldbecombinedin
thefigureoftheSatanicopponentwhomtheChristwouldutterlydestroyasapreconditionofestablishingHisKingdomofGod.Astudyof
theBookofRevelation,aswellasofotherNTwritings(e.g.2Th2:112,2Co6:15,1Jn2:1822,4:3,2Jn7,Rev11:413,13:118,17,
19:1121,Mk13:1420),willshowthattherewasalwayspresentinthemindsofthewritersoftheNTasuperhumanfigure,Satanicinpower
andcharacter,whowastobetheheadofoppositionbothtothepeopleofChristandtotheChristHimself.Thispersonisrepresentedin
AssumptionofMoses(ch.8),AscensionofIsaiah(ch.4),aswellasinotherJewishwritings,asonewhopossessedtheSatanicsupremacy
overthearmyofdevils.Hewasnotageneraltendency,butadefinitepersonality.Assuchitwaseasytoseehiscounterpartorincarnationin
historicalcharacters.Indeed,theentireantiMessianicprogrammewasemployedtocharacterizehistoricalsituations.Wemustthinksimilarly
oftheuseofthemanoflawlessnessofSt.Paul(2Th2:3seeManofSin)andthevariousopponentsofChristintheApocalypse.
TranscendentalpicturesandcurrenteschatologysetforththeChristiansfearontheonehandoftheRomanEmperororEmpireasa
persecutingpower,andontheotherofJewishfanaticism.Justwhichhistoricalpersonswereinthemindofthewritersitisnowimpossibleto
saywithaccuracy,butNeroandDomitianarenotunlikely.

InthePatristicperiodtheeschatologicalaspectsoftheantiMessianichopeweredeveloped,butagainasamysticalpictureofhistorical
conditionseitherexistingorexpected.InEphraemSyruswehavethefalloftheRomanEmpireattributedtoAntichrist.Heisalsobytheearly
ChurchwriterssometimesidentifiedwiththefalseJewishMessiah,whowastoworkmiracles,rebuildtheTemple,andestablishagreat
empirewithdemonsashisagents.UndertheinspirationofthetwoWitnesses(ElijahandEnoch)theMessianicrevoltagainsttheAntichrist
wastobegin,theBookofRevelationbeinginterpretedliterallyatthispoint.Thesaintsweretobeexposedtothemiseriesthatthebook
describes,buttheMessiahwastoslayAntichristwiththebreathofHismouth,andestablishtheJudgmentandtheconditionsofeternity.
ThusinChristianliteraturethatfusionoftheelementsoftheAntichristideawhichwerepresentinJudaismandlaterChristianityis
completedbytheadditionofthetraitsofthefalseprophet,andextendedundertheinfluenceofthecurrentpolemicagainstJewish
Messianism.ThefigureofAntichrist,Satanic,Neronic,falselyprophetic,theenemyofGodandHisKingdom,movesoutintotheological
history,tobeidentifiedbysuccessiveageswithnearlyeverygreatopponentoftheChurchanditsdoctrines,whetherpersecutororheretic.

ShailerMathews.
ANTILIBANUS.Jth1:7.SeeLebanon.
ANTIMONY.Is54:11RVm.SeeEye.
ANTIOCH(Syrian).BytheissueofthebattleofIpsus,SeleucusNikator(b.c.312280)securedtheruleovermostofAlexanderthe
GreatsAsiaticempire,whichstretchedfromtheHellespontandtheMediterraneanontheonesidetotheJaxartesandIndusontheother.The
Seleuciddynasty,whichhefounded,lastedfor247years.Possessedwithamamaforbuildingcitiesandcallingthemafterhimselforhis
relatives,hefoundednofewerthan37,ofwhich4arementionedintheNT(1)AntiochofSyria(Ac11:19),(2)Seleucia(Ac13:4),(3)
AntiochofPisidia(Ac13:14,14:21,2Ti3:11),and(4)Laodicea(Col4:1316,Rev1:11,3:14).Themostfamousofthe16Antiochs,which75/172
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AntiochofPisidia(Ac13:14,14:21,2Ti3:11),and(4)Laodicea(Col4:1316,Rev1:11,3:14).Themostfamousofthe16Antiochs,which
hebuiltandnamedafterhisfatherAntiochus,wasAntiochontheOrontesinSyria.Thespotwascarefullychosen,andreligioussanction
giventoitbytheinventionofastorythatsacredbirdshadrevealedthesitewhilehewatchedtheirflightfromaneighbouringeminence.It
waspoliticallyofadvantagethattheseatofempireshouldberemovedfromtheEuphratesvalleytoalocalitynearertheMediterranean.The
newcitylayinthedeepbendoftheLevant,about300milesN.ofJerusalem.Though14milesfromthesea,thenavigableriverOrontes,on
whoseleftbankitwasbuilt,uniteditwithSeleuciaanditssplendidharbour.Connectedthusbythemaincaravanroadswiththecommerceof
Babylon,Persia,andIndia,andwithaseaportkeepingitintouchwiththegreatworldtotheW.,Antiochspeedilyfellheirtothatvasttrade
whichhadoncebeenthemonopolyofTyre.ItsseaportSeleuciawasagreatfortress,likeGibraltarorSebastopol.Seleucusattractedtohis
newcapitalthousandsofJews,byofferingthemequalrightsofcitizenshipwithalltheotherinhabitants.Thecitizensweredividedinto18
wards,andeachcommuneattendedtoitsownmunicipalaffairs.

Hissuccessor,AntiochusI.,Soter(b.c.280261),introducedanabundantwatersupplyintothecity,sothateveryprivatehousehadits
ownpipe,andeverypublicspotitsgracefulfountain.HefurtherstrovetorenderAntiochtheintellectualrivalofAlexandria,byinvitingtohis
courtscholars,suchasAratustheastronomer,andbysuperintendingthetranslationintoGreekoflearnedworksinforeigntongues.Inthis
waytheinvaluablehistoryofBabylonbyBerosus,theChaldanpriest,hasbeenrescuedfromoblivion.

ThesuccessionofwarswhichnowbrokeoutbetweentheSeleucidandthePtolemysisdescribedinDn11.Thefortunesofthewar
variedgreatly.Underthenextkingbutone,SeleucusII.,Kallinikus(b.c.246226),PtolemyEuergetescapturedSeleucia,installedan
Egyptiangarrisoninit,andharriedtheSeleucidempireasfarasSusianaandBactria,carryingofftoEgyptanimmensespoil.Worstedonthe
field,Kallinikusdevotedhimselftotheembellishmentofhisroyalcity.AsfoundedbyS.Nikator,Antiochhadconsistedofasinglequarter.
AntiochusI.,Soter,hadaddedasecond,butKallinikusnowincludedathird,byannexingtothecitytheislandintheriverandconnectingitto
themainlandbyfivebridges.Inthisnewareathestreetswereallatrightangles,andattheintersectionofthetwoprincipalroadsthewaywas
spannedbyatetrapylon,acoveredcolonnadewithfourgates.Thecitywasfurtheradornedwithcostlytemples,porticoes,andstatues.Butthe
mostremarkableengineeringfeatbeguninthisreignwastheexcavationofthegreatdockatSeleucia,thebuildingoftheprotectingmoles,
andthecuttingofacanalinlandthroughhighmassesofsolidrock.Thecanalissuccessivelyacuttingandatunnel,thepartsopentothesky
aggregatinginall1869ft.,insomeplacescuttothedepthof120ft.,whiletheportionsexcavatedastunnels(usually24ft.high)amountinall
to395ft.

WithAntiochusIII.,theGreat(b.c.223187),thefortunesofthecityrevived.HedroveouttheEgyptiangarrisonfromSeleucia,endedthe
PtolemaicsovereigntyoverJuda,reducedallPalestineandnearlyallAsiaMinortohissway,untilhismightwasfinallyshatteredbythe
RomansintheirretrievabledefeatofMagnesia(b.c.190).AftertheassassinationofhissonSeleucusIV.,Philopator(b.c.187175),whowas
occupiedmostlyinrepairingthefinanciallosseshiskingdomhadsustained,thebrilliantbutwhollyunprincipledyouthAntiochusIV.
Epiphanes(b.c.175164),succeededtothethrone.WiththebuffooneryofaCaligulaandtheviceofaNero,heunitedthegeniusfor
architectureandGreekculturewhichheinheritedfromhisrace.InhisdreamsAntiochwastobeametropolls,secondtononeforbeauty,and
GreekartandGreekreligionweretobetheuniformrulethroughoutallhisdominions.Tothethreequartersalreadyexistingheaddeda
fourth,whichearnedforAntiochthetitleTetrapolis.HereheerectedaSenateHouse,atempletoJupiterCapitolinusononeofthe
eminencesofMt.Silpius,andastrongcitadelonanotherspurofthemountainsthatsurroundthecity.FromE.toW.ofAntiochhelaidouta
splendidcorsowithdoublecolonnades,whichranfor5milesinastraightline.Inwetweatherthepopulacecouldwalkfromendtoendunder
cover.Trees,flowers,andfountainsadornedthepromenadeandpoetssangofthebeautyofthestatueofApolloandoftheNymphumwhich
heerectedneartheriver.Toaverttheangerofthegodsduringaseasonofpestilence,heorderedthesculptorLeiostohewMt.Silpiusintoone
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heerectedneartheriver.Toaverttheangerofthegodsduringaseasonofpestilence,heorderedthesculptorLeiostohewMt.Silpiusintoone
vaststatueofCharon,theinfernalferryman.Itfrownedoverthecity,andwasnamedtheCharonium.EpiphanespolicyofHellenizing
PalestineevokedthedeterminedoppositionoftheMaccabees,andinthewarswhichensuedhisforcessufferedmanydefeats,thoughthe
injuriesandatrocitieshecommittedinJerusalemwereunspeakable.WithAntiochusEpiphanesdiedthegrandeuroftheSyrianthrone.

SucceedingprincesexercisedonlyaverymoderateinfluenceoverthefortunesofPalestine,andthepalmydaysofAntiochasacentreof
politicalpowerweregoneforever.ThecitywasthesceneofmanyabloodyconflictintheyearsofthelaterSeleucid,asusurperafter
usurpertriedtowadethroughbloodtothethrone,andwasshortlyafterovercomebysomerival.InseveralofthesestrugglestheJewstook
part,andasthepowerofAntiochwaned,thestrengthandpracticalindependenceoftheJewishHasmonanprincesincreased.Inb.c.83all
SyriapassedintothehandsofTigranes,kingofArmenia,whoremainedmasterofAntiochfor14years.WhenTigraneswasoverwhelmedby
theRomans,PompeyputanendtotheSeleuciddynasty,andthelineofAntiochenemonarchsexpiredin
b.c.65.ThestrongPaxRomanagavenewvigourtothecity.Antiochwasmadeafreecity,andbecametheseatoftheprefectandthecapital
oftheRomanprovinceofSyria.MarkAntonyorderedthereleaseofalltheJewsinitenslavedduringtherecentdisturbances,andthe
restorationoftheirproperty.AsarewardforAntiochsfidelitytohim,JuliusCsarbuiltasplendidbasilica,theCsareum,andgave,besides,
anewaqueduct,theatre,andpublicbaths.Augustus,Agrippa,HerodtheGreat,Tiberius,and,later,AntoninusPius,allgreatlyembellishedthe
city,contributingmanynewandstrikingarchitecturalfeatures.Theancientwallswererebuilttotheheightof5060ft.,withathicknessatthe
topof8ft.,andsurmountedbygigantictowers.Thevastrampartwascarriedacrossravinesupthemountainslopetotheverysummitofthe
hillswhichoverlookthecity.Antiochseemedthustobedefendedbyamountainousbulwark,7milesincircuit.Earthquakeshaveinlaterages
demolishedthesewalls,thoughsomeoftheRomancastlesarestillstanding.
WhenChristianityreachedAntioch,itwasagreatcityofover500,000inhabitants,calledtheQueenoftheEast,theThirdMetropolisof
theRomanEmpire.InAntiochtheBeautifultherewastobefoundeverythingwhichItalianwealth,Greekstheticism,andOrientalluxury
couldproduce.Theancientwriters,however,areunanimousindescribingthecityasoneofthefoulestandmostdepravedintheworld.
Cosmopolitanindisposition,thecitizensactedasiftheywereemancipatedfromeverylaw,humanorDivine.Licentiousness,superstition,
quackery,indecency,everyfierceandbasepassion,weredisplayedbythepopulacetheirskillincoiningscurrilousverseswasnotorious,their
sordid,fickle,turbulent,andinsolentwaysrenderedthenameofAntiochabywordforallthatwaswicked.Theirbrillianceandenergy,so
praisedbyCicero,werebalancedbyanincurablelevityandshamelessdisregardforthefirstprinciplesofmorality.Soinfamouswasthegrove
ofDaphne,fivemilesoutofthecity,filledwithshrinestoApollo,Venus,Isis,etc.,andcrowdedwiththeatres,baths,taverns,anddancing
saloons,thatsoldiersdetectedtherewerepunishedanddismissedtheImperialservice.Daphnicmoralsbecameaproverb.Juvenalcouldfind
nomoreforciblewayofdescribingthepollutionsofRomethanbysaying,TheOronteshasflowedintotheTiber.InthisVanityFairthe
Jewswereresidentinlargenumbers,yettheyexertedlittleornoinfluenceonthemoralsofthecity.Wehear,however,ofoneNicolas,a
proselyteofAntioch(Ac6:5),andtheremayhavebeenmore.ButafterthedeathofSt.Stephen,Christianfugitivesfrompersecutionfledas
farnorthasAntioch,begantopreachtotheGreeksthere(Ac11:19),andagreatnumberbelieved.SogreatwastheworkthattheJerus.
ChurchsentBarnabastoassist,who,findingthatmorehelpwasneeded,soughtoutandfetchedSaulfromTarsus.Theretheycontinueda
year,andbuiltupastrongChurch.Antiochhadthehonourofbeingthebirthplaceof(1)thenameChristian(Ac11:26),and(2)offoreign
missions.FromthiscityPaulandBarnabasstartedontheirfirstmissionaryjourney(Ac13:14),andtoAntiochtheyreturnedattheendofthe
tour(Ac14:26).ThesecondjourneywasbegunfromandendedatAntioch(Ac15:3541,18:22)andthecitywasagainthestartingpointof
thethirdtour(Ac18:23).TheAntiocheneChurchcontributedliberallytothepoorsaintsinJerus.duringthefamine(Ac11:2730).Herealso
thedisputeregardingthecircumcisionofGentileconvertsbrokeout(Ac15:122),andherePaulwithstoodPeterforhisinconsistency(Gal
2:1121).AfterthefallofJerusalem,AntiochbecamethetruecentreofChristianity.AgatestillbearsthenameofSt.PaulsGate.Itwas
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2:1121).AfterthefallofJerusalem,AntiochbecamethetruecentreofChristianity.AgatestillbearsthenameofSt.PaulsGate.Itwas
fromAntiochthatIgnatiussetoutonhismarchtomartyrdomatRome.ThecityclaimedasitsnativesJohnChrysostom,Ammianus
Marcellinus,Evagrius,andLibanius.Froma.d.252380AntiochwasthesceneoftenChurchCouncils.ThePatriarchof
AntiochtookprecedenceofthoseofRome,Constantinople,Jerusalem,andAlexandria.Antiochwascapturedina.d.260bySaporofPersia
ina.d.538itwasburnedbyChosroesrebuiltbyJustinian,itagainfellbeforetheSaracensina.d.
635.NicephorusPhocasrecovereditina.d.969,butina.d.1084itfelltotheSeljukTurks.ThefirstCrusadersretookitin1098aftera
celebratedsiege,signalizedbytheinventionoftheHolyLancebutin1268itpassedfinallyintothehandsoftheTurks.Earthquakeshave
addedtotheruininghandofman.Thoseofb.c.184,a.d.37,115,457,andesp.526(when200,000personsperished),528,1170,and1872
havebeenthemostdisastrous.Theoncevastcityhasshrunkintoasmall,ignoble,anddirtytownof6,000inhabitants,still,however,hearing
thenameofAntaki(Turkish)orAntakiyah(Arabic).ItisagainthecentreofaChristianmission,andtheChurchofAntioch,asofold,is
seekingtoenlightenthesurroundingdarkness.

G.A.FrankKnight.
ANTIOCH(Pisidian).TheexpressionAntiochofPisidiaorAntiochinPisidiaisincorrect,asthetownwasnotinPisidia.Itsofficial
titlewasAntiochnearPisidia,andasitexistedforthesakeofPisidia,theadjectivePisidianwassometimeslooselyattachedtoit.Itwas
actuallyintheethnicdistrictofPhrygia,andintheRomanprovinceofGalatia(thatregionofitcalledPhrygiaGalatica).Foundedbythe
inhabitantsofMagnesia,itwasmadeafreetownbytheRomans,andacoloniawasestablishedtherebytheemperorAugustustokeepthe
barbariansoftheneighbourhoodincheck.ThemunicipalgovernmentbecameRoman,andtheofficiallanguageLatin.St.Paulvisiteditfour
times(Ac13:14,14:21,16:6,18:22),anditisoneofthechurchesaddressedintheEpistletotheGalatians.

A.Souter.
ANTIOCHIANS(2Mac4:9,19).TheeffortsofAntiochusEpiphanestospreadGr.cultureandGr.customsthroughouthisdominions
werediligentlyfurtheredbyasectionof,theJews.TheleaderofthisHellenizingparty,Jason,brotherofthehighpriestOniasIII.,offereda
largesumofmoneytoAntiochustoinducethekingtoallowtheinhabitantsofJerusalemtobeenrolledas
Antiochians. Antiochus acceded to the proposal, and shortly afterwards a party of Antiochians from Jerusalem was sent by him with a
contributionofmoneyforthefestivalofHeraclesatTyre.
ANTIOCHIS(2Mac4:30).AconcubineofAntiochusEpiphanes,whoassignedtohertherevenuesofthetwoCiliciancities,Tarsus
andMallus.
ANTIOCHUS(1Mac12:16,14:22cf.Jos.Ant.XIII.v.8).ThefatherofNumenius,whowasoneoftheenvoyssent(c.b.c.144)by
JonathantheMaccabeetorenewthecovenantmadebyJudaswiththeRomans,andtoenterintofriendlyrelationswiththeSpartans.
ANTIOCHUS.AnamebornebyanumberofthekingsofSyriasubsequenttotheperiodofAlexandertheGreat.

1.AntiochusI.(b.c.280261)wasthesonofSeleucusNikator,thechiliarchunderPerdiccaswhowasregentimmediatelyafterthedeath
ofAlexander.OnthemurderofhisfatherhecameintopossessionofpracticallytheentireregionofAsiaMinorasfareastastheprovinces
beyondMesopotamia.ThemostimportantfactofhisreignwashisdefeatoftheCelts,who,afterdevastatingMacedoniaandThrace,
swarmedintoAsiaMinorandestablishedakingdomwhichwassubsequentlyknownasGalatia.Thedateandplaceofthevictoryare
unknown,butitwonhimthenameofSoter(Saviour).HiscapitalwasAntiochinSyria,buthewasneverabletobringhisvastempireinto78/172
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unknown,butitwonhimthenameofSoter(Saviour).HiscapitalwasAntiochinSyria,buthewasneverabletobringhisvastempireinto
completesubjection.Hewasafriendofliteratureandart,anditispossiblethatunderhimthebeginningwasmadefortheGreektranslationof
thePentateuch.

2.AntiochusII.,Theos(b.c.261246).Sonoftheforegoing,essentiallyawarrior,carryingoninterminablestrugglesbothwiththefree
Greekcitiesofhisownterritory,towhichhefinallygavesomethinglikedemocraticrights,andwithPtolemyPhiladelphusofEgypt.Under
him,however,theJewsofAsiaMinorgainedmanycivicrights.

3.AntiochusIII.,theGreat.Heascendedthethronewhenonly15yearsofage,andhereignedfromb.c.223to187.Alongwith
AntiochusI.andAntiochusII.hemaybereferredtointheearlyportionsofDn11.Hisreign,likethatofmostofhiscontemporaries,wasone
ofconstantwar,particularlywithEgypt.InthecourseofthesewarshegainedpossessionofPalestinethroughthebattleofBanias(b.c.198),
andestablishedtheSyrianadministrationoverJuda,althoughforatimeheruledtheprovincejointlywithPtolemyEpiphanesofEgypt.Like
AntiochusI.,hewasagreatcolonizer,andinduced2000JewishfamiliestogofromMesopotamiaintoLydiaandPhrygia,thuslayingthe
foundationfortheinfluentialJewishDispersioninthoseregions.Sowarlikeamonarchcouldnotfailtocomeintoconflictsoonerorlaterwith
Rome.HewasdefeatedinthebattleofMagnesiainb.c.190,andthreeyearslaterwaskilled,accordingtosomeauthorities,whileplundering
atempleatElymais.
4.AntiochusIV.,Epiphanes(theIllustriousalsonicknamedEpimanes,theMadman).Thesonofthepreceding,whohadbeensent
asahostagetoRome.Inb.c.175heseizedtheSyrianthrone,andbeganaseriesofconquestswhichbadefairtorivalhisfathers.Whilein
Egypt,however,hewasorderedbytheRomanstoleavethatcountry,andthusfoundhimselfforcedtolimithisenergiestoSyria.Inthecourse
ofhisconflictwithEgypthehadbecomesuspiciousofJuda,anddeterminedtoforcethatcountryintocompletesubjectiontohiswill.His
motiveswereprobablymorepoliticalthanreligious,butasapartofhisprogrammeheundertooktocompeltheJewstoworshipheathengods
aswellas,ifnotinplaceof,Jehovah.Hisplanswerefirstputintoactiveoperationprobablytowardstheendofb.c.170,whenhereturned
fromEgypt,althoughthechronologyatthispointisveryobscureanditmayhavebeenacoupleofyearslater.HeplunderedtheTempleof
someofitstreasures,includingthesevenbranchcandlestick,thealtarofincense,andthetableofshewbread.Healsoplacedagarrisoninthe
citadelofJerusalem,andsetaboutthecompleteHellenizingofJuda.CircumcisionandtheobservanceoftheSabbathwereforbiddenunder
penaltyofdeath.PagansacrificeswereorderedineverytowninJuda,andeverymonthasearchwasmadetodiscoverwhetheranyJew
possessedacopyoftheLaworhadcircumcisedhischildren.InDecember168b.c.apaganaltar,probablytoOlympianZeus,waserectedon
thealtarofburntoffering,andtheentireJewishworshipseemedthreatenedwithextinction.Thisprobabilitywasincreasedbytheapostasyof
thehighpriest.

ThisexcessofzealonthepartofAntiochusledtothereaction,which,undertheChasidimandMattathias,thefounderoftheMaccaban
house,ultimatelybroughtaboutthereleaseofJudafromSyriancontrol.Theeventsofthisperiodofpersecutionarerelatedindetail,
thoughwithalargeelementoflegend,in2Maccabees,andreferenceistobefoundtothemalsoinDn11:2145.Antiochusfinallydiedon
anexpeditionagainsttheParthiansinb.c.164.(ForanaccountofthestruggleofMattathiasandJudasagainstAntiochus,seeMaccabees).

5.AntiochusV.,Eupator.Sonoftheprecedingbegantoreignatthedeathofhisfather,whenamereboyof9(or12)years.Hewas
leftbyhisfatherunderthecontrolofLysias,hischiefrepresentativeinPalestine,andwithhimwaspresentatthevictoryofBethzacharias,
b.c.163,whenJudasMaccabuswasdefeated(1Mac6:3247).ThecompleteconquestofJudawaspreventedbytheriseofthepretender

Philip,who,however,wasconquered.Inthemidstoftheirsuccess,bothyoungAntiochusandLysiaswereassassinatedbyDemetriusI.(b.c.79/172
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Philip,who,however,wasconquered.Inthemidstoftheirsuccess,bothyoungAntiochusandLysiaswereassassinatedbyDemetriusI.(b.c.
162).TheirdeathreactedfavourablyonthecircumstancessurroundingtherisingMaccabanhouse.

6.AntiochusVI.,SonofAlexanderBalas.Trypho,oneofthegeneralsofAlexanderBalas,atfirstchampionedthecauseofthisboy
afterhisfatherhadbeenkilledinArabia.Afterafewmonths,however,hecausedtheassassinationof
Antiochusbythephysiciansofthecourt,andreignedinhisstead(1Mac13:31f.).
7.AntiochusVII.,Sidetes(b.c.138128),thelastoftheenergeticSyrianmonarchs,cametothethroneduringtheimprisonmentof
DemetriusII.AfterdefeatingTrypho,heundertooktoestablishhissovereigntyovertheJews.Simonpartiallywonhisfavourbypresentsand
byfurnishingauxiliarytroops,butatlastrefusedtomeethisexcessivedemandsforpermittingsuchindependenceasJudahadcometoenjoy
undertheweakpredecessorofAntiochus.ThereuponAntiochussenthisgeneralsintoJuda,buttheyweredefeatedbythesonsofSimon(1
Mac15,16).HehimselfcameduringthefirstyearofJohnHyrcanus(135134),andafterdevastatingJudashutupHyrcanusinJerusalem.
HewasabouttocapturethecitythroughstarvationwhenheunexpectedlymadetermswithHyrcanus,probablybecauseoftheinterferenceof
theRomans.ThesetermslaidveryheavydemandsupontheJews,andincludedthedestructionofthefortificationsofthecity.Untilb.c.129
128JudawasagainsubjecttotheSyrianState,butattheendofthatyearAntiochuswaskilledinacampaignagainsttheParthians,and
Hyrcanuswasenabledtoreasserthisindependence.SeeMaccabees.
ShailerMathews.
ANTIPAS.1.SeeHerod,No.3.2.AmartyrofthechurchofPergamum,mentionedonlyinRev2:13,unlesssomecreditistobegiven
tothelateaccountsofhismartyrdom.Accordingtothese,hewasroastedtodeathinabrazenbowlinthedaysofDomitian.Curesof
toothachewerebelievedtobeaccomplishedathistomb.

ShailerMathews.
ANTIPATER.SonofJason,oneoftwoambassadorssentbyJonathantotheRomansandtotheSpartanstorenewthefriendshipand
theconfederacy(1Mac12:16,14:22).
ANTIPATRIS.HitherSt.PaulwasconductedbynightonthewayfromJerusalemtoCsarea(Ac23:31).ItwasfoundedbyHerodthe
Great,andprobablystoodattheheadoftheriverAujeh(nowRselAin).HerearetheremainsofalargecastleoftheCrusaders,probablyto
beidentifiedwithMirabel.

R.A.S.Macalister.
ANTONIA.SeeJerusalem.
ANUB.AmanofJudah(1Ch4:8).
ANVIL.SeeArtsandCrafts,2.
APACEinAVmeansataquickpace,asPs68:12kingsofarmiesdidfleeapace.
APAME.DaughterofBartacus,andconcubineofDariusI.(1Es4:29).
APE.ApeswereimportedalongwithpeacocksfromOphirbySolomon(1K
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APE.ApeswereimportedalongwithpeacocksfromOphirbySolomon(1K
10:22,2Ch9:21).Inimportingmonkeys,SolomonhereimitatedthecustomoftheAssyrianandEgyptianmonarchs,aswenowknowbythe
monuments.NokindofmonkeyisindigenousinPalestine.

E.W.G.Masterman.

APELLES.ThenameofaChristianwhoisgreetedbySt.PaulinRo16:10,andwhoisdescribedastheapprovedinChrist.Itwasthe
namebornebyadistinguishedtragicactor,andbymembersofthehousehold.
APHREMA(1Mac11:34).AdistricttakenfromSamariaandaddedtoJudabyDemetriusSoter(Ant.XIII.iv.9).SeeEprhaim,No.
1.
APHARSACHITES.Seenextarticle.
APHARSATHCHITES(probablythesameastheApharsachites,Ezr5:6,6:6).AcolonyoftheAssyriansinSamariaaneastern
peoplesubjecttotheAssyrians.
APHARSITES(Ezr4:9).OneofthenationstransportedtoSamariabytheAssyrians.Otherwiseunknown.Thetextisdoubtful.
APHEK.1.AnunidentifiedcityintheplainofSharon(Jos12:18).ItmaybethesameasAphekof1S4:1,andofJosBJII.xix.1.2.A
citywhichAsherfailedtotake(Jos13:4,19:30,Jg1:31).ItmaybeAfqa,onNahrIbrahm.3.Someauthoritiesidentifythis(1S29:1)with
No.1,andmakethePhilistinesadvanceuponJezreelfromtheS.W.ButiftheyapproachedfromShunem(28:4),Aphekmusthavebeenin
EsdraelonintheneighbourhoodofelFleh.4.TheplacewhereAhabdefeatedBenhadad(1K20:26,30),intheMshr,probablythemodern
Fq,orAfq,onthebrowoftheplateau,overlookingtheSeaofGalilee.PossiblyJoashsmotetheSyrianshere(2K13:17ff.).
W.Ewing.
APHEKAH(Jos15:53).ProbablysameasAphek,1.
APHERRA(1Es5:34).HisdescendantswereamongthesonsofSolomonsservantswhoreturnedwithZerubbabelomittedinthe
parallellists(Ezr.andNeh.).
APHIAH.OneofSaulsancestors(1S9:1).
APHIK.AcityofAsher(Jg1:31),thesameasAphek,2.
APHRAH.SeeBethleAphrah.
APOCALYPSE.SeeRevelation[Bookof].
APOCALYPTICLITERATURE.Theapocalypseasaliteraryformof
JewishliteraturefirstappearsduringtheHellenisticperiod.Itsoriginistoaconsiderabledegreeindispute,butisinvolvedinthegeneral
developmentoftheperiod.AmongtheHebrewsitsforerunnerwasthedescriptionoftheDayofJehovah.Onthatday,theprophetstaught,
JehovahwastopunishtheenemiesofIsraelandtoestablishHispeopleasaworldpower.Inthecourseoftimethisconceptionwas
supplementedbythefurtherexpectationofajudgmentforJewsaswellasforheathen(Am2:38,3:915,5:1013,Zec1:218,2:415,JL, 81/172
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supplementedbythefurtherexpectationofajudgmentforJewsaswellasforheathen(Am2:38,3:915,5:1013,Zec1:218,2:415,JL,
2:1828,
Ezk30:2f.).ThefirstapproachtotheapocalypticmethodisprobablytobeseeninZec914.Itwasinthesameperiodthatthetendencies
towardstheaestheticconceptionswhichhadbeeninheritedfromtheBabylonianexilewerebeginningtoberealizedundertheinfluenceof
Hellenisticculture.Becauseoftheirreligion,literaturewastheonlyformofaestheticexpression(exceptmusic)whichwasopentotheart
impulsesoftheJews.IntheapocalypsewethuscanseeaunionofthesymbolismandmythsofBabyloniawiththereligiousfaithoftheJews,
undertheinfluenceofHellenisticculture.Byitsveryoriginitwastheliterarymeansofsettingforthbytheuseofsymbolsthecertaintyof
DivinejudgmentandtheequalcertaintyofDivinedeliverance.Thesymbolsareusuallyanimalsofvarioussorts,butfrequentlycomposite
creatureswhosevariouspartsrepresentedcertainqualitiesoftheanimalsfromwhichtheywerederived.

Apocalypticisakintoprophecy.ItspurposewasfundamentallytoencouragefaithinJehovahonthepartofthosewhowereindistress,by
revealingthefuture.Betweengenuineprophetismandapocalypticthereexisted,however,certaindifferencesnotalwayseasytoformulate,
butappreciabletostudentsofthetwotypesofreligiousInstruction.(a)Theprophet,takingastandinthepresent,sointerpretscurrenthistory
astodiscloseDivineforcesatworktherein,andtheinevitableoutcomeofacertaincourseofconduct.Thewritersoftheapocalypses,
however,seemtohavehadlittlespiritualinsightintotheprovidentialorderingofexistingconditions,andcouldseeonlypresentmiseryand
miraculousdeliverance.(b)Assumingthenameofsomeworthylongsincedead,theapocalyptistrewrotethepastintermsofprophecyinthe
nameofsomeheroorseerofHebrewhistory.Onthestrengthofthefulfilmentofthisallegedprophecy,heforecast,thoughinverygeneral
terms,thefuture.(c)ProphecymadeuseofsymbolinliteratureasameansofenforcingormakingintelligibleitsDivinelyinspiredmessage.
Theapocalyptistsemployedallegoricallyanelaboratemachineryofsymbol,chiefamongwhichweresheep,bulls,birds,aswellas
mythologicalbeingslikeBeliarandtheAntichrist.

TheparentofapocalypticisthebookofDaniel,which,bythealmostunanimousconsensusofscholars,appearedintheMaccabanperiod
(seeDaniel[Bk.of]).Fromthetimeofthisbookuntiltheendofthe1stcent.a.d.,andindeedevenlater,wefindacontinuousstreamof
apocalypses,eachmarkedbyastrangecombinationofpessimismastothepresentandhopeastothefutureyettobemiraculously
established.TheseworksaretheoutputofonephaseofPharisaism,which,whileelevatingbothTorahandtheOralLaw,wasnotcontentwith
baldlegalism,butdaredtrustintherealizationofitsreligioushopes.Theauthorsofthevariousworksareutterlyunknown.Inthis,asinother
respects,theapocalypsesconstituteauniquenationalliterature.Chiefamongapocalypticliteraturearethefollowing:

1.TheEnochLiterature.TheEnochliteraturehasreachedusintwoforms:(a)TheEthiopicEnoch(b)TheSlavonicBookofthe
SecretsofEnoch.Thetwobooksareindependent,andindicatethewidespreadtendencytoutilizethestoryofthepatriarchinapocalyptic
discourse.

(a)TheEthiopicBookofEnochisacollectionofapocalypsesandothermaterialwrittenduringthelasttwocenturiesbeforeChrist.Itwas
probablywritteninHebreworAramaic,andthentranslatedintoGreek,andfromthatintoEthiopicandLatin.Asitnowexists,thecollection
isasurvivalofawidespreadEnochliterature,anditsconstituentsectionshavebeentoaconsiderableextenteditedbybothJewsand
Christians.Critics,whilevaryingastodetails,arefairlywellagreedastothemaincomponentsources,eachprobablyrepresentingadifferent
authororschool.
(i.)Theoriginalgroundworkofthepresentbookistobefoundinchs.136and72104,inthemidstofwhichare,however,numerous
interpolations(seeiv.below).Thesechapterswereprobablywrittenbeforeb.c.100.Chs.136dealchieflywiththeportrayalofthe
punishmenttobeawardedtheenemiesoftheJewsandsinnersgenerallyontheDayofJudgment.Theeschatologyofthesechaptersis
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punishmenttobeawardedtheenemiesoftheJewsandsinnersgenerallyontheDayofJudgment.Theeschatologyofthesechaptersis
somewhatsensuousasregardsboththeresurrectionandrewardsandpunishments.InthemwehaveprobablytheoldestpieceofJewish
literaturetouchingthegeneralresurrectionofIsraelandrepresentingGehennaasaplaceoffinalpunishment(seeGehenna).

Thedreamvisions(chs.8390)wereprobablywritteninthetimeofJudasMaccabusorJohnHyrcanus.Bytheuseofsymbolicanimals
sheep,rams,wildbeastsHebrewhistoryistracedtothedaysoftheHasmonanrevolt.Theyearsofmiseryarerepresentedbyaflock
underseventyshepherds,who,inthenewageabouttodawn,aretobecastwiththeevilmenandangelsintoanabyssoffire.TheMessiahis
thentoappear,althoughhisfunctionisnotdefinitelydescribed.Inch.91thefutureissomewhatmoretranscendentallydescribed.
Inthelaterchaptersofthisoldestsectiontheneweschatologyismoreapparent.Inthemaretobefoundrepresentationsofthesleepofthe
righteous,theresurrectionofthespiritoftheMessiah,thoughhuman,asGodsSon(105.2),theDayofJudgment,andthepunishmentofthe
wickedinhell.

(ii.)Whetherornotthesecondgroupofchapters(3771),ortheSimilitudes,ispostorpreChristianhasbeenthoroughlydiscussed.The
generalconsensusofrecentcritics,however,isthattheSimilitudeswereprobablywrittensomewherebetweenb.c.94and64:atallevents,
beforethetimeofHerod.ThemostremarkablecharacteristicoftheseSimilitudesistheuseofthetermSonofManfortheMessiah.Butitis
notpossibletoseeintheuseofthistermanyreferencetothehistoricalJesus.Morelikelyitmarksastageinthedevelopmentoftheterm
fromthegeneralsymbolicusageofDn7:13tothestrictlyMessianiccontentoftheNT.IntheSimilitudeswefinddescribedthejudgmentof
allmen,bothaliveanddead,aswellasofangels.Yetthefutureisstilltosomeextentsensuous,althoughtranscendentalinfluencesarevery
evidentinthesection.TheMessiahpreexistsandismorethanaman.Thesharewhichhehasinthereorganizationoftheworldismore
prominentthanintheoldersections.
(iii.)InterspersedthroughoutthebookaresectionswhichCharlescallsthebookofcelestialphysics.Thesesectionsareoneofthe
curiositiesofscientificliterature,andmaybetakenasafairrepresentativeoftheastronomicalandmeteorologicalbeliefsofthePalestinian
JewsaboutthetimeofChrist.

(iv.)InterpolationsfromthesocalledBookofNoah,whichareverylargelytheworkofthelastpartofthepreChristianera,althoughitis
notpossibletostateaccuratelythedateoftheircomposition.
TheimportanceofEnochisgreatfortheunderstandingoftheeschatologyoftheNTandthemethodsofapocalyptic.
(b)The(Slavonic)SecretsofEnochprobablyhadapreChristianoriginal,andfurther,presupposestheexistenceoftheEthiopicEnoch.It
couldnot,therefore,havebeenwrittenmuchpriortothetimeofHerod,and,astheTempleisstillstanding,musthavebeenwrittenbeforea.d.
70.Theauthor(orauthors)wasprobablyaHellenisticJewlivinginthefirsthalfofthe1stcent.a.d.Thebookisparticularlyinterestinginthat
initistobefoundthefirstreferencetothemillennium(xxxii.2xxxiii.2),whichisderivedfromacombinationofthesevencreativedays
andPs90:4.Atthecloseofthesixthousandyears,thenewday,orSabbathofthethousandyears,wastobegin.TheSecretsofEnochisa
highlydevelopedpictureofthecomingageandofthestructureoftheheaven,which,itholds,issevenfold.Here,too,aretheJudgment,
thoughofindividualsratherthanofnations,thetwoons,thecompleterenovationordestructionoftheearth.Thereisnomentionofa
resurrection,andtherighteousareupondeathtogoimmediatelytoParadise.
2. TheBookofJubileesisaHaggadistcommentaryonGenesis,andwasprobablywrittenintheMaccabanperiod,althoughitsdateis83/172
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2.TheBookofJubileesisaHaggadistcommentaryonGenesis,andwasprobablywrittenintheMaccabanperiod,althoughitsdateis
exceedinglyuncertain,andmaypossiblyheplacedinthelatterhalfofthelastcent.b.c.Inthiswritingangelologyanddemonologyarewell
developed.WhilethereisnomentionoftheMessiah,themembersoftheMessianicagearetoliveathousandyears,andaretobefreefrom
theinfluenceorcontrolofSatan.Thebookcontainsnodoctrineoftheresurrectionbutspiritsareimmortal.Whilethereispunishmentofthe
wicked,andparticularlyofevilspiritsandtheenemiesofIsrael,theJudgmentisnotthoroughlycorrelatedwithageneraleschatological
scheme.ThechiefobjectofthebookistoincitetheJewstoagreaterdevotiontotheLaw,andthebookislegalisticratherthanidealistic.

ThenewagewastobeinauguratedbywidespreadstudyoftheLaw,towhichtheJewswouldbeforcedbyterriblesuffering.Certain
passageswouldseemtoimplyaresurrectionofthedeadandarenewingofallcreationalongwiththeendlesspunishmentofthewicked.
3.ThePsalmsofSolomonagroupofnoblesongs,writtenbyaPharisee(orPharisees)probablybetweenb.c.70and40,thedates
beingfixedbyreferencetotheRomanconquestofJerusalemandthedeathofPompey(PsSol2:30,31).Thecollectionisprimarilya
justificationofthedownfalloftheMaccabanhousebecauseofitssins.Itsauthor(orauthors)wasopposedtomonarchyassuch,andlooked
forwardtothetimewhentheMessiahwouldreallybekingofJuda.ThepictureofthiskingassetforthinPsalms1718isoneofthe
noblestinJewishliterature.Heistobeneithersufferernorteacher,preexistentnormiraculouslyhorn.Heisnottobeapriest,orwarrior.He
istobesinless,strongthroughtheHolySpirit,gaininghiswisdomfromGod,conqueringtheentireheathenworldwithoutwar,bytheword
ofhismouth,andtoestablishthecapitaloftheworldatJerusalem.Allthemembersofthenewkingdom,which,liketheMessiah,is
miraculous,aretobesonsofGod.ThesetwoPsalmsarenotofakinwiththeordinaryapocalypticliteratureliketheEnochliterature,and
probablyrepresentatendencymorereligiousthanapocalyptic.Atthesametime,theinfluenceoftheapocalypticisnotwantinginthem.

4.TheAssumptionofMoseswasprobablywrittenintheopeningyearsofthe1stcent.a.d.,andnarratesintermsofprophecythehistory
oftheworldfromthetimeofMosesuntilthetimeofitscomposition,endinginaneschatologicalpictureofthefuture.Asitnowstands,the
writingishardlymorethanafragmentofamuchlargerwork,andexistsonlyinanoldLatintranslation.Themoststrikingcharacteristicisthe
importancegiventoSatanastheopponentofGod,aswellastheratherelaborateportrayaloftheendoftheageitnarrates.TheJudgmentisto
beextendedtotheGentiles,butnoMessiahismentioned,theMessianickingdomratherthanHebeingcentral.Further,thewriter,evidentlyin
fearofrevolutionarytendenciesamonghispeople,saysdistinctlythatGodaloneistobejudgeoftheGentiles.
5.TheTestamentsoftheTwelvePatriarchsisacompositeworkpurportingtopreservethelastwordsofthetwelvesonsofJacob.It
wasprobablywrittenduringthefirsttwocenturiesoftheChristianera,althoughsomeofitsmaterialmaybeearlier.Asitnowstands,itisfull
ofChristianinterpolations,andithaslittleapocalypticmaterial,beingratherofthenatureofhomiliesillustratedwithmuchlegendarymatter,
includingeschatologicalpicturesandreferencestodemonsandtheirkingBeliar.Thenewageisnotdistinctlydescribed,butapparently
involvesonlyearthlyrelationships.Godsjudgmentonwickedmenanddemonsis,however,elaboratelypictured,sometimesintermshardto
reconcilewiththelesstranscendentalaccountsoftheblessingsassuredtotheJewishnation.Eachofthepatriarchsisrepresentedasdealing
withthatparticularvirtueorvicewithwhichtheBiblicalaccountassociateshim,andalsoasforetellingappropriateblessingsorcurses.The
workispreservedinGreekandArmeniantranslations.

6.TheAscensionofIsaiahisacompositebookwhichcirculatedlargelyamongtheChristianhereticsofthe3rdcentury.Atitsbasislies
agroupoflegendsofuncertainorigin,dealingwiththeAntichristandBeliar.TheseinturnareidentifiedwiththeexpectationthatNerowould
returnafterdeath.Thebook,therefore,initspresentshapeisprobablyofChristianorigin,andisnotolderthanthe2ndcent.,orpossiblythe
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latterpartofthe1st.TheIsaiahliterature,however,wascommoninthe1stcent.,andthebookisavaluablemonumentoftheeschatological
tendenciesandbeliefsofatleastcertaingroupsoftheearlyChristians.Particularlyimportantisitasthrowinglightuponthedevelopmentof
theAntichristdoctrines.ItexiststodayinfourrecensionsGreek,Ethiopic,Latin,andSlavonic.

7.TheApocalypseofEzra(SecondEsdras),writtenaboutthetimeofthedestructionofJerusalem.Itisthemostcompleteexpressionof
Pharisaicpessimism.Writteninthemidstofnationalmisery,itisnotabletoseeanyreliefexceptinthecreationofanewworld.Theagewas
comingtoanend,andthenewagewhichwastobelongtoIsraelwouldpresentlycome.ThejudgmentofIsraelsenemieswaspresentlytobe
established,butnotuntilthenumberoftherighteouswascomplete.ThebookisnodoubtcloselyrelatedtotheApocalypseofBaruch,and
bothapparentlyreproducethesameoriginallyJewishmaterial.IthasbeenconsiderablyaffectedbyChristianhopes.Bothforthisreasonand
becauseofitsemphasisongenerichumanmiseryandsin,withtheconsequentneedofsomethingmorethanamerelynationaldeliverance,it
givesaprominentpositiontotheMessiah,whoisrepresentedasdying.AsSecondEsdrasthebookhasbecomepartoftheApocryphaofthe
OT,andhashadconsiderableinfluenceintheformationof
Christianeschatology.In7:3098isanelaborateaccountofthegeneralResurrection,Judgment,andtheconditionofsoulsafterdeathandit
isthismaterialquiteasmuchastheMessianicpredictionofchs.1214thatmakeitofparticularinteresttothestudent.Itispossessed,
however,ofnocompleteunityinpointofview,andpassesrepeatedlyfromthenationaltotheethical(individual)needanddeliverance.The
separationofthesetwoviewsis,however,morethanacriticalmatter.AsinMk13,thetwoillustrateeachother.

8.TheApocalypseofBaruchisacompositeworkwhichembodiesinitselfagroundworkwhichisdistinctlyJewish,andcertain
sectionsofwhichwereprobablywrittenbeforethedestructionofJerusalem.Criticism,however,hasnotarrivedatanycompleteconsensusof
opinionasregardsitscomposition,buttherecanbelittledoubtthatitrepresentsthesameapocalyptictendenciesandmuchofthematerial
whicharetobeseeninSecondEsdras.Justwhataretherelationsbetweenthetwowritings,however,hasnotyetbeenclearlyshown.The
probabilityisthattheApocalypseofBaruch,asitnowstands,waswritteninthesecondhalfofthe1stcent.a.d.,andhascomeunderthe
influenceofChristianity(seeesp.chs.xlixli).LikeSecondEsdras,itismarkedbyadespairoftheexistingage,andlooksforwardtoa
transcendentalreignoftheMessiah,inwhichtheJewsaretobesupremelyfortunate.ItexiststodayinGreekandSyriacversions,witha
strongprobabilitythatbotharederivedfromoriginalHebrewwriting.Thisapocalypse,bothfromitsprobableoriginandgeneral
characteristics,isofparticularvalueasadocumentforunderstandingtheNTliterature.InboththeApocalypseofBaruchandSecondEsdras
wehavethemostsystematizedeschatologicalpicturethathascomedowntousfromPharisaism.

9.TheSibyllineOraclesarethemostimportantillustrationoftheextraPalestinianHellenisticapocalyptichope.Astheworknowexists,
itisacollectionofvariouswritingsdealingwiththehistoricalandfutureconditionsoftheJewishpeople.Themostimportantapocalyptic
sectionisinBookiii.97828,writteninMaccahantimes.InitthepunishmentoftheenemiesoftheJewsiselaboratelyforetold,asarealso
thefutureandtheMessianicJudgment.Thisthirdbookwasprobablyeditedinthemiddleofthe2ndcenturybyaChristian.Ingeneral,
however,thisSibyllineliterature,althoughofgreatextent,givesusnosuchdistinctpicturesofthefutureasthosetobefoundintheEzra
Baruchapocalypses.

ShailerMathews.
APOCRYPHA.ThetermApocryphaisappliedtoabodyofliteraturethathascomedowntousincloseconnexionwiththecanonical
booksoftheBible,andyetisnotofthem.Thisterm(Gr.apokryphos,hidden)seemstohavebeenusedtospecifycertaindocumentsor
writingsthatwerepurposelyhiddenfromgeneralpubliccontact,eitherbecauseoftheirsupposedsacredness,ortoretainwithintheprecincts
ofacertainsecttheirsecretwisdomandknowledge.Thenamewasgiveneitherbythosewhohidthebooksorbythosefromwhomtheywere
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ofacertainsecttheirsecretwisdomandknowledge.Thenamewasgiveneitherbythosewhohidthebooksorbythosefromwhomtheywere
hidden.

Allsuchbooksbore,astheirallegedauthors,thenamesofnotablemeninHebrewhistory.Thesenameswerenotsufficientofthemselves
tocarrythebooksoverintothecanonicalcollectionoftheBible.Thetermappliedtothemasapocryphal,thatis,withheldfrompublicgaze
anduse,wasatfirstrathercomplimentarytotheircharacter.ButtheirrejectionbytheJewishPalestinianbodyofworshippers,aswellasby
thelargerproportionoftheearlyChurch,graduallystampedthenameapocryphalasatermofreproach,indicatinginferiorityincontentand
aspuriousauthorship.Henceforthsuchbookslosttheirearlysacredness,andbecameembodiedinacollectionthatremainedentirelyoutside
theHebrewBible,thoughingeneralfoundintheSeptuagintandtheVulgate.
ThewordApocrypha,asusedbyProtestantChristians,signifiesthebooksfoundintheLatinVulgateasoverandabovethoseofthe
HebrewOT.Jeromeincorporatedinhisrevisionandtranslation,inthemainashefoundthemintheOldLatinVersion,certainbooksnot
foundintheHebrewcanonicalwritings.ThesebookshadbeencarriedoverintotheOldLatinfromtheSeptuagint.

Therealexternaldifferences,then,betweentheProtestantandRom.Cath.
BiblestodayaretobetracedtothedifferentideasoftheCanononthepartoftheJewsofPalestine,wheretheHebrewBiblewasonitsnative
soil,andonthepartoftheJewsofAlexandriawhotranslatedthatsameHebrewBibleintoGreek.Withthistranslation,andotherbookslater
calledtheApocrypha,theyconstructedaGreekBiblenowcalledtheSeptuagint(theSeventy).

InthetransferoftheworksfromtheSeptuaginttotheOldLatinandtotheVulgate,thereissomeconfusionbothastotheirnamesand
theirorder.

ThesesocalledApocryphalbooksmayberoughlyclassifiedasfollows:
1.Historical:FirstandSecondMaccabees,andFirstEsdras[ThirdEsdrasinVulgate].

2.Legendary:AdditionstoEsther,HistoryofSusanna,SongoftheThreeHolyChildren,BelandtheDragon,Tobit,Judith.
3.Prophetical:Baruch(ch.6beingtheEpistleofJeremy),PrayerofManasses.
4.Apocalyptical:SecondEsdras[FourthEsdrasinVulgate].

5.Didactic:Sirach,WisdomofSolomon.

InsomeclassificationsThirdandFourthMaccabeesareincluded.
MostofthesebooksarefoundintheiroriginalforminGreek,withtheexceptionsnotedbelow,andnotintheHebrewthereforetheJewish
religiousleadersdidnotregardthemasinspired.Furthermore,someoftheirwriters(1Mac4:46,9:27,2Mac2:23)disclaiminspirationasthe
Jewsunderstoodit.TheNTwritersdonotquotethesebooks,nordotheydefinitelyrefertothem.TheirexistenceintheGreekBibleofthe
timesofChristdoesnotseemtohavegiventhemanyprestigefortheJewishauthoritiesofthatday.TheChurchFathersmadesomeuseof

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them,byquotationandallusion,butwerenotsoemphaticintheirfavourastosecuretheirincorporationintheregularcanonicalbooksofthe
Bible.

Jerome,inhisrevisionoftheOldLatinBible,foundtheApocryphalbookstherein,ascarriedoverfromtheSeptuagintbutinhis
translationoftheOThewascarefulnottoincludeintheOTproperanyhooksnotfoundintheHebrewCanon.Infact,heregardedhistimeas
toovaluabletobespentinrevisingortranslatingtheseuninspiredbooks.
ItwasnotuntiltheCouncilofTrent,April15,1546,thattheRomanCatholicChurchpubliclysetitssealofauthorityonelevenofthe
fourteenorsixteen(including3and4Mac.)Apocryphalbooks.ThisCouncilnamesascanonicalthefollowinghooksandpartsofbooks:First
andSecondMaccabees,AdditionstoEsther,HistoryofSusanna,SongoftheThreeHolyChildren,BelandtheDragon,Tobit,Judith,Baruch,
Sirach,andWisdomofSolomonomittingfromtheabovelistthePrayerofManasses,FirstandSecondEsdras[VulgateThirdandFourth
Esdras].

TheCouncilofTrentsettledtheCanonofScripturefortheRomanCatholicChurch,anddecreedananathemaagainstanyonewhodidnot
agreewithitsstatement.EvenbeforethemeetingofthatfamousCouncil,Coverdale,in1535,hadintroducedtheApocryphaintotheEnglish
Bibleeditedbyhimself.ItwaspublishedinthefirsteditionoftheAVin1611,butbegantobeleftoutasearlyas1629.Itwasinserted
betweentheOTandNT.Asaresultofacontroversyin1826,itwasexcludedfromalltheBiblespublishedbytheBritishandForeignBible
Society.
Inourdiscussionofthecharacterandcontentsofthesebooks,wemustkeepinmindthefactthatthewordApocryphaisusedinthe
ProtestantsenseasinclusiveofthefourteenbooksgivenintheRVof1895,elevenofwhichareregardedascanonicalbytheRomanCatholic
Church.

Thegeneralcharacterandthecontentsofthesebooksareasfollows:

1.FirstMaccabees.ThisisahistoricalworkofrarevalueontheJewishwarofindependenceagainsttheencroachmentsandinvasions
ofAntiochusEpiphanes(b.c.168164).Itsauthorisunknown,thoughthoughttohavebeenaJewofPalestine,whowrotebetweenb.c.105
and64.ThebookisknowninaGreekoriginal,thoughitwastranslated,accordingtoJerome,fromaHebreworiginalthatwascurrentinhis
day(endof4thcent.).

2.SecondMaccabeesisanabridgmentofafivevolumeworkbyJasonof
Cyrene(2:23).ItisprefacedbytwoletterssaidtohavebeensentfromtheJewsofJerusalemtotheJewsofEgypt.Thisbookdealswiththe
historyoftheJewsfromthereignofSeleucusIV.(b.c.175)tothedeathofNicanor(b.c.161).Themultiplicationofthemarvellousand
miraculousinthenarrativediscountsthevalueofthematerialasasourceofhistoricaldata.Thebookwaswrittensomewherebetweenb.c.
125andthefallofJerusalemina.d.70.ItisextantinGreek.
3.FirstEsdras(ThirdintheVulgate)isthecanonicalbookofEzrainGreek,whichinreconstructedformtellsthestoryofthedecline
andfallofthekingdomof

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JudahfromthetimeofJosiah.ItrecitestheoverthrowofJerusalem,theBabylonianexile,thereturnunderZerubbabel,andEzraspartinthe
reorganizationoftheJewishState.Josephusreferstothelegendregardingthethreecourtierscontainedinthisbook.Itsauthorisunknown.
TheCouncilofTrentplaceditinanappendixtotheNTasThirdEsdras,andnotamongtheirregularcanonicalbooks.

4.AdditionstoEsther.ThecanonicalEstherconcludeswith10:3thischapterisfilledoutbytheadditionofsevenverses,andthe
bookconcludeswithsixadditionalchapters(1116).Theregulartextofthebookisoccasionallyinterpolatedandamplifiedbysomewriteror
writers,togivethestoryafullernarrativeandmakethetellingofitmoreeffective.TheseadditionssometimescontradicttheHebrew,andadd
nothingnewofanyvalue.ThiseditorialworkisthoughttohavebeendonebyanEgyptianJewsomewhereinthereignofPtolemyPhilometor
(b.c.181145).

5.TheHistoryofSusannaisanaccountofDanielsdiscoveryofamaliciousslanderagainstthegoodwomanSusanna.Thestoryis
prefixedtothebookofDaniel.ItisfoundintheGreek,andwaspreparedbyanunknownauthoratanunknowndate.
6.TheSongoftheThreeHolyChildrenisfoundinsertedbetweenv.23and
v.24ofDn3.Itsauthoranddateareunknown.

7.TheStoryofBelandtheDragonfollowsDn12.ItisaproofbyDanielthatthepriestsofBelandtheirfamiliesatethefoodsetbefore
theidol.Danielslaysthedragon,andisasecondtimethrownintothelionsden.Theoriginofthisstoryisunknown,thoughitisbysome
attributedtoHabakkuk.ThethreeprecedingstoriesarefoundintheSeptuagintofDaniel,andaMSofNo.6hasrecentlybeenfound.
8.TobitisaromanticstoryofthetimeofIsraelscaptivity.TobitisapioussonofNaphtaliwhobecomesblind.HesendshissonTobias
toRagesinMediatocollectadebt.AnangelleadshimtoEcbatana,whereheromanticallymarriesawidowwhowasstillavirginthoughshe
hadhadsevenhusbands.EachofthesevenhadbeenslainontheirweddingdaybyAsmodus,theevilspirit.Ontheinspirationoftheangel,
Tobiasmarriesthewidow,and,byburningtheinnerpartsofafish,putsthespirittoflightbytheoffensivesmoke.TheblindnessofTobitis
healedbyusingthegallofthefish,theburningofwhoseentrailshadsavedthelifeofTobias.ThebookisfoundinanAramaicversion,three
Greek,andthreeOldLatinversions,andalsointwoHebrewtexts.Itsdateisuncertain,thoughitdoubtlessappearedbeforethe1stcent.b.c.

9.JudithisathrillingtaleofhowJudith,aJewishwidow,securedtheconfidenceofHolofernes,anAssyriancommanderwhowas
besiegingBethulia.Stealthilyinthenighttimesheapproachedhiminhistent,alreadyovercomewithheavydrinking,tookhisownscimitar
andcutoffhishead,andfledwithittothebesiegedcity.ThisvalorousactsavedthedistressedIsraelites.Thestorybristleswithabsurditiesin
names,dates,andgeographicalmaterial.ItseemstohaveimitatedinonerespectJaelsmurderofSisera(Jg4:1722).Itmayhavebeen
writtensometimeaboutb.c.100,solongafterthelifeofNebuchadrezzarastohavemadehimkingofNineveh,insteadofBabylon.The
originaltextisGreek.

10.Baruch.ThisisapseudepigraphicalbookattributedtoBaruch,thescribeofJeremiah.Itspurposeseemstohavebeen(1)to
quietthesoulsoftheJewsinexilebytellingthemthattheywouldsoonreturntotheirnativelandand(2)toadmonishthemtofleethe
idolatrythatwaseverywhereprevalentinBabylonia.Bar6iscalledtheEpistleofJeremy,andisnominallyaletterofthatprophet,warning
theexilesagainstworshippingidols.Thisbookisthoughttohaveoriginatedsometimeaboutb.c.320.ItsoriginallanguageisGreek,though
thereisreasonforbelievingthat1:13:8wasfirstwritteninHebrew.

11. PrayerofManasses,kingofJudah,whenhewasacaptiveofAshurbanipalinthecityofBabylon(2Ch33:12,13).Itprobably88/172
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11.PrayerofManasses,kingofJudah,whenhewasacaptiveofAshurbanipalinthecityofBabylon(2Ch33:12,13).Itprobably
originatedinsomeofthelegendscurrentregardingthisnotableking,andmayhavebeenintendedforinsertioninthenarrativeof2Ch33:13.
ItsoriginalisGreek.ItisnotapartoftheVulgateadoptedattheCouncilofTrent,butisintheappendixthereof.
12.SecondEsdras[Vulg.FourthEsdras.IfFirstEsdrasisthereconstructed
Ezra,andthecanonicalEzraandNehemiaharetakenasonebook,thenthisisThirdEsdras(asintheSeptuagint).IfEzraandNehemiahare
leftoutofaccount,thisbookisSecondEsdras(asintheApocryphaofRV).If,asintheVulgate,EzraisreckonedasFirstEsdras,and
NehemiahasSecondEsdras,andthereconstructedEzraasThirdEsdras,thenthisbookisFourthEsdras].Thisworkisapeculiarcombination
ofmatter.Itisnothistoryatall,butratherareligiousdocumentimitativeoftheHebrewprophets,andapocalypticincharacter.ItsGreek
original,ifithadone,hasbeenlost,andtheworkisextantinLatin,Syriac,Arabic,Ethiopic,andArmenian.Itisattributedtoatleasttwo
differentdates,the2ndand3rdcents.a.d.ThecharacterofthemattershowsthatsomeChristianinterpolatedtheoriginaltogiveitaChristian
colouring.Thismatterdoesnotappear,however,intheArabicandEthiopictexts.ItstandsintheappendixtotheNToftheVulgate.

13.Ecclesiasticus,or,TheWisdomofJesustheSonofSirach.ThisisoneofthemostvaluableoftheApocryphalbooks.It
resemblesthebooksofProverbs,Ecclesiastes,andJobinitsethicalcharacteristics.ItwaswrittenbyaJewcalledJesus,sonofSirach,
probablyearlyinthe3rdcent.,thoughtheGreektranslationwasissuedaboutb.c.132.ThebookwasoriginallywritteninHebrew,andinthis
languageaboutonehalfofithasrecentlybeendiscoveredinEgyptandpublished.Itisoneoftheworksthatgiveusavividideaofthe
WisdomliteratureproducedinthecenturiesprecedingtheChristianera.
14.WisdomofSolomonlaudswisdomandarighteouslife,butcondemnsidolatryandwickedness.Theauthoremploys,inthe
main,illustrationsfromthePentateuch.HepurportstobeSolomon,andmakesjustsuchclaimsasonewouldimagineSolomonwouldhave
doneifhehadbeentheauthor.Heisthoughttohavelivedanywherebetweenb.c.150andb.c.50,andtohavebeenaJewofAlexandria.The
bookpossessessomevaluableliteraryfeatures,thoughinitspresentformitseemstobeincomplete.ItsoriginaltextwasGreek.

IfweshouldincludeThirdandFourthMaccabeesinthislist,asisdonebysomewriters(butnotbytheVulgate),wefindthese
peculiarities:

15.ThirdMaccabeesdescribesanattempttomassacretheJewsinthereignofPtolemyPhilopator(b.c.222205),andanotable
deliverancefromdeath.TheworkisextantinGreek(inLXX),butnotintheVulgate.

16.FourthMaccabeesisadiscussionoftheconquestofmatterbythemindillustratively,bytheuseofthestoryofthemartyrdom
ofthesevenMaccabees,theirmotherandEleazar.TheworkisfoundintheAlexandrianMSoftheSeptuagint,andinSyriac.

InadditiontotheseApocryphalbooks,butnotincludedeitherinthe
Septuagint,theVulgate,ortheRV,thereisaneverincreasinglistofworksthatscholarshavechosentocallpseudepigrapha.Thesewere
writtenatvariousperiods,butmainlyjustbefore,during,andjustafterthetimesofChrist.Manyofthemdealwiththedoctrinaldiscussions
oftheirday,andpresentrevelationstotheauthorunderstrangeandevenweirdconditions.Thesewritersattachedtotheirbooksasarulethe
nameofsomefamouspersonage,notbywayofdeception,buttocourtfavourfortheviewssetforth.Itwouldcarryustoofarafieldtotakeup
theseworksonebyone.Merelythetitlesofsomeofthemcanbementioned.AsapieceoflyricalworkthePsalmsofSolomonisthebest
exampleinthisgroup.Ofapocalypticalandpropheticalworks,therearetheBookofEnoch,quotedinJude,theAssumptionofMoses,the
ApocalypseofBaruch,theTestamentsoftheTwelvePatriarchs.LegendaryworksaretheBookofJubileesandtheAscensionofIsaiah. 89/172
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ApocalypseofBaruch,theTestamentsoftheTwelvePatriarchs.LegendaryworksaretheBookofJubileesandtheAscensionofIsaiah.
OneofthecuriouscasesofmixedmaterialisthatoftheSibyllineOracles,SeeApocalypticLiterature.

Tothesemightbeaddedscoresoflesserlightsthatappearedinthatperiodoftheologicalanddoctrinalunrest,manyofwhicharenow
published,andothersarebeingdiscoveredinsomeoutofthewayplacealmostyearly.Theirvalueliesintherevelationsthattheygiveusof
themethodsadoptedandthedoctrinespromulgatedintheearlycenturiesoftheChristianera,bymeansofsuchworks.

IraMauricePrice.
APOCRYPHALGOSPELS.SeeGospels[Apocryphal].
APOLLONIA(Ac17:1).PaulandSilaspassedthroughthistownonthewayfromAmphipolistoThessalonica.Itisknownthatitwas
ontheimportantEgnatianroadwhichranbetweenDyrrhachium(mod.Durazzo)andThessalonica,butitsexactsitehasnotyetbeen
discovered.Itwasabouthalfwaybetween
AmphipolisandThessalonica,andlaybetweentheriversAxiusandStrymon.
A.Souter.
APOLLONIUS.1.AgovernorofCleSyriaandPhniciaunderSeleucusIV.(2Mac4:4),whosuggestedtheabortiveattemptof
HeliodorusontheTempletreasury.Tothisheprobablyowesthetitlemysarches(2Mac5:24),whichtheVulg.rendersodiosumprincipem,AV
detestableringleader,RVlordofpollutions.Inb.c.168167hewassenttoHellenizeJerusalem,andheinitiatedthegreatpersecutionwith
acruelmassacreontheSabbath(2Mac5:2426).JudasMaccabusdefeatedandslewhim,wearinghisswordeverafter(1Mac3:10ff.,
Jos.Ant.XII.vii.7).2.AnenvoysenttoEgyptbyAntiochusIV.,b.c.173(2Mac4:21).3.AnofficialunderAntiochusV.whomolestedthe
Jews(2Mac12:2).4.AgovernorofCleSyriawhofoughtagainsttheJews(b.c.147)onthesideofDemetrius(1Mac10:6985Jos.Ant.
XIII.iv.3f.isinerror).FromJamniahesentapompousdefiancetoJonathanMaccabus,who,however,capturedJoppaanddefeated
Apollonius.
J.Taylor.
APOLLOPHANES(2Mac10:37).ASyriankilledatthetakingofGazarabyJudasMaccabus.
APOLLOS(apetname,abbreviatedfromApollonius,whichappearsinDtextofAc18:24).ApartfromadoubtfulreferenceinTit3:13,
wederiveourknowledgeofApollosfrom1Cor.andAc18:2428.InActsheisdescribedasanAlexandrianJew,aneloquentman,withan
effectiveknowledgeoftheOT.HecametoEphesusbeforeSt.Paulsojournedthere,and,havingbeeninstructedinthewayoftheLord,he
zealouslyproclaimedhisviewsinthesynagogue,wherePriscillaandAquilaheardhim.Whatexactlyhisviewswere,itisnoteasytodecide.
Ac18:25suggeststhathewasaChristianinsomesense,thatheknewthestoryofJesus,believedinHimasMessiah,butdidnotknowofthe
comingoftheHolyGhost.ThedisciplesmentionedinAc19:1ff.,whoareclearlyinaparallelposition,donotseemtoknowevensomuchas
thisandinstructedinthewayoftheLordneednotmeanChristianity,whileeventhephrasethethingsconcerningJesusmayrefersimply
totheMessianicprophecies(cf.Lk24:27,andseeart.ApollosbyJ.H.A.HartinJThS,Oct.1905).InEphesus,Apollosmayhavepreached
onlyJohnsbaptismofrepentance.ButPriscillaandAquilamadehimafullChristian.

LateronApollosworkedinCorinth,withgreatsuccess.HiseloquenceandPhilonicculturewonhimanameforwisdom,andmadehis
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LateronApollosworkedinCorinth,withgreatsuccess.HiseloquenceandPhilonicculturewonhimanameforwisdom,andmadehis
preachingattractive,sothatmanydeclaredthemselveshisspecialfollowers(1Co1:12).ApollosteachinginCorinthmayhavebeenmarked
byallegoricalinterpretation,insistenceonDivineknowledge,andontheneedoflivingaccordingtonature(seeSt.Paulssarcasticreference
tonaturein1Co11:14).ButthepartystrifeatCorinthwasnotofhisintending.ApollosandPaulwereagreedintheirgospel(1Co3:8)a
facttheCorinthiansoverlooked.ApollosrefusedtherequestoftheCorinthiansforaspeedysecondvisit(1Co16:12).St.Paulapparently
speaksofApollosasanApostle(1Co4:9).WehavenocertainrecordsofApollosteaching,butithasbeensuggestedthathewrotethe
WisdomofSolomonbefore,andthelettertotheHebrewsafter,hisconversion.

H.G.Wood.
APOLLYON(theDestroyer).TheGreekequivalentinRev9:11of
Abaddon,theangelofthebottomlesspit,whowasalsothekingofthelocusts(seeAbaddon).TheworddoesnotappearinitsGreekformin
laterRabbinicwritings,andonlyhereintheNT.AsanangelApollyonseemstohavebeenregardedasequivalenttoAsmodus,kingof
demons,inJudaisticmythologybutourdataaretoofewtowarrantprecisestatements.

ShailerMathews.
APOPLEXY.SeeMedicine.
APOSTASY.Adefectionfromthetenetsofsomereligiouscommunity.InAc21:21itdescribesthechargebroughtagainstSt.Paulby
theJews,viz.,thathetaughtthattheJewsshouldabandonMosaism.In2Th2:3itdescribesthedefectionofChristianswhichwasto
accompanythemanoflawlessnessi.e.theAntichrist.Thisexpectationisanillustrationofwhatseemstohavebeenacommonbeliefthat
thereturnoftheChristtoestablishHisKingdomwouldbeprecededbyexceptionalactivityonthepartofHissuperhumanopponent,andthat
thiswouldresultinanabandonmentofChristianfaithonthepartofmanyofthosenominallyChristian.
ShailerMathews.
APOSTLES.Apostle,onecommissioned,representsaHeb.wordwhichsignifiednotmerelyamessengerbutadelegate,bearinga
commission,and,sofarashiscommissionextended,wieldinghiscommissionersauthority.TheApostleofanyone,saystheTalmud,is
evenasthemanhimselfbywhomheisdeputed.
ThetermwasappliedbyJesustothetwelvediscipleswhomHeattachedtoHimselftoaidHiminHisministryandtobetrainedbythe
disciplineofHisexampleandpreceptforcarryingitonafterHisdeparture(Lk6:13,Mt10:2).Cf.Jn17:18Evenasthoudidstcommission
meuntotheworld,Ialsocommissionedthemuntotheworld(wherecommissionistheverbcognatetoApostle).

JesusappointedtwelveApostlescorrespondingtothetwelvetribes,thusintimatingthattheirmissionwasmeanwhiletoIsrael(cf.Mt10:5,
6)butbyandby,whenHewassettingoutonHislastjourneytoJerusalem,Heappointedotherseventyandcommissionedthem(Lk10:1),
thusintimatingtheuniversalityofHisgospel,inasmuchas,accordingtoJewishreckoning,mankindwascomposedofseventynations.
AftertheLordsdeparturetheTwelveweretheApostlesparexcellence(cf.Ac6:2,6).TheywerethemenwhohadbeenwithJesus,and
theirpeculiarfunctionwastotestifyofHim,andespeciallyofHisResurrection(Ac1:21,22cf.v.8andLk24:48).Buttheywerenotthe
onlyApostles.ThetitlewasgiventoBarnabas(Ac14:4,14,1Co9:5,6)andAndronicusandJunias(Ro16:7).Itmaybethatitwasextended
tomenofApostoliccharacter,butthenwhywasitwithheldfromonelikeTimothy(2Co1:1,Col1:1)?IfBarnabas,astraditiondeclares,and
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tomenofApostoliccharacter,butthenwhywasitwithheldfromonelikeTimothy(2Co1:1,Col1:1)?IfBarnabas,astraditiondeclares,and
AndronicusandJunias,asOrigensuggests,belongedtotheorderoftheSeventy,itmaywellbethatthoseothersbesidestheTwelvewhowere
styledApostlesweretheSeventy.ItistruethetitleisgiventoJamestheLordsbrother(Gal1:19,1Co15:7)andtoPaul,whobelonged
neithertotheTwelvenortotheSeventy.Buttheirswereexceptionalcases.ItwasnaturalthatJames,whowasrecognizedastheheadofthe
ChurchatJerusalem,shouldbeaccordedthedignityofApostleship,aswellforhisextremesanctityasforhisrelationshiptoJesus.Andasfor
Paul,hisApostolictitlewasbitterlycontestedandhetriumphantlydefendeditonthedoublegroundthat,thoughhehadnotcompaniedwith
JesusinthedaysofHisflesh,hehadseenHimafterHisglorificationontheroadtoDamascus(1Co9:1),andthoughhewasnotoneofthe
originalApostles,hisApostleshiphadtheLordsownsanction(1Co9:2,2Co12:12).Perhapsitwashisexamplethatemboldenedothers
outsidetheranksoftheTwelveandtheSeventytoclaimApostleshiponthescoreofApostolicgifts,realorsupposed(2Co11:13,Rev2:2).
SeealsoDisciples.

DavidSmith.
APOTHECARY.Inallthe8occurrencesofthiswordinOTandApocr.weshouldrenderperfumer,asdoesRVinhalfofthese(Ex
30:25,35,37:29,Ec10:1)elsewheretheformerisretained(2Ch16:14,Neh.3:8(cf.marg.),Sir38:8,49:1).SeePerfumer.

A.R.S.Kennedy.
APPAIM.AmanofJudah(1Ch2:30,31).
APPAREL.SeeDress.
APPARITION.InRVofMt14:26andMk6:49forAVspirit.TheGr.word(phantasma)differsfromtheusualwordforspirit
(pneuma).Itoccursonlyinthesepassages.
APPEAL.SeeJustice.
APPHIA.AChristianladyofColoss,amemberofthehouseholdofPhilemon,probablyhiswife(Philem2).
APPHUS(1Mac2:5).ThesurnameofJonathantheMaccabee.Thenameisusuallythoughttomeandissemblerandsomesuppose
thatitwasgiventoJonathanforhisstratagemagainstthetribeoftheJambri,whohadkilledhisbrotherJohn(1Mac9:3741).
APPIIFORUM.Ac28:15AVRVTheMarketofAppius.Seenextarticle.
APPIUS,MARKETOF.Amarkettown(withoutcityrights)ontheAppianWay,10RomanmilesfromTresTabern(ThreeTaverns),
nearthemodernrailwaystation,ForoAppio.AstheAppianWaywasthemainroadfromRometothesouthandeastoftheRomanEmpire,it
wastraversedbynearlyalltravellersfromortothoseparts(Ac28:15).
A.Souter.
APPLE.Thattheapple(tappuah)oftheOTisthefruitknownbythatnametodayisextremelydoubtful.Itistruethatthetreeinsize
andfoliagewouldanswertothereferenceinCa8:5,JL1:12thefruittooinitssweetness(Ca2:3)anditssmell(Ca7:8)isveryappropriate.It
isalsosuggestivethatHeb.tappuahcloselyresemblestheArabicforapple,tuffah.Ontheotherhand,itisasubstantialdifficultythatthe
appledoesnotgrowwellinPalestineproper,asdistinguishedfromtheLebanon.Thenativefruitissmallandwantinginsweetnessalmostall
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appledoesnotgrowwellinPalestineproper,asdistinguishedfromtheLebanon.Thenativefruitissmallandwantinginsweetnessalmostall
eatableapplesareimportedfromtheNorth.Inconsequenceofthis,severalfruitswhichtodayarefoundinPalestinehavebeensuggested.
Thecitron,afavouritewiththeJewsonaccountofitssmellandgoldencolour,iscertainlyamorerecentintroduction.Theapricot,suggested
byTristiam,whichflourishesinpartsofPalestineingreaterprofusionthananyotherfruit,wouldseemtoanswertothereferenceswell.Itis
deliciouslysweet,withapleasantsmell,and,whenripe,ofabrilliantgoldencolour.Thetreeisoneofthemostbeautifulintheland,andwhen
loadedwithitsgoldenfruitmightwellsuggesttheexpressionapplesofgoldinpicturesofsilver(Pr25:11).Unfortunatelythereis
considerabledoubtwhetherthistree,anativeofChina,wasknowninPalestinemuchbeforetheChristianera.Afourthfruithasbeen
suggested,namely,thequince.Thisiscertainlyanativeoftheland,andiscommonalloverPalestine.Thefruit,whenripe,thoughsmelling
pleasantly,isnotsweetaccordingtoourideas,buteventodayismuchappreciated.Itisagreatfavouritewhencooked,andisextensively
usedformakingadeliciousconfection.Thequince,alongwiththetrueapple,wassacredtoAphrodite,thegoddessoflove.

E.W.G.Masterman.
APPLEOFTHEEYE(lit.childordaughteroftheeye,i.e.thatwhichismostprecious[theorganofsight],andmostcarefullyguarded
[bytheprojectingbone,protectingitasfaraspossiblefrominjury]).AfigureofGodscareofHispeople(Dt32:10,Ps17:8,Zec2:8),and
ofthepreciousnessoftheDivinelaw(Pr7:2).InLa2:18itisthesourceoftears.

C.W.Emmet.
APRON.SeeDress.
AQUILAANDPRISCILLA.ThenamesofamarriedcouplefirstmentionedbySt.Paulin1Co16:19,andbySt.LukeinAc18:2.
OnlyinthesepassagesdothenamesoccurinthisorderinlaterreferencestheorderisalwaysPriscillaandAquila(Ac18:18,26,Ro16:3,2
Ti4:19).AnaturalinferencefromthisfactisthatPriscillawasamoreactiveworkerintheChristianChurchthanherhusband.Infavourof
thisviewisthestatementofChrysostom(i.306D,177A,iii.176B,C)thatitwasPriscillascarefulexpositionsofthewayofGod(Ac
18:26)thatprovedsohelpfultoApollos.OnthistestimonyHarnackbaseshisingeniousbutdoubtfultheorythatPriscillawastheauthorofthe
EpistletotheHebrews.FromtheprominencegiveninRomaninscriptionsandlegendstothenamePrisca(St.Paul)oritsdimioutivePriscilla
(St.Luke),HortconcludesthatshebelongedtoadistinguishedRomanfamily(Rom.andEph.p.12ff.).AquilawasaJewofEasternorigin
amanofPontusbyrace(Ac18:2).
FromRome,AquilaandPriscillaweredrivenbytheedictofClaudius(a.d.52).AstheunrestamongtheJews,whichledtotheir
expulsion,arosethroughtheinstigationofChrestus,itisnotimprobablethatAquilaandPriscillawereatleastsympathizerswith
ChristianitybeforetheymetSt.Paul.OnthissuppositiontheirreadywelcomeoftheApostletotheirhomeatCorinthismosteasilyexplained.
TheirhospitalityhadarichrewardbothinprivateandinpublictheywereprivilegedtolistentoSt.Paulspersuasivereasonings(Ac18:4).
NorwastheadvantageallononesidefromthesefellowworkersinChristJesus(Ro16:3)itisprobable,asRamsaysuggests(HastingsDB
I.p.482),thattheApostleoftheGentileslearntthecentralimportanceofRomeinthedevelopmentoftheChurch.Wemayfairlyassociate
withthisfriendshipthematuringofSt.PaulsplanforevangelizingRomeandtheWest,whichwefindalreadyfullyarrangedalittlelater(Ac
19:21,Ro15:24).
AtthecloseofSt.PaulseighteenmonthsresidenceinCorinth,AquilaandPriscillaaccompaniedhimtoEphesus.Attheirhouse
Christiansassembledforworship,and,accordingtoanearlygloss(DGal)on1Co16:19,theApostleagainlodgedwiththem.AtEphesus
theyremainedwhilstSt.PaulvisitedJerusalemthereApollos,theeloquentAlexandrian,profitedgreatlyfromtheirripeChristianexperience,
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theyremainedwhilstSt.PaulvisitedJerusalemthereApollos,theeloquentAlexandrian,profitedgreatlyfromtheirripeChristianexperience,
andlearnt,fromoneorbothofthem,thesecretofpowerinministeringthegospelofgrace(Ac18:26ff.)therealsoitisprobablethatthey
madethechurchesoftheGentilestheirdebtorsbyriskingtheirlivesindefenceofSt.Paul.TheallusiontothiscourageousdeedisinRo
16:3,andfromthispassagewelearnthatAquilaandPriscillasojournedforawhileinRome,whereoncemoretheirhospitablehomebecamea
rendezvousforChristians.ThisstatementaffordsnogroundfordisputingtheintegrityoftheEpistle.TheirformerconnexionwithRome,their
InterestintheChurchofChristintheimperialcity,andtheirmigratoryhabits,ratherfurnishpresumptiveevidenceinfavourofsuchavisit.
FromthesetrustedfriendsSt.PaulmayhavereceivedtheencouragingtidingswhichmadehimlongtoseehisfellowbelieversinRome(Ro
1:11).ThelastNTreferencetothisdevotedpairshowsthattheyreturnedtoEphesus(2Ti4:19)theirfellowshipwithTimothywould,
doubtless,tendtohisstrengtheninginthegracethatisinChristJesus(21).

J.G.Tasker.
AQUILASVERSION.SeeGreekVersions.
AR.AcityontheArnon,theborderbetweenMoabandtheAmorites(Nu
21:15,Dt2:9),nowWdyMjib.ItiscalledArMoab(Nu21:28,Is15:1),Moab(Nu22:35),andthecitythatisinthevalley(Dt2:36etc.).
ItispossiblytheruinseenbyBurckhardtinthevalleybelowthejunctionoftheLejjnandtheMjib.

W.Ewing.
ARA.AdescendantofAsher(1Ch7:38).
ARAB(Jos15:52).AcityofJudahinthemountainsnearDumah.PerhapstheruinerRabiyahnearDomeh.
ARABAH.ThenamegivenbytheHebrewstothewholeofthegreatdepressionfromtheSeaofGalileetotheGulfofAkabah.(Forthe
partN.oftheDeadSea,seeJordan.)Thenameisnowappliedonlytothesouthernpart,extendingfromalineofwhitecliffsthatcrossthe
valleyafewmilesS.oftheDeadSea.Thefloorofthevalley,about10milesbroadattheN.end,graduallyrisestowardstheS.,andgrows
narrower,until,ataheightof2000feetabovetheDeadSea,nearlyoppositeMt.Hor,thewidthisonlyabout1/2mile.Theaveragewidth
thencetoAkabahisabout5miles.Thesurfaceisformedofloosegravel,stones,sand,withpatchesofmud.UptotheleveloftheRedSea
everythingindicatesthatwearetraversinganoldseabottom.Apartfromstunteddesertshrubandanoccasionalacacia,theonlygreeneryto
beseenisaroundthespringsontheedgesofthevalley,andinthewadyswhichcarrythewaterfromtheadjoiningmountainsintotheWdy
elJaib,downwhichitflowstotheDeadSea.Thegreatlimestoneplateau,etTh,theWildernessofParan,formsthewesternboundary,and
thenakedcragsofEdomtheeastern.IsraeltraversedtheArabahwhentheywenttoKadeshbarnea,andagainwhentheyreturnedtothesouth
toavoidpassingthroughthelandofEdom(Nu20:21,21:4,Dt2:6).
W.Ewing.
ARABIA,ARABS.InthepresentarticlewehavetodonotwiththepartplayedbytheArabsinhistory,orwiththegeographyofthe
Arabianpeninsula,butonlywiththeemergenceoftheArabnameandpeopleinBibletimes.

Arb(forwhichweshouldhaveexpectedratherrb)isscarcelyatfirstapropername,butstandsmerelyforwaste,desolation.Soin
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Arb(forwhichweshouldhaveexpectedratherrb)isscarcelyatfirstapropername,butstandsmerelyforwaste,desolation.Soin
Is21:13(whichmayreallybelongtoIsaiahhimself,butshouldperhapsbeascribedtoalaterhand):Bivouacinthecopse[madeupofthorn
bushes,somethinglikeanItalianmacchia],inthewaste,yecaravansofDedan.Inthispassagethetitlemassbarb,whichinanycaseis
lateandwantingintheancientGr.version,incorrectlytakesarbasapropername[weneednotstoptonoticethefalseinterpretationofthis
wordadoptedbytheLXXhereandinotherpassages].Morecommonlythewordusedforwasteisthefem.formarbh(e.g.Is35:1,Job
24:5,39:6etc.),which,precededbytheart.(hArbh),standsforthedeepgorgewhich,commencingtothenorthoftheDeadSeaand
includingthelatter,stretchestotheRedSea(Dt2:8etc.).WhetherarbinIs13:20andJer3:2meanssimplyaninhabitantofthedesert,or
shouldbetakenasapropername,isuncertainbutatbottomthisdistinctionhasnoImportance,forthetwonotionsofBedouin(Badaw,
whichalso=inhabitantofthedesert)andArabwereprettymuchidenticalinthemindofcivilizedpeoples.Itmaybenotedthatherethe
Massoretesappeartoassumetheappellativesense,sincetheypointarb,whereasforArabtheyusetheformmoreakintoAramaicthan
Hebrew,arb(Neh2:19,6:16).ThepluralarbminNeh21:16,22:1and2Ch26:7Qer,fromarbm(Kethibhofthelastpassage)may
alsobejustifiedfromthestandpointofHebrewusage.Theformin2Ch17:11canhardlybeoriginalitisduetoattractionfromthefollowing
mebm.ArbiscertainlyagentilicnameinwethkolmalkArbofJer25:24[thefollowingwordswethkolmalkhereb,whichare
wantingintheLXX,areofcourseapuredittographyfor,althoughtheMassoretes,forthesakeofdistinction,pointinthesecondinstance
hereb,thishasnovalue]andinEzk27:21.InthesepassagesArbcanhardlybetakenasthenameofasingleclanquitedistinctfrom
Dedanandtherest.Thepropheticauthorsdonotspeakwiththeexactnessofaprosenarrator,andinpointoffactwereperhapsnotverywell
informedaboutthevariousbranchesoftheBedouins,ofwhoseterritorytheIsraelitepeasantandtownsmanthoughtonlywithashudder.Itis
possible,indeed,thattheriseofthenameArabamongtheHebrews(c.b.c.700)isconnectedwiththecircumstancethattheancientclansof
Ishmael,Midian,Amalek,etc.,hadbythattimedisappearedoratleastlostallsignificance.Inthedeserttheregoesonaconstant,ifforthe
mostpartaslow,interchangeintheriseandfalloftribesandtribalnames.Abravetribemaybeweakenedbyfamineordefeatitmaybe
compelledtomigrateortoadoptasettledmodeoflife,andthusitsnamebecomeslostamongapeasantpopulationoritmaybecome
otherwisebrokenupanditsfragmentsattachedtoothertribes,sothatsmallclansbyassimilatingforeignelementsbecomegreattribes.Soit
wasmillenniumsagosoitisstill.

TheAssyriansourcesnametheArabsasearlyasthe9thcent.b.c.(seethepassagescitedbyBezoldinhisCatalogue,vol.v.1964).King
DariusI.,inhisinscriptions,enumeratesArabyaamongthecountriessubjecttohim.ThenamealwaysfollowsBabylonia,Assyria(whichas
aprovinceincludedMesopotamiaproperandalsoprobablyN.Syria),andprecedesEgypt.Weshallhavetounderstandbythisnamethegreat
desertregionnotonlyofSyria,butalsoofMesopotamiaaswellasthepeninsulaofSinai.Aboutthissametimeatthelatestthenameofthe
ArabsbecameknownalsototheGreeks.schylus(Pers,316)namesanArabasfightinginthebattleofSalamis,andhiscontemporary,
fromwhomHerodotusborrowedhisdescriptionofthehostofXerxes,enumeratedArabarchersasformingpartofthelatter(Herod.vii.69).
Butwhileschylus(Prom.422)hasquitefabulousnotionsaboutthedwellingplacesoftheArabs,Herodotusiswellacquaintedwiththem.
HisaccountofthesituationoftheArabianpeninsulaisapproximatelycorrect,buthehasspeciallyinviewthoseArabswhoinhabittheregion
lyingbetweenSyriaandEgypt,i.e.thedesertlandswithwhoseinhabitantstheancientIsraeliteshadfrequentrelations,peacefulorwarlike.
XenophonappearstousethetermArabiainessentiallythesamesenseasKingDarius.Hetoogivesthisnametothedeserttotheeastofthe
Euphrates,thedesertwhichseparatesBabyloniafromMesopotamiaproper(Anab.VII.viii.25),thesameregionwhichwasstillcalled
ArabbythelaterSyrians.Thistractofcountry,sofaraswecanlearn,hasalwaysbeenpeopledbyArabtribes.
Inthe5thcent.b.c.wefind,intheabovecitedpassagesfromtheMemoirsofNehemiah,repeatedmentionofanArabianGeshemor
Gashmu,whoserealnamemayhavebeenGushamwhogaveNehemiahnolittletrouble.Aboutthistime,perhaps,theArabtribeof
NabatanshadalreadypressedtheirwayfromthesouthanddriventheEdomitesfromtheirancientseats.Towardstheendofthe4thcent.
theywerefirmlyestablishedatleastintheancientEdomitecapital,Petraandtheygraduallyextendedtheirdominionwidely.TheFirstBook95/172
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theywerefirmlyestablishedatleastintheancientEdomitecapital,Petraandtheygraduallyextendedtheirdominionwidely.TheFirstBook
ofMaccabeesclearlydistinguishestheNabatansfromotherArabs,whereastheSecondBooksimplycallsthemArabs(2Mac5:8),asdo
alsootherGreekandLatinwriters.TheNabatankingdomcounted,indeed,forsomuchwithWesternsthattheycouldregarditastheArabs
parexcellence.TheApostlePaul(Gal4:25),likeprofanewriters,reckonstheSinaiticpeninsula,whichwaspartoftheNahatankingdom,as
belongingtoArabia.Again,thepartofArabiatowhichhewithdrewafterhisconversion(Gal1:17)musthavebeenadesertregionnotfar
fromDamascus,whichthenalsowasundertheswayofthekingoftheNabatans.BytheArabiansmentionedinAc2:11,inconnexion
withthemiracleofPentecost,theauthorprobablymeantJewsfromthesamekingdom,which,itistrue,hadinhistime(?)becometheRoman
provinceofArabia(a.d.105).

WedonotknowwhetherthenameAraboriginatedwiththeArabsthemselvesorwasfirstappliedtothembyoutsiders.Inanycase,it
firstextendeditselfgraduallyoverthenorthernregionsandthegreatpeninsula.Uncivilizedandmuchdividedpeoplesrecognizetheirnational
unityonlywithdifficulty,whereasthisismorereadilyperceivedbytheirneighbours.Inthefirstcaseamanknowsonlyhisowntribe,and
regardseventheneighbouringtribe,whichspeaksthesamelanguage,asstrange.ButthewidewanderingsoftheArabnomads,duetothe
natureoftheircountry,broughtthemreadilyintocontactwithpeoplesofotherlanguageandothercustoms,andthiscouldawakeninthemthe
consciousnessoftheirownnationality.PerhapstherecognitionofArabunitywasfavouredalsobythetradingjourneysofthecivilizedArabs
ofthesouthandofotherpartsofArabia.Butbethatasitmay,theancientArabepitaphofNamratotheS.E.of
Damascus,datingfromtheyeara.d.328,concernsMaralqais,kingofallArabs.AndfromtheoldestdocumentsofclassicalArabicthathave
comedowntousitisasureinferencethatatthattime(i.e.inthe6thcent.a.d.)Arabhadbeenforaninconceivablylongperiodknownas
theirnationaldesignation.Butthecloseconnexionbetweenthiscommonnameandthemeaningdesertstillrevealsitselfinthecircumstance
thatthepluralformArb(latermorefreq.Urbn)standsespeciallyfortheBedouinsasopposedtoArabswholiveintowns,andthat
afterwardsincommonspeech,ashadbeenthecaseevenintheSabaninscriptions,ArabisoftenusedsimplyforBedouin,inhabitantof
thedesert.

Th.Nldeke.
ARAD.1.AcityintheNegeb,thekingofwhichprovokedIsrael(Nu21:1)andwasslainbyJoshua(Jos12:14).InitsvicinitytheKenites
settled(Jg1:16).ItisprobablyTellArd,16milesS.ofHebron.2.ABenjamite(1Ch8:15).

W.Ewing.
ARADUS(1Mac15:23).SeeArvad.
ARAH.1.InthegenealogyofAsher(1Ch7:39).2.HisfamilyreturnedwithZerubbabel(Ezr2:5,Neh6:18,7:10,1Es5:10mg.).
ARAM.1.AgrandsonofNahor(Gn22:21).2.AnAsherite(1Ch7:34).3.AVofMt1:3,Lk3:33.SeeArni,Ram.
ARAM,ARAMANS(ofteninAVandRVSyrians).Anumberof
scatteredbutkindredtribeswhichmadetheirappearanceintheEuphratesvalleyaboutb.c.1300andrapidlypushedwestward.Theirchief
habitatstretchedfromHarran,eastoftheEuphrates,southwestwardtotheHauran.ThenortheasternpartofthisregionwascalledAramof
therivers(Aramnaharaim,Ps60,title).TheAramansarefirstmentionedbyShalmaneserI.ofAssyriaaboutb.c.1300(WAIiii.4,No.1).
AboutthesametimetheirnameoccursinaninscriptionofRamesesII.(cf.Mller,AsienundEuropa,222,234).TiglathpileserI.(c.b.c.
1110)mentionsAramans(KIBi.33)asdwellingeastoftheEuphrates,andinthissameregiontheywerelater(885824)conqueredby
AshurnazirpalandShalmaneserII.ManyofthemcontinuedtoliveintheEuphratesvalley,wheretheirlanguagespreadtosuchanextentthat,
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AshurnazirpalandShalmaneserII.ManyofthemcontinuedtoliveintheEuphratesvalley,wheretheirlanguagespreadtosuchanextentthat,
inthereignofSennacherib,AramaicglossesbegintomaketheirappearanceonBabyloniancontracts.InNippurmanysimilardocuments
fromthePersianperiodhavebeenfound.TheyindicatethattheuseofAramaicwasspreadingamongthecommonpeopleofBabylonia.It
probablycameintogeneralusehere,astheBabylonianTalmudiswritteninit.

TheAramanspushedintotheWestinlargenumbersshortlyafterb.c.1300.IncourseoftimetheyoccupiedDamascusandapartofthe
countrytothesouthasfarastheHauran,someofthemminglingwithtribesstillfarthertothesouthandbecomingtheAmmonites,Moabites,
andIsraelites.ApartoftheAramansalsodisplacedtheHittitesinHamath.DamascusbecametheleadingAramanState(cf.Am1:5andIs
7:8),butotherindependentAramankingdomswereAramGeshur,andAramMaacahintheHaurantothenorthofBashanAramZobah,
farthernorthtowardsDamascusandAramRehob,nearthetownofDan(Nu13:21,Jg18:28),conjecturallyidentifiedwithBanias(Moore,
Com.onJudges,399).

KingDavidmarriedadaughterofthekingofGeshur,andshebecamethemotherofAbsalom(2S3:3),whoafterwardsfledthither
(13:38).DamascuswasconqueredbyDavid(8:6),whoalsomadeZobah,Rehob,andMaacahtributary(ch.10).Zobahismentionedby
AshurbanipalthreecenturieslaterasSubiti.
AfterthedeathofDavid,Damascusregaineditsindependence.InthereignsofBaashaandAsaitwasanallynowofIsraelandnowof
Judah(1K15:18).DuringthecenturyfromAhabtoJehoashofIsrael,DamascusandIsraelwerefrequentlyatwar,andDamascusheldmuch
ofIsraelstransJordanicterritory.AfterthistheAramankingdombecameweaker,butinthereignofAhazitmadeanattemptonJudah(Is
7).ItwasfinallysubduedbyTiglathpileserIII.ofAssyriainb.c.732.

TheAramanscontinuedtoformthebasisofpopulationintheregionfrom
AleppototheEuphratesandbeyond.EarlyintheChristianerathisregionbecameChristian,andinthatAramaicdialectcalledSyriacalarge
Christianliteratureexists.
GeorgeA.Barton.
ARAMITESS.AfeminineformwhichoccursinbothAVandRVof1Ch
7:14,fortheelsewherefrequenttermSyrian.
ARAMGESHUR,ARAMMAACAH,ARAMNAHARAIM,ARAMREHOB,ARAMZOBAH.SeeAram.
ARAN.SonofDishantheHorite(Gn36:28,1Ch1:42),adescendantof
Esau.Thenamedenotesawildgoat,andDishananantelopeorgazellewhile
Seirtheancestoristhehegoat.
ARARAT(Gn8:4,2K19:37[||Isa37:38],Jer51:27)istheHebrewformoftheAssyrianUrartu,whichonthemonumentsfromthe9th
cent.downwardsdesignatesakingdomintheN.ofthelaterArmenia.Theextensionofthenamenaturallyvariedwiththepoliticallimitsof
thisStatebutproperlyitseemstohavedenotedasmalldistrictonthemiddleAraxes,ofwhichthenativenameAyraratisthoughttobe
preservedintheAlarodioiofHerodotus(iii.94,vii.79).JeromedescribesitasalevelregionofArmenia,throughwhichtheAraxesflows,of
incrediblefertility,atthefootoftheTaurusrange,whichextendsthusfar.TheAraxes(orAras),onitswaytotheCaspianSea,formsagreat
elbowtotheS.andattheupperpartofthis,ontheright(orS.W.)bankoftheriver,theloftysnowcladsummitofMassis(calledbythe
PersiansthemountainofNoah)risestoaheightofnearly17,000ft.abovesealevel.Thisisthetraditionallandingplaceofthearkand, 97/172
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PersiansthemountainofNoah)risestoaheightofnearly17,000ft.abovesealevel.Thisisthetraditionallandingplaceofthearkand,
throughamisunderstandingofGn8:4(in[oneof]themountainsofArarat),thenamewastransferredfromthesurroundingdistricttothe
twopeaksofthismountain,GreatAraratandLittleArarat,thelatterabout7m.distantand4000ft.lower.
WhetherthisisthesitecontemplatedbythewriterinGenesis(P)isnotquitecertain.TheSyrianandMohammedantraditionplacesitat
JebelJd,astrikingmountainconsiderablyS.ofLakeVan,commandingawideviewovertheMesopotamianplain.Itisjustpossiblethat
thismightbeincludedamongthe
mountainsofAraratinthewidersenseoftheterm.Thisseemstheviewof
Josephus(Ant.I.iii.5,6),whoisunconsciousofanydiscrepancybetweenArmeniaandtheKordyanmountainofBerosus.His
statementaboutrelicsofthearkbeingshowninhistimeappealstobeborrowedfromBerosus,andappliestowhatevermountainthatwriter
hadinmindpossiblyJebelJd!TheTargumsandPeshita,however,whichareinfluencedbythistradition,readard
(Kurdistan),inverbalagreementwithBerosus.ThecuneiformFloodlegendputsitmuchfartherS.,atthemountainofNisir,probablyinone
oftherangesE.oftheTigrisandS.oftheLesserZab.This,ofcourse,isquitebeyondanyimaginableextensionofthenameArarat.
Assuming,therefore,thattheBiblicalandBabyloniannarrativeshaveacommonorigin,thelandingplaceofthearkwouldseemtohavebeen
pushedgraduallynorthward,thenaturaltendencyofsuchatraditionbeingtoattachitselftothehighestmountainknownatthetime.Onthis
principletheultimateselectionoftheimposingMountMassiswouldbealmostinevitable:anditisprobablethatthisistheviewofGn8:4,
althoughthealternativehypothesisthatJebelJdismeanthasstillsomeclaimtobeconsidered.ThesuggestionofNldeke,thatAraratisa
latesubstitutionforardintheoriginaltextofGenesis,hasnothingtorecommendit.

J.Skinner.
ARARITE(2S23:33bRV).SeeHararite,No.2.
ARATHES,formerlycalledMithridates,waskingofCappadociab.c.163130.Inb.c.139theRomanswroteletterstoArathesand
certainothereasternsovereignsinfavouroftheJews(1Mac15:22).
ARAUNAH(2S24:18calledin1Ch21:15,2Ch31Ornan).AJebusitewhoownedathreshingflooronMountMoriah.Thisspot
wasindicatedbytheprophetGadastheplacewhereanaltarshouldheerectedtoJ,becausetheplague,whichfollowedDavidsnumbering
ofthepeople,hadbeenstayed.Davidboughtthethreshingfloorandoxenfor50shekelsofsilver.Thepricepaidisgivenin1Ch21:15as
600shekelsofgoldacharacteristicdeviationfromtheearlieraccount.
ARBAisnamedthefatheroftheAnakinJos14:15(soreadalso21:11,cf.15:13).Thismeanssimplythathewasthefounderofthecity
whichborehisnamethatisKiriatharba,laterHebron(wh.see),wherewasachiefseatoftheAnakim.

J.F.McCurdy.
ARBATHITE(2S23:31).AnativeofBetharabah,atowninthewildernessofJudah(Jos15:6,51,18:22).
ARBATTA(AVArbattis),1Mac5:23.AdistrictinPalestine.Thesituationisdoubtful.ItmaybeacorruptionforAkrabattisthe
toparchyofSamarianearAkrabehE.ofShechem.

ARBELA.Thediscrepancybetween1Mac9andJos.Ant.XII.xi.1,ouronlyauthorities,makesuncertaintherouteofBacchidesinhis
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ARBELA.Thediscrepancybetween1Mac9andJos.Ant.XII.xi.1,ouronlyauthorities,makesuncertaintherouteofBacchidesinhis
marchonJerusalem.JosephusmakeshimpitchhiscampatArbelainGalilee:1Mac.bringshimbythewaythatleadethtoGilgal,to
MesalothwhichisinArbela.HiscoursethencepointstoJiljiliaasGilgal,about5milesN.ofBrezZeit,wherethebattlewasfoughtwith
Judas.MesalothmightthenhesoughtinMeselieh,about3milesS.E.ofDothan.ButnonameresemblingArbela,eitheroftownordistrict,is
foundintheneighbourhoodalthoughEusebius(Onomasticon)seemstohaveknownanArbelanotfarfromLejjun.Ontheotherhand,Arbela
inGalileesurvivesinthemodernIrbilorIrbid,aruinontheS.lipofthegorge,WdyHamm,whichbreakswestwardfromGennesaret.
Thereis,however,notraceofaMesalothhere,unlessindeedRobinsonsingenioussuggestionisright,thatitmaybetheHeb.mesillth,
referringtothefamouscavernedcliffsinthegorge,whenceBacchidesextirpatedtherefugees.

W.Ewing.
ARBITE.TheLXX(2S23:35)apparentlyreadstheArchite,cf.Jos16:2andHushaitheArchite,2S15:32butaplaceArab.,in
theS.ofJudah,ismentionedJos15:52.Intheparallelpassage1Ch11:37wefindthesonofEzhai,areadingwhichissupportedbyseveral
MSSoftheLXXin2Sam.l.c.,andisprobablycorrect.
ARBONAI(Jth2:24).AtorrentapparentlynearCilicia.ItcannotberepresentedbythemodernNahrIbrahm,sincetheancientname
ofthatriverwastheAdonis.
ARCH.ItisusuallystatedthattheHebrewswereunacquaintedwiththearchitecturalprincipleofthearch,butinviewoftheextreme
antiquityofthearchinBabylonianmasonwork,ase.g.atNippur,ofthediscoveryofearlyarchesbyrecentexplorers,andofthevaultedroofs
oflaterJewishtombs,thisviewisnowseentobeerroneous,althoughthearchisnotmentionedinScripture.Thewordarchdoes,indeed,
occurintheEVofEzk40:16ff.,butthisisamistakeforporch,porches.SeeTemple.

A.R.S.Kennedy.
ARCHANGEL.SeeAngel.
ARCHELAUS.Mt2:22.SeeHerod,No.2.
ARCHER.SeeArmour,Army.
ARCHEVITES.ThepeopleofErech(wh.see).SomeoftheinhabitantsofErechweredeportedascoloniststoSamariabyking
Ashurbanipal(668626).TheirnameismentionedinEzr4:9alongwithdwellersinBabylonandthedeportationofArchevitesmostprobably
indicatesthatErechsidedwithBabylonintherevoltofSamassumukinagainsttheAssyr.king.
ARCHIPPUS(Philem2,Col4:17)wasevidentlyamemberofthehouseholdofPhilemonofColoss,probablyhisson.Hesharedhis
spirit,sinceSt.Paul,referringdoubtlesstohisaidinmissionaryoperationsinthoseparts,styleshimourfellowsoldier.Hehadbeen
entrustedwithsomeimportantofficeintheChurch,whetheratColoss,or,asLightfoot,inviewoftheprecedingcontext,moreprobably
supposes,attheneighbouringtownofLaodiceaand,consideringthespiritualatmosphereoftheplace(Rev3:1419),oneisnotsurprisedthat
theApostleshouldhavethoughtitneedfultoexhorthimtozealinhisministry.

DavidSmith.

ARCHITE.Thenativeofatown[inJos16:2readtheArchites,notArchiasinAV]situatedonthenorthborderofBenjamin,
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ARCHITE.Thenativeofatown[inJos16:2readtheArchites,notArchiasinAV]situatedonthenorthborderofBenjamin,
possiblythemodernAinArik,westofBethel.Hushai,Davidsfriend(2S15:32),belongedtothistown.
ARCHITECTURE.TheHebrewsneverdevelopedanativestyleofarchitecture.Thegeniusofthepeoplelayelsewhere.Alikeincivil,
religious,andfuneraryarchitecture,theywerecontenttofollowalienmodels.Davidspalaceinhisnewcapitalwasprobablythefirstbuilding
sincetheconquestwhichgavescopeforarchitecturaldisplay,andinthiscaseworkmen,plans,anddecorativematerialswereallPhnician(2
S5:11).ThepalaceandtempleofSolomonwerelikewisetheworkofPhnicianarchitects,andtheformerdoubtlesssuppliedthemodelfor
themoreambitiousprivatebuildingsunderthemonarchy.LateEgyptianinfluencehasbeentracedinthetombsoftheValleyofJehoshaphat,
buttheprevailinginfluencefromthebeginningofthe3rdcent.onwardswasundoubtedlyGreek(cf.1Mac1:14,2Mac4:12).Themany
magnificentbuildingsofHerod,forexample,includingthecolonnadesandgatesoftheTemple,wereentirelybuiltintheprevailingGrco
Romanstyle.WhentheexcavationsatGezer,whereMr.Macalisterclaimstohavediscovered,withmuchelseofarchitecturalinterest,the
palaceofSimonMaccabus(1Mac13:48),Taanach,andMegiddoarefinishedandtheresultspublishedinfinalform,andstillmorewhen
otherhistoricalsites,suchasSamaria(cf.Am3:15,1K22:39),shallhavebeensimilarlylaidbare,itmaybepossibletowriteahistoryof
Palestinian,includingpreIsraeliteorAmoritearchitecture,butthatdayisnotyet.See,further,Fortification,Palace,Temple,Tomb.
A.R.S.Kennedy.
ARCHIVES.Thehouseofthearchives(Ezr6:1RVAVrolls)wasapartofthetreasurehouse(5:17)ofthePersiankingsat
Babylon,inwhichimportantStatedocumentswerepreserved.
ARCTURUS.SeeStars.
ARD.BenjaminssoninGn46:21,buthisgrandsoninNu26:40=1Ch8:3(Addar).PatronymicArdites(Nu26:40).
ARDAT(2Es9:26AVArdath).Afieldinanunknownsituation.
ARDITES.Nu26:40.SeeArd.
ARDON.AsonofCaleb(1Ch2:18).
ARELI.AsonofGad(Gn46:16,Nu26:17).PatronymicArelites(Nu
26:17).
AREOPAGUS.Thisisacompoundname,whichmeansHillofAres,thatis,Hillsacredto(orconnectedwith)Ares,theGreekgodof
war,whocorrespondedtotheLatinMars.Thehillreferredtoisabare,shapelessmassofrockinAthens,about380feethigh.Itisduewestof
theAcropolis,andseparatedfromitonlybyaridge.Fromtheearliesttimesknowntousthishillwasassociatedwithmurdertrials,anda
courtknownastheCouncilfromtheAreopagusmetonornearittotrysuchcases.IntheaccountinActs(17:19,22)itisnotthehill,butthe
Councilitselfthatisreferredto,thenameofthehillbeingoftenusedfortheCouncilwhichmetthere.InRomantimestheCouncilhad
powertoappointlecturersatAthens,andSt.Paulappearsbeforethemtohavehisaptitudetested.Theproceedingswereaudibletothe
surroundingcrowd.St.Paulsclaimwasrejected,andonlyonememberoftheCouncil,DionysiustheAreopagite(17:34),wasconvincedby
histeaching.

A.Souter.
ARES(1Es5:10).756ofhisdescendantsreturnedwithZerub.:theycorrespondtothe775(Ezr2:5)or652(Neh7:10)childrenof 100/172
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ARES(1Es5:10).756ofhisdescendantsreturnedwithZerub.:theycorrespondtothe775(Ezr2:5)or652(Neh7:10)childrenof
Arah.
ARETAS.Thisisthedynasticname(Aram.Charethath)ofseveralkingsoftheNahatanArabswhosecapitalwasPetra(Sela),and
whoselanguageforpurposesofwritingandcommercewasanAramaicdialect,asisseenfromtheexistinginscriptions.(Cooke,N.Semitic
Inscr.p.214ff.).Thefirstofthelineismentionedin2Mac5:8thefourth(whosepersonalnamewasneas)in2Co11:32,wherehis
ethnarchissaidtohaveguardedthecityoftheDamascenesinordertotakeSt.PaulbuttheApostleescaped.Thiswaswithinthreeyears
afterhisconversion(Gal1:17f.,Ac9:23ff.).Thereisadifficultyhere,forDamascuswasordinarilyintheRomanprovinceofSyria.AretasIII.
hadhelditinb.c.85theRomancoinsofDamascusenda.d.34andbeginagaina.d.623.IthasbeensupposedthattheNabatansheldthe
cityduringthisinterval.YetbeforethedeathofTiberius(a.d.37)therecouldhardlyhavebeenanyregularoccupancybythem,asVitellius,
proprtorofSyria,wassentbythatemperortopunishAretasIV.forthevengeancethatthelatterhadtakenonHerodAntipasfordivorcing
hissisterinfavourofHerodias.Ithasthereforebeenthoughtthata.d.37istheearliestpossibledateforSt.Paulsescapeandthiswill
somewhatmodifyourviewofPaulinechronology(seeart.PaultheApostle,4).Yettheallusionin2Co11:32f.doesnotnecessarilyimply
anythinglikeapermanenttenureofDamascusbyAretasethnarch.AtemporaryoccupancymaywellhavetakenplaceinAretas
waragainstHerodAntipasorafterwardsanditwouldbeunsafetobuildanychronologicaltheoryonthispassage.ThereignofAretasIV.
lastedfromb.c.9to
a.d.40inscriptions(atelHejra)andcoinsaredatedinhis48thyear(Cooke,l.c.).
A.J.Maclean.
ARGOB.1.ArgobandAriehwereguardsofPekahiah(2K15:25),whofellbythehandsofPekahalongwiththeirmaster.2.Adistrict
inthekingdomofOg,aboundinginstrongcitiesandunwalledtowns.ItwassubduedbyJairsonofManasseh,andbecamethepossessionof
histribe(Dt3:3,13,1K4:15etc.).ItiscalledtheArgob(Dt3:13).This,togetherwiththefactthatchebel,measuredarea,always
precedesthename,seemstoindicateadefinitelymarkeddistrict.ThiswouldapplyadmirablytothegreatlavafieldofelLej,N.W.ofJebel
Haurn.Withinthisforbiddingtractthepresentwritercollectedthenamesof71ruinedsites.HadGeseniusrightlytranslatedaheapof
stones,theidentificationwouldbealmostcertain.Butthenameseemstomeanarableland(regeb=clod,Job21:33,38:38).Argobmust
thereforebesoughtelsewhere.TheW.
slopesofthemountain(nowJebeledDruze)wouldalwaysformaclearlydefineddistrict.Theyaboundinruinsofantiquitywhiletherich
soil,nowturnedtogoodaccountbytheDruzes,wouldamplyjustifythenameofArgob.

W.Ewing.
ARIDAI(Est9:9).TheninthofHamanssons,puttodeathbytheJews.
ARIDATHA(Est9:8).ThesixthsonofHaman,puttodeathbytheJews.
ARIEH(thelion).MentionedwithArgobinaveryobscurepassage(2K
15:25).
ARIEL.1.OneofEzraschiefmen(Ezr8:16).2.ThenameofaMoabite(accordingtoRVof2S23:20,1Ch11:22)whosetwosons
wereslainbyBenaiah.3.Anameofuncertainmeaning,perhaps=Godsaltarhearth,givento
JerusalembyIsaiah(29:1ff.).IthasrecentlybeenproposedtoreadUriel(cityofGod)asaparonomasiaorplayofwordsonUrusalim,the
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JerusalembyIsaiah(29:1ff.).IthasrecentlybeenproposedtoreadUriel(cityofGod)asaparonomasiaorplayofwordsonUrusalim,the
earliestrecordedformofthenameJerusalem.

A.R.S.Kennedy.
ARIMATHA(Mt27:57,Mk15:43,Lk23:51,Jn19:38).AplaceknownonlyinconnexionwithJoseph.ItwasprobablynearLydda.
ARIOCH.1.ThekingofEllasar(Gn14:1).IthasbeensuggestedbySchraderthatAriochisthetranscriptionofEriaku,theSumerian
writingofthenameRimSinofthekingofLarsa,sonofKudurMabug,anElamite,whoruledSouthernBabyloniatillconqueredby
Hammurabi.SeeChedorlaomer.2.ThecaptainofthekingsguardinthetimeofNebuchadrezzar(Dn2:14).3.KingoftheElymans(Jth
1:6).
C.H.W.Johns.ARISAI(Est9:9).TheeighthsonofHaman,puttodeath
bytheJews.
ARISTARCHUS.ThenameofoneofSt.Paulscompanionsintravel.HewasaMacedonianofThessalonica(Ac19:29,27:2),anda
convertfromJudaism(Col4:10f.).FromTroas,AristarchusaccompaniedSt.PaulonhisdepartureforJerusalematthecloseofthethird
missionaryjourney(Ac20:4)healsoembarkedwiththeApostleonhisvoyagetoRome(27:2).InCol4:10heiscalledSt.Paulsfellow
prisoner(cf.Philem23,whereEpaphras,notAristarchus,isstyledmyfellowprisonerinChristJesus).Theexpressionprobablyrefersnot
toaspiritualcaptivity,buteithertoashortimprisonmentarisingoutoftheturmoildescribedinAc19:29,ortoavoluntarysharingofthe
ApostlescaptivitybyAristarchusandEpaphras.

J.G.Tasker.
ARISTOBULUS.1.ThenameofasonandofagrandsonofHerodthe
Great.ThegrandsonlivedasaprivateIndividualatRome,andwasafriendoftheEmperorClaudiusthosegreetedbySt.PaulinRo16:10
wereprobablysomeofhisslaves.Ifhewasthendead,theymighthavebecomemembersoftheImperialhousehold,butwouldstillretain
Aristobulusname.2.TheteacherofPtolemy(2Mac1:10).

A.J.Maclean.
ARIUS(1Mac12:7,20).AkingofSparta,grandsonandsuccessorofCleomenesII.Hisreignlastedfromb.c.309tob.c.265,andhe
wascontemporarywiththehighpriestOniasI.,thesuccessorofJaddua.FriendlyletterswereinterchangedbetweenAriusandOnias
(probablyaboutb.c.300)andJonathanMaccabeusreferstothesecommunicationsinaletterwhichhesentbyhisambassadorstoSparta(c.
b.c.144),1Mac12:7ff.,19ff.AVDariusinv.7isduetocorrupttext.
ARK.Thisword,fromLat.arca,achest,istherenderingoftwoHebrewwords,ofwhichone(tbhh,probablyaloanword)is
appliedbothtothebasketofbulrushesinwhichtheinfantMoseswasexposed,andtothearkbuiltbyNoah(seeDeluge).Theother(rn,
thenativewordforboxorchest,2K12:10f.),isusedforamummycaseorcoffin(Gn50:26),andinparticularforthesacredarkofthe
Hebrews.
ArkoftheCovenant
1. Namesoftheark.ApartfromthesimpledesignationthearkfoundinallperiodsofHeb.literature,thenamesoftheark,morethan102/172
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1.Namesoftheark.ApartfromthesimpledesignationthearkfoundinallperiodsofHeb.literature,thenamesoftheark,morethan
twentyinnumber,fallintothreegroups,whicharecharacteristic(a)oftheoldestliterarysources,viz.Samuelandthepropheticalnarratives
oftheHexateuch(b)ofDeuteronomyandthewritersinfluencedbyDt.and(c)ofthePriestsCodeandsubsequentwritings.In(a)wefind
chieflythearkofJ,doubtlesstheoldestnameofall,andthearkofGodin(b)thecharacteristictitleisthearkofthecovenantalone
orwiththeadditionsofJ,ofGod,etc.acontractionforthearkorchestcontainingthetablesofthecovenant(Dt9:9ff.),andtherefore
practicallythearkoftheDecaloguein(c)thesameconceptionofthearkprevails(seebelow),butastheDecalogueisbyPtermedthe
testimony,thearkbecomesthearkofthetestimony.Allotherdesignationsareexpansionsofoneorotheroftheabove.

2.Historyoftheark.TheoldestPentateuchsources(J,E)arenowsilentastotheoriginoftheark,butsincetheauthorofDt10:16had
oneorbothofthesebeforehim,itmaybeassumedthatitsconstructionwastherealsoassignedtoMosesinobediencetoaDivinecommand.
Itcertainlyplayedanimportantpartinthewanderings(Nu10:33ff.,14:44),andintheconquestofCanaan(Jos3:3ff.,6:6f.),andfinally
foundarestingplaceinthetempleofShilohunderthecareofapriestlyfamilyclaimingdescentfromMoses(1S3:3).Afteritscaptureby
thePhilistinesandsubsequentrestoration,itremainedatKiriathjearim(1S4:17:1),untilremovedbyDavid,firsttothehouseofObed
edom,andthereaftertoaspeciallyerectedtentinhisnewcapital(2S6:10ff.).ItsfinalhomewastheinnersanctuaryoftheTempleof
Solomon(1K8:1ff.).Strangelyenough,thereisnofurthermentionofthearkinthehistoricalbooks.Whetheritwasamongthetreasuresof
thehouseoftheLordcarriedoffbyShishak(c.b.c.930),orwhetheritwasstillinitsplaceinthedaysofJeremiah(3:16f.)andwas
ultimatelydestroyedbythesoldiersofNebuchadrezzar(587b.c.),itisimpossibletosay.TherewasnoarkintheTemplesofZerubbabeland
Herod.
3.Thesignificanceoftheark.Inattemptingasolutionofthisdifficultproblem,wemust,asintheforegoingsection,leaveoutof
accountthelatetheoreticalconceptionofthearktobefoundinthePriestsCode(seeTabernacle),andconfineourattentiontotheoldest
sources.Inthesethearkasimplechestofacaciawood,accordingtoDt10:3isassociatedchieflywiththeoperationsofwar,inwhichitis
therepresentativeofJ,theGodofthearmiesofIsrael.Itspresenceonthefieldofbattleisthewarrantofvictory(1S4:3ff.,cf.2S11:11),as
itsabsenceistheexplanationofdefeat(Nu14:44).ItsissuetoandreturnfrombattlearethoseofJHimself(Nu10:35f.).Soclosely,indeed,
isthearkidentifiedwiththepersonalpresenceofJintheoldestnarratives(see,besidestheabove,1S6:20,2S6:7f.,14),thatoneis
temptedtoidentifyitwiththatmysteriouspresenceofJwhich,asafullermanifestationoftheDeitythaneventheangelofJ,was
Israelssupremeguideinthewildernesswanderings(Ex32:34,33:2comparedwithv.14f.,Dt4:37,andIs63:9,wherereadneithera
messengernoranangel,buthispresencedeliveredthem).ThearkwasthusasubstituteforthatstillmorecompletePresence(EVface)
whichnomancanseeandlive.

UnderthepropheticteachingIsraelgraduallyoutgrewthisnaiveandprimitive,nottosayfetishlike,conception,andinthe7thcent.we
firstfindthearkspokenofasthereceptacleforthetablesoftheDecalogue(Dt10:2ff.).Apartfromotherdifficultiesattendingthistradition,it
isquiteinadequatetoexplaintheextremereverenceand,tous,superstitiousdreadwithwhichthearkisregardedinthenarrativesofSamuel.
HencemanymodernscholarsareofopinionthatthestonetablesoftheDeuteronomictraditionhavetakentheplaceofactualfetishstones,a
viewwhichitisimpossibletoreconcilewiththeloftyteachingofthefounderofIsraelsreligion.
A.R.S.Kennedy.

ARKITEisused(Gn10:17,1Ch1:15)forthepeopleofArka,atownanddistrictofPhniciaabout12milesnorthofTripolis.Itwas
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ARKITEisused(Gn10:17,1Ch1:15)forthepeopleofArka,atownanddistrictofPhniciaabout12milesnorthofTripolis.Itwas
takenbyTiglathpileserIII.inb.c.738.AsthebirthplaceoftheEmperorAlexanderSeverus,itwaslatercalledCsareaLibani.Itisprobably
mentioned,undertheformIrkata,intheAmarnaLetters.

J.F.McCurdy.
ARM.PartoftheinsigniaofroyaltyamongstOrientalpeopleswasabraceletwornonthearm(2S1:10cf.W.R.Smithsreadingof2
K11:12where,agreeingwithWellhausen,hewouldsubstitutebraceletfortestimony[OTJC2311n.]).Theimportanceattachedtothe
functionsdischargedbythisorganareincidentallyreferredtobyJobinhissolemnrepudiationofconsciouswrongdoing(Letmyshoulder
fallfromtheshoulderblade,andminearmbebrokenfromthebone31:22).Theheartwassaidtobesituatedbetweenthearms,and,
therefore,inthemurderofJoram,thedeadlyaimofJehuresultedintheinstantaneousdeathoftheformer(2K9:24).Itisinterestingtorecall
herethemeansbywhichJeremiahescapedthevengeanceofhispoliticalenemies,especiallyasthenarrativerevealstheaffectioninspiredby
theprophetamongstsomeofthecourtiers(Jer38:12).AnoteofvividnessisintroducedintothenarrativestellingofSt.Paulsmethodof
bespeakingattentionfromacrowdwhichhewasanxioustoaddress(Ac13:16,21:40,cf.12:17).ThereisintheGospelsnomorebeautiful
picturethanthetwopresentedbySt.Mark,inwhichthetendernessofJesustolittlechildrenisemphasized.Ineachofthemispointedoutthe
startlingmethodbywhichHisteachingwasoftenenforcedobjectivelyonHishearersattention(Mk9:36,10:16,cf.Lk2:28).

Besidesthisliteraluse,thereisalsoanextensiveemploymentofthewordinametaphoricaloraspiritualsense.Sometimeswefinditused
todenotethestrengthoftheungodlyandtheirpowertocommitactsofcrueltyrannyonGodspeople(cf.Ps10:15,Job38:15,Ezk30:21f.
cf.armofflesh,2Ch32:8,Jer17:6).SometimesthewordexpressesthemightofGodsceaselessactivityeitheronbehalfofHischosen(Dt
33:27,Ps44:3,Is33:2,63:12,Ac13:17),orinbreakingthepowerofHisenemies(Ex6:6,Dt5:15,Ezk21:6,32:21),oragaininupholding
themovementsandharmonyofHiscreation,rulinginjusticewithunswervingsternness(Ezk20:33f.,Job40:9,Is40:16,51:5,Jer27:5,
32:17).ThedoompronouncedonthehouseofElicontainsthiswordtoexpresstheremovalofthatlatentvitalitywhichshowsitselfin
prolongedhereditarystrengthandactivity(1S2:31,cf.Zec11:17).

Thecognateverbisalsousednotonlyliterally,tofurnisharmsforthepurposesofwar(Gn14:14,Nu31:3,5),butalsoinaspiritualsense,
toprocureandmakeuseofthosegracesandhelpswhicharemeantasweapons,offensiveanddefensive,ofthesoulagainstsin(1P4:1,cf.
Eph6:13).
J.R.Willis.
ARMAGEDDON.SeeHarMagedon.
ARMENIA.SeeArarat.
ARMLET.SeeOrnaments,4.
ARMONI.SonofSaulbyRizpah(2S21:8)
ARMOUR,ARMS.Thesoldiersarms,offensiveanddefensive,areneversotermedinourEVarmour,wholearmour(Eph6:11
[Gr.panoplia],theharnessof2Mac15:28,RVfullarmour),andmorefrequentlyweaponsofwararethetermsemployed.InRV
harnessinthissensehasinmostcasesgivenplacetoarmour.
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1.Offensivearms.InafamiliarrepresentationfromanEgyptiantombofdate
c.b.c.1895,abandofSemiticnomadsaredepictedwiththeprimitivearmsoftheirracetheshortspear,thebow,andthethrowstickthe
lastperhapsthehandstavesofEzk39:9.InOTtheprincipalarmsofattackarethesword,thespear,thejavelin,thebow,andthesling.(a)
Thespearclaimsprecedenceasanolderweaponthanthesword.ThenormalHebrewform,thechanith,hadastoutwoodenshaftwithaflint,
bronze,oriron(1S13:19)head,accordingtotheperiod.LikethespearofthemodernBedouinsheikh,itfiguresasasymbolofleadershipin
thecaseofSaul(1S22:6,26:7,cf.18:10ff.RV).Thermachappearstohavebeenalighterformofspear,alance,andtohavelargely
supplantedtheheavierspearorpikeinlatertimes(Neh4:13,16,Jl3:10).BotharerenderedspearinEV.(b)Thekdnwasshorterand
lighterthaneitheroftheabove,andwasusedasamissile,andmayberenderedjavelin(Jos8:18,26RV,Job41:29RVtherushingofthe
javelin)ordart.Thelattertermisusedastherenderingofseveralmissileweapons,ofwhichtheprecisenatureisuncertain.

(c)Theswordhadacomparativelyshort,straightbladeofiron(1S13:21,Is2:4),andwasoccasionallytwoedged(Ps149:6,He4:12).
Ehudsweapon,only18incheslong,wasratheradagger(Jg3:16AV,RVsword).Theswordwaswornontheleftsideinaleatherormetal
sheath(1S17:51),attachedtoawaistbeltorgirdle(1S17:51,25:13,2S20:8RV).ItoccursfrequentlyinsymbolandmetaphorinbothOT
andNT.Itisappropriatelythesymbolofwar,astheploughshareisofpeace(Is2:4,Mic4:3,JL3:10).InNTthewordofGodisdescribedas
atwoedgedsword(He4:12),andbySt.PaulastheswordoftheSpirit(Eph
6:17).
(d)Thebowiscommontocivil(Gn21:20)andmilitarylife,andviesinantiquitywiththespear.Itwasmadeoftough,elasticwood,
sometimesmountedwithbronze(Ps18:34RV,Job20:24).Hornalsowasusedforbowsinancienttimes,andthosewiththedoublecurve
seemtohavebeenmodelledonthehornsofoxen.Thebowstringwasusuallyofoxgut,thearrowsofreedorlightwoodtippedwithflint,
bronze,oriron.Thebattlebows(Zec9:10,10:4),atleast,musthavebeenofconsiderablesizetheEgyptianbowmeasuredabout5ft.
sincetheywerestrungbypressingthefootonthelowerend,whiletheupperendwasbentdowntoreceivethestringintoanotch.Hencethe
Heb.expressionstotread(=string)thebow,andbowtreadersforarchers(Jer50:14,29).Thearrows,
thesonsofthequiver(La3:13,RVshafts),werecarriedinthequiver,which
waseitherplacedonthebackorslungontheleftsidebyabeltovertherightshoulder.

(e)Theslingwastheshepherdsdefenceagainstwildbeasts(1S17:40),aswellasamilitaryweapon(2K3:25andoften).TheHebrew
sling,likethoseoftheEgyptiansandAssyrians,doubtlessconsistedofalongnarrowstripofleather,wideninginthemiddletoreceivethe
stone,andtaperingtobothends.Atoneendwasaloopbywhichtheslingwasheldastheslingerswungitroundhishead,whiletheotherend
wasreleasedasthestonewasthrown.TheBenjamiteswerespeciallynotedfortheaccuracyoftheiraim(Jg20:16).
(f)Thebattleaxe(Jer51:20,RVmmaulcf.Pr25:18),lit.shatterer(nodoubtidenticalwiththeweaponofhisshattering,Ezk9:2
[RVmbattleaxe]),wasprobably,astheetymologysuggests,aclubormaceofhardwood,studdedwithironspikes,suchaswascarriedby
theAssyriansinthearmyofXerxes(Herod.vii.63).SeeRich,Dict.ofAnt.,s.v.Clava.

2.Defensivearms.(a)Firstamongthearmsofdefencemustbeplacedtheshield,ofwhichtwomainvarietiesarecommontoallperiods,
thesmallshieldorbuckler(mgn),andthelargeshield(zinnah),thetargetof1K10:16ff.Thedistinctionbetweentheseisrarelypreserved
inourEV(e.g.Jer47:3inPs35:2,Ezk23:24theyarereversed),buttherelativesizesofthetwokindsmaybeseeninthepassageof1
Kingsjustcited,wherethetargetsorlargeshieldseachrequiredfourtimesasmuchgoldasthesmallerbuckler.These,however,wereonlyfor
stateprocessionsandthelike(14:28,butcf.1Mac6:39).Themgnwastheordinarylightroundshieldoftheancientworld,theRoman
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stateprocessionsandthelike(14:28,butcf.1Mac6:39).Themgnwastheordinarylightroundshieldoftheancientworld,theRoman
clypeusthezinnahwasthescutumorlargeoblongshieldwhichmoreeffectivelyprotecteditsbeareragainsttherisksofbattle.Thenormal
typeofbothwasmostprobablymadeoflayersofleatherstretchedonaframeofwoodorwickerwork,sinceboththeshieldsandthe
bucklersmightbeburned(Ezk39:9).Theshield,asafigureofGodsprotectingcare,isafavouritewiththereligiouspoetsofIsrael(Psalms,
passim).St.PaulalsoinhisgreatmilitaryallegoryintroducesthelargeGrcoRomanshield(Eph6:16).

(b)OftheshapesoftheHebrewhelmetswehavenoinformation.Kingsandothernotablesworehelmetsofbronze(1S17:5,38),but
thosepreparedbyUzziahforallthehost(2Ch26:14RV)weremoreprobablyofleather,suchasthemonumentsshowtohavebeenworn
bytherankandfileofotherarmiesuntilsupplantedintheGreekagebybronze,fortheliteoftheinfantryatleast(1Mac6:35).

(c)Thesamedifferenceofmaterialbronzefortheleaders,leatherforthecommonsoldierholdsgoodforthecuirassorcoatofmail(1
S17:5,38).ThelattertermtakestheplaceinRVoftheantiquatedhabergeon(2Ch26:14,Neh4:16),andbrigandine(Jer46:4,51:3).The
cuirass,whichprotectedbothbackandfront,isalsointendedbythebreastplateofIs59:17(RVmcoatofmail),1Mac3:3,1Th5:8,Eph
6:14.Goliathscoatofmailwascomposedofscalesofbronze,andprobablyresembledtheEgyptianstyleofcuirassdescribedandillustrated
byWilkinson(Anc.Egyp.[1878]i.219ff.).ThisdetailisnotgivenforSaulscuirass(1S17:38).Ahabsharnessconsistedofacuirass
whichendedintasselsorflaps,thelowerarmourof1K22:34RVm.TheSyrianwarelephantswereprotectedbybreastplates(1Mac
6:43),andprobablyalsothehorsesoftheEgyptiancavalry(Jer46:4).

(d)GreavesofhronzetoprotectthelegsarementionedonlyinconnexionwithGoliath(1S17:6).Themilitarybootisperhapsreferredto
inIs9:5(RVm).

ThearmourbearerismetwithasearlyasthetimeofAbimelech(Jg9:54),andlaterinconnexionwithJonathan,Saul,andGoliath,and
withJoab,whohadseveral(2S18:15).Thisofficewasheldbyayoungman,likethesquireofmedivalknighthood,whocarriedtheshield
(1S17:7),cuirass,thereserveofdarts(2S18:14),andotherweaponsofhischief,andgavethecoupdegracetothosewhomthelatterhad
struckdown(1S14:13).

AnarmouryforthestorageofmaterialofwarismentionedbyNehemiah(3:19),butthatthiswasbuiltbyDavidcanscarcelybeinferred
fromthedifficulttextofCa4:4.SolomonsarmourywasthehouseoftheforestofLebanon(1K10:17,Is22:8).TheTemplealsoseemsto
havebeenusedforthispurpose(2K11:10).SeefurtherthearticlesArmy,FortificationandSiegecraft,War.

A.R.S.Kennedy.
ARMOURBEARER,ARMOURY.SeeArmour.
ARMY.1.Indefaultofastrongcentralauthorityanarmyinthesenseofapermanentlyorganizedanddisciplinedbodyoftroopswas
animpossibilityamongtheHebrewsbeforetheestablishmentofthemonarchy.ThebandsthatfollowedaGideonoraJephthahwerehastily
improvisedleviesfromhisownandneighbouringclans,whosemembersreturnedwiththeirshareofthespoiltotheirordinaryoccupations
whenthefraywasatanend.ThefirststeptowardsamorepermanentarrangementwastakenbySaulinhisoperationsagainstthePhilistines
(1S13:2,cf.14:52).David,however,wasthefirsttoestablishthenucleusofastandingarmy,byretainingasapermanentbodyguard600
mightymen(theirofficialtitle)whohadgatheredroundhiminhisexile(1S23:13,30:9,2S10:7,16:6).Tothesewereaddedthe
mercenarycorpsoftheCherethitesandPelethites(wh.see),andacompanyof600Gittites(2S15:18).Apartfromthese,Davidsarmieswere
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mercenarycorpsoftheCherethitesandPelethites(wh.see),andacompanyof600Gittites(2S15:18).Apartfromthese,Davidsarmieswere
raisedbylevyasbefore,butnowfromthewholenation,hencethetechnicaluseofthepeopleinthesenseofthearmy(2S20:12and
often).Solomonsorganizationofhiskingdomintoadministrativedistricts(1K4:7ff.)doubtlessincludedmattersofarmyadministration(cf.
v.28,9:19,10:26).
2.TheorganizationoftheHebrewarmywasbyunitsofthousands,originallyassociatedwiththecivildivisionsofthesamename,with
subdivisionsofhundreds,fifties,andtens(1S8:12,17:18,22:7,2K1:9ff.,11:4),anarrangementwhichcontinuedintotheMaccaban
period(1Mac3:55).Eachofthesedivisionshaditsspecialcaptain.Thewholewasunderthesupremecommandofthecaptainofthehost.
Therelativepositionsanddutiesoftheshterm(AVofficers)andothermilitaryofficialsarequiteuncertain.Theformerappeartohave
beenchargedwithkeepingandcheckingthelistsofthequotastobefurnishedbythevariousdistricts(Dt20:5ff.).

3.Thearmywascomposedinearlytimesentirely,andatalltimeschiefly,ofinfantry,thebulkofwhomwerearmedwiththespearor
pikeandthelargeshieldortarget(seeArmour).Thearcherscarriedaswordandbuckler(1Ch5:18),andwiththeslingers(2Ch26:14)made
upthelightinfantry.Chariots,althoughlongbeforeavitalpartoftheforcesofthesurroundingnations,werefirstintroducedintotheHebrew
armybySolomon(1K4:25,9:22,10:26ff.seeChariot,Horse).
4.Theperiodduringwhichacitizenwasliableformilitaryserviceextendedfromhistwentieth(Nu1:3,2Ch25:6)tohisfiftiethyear
(Jos.Ant.III.xii.4).ExemptionwasgrantedinthecasesspecifiedinDt20:6ff.,atleastundertheMaccabees(1Mac3:56),andtothe
membersofthepriestlycaste(Nu2:33).

5.Asregardsmaintenance,eachcityanddistricthaddoubtlesstosupplyitsownquotawithprovisions,insofarasthesewerenotdrawn
fromtheenemyscountry.Thesoldiersrecompenseconsistedinhisshareoftheloot,thedivisionofwhichwasregulatedbytheprecedentof
1S30:24.ThefirstmentionofregularpayisinconnexionwiththearmyofSimonMaccabus(1Mac14:32).Foreignmercenariesfigure
largelyinthearmiesofthelaterMaccabanprincesandofHerod.NoreferencehasbeenmadetothenumbersoftheHebrewarmies,since
thesehaveinsomanycasesbeengreatlycorruptedintransmission.
Formethodsofmobilization,tactics,etc.,seeWar,alsoFortificationandSiegecraftandfortheRomanarmyinNTtimesseeLegion.

A.R.S.Kennedy.
ARNA.OneoftheancestorsofEzra(2Es1:2),correspondingapparentlytoZerahiahofEzr7:4andZaraiasof1Es8:2.
ARNAN.AdescendantofDavid(1Ch3:21).
ARNI(AVAram).AnancestorofJesus(Lk3:33),calledinMt1:3,4Ram(RV).Cf.Ru4:19,1Ch2:9,10.
ARNON.Avalleywithastreaminitsbed,nowcalledWdyelMjib,whichgathersthewatersfrommanytributaryvalesthewadys
[AVbrooks,RVvalleys]ofArnon(Nu21:14)asitflowswestwardtotheDeadSea.Itwasthe
N.borderofMoab.cuttingitofffromthelandoftheAmoritesinoldtime(Nu
21:13etc.),andlater,fromthatoftheEasterntribes(Jos12:1etc.).ItisnamedinIs16:2(thefordsofArnon)andJer48:20(wherethe
referencemaybetotheinhabitantsofthevalley,ortoacityofthatnamenowunknown).MeshamadethehighwayinArnon,andbuilt

(possiblyfortified)Aroer(MoabiteStone).ThishighwayprobablyfollowedthelineoftheRomanroad,tracesofwhichstillremain,with
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(possiblyfortified)Aroer(MoabiteStone).ThishighwayprobablyfollowedthelineoftheRomanroad,tracesofwhichstillremain,with
indicationsofabridge,somedistanceW.ofAroerthemodernArir,orArar,whichstandsontheN.bank.

W.Ewing.
AROD.AsonofGad(Nu26:17)=ArodiGn46:16.PatronymicArodites(Nu26:17).
AROER.Threedistinctplaces.1.Aroerwhichisbythebrinkoftheriver
Arnon(Dt2:36)isprobablytheruinArir,onthenorthbankoftheWadyMojib(Arnon).Insuchapositionitnecessarilybecameafrontier
town,andassuchismentioned(cf.Dt2:36,2K10:33etc.).ItwascapturedbySihon,kingoftheAmorites(Dt2:36,4:48,Jos12:2and13:9,
Jg11:26)whenconqueredbyIsraelitwasassignedtoReuben(Dt3:12)itwastakenbyHazael,kingofSyria(2K10:33),andapparently
lateronbyMoab(Jer48:19).2.AcityofJudah(1S30:28),perhapstheruinArra,12mileseastofBeersheba.3.AcityofGadnear
Rabbah,i.e.Amman(Jos13:25,Jg11:33).Thesiteisunknown.

E.W.G.Masterman.
AROM(1Es5:16).HisdescendantsarementionedamongthosewhoreturnedwithZerubbabel.Thenamehasnoparallelinthelistsof
Ezr.andNeh.,unlessitrepresentsHashuminEzr2:19.
ARPACHSHADwas,accordingtoGn10:22,thethirdsonofShem,and,accordingto11:10,hewasthesecondinthelineofdescentfrom
ShemtoAbraham.Gn10:22isanenumerationofpeoples(orcountries)descendedfromShem,fromwhichBabyloniaorChaidaisabsentin
thepresenttext.ThelatterportionofthewordfurnishesChesed(cf.Gn22:22),whichisthesingularformofChasdim(Chaldees).Probably
twowordsintheoriginalof10:22werecombinedintoone,thelatterbeingChesedandtheformerArpach,whichisaregionsouthwestof
Assyria,possiblythesameastheArrapachitisofPtolemy.Themistakenreadingin10:22wasthentakenasthebasisof11:10ff.

J.F.McCurdy.
ARPAD.AcityofSyrianorthwestofAleppo(2K18:34,19:13,Is10:9,36:19,37:13,Jer49:28).NowtheruinTellErfud.
ARPHAXAD.1.AkingoftheMedes(Jth1:1ff.).HereignedatEcbatana,whichhestronglyfortified.Nebuchadrezzar,kingofAssyria,
madewaruponhim,defeatedhim,andputhimtodeath.2.ThespellingofArpachshadinAV,andatLk3:36byRValso.SeeArpachshad.
ARROW.SeeArmour,andMagicDivination,etc.
ARROWSNAKE(Is34:15RV).SeeOwl,Serpent.
ARSACES.AkingofParthia(knownalsoasMithridatesI.).WhenopposedbyDemetriusNikator,whothoughtthepeoplewouldrise
inhisfavourandafterwardsassisthimagainstTryphon,hedeceivedDemetriusbyapretenceofnegotiations,andinb.c.138tookhim
prisoner(1Mac14:13Justin,xxxvi.1).In1Mac15:22Arsacesismentionedamongthekingstowhomwassentanedict(Jos.Ant.XIV.
viii.5)fromRomeforbiddingthepersecutionoftheJews.
ARSIPHURITH(AVAzephurith),1Es5:16.112ofhissonsreturnedwithZerubbabel.ThecorrespondingnameinEzr2:18isJorah
andinNeh7:24Hariph.
ART.AmongtheHebrewsthefinearts,withthepossibleexceptionofmusic,werenotseriouslycultivated(cf.Architecture).Thelawof
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ART.AmongtheHebrewsthefinearts,withthepossibleexceptionofmusic,werenotseriouslycultivated(cf.Architecture).Thelawof
Ex20:4constitutedaneffectivebartothedevelopmentoftheplasticartinparticular.Astothenatureandworkmanshipoftheearlyephods
(Jg8:27,17:5)andteraphim(Gn31:19,Jg17:5,1S19:13RV),asofthegravenimagesandthelatermoltenimages,wecanonly
speculate.Sculptureinwood,butofPhnicianworkmanship,bothinrelief(1K6:18,29)andintheround(v.23ff.),foundaplaceinthe
TempleofSolomon.TheonlyspecimensyetdiscoveredofgenuineIsraelitesculpture(accordingtothediscoverer,ProfessorSellin)arethe
beardlesshumanheads(cherubim?),forepartsoflionsandothermotifsthatadorntheuniquealtarofincensefromTaanach(illust.PEFSt,
1904,390).

OfpaintingthereisnotraceinOT.ThecolouredrepresentationswhichEzekielsawwithabhorrenceontheTemplewallswerenottrue
paintings,but,astheoriginalimplies,figureschiselledinoutline,withthecontoursfilledinwithvermilion(Ezk23:14f.,cf.8:10).The
decorativeworkonpureHebrewpotterywaspracticallyconfinedtogeometricaldesigns.Oftheminorarts,gemengravingmusthaveattained
considerabledevelopment(Ex28:11).ThefinestproductofmodernexcavationinPalestineinthedomainofartisprobablytheHebrewseal
withthelionmarchantfoundatMegiddo(seeSeals).Mentionmayalsobemadeofthefiligreeandothergoldworkimpliedinsuchpassages
asEx28:11f.TheproductsoftheHebrewloomsmustalsohaveshownconsiderableartisticmerit(Ex26:1).See,further,Jewels,Music,
Seals,Temple,SpinningandWeaving.
A.R.S.Kennedy.
ARTAXERXESistheGreekformoftheOldPersianArtakhshatra,the
HebrewbeingArtachshast().TheArtaxerxesoftheBibleisArtax.Longimanus
(b.c.465424),sonofXerxes(Bibl.Ahasuerus).ByhimEzrawaspermittedtogotoJerusalemfromBabylonandrestoretheaffairsofthe
Jewish community ( Ezr 7:1ff., 8:1). He also favoured the similar mission of his cupbearer Nehemiah thirteen years later (Neh 2:1, 5:14,
13:6). The events narrated in Ezr 4:7ff. and said to have occurred in the time ofArtaxerxes must have taken place during an earlier reign,
probablythatofCambyses,unless,indeed,theyaretoberegardedasunhistorical.HisregimewasmoreimportantforIsraelthanthatofany
otherkingofPersiaexceptCyrustheLiberator.

J.F.McCurdy.
ARTEMAS.AtrustedcompanionofSt.Paul,inthelaterpartofhislife(Tit3:12).ThereisnoevidenceforthestatementsofDorotheus
(Bibl.Maxima,Lugd.1677,iii.p.429)thathehadbeenoneofthe70disciples,andwasafterwardsbishopofLystra.
ARTEMIS.Ac19:24,27RVm.SeeDiana.
ARTIFICER.SeeArtsandCrafts.
ARTILLERY.1S20:40AV(inobsol.sense,ofJonathansbowandarrowsRVweapons)1Mac6:51f.(seeFortification,7).
ARTSANDCRAFTS.OneofthemostcharacteristicdistinctionsbetweentheHebraicandtheHellenicviewsoflifeisfoundinthe
attitudeofthetworacestomanuallabour.BytheGreekitwasregardedasunworthyofafreecitizenbytheJewitwasheldinthehighest
esteem,asmanyTalmudicaphorismsbearwitness.ThegeneralterminOTforcraftsman(2K24:14,Jer24:1RV),artificer(1Ch29:5),or
skilledartizanischrsh,fromarootmeaningtocut.Mostfrequently,however,itisqualifiedbythenameofthematerial.Thissuggeststhe
followingdivisions.[InRVcrafthasbeendisplacedbythemoremoderntrade].
1. Workersinwood.Theproductionsoftheworkerintimber(1Ch22:15),elsewhereinOTcarpenter(alsoMt13:55,Mk6:3), 109/172
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1.Workersinwood.Theproductionsoftheworkerintimber(1Ch22:15),elsewhereinOTcarpenter(alsoMt13:55,Mk6:3),
probablysurpassedinvarietythoseofanyothercraftsman,fortheycomprisednotonlythoseofthemoderncarpenterandcabinetmaker,but
alsooftheploughwright,woodcarver,andotherspecializedartsandcraftsoftoday.Histoolscannothavedifferedmuchfromthetoolsofhis
EgyptiancontemporariesdescribedandillustratedbyWilkinson(Anc.Egyp.,seeIndex).VariousaxesarenamedinOT.Foronevarietythe
textdistinguishesbetweentheironheadandthewoodenhelve(Dt19:5).Anotherisfromthecontextprobablyanadze(Jer10:3),whilea
thirdappearsasahatchetinPs74:6RV.Thecarpentershammer(Jer10:4)wasratherawoodenmallet(cfJg4:21)hissaw(Is10:15),to
judgefromanalogyandfromtheexcavations,wassinglehanded,andofbronzeintheearlierperiodatleast.Holeswereboredwithadrill
workedasinthepresentdaybyabowandstring.InIs44:13arefurthernamedthemeasuringline(AVrule),thesharpmetalpencil(AV
line)orstylusforoutliningthework,theplanes,whichweremoreprobablychisels,andthecompasses(RV).
2.Workersinmetal.TheprincipalmetalsofOTtimesareenumeratedinNu31:22.ThebrassofOT,however,isprobablyalways
bronze,i.e.copperwithanalloyoftin,exceptwherepurecopperisintended,asDt8:9.Theexcavationshaveshownthatironmakesits
appearanceinPalestineaboutthebeginningofthemonarchy(c.b.c.1000),althoughbronzecontinuedinuseforseveralcenturies,andwas
notfullyconqueredtilltheperiodofthecaptivity(PEFSt,1904,122).Thecoppersmith(2Ti4:14),artificerinbrass(Gn4:22AV),
workerinbrass(1K7:14),asheisvariouslytermed,wasthusthechiefmetalworkeroftheearlierperiod.Forthemoreartistichandlingof
coppertheHebrewswereatfirstdependentonPhniciancraftsmen(1K7:13ff.).Later,aswehaveseen,theironsmith(1S13:19),or
workeriniron(2Ch24:12),supplantedthecoppersmith.Thetoolsofbothwerethehammer(Is44:12)andtheanvil(Is41:7,Sir38:29)
thelatterprobablythenasnowabootshapedpieceofmetalinsertedinasectionofanoakorwalnutlogthetongs(Is44:12)andthe
bellows(Jer6:29).ForthegoldsmithandthesilversmithseeMiningandMetals,s.vv.GoldandSilver.Thesmithscarriedawayby
Nebuchadnezzar(2K24:14,Jer24:1)wereprobablythosespeciallyskilledinthemanufactureofweaponsofwar.

3.Workersinstone.Fromthefaroffpalolithicdaysmanhasbeenaworkerinstone,atermconfinedinOTtothosewhocutand
dressedstoneforbuildingpurposes(1Ch22:15).Themoreusualrenderingismasons(2S5:11,1Ch14:1).Referencesaregiventovarious
processes,suchasthehewingout(1K
5:17RV)ofthestonesinthequarry(6:7RV),thehewingofwinevats(Is5:2RV)andtombs(22:16)inthesolidrock,thecuttingand
dressingofhewnstonesforvariousconstructions(Ex20:25,1K5:17,2K2:12,Am5:11).Thestonesquarersof1K5:18(AV)wererather
menfromthePhniciancityofGebal(RVGebalites),expertsinthisbranchofindustry.Thebuilders(Ps118:22)workedfromaprepared
planormodel(Ex25:9,1Ch28:11,EVpattern),usingthemeasurnigreed(Ezk40:3)andtheplumbline(Am7:7)orplummet(2K21:13
,Zec4:10).Thelargehammerusedinquarrying(Jer23:29)isdifferentfromthesmallerhammerofthestonecutter(1K6:7).Theaxeofthe
lastpassageisratherthepickforstonedressing,andwasthetoolusedincuttingintheSiloamtunnelastheworkmentellusintheirfamous
inscription.FortheengraverinstoneofEx28:11seeSeals.
4.Workersinclay.Clay,notstone,wastheordinarybuildingmaterialamongtheHebrews(seeHouse).Brickmaking,however,was
toosimpleanoperationtoattainthedignityofaspecialcraftinOTtimes,aswasalsoplaisteringwithclay(Lv14:42)orlime(Dn5:6,cf.
Mt23:27andAc23:3whitedwall).Itwasotherwisewiththepotterandhiswork,perhapstheoldestofallcrafts,forwhichseePottery.

5.Workersinleather.Firstamongtheseisthetanner(Ac9:43),whopreparedtheleatherfromtheskinsofdomesticandotheranimals,
includingthemarinedugong(Ex25:5,RVseal,AVbadger).Thehairwasremovedbymeansoflime,ortheacridjuicesofplants,applied
totheskinsaftertheyhadbeensoakedforsometimeinwater.Owingtotheiruncleanlyaccompaniments,thetannerandhistradewere
regardedbytheJewswithmuchdisfavour.Likethefuller,hewasforbiddentocarryonhisworkwithinthecity,whichexplainsthesituation
ofSimonstannerybytheseaside(Ac10:32).Inearlytimesthetannernotonlysuppliedthematerialbutprobablyactuallymanufacturedthe
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ofSimonstannerybytheseaside(Ac10:32).Inearlytimesthetannernotonlysuppliedthematerialbutprobablyactuallymanufacturedthe
leathershieldsandhelmetsrequiredbysoldiers,whilethemakingofshoes,girdles,andotherarticlesofleather(Lv13:48),andthe
preparationofskinsforwater,wine,andmilk(seeBottle)werelongmattersofpurelydomesticeconomy.

6.Tradesconnectedwithdress.Theclosingwordsoftheprecedingparagraphapplyequallytothemakingoftheordinarydressofthe
Hebrews(cf.1S2:19).ThetailorfirstappearsintheMishna.Certainoftheprocesses,however,graduallydevelopedintoseparatecrafts,
suchasthatoftheweaver(Ex35:35,1S17:7seeSpinningandWeaving),theembroiderer(Exl.c.),whosedesignswereseweduponthe
finishedfabric,thedyerandthefuller.FromtheMishnaitisevidentthatinNTtimesthedyerswereanumerousbodyinJerusalem.The
woolwasusuallydyedbeforeorafterbeingspun(Ex35:25).Bothanimalandvegetabledyeswereemployed(seeColours).Theworkofthe
fuller(Is7:3,Mal3:2,Mk9:3)wasoftwokinds,accordingashedealtwiththewebfreshfromtheloom,orwithsoiledgarmentsthathad
alreadybeenworn.Thelatterhecleanedbysteepingandtreadinginwatermixedwithanalkalinesubstance(renderedsoapinMal3:2)and
fullersearth.ThenewwebtheundressedclothofMt9:16,Mk2:21RVontheotherhand,afterbeingthoroughlysteepedinasimilar
mixture,wasstampedandfelted,thenbleachedwithfumesofsulphur,andfinallypressedinthefullerspress.Fulling,liketanning,was
carriedonoutsidethetowns,buttheprecisesituationofthefullersfieldofIsaiahsday(Is7:3)isstilluncertain.Heremaybementionedthe
barber(Ezk5:1)andtheperfumer(AVapothecary,confectionary),forwhomseeHairandPerfumerrespectively.
7.Employmentsconnectedwithfood.Cooks,asaspecialclass,weretobefoundonlyinthehousesofthewealthy(seeFood).The
Hebrewnameshowsthattheykilledaswellascookedtheanimals.Theshamblesof1Co10:25,however,arenot,asinmodernEnglish,the
slaughterhouse,buttheprovisionmarketofCorinth,wheremeatandotherprovisionsweresold.Thebakerswerenumerousenoughtogive
theirnametoastreetofthecapitalinJeremiahsday(Jer37:21)fortheirworkseeBread.Publicmillsemployingmillersappearlate,butare
impliedintherenderinggreatmillstoneofMt18:6RV(cf.marg.andseeMill).ThewellknownTyroponorCheesemakersvalleyin
Jerusalemreceiveditsnamefromtheindustrycarriedonthere(JosBJV.iv.1).
8.Employmentsconnectedwiththeland.MostofthesearenoticedinotherconnexionsseeAgriculture,Sheep,Vine,etc.Theprophet
Amosdescribeshimselfasadresserofsycomoretrees(Am7:14RV),forwhichseeAmos,adinit.
9.Miscellaneousemployments.Iftotheabovetherebeaddedthetentmaker,representingthecraft(RVtrade)ofSt.Paulandhis
friendsAquilaandPriscilla(Ac18:3,seeTent),andthefisherman(seeNets),notradeormanualemploymentofimportancewill,itishoped,
havebeenoverlooked.Mostoftheremainingemploymentswillbefoundundertheirown(e.g.Recorder,Scribe)orkindredtitles,as
merchantunderTrade,physicianunderMedicine,etc.
10.Twogeneralcharacteristics.Thisarticlemayfitlyclosewithabriefreferencetotwocharacteristicsofallthemoreimportant
handicraftsandemployments.ThefirstisstillafeatureofEasterncities,namely,thegroupingofthemembersofthesamecraftinonestreet
orquarterofthecity,towhichtheygavetheirname.ThuswefindinJerusalem,ashasbeennoted,thebakersstreet,thefullersfield,and
thecheesemakersvalley,towhichshouldperhapsheaddedthevalleyofcraftsmen(Neh11:35).Josephusmentionsasmithsbazaar,a
woolmarket,andaclothesmarketintheJerusalemofhisday(BJv.viii.1).

Thesecondpointtohenotedistheevidencethatthemembersofthevariouscraftshadalreadyformedthemselvesintoassociationsor
guilds.ThuswereadinNehemiahofasonoftheapothecaries,i.e.amemberoftheguildofperfumers(3:8),andofasonofthegoldsmiths
(3:31).Cf.Ezr2:42thesonsoftheportersandthefamiliarsonsoftheprophets.In1Ch4:21ff.thereismentionofsimilarassociationsof
linenweaversandpotters,forwhichseeMacalister,TheCraftsmensGuild,etc.PEFSt,1905,243ff.Theexpressionsonsoftodenote
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linenweaversandpotters,forwhichseeMacalister,TheCraftsmensGuild,etc.PEFSt,1905,243ff.Theexpressionsonsoftodenote
membershipofanassociationgoesbacktothedayswhentradeswerehereditaryinparticularfamilies.Aguildofsilversmithsisattestedfor
Ephesus(Ac19:25).FortheprobableearningsofartizansamongtheJewsseeWages.

A.R.S.Kennedy.
ARUBBOTH.Anunknowndistrict,probablyinS.W.Palestine(1K4:10).
ARUMAH.TheplaceofrefugeofAbimelech(Jg9:41),perhapselOrmeh,6milesS.E.ofNblus(Shechem).

E.W.G.Masterman.
ARVAD(modern(Ruwd)wasthemostimportantofthenortherlycitiesofPhnicia.Itwasbuiltonanisland70milesnorthofBeyrout
asortofsecondTyre,withanothertownonthemainlandopposite.InEzk27:8,11itisnamedasfurnishingoarsmenforthegalleysofTyre
andwarriorsforitsdefence.IntheethnologicallistofGn10:18(1Ch1:16)itismentionedamongthechiefsettlementsoftheCanaanitesor
Phnicians.Throughoutantiquityitwasaplaceofrenownfortradeandgeneralenterprise,rankingnexttoTyreandSidon.ItistheAradus
of1Mac12:53.

J.F.McCurdy.
ARZA.PrefectofthepalaceatTirzah,inwhosehouseKingElahwasassassinatedbyZimriatacarouse(1K16:9).
ARZARETH(2Es13:45).Aregionbeyondtheriverfromwhichthetentribesaretoreturn.ItbecamethesubjectofmanylaterJewish
legendsconcerningtheSabhaticRiverbeyondwhichthelosttribesweretobefoundvariouslyidentifiedwiththeOxusandtheGanges.
ASA.1.ThethirdkingofJudahafterthedisruption,succeedingAhijah.Sincehismothersnameisgivenasthesamewiththatof
Abijahsmother,somehavesupposedthetwokingstohavebeenbrothers.Buttheremaybesomemistakeinthetext.Asaispraisedbythe
Biblicalwriterforhisreligiouszeal,whichledhimtoreformtheworship,andeventodeposehismotherfromherplaceofinfluenceatcourt
becauseofheridolatrouspractices.PoliticallyhetookamistakencoursewhenhesubmittedtoBenhadadofDamascustosecurehisaid
againstBaashaofIsrael,whohadcapturedRamah.TheTempletreasuresweresenttoBenhadad,whothereuponinvadedIsrael,andBaasha
wascompelledtoevacuatethethreateningfortress(1K15:9ff.).TheChronicler(2Ch14:9ff.)creditsAsawithavictoryoveranenormous
forceofEthiopians.2.ALevite(1Ch
9:16).

H.P.Smith.
ASADIAS(Jiskind,cf.1Ch3:20).AnancestorofBaruch(Bar1:1).
ASAHEL.1.TheyoungestsonofZeruiah,Davidssister,andthebrotherofJoabandAbishai.Hewasfamousforhisswiftnessoffoot,
amuchvaluedgiftinancienttimes.HewasoneofDavidsthirtyheroes,probablythethirdofthesecondthree(2S23:24).Hewasalso
commanderofadivisioninDavidsarmy(1Ch27:7).HewasslainbyAhner(2S2:1823).2.ALevite,whotaughtthepeopleinthereignof
Jehoshaphat(2Ch17:8).3.AsubordinatecollectorofofferingsandtithesinthereignofHezekiah(2Ch31:18).4.FatherofJonathan,who
opposedEzrasactioninconnexionwiththedivorceofforeignwives(Ezr10:16).
ASAIAH(Jhathmade).1.OneofthedeputationsentbyJosiahtoconsultHuldahtheprophetess,2K22:12,14(AVAsahiah),2Ch
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ASAIAH(Jhathmade).1.OneofthedeputationsentbyJosiahtoconsultHuldahtheprophetess,2K22:12,14(AVAsahiah),2Ch
34:20.2.OneoftheSimeoniteprinceswhoattackedtheshepherdsofGedor,1Ch4:36.3.AMeraritewhotookpartinbringingthearkto
Jerusalem,1Ch6:30,15:6,11.4.ThefirstbornoftheShilonites,1Ch9:5calledinNeh11:5Maaseiah.
ASANA(1Es5:31).HisdescendantswereamongthetempleservantsorNethinimwhoreturnedwithZerubbabelcalledAsnahinEzr
2:50[Neh.omits].
ASAPH(gatherer).1.ThefatherofJoah,therecorderorchronicleratthecourtofHezekiah(2K18:18,37etc.).2.Thekeeperof
thekingsforest,towhomkingArtaxerxesaddressedaletterdirectinghimtosupplyNehemiahwithtimber(Neh2:8).3.AKorahite(1Ch
26:1),sameasAbiasaph(wh.see).4.TheeponymofoneofthethreeguildswhichconductedthemusicalservicesoftheTempleinthetime
oftheChronicler(1Ch15:16f.,etc.).ThelattertracesthisarrangementtotheappointmentofDavid,inwhosereignAsaph,whoiscalledthe
seer(2Ch29:30),issupposedtohavelived.AtfirsttheAsaphitesaloneseemedtohaveformedtheTemplechoir,andinthetimeofEzraand
Nehemiah(whereverwehavethememoirsofthelatterintheiroriginalform)theyarenotyetreckonedamongtheLevites.Atalaterperiod
theysharethemusicalservicewiththesonsofKorah(seeKorahites).Pss50and7383havethesuperscriptionleAsaph,whichmeansin
allprobabilitythattheyoncebelongedtothehymnbookoftheAsaphitechoir(seePsalms).
ASARA(1Es5:31).HissonswereamongtheTempleservantsorNethinimwhoreturnedunderZerubbabel:omittedintheparallellists
inEzr.andNeh.
ASARAMEL(AVSaramel).Anamewhosemeaningisquiteuncertain(1Mac14:28).SeeRVm.
ASAREL(AVAsareel).AsonofJehallelel(1Ch4:16).
ASBASARETH(1Es5:69).AkingofAssyria,probablyacorruptformofthenameEsarhaddon,whichisfoundintheparallel
passageEzr4:2.TheAVformAzbazarethcomesfromtheVulgate.
ASCALON.SeeAshkelon.
ASCENSION.ThefactofourLordsAscensionistreatedveryscantilyintheSynopticGospels.FromMt.itisentirelyomitted.Inthe
appendixtoMk.thewordsinwhichitisstatedarerathertheformulaofacreedthanthenarrativeofanevent(Mk16:19).Lk.issomewhat
morecircumstantial,and,thoughthechronologyisuncertain,mentionsthejourneytotheneighbourhoodofBethanyandthedisappearanceof
Christintheactofblessing,togetherwiththereturnofthedisciplestoJerusalem(Lk24:5052).Thenarrative,meagreasitis,isnot
inconsistentwith,andmayevenpresuppose,theeventsrecordedatgreaterlengthinActs(1:612).Herewelearnthatthescenewasmore
preciselytheMount,of
Olives(v.12)thatthefinalconversation,towhichallusionispossiblymadein
Mk16:19,concernedthepromiseoftheHolySpirit(vv.68)andthattheAscension,sofarasitwasaneventandthereforeasubjectof
testimony,tooktheformoftheupliftingofthebodilyformofJesusfromtheearthtillitdisappearedinacloud(vv.9,10).Whetherthis
experienceinvolvedmorethantheseparationofChristfromimmediatecontactwiththeearth,andincludedHisgradualrecessionintothe
upperair,thereisnothingdirectlytoshow.ThegeneralformofthenarrativerecallstheTransfiguration(Lk9:2836||).Thewordsofthetwo
meninwhiteapparei(v.10)suggestthatthefinalimpressionwasthatofdisappearanceabovetheheadsoftheonlookers(v.11).Itwillbe
noticedthat,whiletheMarkanappendixandLuke,unlessthelatternarrativeisinterpolated,blendfactandfigure(Mk16:19receivedup
[fact]intoheaven[partlyfact,partlyfigure],andsatdownattherighthandofGod[figure]Lk24:51hepartedfromthem[fact],andwas
carriedupintoheaven[partlyfact,partlyfigurebutseeRVm],asmustnecessarilybethecasewherethedoctrineoftheAscensionis
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carriedupintoheaven[partlyfact,partlyfigurebutseeRVm],asmustnecessarilybethecasewherethedoctrineoftheAscensionis
concernedActs,ontheotherhand,whichpurportstodescribeanevent,rigidlykeepswithinthelimitsoftestimony.

TherearecertainanticipationsoftheAscensionintheGospelswhichmustberegardedaspartoftheirwitnesstoit.ThusLk.introduces
theaccountofourLordslastjourneytoJerusalemwiththewordswhenthedayswerebeingfulfilledthatheshouldbereceivedup(Lk9:51
RVm).ItisprobablethattheAscensionisheredelicatelyblendedwiththeCrucifixion,asapparentlybyChrist
HimselfinJn12:32.Again,thewordexodosinLukesaccountofthe
Transfiguration,renderedinthetextofRVdecease,butmarg.departure,seemstohavethesamedoublereference(Lk9:31).OurLords
predictionsoftheSecondComingontheclouds(Mt24:30,26:64cf.1Th4:16,Rev1:7)almostnecessarilyimplytheAscension.The
FourthGospel,whileinitsaccustomedmanneromittingthestoryoftheAscension,probablyregardedasknown,introducesdefinite
referencestoitonthepartofChristbothbeforeandaftertheResurrection(Jn6:62,7:33,14:19,28,16:28,20:17etc.).Andifwecompare
statementsintheEpistles(Eph4:8,He1:3,4:14)withtheAscensionnarrative,itisscarcelypossibletodoubtthatthewritersacceptedthe
historicfactasthebasisoftheirteaching.TothismustbeaddedallthosepassageswhichspeakofJesusasexaltedtotherighthandorthrone
ofGod(Ro8:34,Eph1:20,He10:12etc.),andasreturningtoearthinthegloryoftheFather(Mt25:31,Mk8:38,Ph3:20etc.).Inconnexion
withtheSession,St.Peter,aftermentioningtheResurrection,usestheexpressionhavinggonehiswayintoheaven(1P3:22,cf.Jn14:3).
NorcanweomitsuchconsiderationsasariseoutofthefactoftheResurrectionitself,whicharesatisfiedonlybyaneventthatputsadefinite
periodtotheearthlymanifestationoftheincarnateChrist.
FromwhathasbeensaiditwillappearthattheAscensionstandsonasomewhatdifferentlevelfromtheResurrectionasanattestedfact.
LiketheVirginbirth,itdidnotformapartoftheprimitivepreaching,nordoesitbelongtotheevidencesofChristianity.Thefragmentofwhat
isthoughttobeaprimitivehymnquotedin1Ti3:16somewhatcuriouslyplacespreachedamongthenationsbeforereceivedupinglory.
ButitisneverthelessafactwhichcamewithintheexperienceoftheApostles,andcanthereforeclaimameasureofhistoricaltestimony.The
ResurrectionisitselfthestrongestwitnesstotherealityoftheAscension,asoftheVirginbirth,norwouldeitherinthenatureofthecasehave
beencapableofwinningitswaytoacceptanceapartfromthecentralfaiththatJesusactuallyrosefromthedead.Butneitherthefactitselfnor
itsimportancetotheChristianbelieverdependsupontheproductionofevidenceforitsoccurrence.Itwillnotbeseriouslydisputedbythose
whoaccepttheApostolicgospel.Ontheotherhand,thefactthattheAscensionwasacceptedintheprimitiveChurchastheeventwhichputa
termtotheearthlymanifestationofChristbringsouttheResurrectioninstrikingreliefasinthefullsenseofthewordafactofhistory.Itisthe
Ascension,representedasitisinScripturenotonlyhistoricallybutmystically,andnottheResurrection,whichmightbeviewedasan
apotheosisoridealizationofJesus.ThatJesusisnowlivingattherighthandofGod(Harnack)isnotasufficientaccountoftheChristian
beliefintheResurrectioninviewoftheAscensionnarrative,which,evenifKeimandothersarerightinregardingitasamaterializationof
thedoctrineoftheeternalSessionassetforthintheEpistles,becomesnecessaryonlywhentheResurrectionisacceptedinthemostliteral
sense.

TheAscensionisthepointofcontactbetweenthemanJesusChristoftheGospeisandthemysticalChristoftheEpistles,preservingthe
historicalcharacteroftheformerandtheuniversalityofthelatterintruecontinuity.ItenabledthedisciplestoidentifythegiftofPentecost
withthepromiseoftheHolySpirit,whichhadbeenspeciallyconnectedwiththewithdrawalofJesusfrombodilysightandHisreturntothe
Father(Jn16:7,cf.7:39).AneternalcharacteristhusgiventothesacrificeofthedeathofChrist,whichbecomesefficaciousthroughthe
exaltationofHiscrucifiedandrisenmanhood(He10:1114,1922).

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J.G.Simpson.

ASCENSIONOFISAIAH.SeeApoc.Lit.,p.41a.
ASCENTOFBLOOD(Jos15:7,RVascentofAdummim).ThesteeproadfromJerichotoJerusalem,socalled,accordingtoJerome,
fromthedeedsofthebrigandswhoinfestedt(cf.Lk10:30)butseeAdummim.

DavidSmith.
ASEAS(1Es9:32).OneofthesonsofAnnaswhoagreedtoputawayhisstrangewifecalledIsshijah,Ezr10:31.
ASEBEBIAS(AVAsebebia).ALevitewhoaccompaniedEzratoJerusalem(1Es8:47).
ASEBIAS(AVAsebia).ALevitewhoreturnedwithEzra(1Es8:48).
ASENATH.DaughterofPotiphera,priestofOn,wifeofJosephandmotherofEphraimandManasseh(Gn41:45,5046:20).The
name,liketheotherEgyptiannamesinthestoryofJoseph,isofawellknownlatetype,prevalentfromaboutb.c.950itshouldprobablybe
vocalizedAsneitorEsneit,meaningbelongingtoNeit.NeitwasthegoddessofSais,andhernamewasespeciallypopularinnamesfromthe
26th(Saite)Dyn.,c.b.c.664,andonwardsforsometwocenturies.

AsenathistheheroineofaremarkableJewishandChristianromance,inwhichsherenouncesherfalsegodsbeforehermarriagewith
Josephitcanbetracedbacktothe5thcent.a.d.,andisprobablyagooddealearlier.
F.Ll.Griffith.
ASH.SeeFir.
ASHAN(Jos15:42,19:7,1Ch4:32,6:69).PerhapsthesameasCorAshan(wh.see).ItwasatownofJudah,nearLibnahandRimmon,
belongingtoSimeon,andnotfarfromDebir.Thesiteisdoubtful.
ASHARELAH(AVAsareiah).AnAsaphite(1Ch25:2),calledinv.14Jesharelah.
ASHBEAoccursinanobscurepassage(1Ch4:21houseofA.)whereitisuncertainwhetheritisthenameofaplaceorofaman.
ASHBEL(manofBaal).ThesecondsonofBenjamin(1Ch8:1cf.Gn.46:21,Nu26:38).InNu26:38Ashbelite,inhabitantof
Ashbel,occurs.
ASHDOD(fortressGreekAzotus).AcityinthePhilistinePentapolisnotcapturedbyJoshua(Jos13:3),andarefugeforthe
unslaughteredAnakim(Jos11:22)theoreticallyassignedtothetribeofJudah(Jos15:47).HitherthePhliistinesbroughttheark,andsentit
thencetoGath,onaccountofanoutbreakprobablyofbubonicplague(1S5:18).Uzziahattackedthecity,destroyeditswalls,and
establishedsettlementsnearit(2Ch26:6).TheAshdoditesjoinedwithSanballatinopposingNehemiahsrestorationofJerusalem(Neh4:7),
yetsomeoftheJewsoftheperiodmarriedwivesfromAshdod,andtheirchildrenspokeinitsdialect(Neh13:23,24).Itwascapturedby
Sargonscommanderinchief(Is20:1).Jeremiah,Amos,Zephaniah,andZechariahspeakdenunciationsagainstit.Itwasagaincapturedby
JudasMaccabus(1Mac5:68),andagainbyJonathan(10:84).ThesolitaryreferencetoitintheNTistherecordofPhilipsdeparturethither
afterthebaptismoftheEthiopian(Ac8:40).ItisidentifiedwiththemodernEsdud,avillageabouttwothirdsofthewayfromJaffato
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afterthebaptismoftheEthiopian(Ac8:40).ItisidentifiedwiththemodernEsdud,avillageabouttwothirdsofthewayfromJaffato
Askalan,andsome3milesfromthesea.Itisontheslopeofahill,andatitsentrancearetheremainsofalargemedivalkhan.Thereare
fragmentsofancientbuildingstobefoundhereandthereinthemodernwalls.

R.A.S.Macalister.
ASHER.1.AtownontheS.borderofManasseh(Jos17:7).Siteunknown.
2.To1:2=Hazor,No.1.
ASHER.TheeighthsonofJacob,byZilpah,Leahshandmaid.Leah,joyfuloverhisbirth,namedhimHappy(Gn30:13).This
popularetymologydominatesJsthoughtintheBlessingofJacob(Gn49:20)andintheBlessingofMoses(Dt33:24).Ashersterritory
wasespeciallyfertileandfittedtopromoteprosperity.Whetherthisfactoperatedinitsnaming,orwhetherthenamewasoriginallythatofa
divinityofamilitantCanaaniteclanmentionedfrequentlyintheTellelAmarnalettersastheMrabdAshirti(Sonsoftheservantof
Asherah),orwhethertheCanaanitetribeAsaru,knownfromtheinscriptionsoftheEgyptiankingSetiI.(14thcent.),gavethenametothe
tribe,itisimpossibletosay.ThetwolasttheoriesimplyanamalgamationoforiginalinhabitantswithaHebrewclanortribe,which,probably
priortotheentranceofthesoutherntribes,hadfounditswayintotheNorth.ApredominanceoftheGentileelementthusintroducedwould
account,inameasureatleast,forthenonparticipationoftheAsheritesinthewaragainstSisera,althoughtheyaresaidtohavesenta
contingenttothesupportofGideoninhiswarwiththeMidianites(Jg6:35,7:23),and,accordingtotheChronicler,went40,000strongto
HebrontoaidDavidinhisstruggleforthekingship(1Ch12:36).AccordingtotheearliestwritingextantintheOT,viz.,theSongof
Deborah,theothernortherntribes,ZebuluntothesouthandNaphtalitotheeastofit,flungthemselveswithfierceabandonagainstthearmy
ofSisera,whileAshersatstillatthehavenofthesea(Jg5:17f.).AccordingtoPscensus,therewere41,500malestwentyyearsoldand
upwardatSinai,andwhentheyarrivedintheplainsofMoabtheyhadincreasedto53,400(Nu1:41,26:47).

Pgivesalsotheterritorialboundaries,includingthenamesof22citiesandtheirdependentvillages,themajorityofwhichareunidentified
(Jos19:2430cf.Jg1:31,32,andJos17:11J).Ashersterritorywasgainedbysettlement,notbyconquest(Jg1:31f.).Thetribeplayedan
unimportantrleinIsrael.Itisnotmentionedin1Ch27:16ff.,wherethetribesareenumeratedtogetherwiththeirrespectiveleadersunder
David.ForthegenealogiesseeGn46:17,Nu26:44,1Ch7:30ff.SeealsoTribesofIsrael.

JamesA.Craig.
ASHERAH.InRVAsherah(plur.Asherim,morerarelyAsheroth)appearsasthetr.ofaHebrewsubstantivewhichAV,followingthe
LXXandVulgate,hadmistakenlyrenderedgrove.ByOTwritersthewordisusedinthreedistinctapplications.
1.ThegoddessAsherah.InseveralplacesAsherahmustberecognizedasthenameofaCanaanitedeity.Thusin1K18:19wereadof
theprophetsofBaalandofAsherah,in15:13(=2Ch15:16)ofanabominableimage,andin2K21:7ofagravenimageofAsherah,also
ofthesacrificialvesselsusedinherworship(23:4),whileJg3:7speaksoftheBaalimandtheAsheroth.Thesereferences,itmustbeallowed,
arenotallofequalvalueforthecriticalhistorianandsomeofourforemostauthoritieshavehithertodeclinedtoadmittheexistenceofa
CanaanitegoddessAsherah,regardingthenameasamereliterarypersonificationoftheasherahorsacredpole(see3),orasduetoa
confusionwithAstarte(cf.Jg3:7with2:13).

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Inthelastfewyears,however,avarietyofmonumentalevidencehascometolight(seeLagrange,tudessurlesreligionssemitiques2
(1905),119ff.)thelatestfromthesoilofPalestineitselfinacuneiformtabletfoundatTaanachshowingthatagoddessAshirator
AsherahwasworshippedfromaremoteantiquitybytheWesternSemites.Thereneedbenohesitation,therefore,inacceptingtheabove
passagesasevidenceofherworshipinOTtimes,evenwithintheTempleitself.

Therelation,astoname,history,andattributes,ofthisearlyCanaanitegoddesstothepowerfulSemiticdeitynamedIshtarbythe
Babylonians,andAshtart(OTAshtoreth)bythePhnicians,isstillobscure(seeKAT3,IndexLagrange,op.cit.).Thelatterinanycase
graduallydisplacedtheformerinCanaan.
2.AnimageofAsherah.ThegravenimageofAsherahsetupbyManassehintheTemple(2K21:7),whendestroyedbyJosiah,is
simplytermedtheasherah(2K23:6).LiketheidolsdescribedbytheprophetoftheExile(Is41:7,44:12ff.),itevidentlyconsistedofacore
ofwoodoverlaidwithpreciousmetal,sinceitcouldbeatonceburnedandstampedtopowder(cf.2Ch15:16forthecorrespondingimage
ofMaacah),andwasperiodicallydecoratedwithwovenhangings(Luc.tunics)bythewomenvotariesofAsherah(2K23:7).Thereis
thereforegoodwarrantforseeingintheasherahwhichAhabsetupinthetempleofBaalatSamaria(cf.1K16:33with2K10:28)
accordingtotheemendedtextofthelatterpassageitwasburnedbyJehubutwassoonrestored(13:6)somethingofgreaterconsequence
thanamerepostorpole.Itmusthavebeenacelebratedimageofthegoddess.

3.AsymbolofAsherah.IntheremainingpassagesofOTtheasherahisthenameofaprominent,ifnotindispensable,objectassociated
withthealtarandthemazzbah(seePillar)intheworshipoftheCanaanitehighplaces.Itwasmadeofwood(Jg6:26),andcouldbeplanted
intheground(Dt16:21),pluckeduporcutdown(Mic5:14,Ex34:13),andburnedwithfire(Dt12:3).Accordinglytheasherahisnowheld
tohavebeenawoodenpostorpolehavingsymbolicalsignificanceintheCanaanitecults.Howfaritresembledthesimilaremblemsfigured
inrepresentationsofBabylonianandPhnicianritescanonlybeconjectured.
WhentheHebrewsoccupiedCanaan,thelocalsanctuariesbecameseatsoftheworshipofJ,atwhichtheadjunctsofsacredpoleand
pillarcontinuedasbefore.Thedisastrousresultsofthisincorporationofheathenelementsledtothedenunciationoftheasherahsbythe
propheticexponentsofIsraelsreligion(Ex34:13,Jer17:2,Mic5:13f.,andesp.Dt7:5,12:2ff.,16:21),andtotheirultimateabolition(2K
18:4,23:4ff.).

4.Significanceoftheasherah.ThetheoryatpresentmostinfavouramongOTscholarsfindsintheasherahsorsacredpolesthe
substitutesofthesacredtreesuniversallyreveredbytheearlySemites.Thistheory,however,isnotonlyimprobableinviewofthefactthat
theasherahsarefoundbesideorundersuchsacredtrees(Jer17:2,1K14:23,2K17:10),buthasbeendiscreditedbytheprovedexistenceof
thegoddessAsherah.IntheearliestperiodoftheSemiticoccupationofCanaan(c.b.c.25002000),thisdeityprobablysharedwithBaal(cf.
Jg3:7,6:25etc.)thechiefworshipoftheimmigrants,particularlyasthegoddessoffertility,inwhichaspectherplacewaslaterusurpedby
Astarte.Inthisearlyaniconicage,thewoodenpostwashersymbol,asthestonepillarwasofBaal.Bearinghername,itpassedbygradual
stagesintothecompleteeiknoranthropomorphicimageofthedeityasinSamariaandJerusalem.
A.R.S.Kennedy.

ASHES.Ashesontheheadformedoneoftheordinarytokensofmourningforthedead(seeMourningCustomsasofprivate(2S13:19)
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ASHES.Ashesontheheadformedoneoftheordinarytokensofmourningforthedead(seeMourningCustomsasofprivate(2S13:19)
andnationalhumiliation(Neh9:1,1Mac3:47).Thepenitentandtheafflictedmightalsosit(Job2:8,Jon3:6)orevenwallowinashes(Jer
6:25,Ezk27:30).In1K20:38,41wemust,withRV,readHeadband(wh.see)forashes.

Inafigurativesensethetermashesisoftenusedtosignifyevanescence,worthlessness,insignificance(Gn18:27,Job30:19).Proverbs
ofashes(13:12RV)isJobsequivalentforthemodernrot.FortheuseofashesinthepriestlyritualseeRedHeifer.
A.R.S.Kennedy.
ASHHUR(AVAshur).ThefatherofTekoa(1Ch2:24,4:5).
ASHIMA.Agodwhoseformofworshipisunknown,andwhohasbeenidentifiedwiththePhnicianEshmunandtheBabylonian
Tashmitu.AsHamath,thegodsseatofworship(2K17:30),wasoccupiedbytheHittites,thedeitywasprobablynonSemitic.
N.Koenig.
ASHKELON(GreekAscalon).AcityofthePhilistinePentapolis.ItismentionedseveraltimesintheTellelAmarnacorrespondence.
AccordingtoJos13:3,itwasleftunconqueredbuttheinterpolatedpassage,Jg1:18,enumeratesitamongtheplacescapturedbyIsrael.Itis
doubtfulwhetherSamsontookthespoilwithwhichhepaidhiswages(Jg14:19)fromthiscity,whichistwodaysjourneyfromTimnath,or
fromasimilarlystyledvillage,muchnearerathand,nowpossiblyrepresentedinnamebyKhurbetAskalan,nearTellZakariya.Itisreferred
tointhestoryofthereturnoftheark(1S6:17),andinDavidslament(2S1:20),andwiththeotherPhilistinecitiesismadeanobjectof
denunciationbyvariousprophets.HereJonathanMaccabuswashonourablyreceived(1Mac10:86,11:60),anditwasthebirthplaceof
HerodtheGreat.ItwascapturedbytheCrusaders,butrecapturedbytheMuslimsafterthebattleofHattin.Extensiveremainsofancient
buildingsstillexistonthesite,whichretainsthenameofAskalan:numerousfragmentsofstatuesetc.,arefoundbythenativesfromtimeto
time.
R.A.S.Macalister.
ASHKENAZinGn10:3(1Ch1:6)appearsasasonofGomer(wh.see),whichmeansapparentlythatthenamerepresentsapeopleakin
totheCimmerians,anIndoEuropeanpeoplewhomadetroublefortheAssyriansinandabout
Armeniainthelaterdaysoftheirempire,inthe7thcent.b.c.InJer51:27AshkenaziscoupledwithAraratandMinni.Theviewnow
generallyacceptedbyscholarsisthatAshkenazintheHebrewtextisaslightmisreadingforAshkz,animportanttribeakintotheCimmerians
whohadtodowithEsarhaddonandAshurbanipal,thelastgreatkingsofAssyria,thenameappearingintheinscriptionsasAshgz.Further,it
isprobablethattheSkythoi,Scythians,representthesamepeopleandword.

J.F.McCurdy.
ASHNAH.TwounknownsitesoftownsinJudah(Jos15:33and15:43).
ASHPENAZ.ThechiefofNebuchadrezzarseunuchs(Dn1:3).
ASHTAROTH.Thiscity(pl.ofAshtoreth[wh.see]),originallyheldbyOg,kingofBashan(Dt1:4,Jos9:10,12:4,13:12,31),later
capturedbytheIsraelitesandbythemawardedtotheGershonites(Jos21:27Beeshterah,dwelling[ortemple]ofAshtorethcf.||1Ch.
6:56,whichreadsAshtaroth),might,withoutcontradictingBiblicalrecords,beidentifiedwithAshterothKarnaim(wh.see).However,a
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6:56,whichreadsAshtaroth),might,withoutcontradictingBiblicalrecords,beidentifiedwithAshterothKarnaim(wh.see).However,a
statementfoundinEusebiusOnomasticonfavourstheviewthatthenamesdesignatetwolocalities.Eusebiusrelatesthattherewereathis
timetwovillagesofthesamename,separatedbyadistanceof9miles,lyingbetweenAdara(Edrei)andAbilaviz.,(1)Ashtaroth,theancient
cityofOg,6milesfromAbila,and(2)KarnaimAshtaroth,avillageinthecornerofBashan,whereJobsvillageisshown(cf.Bookof
Jubilees29:10).EusebiusKarnaimAshtarothevidentlylayinthecornerorangleformedbytheriversNahrerRukkadandSharat
elManadireh,inwhichvicinitytraditionplacesUz,Jobsfatherland.Atlong.36E.,lat.3250'N.,ontheBashanplateau,standsTell(hill)
Ashtar,whosestrategicalvalue,asshownbytheruins,wasrecognizedintheMiddleAges.ItsbaseiswateredbytheMoyetenNebAyyb
(streamoftheprophetJob).Followingthisrivuletscoursefor21/2milesN.N.E.,passingthroughtheHammam
Ayyb(Jobsbath),isfounditssource,aspringsaidtohavewelledforthwhenJobinhisimpatiencestampedupontheground.Inthe
immediatevicinitytowardstheS.,Jobsgraveisshown.Furthermore,uponthehillatwhosebasethesetwoplacesaresituatedliesthevillage
ofSadyehorSheikhSad,whosemosquecontainstheSakhretAyyb,alargebasaltboulderagainstwhichJobissaidtohaveleantwhile
receivinghisfriends.Indeed,ofamileS.ofSadyehatelMerkez,anothergrave(modern)ofJobisshown,andaDer(monastery)Ayyb,
accordingtotraditionbuiltbytheGhassanideAmrI.,isknowntohaveexisted.EusebiusAshtarothmustthenhavebeenintheproximityof
Muzerib,91/2milesS.of
Sadyeh,and8milesN.W.ofAdara,almostthedistanceoftheOnomasticon.
EvenTellAshar,41/4milesS.ofTellAshtar,protectedontheonesidebytheYarmuk,onthesecondbyachasm,andshowingevidences
ofhavingbeenfortifiedbyatriplewallonthethird,isadmirablysituatedforaroyalstronghold.

Noneofthesemodernplacenames,withtheexceptionofTellAshtar,islinguisticallyrelatedtotheAshtarothandAshterothkarnaim
oftheBibleandtheOnomasticon.ThedescriptionofAshterothkarnaim(2Mac12:21f.,cf.1Mac5:43)asaplacehardtobesiegeand
difficultofaccessbecauseofnumerouspassesleadingtoit,inwhoseterritoryatemplewassituated,isapplicabletoSadyehortoTell
AshtaroreventoTellAshar,whosedoublepeakattheS.summitispartlyresponsibleforthetranslationofthenameAshtarothof(near)
thedoublepeak(seeAshtoreth).ThesimilarityofnamebetweenTellAshtarand
Ashterothkarnaim,eventhoughTellAshtardoesnotliedirectlybetweenAdaraandAbila,andlacks,withtheotherplaces,narrowpasses,
wouldfavourtheidentificationofAshterothkarnaimwithTellAshtar,andhence,accordingtothedistancesofEusebius,thelocationof
AshtarothnearMuzerib.However,untiltheancientnameofMuzeribisknown,andthevarioussitesexcavated,adefinitedeterminationof
thelocationofthesecities,andevenofthedifferencebetweenthem,mustremainimpossible.
N.Koenig.
ASHTEROTHKARNAIM.ThesceneofChedorlaomersdefeatoftheRephaim(Gn14:5).ItisperhapsmentionedinAm6:13(EV
Havewenottakentoushorns(Karnaim)byourownstrength?).ItisidenticalwithCarnionorCarnain,afterwhosecapture,inb.c.164,
JudasMaccabusdestroyedthetempleofAtargatis(wh.see),whithertheinhabitantshadfledforrefuge(2Mac12:21f.,cf.1Mac5:43f.).
ForinterpretationofnameseeAshtoreth,andforlocation,Ashtaroth.

N.Koenig.

ASHTORETH.Thisdeity,especiallyknownastheSidoniangoddessforwhomSolomonerectedashrine,laterdestroyedbyJosiah(1K
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ASHTORETH.Thisdeity,especiallyknownastheSidoniangoddessforwhomSolomonerectedashrine,laterdestroyedbyJosiah(1K
11:5,33,2K23:13),wasworshippedbyallSemiticnations.InhertempleatAshkelon,the
PhilistineshungthearmourofSaul(1S31:10).InBashan,thecitiesAshtarothorBeeshterahandAshterothkarnaimpresumablyderived
theirnamesfromthefactthatvariousAshtorethcultswerelocatedthere.AtAshterothkarnaim(hornedAshtaroth)onemightevenbe
justifiedinsupposingfromthenamethat
Ashtorethwasrepresentedwiththehornsofacoworaram.Mesha,kingofMoab,dedicatedhisprisonerstoacompositegoddessAshtar
Chemosh.Indeed,herexistenceinS.ArabiaisevidencedbytheprobablyequivalentmalegodAthtar.InAbyssinia,shewascalledAstarin
AssyriaandBabylonia,Ishtar(usedalsointhepl.ishtartitodenotegoddesses,cf.Ashtaroth,Jg2:13,10:6,1S7:13,12:10)inSyria,
Atbar,andinPhnicia,Astart,whencetheHebrewAshtoreth,withthevowelsofbsheth(shamefulthing)substitutedfortheoriginal.
SeeMolech,Baal.

Thecharacterofthisgoddess,concerningwhichtheOTmakesnodirectstatement,ismostclearlydepictedintheAssyroBabylonian
literature.Heresheappearsasthegoddessoffertility,productiveness,andloveontheonehand,andofwar,death,anddecayontheother,a
personificationoftheearthasitpassesthroughthesummerandwinterseasons.Toherthesixthmonth,Elul,theheightofthesummer,is
sacred.Inthismonth,throughherpowers,theripeningofvegetablelifetakesplace,representedbyTammuz,whosecomingisheraldedby
IshtarsfestivalinAb,thefifthmonth.Fromthisperiodoftheyear,thecropsandverduregraduallydecay,andfinallydisappearinthewinter.
Thus,sinceIshtarhasfailedtosustainthelifewhichherpowershadcreated,popularbeliefmadeherthecauseofdeathanddecay.She
thereforebecameadestructivegoddess,whovisitedwithdiseasethosewhodisobeyedhercommands,andevenagoddessofwar(cf.1S
31:10).However,filledwithremorse,becauseshehaddestroyedthevegetablelife(=Tammuz,theconsortofheryouth),shesetsouttothe
lowerworldinsearchofhealingwaterstoreviveTammuz.Duringthisquest(winter)thepropagationofalllifeceases.Successfulinher
search,shebringsforththenewverdure,andoncemoreassumestheroleofamercifulgoddess,towhomalllifeisdue.
Atalaterperiod,whenallgodshadobtainedafixedpositiontoeachotherandthenecessityofassigninganabodetothemwasfelt,the
godswereidentifiedwiththeheavenlybodies.ThusIshtarwasgiventheplanetVenus,whoseappearanceatcertainseasonsasmorningstar
andatothertimesaseveningstarparalleledthegrowthanddecayofnature.Hence,inaccordancewithonetheologicalschoolofthe
Babylonians,whichconsideredSin(moon)theruleroftheluminariesofthenight,IshtarwasalsoknownasthedaughterofSin.Byothers
shewasdesignatedasdaughterofAnu(lordofheaven),andevenasthesisterofShamash(sun),since,astheeveningstarVenus
disappearsinthewest,andreappearsintheeasttobecalledthemorningstar.

ThecultsofthisgoddesswereextantatvariouslocalitiesofBabyloniaandAssyria.Atsomeofthese,bothphasesofhercharacterwere
worshipped,sidebyside,withequalityatothers,moreimportancewasattachedtooneofheraspects.ThusatUruk(Erech)inhertempleE
Anna(houseofheaven)shewasbothagoddessoffertilityandamartialdeityinwhoseservicewereKizretl,Ukhati,andKharimati,the
priestessesofIshtar.AtAgade,Calah,andBabylongreaterstressseemstohavebeenlaiduponthemilderaspect,anditisdoubtlesswiththe
worshipofthissideofIshtarsnaturethatthereligiousprostitutionmentionedbyGreekwriterswasconnected(Hdt.i.199Strab.xvi.i.20
Ep.Jerem.42f.Luc.deDeaSyr.6f.).AmongtheAssyrians,threeIshtars,viz.,IshtarofNineveh,IshtarofKidmuru(templeatNineveh),and
IshtarofArbela,wereespeciallyworshipped.Thiswarriornationnaturallydweltuponthemartialaspectofthedeityalmosttotheexclusion
ofhermildersideasamothergoddess,andaccordedtoherapositionnexttoAshur,theirnationalgod.Indeed,Ishtarwasevendesignatedas
hiswife,andsinceheruledovertheIgigi(spiritsofheaven),soshewassaidtobemightyovertheAnunnaki(spiritsoftheearth).

ThusIshtaristhegoddesswhomAshurnazirpal(b.c.1800)aptlycallsqueenofthegods,intowhosehandsaredeliveredthecommands
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ThusIshtaristhegoddesswhomAshurnazirpal(b.c.1800)aptlycallsqueenofthegods,intowhosehandsaredeliveredthecommands
ofthegreatgods,ladyofNineveh,daughterofSin,sisterofShamash,whorulesallkingdoms,whodeterminesdecrees,thegoddessofthe
universe,ladyofheavenandearth,whohearspetitions,heedssighsthemercifulgoddesswholovesjustice.EquallydoesEsarhaddons
claim,thatitwasIshtar,theladyofonslaughtandbattle,whostoodathissideandbrokehisenemiesbows,applytothisdeityagoddess,
towhomthepenitentintheanguishofhissoulpraysBesidestheethereisnoguidingdeity.

Iimploretheetolookuponmeandhearmysighs.

Proclaimpeace,andmaythysoulheappeased.

Howlong,OmyLady,tillthycountenancebeturnedtowardsme.
Likedoves,Ilament,Isatiatemyselfwithsighs.

N.Koenig.
ASHURBANIPAL.SonandsuccessorofEsarhaddononthethroneofAssyria,b.c.668626.HeisusuallyidentifiedwithAsnappar,
Ezr.4:10.HeincludedManassehofJudahamonghistributaries,andkeptanAssyriangarrisonatGezer.SeeAssyria,Osnappar.

C.H.W.Johns.
ASHURITES.OneofthetribesoverwhomIshboshethruled(2S2:9).Thenameisclearlycorrupt,forneithertheAssyrians(Asshur)
northeArabiantribeAsshurim(Gn25:3)canbeintended.ThePesh.andVulg.readtheGeshurites,whoseterritoryborderedonthatof
Gilead(Jos12:5,13:11),andwhomightthereforebesuitablyincludedhere.Ithasbeenurged,however,againstthisview,thatGeshurwasan
independentkingdomatthistime(cf.2S3:3,13:37),sothatIshboshethcouldnothaveexercisedcontroloverit.Weshouldprobablyread
hAshritheAsherites,i.e.thetribeofAsher(cf.Jg1:32).
ASHVATH.AnAsherite(1Ch7:33).
ASIA.IntheNTthiswordinvariablymeanstheRomanprovinceAsia,whichembracedroughlythewesternthirdofthepeninsulawhich
wecallAsiaMinor.ItwasboundedontheN.E.bytheprovinceofBithynia,ontheE.bytheprovinceofGalatia,ontheS.bytheprovinceof
Lycia,andhadbeencededtotheRomansbythewillofthePergameniankingAttalusIII.inb.c.133.Thefollowingethnicdistrictswerein
thisprovinceMysia,Lydia,WesternPhrygia,andCaria.Theprovincewastherichest,and,withtheoneexceptionofAfrica,itsequal,the
mostimportantintheRomanEmpire.Itwasgovernedbyaproconsulofthehighergrade,withthreelegatiunderhim.Ephesus,Pergamum,
andSmyrnawereitsprincipalcities.St.PaulspreachinginEphesuswasthemostpowerfulcauseofthespreadofthegospelinthisprovince,
andtheEpistletotheEphesiansisprobablyacircularlettertoallthechurchesinit.SevenareenumeratedinRev13,whichispostPauline.

A.Souter.
ASIARCH.TheformofthewordisparallelwithLyciarch,Bithyniarch,etc.,butthesignificationisbynomeanscertain.Thetitleof
Asiarchcouldbeheldinconjunctionwithanyciviloffice,andwiththehighpriesthoodofaparticularcity,butthehighpriestofAsiaandthe
AsiarchwereprobablynotidenticalfortherewasonlyonehighpriestofAsiaatatime,buttherewereanumberofAsiarchs,asAc19:31 121/172
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AsiarchwereprobablynotidenticalfortherewasonlyonehighpriestofAsiaatatime,buttherewereanumberofAsiarchs,asAc19:31
shows,eveninonecity.Thehonourlastedoneyear,butreelectionwaspossible.ItwasheldinconnexionwiththeKoinon(Council)ofthe
province,themaindutyofwhichwastoregulatetheworshipofRomeandoftheEmperorandtheAsiarchswereprobablythedeputiestothe
Councilelectedbythetowns.

A.Souter.
ASIBIAS(1Es9:26).OneofthesonsofPhorosorParoshwhoagreedtoputawayhisstrangewifeansweringtoMalchijah(2)inEzr
10:25.
ASIEL.1.GrandfatherofJehuaSimeoniteprince(1Ch4:35).2.OneoffivewritersemployedbyEzratotranscribetheLaw(2Es
14:24).3.(AVAsael)AnancestorofTobit(To1:1).
ASIPHA(1Es5:29).HissonswereamongtheTempleservantswhoreturnedwithZerubbabelcalledHasupha,Ezr2:43,Neh7:46.
ASMODUS,theevildemonofTo3,6,8,appearsfreelyintheTalmudasAshmdai,whichpopularetymologyconnectedwith
shmad,todestroy.Itisfairlycertain,however,thatitistheAvestanAsmadava,furydemon,conspicuousfromtheearliesttothelatest
partsoftheParsiscriptures.ItwouldseemthattheBookofTobitisreallyaMedianfolkstory,adaptedforedificationbyaJew,withsundry
uncomprehendedfeaturesoftheoriginalleftunchanged.FortheseseeZoroastrianisminHastingsDB,4.IntheTalmudAshmedaiisking
oftheShdn,demonssupposedtobemortal,andofeithersex.
JamesHopeMoulton.
ASNAH.TheheadofafamilyofNethinimwhichreturnedwithZerubbabel(Ezr2:50,1Es5:31m).
ASNAPPER.SeeOsnappar.
ASOM(1Es9:33).HissonswereamongthosewhoputawaytheirstrangewivescalledHashum,Ezr10:33.
ASP.SeeSerpent.
ASPALATHUS(Sir24:16).Thenameofanaromaticassociatedwithcinnamoninthepassagecited,butimpossibletoidentify.Itis
probablethatthereweretwoormoreplants,andmorethanonevegetableproduct,knownbythisname.
ASPATHA(Est9:7).ThethirdsonofHaman,puttodeathbytheJews.
ASPHALT.SeeBitumen.
ASPHAR(1Mac9:33).ApoolinthedesertofTekoa,orJeshimon,whereJonathanandSimontheMaccabeesencamped.Thesiteisnot
knownwithcertainty,althoughitmayplausiblybeidentifiedwiththemod.BrSelhb,areservoir6milesW.S.W.ofEngedi.
ASPHARASUS(1Es5:8).OneoftheleadersofthereturnunderZerubbabel,calledMispar,Ezr2:2,andMispereth,Neh7:7.
ASRIEL(inAVof1Ch7:14Ashriel).AManassite(Jos17:2,Nu26:31inthelatterthepatronymicAsrieliteoccurs).

ASS(hamrsheass,thon[Gr.onosofbothsexes]youngassorcolt,ayir[Gr.plos]wildass,pereandrdh).Theass
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ASS(hamrsheass,thon[Gr.onosofbothsexes]youngassorcolt,ayir[Gr.plos]wildass,pereandrdh).Theass
(Arab.hamar)isthemostuniversallyusefuldomesticatedanimalinPalestine.Onitthefellahridestohisdayswork,withitheploughshis
fields,threshesouthiscorn,andatlastcarrieshometheharvest(Neh13:15).Wholegroupsofdonkeystraverseeveryroadcarryingcorn(Gn
42:26,27),firewood(Gn22:3),provisions(1S16:20),skinsofwaterorbasketsfullofsand,stoneorrefuse.Agroupofsuchanimalsareso
accustomedtokeeptogetherthattheywoulddosoevenifrunningaway(1S9:3,20).Thelittleasscarryingthebarley,whichleadsevery
trainofcamels,isacharacteristicsight.Wheneverthetravellerjourneysthroughtheland,thebrayingoftheassisasfamiliarasoundasthe
barkingofthevillagedog.Themanofmoderatemeanswhenjourneyingridesanass,oftenastridehisbeddingandclothes,asdoubtlesswas
donebymanyaScripturecharacter(Nu22:2138,Jos15:18,1S25:2028,2S17:23,19:26etc.).Awelltrainedasswillgetovertheground
rapidlyatapacemorecomfortablethanthatofanordinaryhorseitisalsoverysurefooted.Themanofpositioninthetown,thesheikhofthe
mosque,lawyerormedicalmanindeed,anypeacefulcitizenisconsideredsuitablymountedondonkeyback,especiallyiftheanimalis
white(Jg5:10).Awellbredwhiteassfetchesahigherpricethanafairlygoodhorse.Asheass(Arab.atar)ispreferred(Nu22:2133,1S
9:3,2K4:2224,1Ch27:30),becausequieterandmoreeasilylefttiedupastrongmalsisalmostuncontrollableattimes,andgivesventto
themostdismalbraysashecatchessightoffemaleasses.Thecastratedanimalisnotoftenseen,becausefrequentlywantingingoandvery
timid.Sheassesarealso,whenofvaluablebreed,prizedforbreedingpurposes.Thecommonassisbrown,sometimesalmostblackorgrey.
Skeletonsofassesarenotuncommonbythehighroadsides,andthejawbonemightbeanotunhandyweaponinanemergency(Jg15:16,
wheretheplayonthewordass[hamr]andheap[hamr]shouldbenoticed).AlthoughtheasswasforbiddenfoodtotheJews,weread(2
K6:25)thatanasssheadwassoldforfourscorepiecesofsilverintheextremityoffamineinbesiegedSamaria.Inploughing,themodern
fellahinactuallyseemtoprefertoyoketogetheranoxandanass,oracamelandanass(contrastDt22:10).Theideaofthestupidityoftheass
isthesameintheEastasintheWest.

Theyoungass(Is30:5,24)orcolt(Job11:12,Zec9:9,Lk19:33etc.),theArab.jahsh,isreferredtoseveraltimes.Littlecoltsofvery
tenderagetrotbesidetheirmothers,andsoonhavesmallburdensputonthem.Theyshouldnotberegularlyriddenforthreeyears.Theyoung
assesintheBibleareallapparentlyoldenoughforridingorburdenbearing.

WildassesarenottodayfoundinPalestine,though,itissaid,plentifulinthedesertstotheEast(Job24:5),wheretheyroaminherdsand
runwithextraordinaryfleetness(Job39:5).Ishmaeliscomparedinhiswildnessandfreedomtoawildass(Gn16:12),whileIssacharisawild
asssubdued(49:14,16).

E.W.G.Masterman.
ASSAMIAS(AVAssanias).OneoftwelvepriestsentrustedwiththeholyvesselsonthereturntoJerusalem,1Es8:54.
ASSAPHIOTH(AVAzaphion),1Es5:33.HisdescendantsreturnedwithZerubbabelamongthesonsofSolomonsservants.Called
Hassophereth,Ezr2:55Sophereth,Neh7:57.
ASSASSINS,THE.InthetimeofFelixabandofrobberssonameddisturbedJuda.TheyarementionedinAc21:38(sicarii,AV
murderers).JosephussaysthatatFelixssuggestiontheymurderedJonathansonofAnanus,thehighpriest(Ant.XX.viii.5).Theytooka
leadingpartintheJewishWar.Seeart.Egyptian[The].

A.J.Maclean.

ASSEMBLY.SeeCongregation.
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ASSEMBLY.SeeCongregation.
ASSHUR.SeeAssyria.
ASSHURIM.TheAsshurim,Letushim,Leummim(Gn25:3)wereArabiantribes,supposedtobedescendedfromAbrahamandKeturah
throughDedan.BytheAsshurimtheTargumunderstooddwellersinencampmentstobemeant.AtribeAshurappearsontwoMinan
inscriptions.
J.Taylor.
ASSIDEANS.SeeHasidans.
ASSIR.1.AsonofKorab(Ex6:24,1Ch6:22).2.AsonofEbiasaph(1Ch6:23,37).3.AsonofJeconiah(AVandRVmof1Ch3:17).
Itisprobable,however,thatRVcorrectlyrendersJeconiahthecaptive.
ASSOS.AtownoverhalfamilefromtheGulfofAdramyttium(inMysia,provinceofAsia),inasplendidpositiononahillabout770
feethighatitshighestpoint.Thefortificationsareamongstthemostexcellentoftheirkind.Itpassedthroughvarioushandsbeforeitwasfrom
b.c.334241underAlexandertheGreatandhissuccessors,andfromb.c.241133underthePergameniandynasty.Atthelastdateitbecame
Roman(seeAsia).ItwasthebirthplaceoftheStoicCleanthes.St.PaulwentfromTroastoAssosbythelandrouteonhislastvisittoAsia(
Ac20:13f.).

A.Souter.
ASSUMPTIONOFMOSES.SeeApoc.Lit.,p.40b.
ASSURANCE.Thewordisusedbothinanobjectiveandasubjectivesense,accordingasitdenotesthegroundofconfidenceorthe
actualexperience.WhenSt.PauldeclaresatAthens(Ac17:31)thatGodhasappointedChristtojudgetheworld,andhasgivenassuranceof
thisuntoallmenbyraisingHimfromthedead,itisanobjectiveassurancethathemeans,forheknewverywellthatallmenwerenot
personallyassuredofthefactoftheResurrection.In2Ti3:14,again,Timothysassuranceofthethingshehaslearnedisidentifiedwiththe
outwardauthorityofthepersonfromwhomhehasreceivedthem.Forthemostpart,however,assuranceinScripturedenotesnotan
objectiveauthorityorfact,butarealityofinwardexperience.ThewordoccursonceinOT(Is32:17AV),andquitecharacteristically
assuranceisthererepresentedastheeffectofrighteousness.InNTassurance(plerophoria)isanaccompanimentandresultofthegospel(1
Th1:5).Andtheassuranceproducedbythegospelisnotintellectualmerely,oremotionalmerely,orpracticalmerely,itfillsandsatisfiesthe
wholeinnerman.Thereisafullassuranceofunderstanding(Col2:2),andafullassuranceoffaith(He10:22cf.2Ti1:12),andafull
assuranceofhope(He6:11).[Cf.11:1RV,wherethelasttwoformsofassurancerunintoeachotherfaithitselfbecomingtheassurance
(hypostasis)orunderlyinggroundofhope].Butthereisalsoanassuranceoflove(1Jn3:19)lovebeing,however,notamerefeelingbuta
practicalsocialfaculty,aloveofdeedandtruththatministersinallgoodthingstoitsbrethren(vv.1418).Thusonahigherplanetheplane
ofthatChristianlovewhichisthefulfillingoftheLawwecomebacktothepropheticidealofaninwardpeaceandassurancewhicharethe
effectsofrighteousness.

Inanydoctrineofassuranceadistinctionmustagainberecognizedbetweenanobjectiveandasubjectiveassurance.Thegroundsof
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Inanydoctrineofassuranceadistinctionmustagainberecognizedbetweenanobjectiveandasubjectiveassurance.Thegroundsof
Christianassuranceaspresentedinthegospelareabsolute,andiffaithweremerelyintellectualassent,everybelievingmanwouldbefully
assuredofhissalvation.But,asapositiveexperience,assurancemustbedistinguishedfromsavingfaith(cf.1Co9:27).YettheSpirit
witnesseswithourspiritthatwearethechildrenofGod(Ro8:16)andthoseinwhomtheconsciousnessofthatwitnessisdimandfaint
shouldseekwithmorediligencetogrowinfaithandhopeandloveandunderstandingalso,thattherebytheymaymaketheircallingand
electionsure(2P1:10).

J.C.Lambert.
ASSYRIAANDBABYLONIA

I.Assyria

1.NaturalfeaturesandCivilization.Strictlyspeaking,AssyriawasasmalldistrictboundedontheN.andE.bythemountainsof
ArmeniaandKurdistan,ontheW.bytheTigris,ontheS.bytheUpperZab.TheW.bankoftheTigriswasearlyincluded,andthelimitsof
thekingdomgraduallyextendedtilltheEmpireincludedallMesopotamia,Syria,Palestine,andpartsofAsiaMinorandEgypt.Theterm
Assyria,therefore,waswidelydifferentinmeaningatdifferentperiods.TheearliestcapitalwasAsshur,ontheW.oftheTigris,betweenthe
mouthsoftheUpperandLowerZab.Theabovenameddistrict,anaturalstronghold,wasthenucleusofthecountry.Forthemostparthilly,
withwellwateredvalleysandawideplainalongtheTigris,itwasfertileandpopulous.ThecitiesCalahatthejunctionoftheUpperZab,
NinevehontheChser,DurSargontotheN.E.,ImgurBelS.E.,TarbistotheN.W.,andArblabetweentheriversZab,werethemostnotedin
Assyriaitself.
Theclimatewastemperate.Theslopesofthehillswerewellwoodedwithoak,plane,andpinetheplainsandvalleysproducedfigs,
olives,andvines.Wheat,barley,andmilletwerecultivated.InthedaysoftheEmpiretheorchardswerestockedwithtrees,amongwhichhave
beenrecognizeddatepalms,orange,lemon,pomegranate,apricot,mulberry,andotherfruits.Agreatvarietyofvegetablesweregrowninthe
gardens,includingbeans,peas,cucumbers,onions,lentils.Thehillsfurnishedplentyofexcellentbuildingstone,thesoftalabasterspecially
lentitselftothedecorationofhallswithsculpturesinlowrelief,whilefinemarbles,hardlimestone,conglomerateandbasalt,wereworked
intostonevessels,pillars,altars,etc.Iron,lead,andcopperwereobtainableinthemountainsnear.Thelionandwildox,theboar,deer,
gazelle,goat,andharewerehunted.Thewildass,mountainsheep,bear,fox,jackal,andmanyotherlesseasilyrecognizedanimalsarenamed.
Theeagle,bustard,crane,stork,wildgoose,variousducks,partridge,plover,thedove,raven,swallow,arenamedbesidesmanyotherbirds.
Fishwereplentiful.TheAssyrianshaddomesticatedoxen,asses,sheep,goats,anddogs.Camelsandhorseswereintroducedfromabroad.
TheAssyriansbelongedtotheNorthSemiticgroup,beingcloselyakintotheAramans,Phnicians,andHebrews.Liketheother
MesopotamianStates,
AssyriaearlycameunderthepredominatinginfluenceofBabylonia.Accordingto
Gn10:11,NimrodwentoutfromthelandofShinarintoAssyriaandbuiltNineveh,etc.ThatBabyloniancoloniessettledinAssyriais
probable,butitisnotclearthattheyfoundanonSemiticpopulationthere.TheAssyriansofhistorictimesweremorerobust,warlike,fierce
(Is33:19),thanthemild,industrialBabylonians.Thismayhavebeenduetotheinfluenceofclimateandincessantwarfarebutitmayindicate
adifferentrace.ThecultureandreligionofAssyriawereessentiallyBabylonian,saveforthepredominanceofthenationalgodAshur.The
kingwasadespotathome,generalofthearmyabroad,andherarelymissedanannualexpeditiontoexacttributeorplundersomeState.The
wholeorganizationoftheStatewasessentiallymilitary.TheliteraturewasborrowedfromBabylonia,andtothelibraryofthelastgreatking,
Ashurbanipal,weowemostoftheBabylonianclassics.TheAssyrianswerehistoriansmorethantheBabylonians,andtheyinventeda
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Ashurbanipal,weowemostoftheBabylonianclassics.TheAssyrianswerehistoriansmorethantheBabylonians,andtheyinventeda
chronologywhichisthebasisofalldatingfor
WesternAsia.Theywereapredatoryrace,andamassedthespoilsofallMesopotamiaintheirtreasurehouses,buttheyatleastlearnedto
valuewhattheyhadstolen.Theenormousinfluxofmanufacturedarticlesfromabroadandthemilitarydemandspreventedagenuinelynative
industrialdevelopment,buttheAssyriansmadesplendiduseofforeigntalent.Inlatertimes,thelandbecamepeopledbycaptives,whilethe
drainupontheAssyrianarmytoconquer,garrison,colonize,andholddownthevastEmpireprobablyrobbedthecountryofresistingpower.

2.History.TheexcavationsconductedatNinevehandCalahbyLayard,1845to1851byBottaatKhorsabad,18431845continuedby
Rassam,G.Smith,andothersuptothepresenttimetheeditionoftheinscriptionsbyRawlinson,Norris,andSmith,andthedeciphermentof
thembyRawlinson,Hincks,andOppert,haverenderedavailableforthehistoryofAssyriaamassofmaterialasyetonlypartiallydigested.
EveryyearfreshevidenceisdiscoveredbyexplorersintheEast,andthewidespreadinfluenceofAssyriamaybeillustratedbythediscovery
ofasteleofSargoninCyprus,asteleofEsarhaddonatZinjerlionthebordersofCilicia,aletterfromAshuruballit,kingofAssyria,to
AmenophisIV.,kingofEgypt,atTellelAmarnainEgypt,ofstatuesofAssyriankingsatNahrelKelbnearBeyrout.Besidesthisprimary
sourceofhistory,chieflycontemporaneouswiththeeventsitrecords,wehavescatteredincidentalnoticesinthehistoricalandprophetical
booksoftheOTgivinganimportantexternalview,andsomerecordsintheGreekandLatinclassics,mostlytoolateanduncriticaltobeof
directvalue.OwingtotheintimateconnexionofAssyriaandBabylonia,agreatdealmaybetreatedascommonmatter,butitwillconduceto
clearnesstoseparatetheirhistory.Someofthecommonsourcesforhistorywillbenoticedhere.
(a)Chronology

()Yearnames.TheBabyloniansgaveeachyearaname.ThusthenamesofthefirstfouryearsofthereignofHammurabiare:(1)the
yearinwhichHammurabibecameking(2)theyearinwhichHammurabiestablishedtheheartofthelandinrighteousness(3)theyearin
whichthethroneofNannarwasmade(4)theyearinwhichthewallofMalgwasdestroyed.Thesedates,oryearnames,weredecidedupon
andnoticesentroundtotheprincipaldistricts,earlyeachyear.Thusweknowthatthedate,oryearname,tobeusedfortheeighthyearof
SamsuilunawassentasfarastheLebanon,wherethetabletgivingtheorderwasfound.Untilthenewyearnamewasknown,theyearwas
datedtheyearafterthelastknowndate.ThusthefourthyearofHammurabiwouldbecalledtheyearafterthatinwhichthethroneof
Nannarwasmade.Thescribeskeptarecordofthesedates,andalonglistofyearnames,intworecensions,hasbeenpublished,which,if
perfect,wouldhavegiventheyearnamesfromSumuabitothetenthyearofAmmizaduga.ItwasnaturalthatthesameideogramMUshould
denoteyearandname.When,therefore,thislistcounts43MUtothereignofHammurabi,wedonotknowthathereigned43years,but
onlythatheused43yearnamesinhisreign.Weknowthatthesameyearwassometimescalledbytwodifferentnames.When,therefore,the
KingsListgiveshimareignof55years,wemayexplainthediscrepancybysupposingthatthelistofyearnamesgivesonlythenumberof
separatenames.Asayearnameoftenmentionsacampaign,itseemsmostunlikelythatitcouldhavebeengivenatthebeginningoftheyear,
stillmorewhenitrecordssuchaneventasthefallofacity.Thelistofyearnamesrecordssomeevent,usuallydomestic,religious,ormilitary,
foreachyear,andconsequentlyhasbeencalledachronicle.ThissystemofdatingoccursasearlyasSargonI.Itsambiguityforfuture
generationsisobvious.ThekingsofLarsadevelopedanera,theyearsbeingcalledthefirst,second,etc.(uptothe30th),afterthecaptureof
Isin.Inthethirddynastythemethodofdatingbytheyearofthekingsreignwasintroduced.Ifakingdiedinthe20thyearofhisreign,heis
saidtohavereigned20years.Theremainderoftheyearwastheaccessionyearofhissuccessor,andhisfirstyearwasthatbeginningonthe
firstofNisanafterhisaccession.Thusoveralongseriesofyears,thesumofthereignsisaccuratelythelengthinyears,exceptforthemargin
atthebeginningandend:itisexacttoayear.
()EponymCanon.TheAssyriansdevisedamodificationoftheyearnamewhichavoidedalldifficulty.Theynamedeachyearaftera 126/172
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()EponymCanon.TheAssyriansdevisedamodificationoftheyearnamewhichavoidedalldifficulty.Theynamedeachyearaftera
particularofficial,whocouldbeselectedatthebeginningoftheyear,whichwascalledhislimmuoreponymy.Theparticularofficialforeach
yearwasoriginallyselectedbylot(pru),butlaterafixedorderwasfollowed,theking,theTartan,thechiefofthelevy,thechiefscribe,etc.,
thenthegovernorsofthechiefcities.AstheEmpireextended,thegovernorsofsuchdistantplacesasCarchemish,Razappa,Kummuh,or
evenSamaria,becameeponyms.Laterstilltheorderseemstobequitearbitrary,andmayhavebeenaroyalchoice.Listsoftheseofficials,in
theiractualorderofsuccession,knownastheEponymCanons,weredrawnup,arefairlycompletefromb.c.911tob.c.668,andcanbe
restoredtob.c.648.ThismethodofdatingisatleastasearlyasArikdnilu,andwasinuseinCappadocia,possiblymuchearlier.Avery
largenumberofnamesofEponymsareknown,whicharenotintheCanons,butasyettheycanrarelybedated.

()Chronologicalstatements.Thissystem,however,providedanaccuratemeansofdating,andwarrantsgreatrelianceonthestatements
ofthekingsastothedatesofeventslongbeforetheirtimes.ProvidedthattheyhadaccesstoearlierEponymCanonsthanwepossess,thereis
noreasonwhytheyshouldnotbeexact.
Laterkingswerenotdisinclinedtogivesuchchronologicalstatements.Thus
ShalmaneserI.statesthatErishumbuiltthetempleofAshur,inAsshur,whichShamshiAdadrebuilt159yearslater,butwhichwasdestroyed
580yearslaterbyafireandbuiltafreshbyhim.Thekingdoesnotstateinwhichyearofeitherofthereignstheseeventstookplace.
EsarhaddonalsostatesthatthetemplewasbuiltbyErishum,restoredbyShamshiAdad,sonofBelkabi,andagainbyShalmaneserI.
434yearslater,andagainbyhimself.Theformerstatementmaybepreferred,asShalmaneserI.wasmuchnearertotheevents,anditiseasier
toreconcilewithotherstatements.SennacheribsBavianinscriptionstatesthatherecoveredthegodsofEkallati,whichhadbeencarriedaway
byMarduknadinahe,kingofAkkad,inthedaysofTiglathpileserI.,418yearsbefore,thusdatingbothMarduknadinaheandTiglathpileser
I.ataboutb.c.1107.TiglathpileserI.tellsusthatherebuiltthetempleofAshurandAdadwhichhadbeenpulleddownbyhis
greatgrandfatherAshurdanI.,60yearsbefore,andhadthenstood641yearssinceitsfoundationbyShamshiAdad,sonofIshmeDagan.This
putsShamshiAdadaboutb.c.1820andAshurdanabout1170.SennacheribalsostatesthatasealcapturedfromBabylonbyTukultiNinibI.
hadbeencarriedawaytoBabylonagainandwasbroughtbackbyhim600yearslater.ThisputsTukultiNinibI.aboutb.c.1289.
AshurbanipalstatesthatonhiscaptureofSusahebroughtbacktheimageofNana,whichhadbeencarriedoffbyKudurnanhundi,1635years
before.ThisputsaninvasionofBabylonatb.c.2275.Aboundarystonedatedinthe4thyearofBlndinaplistatesthatfromGulkishar,
probablythesixthkingofthesecond
BabylonianDynasty,toNebuchadrezzarI.therewere696years.ThisputsGulkisharaboutb.c.1820.Nabonidusstatesthatherestoreda
templeinSippara,whichhadnotbeenrestoredsinceShagaraktishuriash,800yearsbefore.Thisputsthatkingaboutb.c.1350.Further,that
NaramSin,sonofSargonI.,was3200yearsbeforehim,whichdatesNaramSinaboutb.c.3750.Further,thatHammurabilived700years
beforeBurnaburiash.ThisdatesHammurabiaboutb.c.2100,orb.c.2150,accordingasweunderstandBurnaburiashI.orII.tobeintended.
Itisevidentthatallsuchdatesarevague.Thenumbersmaybeonlyapproximate,600for560or640,say.Further,wedonotknowfrom
whichyearofthewritersreigntoreckon,nortowhichyearofthekingnamed.Thismayaddafurthermarginofuncertainty.

()TheKingsList,PtolemysCanon,EponymList.TheBabylonianKings
List,ifcomplete,wouldhavegiventhenamesofthekingsofBabyloniafromtheFirstDynastydowntothelastnativeruler,Nabonidus,with
thelengthsoftheirreigns.Itdoesfurnishtheseparticularsforlongperiods.ThefamousCanonofPtolemybeginswithNabonassar,b.c.747,
andgivesthenamesofthekings,includingtheAssyriansPoros(TiglathpileserIII.),Sargon,andEsarhaddon,withthedatesoftheirreigns,
downtoNabonidus,thentheAchmenidstoAlexandertheGreat,thePtolemysandRomans,soconnectingwithwellknowndates.The

EponymCanonlistsrecordtheeclipseofb.c.763,andtheirdatesarethusfixed.Sofarastheyoverlap,thelastthreesourcesagreeexactly. 127/172
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EponymCanonlistsrecordtheeclipseofb.c.763,andtheirdatesarethusfixed.Sofarastheyoverlap,thelastthreesourcesagreeexactly.
WemaythentrusttheEponymCanonstob.c.911andtheKingsListwhereverpreserved.

()Genealogies,DateDocuments.Thekingsusuallymentiontheirfatherandgrandfatherbynameoftenanearlierancestor,or
predecessor,naminghisfather,andwearethusenabledtotracebackadynastyfromfathertosonoverlongperiods.Unfortunatelyweare
rarelytoldbythemhowlongakingreigned,butwherewehavedocumentsdatedbytheyearofhisreign,wecansayhereignedatleastso
manyyears.

InbothAssyrianandBabylonianhistorytherearestillwidegaps,butexplorationiscontinuallyfillingthemup.TheGermanexplorations
atAsshuraddedquite20newnamestothelistofAssyrianrulers.Itisdangeroustoarguethat,becausewedonotknowalltherulersina
certainperiod,itoughttobereducedinlength.Itisasyetimpossibletoreconcileallthedata,becausewearenotsureofthekingsreferredto.
Wealreadyknowfiveorsixofthesamename,anditmaywellbethatwemistakethereference.

()SynchronousHistory.ThesocalledSynchronousHistoryofAssyriaandBabyloniadealtwiththewarsandrectificationofboundaries
betweenthetwocountriesfromb.c.1400tob.c.1150andb.c.900tob.c.800andtheBabylonianChroniclegavethenamesandlengthsof
reignofthekingsofAssyria,Babylonia,andElamfromb.c.744tob.c.668.Theseestablishanumberofsynchronisms,besidesmaking
considerablecontributionstothehistory.

Thebulkofthehistoryisderivedfromtheinscriptionsofthekingsthemselves.Herethereisanoftenremarkeddifferencebetween
AssyrianandBabylonianusage.Theformerareusuallyveryfullconcerningthewarsofconquest,thelatteralmostentirelyconcernedwith
templebuildingsordomesticaffairs,suchaspalaces,walls,canals,etc.ManyAssyriankingsarrangetheircampaignsinchronologicalorder,
formingwhatarecalledAnnals.Othersarecontenttosumuptheirconquestsinalistoflandssubdued.WerarelyhaveanythinglikeAnnals
fromBabylonia.

Thevaluetobeattachedtotheseinscriptionsisveryvarious.Theyarecontemporary,andforgeographyInvaluable.Akingwouldhardly
boastofconqueringacountrywhichdidnotexist.Thehistoricalvalueismoreopentoquestion.Aconquestmeantlittlemorethanaraid
successfulinexactingtribute.TheAssyrians,however,graduallylearnttoconsolidatetheirconquests.TheyplantedcoloniesofAssyrian
peopleendowingthemwithconqueredlands.TheytransportedthepeopleofaconqueredStatetosomeotherpartoftheEmpire,allotting
themlandsandhouses,vineyardsandgardens,evencattle,andsoendeavouredtodestroynationalspiritandproduceablendedpopulationof
onelanguageandonecivilization.Theweaknessoftheplanlayintheheavytaxationwhichpreventedloyalattachment.Thepopulationofthe
Empirehadnoobjectiontothesubstitutionofonemasterforanother.ThedemandsonthesubjectStatesformenandsuppliesforthe
incessantwarsweakenedallwithoutattachingany.ThepopulationofAssyriaproperwasinsufficienttoofficerandgarrisonsolargean
empire,andeverychangeofmonarchwasthesignalforrebellioninalloutlyingparts.Anewdynastyusuallyhadtoreconquermostofthe
Empire.Civilwaroccurredseveraltimes,andalwaysledtogreatweakness,finallyrenderingtheEmpireaneasypreytotheinvader.

Thefollowingtableofmonarchsiscompiledfromtheabovementionedmaterials.Wheretherelationshipoftwokingsisknown,itis
indicatedbySforson,Bforbrother,oftheprecedingking.Whentwokingsareknowntobecontemporaries=isplacedbetweentheir
names.Probabledatesofaccessionaregivenwithaquery,knowndateswithout.Whereafigurewith+isplacedafteranameitindicates

monumentallyattestedminimumlengthofreign,thus25+meansatleast25years.ThelengthsofreignsintheYearListorChroniclefor 128/172
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monumentallyattestedminimumlengthofreign,thus25+meansatleast25years.ThelengthsofreignsintheYearListorChroniclefor
theFirstDynastyaregiveninbrackets.

b.c.I.FirstDynastyofBabylon.
LengthofReign.

PatesisofAsshur.

b.c.
2396?Sumuabi 15(14)

2382?Sumulel35(36)

2347?Zabum,S14

2333?ApilSin,S18

2325?Sin30(20)
muballit,S

=
2285?Hammurabi,
ShamshiAdadi.
55(43)S

Ushpia

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2230 ? Samsu 35(38) ilna,

S

2195?Abshu,S25 Kika

2170?Ammi25satana,S KateAshir

2145?Ammi21 Shalim
zadga,S abum,S

2124?Samsu31 Ilu
satna,S shma,S

II.Dynasty
ofUru
azag.

2093? 60

Iluma
ilu
2033?lttiiliibi 55
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SharkenkateAshir

36
Ishme
1978?Damkiilishu
Dagani.

1942?Ishkibal 15

Ashurnirarii.S

1927?Shushshi,B 27 Blkabi

1900?Gulkishar 55 Shamshi
Adadii.
S
1845?Peshgal50Igurdaramash,Skapkapi

1795 ? Adarakalama, 28 ShamshiAdad

S iii.
S

26
Ishme
1767?Akurulauna
Daganii.

1741?Melamkurkurra 7
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Shamshi1820?
Adadiv.
S

1734?Eagmil 9
III.KassiteKingsofDynasty.Assyria.

1725? Gandash 16

1709?AgumI.S22

Blibni,S

1687?Aguiashi 22

Blkapkapi

1665?Adshi,S 8 Sullu
1657?Adumetash Ashurrabi,
S

Tazzigurumash

Ashurnirariii.
S

Ashurrmnishshu,
S
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Agumii.S

Kurigalzui.S

Melishihui.S
Puzur
Ashuri.

Mardukapliddina
Ashurnirariiii.
i.S

Karaindashi. =

Ashurblnishshu,
S

Burnaburiash = Puzur
i.S Ashurii.
Adad.
Ashurndinahi
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Karaindashii. ErbaAdadi.S

Kadashmanharbe
i.
Ashur
uballiti.S

Nazibugash

Ashurndinahe

Kurigalzuii. =

Ashur
uballitii.S

Burnaburiashii. 25+
S Bl
nirari,
S

Kurigalzuiii.S 26 =

Arikdnilu,S

24+= Adad
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Nazimaruttash,S nirari
i.S
Kadashman16 +
Turgu

+
Kadashman6
Bl

KudurBl9 +

1355?Shagaraktishuriash, 2 +
S 3 Shulmanuashared
i.
S

Bitiliashu,S 8 =
Tukulti1310?
Ninibi.S

Blndinshum 11/2

Ashurnzir
aplii.S

11/2
Kadashmanharbe Ashurnirari
ii. iv.

6 Nabdan
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Adadshumiddina

3 = Ninib1289?
Adadshumusur 0 tukulti
Ashur
Ashurshum
lishir

Blkudurusur

Melishihu1 = ErbaAdadii.
ii.5

Marduk1
apliddinaii.3
Ninibapil
Esharra,S

Zamama1 Ashurdani.S
shumiddina

Blndin3
ahi

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IV.
Dynasty
ofIsin.
17
Mardukah
erba

(Unknown6 MutakkilNusku,
name) S
Nabkudur = Ashur
usur rshishi,
i. S

4 +

Blndinapli

Mardukndin 1 + =
ah 0 Tukulti1107?
apil
Esharrai.
S

=
Marduk
Ashurblkala,S
shpikzri

2 Shamshi
Adadapliddina
2 Adadv.B
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Marduk. 11/2

Ashurdnii.B

1 Adad
Mardukzr.
3 nirariii.S

9
Nabshum. Ashurnzirapli
ii.

V.Dynasty
ofthe
Sealand.

Simbar18
shihu

Eamukn5mo.
zri

Kashshu3
ndinahi

VI. DynastyofBazi.
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VI.DynastyofBazi.

Eulmash17
shkinshum

Ninib3
kudurusur

Shilanum3mo.shuqamuna

VII.DynastyofElam.

An6
Elamite
VIII.DynastyofBabylon.

Nabmukn 36

apli

Unknown 8 mo.

Tukultiapil
Esharraii.
S

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Ashurdan 914
iii.S ?

911
Adadnirari
Shamashmudammik
iv.S

= 889
Tukulti
Nabshumishkuni.
Ninibii.S

?Nab 3+ = 884
apliddina 1
Ashurnzir
apliiii.S

Marduk 858
shumiddina,S
Shulmnuasharedii.
S
851 ?Marduk = Shamshi 823
balatsuikbi Adadvi.S

810
Bau
Adadnirariv.S
ahiddina

Marduk. 781
Shulmnuashared
iii.
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8 + 771
Nab
shumishkun Ashurdaniv.
ii.

747 Nabnsir 763

Adadnirarivi.S

733 2 753
Nab
Ashurnirariv.S
ndinzr

731 days = 745

Nab 4
shumkn 2 Tukultiapil
Esharraiii.
IX.DynastyofShash.

731Uknzr

729Pln
Dynastyof
Tinu

727 Ululai = Shulmnuashared727

iv.
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721 722
Mardukapliddina1 =
Sharruknuii
iii. 2

710

Sharruknuii.

704 = 705

Sinaheerba Sinaheerba,S

1 mo.
Mardukzkir
shum

9 mo.
Marduk
apliddinaiii.(
returned)

702 Blibni 2

700 6
Ashurndin
shum

693 Nergal 1
ushzib
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ushzib
692Mushzib3
Marduk

689Sinahe7
erba

681 Ashurahiddin = Ashurahiddin,681

S

667 Shamashshum = 668

ukn Ashur
bniapli,
S

648 Kandalnu 626

Ashur
etililni.S,
4+

X.Chaldn ?
Dynasty. Sin
sharishkun,
B,
7+

625 2 = Fallof 606

Nabapluusur 1 Nineveh
604Nab4kudurusur3
ii.S
561Amel2
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561Amel2
Marduk,S
559Nergalshar3
usur

556Labashi
Marduk

555Nabnid1
6

539Oct.10,
Fallof
Babylon

(b)Earlytraditions.WemaydismissasmythicaltheAssyrianclaimthatNinevehwasfoundeddirectlyaftertheCreation,butitpointsto
atraditionofimmemorialantiquity.Sargonclaimedtohavebeenprecededonhisthroneby350rulersofAssyriabutevenifhecounted
ancientBabylonianoverlordsofAssyria,wehavenomeansofcheckinghisfigures.Sennacheribprofessedtotracehislineagebackto
Gilgamesh,Eabni,andHumbaba,theheroesoftheBabylonianNationalEpic,throughsuchancientrulersasEgiba,LaitiAshur,Ashur
gamilia,Shamashsulnlishu,etc.,whosenamesarenototherwiseknown.ThereferencemadebyGudeatohishavingbuiltatempleforNana
(=Ishtar)inNinevehmaybemeantfortheBabyloniancityofthesamename,andaninscriptionofDungifoundinNinevehmighthavebeen
carriedtherebyAssyrianconquerors.Adadnirariiii.AshurkirbiAdasiIkunum,SErishm,S

(c)Earliestmention.Hammurabi,however,inoneofhislettersreferstotroopsinAssyria,andintheprologuetohiscelebratedcodeof
lawsstatesthathereturnedtoAsshuritsgraciousprotectingdeityandmadegloriousthenameofIshtarinhertempleatNineveh.Asthese
benefactionsareplacedafterthebenefitsconferredontheBabyloniancities,wemayconcludethatAsshurandNinevehweresubjecttohim,
andthatthedeityreferredtohadbeencarriedoffbyinvaders,perhapstheElamites,orKassites.Acontemporarylettermentionsadefaulting
debtorashavinggonetoAssyria.Thesearetheearliestreferencestothecountry.

(d)Earliestrulers.TheearliestrulersofAssyriastyledthemselvespatesiofAsshur.Thetitlewasthatbornebythecityrulersof
Babylonia.ItsAssyrianequivalentwasishshakku,anditofteninterchangeswithshang,priest.ItwasstillbornebythekingsofAssyria,
butwhileitdesignatedthemthenaschiefpriestofthenation,wemayconcludethatwhenusedaloneitimpliedthatitsbearerwassubjectto
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butwhileitdesignatedthemthenaschiefpriestofthenation,wemayconcludethatwhenusedaloneitimpliedthatitsbearerwassubjectto
someking.HenceithasusuallybeensupposedthatthepatesiofAsshurwassubjecttoBabylonia.InthefourthyearofHammurabione
ShamshiAdadisnamedinawaythatsuggestshisbeingthepatesiofAsshur,subjecttoHammurabi.Weknowthenamesofmanyofthese
rulers.ThusUshpiawasthefounderofthetempleofAshurinthecityofAsshur,andmaybetheearliestofall.Kika,whomaybethesame
asKikiBlotherwiseknown,foundedthecitywallofAsshur,andmaybeasearly,ifnotearlier.Thetitledescendedfromfathertosonfor
fivegenerations,ofwhomweputErishumasearlyasb.c.2000.Thenweknowsomepairs,fatherandson,ofwhomthelastIshmeDaganII.
andShamshiAdadIV.areaboutb.c.1820.Theorderinwhichthesegroupsarearrangedisatpresentpurelyconjectural,andweknow
nothingoftheintervalsbetweenthem.ShamshiAdadII.,sonofBlkabi,shouldbesomesixtyyearsbeforeShamshiAdadIV.

(e)Earlykings.WedonotknowtheexactdateatwhichAssyriaachievedherindependenceofBabylon,butitmaywellhave
synchronizedwiththeKassiteconquestofBabylonia,orhavecontributedtoit.Apossiblereferencetothewarofindependenceiscontained
inatabletwhichnamesagreatconflictbetweenthekingofBabylonandtheprinceofAssyria,towhomthetitlekingisnotconceded,
whichendedinthespoilsofBabylonbeingcarriedtoAssyriabutwearegivennonamestodateevents.Esarhaddontracedhisdescentfrom
Adasi,fatherofBlibni,whofoundedthekingdomofAssyria.Ifwecreditthis,AdasiorBlibniwasthefirstking.AdadnirariIII.states
thatBlkapkapiwasanearlykingwholivedbeforeSullu.Itisdoubtfulwhetherthegroupofthree,Ashurrabi,AshurnirariII.,andAshur
rmnishshu,thelastofwhomrestoredthecitywallofAsshur,shouldnotbeputbeforethekings.AsAshurblnishshurestoredthewall
oftheNewtownofAsshur,whichaPuzurAshurhadfounded,wemustputaPuzurAshurI.beforehim.Theintervaloftimewedonot
know,butacitywallsurelylastedyearsbeforethereignofAshurblnishshusfather,AshurnirariIII.

(f)RelationswithEgyptandBabylonia.Aboutb.c.1500anAssyrianrulersentgiftstoThothmesIII.,inhis24thand30thyearsbutwe
arenottoldwhichking.Thesynchronoushistorynowcomestoouraid.AshurblnishshumadeatreatywithKaraindashI.astothe
boundariesofthetwocountries:afewyearslaterPuzurAshurII.madeafreshtreatywithBurnaburiashI.AshuruballitnamesErbaAdadI.
hisfatherandAshurndinahihisgrandfather,intheinscriptiononthebricksofawellhemadeinAsshur.AdadnirariI.namesPuzurAshur,
Ashurblnishshu,ErbaAdadandAdad,inthisorder,asbuildersatthewallofNewtown.ButtheAshuruballitwhowroteto
AmenophisIV.intheTellelAmarnatabletssaysthathisfatherAshurndinahewasinfriendlyrelationshipwithAmenophisIII.,andhewas
followedbyhissonBlnirari,whosesonwasArikdniluandgrandsonAdadnirariI.,whonamesthisAdad.Hemustthereforefollow
AshuruballitI.

(g)ExtensiontotheWest.AshuruballitII.gavehisdaughterMuballitatSheratoBurnaburiashI.towife.HersonKadashmanharbeI.
succeededtothethroneofBabylon,buttheKassitesrebelledagainsthim,puthimtodeathandsetupaKassite,Nazibugash.Ashuruballit
invadedBabylonia,deposedthepretender,andsetKurigalzuII.,anothersonofBurnaburiash,onthethrone.WithAsheruballitalsobegins
AssyrianhistorypropertheexpansiontotheW.,whichwassofatefulforPalestine.InthetimeoftheTellelAmarnatabletsEgyptwasthe
overlordofPalestine,butalreadyMitanni,theHittites,andfurthertotheeastAssyriaandBabylonia,weretreatingwithEgyptonequalterms.
Tushratta,kingofMitanni,offeredtosendIshtarofNinevehtoAmenophisIII.ThishasbeentakentomeanthatMitannithenruledover
NinevehitmaymeanonlythatIshtarofNinevehwasworshippedinMitanni.ButAshuruballitwrestedMelitiafromMitanni,andconquered
theShubaritotheN.W.ofAssyria.HenceheprobablyruledNinevehalso.BlnirariwasattackedbyKurigalzuIII.atSugaguonthe
Zalzallat,butdefeatedhimandmadeafreshboundarysettlement.Arikdnilu
(oftenreadPudiilu)conqueredN.,E.,andW.,penetratingasfarasHalahonthe

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Habor,subduingTuruku,Nigimtu,Gutium,theAramans,Ahlami,andtheBedouinSti.AdadnirariI.was,earlyinhisreign,defeatedby
KurigalzuIII.,andlostthesouthernconquestsofhispredecessors,butlaterconqueredGutium,theLullumiandShubari,turnedthetablesby
defeatingNazimaruttash,andrectifiedhisboundarytotheS.OntheW.heextendedhisconquestsoverHarantotheEuphrates.Shalmaneser
I.(Shulmanuashared)crossedtheupperwatersoftheTigris,placedAssyriancoloniesamongthetribestotheN.,subduedtheAramansof
UpperMesopotamia,tookMelitia,thecapitalofHani,defeatedtheHittites,Ahlami,Musri,andSti,capturedHaranandravagedupto
Carchemish.HemadeCalahhiscapital,andrestoredthetempleofIshtaratNineveh.Hefirstborethetitlesharkishshti,supposedtomark
theconquestofHaran.

(h)CaptureofBabylon.TukultiNinibI.conqueredGutium,theShubari,40kingsofNairi,theUkumni,Elhnia,Sharnida,Mehri,
Kurhi,Kummuh,thePushsh,Mumme,Alzi,Madni,Nihni,Alaia,Arzi,Purukuzzi.Hischieftriumph,however,wasoverBabylon.He
defeatedandcapturedBitiliashu,andtookhimprisonertoAssyria,rulingBabyloniasevenyearsbyhisnominees.Thefirst,Blndinshum,
ruledeighteenmonths.Elamnowappearedonthescene,invadedBabylonia,andaKassite,KadashmanharbeII.,wassetup.Aftereighteen
monthsmore,TukultiNinibI.tookBabylon,slewitspeoplewiththeswordandsetupAdadshumiddina,whoruledsixyears.TukultiNinib
deportedthegodMarduktoAssyriaandcarriedoffgreatspoilfromEsaggila,histempleinBabylon.Amongotherthingshecarriedoffaseal
oflapislazuli,whichhadbelongedtoShagaraktishuriash,fatherofBitiliashu,andengravedhisownnameandtitlesonit.Itwasafterwards
carriedbacktoBabylon,whenceSennacheribbroughtitoncemore600yearslater.Wethusgetadateb.c.1289,whichmustfalleitherin
TukultiNinibsreignorinthatofNinibtukultiAshurs,16(?)yearslater,whenMardukwascarriedbacktoBabylon.AfterAdadshum
iddinahadreignedsixyears,theKassitesandBabylonianssetAdadshumusuronhisfathersthrone.TukultiNinibhadbuiltacitycalled
KarTukultiNinib,closetoAsshur,whichheintendedforanewcapital,butthatevidentlyestrangedhisownpeople,forhissonAshurnazir
apliI.rebelledagainsthim,besiegedhiminahouseinhisnewcity,andfinallykilledhim.Ofthereignoftheparricideweknownothing.
AdadshumusurcorrespondedwithtwokingsofAssyria,AshurnirariIV.andNabdn,whoappeartobereigningbothatthesametime.
PerhapstheyweresonsofTukultiNinibI.,oritmaybeanotherAdadshumusurwhowastheircontemporary.Theyareusuallyplacedhere,
butweknownothingfurtheraboutthem.ItwasNinibtukultiAshurwhocarriedbackMarduk,andperhapsthesealabovenamed,toBabylon.
PossiblyhetookrefugefromAshurshumlishir.Thereismuchdoubtaboutthisperiod,butAdadshumusurlivedtodefeatandkillBl
kudurusur.ErbaAdadII.isknownonlyasfatherofNinibapilEsharra,whomTiglathpileserI.callsapowerfulkingthattrulyshepherded
thehostsofAssyria.HewasbesiegedbyAdadshumusurinAsshur.AshurdnI.defeatedZamamashumiddinaandcapturedseveral
Babyloniancities,carryingoffmuchspoiltoAssyria.Hehadalongreign.WeknowlittleofMutakkilNusku.Ashurrshishibegantorevive
themilitarygloriesofAssyria,conqueringtheAhlami,GutiumandLullumi.HetheninvadedBabylonia,andNebuchadrezzarI.attackedhim
inAssyria,butwasdefeatedandlosthiscommanderinchief.

(i)TiglathpileserI.,etc.TukultiapilEsharra(Tiglathpileser)I.hasleftusveryfullaccountsofalongreignandseriesofconquests
chieflyinUpperMesopotamiaalongthebaseoftheCaucasus,Armenia,andW.totheN.E.corneroftheMediterranean,inall42countries
withtheirprinces.TheBedouinStiweredrivenbackacrosstheEuphrates.TheBabyloniankingMardukndinaheinvadedtheS.of
AssyriaandcarriedoffthegodsofEkallte,but,aftertwoyearsfighting,TiglathpileserdefeatedhimandcapturedthechiefcitiesofNorth
Babylonia,includingSipparaandBabylonitself.Hewasnolessdistinguishedbyhisrestorationsofhomecities,andheacclimatizedallsorts
ofusefultreesandplants.Ashurblkala,ShamshiAdadV.,andAshurdnII.,sonsofTiglathpileser,followedonthethrone,butinwhat
orderisnotknown.AdadnirariII.wassonofAshurdnII.,andAshurnzirapliII.wassonofShamshiAdadV.butbeyondthese
relationshipsnothingmuchisknownofthem.ShalmaneserII.tellsusthatherecapturedPitruandMitkunuonthefarsideoftheEuphrates,

whichTiglathpileserhadtaken,butwhichwerelosttoAssyriainthereignofAshurkirbi.AsShalmaneserssixpredecessorscannotbe
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whichTiglathpileserhadtaken,butwhichwerelosttoAssyriainthereignofAshurkirbi.AsShalmaneserssixpredecessorscannotbe
separated,itisusualtoput
Ashurkirbihere.WhetherthekingIluhirbewhosetuphisimageneartheAmanus,alsonamedbyShalmaneser,bethesameoranearlierand
moresuccessfulconqueror,isnotyetclear.TheintervalbetweenTiglathpileserI.andAshurnirariIV.,withwhomaccuratechronology
begins,alsocontainedAdadnirariIII.,TukultiapilEsharraII.,andAshurdnIII.,asknownfromgenealogicalnotices,butasthereisagapof
unknownextentatthecommencementofthe8thDynastyofBabylon,wecannottellitslengthorhowmanythingsarestillunknowntous.
AdadnirariIV.warredwithShamashmudammkandNabshumlshkunofBabylonTukultiNinibII.continuedthesubjugationofthe
mountaineersN.ofAssyria,graduallywinningbacktheEmpireofTiglathpileserI.

WithAshurnzirapliIII.beganafreshtideofAssyrianconquest,b.c.885.HerebuiltCalah,andmadeithiscapital.ThesmallAraman
StateofBtAdni,betweentheBalihandEuphrates,heldoutagainsthim,butheconqueredtheMannai,Kirrr,andZamabetweenLakeVan
andLakeUrmia.Carchemish,Unki(Amk),orHattinontheOronteswereraided,andthearmyreachedtheLebanon.Tyre,Sidon,Gebal,
Arvad,etc.,werefaintobuyofftheconqueror.AshurnziraplihadinvadedtheBabyloniansphereofinfluence,andNabapliiddinasenthis
brotherZabdnutosupporthisallies.AshurnziraplltookZabdnuand3000troopsprisoners.

(j)ShalmaneserII.,etc.ThereignofShalmaneserII.,hissonandsuccessor,wasonelongcampaign.Herecords33separateexpeditions,
andbegantoannexhisconquestsbyplacinggovernorsovertheconquereddistricts.TheArmenianEmpirenowbegantobarAssyrias
progressnorth.Assyrianowfirstappearedon
Israelshorizonasathreateningdanger.ShalmaneserscelebratedbronzedoorsatBalawatandtheBlackObeliskgiveuspicturesofscenesin
hisreign.TheyrepresentambassadorsfromGirznnearLakeUrmia,fromJaha(Jehu)ofIsrael,fromMusri,fromMardukapluusurof
Suhi,andfromKarparundaofHattin.ThisMusriisN.E.ofCilicia(1K10:28),whenceSolomonbroughthishorses.Shalmaneserinvaded
KuinCilicia,andTabal(Tubal),whereheannexedthesilver,salt,andalabasterworks.HereachedTarzi(Tarsus,thebirthplaceofSt.Paul).
TotheN.E.hepenetratedParsa,theoriginalPersia,inBabylonia,Nabapliiddinawasdeposedbyhisson,Mardukshumiddina,against
whomarosehisbrotherMardukbluste,whoheldthesouthernStatesoftheSealand,alreadypeopledbytheChaldans.Shalmaneser
invadedBabylonia,and,passingtotheE.,besiegedMardukblusteinMturnat,drovehimfromonestrongholdtoanother,andfinally
killedhimandallhispartisans.IntheroleofafriendofBabylon,Shalmaneservisitedthechiefcitiesandsacrificedtothegods,capturedmost
ofthesouthernStates,andlaidthemundertribute.

ShalmaneserscampaignagainstHamathontheOrontestookplaceinb.c.854.ThefallofBtAdnihadrousedallN.Syriatomakea
stand.AtKarkartheAssyrianarmyhadagainstthematrulywonderfulcombination.
Chariots.Horsemen.Foot.

Biridriof1200120020,000
Damascus
IrhuliniofHamath70070010,000

AhabbuofSiril200010,000
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AhabbuofSiril200010,000

TheGu(Ku)500

Musri1,000

Irkanat1010,000

Matinbaalof200
Arvad

Usanat200

Adunubaalof3010,000
Shiana

BasaofAmmon1,000

GindibutheArab1000Camels.

ThepresenceofAhabinthisbattleinwhichShalmaneserclaimstohavewonthevictoryismostinteresting.Thebattlewasnotproductiveof
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ThepresenceofAhabinthisbattleinwhichShalmaneserclaimstohavewonthevictoryismostinteresting.Thebattlewasnotproductiveof
anysettledresults,asShalmaneserhadtofightthesamefoesinb.c.849andagaininb.c.846.Inb.c.
842ShalmaneserdefeatedHazael,besiegedhiminDamascus,andcarriedoffthespoilsofMalaha,hisresidence.Atthistimehereceived
tributefromTyre,Sidon,andJehu,ofthehouseofOmri.Jehustributeisinterestingitincludessilver,gold,avesselofgold,aladleof
gold,goldendrinkingcups,goldenbeakers,tin,asceptre,andbedolach.
ShalmaneserslastyearswerecloudedbytherebellionofhissonAshurdninapli,whoalienatedmorethanhalftheEmpire,andwasnot
subduedbythesuccessortothethrone,hisbrotherShamshiAdadVI.,tillaftereightyearsstruggle.Hemaybeconsideredactualkingfor
thoseeightyears.ShamshiAdadhadtofighttheBabyloniankingsBauahiddinaandMardukbalatsuikbi.HewarredinChaldaand
advancedintoMediaasfarasMt.ElvendtosecuretheMannaiandParsaagainsttherisingpowerofArmenia.AdadnirariV.penetrated
MediarightuptotheCaspianSea.ArmeniahadpushedW.andsecuredHanirabbatandDaini,oldconquestsofAssyria.AdadnirariV.,
however,foughtseveralcampaignsintheWest.FromtheupperpartoftheEuphratestothelandofHattl(N.Syria),Amurri(N.Palestine),
Tyre,Sidon,thelandofOmri(Israel),Udumu(Edom),andPalastu(Philistia),totheMediterranean,heexactedtribute.HebesiegedMaria,
kingofDamascus,inhiscapital,captureditandcarriedoffrichspoil.Theseexpeditionsmaybeplacedinb.c.804andb.c.797.

(k)TiglathpileserIII.Armeniawassteadilyrisinginpower,andAssyriagraduallylostallitsnorthernconquestsinUpperMesopotamia
underAshurnirariV.thedynastyfellandanewlinecametothethroneinTiglathpileserIII.,b.c.
745.TheworldofsmallStateshadgivenwaytoafewstrongkingdomsthe
ChaldanswerestronglyforcingtheirwayintolowerBabyloniainthenorth,ArmeniawaspowerfulandreadytothreatenW.SyriaEgypt
wasawakingandanxioustointerfereinPalestine.AssyriaandBabyloniabadefairtofallapreytostrongernations,whenTiglathpileserIII.
rousedtheoldenergy.TheAramanswerepouringintoBabylonia,filledtheTigrisbasinfromthelowerZabtotheUknu,andheldsomeof
themostcelebratedcitiesofAkkad.Tiglathpileserscourgedthemintosubjection,anddeportedmultitudestotheN.E.hills.TheMedeswere
setinorder,andthenTiglathpileserturnedtothewest.ThenewkingdomofArpadwasstronglysupportedbyArmenia,andTiglathpileser
swepttotherightintoKummuh,andtooktheArmeniansintherear.Hecrushedthem,andforthetimewaslefttodealwiththeWest.Arpad
tookthreeyearstoreduce:thengraduallyallN.SyriacameintoAssyrianhands,b.c.740.HamathallieditselfwithAzrijahuofIaudl(Azariah
ofJudah?)andPanammuofSamal.Tiglathpileserbrokeupthecoalition,devastatedHamath,andmadethedistrictanAssyrianprovince.The
SouthernStateshastenedtoavoidinvasionbypayingtribute.MenahemofIsrael,ZabibiofArabia,Razunnu(Rezon)ofDamascus,Hiramof
TyrearenoteworthybutGebal,Carchemish,Hamath,Militia,Tabal,Kullni(Calno,Is10:9)alsosubmitted,b.c.738.Inb.c.734Hannoof
Gazawasdefeated.Inb.c.733732Damascuswasbesiegedandtaken,Israelwasinvaded,thewholeofNaphtalitaken,andPekahhadtopay
heavytoll.Inb.c.731hewasmurdered,andTiglathpileseracknowledgedHoseaassuccessor.Ammon,Moab,Ashkelon.
Edom,andAhazofJudahpaidtribute.Sams,queenoftheArabians,wasdefeated,andtheSabanssentpresents.ThisTiglathpileseristhe
Pulof2K15:19,20,who,afterdefeatingtheChaldanUknzr,whohadgothimselfmadekingofBabylon,inb.c.728wascrownedking
ofBabylon,asPulu.

(l)Sargon.ShalmaneserIV.seemstohavebeensonofTiglathpileser.HewaskingofBabyloniaasUlnlai,andsucceededtoTiglath
pilesersEmpire.Inb.c.724hebeganthesiegeofSamaria,whichfellafterthreeyears.WehavenoAssyrianaccountsofthisreign.Sargonat
oncesucceededhim,butwehavenoknowledgeofhistitletothethrone.Henevermentionshisimmediateancestors,nordoesSennacherib,
butthelatterevidentlywishedtoclaimancientroyaldescent,andEsarhaddonclaimeddescentfromanearlyking.ThatSargoniscalledark,
thelater,inhisowninscriptionsmaybemeanttodistinguishhimfromthegreatSargonofAkkad,whosereignhesocloselyreproduced,or
fromsomeearlyAssyrianmonarch,Sharkn(SharkenkateAshir?).Samariafellalmostimmediately(b.c.722),andtheflowerofthenation,
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fromsomeearlyAssyrianmonarch,Sharkn(SharkenkateAshir?).Samariafellalmostimmediately(b.c.722),andtheflowerofthenation,
tothenumberof27,290persons,wasdeportedandsettledaboutHalabontheHabor,intheprovinceofGozanandinMedia(2K17:6),being
replacedbyBabyloniansandSyrians.Merodachbaladan,akingofBtIakin,aChaldanStateinS.Babylonia,whohadbeentributaryto
TiglathpileserIII.,hadmadehimselfmasterofBabylon,andwassupportedtherebyElam.SargonmettheElamitesinabattlewhichhe
claimedasavictory,buthehadtoleaveMerodachbaladanaloneaskinginBabylonfortwelveyears.ThisfailurerousedtheWestunder
IaubidiofHamath,whosecuredArpad,Simirra,Damascus,andSamariaasallies,supportedbyHannoofGazaandtheN.ArabianMusri.
Sargoninb.c.720setouttorecoverhispowerhere.AtKarkar,Iaubidiwasdefeatedandcaptured,andthesouthernbranchoftheconfederacy
wascrushedatRaphia.HannowascarriedtoAssyria,933peopledeported,Shabi(Sibi,Sewe,So),theTartanofPirnofMusri,fled,the
Arabianssubmittedandpaidtribute.AzuriofAshdod,whobegantointriguewithEgypt,wasdeposedandreplacedbyhisbrother,Ahimitl.A
rebellioninAshdodledtoapretenderbeinginstalled,butSargonsenthisTartantoAshdod(Is20:1),thepretenderfled,andAshdodandGath
werereducedtoAssyrianprovinces.Judah,Edom,andMoabstavedoffvengeancebyheavytoll.Sargonsheaviesttaskwasthereductionof
Armenia.RusaI.wasabletoenlistallUpperMesopotamia,includingMitaofMushki,andittooktenyearstosubduethefoe.Sargonsefforts
wereclearlyaidedbytheincursionsoftheGimirri(Gomer)intoN.Armenia.Havingtriumphedeverywhereelse,Sargonturnedhisveterans
againstBabylonia.
ThechangeofkingsinElamwasafavourableopportunityforattackingMerodachbaladan,whowasmerelyholdingdownthecountryby
Chaldantroops.SargonmarcheddowntheTigris,seizedthechiefpostsontheeast,screenedofftheElamitesandthreatenedMerodach
baladansrear.HethereforeabandonedBabylonandfellonSargonsrear,but,meetingnosupport,retreatedS.tohisoldkingdomand
fortifieditstrongly.SargonenteredBabylon,welcomedasadeliverer,andinb.c.709becamekingofBabylon.ThearmystormedBtIakin,
butMerodachbaladanescapedoversea.SargonthenrestoredtheancientcitiesofBabylonia.Hislastyearswerecrownedwiththesubmission
offarofflandssevenkingsofCyprussentpresents,andSargonsetupastelethereintokenofhissupremacy.Dilmun,anislandfardownthe
PersianGulf,didhomage.Sargonfoundedamagnificentcity,DrSargon,modernKhorsabad,totheN.E.ofNineveh.Hediedaviolent
death,buthoworwhereisnowuncertain.

(m)Sennacherib.SennacheribsoonhadtoputdownrebellioninS.E.andN.W.,buthisEmpirewasverywellheldtogether,andhis
chiefwarsweretomeettheintriguesofhisneighbours,ElamandEgypt.BabyloniawassplitupintosemiindependentStates,peopledby
Aramans,Chaldans,andkindredfolk,allrestlessandambitious.MerodachbaladanseizedthethroneofBabylonfromMardukzkir
shum,Sargonsviceroy,b.c.704.TheAramansandElamsupportedhim.SennacheribdefeatedhimatKish,b.c.703,anddrovehimoutof
Babylonafterninemonthsreign.SennacheribenteredBabylon,spoiledthepalace,sweptouttheChaldansfromtheland,andcarriedoff
208,000peopleascaptives.OnthethroneofBabylonhesetBlibnl,oftheBabylonianseedroyal,buteducatedathiscourt.Merodach
baladanhadsucceededinstirringtheW.,whereTyrehadwidelyextendeditspower,andHezekiahofJudahhadgrownwealthyand
ambitious,torevolt.Ammon,Moab,Edom,theArabiansjoinedtheconfederacy,andEgyptencouraged.Padi,kingofEkron,afaithfulvassal
ofAssyria,wasoverthrownbyarebellioninhiscityandsentinchainstoHezekiah.Sennacherib,earlyinb.c.701,appearedonthe
Mediterraneancoast,receivedthesubmissionofthePhniciancities,isolatedTyre,andhadtributefromAmmon,Moab,andEdom.Tyrehe
couldnotcapture,sohemadeItubaiofSidonoverlordofPhnicia,andassailedTyrewiththealliedfleet.ItskingescapedtoCyprus,butthe
cityheidout.Sennacheribmeanwhilepasseddownthecoast,reducedAshkelon,butwasmetatEitekehbytheArabiansandEgyptians.He
gainedaneasyvictory,andcapturedEitekeh,Timnath,andEkron.ThenheconcentratedhisattentionuponJudah,captured46fortifiedcities,
deported200,150people,andshutupHezekiah,likeabirdinacage,inJerusalem.HeassignedtheJudancitiestothekingsofAshdod,
Ekron,andGaza,imposedfreshtribute,andreceivedofHezekiahthirtytalentsofgold,eighthundredtalentsofsilver,preciousstones,
couchesofivory,thronesofivory,preciouswoods,hisdaughters,hispalacewomen,maleandfemalesingers,etc.,anenormousspoil,which
wascarriedtoNineveh.HissiegeofLachishisdepictedonhismonuments.Beforehiscampaignwasover,Merodachbaladanhadagain
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wascarriedtoNineveh.HissiegeofLachishisdepictedonhismonuments.Beforehiscampaignwasover,Merodachbaladanhadagain
appearedinBabylon.AdifficultyhasalwaysbeenfeltaboutthedestructionofSennacheribsarmy,because,ifittookplaceafterthis
campaign,hecouldhardlyhavebeensosuccessfulinBabylonia.Hisinscriptionsendwithb.c.689,butEsarhaddonsreferencestothe
conquestsofhisfatherinArabia,andafragmentaryreferencetoAzekah,suggestthatheinvestedJerusalemagain,onasecondcampaign,and
thatthedestructionoccurredthen.TheBiblicalnarrativesuggeststhatTirhakah,kingofEthiopia,hadalreadyappearedonthescene.This
woulddatetheeventafterb.c.691.Further,itseemstohaveoccurredsoonbeforehisdeathinb.c.681.
InBabylonia,Blibniprovedunfaithfulandwasrecalled.Ashurndinshum,Sennacheribsson,wasinstalledasking,andreignedsix
years.SennacheribdevastatedBtIakinanddefeatedShuzub,aChaldanking.HethenemployedPhnicianshipbuildersandsailorstobuild
shipsatTilbarsip,ontheEuphrates,andatNineveh,ontheTigris.Hefloatedhisfleetsdowntothemouthoftherivers,shippedhisarmy,and
landedatthemouthoftheKarn,wheretheChaldanshadtakenrefuge,b.c.695.HesentthecaptivesbyshiptoAssyria,andmarchedhis
armyintoS.Elam.ThekingofElam,however,swoopeddownonBabylonandcarriedoffAshurndinshumtoElam.Nergalushzibwas
raisedtothethrone,and,aidedbyElamitetroops,proceededtocapturetheAssyriangarrisonsandcutoffthesouthernarmy.Sennacherib
retreatedtoErechandawaitedNergalushzib,whohadoccupiedNippur.Hewasdefeated,captured,andtakentoAssyria,b.c.693.The
BabyloniansnowmadeShuzub,theChaldan,kingunderthenameofMushzibMarduk.ArevolutioninElamtemptedSennacheribto
invadethatcountry,perhapsinhopeofrescuinghisson.Hesweptallbeforehim,theElamitekingretreatingtothemountains,butthesevere
winterforcedSennacheribtoretreat,b.c.692.MushzibMardukandtheBabyloniansopenedthetreasuryofMarduktobribetheElamitesfor
support.AgreatarmyofElamites,Aramans,Chaldans,andBabyloniansbarredSennacheribsreturnatHaiie,ontheE.oftheTigris,b.c.
691.Sennacheribclaimedthevictory,buthadnopowertodomore,andleftMushzibMardukaloneforthetime.HecamebacktoBabylonia
inb.c.
690,andthenewElamitekingbeingunabletoassist,Babylonwastaken,MushzibMardukdeposedandsenttoNineveh.Babylonwasthen
sacked,fortificationsandwalls,templesandpalacesrazedtotheground,theinhabitantsmassacred,thecanalsturnedovertheruins,b.c.689.
SennacheribmadeBabyloniaanAssyrianprovince,andwaskinghimselftillhisdeath(b.c.681).Thereisreasontothinkthatheappointed
EsarhaddonregentofBabyloniaatanyrateitseemsthatthisprincebegantorebuildBabylonbeforehisfathersdeath.

SennacheribchoseNineveh,whichhadbecomeasecondratecity,ashiscapital,and,byhismagnificentbuildingsandgreatfortifications,
madeitaformidablerivaltoCalah,Asshur,andevenBabylonbeforeitsdestruction.Hislastfewyearsareinobscurity,buthewasmurdered
byhissonorsons.SeeAdrammelech.

(n)Esarhaddoncametothethroneb.c.680,afterashortstrugglewiththemurderersofhisfatherandtheirparty.Hehadtorepelan
incursionoftheCimmeriansinthebeginningofhisreign,andthenconqueredtheMedes.Inb.c.
677Sidonwasinrevolt,butwastakenanddestroyed,anewcitycalledKarEsarhaddonbeingbuilttoreplaceitandcolonizedwithcaptives
fromElamandBabylonia,Ezr4:2.Inb.c.676,EsarhaddonmarchedintoArabiaandconqueredtheeightkingsofBazuandHazu(Buzand
HuzofGn22:21).Inb.c.674heinvadedEgypt,andagainin673.Inb.c.670hemadehisgreatefforttoconquerEgypt,drovebackthe
EgyptianarmyfromthefrontiertoMemphis,winningthreeseverebattles.Memphissurrendered,TirhakahfledtoThebes,andEgyptwas
madeanAssyrianprovince.Inb.c.668itrevolted,andonthemarchtoreduceitEsarhaddondied.HedividedtheEmpirebetweenhistwo
sons,AshurbanipalbeingkingofAssyriaandtheEmpire,whileShamashshumuknwaskingofBabylonasavassalofhisbrother.

(o)AshurbanipalatonceprosecutedhisfathersreductionofEgypttosubmission.TirhakahhaddrawntheAssyriangovernors,someof
themnativeEgyptians,asNecho,intoacoalitionagainstAssyria.Someremainedfaithful,andtherisingwassuppressedTirhakahwasdriven
backtoEthiopia,wherehediedb.c.664.TantamoninvadedEgyptagain,andAshurbanipalinb.c.662againsuppressedarising,drovethe 151/172
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backtoEthiopia,wherehediedb.c.664.TantamoninvadedEgyptagain,andAshurbanipalinb.c.662againsuppressedarising,drovethe
Ethiopianout,andcapturedThebes.AshurbanipalbesiegedBaal,kingofTyre,andalthoughunabletocapturethecity,obtainedits
submissionandthatofArvad,Tabai,andCilicia.Gyges,kingofLydia,exchangedembassies,andsentAshurbanipaltwocaptiveCimmerians,
butheafterwardsalliedhimselfwithPsammetichus,sonofNecho,andassistedhimtothrowofftheAssyrianyoke.TheMinnihadbeen
restless,andAshurbanipalnextreducedthem.Elamwasamoreformidablefoe.AllyinghimselfwiththeAramansandChaldans,Urtaku,
kingofElam,invadedBabylonia,buthewasdefeatedandhisthroneseizedbyTeumman.Ashurbanipaltookadvantageoftherevolutionto
invadeElamandcaptureSusaandafterkillingTeummanputUmmanigashandTammaritu,twosonsofUrtaku,onthethronesoftwodistricts
ofElam.HethentookvengeanceontheAramans,E.oftheTigris.Hisbrother,Shamashshumukn,nowbegantoplotforindependence.He
enlistedtheChaldans,Aramans,andUmmanigashofElam,Arabia,Ethiopia,andEgypt.Asimultaneousrisingtookplace,and
AshurbanipalseemedlikelytolosehisEmpire.HeinvadedBabylonia.InElam,TammarituputtodeathUmmanigashandallhisfamily,but
wasdefeatedbyIndabigash,andhadtofleetoAssyria.AshurbanipaldefeatedhisopponentsandlaidsiegetoBabylon,Borsippa,Sippara,and
Cutha,capturingoneaftertheother.Shamashshumuknburnthispalaceoverhishead,andBabylonsurrenderedb.c.648.TheconquestofS.
BabyloniaandChaldawasfollowedbycampaignsagainstElam,culminatinginthecaptureofSusaanditsdestruction.Ashurbanipalthen
punishedtheArabians,who,inhisenforcedabsencein
Babylonia,hadinvadedPalestine,overrunEdomandMoab,andthreatenedDamascus.Theinscriptions,however,donotcomedownbelow
b.c.646,andthelastyearsofthereignareinobscurity.AshurbanipalappearstohavereignedoverBabylonasKandalnu.

(p)FallofNineveh.AshurbanipalwassucceededbyAshuretiliiani,hisson,whowassucceededbySinsharishkun,hisbrother.Wedo
notknowhowlongtheyreigned,butinb.c.606theMedescapturedNinevehandtooktheN.halfofthe
Empire,whileNabopolassar,kingofBabylon(sinceb.c.626?),tookBabylonia.
ASSYRIAANDBABYLONIA
II.Babylonia

1.History.ThehistoryofBabylonia,asmonumentallyattested,fallsnaturallyintoperiods:(a)theriseofthecityStatesandtheir
struggleforsupremacy(b)thesupremacyofBabylonandtheFirstBabylonianEmpire(c)the
KassitesupremacyandtheriseofAssyria(d)thecontemporaneouskingdomsofAssyriaandBabylonia(e)thesupremacyofAssyriatoits
fall(f)theNewBabylonianEmpire.

(a)ThecityStates.TheprehistoricremainsoftheearliestsettlersinBabyloniaarenumerous,buttheyhavereceivednosystematicstudy.
TheexistenceofanonSemiticrace,thesocalledSumerians,isatleastthemostconvenientassumptiontoaccountfortheproblemsofthe
earliesthistory,butitisimpossibletodecidehowearlytheywereintermixedwithSemiticfolk.Itisasyetdifficulttodecidewhetherthese
SemitesenteredfromtheS.W.,orfromthesideofElam,orfromN.Mesopotamia.Theearliestmonumentswepossessshowavarietyof
towns,eachofwhichservedasanucleustoawideareaofvillages.Aspopulationsgrew,theneedsofpastureforaneminentlypastoralpeople
broughtaboutdisputesastoboundaries,andwarsensued.TheStatesenteredintokeenrivalryinotherdirections,ascommercedeveloped.As
earlyasb.c.5000theconditionofthingsmaybeaptlycomparedwiththatofEnglandundertheHeptarchy.Eridu,modernAbuShahrein,lay
ontheGulfandW.oftheEuphratesmouth.AstheseatoftheworshipofEa,godofthewaters,itsbusinesswasratherontheseathanonthe
land,butitwasalwaysreverencedastheprimitivehomeofcivilizationandreligion.Wehavenoevidencethatitwasevertheseatofa
kingdom.Some10milestotheW.layUr,modernMugheir,thenalsoontheGulf,thehomeoftheworshipofSin,themoongod.Acrossthe
Euphrates,30milestoN.E.,layLarsa,modernSenkereh,whereShamash,thesungod,waschiefgod.
TwelvemilestotheN.W.wasUruk,modernWarka(Erech),withitsIshtarcult.
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TwelvemilestotheN.W.wasUruk,modernWarka(Erech),withitsIshtarcult.
TotheN.wasMar,modernTelEde.FromMar,35milestotheE.,ontheShattel
HaicanalfromtheTigristotheEuphrates,wasShirpurlaorLagash,modernTelloh,withitsgodNingirsu.Thesesixcitiesformthegroup
withwhosefortunesmostoftheTellohfindsareconcerned.Nippur,modernNiffer,layhalfwaybetweentheTigrisandEuphrates,60miles
fromtheGulf.ItsgodwastheveryancientEnlil,theoldBl,lordofmankind.

IntheN.morethan50milesN.W.ofNippurwasCutha,modernTelIbrahim,withitsgodNergal,lordoftheworldofthedead.Further
N.,ontheE.bankoftheEuphrates,wasSippar,modernAbuHabba,withitssungodShamash.NearbymusthavebeenAgade.The
monumentsplacehere:Kulunu(Calneh)Uhki,laterOpisandKish.Later,Babylon(wh.see)anditssistercityBorsippacameinto
importance.InUpperMesopotamia,Haranwasprobablynotmuchlaterinitsriseasacommercialcapitalandcentreofthemoongodcult.
Thehistoryofthisperiodhasmanygaps,probablybecausesystematicexplorationhasbeencarriedoutonlyatTellohandNippur.The
evidenceforothercitiesconsistschieflyofreferencesmadebytherulersofthesetwocities,whoeitherruledoverothersorwereruledover
bythem.AkingofUrmightleaveofferingsatNippur,orordersomebuildingtobedonethereortherulersofNippurmightnamethekingof
Urastheiroverlord.Outofsuchscatteredreferenceswemustweavewhathistorywecan.Aboutb.c.4500Eushagsagana,kingofKengiin
S.W.,offeredtoBlofNippurthespoilsofKish.Later,Mesilim,kingofKish,madeShirpurlaasubjectState.Aboutb.c.4200UrNinawas
abletocallhimselfkingofShirpurla.EannatumandEntemenaofShirpurlawonseveralvictoriesoverothercitiesandimposedtreatiesupon
them.SoonLugalzaggisi,kingofUhki,aboutb.c.4200,couldcallhimselfkingofErech,Ur,andLarsa.HewaspracticallyruleroftheFirst
BabylonianEmpire,fromthePersianGulftotheMediterranean.Aboutb.c.3850,Alusharshid,kingofKish,conqueredElamandBarase,to
N.E.andE.ofBabylonia.

Shargnisharali(SargonI.),kingofAgade,b.c.3800,andhissonNaramSin,b.c.3750accordingtoNabonidus,werelordsofNippur,
Shirpurla,Kish,Babylon,andErech,andruled,oratleastleviedtribute,fromtheMediterraneanN.intoArmenia,overpartofElam,andS.
intoArabiaandtheislandsofthePersianGulf.
Aboutb.c.3500UrBauofShirpurlaruledinpeace,asasubjectprince,orpatesi.Gudea,aboutb.c.3100,erectedwonderfulbuildings,
evidentlyhadgreatresources,andevenconqueredAnshan,inElam,butwasnotaking.Aboutb.c.3000,UrGrandhissonDungi,kingsof
Ur,builttemplesnotonlyinUrbutinKutha,Shirpurla,Nippur,andErech.AdynastyofErechandadynastyofIsinlaterclaimedauthority
overNippur,Ur,Eridu,andotherlessnotedcities.ThenextdynastyofUr,foundedbyGungunu,includedIneSin,BurSinII.,GamilSin,
DungiII.andothers,b.c.28002500.TheywarredinSyria,Arabia,andElam.

(b)SupremacyofBabylon.TheFirstDynastyofBabylon(b.c.2396)wasfoundedbySumuabi.ButLarsawasunderitsownkingNr
Adad,whowasfollowedbyhissonSiniddinam.TheElamitesinvadedtheland,andunderKudurnanhundicarriedoffthegoddessNanfrom
Erechaboutb.c.2290.LarsabecametheseatofanElamiteking,RimSin,sonofKudurmabuk,rulerofIamutbalinW.Elam.Heruledover
Ur,Eridu,Nippur,Shirpurla,andErech,andconqueredIsin.HeisthoughtbysometobeAriochofEllasarwhowithChedorlaomerofElam,
AmraphelofShinar,(Hammurabi?),TidalofGoiimoverthrewthekingsofSodomandGomorrah(Gn14).Atanyratehewasexpelledfrom
LarsabyHammurabiin
the31styearofhisreign.HammurabiruledallMesopotamia,fromtheMediterraneantothePersianGulf.Hisreignwastheclimaxof
Babyloniancivilizationandculture.HissuccessorsmaintainedhisEmpireforawhile,butthenBabyloniahadtosubmittoforeignconquest.
Hisperiodisknowntousbyanenormousnumberofinscriptionsandmonuments,anddeservesattentionascharacteristicofOldBabyloniaat
itsbest.
Theseconddynastyhasleftremarkablyfewmonumentsinthedistrictshithertoexplored,andbeyonditsexistenceweknowlittleofit.
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Theseconddynastyhasleftremarkablyfewmonumentsinthedistrictshithertoexplored,andbeyonditsexistenceweknowlittleofit.

(c,d,e)Kassitesupremacy,andriseofAssyria,etc.ThethirddynastyroseontheconquestofBabyloniabytheKassites,amountaineer
peoplefromtheN.E.,ofnonSemiticrace,thoughtbymanytobeCushinGn10:8.TheKassitesattemptedaninvasionasearlyasthe9thyear
ofSamsuiluna,butweredrivenback.TheyfirstestablishedthemselvesintheSouth,givingthenameofKarduniashtoit.Theyadoptedthe
royaltitles,worshippedtheancientgods,andwroteintheBabylonianlanguage.Thefirstkingofwhomwehaveimportantinscriptionswas
Agumkakrime(AgumII.).HeclaimstoruleovertheKashshu,theAkkadians,Babylonia,Ashnunak,Padan,Alman,andGutium.Herestored
theimagesofMardukandZarpanithisconsort,whichhadbeencarriedawaytoHaniinN.Mesopotamia.LaterwelearnfromtheTellel
AmarnalettersthatasearlyasthetimeofAmenophisIII.,kingofEgypt,KurigalzuofBabylonwasinfriendlyrelationswithEgypt,and
refusedtosupportaCanaaniteconspiracyagainstitsrule.TherelationswithAssyriahavebeenalreadydealtwith.Kadashmanharbe
cooperatedwithhisgrandfatherindrivingouttheSti,whorobbedthecaravansfromtheWestandEgypt.KurigalzuII.wagedsuccessfulwar
withElam,capturedthekingHurbatilawithhisownhands,andsackedSusa.WithMelishihuandMardukapliddinaI.Babylonianpower
revived,butfellagainundertheirsuccessors.TheKassitesfirstgaveBabyloniaanationalnameandexaltedtheworshipofBlofNippur.In
theirtime,BabyloniahadtraderelationsnotonlywithMesopotamiaSyria,andEgypt,butwithBactria,andpossiblyChinaontheE.,and
withEubaontheWest.
(f)NewBabylonianEmpire.ThenewBabyloniandynastywasthatofPashe,orIsin,anativedynasty.NebuchadrezzarI.wasapparently
itsfounder.HedefeatedtheElamitesandwrestedfromthemtheprovincesalreadyoccupiedbythem,andbroughtbackthestatueofBl
whichtheyhadcaptured.HealsoreconqueredtheWest,andlefthisnameontherocksoftheNahrelKelb.HisattemptsuponAssyriawere
unsuccessful.HenceforthBabyloniawaspentupbyAssyriaandElam,andmerelyhelditsown.Thefifth,sixth,seventh,andeighthdynasties
yieldbutafewnames,ofwhoseexploitsweknownexttonothing.TheAramanmigrationswallowedupMesopotamiaanddrovebackboth
AssyriaandBabylonia.TheChaldansfollowedtheoldroutefromArabiabyUr,andestablishedthemselvesfirmlyintheS.ofBabylonia.
AkkadwasplunderedbytheSti.ThuscutofffromtheWest,theabsenceofBabylonianpowerallowedtheriseofPhilistiaIsrael
consolidated,Phniciagrewintopower.Hamath,Aleppo,Patin,SamalbecameindependentStates.DamascusbecameanAramanpower.
Egyptalsowassplitup,andcouldinfluencePalestinebutlittle.WhenAssyriarevivedunderAdadnirari,thewholeW.wasanewcountryand
hadtobereconquered.Babyloniahadnohandinit.ShewasoccupiedinsuppressingtheChaldansand
AramansonherbordersandhadtocallforAssyrianassistanceinthetimeof
Shalmaneser.Finally,TiglathpileserIII.becamemasterofBabylonia,andafterhimitfellintothehandsoftheChaldanMerodachbaladan,
tillSargondrovehimout.UnderSennacheribitwasameredependencyofAssyria,tillhedestroyedBabylon.UnderEsarhaddonand
AshurbanipalBabyloniarevivedsomewhat,andunderNabopolassarfoundintheweaknessofAssyriaandthefallofNinevehachanceto
recover.

Nabopolassarreckonedhisreignfromb.c.625,butduringtheearlyyearsofhisrulesomeSouthernBabyloniancitiessuchasErech
continuedtoacknowledgeSinsharishkun.Accordingtoclassicalwriters,healliedhimselfwiththeMedoScythianhordes,whodevastated
MesopotamiaandcapturedNineveh.HeclaimstohavechasedfromAkkadtheAssyrians,whofromthedaysofoldruledoverallpeoplesand
withtheirheavyyokeworeoutthenations,andtohavebrokentheiryoke.TheMedesseemtohavemadenoattempttoholdMesopotamia,
andPharaohNecho,whowasadvancingfromEgypttotakeSyria,wasdefeatedatCarchemishb.c.605byNebuchadrezzar.SoBabylonia
succeededtotheW.partoftheAssyrianEmpire.Beyondafewbuildinginscriptionsweknowlittleofthisreign.

Nebuchadrezzarsinscriptionshardlymentionanythingbuthisbuildings.HefortifiedBabylon,enricheditwithtemplesandpalaces
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Nebuchadrezzarsinscriptionshardlymentionanythingbuthisbuildings.HefortifiedBabylon,enricheditwithtemplesandpalaces
restoredtemplesatSippara,Larsa,Ur,Dilbat,Baz,Erech,Borsa,Kutha,MaradcleanedoutandwalledwithquaystheArahtucanalwhich
ranthroughBabylon,anddugacanalN.ofSippara.HeleftaninscriptionontherocksatWadyBrissa,avalleyN.oftheLebanonMountains
andW.oftheupperpartoftheOrontesanotheronarockN.oftheNahrelKelb,wheretheoldroadfromArvadpassesS.tothecitiesofthe
coast.Afragmentofhisannalsstatesthatinhis37thyearhefoughtinEgyptagainstAmasis.

AmelMarduk(EvilMerodach),hisson,wasnotacceptabletothepriests,andwasmurderedbyhisbrotherinlawNeriglissar,whohad
marriedadaughterofNebuchadrezzar,andwassonofBlshumishkun,therubimga.He,too,wasoccupiedchieflywiththetemplesofhis
land.NeriglissarwassucceededbyhissonLabashiMarduk,abadcharacter,whomthepriestsdeposed,settingupNabonidus,aBabylonian.
Hewasanantiquaryratherthanaking.HerebuiltmanyoftheoldestBabyloniantemples,andinexploringtheirruinsfoundrecordswhich
havehelpedtodateearlykings,asquotedabove.ForsomereasonheavoidedBabylonandleftthecommandofthearmytohisson
Belshazzar.TheMandaking,Astyages,invadedMesopotamia,andwasrepelledonlybytheaidofCyrus,kingofAnshan,whoalittlelaterby
hisoverthrowofAstyagesbecamekingofPersia,andthenconqueredCrsusofLydia.Onthe16thofTammuzb.c.539Cyrusentered
Babylonwithoutresistance.NaboniduswassparedandsenttoKarmania.Belshazzarwaskilled.CyruswasacceptabletotheBabylonians,
worshippedattheancientshrines,glorifiedthegodswhohadgivenhimleadershipovertheirlandandpeople,madeBabylonaroyalcity,and
tooktheoldnativetitles,butthesceptrehaddepartedfromtheSemiticworldforever.
2.Literature.Babyloniawasveryearlyinpossessionofaformofwriting.Theearliestspecimensofwhichweknowarelittleremoved
frompictorialwritingbuttheuseofflatpiecesofsoftclay,afterwardsdriedinthesunorbakedhardinafurnace,aswritingmaterial,and
strokesofatriangularreed,soonledtoconventionalformsofcharactersinwhichthecurvedlinesofapicturewerereplacedbyoneormore
shortmarksontheline.Theseweregraduallyreducedinnumberuntiltheresultantgroupofstrokesborelittleresemblancetotheoriginal.
Theshortpointedwedgeshapeddabsofthereedhavegivenrisetothenamecuneiform.Thenecessitiesoftheengraveronstoneledhim
toreproducethesewedgeswithanemphasizedheadthatgivestheappearanceofnails,butallsuchgraphicvarietiesmakenoessential
difference.Thesignsdenotedprimarilyideas:thusthepictureofabull,orabullshead,wouldsymbolizepower,andallthewordsderived
fromtheroottobepowerful,thenfromthewordpowerfulasyllabicvaluewouldbederivedwhichmightbeusedinspellingwords.Thus
thepictureofastarmightsignifyheaven,thesupremegodAnu,theideaabove,andbeusedtodenoteallthingshigh,lofty,ordivineits
syllabicvaluebeinganitwouldbeusedinspellingwhereveranhadtobewritten.But,again,asgodwasilu,itmightbeusedinspellingfor
il.Thusmanysignshavemorethanonevalue,evenassyllablestheymayalsodenoteideas.Thescribes,however,usednotfarshortof500
signs,andthereisrarelyanydoubtoftheirmeaning.Thevaluesattachedtothesignsinmanycasesarenotderivablefromthewordswhich
denotetheirideas,andithasbeenconcludedthatthesignswereadoptedfromanonSemiticpeoplecalledtheSumerians.Manyinscriptions
cannotbereadasSemitic,exceptbyregardingthemasasortofhalfwaydevelopmentofpictorialwriting,andwhenreadsyllabicallyare
supposedtobeintheSumerianlanguage,whichcontinuedtobeused,atanyrateincertainphrases,tothelast,muchasLatinwordsand
abbreviations(like.s.d.)areusedbyus.Thereisstillgreatobscurityaboutthissubject,whichcanbesolvedonlybythediscoveryofearlier
orintermediateinscriptions.

Atanyrate,wearenowabletoreadwithcertainty,exceptforafewobscureexpressions,inscriptionswhichpossiblydatebacktob.c.
6000.Theearliestinscriptionshithertorecoveredhavebeenfromtemplearchives,andnaturallyrelatetoofferingstothegodsorgiftstothe
temples.Fromveryearlytimes,however,contractssuchasdeedsofsale,dispositionsofproperty,marriagesettlements,etc.,werepreserved
inthearchives,andmanyfamiliespreservedlargequantitiesofdeeds,letters,businessaccounts,etc.Writingandreadingwereverywidely

diffused,evenwomenbeingwelleducatedintheserespects,andwehaveenormouscollectionsinourmuseumsofmaterialrelatingtothe
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diffused,evenwomenbeingwelleducatedintheserespects,andwehaveenormouscollectionsinourmuseumsofmaterialrelatingtothe
privatelifeandcustomsofthepeopleatalmostallperiodsofthehistory.

TheBabyloniansearlydrewupcodesoflaws,hymns,ritualtexts,mythology,andmaderecordsofobservationsinalldirectionsofnatural
history.Thesupposedinfluenceoftheheavenlybodiesledtoworksassociatingcelestialphenomenawithterrestrialeventsthesocalled
astrologicaltextswhichrecordedastronomicalobservationsfromveryearlydates.Awonderfulcollectionofextraordinaryevents,asbirthsof
monstersorabnormalbeings,wereregardedasominous,andanattemptwasmadetoconnectthemwitheventsinnationalorprivatehistory.
Theseomentabletsalsodealwithmorals,attachingtohumanactsconsequencesevincingroyalorDivinedispleasure.Evilconductwasthus
placedunderaban,andthepunishmentofitwasassignedtothehandofGodortheking.Itwasaveryhighmoralitythatwassoinculcated:
tosayyeawiththelipsandnayintheheart,tousefalseweights,tobetrayafriend,toestrangerelations,toslanderorbackbite,areall
forbidden.Theconductofagoodking,ofagoodman,ofafaithfulsonofhisgod,aresetoutwithgreatcare,andculminateintheprecept,
Tohimthatdoestheewrongreturnagraciouscourtesy.Medicinewasextensivelywrittenupon,andthenumberofcasesprescribedforis
verygreat.Wearenotable,asarule,torecognizeeithertheailmentortheprescriptionbutitseemsthatmagicalspellswereoftenusedto
driveoutthedemonsupposedtobethecauseofthedisease.

TheBabylonianshadsomeacquaintancewithmathematics,sofarasnecessaryforthecalculationofareas,andtheyearlydrewuptablesof
squaresandcubes,aswellasoftheirmeasuresofsurfaceandcapacity.Tothemweowethedivisionoftimeintohours,minutes,andseconds.
TheirmeasuresstilllackthefundamentalexplanationwhichcanbeaffordedonlybyfindingsomemeasuredobjectwithitsBabylonian
measureinscribeduponit,inastateallowingofaccuratemodernmeasures.SeeWeightsandMeasures.

3.Religion.ThereligionofBabyloniawasasyncreticresultoftheunionofanumberofcityandlocalcults.ConsequentlyShamashthe
sungodSinthemoongodIshtar,VenusMardukthegodofBabylon,NabofBorsippa,BlofNippur,Nergalthegodofpestilence,Nusku
thenewmooncrescent,andahostofothers,wereworshippedwithequalreverencebybothkingsandpeople.Mostmen,however,were
speciallydevotedtoonegod,determinedforthembyhereditarycult,orpossiblypersonalchoice:amanwassonofhisgodandthegodwas
hisfather.Inthecourseoftimealmosteverygodabsorbedmuchoftheattributesofeveryothergod,sothat,withtheexceptionofsuch
epithetsaswerepeculiarlyappropriatetohim,ShamashcouldbeaddressedorhymnedinmuchthesamewordsasMardukorSin.Bysome
teachersallthegodsweresaidtobeMardukinoneorothermanifestationofhisDivineactivity.Thewholepantheonbecameorganizedand
simplifiedbytheidentificationofdeitiesoriginallydistinct,asaresultofpoliticalunificationortheologicalsystem.TheidealofDivinitywas
highandpure,oftenverypoeticandbeautiful,buttheBabylonianwastolerantofothergods,andindisposedtodenytherightofotherstocall
agodbyanothernamethanthatwhichbestsummedupforhimhisownconception.

Magicenteredlargelyintothebeliefsandpracticesoflife,invadingreligioninspiteofspiritualauthority.Theuniversewaspeopledwith
spirits,goodandbad,whohadtobeappeasedorpropitiated.Conjurations,magicspells,forecasts,omenswereresortedtoinordertobindor
checkthemaligninfluencesofdemons.Theaugurs,conjurers,magicians,soothsayerswereanumerousclass,and,thoughfrowneduponby
thepriestsandphysicians,wereusuallycalledinwheneverdiseaseorfearsuggestedoccultinfluence.Thepriestwasdevotedtotheserviceof
hisgod,andoriginallyeveryheadofafamilywaspriestofthelocalgod,therighttoministerinthetempledescendingincertainfamiliesto
thelatesttimes.Theofficewaslatermuchsubdivided,andasthetemplebecameanoverwhelmingfactorinthecitylife,itsofficialsand
employeesformedalargepartofthepopulation.AtemplecorrespondedtoamonasteryintheMiddleAges,havinglands,houses,tenants,and
ahostofdependants,aswellasenormouswealth,whichitemployedonthewholeingooddeeds,andcertainlythrewitsinfluenceontheside
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ofpeaceandsecurity.Althoughdistinctclasses,thejudges,scribes,physicians,andevenskilledmanufacturerswereusuallyattachedtothe
temple,andpriestsoftenexercisedthesefunctions.Originallythegod,andsoonhistemple,werethevisibleembodimentofthecitylife.The
kinggrewoutofthehighpriest.Hewasthevicegerentofthegodonearth,andretainedhispriestlypowertothelast,butheespecially
representeditsexternalaspect.Hewasruler,leaderofthearmy,chiefjudge,supremebuilderofpalacesandtemples,guardianofright,
defenderoftheweakandoppressed,accessibletothemeanestsubject.Theexpansionofcityterritorybyforceofarms,thegrowthof
kingdomsandriseofempires,ledtoamilitarycaste,rapaciousforforeignspoils,anddomesticpoliticsbecameastruggleforpowerbetween
thewarpartyofexpansionandconquestandthepartyofpeaceandconsolidation.

TheBabylonianLiteraturewasextensive,andmuchofithasstrikingsimilaritiestoportionsoftheBible(seeCreation,Deluge,etc.).It
alsoseemstohavehadinfluenceuponclassicalmythology.

N.B.SeeAppendixnoteatendofvolume.

C.H.W.Johns.
ASTAD,ASTATH.1322or3622ofAstadsdescendantsarementionedasreturningwithZerubbabel(1Es5:13).HeiscalledAzgadin
thecan.booksand1222descendantsarementionedintheparallellistinEzr2:12,2322inNeh7:17.HeappearsasAstath,1Es8:38,whena
seconddetachmentof111returnunderEzra(=Ezr8:12).AzgadappearsamongtheleaderswhosealedthecovenantwithNehemiah(Neh
10:15).
ASTROLOGY,ASTRONOMY.SeeMagic,etc.
ASTYAGES(Bel1)wasthelastkingofMedia.HewasdefeatedanddethronedbyCyrustheGreatinb.c.550.

J.F.McCurdy.
ASUPPIM.1Ch26:15,17AVRVcorrectlystorehouse.
ASUR(AVAssur).1Es5:31.HissonsreturnedamongtheTempleservantsunderZerubbabelcalledHarhur,Ezr2:51,Neh7:53.
ASYLUM.SeeAltar,Kin[Nextof],Refuge[Citiesof].
ASYNCRITUS(Ro16:14).AChristiangreetedbySt.Paulwithfourothersandthebrethrenthatarewiththem,perhapsmembersof
thesamesmallcommunity.ThenameoccursinRom.Ins.CILvi.12,565,ofafreedmanofAugustus.
ATAD(Gn50:1011).AthreshingfloorontheroadtoHebron.Thesiteisunknown.
ATAR(AVJatal).1Es5:28.HissonswereamongtheportersordoorkeeperswhoreturnedwithZerubbabelcalledAter,Ezr2:42,Neh
7:45.
ATARAH.WifeofJerahmeelandmotherofOnam(1Ch2:26).
ATARGATIS(RVlesscorrectlyAtergatis).Inadditiontothesanctuaryofthisgoddess(=Gr.Derceto)atCarnion(2Mac12:26),other
shrinesweresituatedatHierapolisandAshkelon.Heresacredfishwerekept,andatthelatterplacethegoddesswasrepresentedasamermaid,
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resemblingthesupposedformofthePhilistineDagon(wh.see).Someexpositors,becauseoftheancientnameofCarnion,i.e.Ashteroth
karnaim,haveidentifiedthegoddesswithAstarte.Thename,however,acompoundofAthar(=Phn.Astart,Heb.Ashtoreth[wh.see])
andofAttiorAttah,whichlattertermappearsasagodsnameuponinscriptions,showshertobeAstartewhohasassimilatedthefunctions
ofAtti.Thisetymology,togetherwithhermermaidformandthefactthatfishweresacredtoher,apparentlymakesherapersonificationof
thefertilizingpowersofwater.

N.Koenig.
ATAROTH.1.AtownnotfarfromDibon(Nu32:3,33),probablythemodernKhirbetAttrs,totheN.W.ofDhbn.2.Atownon
theS.borderoftheterritoryofthechildrenofJoseph(Jos16:2),calledAtarothaddarinv.5,probablyidenticalwithedDryeh,11/2mile
S.W.ofBethhorontheLower.3.Atownnotidentified,towardstheE.endofthesameborder(Jos16:7).4.Thenameofafamily(1Ch.2:54,
RVAtrothbethJoab).

W.Ewing.
ATER.1.TheancestorofcertainTempleporterswhoreturnedwithZerubbabel,Ezr2:15,42,Neh7:21,45cf.Atar.2.(AVAterezias),
1Es5:15cf.Ezr2:16.HissonsreturnedwithZerubbabel.
ATETA(AVTeta),1Es5:28=Hatita,Ezr2:42,Neh7:45.
ATHACH,1S30:30.UnknowntowninthesouthofJudah.
ATHAIAH.AmanofJudahdwellinginJerusalem(Neh11:4).
ATHALIAH.1.TheonlyqueenwhooccupiedthethroneofJudah.ShewasthedaughterofAhabandJezebel,andwasmarriedto
Jehoram,sonofJehoshaphat.OntheaccessionofhersonAhaziahshebecamequeenmother,secondonlytothekinginpowerandinfluence.
WhenAhaziahwasslainbyJehu,shecouldnotbringherselftotakeanInferiorposition,andseizedthethroneforherself,makingitsecure,as
shesupposed,byslayingallthemalemembersofthehouseofDavidsofarastheywerewithinherreach.Oneinfantwaspreserved,andwas
successfullyconcealedintheTemplesixyears.ThepersonsactiveinthiswereJehosheba,sisterofAhaziah,andherhusbandJehoiada,the
chiefpriest.ThestoryoftheyoungprincescoronationbythebodyguardisoneofthemostdramaticinHebrewhistory.ThedeathofAthaliah
atthehandsoftheguardformsthelogicalconclusionoftheincident.ThedestructionofthetempleofBaal,whichisspokenofinthesame
connexion,indicatesthatAthaliahwasaddictedtotheworshipofthePhnicianBaal,introducedbyhermotherintoIsrael(2K11).2.See
Gotholias.3.ABenjamite(1Ch8:26).

H.P.Smith.
ATHARIM(Nu21:1).EitherapropernameofaplacefromwhichtheroutewasnamedsoRVthewayofAtharim,asLXX,or,the
wayoftracks,i.e.aregularcaravanroad.(TherenderingofAV,wayofthespies,followsTarg.andSyr.)ThewayofAtharimwillthenbe
thatdescribedinNu13:2125.
ATHENOBIUS(1Mac15:2835).AfriendofAntiochusVII.Sidetes.HewassenttoJerusalemtoremonstratewithSimonMaccabus
fortheoccupationofJoppa,Gazara,thecitadelofJerusalem,andcertainplacesoutsideJuda.Simonrefusedthetermsproposed,and
Athenobiuswasobligedtoreturninindignationtotheking.
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Athenobiuswasobligedtoreturninindignationtotheking.
ATHENS.Intheearliesttimes,Athens,ontheGulfofgina,consistedoftwosettlements,thetownontheplainandthecitadelonthe
hillabove,theAcropolis,wherethepopulationfledfrominvasion.ItsnameandthenameofitspatrongoddessAthene(Athenaia)are
inextricablyconnected.Shewasthemaidengoddess,thewarlikedefenderofherpeople,thepatronessofthearts.Thecityliesabout3miles
fromtheseacoastonalargeplain.WhenGreecewasfree,duringtheperiodbeforeb.c.,146AthenswasthecapitalofthedistrictAttica,and
developedauniquehistoryinGreece.ItfirstgaineddistinctionbytherepulseofthePersianinvasionsinb.c.490and480,andafterwardshad
abrilliantcareerofpolitical,commercial,literary,andartisticsupremacy.Itwasinthe5thcent.b.c.thegreatestofGreekdemocracies,and
producedthegreatestsculpturesandliteraryworkstheworldhaseverseen.InthesamecenturySocrateslivedandtaughtthere,asdidlater
PlatoandAristotle.TheconflictwithSparta,theeffectsoftheMacedonianinvasion,andultimatelytheRomanconquestofGreece,which
becameaRomanprovinceunderthenameAchaia(wh.see),lessenedthepoliticalimportanceofAthens,butasaStateitreceivedfrom
Romeapositionoffreedomandconsiderationworthyofitsundyingmerits.Athensremainedsupremeinphilosophyandthearts,andwasin
St.Paulstime(Ac17:1518:1,1Th3:1)theseatofafamousuniversity.

A.Souter.
ATHLAI.AJewwhomarriedaforeignwife(Ezr10:28calledin1Es9:29Emmatheis).
ATIPHA(1Es5:32).SeeHatipha.
ATONEMENT.Thewordatonement(atonement),inEnglish,denotesthemakingtobeatone,orreconciling,ofpersonswhohave
beenatvariance.InOTusageitsignifiesthatbywhichsiniscoveredorexpiated,orthewrathofGodaverted.Thus,inEV,ofthe
Leviticalsacrifices(Lv1:4,4:21,26,31,35etc.),ofthehalfshekelofransommoney(Ex30:15,16),oftheintercessionofMoses(Ex
32:30),ofthezealofPhinehas(Nu25:13),etc.IntheNTthewordoccursoncein
AVastr.oftheGr.wordkatallag,ordinarilyandinRVrenderedreconciliation(Ro5:11).Thereconciliationhereintended,however,as
theexpressionreceived,andalsov.10(reconciledtoGodthroughthedeathofhisSon)show,isthatmadebythedeathofChristonbehalf
ofsinners(cf.Col1:20havingmadepeacethroughthebloodofhiscross).InbothOTandNTtheimplicationisthatthereconciliationor
makingatoneofmankindandGodiseffectedthroughexpiationorpropitiation.Initstheologicaluse,therefore,thewordatonementhas
cometodenote,nottheactualstateofreconciliationintowhichbelieversareintroducedthroughChrist,whoseworkisthemeanstothisend,
butthereconcilingactitselftheworkaccomplishedbyChristinHissufferingsanddeathforthesalvationoftheworld.

i.IntheOldTestament.IntracingtheScriptureteachingonthesubjectof
atonement,itisdesirabletobeginwiththeOT,inwhichthefoundationsoftheNTdoctrinearelaid.Hereseverallinesofpreparationaretobe
distinguished,which,asOTrevelationdrawstoitsclose,tendtounite.

1.Themostgeneral,butindispensable,preparationintheOTliesinitsdoctrinesoftheholiness,righteousness,andgraceofGodalso,
ofthesinandguiltofman.Godsholiness(includinginthisHisethicalpurity,Hisawfulelevationabovethecreature,andHiszealforHis
ownhonour)isthebackgroundofeverydoctrineofatonement.Asholy,Godabhorssin,andcannotbutinrighteousnesseternallyreact
againstit.Hisgraceshowsitselfinforgiveness(Ex34:6,7)butevenforgivenessmustbebestowedinsuchaway,andonsuchconditions,
thattheinterestofholinessshallnotbecompromised,butshallbeupheldandmagnified.Hencethebestowalofforgivenessinconnexionwith
intercession(Moses,etc.),withsacrificialatonements,withsignalvindicationsoftheDivinerighteousness(Phinehas).Onmanssidesinis
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viewedasvoluntary,asinfinitelyheinous,asentailingaDivinecondemnationthatneedstoberemoved.Alltheworldhasgoneastrayfrom
God,andtheconnexioninwhicheachindividualstandswithhisfamily,nation,andraceentailsonhimacorporateaswellasanindividual
responsibility.

2.AsecondimportantlineofpreparationintheOTisinthedoctrineofsacrifice.Whatevertheoriginsorethnicassociationsofsacrifice,
itisindisputablethatsacrificeintheOThasapeculiarmeaning,inaccordancewiththeideasofGodandHisholinessaboveindicated.From
thebeginning,sacrificewastheappointedmeansofapproachtoGod.Whether,intheearliestnarrative,thedifferenceinthesacrificesofCain
andAbelhadtodowiththefactthattheonewasbloodlessandtheotherananimalsacrifice(Gn4:35),orlaysolelyinthedispositionofthe
offerers(v.7),isnotclear.Probably,however,fromthecommencement,amysticvirtuewasattachedtothesheddingandpresentationofthe
sacredelementoftheblood.UptotheExodus,wehaveonlythegenerictypeoftheburntofferingtheExodusitselfgavebirthtothe
Passover,inwhichbloodsprinkledgaveprotectionfromdestructionattheratificationoftheCovenant,peaceofferingsappearwithburnt
offerings(Ex20:24,24:5)finally,theLeviticalritualprovidedacultusinwhichtheideaofatonementhadaleadingplace.Criticalquestions
astotheageofthislegislationneednotdetainus,forthereisanincreasingtendencytorecognizethat,whateverthedateofthefinal
codificationoftheLeviticallaws,thebulkoftheselawsrestonolderusages.Thatthepropitiatoryideainsacrificegoesbacktoearlytimes
maybeseeninsuchpicturesofpatriarchalpietyasJob1:5,42:7,8whileanatoningvirtueisexpresslyassumedasbelongingtosacrificein1
S3:14.Cf.alsoallusionstosinandguiltofferings,andtopropitiatoryritesinsooldastratumoflawsastheLawofHoliness(Lv19:21,
22,23:19),andinHos4:8,Mic6:6,7,Ezk40:39,42:13etc.

ItisintheLeviticalsystemthatalltheideasinvolvedinOTsacrificecometoclearestexpression.TheEpistletotheHebrewsadmirably
seizestheideaofthesystem.Ithasabsolutelynothingtodowiththeideasthatunderlayheathenrites,butrestsonabasisofitsown.It
providesameansbywhichthepeople,notwithstandingtheirsin,maintaintheirfellowshipwithGod,andenjoyHisfavour.Itrestsinallits
partsontheideaoftheholinessofGod,andisdesignedthroughouttoimpressonthemindoftheworshipperthesenseoftheseparation
whichsinhasmadebetweenhimandGod.EvenwithsacrificethepeoplecouldnotapproachGoddirectly,butonlythroughthepriesthood.
ThepriestsalonecouldenterthesacredenclosureintotheMostHolyPlaceeventhepriestswerenotpermittedtoenter,butonlythehigh
priest,andhebutonceayear,andthenonlywithbloodofsacrifice,offeredfirstforhimselfandthenforthepeopleallthissignifyingthat
thewayintotheholiestofallwasnotyetmademanifest(He9:7,
8).

Thedetailsofthesacrificialritualmustbesoughtelsewhere(seeSacrifice).Itistobenotedgenerallythattheanimalsacrificeswereof
fourkindstheburntoffering,thesinoffering,theguiltoffering(aspeciesofsinofferingwhichincludedamoneycompensationtothe
personinjured),thepeaceoffering.Thevictimsmustbeunblemishedthepresentationwasaccompaniedbyimpositionofhands(onmeaning,
cf.Lv16:21)theblood,afterthevictimwaskilled,wassprinkledonandaboutthealtar:ontheDayofAtonementitwastakenalsowithin
theveil.Theburntofferingwaswhollyconsumedinthecaseofthepeaceofferingafeastwasheldwithpartoftheflesh.Nosacrificewas
permittedforsinsdonepresumptuously,orwithahighhand(Nu15:30).
Thedesignofallthesesacrifices(evenofthepeaceoffering,asfeaturesoftheritualshow)wastomakeatonementforthesinofthe
offerer,orofthecongregation(Lv1:4,4:20,26,31,5:6,17:11etc.).Thewordsotranslatedmeansprimarilytocover,thentopropitiateor
expiate.TheatoningvirtueisdeclaredinLv17:11toresideintheblood,asthevehicleofthesoulorlife.Theeffectoftheofferingwasto

coverthepersonoroffencefromtheeyesofaholyGod,i.e.toannulguiltandprocureforgiveness.Itcleansedfrommoralandceremonial
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coverthepersonoroffencefromtheeyesofaholyGod,i.e.toannulguiltandprocureforgiveness.Itcleansedfrommoralandceremonial
pollution.
Fromthispointtheoriestaketheiroriginastotheprecisesignificationofsacrificialatonement.(1)Wastheactpurelysymbolicalan
expressionofpenitence,confession,prayer,consecration,surrenderofoneslifetoGod?Hardlyforif,inoneway,thevictimisidentified
withtheofferer,inanotheritisdistinguishedfromhimasacreaturethroughwhosebloodsheddingexpiationismadeforhissin.(2)Isthe
idea,then,asmanyhold,thatthebloodrepresentsapurelifeputbetweenthesinfulsoulandGodaninnocentlifecoveringapollutedone?
Inthiscasethedeathisheldtobeimmaterial,andthemanipulationoftheblood,regardedasstillfreshandliving,istheonethingof
importance.Thetheorycomesshortinnotrecognizingthat,inanycase,thereisintheacttheacknowledgmentofGodsrighteoussentence
uponsinelsewhybringsacrificeofatonementatall?Itistruethatthebloodrepresentsthelife,butitissurelynotaslifesimply,butaslife
takenlifegivenupindeaththatthebloodispresentedonthealtarasacoveringforsin.Itwouldbehardotherwisetoexplainhowinthe
NTsomuchstressisalwayslaidondeath,orthesheddingoftheblood,asthemeansofredemption.(3)Thereremainstheviewthatthe
victimisregardedasexpiatingtheguiltoftheoffererbyitselfdyinginhisroomyieldingupitslifeinhissteadinacknowledgmentofthe
judgmentofGodonhissin.This,whichistheolderview,isprobablystillthetruer.ThetheoryofRitschl,thatthesacrificeshadnothingtodo
withsin,butweresimplyaprotectionagainsttheterriblemajestyofGod,isgenerallyallowedtobeuntenable.
3.ThereisyetathirdlineofpreparationforthisdoctrineintheOT,viz.:theprophetic.Theprophets,atfirstsight,seemtotakeupa
positionaltogetherantagonistictosacrifices.Seeing,however,thatinmanyindirectwaystheyrecognizeitslegitimacy,andevenincludeitin
theirpicturesofarestoredtheocracy(cf.Is56:6,7,60:7,66:23,Jer17:2427,33:17,18etc.),theirpolemicmustberegardedasagainstthe
abuseratherthantheuse.Theproperpropheticpreparation,however,layalongadifferentlinefromthesacrificial.Thebasisofitisinthe
ideaoftheRighteousSufferer,whichisseenshapingitselfintheProphetsandthePsalms(cf.Ps22).Therighteousman,boththroughthe
persecutionshesustainsandthenationalcalamitiesarisingfromthepeoplessinswhichheshares,isalivingexemplificationofthelawofthe
innocentsufferingfortheguilty.Suchsuffering,however,whilegivingweighttointercession,isnotinitselfatoning.Butinthepictureofthe
ServantofJehovahinIs53anewideaemerges.Thesufferingsarisingfromthepeoplessinshave,inthisHolyOne,become,throughthe
spiritinwhichtheyareborne,andtheDivinepurposeinpermittingthem,sufferingsforsinvicarious,healing,expiatory.Theirexpiatory
characterisaffirmedinthestrongestmannerinthesuccessiveverses,andsacrificiallanguageisfreelytakenoveruponthesufferer(vv.5,6,
8,1012).Hereatlengththeideasofprophecyandthoseofsacrificiallawcoincide,and,thoughthereisnosecondinstanceoflikeclearand
detailedportraiture,itisnotdifficulttorecognizetherecurrenceofthesameideasinlaterprophecies,e.g.,inZec3:9,12:10,13:1,7,Dn
9:2426.WithsuchpredictionsonitslipsOTprophecycloses,awaitingthetimewhen,inMalachiswords,theLord,whommensought,
wouldcomesuddenlytoHisTemple(3:1).

ii.IntheNewTestament.TheperiodbetweentheOTandtheNTaffordslittle
forourpurpose.Itiscertainthat,inthetimeofourLord,evenif,assomethink,therewerepartialexceptions,thegreatmassoftheJewish
peoplehadnoideaofasufferingMessiah,orthoughtofanyconnexionbetweentheMessiahandthesacrifices.Ifatonementwasneeded,it
wastobesoughtfor,apartfromthesacrifices,inalmsgivingandothergooddeedsandthevirtuesoftherighteouswereregardedasinsome
degreeavailingforthewicked.ItwasanewdeparturewhenJesustaughtthattheChristshouldsuffer(cf.Mk9:12,Lk24:46).YetinHis
ownsufferinganddeathHeclaimedtobefulfillingtheLawandtheProphets(Lk22:37,24:46).

1.LifeandTeachingofJesus.ThemaintaskofJesusonearthwastorevealtheFather,todisclosethetruenatureoftheKingdomof
Godanditsrighteousness,inoppositiontofalseideals,toleadmentotherecognitionofHisMessiahship,torecoverthelost,toattachafew
faithfulsoulstoHimselfasthefoundationofHisnewKingdom,andpreparetheirmindsforHisdeathandresurrection,andfortheafterduty
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faithfulsoulstoHimselfasthefoundationofHisnewKingdom,andpreparetheirmindsforHisdeathandresurrection,andfortheafterduty
ofspreadingHisgospelamongmankind.ThedependenceoftheMessianicsalvationonHisPersonandactivityiseverywherepresupposed
butitwasonlyinfragmentaryandpartialutterancesthatHewasableforatimetospeakofitsconnexionwithHisdeath.Alikeinthe
SynopticsandinJohnweseehowthisdnouementisgraduallyledupto.AtHisbirthitisdeclaredofHimthatheshallsavehispeoplefrom
theirsins(Mt1:21)HeisthepromisedSaviourofthehouseofDavid(Lk1:3133,2:11)theBaptistannouncedHim,withprobable
referencetoIs53,astheLambofGod,whichtakethawaythesinoftheworld(Jn1:29,cf.v.36).FromthehourofHisdefiniteacceptance
ofHisvocationofMessiahshipinHisbaptism,andattheTemptation,combinedasthiswaswiththeclearconsciousnessofabreakwiththe
idealsofHisnation,JesuscouldnotbuthavebeenawarethatHismissionwouldcostHimHislife.Hewhorecalledthefateofallpast
prophets,andsentforthHisdiscipleswithpredictionsofpersecutionsanddeath(Mt10),couldbeundernodelusionsastoHisownfateatthe
handsofscribesandPharisees(cf.Mt.9:15).ButitwasnotsimplyasafatethatJesusrecognizedtheinevitablenessofHisdeaththereis
abundantattestationthatHesawinitaDivineordination,thenecessaryfulfilmentofprophecy,andanessentialmeanstothesalvationofthe
world.AsearlyastheJudanministry,accordingly,wefindHimspeakingtoNicodemusoftheSonofManbeingliftedup,thatwhosoever
believethonHimshouldnotperish(Jn3:14f.).HesetsHimselfforthinthediscourseatCapernaumastheBreadofLife,intermswhichimply
thesurrenderofHisbodytodeathforthelifeoftheworld(Jn6:32ff.).Later,HerepeatedlyspeaksofthevoluntarysurrenderofHislifefor
Hissheep(Jn10:11,15,17,18etc.).AfterPetersgreatconfession,HemakesfullannouncementofHisapproachingsufferingsanddeath,
alwayscouplingthiswithHisafterresurrection(Mt16:21,17:22,23,20:18,19||).HedwellsonthenecessityofHisdeathforthefulfilment
oftheDivinepurpose,andisstraitenedtillitisaccomplished(Mk10:32,Lk9:51,12:50).Itwasthesubjectofconverseatthe
Transfiguration(Lk9:31).Yetclearerintimationsweregiven.Thereisfirstthewellknownannouncementtothedisciples,calledforthby
theirdisputesaboutpreeminence:TheSonofMancamenottobeministeredunto,buttominister,andtogivehislifearansomformany
(Mt20:28||).HereChristannouncesthatHisdeathwasthepurposeofHiscoming,and,further,thatitwasofthenatureofasavingransom.
Hislifewasgiventoredeemthelivesofothers.TothesameeffectarethesolemnwordsattheLastSupper.HereChristdeclaresthatHis
body,symbolizedbythebrokenbread,andHisblood,symbolizedbythepouredoutwine,aregivenforHisdisciplesfortheremissionofsins
andthemakingofaNewCovenant,andtheyareinvitedtoeatanddrinkofthespiritualfoodthusprovided(Mt26:26ff.||,1Co11:23ff.).Itis
reasonabletoinferfromtheseutterancesthatJesusattachedasupremeimportanceandsavingefficacytoHisdeath,andthatHisdeathwasa
deliberateandvoluntarysurrenderofHimselffortheendofthesalvationoftheworld.

Ifweinquire,next,astothenatureofthisconnexionofChristsdeathwithhumansalvation,wecanscarcelyerrifweassumeJesusto
haveunderstooditinthelightofthegreatprophecywhichweknowtohavebeenofteninHisthoughts(Is53).Alreadyatthecommencement
ofHisGalilanministryHepubliclyidentifiedHimselfwiththeServantofJehovah(Lk4:13ff.)thewordsofIs53:12werepresenttoHis
mindasthelasthourdrewnear(Lk22:37).WhatprophecyofallHestudiedcouldbemoreinstructivetoHimastothemeaningofHis
sufferingsanddeath?ThisyieldsthekeytoHisutterancesquotedabove,andconfirmstheviewwehavetakenoftheirmeaning.Thencame
thecrisishouritself.AlltheEvangelistsdwellminutelyonthescenesofthebetrayal,Gethsemane,thetrial,themockingandscourging,the
crucifixion.Buthowmysteriousaremanyoftheelementsinthesesufferings(e.g.Mk14:33ff.,15:34,Jn12:27)howstrangetoseethem
submittedtobythePrinceofLifehowawfulthehorrorofgreatdarknessinwhichtheChristpassedaway!Canweexplainitonthe
hypothesisofasimplemartyrdom?DowenotneedthesolutionwhichtheotherpassagessuggestofasinbearingRedeemer?Finally,thereis
thecrowningattestationtoHisMessiahship,andsealuponHiswork,intheResurrection,andthecommissiongiventothedisciplestopreach
remissionofsinsinHisnametoallnationsaclearproofthatthroughHisdeathandresurrectionafundamentalchangehadbeenwroughtin
therelationsofGodtohumanity(Mt28:1820,Lk24:47,Jn20:2123).

2. TheApostolicteaching.TheOThadspokentheSonofManhadcomeandyieldedupHislifearansomformany.Hewasnow
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2.TheApostolicteaching.TheOThadspokentheSonofManhadcomeandyieldedupHislifearansomformany.Hewasnow
exalted,andhadshedforththeHolySpirit(Ac2:32,33).Thereremainedthetaskofputtingthesethingstogether,andofdefinitely
interpretingtheworkChristhadaccomplished,inthelightofthepropheciesandsymbolsoftheOldCovenant.Thiswasthetaskofthe
Apostles,guidedbythesameSpiritthathadinspiredtheprophetsandfromitarosetheApostolicdoctrineoftheatonement.Variedin
standpointsandinmodesofrepresentation,theApostolicwritingsaresingularlyconsentientintheirtestimonytothecentralfactofthe
propitiatoryandredeemingefficacyofChristsdeath.St.PaulstatesitasthecommondoctrineoftheChurchhowthatChristdiedforour
sinsaccordingtotheScripturesandthathewasburiedandthathehathbeenraisedonthethirdday,accordingtotheScriptures(1Co15:3,
4).St.Peter,St.Paul,St.John,theEpistletotheHebrews,theBookofRevelation,areatonehere.Theclassofexpressionsinwhichthisidea
issetforthisfamiliar:Christboreoursins,diedforoursins,sufferedforsins,therighteousfortheunrighteous,wasmadesinforus,
wasthepropitiationforoursins,wasasinoffering,reconciledustoGodinthebodyofhisfleshthroughdeath,wasourransom,
procuredforusforgivenessofsinsthroughhisblood,etc.(cf.1P1:2,
18,19,2:21,24,3:18,Ro3:24,25,5:811,8:34,2Co5:21,Gal1:4,3:13,4:4,5,
Eph1:7,2:1317,20,5:2,Col1:14,2022,1Ti2:5,8,Tit2:14,He1:3,2:17,7:26,9:2428,10:1014,1Jn1:7,2:2,3:5,4:10,Rev1:5,5:9
etc.).Itiscustomarytospeakofthesacrificialtermsemployedasfiguresborrowedfromtheolderdispensation.TheNTpointofviewrather
isthatthesacrificesoftheOldCovenantarethefigures,andChristsperfectofferingofHimselftoGod,onceforall,formansredemption,is
therealityofwhichtheearliersacrificesweretheshadowsandtypes(He10:1ff.).

SeveralthingsstandoutclearlyintheApostolicdoctrineoftheatonementeachoftheminharmonywithwhatwehavelearnedfromour
studyofthesubjectintheOT.Thepresuppositionsarethesametheholiness,righteousness,andgraceofGod,andthesinandguiltofman,
entailingontheindividualandtheraceaDivinecondemnationandexposuretowrathwhichmanisunableofhimselftoremove(wroughtout
mostfullybySt.Paul,Ro1:17,3:9,1923,Gal2:16etc.).Theatonementitselfisrepresented(1)asthefruit,andnotthecauseofGodslove
(Ro5:8,1Jn4:10etc.)(2)asanecessityforhumansalvation(Ro3:19ff.,He9:22)
(3)asrealizingperfectlywhattheancientsacrificesdidimperfectlyandtypically
(He9:10)asanexpiation,purgingfromguiltandcancellingcondemnation(Ro
8:1,32,33,He1:3,9:1114,1Jn1:7,Rev1:5etc.),andatthesametimea
propitiation,avertingwrath,andopeningthewayforadisplayofmercy(Ro3:25,He2:17,1Jn2:2,4:10)(4)ascontaininginitselfthe
mostpowerfulethicalmotivetorepentance,anewlife,activegodliness,Christianservice,etc.(Ro6:1ff.,1Co6:20,2Co5:14,15,Gal
2:20,6:14,Eph5:1,2,1P1:21,22,1Jn4:11etc.withthisisconnectedtheworkoftheHolySpirit,whichoperatesthesesanctifyingchanges
inthesoul)(5)as,therefore,effectingatrueredemption,bothinrespectofthemagnitudeofthepriceatwhichoursalvationisbought(Ro
8:32,1Ti2:6,He10:29,1P1:18,19etc.),andthecompletenessofthedeliveranceaccomplishedfromwrath(Ro5:9,1Th1:10),fromthe
powerofindwellingsin(Ro6:6,1214,8:2etc.),frombondagetoSatan(Eph2:2,3,6:12,He2:14,15etc.),fromthetyrannyoftheevil
world(Gal1:4,6:14,Tit2:14,1P1:18etc.),finally,fromtheeffectsofsinindeathandallotherevils(Ro8:23,1Co15:20ff.etc.).

IntheNTteaching,therefore,thesacrificeofChristfulfilsallthatwasprefigurativeintheOTdoctrineofatonementyet,asthetrueand
perfectsacrifice,itinfinitelytranscends,whileitsupersedes,allOTprefigurations.TherelationoftheChristianatonementtothatoftheLaw
is,accordingly,asmuchoneofcontrastasoffulfilment.ThisisthethesiswroughtoutintheEpistletotheHebrews,butitstruthisrecognized
inallpartsoftheNT.ThesacrificesoftheOTwere,intheirverynature,incapableofreallyremovingsin(He10:4).Theirimperfectionwas
shownintheirrationalcharacterofthevictims,intheirfrequentrepetition,intheirmultiplication,etc.(He9:10).InJesus,however,every
charactermeets,qualifyingHimtomakeatonementforhumanityHimselfatonceperfectpriestandperfectsacrifice:DivinedignityasSon
ofGod(Ro1:4,8:32,He1:2,3etc.)aperfectparticipationinhumannature(Ro1:3,8:3,Gal4:4,He2:1418etc.)absolutesinlessness(2 163/172
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ofGod(Ro1:4,8:32,He1:2,3etc.)aperfectparticipationinhumannature(Ro1:3,8:3,Gal4:4,He2:1418etc.)absolutesinlessness(2
Co5:21,He4:15,1P1:19,2:22,1Jn3:5etc.)entirehumansympathy(Ro8:34,He2:17,4:1416)asregardsGod,undeviatingobedience
andsurrendertothewilloftheFather(Ph2:7,8,He4:8,9,10:810).HeisJesusChristtherighteous(1Jn2:1),andHissacrificialdeathis
theculminationofHisobedience(Ro5:19,Ph2:8,He10:9,10).

iii.RationaleoftheAtonement.ThewayisnowopentoourlastquestionHowwasatonementforsinbyChristpossible?Andinwhat
didChristsatonementconsist?TheNTdoesnotdevelopatheologyoftheatonementyetatheologywouldnotbepossibleiftheNTdidnot
yieldtheprinciples,andlaydownthelines,ofatleastapartialsolutionofthisproblem.

Achiefcluetoananswertotheabovequestionsliesinwhatistaught(1)of
Christsoriginal,essentialrelationtothecreation(cf.Jn1:3,4,1Co8:5,Eph1:19,Col1:1520,He1:2,Rev1:11,3:14)and(2),asarising
outofthat,ofHisarchetypal,representativerelationtotheraceHecametosave(cf.Jn1:4,814,Ro5:12ff.,1Co15:21,22,4547).This
connectsitselfwithwhatissaidofChristsDivinedignity.DeepereventhanthevalueHisDivineSonshipgivestoHissacrificeistheoriginal
relationtohumanityoftheCreativeWordwhichrendersHisuniquerepresentativerelationtotheracepossible.Itisnotgoingbeyondthe
representationsoftheNTtosay,withMauriceandothers,thatHeistherootofhumanity.InHimitisgroundedbyHimitissustainedfrom
Himitderivesallthepowersofitsdevelopment.WhileHecondescendstotakeonHimthenatureofcreatedhumanity,Hispersonalityis
abovehumanity.HenceHisgenericrelationtotheraceSonofGodSonofMan.Inthismysteryofgodliness(1Ti3:16)liesthe
possibilityofarepresentativeatonementfortherace.

ForthisisthenextpointinthesolutionofourproblemChristsidentificationofHimselfwiththeraceHecametosaveiscomplete.Itis
notmerelyfederalorlegalitisvital,andthisineveryrespect.HisloveisunboundedHissympathyiscompleteHispurposeanddesire
tosaveareunfaltering.HeidentifiesHimselfwithhumanity,withaperfectconsciousness(1)ofwhatHeis(2)ofwhattheraceHecameto
saveisandneeds(3)ofwhataperfectatonementinvolves(cf.Jn8:14ff.).Himselfholy,thewellbelovedSon,Heknowswithunerring
clearnesswhatsinis,andwhatthemindofGodisaboutsin.HedoesnotshrinkfromanythingHisidentificationwithasinfulraceentails
uponHim,butfreelyacceptsitspositionandresponsibilitiesasHisown.Heismadeunderthelaw(Gal4:4)alawnotmerelypreceptive,
butbrokenandviolated,andentailingcurse.IdentifyingHimselfthusperfectlywiththeraceofmenasundersinontheonehand,andwith
themindofGodaboutsinontheother,HeisthenaturalmediatorbetweenGodandman,andisaloneinthepositiontorendertoGod
whateverisnecessaryasatonementforsin.

Butwhatisnecessary,andhowdidChristrenderit?Herecomeinthetheoriesofatonementmostofthembrokenlightsallneededto
dofulljusticetotheDivinereality.WewoulddismissasinfraScripturalalltheorieswhichaffirmthatatonementreparationtotheviolated
lawofrighteousnessisnotnecessary.Christswork,whilebringingforgiveness,conservesholiness,magnifieslaw,vindicatesrighteousness
(Ro3:2131).Alsodefectivearetheorieswhichseekthesoleexplanationofatonementintheethicalmotivepurelymoraltheories.
AtonementistakenhereinthesenseonlyofreconciliationthereconciliationofmantoGod.Scripturerecognizesobstaclestosalvationon
thesideofrighteousnessinGodaswellasinmansunwillingness,andatonementaimsattheremovalofboth.Ithastheaspectofpropitiation,
ofexpiation,ofrestitutioinintegrum,aswellasofmoralinfluence.Itisanactofreconciliation,embracingGodsrelationtotheworld
equallywiththeworldsrelationtoGod(cf.Ro3:25,5:11,10,2Co5:1821).

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Thereremaintwoviews,onefindingtheessenceofChristsatonementinthesurrenderofaholywilltoGodintheobedienceofChrist
untodeath,eventhedeathoftheCross(Mauriceandothers).Thisassuredlyisavitalelementinatonement,butisitthewhole?Does
ScripturenotrecognizealsothesubmissionofChristtotheenduranceoftheactualpenalevilofsinspeciallytodeathasthatrestsinthe
judgmentofGoduponourrace?Allthathasprecedednecessitatestheanswerthatitdoes.Theother,thelegalorforensicview,
accordingly,putstheessenceofatonementinthispenalenduranceinthesubstitutionarysubmissionofChristtothepenaltyduetousforsin.
Butthisalsoisonesidedandunethical,ifdivorcedfromtheother,andfromtherecognitionofthefactthatnotsimplyenduranceofevil,but
thespiritinwhichtheevilisendured,andtheresponsemadetotheDivinemindinit,istheoneacceptablethingtoGod(cf.J.MLeod
Campbell).Itishere,therefore,thatwemustseektheinmostsecretofatonement.Theinnocentsufferingwithandfortheguiltyisalawfrom
whichJesusdidnotwithdrawHimself.InHisconsciousnessofsolidaritywithmankind,Hefreelysubmittedtothoseevils(shame,ignominy,
suffering,temptation,death)whichexpressthejudgmentofGodonthesinoftheworld,andintheexperienceofthempeculiarlyinthe
yieldingupofHislifedidsuchhonourtoalltheprinciplesofrighteousnessinvolved,renderedsoinwardandspiritualaresponsetothe
wholemindofGodinHisattitudetothesinoftheworld,asconstitutedaperfectatonementforthatsinforsuchasbelievinglyacceptit,and
makeitsspirittheirown.BythewhichwillwehavebeensanctifiedthroughtheofferingofthebodyofJesusChristonceforall(He10:10).
SeePropitiation,Reconciliation,Redemption.

JamesOrr.

ATONEMENT,DAYOF.TheDayofAtonement,withitsuniqueand
impressiveritual,istheculminationandcrownofthesacrificialworshipoftheOT.TheprincipaldetailsaregiveninLv16,supplemented
by23:2632,Nu29:711,Ex30:10,allfromthePriestsCode,thoughnotall,asweshallsee,fromtheoldeststrataofthepriestly
legislation.Thedatewasthe10thdayoftheseventhmonth(Tishri)reckoningfromeveningtoevening(Lv16:29,23:27ff.).Notonlywas
thisdayasabbathofsolemnrest,onwhichnoworkofanysortwastobedone,butitsuniqueplaceamongthereligiousfestivalsofthe
OTwasemphasizedbythestrictobservanceofafast.TheritespeculiartotheDay(Ym),asitistermedinlaterliterature,maybe
convenientlygroupedinfivestages.

(a)Inthepreparatorystage(Lv16:310),afterthespecialmorningsacrificeshadbeenoffered(Nu29:711),thehighpriestselectedthe
appointedsinandburntofferingsforhimselfandhishouse,i.e.thepriestlycaste,thenlaidasidehisusualornatevestments,bathed,and
robedinasimplewhitelinentunicandgirdle.Henextselectedtwohegoatsandaramforthepeoplesofferings,andproceededtocastlots
uponthetwogoatsonelotforJ,andtheotherlotforAzazel(AVscapegoat,seeAzazel).Thesepreparationscompleted,theproper
expiatoryriteswerehegun,andwereaccomplishedinthreesuccessivestages.(b)Inthefirststage(vv.1114)thehighpriestmadeatonement
forhimselfandthepriesthood.Afterslayingthebullockofthesinoffering,hetookacenserfilledwithlivecharcoalfromthealtarofburnt
offeringandahandfulofincense,andenteredtheMostHolyPlace.Herehecasttheincenseonthecoals,producingacloudofsmoke,by
whichthedwellingplaceoftheMostHighbetweentheCherubimwashiddenfrommortalgaze(seeEx33:20).Thisdone,hereturnedtothe
court,toenterimmediately,forthesecondtime,theinnersanctuary,carryingabasinwiththebloodofthebullock,whichhesprinkledonthe
frontofthemercyseatonce,andseventimesonthegroundbeforetheark.
(c)Inthesecondstage(vv.1519)atonementwasmadeinsuccessionfortheMostHolyPlace,theHolyPlace,andtheoutercourt.The
goatonwhichthelot

forJhadfallenwasslainbythehighpriest,whothenenteredtheMostHolyPlaceforthethirdtimewithitsblood,whichhemanipulated165/172
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forJhadfallenwasslainbythehighpriest,whothenenteredtheMostHolyPlaceforthethirdtimewithitsblood,whichhemanipulated
asbefore.OnhisreturnthroughtheHolyPlaceasimilarceremonywasperformed(v.33,cf.Ex30:10),afterwhichheproceeded,asdirected
invv.18f.,tocleanseandhallowthealtarofburntoffering,whichstoodintheoutercourt.

(d)Theseallleduptotheculminatingriteinthethirdstage(vv.2022).Herethehighpriest,placingbothhandsontheheadofthegoat
allottedtoAzazel,madesolemnconfessionthetenorofwhichmaystillbereadintheMishnictreatiseYmofallthenationssins.By
thisceremonythesesinswereconceivedasnotonlysymbolicallybutactuallytransferredtotheheadofthegoat(vv.21f.,seebelow),which
wassolemnlyconductedtoasolitaryland(RV),thesupposedabodeofthemysteriousAzazel.InNTtimesthegoatwasledtoalofty
precipiceinthewildernessabout12mileseastofJerusalem,overwhichitwasthrownbackwards,tobedashedinpiecesontherocksbelow
(Ym,vi.6ff.).
(e)WenowreachtheconcludingstageoftheDaysceremonial(vv.2328).Thefactthattheessentialpartwasnowaccomplishedwas
strikinglyshownbythehighpriestsretiringintotheHolyPlacetoputofftheholygarments(vv.23,32),bathe,andresumehisordinary
highpriestlyvestments.Returningtothecourt,heofferedtheburntofferingsforhimselfandthepeople,togetherwiththefatofthesin
offering.Theremainingverses(2628)dealwithdetails,thecharacteristicsignificanceofwhichwillbediscussedpresently.
ReasoningfromtheliteraryhistoryofLv16,fromthehighlydevelopedsenseofsin,andfromtheuniqueprominencegiventofasting,as
wellasonothergroundswhichcannotbefullysetforthhere,OTscholarsarenowpracticallyunanimousinregardingtheDayofAtonement
asaninstitutionofthepostexilicage.Thereisgoodreasonforholdingalthoughonthispointthereisnotthesameunanimitythatit
originatedevenlaterthanthetimeofEzra,bywhomthemainbodyofthePriestsCodewasintroduced.Thenucleusfromwhichtheritesof
Lv16weredevelopedwasprobablythesimplerceremoniallaiddownbyEzekielforthepurificationofthesanctuary45:18ff.).Other
elements,suchastheearlierprovisionsfortheentryofthehighpriestintotheMostHolyPlacestillfoundintheopeningversesofLv16,and
perhapsthedesiretomakeanannualinstitutionofthegreatfastofNeh9:1ff.,contributedtothefinaldevelopmentoftheinstitutionasitnow
appearsinthePentateuch.ItisdoubtlessmucholderthantheearliestreferenceinSir50:5(c.b.c.180).InNTitisreferredtoastheFast(
Ac27:9),andsooccasionallybyJosephus.Tothisdayitremainsthemostsolemnandmostlargelyattendedreligiouscelebrationofthe
Jewishyear.
ThedominatingthoughtofLv16istheawfulrealityandcontagionofsin,whichaffectsnotonlypriestandpeople,butthesanctuaryitself.
Itscorrelateistheintenserealizationoftheneedofcleansingandpropitiation,astheindispensableconditionofrightrelationswithaholy
God.Thedetailsoftheritualbywhichtheserelationswereperiodicallyrenewedareofsurpassinginterest,asshowinghowtheloftlest
religiousthoughtmaybeassociatedwithritualelementsbelongingtothemostprimitivestagesofreligion.Thus,inthecasebeforeus,the
efficacyoftheblood,theuniversalmediumofpurificationandatonement,isenhancedbycessationfromlabourandcompleteabstinencefrom
foodthelattertheoutwardaccompanimentofinwardpenitenceandbythehighpriestspublicandrepresentativeconfessionofthe
nationssins.Yetalongsideofthesewefindtheantiqueconceptionofholinessanduncleannessassomethingmaterial,andofthefatal
consequencesofunguardedcontactwiththeoneortheother.Itisonlyonthisplaneofthoughtthatoneunderstandstheneedofthecleansing
ofthesanctuary,infectedbytheuncleannessesofthepeopleamongwhomitdwelt(16:16,RV,cf.Ezk45:18ff.).Thesameprimitiveideaof
thecontagionofholinessunderliestheprescribedchangeofgarmentsonthepartofthehighpriest.Theholygarmentsinwhichtheessential
partsoftheritewereperformedhadtobedepositedintheHolyPlacethosewhohadbeenbroughtintocontactwiththesacrosanctanimals
(vv.26ff.)mustbatheandwashtheirclothes,lest,asEzekielsaysinanotherconnexion,theysanctifythepeoplewiththeirgarments(44:19),
i.e.lestthemysteriouscontagionpasstothepeoplewithdisastrousresults.Themoststrikingillustrationofthistransmissibility,however,is
seeninthecentralritebywhichthenationssinsaretransferredtotheheadofthegoatforAzazel,thedemonicspiritofthewilderness(cf.166/172
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seeninthecentralritebywhichthenationssinsaretransferredtotheheadofthegoatforAzazel,thedemonicspiritofthewilderness(cf.
thesimilarrite,Lv14:6f.).

ThesesurvivalsfromtheearlierstagesofthecommonSemiticreligionshouldnotblindthemodernstudenttotheprofoundconvictionof
sintowhichtheinstitutionbearswitness,nortotheequallyprofoundsenseoftheneedofpardonandreconciliation,andofuninterrupted
approachtoGod.ByitsemphasisontheseperennialneedsofthesoultheDayofAtonementplayednounimportantpartinthepreparationof
JudaismfortheperfectatonementthroughJesusChrist.TheauthoroftheEpistletotheHebrewsinafamiliarpassagecontraststhe
propitiatoryworkoftheJewishhighpriestonthisdaywiththegreatpropitiationofHimwho,byvirtueofHisownatoningblood,enteredin
onceforallintotheholyplace(He9:12RV),evenintoheavenitself,whereHeremains,ourgreatHighPriestandIntercessor(7:25f.).
A.R.S.Kennedy.
ATROTHBETHJOAB.SeeAtaroth,No.4.
ATROTHSHOPHAN.AtownE.ofJordan,nearAroerandJazer,fortifiedbyGad(Nu32:35).SomeplaceitwithAtareth1.at
Attrs.Thisishardlypossible.Thesiteisunknown.

W.Ewing.
ATTAI.1.AJerahmeelite(1Ch2:35f.).2.AGaditewhojoinedDavidatZiklag(1Ch12:11).3.AsonofRehoboam(2Ch11:20).
ATTAIN.InAc27:12attainhastheliteralmeaningofreachaplace(soRV).Elsewhereithasthefigurativesensestillinuse.
ATTALIA(modernAdalia).AtownonthecoastofPamphylia,notfarfromthemouthoftheriverCatarrhactes,foundedandnamedby
AttalusII.Itwasbesiegedinn.c.79byP.SeruiliusIsauricus,wheninpossessionofthepirates.IntheByzantineperioditwasofgreat
importance.Ithasthebestharbouronthecoast.PaulandBarnabascameontherefromPerga,andtookshipforAntioch(Ac14:25).

A.Souter.
ATTALUS.KingofPergamum(b.c.159138).HewasoneofthekingstowhomtheRomanSenateissaidtohavewritteninsupportof
theJewsinthetimeofSimontheMaccabee(1Mac15:22).
ATTENDANCE.In1Mac15:32attendanceisusedforakingsretinuewhilein1Ti4:13itisusedintheobsoletesenseofattention:
TillIcomegiveattendance(RVheed)toreading.
ATTHARATES(1Es9:49).Acorruptionofthetitletirshathacf.Neh8:9andart.Attharias.
ATTHARIAS(1Es5:40).Acorruptionofthetitletirshathacf.Ezr2:63andart.Attharates.
ATTIRE.SeeDress.
ATTUS(AVLettus).SonofSechenias(1Es8:29)sameasHattushof1Ch3:22andEzr8:2.

AUDIENCE.FromLat.audientiaaudiencemeansinAVtheactofhearing,asLk20:45intheaudienceofallthepeople.Nowit
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AUDIENCE.FromLat.audientiaaudiencemeansinAVtheactofhearing,asLk20:45intheaudienceofallthepeople.Nowit
meansthepeoplegatheredtohear.
AUGIA.AdaughterofZorzelleusorBarzillai(1Es5:38).
AUGURY.SeeMagic,DivinationandSorcery.
AUGUSTANBAND(RV),AUGUSTUSBAND(AV).SeeBand.
AUGUSTUS.ThisnameisLatin,andwasanewnameconferred(16thJan.
b.c.27)bytheRomanSenateonCaiusOctavius,who,afterhisadoptionbythedictatorCaiusJuliusCsar,borethenamesCaiusJulius
CsarOctavianus.Thewordmeansworthyofreverence(asagod),andwasrepresentedinGreekbySebastos,whichhasthesame
signification,butwasavoidedbyLk2:1asimpious.InofficialdocumentsAugustusappearsasImperatorCsarAugustus.Hewasbornin
b.c.63,wasthefirstRomanemperorfromb.c.23,anddiedina.d.14.Hewasequallyeminentassoldierandadministrator,andtheEmpire
wasgovernedforcenturiesverymuchonthelineslaiddownbyhim.InLk2:1heismentionedashavingissuedadecreethatallinhabitants
oftheRomanEmpireshouldbeenrolled(forpurposesoftaxation).Thereisevidencefora14yearcycleofenrolmentintheRomanprovince
ofEgypt.

A.Souter.
AUTEAS.ALevite(1Es9:48)calledinNeh8:7Hodiah.
AUTHORITY.Thecapability,liberty,andrighttoperformwhatonewills.Thewordimpliesalsothephysicalandmentalabilityfor
accomplishingtheenddesired.Authorityrefersespeciallytotherightonehas,byvirtueofhisoffice,position,orrelationship,tocommand
obedience.Thecenturionwasamanunderauthority,whoknewwhatitmeanttobesubjecttoothershigherinauthoritythanhimself,and
whoalsohimselfexercisedauthorityoverthesoldiersplacedunderhim(Mt8:8,9).InlikemannerHerodsjurisdiction(Lk23:7)washis
authorityovertheprovincewhichheruled.Hencetheauthorityofanypersonaccordswiththenatureofhisofficeorposition,sothatwe
speakoftheauthorityofahusband,aparent,anapostle,ajudge,orofanycivilruler.ThemagistrateswhoarecalledinRo13:1thehigher
powers,arestrictlythehighlyexaltedandhonouredauthoritiesoftheState,whoaretobeobeyedinallthatisright,andreverencedasthe
ministersofGodforgood.GodisHimselfthehighestauthorityinheavenandonearth,butHehasalsogivenuntoHisSonauthorityon
earthtoforgivesins(Mt9:6)andtoexecutejudgment(Jn5:27).AfterHisresurrectionJesusHimselfdeclared:Allauthorityhathbeengiven
untomeinheavenandonearth(Mt28:18cf.Col2:10,1P3:22).InthepluralthewordisusedinEph2:2,3:10,6:12,Col1:16,2:15,to
denotegoodandevilangels,whoaresupposedtoholdvariousdegreesandranksofauthority.SeeDominion,Power.

M.S.Terry.AUTHORIZEDVERSION.SeeEnglishVersions.
AVARAN(pale?).SurnameofEleazar,abrotherofJudasMaccabus(1Mac2:5,6:43).
AVEN.Aninsultingsubstitute(inEzk30:17)forOn(wh.see).
AVENGEROFBLOOD.Thepracticeofbloodrevengehasbeenvery
widelyspreadamongsocietiesinacertainstageofcivilization,wheretherehasbeennocentralauthoritytoenforcelawandorder,andwhere
thecertaintyofretaliationhasbeentheonlyguaranteeforsecurityoflife.AmongtheSemitesthecustomwasinfullforcefromtheearliest
times,anditisstilltheonlyspringoforderinArabia.Itdependsforitsmaintenanceuponthesolidarityoftheclanortribe.Allthemembers168/172
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times,anditisstilltheonlyspringoforderinArabia.Itdependsforitsmaintenanceuponthesolidarityoftheclanortribe.Allthemembers
ofthetribe,whatevermaybetheimmediateparentalrelationship,arecountedasbeingofonebloodawrongdonetooneisawrongdoneto
all,tobeavengedifnecessarybyalltheoffendedclanuponalltheclanoftheoffender.ThephraseusedbytheArabsis,Ourbloodhasbeen
shed.

OftheformofbloodrevengethatinvolvedthewholeclanortribeinthemurderofasingleindividualtherearestilltracesintheOT(Jos
7:24,2K9:25).Naturally,however,thedutyofavengingthesheddingofbloodfellprimarilyuponhimwhowasnearestofkintothe
slaughteredman.Thisnextofkinwascalledthegl.ThewordinHebrewlawwasusedinawidesenseforhimwhosedutyitwasto
redeemthepropertyorthepersonofanimpoverishedorenslavedrelative(Lv25:26,4749,Ru4:1ff.),butitcametobeusedspeciallyofthe
manwhohadtoperformthismosttragicdutyofkinship.ThesteadyeffortofHebrewlawwastolimitthisancientcustomsoastoensurethat
abloodfeudshouldnotperpetuateitselftotheruinofawholeclan,andthatdeliberatemurderandaccidentalhomicideshouldnotcome
underthesamepenalty.Itispossibletotracewithsomedefinitenesstheprogressofthissentimentbywhichtheglwasgradually
transformedfrombeingtheirresponsiblemurdererofapossiblyblamelessmanslayertobeingpracticallytheexecutionerofacarefully
consideredsentencepassedbythecommunity.SeeKin[Nextof].

R.BruceTaylor.
AVITH.AMoabitecity(Gn36:35)siteunknown.
AVOID.Thisverbisusedintransitivelyin1S18:11Davidavoidedoutofhispresencetwice.SoCoverdaletranslatesMt16:23
Auoydefrome,Sathan.
AVOUCH.Thisword,nowobsoleteexceptinlegalphrases,meanstoacknowledge.
AVVA,AVVITES(2K17:24,31).SeeIvvah.
AVVIM.1.TheAvvimarespokenofinDt2:23(cf.Jos13:4)asprimitiveinhabitantsofS.W.PalestinenearGaza,whowereabsorbed
bytheimmigrantsfromCaphtor(wh.see),i.e.thePhilistines.2.ABenjamitetown(Jos18:23)siteunknown.

J.F.McCurdy.
AWAYWITH.ThisphraseisusedidiomaticallywiththeforceofaverbinIs1:13thecallingofassemblies,Icannotawaywith,i.e.
tolerate.Thisverbisomitted(=getawaywith,i.e.inmod.Englishgetonwith).
AWL.Aboringinstrument,namedonlyinconnexionwiththeceremonywherebyaslavewasboundtoperpetualservitude(Ex21:6,Dt
15:17).
AWNING.CorrectlygivenbyRVinEzk27:7astr.ofHeb.miksk,correctedfrommekassk(AVthatwhichcoveredthee).
AX,AXE.SeeArtsandCrafts,1,3.
AXLE,AXLETREES.SeeWheel.
AYEPHIM.RVmof2S16:14,wherethetextisuncertain.
AZAEL.Fatherofoneofthecommissionappointedtoinvestigatetheforeignmarriages(1Es9:14)sameasAsahelNo.4.
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AZAEL.Fatherofoneofthecommissionappointedtoinvestigatetheforeignmarriages(1Es9:14)sameasAsahelNo.4.
AZAELUS.Oneofthosewhoputawaytheirforeignwives(1Es9:34).
AZALIAH.FatherofShaphanthescribe(2K22:3,2Ch34:8).
AZANIAH.ALevite(Neh10:9).
AZARAIAS.Thefatheror,moreprobably,amoreremoteancestorofEzra(1Es8:1)=SeraiahofEzr7:1.
AZAREL.1.AKorahitefollowerofDavidatZiklag(1Ch12:6).2.AsonofHeman(1Ch25:18calledinV.4Uzziel).3.Princeofthe
tribeofDan(1Ch27:22).4.AsonofBani,whohadmarriedaforeignwife(Ezr10:41).5.Apriest(Neh11:13).6.ALevite(Neh12:36).
AZARIAH.1.KingofJudahseeUzziah.2.2Ch22:6forAbaziah.3.2Ch15:18aprophet,sonofOded,whometAsasvictorious
armyatMareshah,andurgedthemtobeginandpersevereinareligiousreform.4.HighpriestinthereignofSolomon(1K4:2).5.1Ch6:10,
Ezr7:3,fatherofAmariah,whowashighpriestunderJehoshaphat.6.HighpriestinthereignofUzziah(2Ch26:1620)hewithstoodand
denouncedthekingwhenhepresumptuouslyattemptedtousurpthepriestsofficeofburningincenseuponthealtar.7.Highpriestinthereign
ofHezekiah(2Ch3:10,13).8.1Ch6:13,14,Ezr7:1(Ezerias,1Es8:1Azarias,2Es1:1),sonofHilkiahthehighpriest.9.1K4:5,ason
ofNathan,whowasovertheofficers(v.7).10.1Ch2:8,sonofEthanwhosewisdomwassurpassedbythatofSolomon(1K4:31).11.1Ch
2:38,amanofJudahwhohadEgyptianbloodinhisveins(v.34).12.1Ch6:36,aKohathiteLevite(calledUzziahin1Ch6:24).13.14.2Ch
21:2,AzariahandAzariahu,twoofthesonsofJehoshaphat.15.16.2Ch23:1,AzariahandAzariahu,twoofthefivecaptainsofhundreds
whoassistedJehoiadaintherestorationofJoash.17.2Ch28:12,oneofthosewhosupportedtheprophetOdedwhenherebukedthearmyof
IsraelforpurposingtoenslavethecaptivesofJudah.18.19.2Ch29:12,twoLevites,aKohathiteandaMerarite.20.Neh3:23,oneofthose
whorepairedthewallofJerusalem.21.Neh
7:7(calledSeraiah,Ezr2:2Zacharias,1Es5:8),oneofthetwelveleadersofIsraelwhoreturnedwithZerubbabel.22.Neh8:7(Azarias,1
Es9:48),oneofthosewhohelpedtheLevitestocausethepeopletounderstandthelaw.23.Jer43:2,sonofHoshaiah(theMaacathite,40:8),
alsocalledJezaniah(40:8,42:1)andJaazaniah(2K25:23).HewasoneofthecaptainsoftheforceswhojoinedGedaliahatMizpah.24.
TheHeb.nameofAbednego(Dn1:6,7,11,192:17).
AZARIAS.1.1Es9:21calledUzziah,Ezr10:21.2.1Es9:43,oneofthosewhostoodbesideEzraatthereadingoftheLaw.3.1Es
9:48=AzariahofNeh8:7.4.NameassumedbytheangelRaphael(To5:12,6:5,13,7:8,9:2).5.AcaptainofJudasMaccabus(1Mac5:18,
56,60).
AZARU.AncestorofafamilywhichreturnedwithZerubbabel(1Es5:15).AZAZ.AReubenite(1Ch5:8).
AZAZEL.ThenameinHebrewandRVofthedesertspirittowhomoneofthetwogoatswassent,ladenwiththesinsofthepeople,in
theritualoftheDayofAtonement(Lv16:8,10,26RV,seeAtonement[Dayof]).Etymology,origin,andsignificancearestillmattersof
conjecture.TheAVdesignationscapegoat(i.e.thegoatthatisallowedtoescape,whichgoesbacktothecaperemissariusoftheVulgate)
obscuresthefactthatthewordAzazelisapropernameintheoriginal,andinparticularthenameofapowerfulspiritordemonsupposedto
inhabitthewildernessorsolitaryland(16:22RV).Themostplausibleexplanationofthisstrangeelementintheriteisthatwhichconnects
Azazelwiththeillicitworshipoffieldspiritsorsatyrs(lit.hegoats)ofwhichmentionismadeinseveralOTpassages(Lv17:7,Is13:21
etc.).ItmayhavebeentheintentionoftheauthorsofLv16initspresentformtostrikeattherootsofthispopularbeliefandpracticeby
givingAzazel,probablyregardedastheprinceofthesatyrs,aplaceintherecognizedritual.Christianityitselfcansupplymanyanalogiesto170/172
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givingAzazel,probablyregardedastheprinceofthesatyrs,aplaceintherecognizedritual.Christianityitselfcansupplymanyanalogiesto
suchaproceeding.Thebeliefthatsin,disease,andthelikecanberemovedbybeingtransferredtolivingcreatures,beastsorbirds,isnot
confinedtotheSemiticraces,andhasitsanalogyinHebrewritual,intheceremonyofthecleansingoftheleper(Lv14:53).IntheBookof
Enoch(c.b.c.180)Azazelappearsastheprinceofthefallenangels,theoffspringoftheunionsdescribedinGn6:1ff.

A.R.S.Kennedy.
AZAZIAH.1.ALevite(1Ch15:21).2.FatherofHosheatheprinceofEphraim(1Ch27:20).3.AnoverseeroftheTempleunder
Hezekiah(2Ch31:13).
AZBUK.FatherofNehemiah,whotookpartinrebuildingthewalls(Neh
3:16).
AZEKAH.AcityofJudah(Jos10:10f.,1S17:1,2Ch11:9,Neh11:30),neartheValleyofElahinhabitedbytheJewsafterthe
Captivity.Siteunknown.
AZEL.1.AdescendantofJonathan(1Ch8:37f.,=9:43f.).2.AnunidentifiedsiteintheneighbourhoodofJerusalem(Zec14:5).
AZETAS.HeadofafamilywhichreturnedwithZerubbabel(1Es5:15).
AZGAD.SeeAstad.
AZIEI.AnancestorofEzra(2Es1:2)calledAzariah,Ezr7:3,andOzias,1Es8:2.
AZIEL.ALevite(1Ch15:20)calledinv.18Jaazielthefullformofthename.
AZIZA.AJewwhohadmarriedaforeignwife(Ezr10:27)calledin1Es9:28Zardeus.
AZMAVETH.1.AdescendantofSaul(1Ch8:36).2.OneofDavidsmightymen(2S23:31,1Ch11:33),probablyidenticalwiththe
Azmavethof1Ch12:3,27:25,whosesonsjoinedDavidatZiklag,andwhowasoverthekingstreasuries.3.ABenjamitetown(1Ch12:3,
Ezr2:24,Neh7:28[Bethazmaveth],1Es5:18[Bethasmoth])mod.Higmeh,S.E.ofGibeah.
AZMON.AnunknownplaceontheborderofJudah(Nu34:4,Jos.15:4)calledinJos15:29,19:3Ezem.
AZNOTHTABOR.ThelowerslopesofMt.Tabor,markingtheS.W.corneroftheportionofNaphtali(Jos19:34).
AZOR.AnancestorofJesus(Mt1:13f.).
AZOTUS.SeeAshdod.
AZRIEL.1.HeadofafathershouseintheE.halftribeofManasseh(1Ch5:24).2.ANaphtalite(1Ch27:19).3.FatherofSeraiah
(Jer36:26).
AZRIKAM.1.SonofNeariah(1Ch3:23).2.AdescendantofJonathan(1Ch8:38,9:44).3.ALevite(1Ch9:14,Neh11:15).4.The
rulerofthehouseunderAhaz(2Ch28:7).
AZUBAH.1.WifeofCaleb(1Ch2:18f.).2.MotherofJehoshaphat(1K22:42=2Ch20:31).
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AZUBAH.1.WifeofCaleb(1Ch2:18f.).2.MotherofJehoshaphat(1K22:42=2Ch20:31).
AZZAN.FatherofPaltiel(Nu34:28).
AZZUR.1.Oneofthosewhosealedthecovenant(Neh10:17).2.FatherofHananiahthefalseprophet(Jer28:1).3.FatherofJaazaniah,
oneoftheprincesofthepeople(Ezk11:1).

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BAAL(BAALI,BAALIM).Usedgenerally,thewordbaalmeans
possessor,inhabitant,controller.Thus,amarriedmaniscalledpossessorofawoman(2S11:26),aram,possessorofhorns,andeven
thecitizensofalocalityaredenotedbythisword(Jg9:2,20:5,1S23:11f.,2S21:12).Withasimilarmeaning,itisappliedtonumerous
Canaanitishlocaldeities(pl.baalim,Jg2:11,3:7,8:33,10:10,1S7:1,12:10,1K18:18coll.sing.baal,Jg2:13,Jer11:13etc.cf.Baal
gad,Baalathbeer,andothercompoundsofthisword).Thesegodsweresupposedtomanifestthemselvesinthefertility,orinsomestartling
naturalformation,ofthelocalitywheretheywereworshipped.Suchananimisticconceptionisevidentfromthefactthattheywere
worshippedinhighplacesandingroves,wheresuchritesasprophecy(Jer22:13),fornication(Jer7:9),selfmutilation(1K18:28),andchild
sacrifice(Jer19:5)werepractisedundertheguidanceofkemrimoridolatrouspriests(Zeph1:4).Thesameideaisalsoclearfromtheuseof
thiswordamongtheArabs,whodesignatelandirrigatedbysubterraneanspringsasBalland,i.e.landinhabitedbyaspirit.Gradually,
however,someofthesegodsassimilatedmoreabstractpowers(cf.Baalberith),andastheirvotariesextendedtheirpowersoveragreater
area,becametheBaalparexcellence,i.e.thecontrollerofthedestinyofhisworshippers(cf.Jg6:25,1K16:31,18:26,19:18[inthelastthree
passages,MelkartofTyre]).
SogreatapredilectionforcultsofsuchanaturewasshownbytheIsraelites,fromthetimeoftheirentranceintoCanaanuntilthefallof
themonarchy,thatJabwehwasgiventhistitle.ThusSaul,azealousworshipperofJahweh,names(1
Ch8:33)oneofhissonsEshbaal,andoneofDavidsheroesiscalled(1Ch12:5)
Bealiah(JisBaal)cf.alsoMeribbaal(1Ch9:40),Beeliada(1Ch14:7),Jerubbaal(Jg8:35).Aconfusion,however,ofJahwehandthe
Canaanitishdeitiesseemstohavetakenplace,toavoidwhich,Hosea(2:16,17)demandsthatJahwehbenolongercalledBaali(myBaal),
butIshi(myhusband).UndertheinfluenceofsuchpropheciestheIsraelitesabandonedtheuseofBaalforJahweh,andinlatertimes
developedsogreatanantipathytothiswordthatlaterreviserssubstitutedbsheth(shamefulthing),notonlywhereverBaaloccurredforthe
Canaanitishdeities(Hos9:10,Jer3:24,11:13),butalso,forgetfulofitsformerapplicationtoJahweh,insomeoftheabovenames(see
Ishbosheth),supposingthemtoalludetolocalgods.

N.Koenig.
BAAL.1.AReubenite(1Ch5:5).2.AGibeonite,granduncleofSaul(1Ch8:33=9:36).
BAAL,BAALAH,BAALATH.1.=Kiriathjearim(1Ch13:6,Jos15:9,10).2.Baalathbeer(Jos19:8,1Ch4:33[Baal]),asitein
theNegeb.3.AcityintheS.ofJudah(Jos15:29,19:3,1Ch4:29).4.MountBaalab,betweenEkronandJabneel(Jos15:11),possibly,asM.
ClermontGanneanhassuggested,theriver(notmountain)ofBaal(nowNahrRubin).5.AnunknowntownofDan(Jos19:44).6.An
unknowntown(1K9:18=2Ch8:6).

E.W.G.Masterman.
BAALBERITH(lordofthecovenant).ThegodofShechem,wherehehadatemple(Jg8:33,9:4)calledalsoElberith(9:46).The
covenantmaybethatamongsttheCanaanitepeoplesorthatbetweenCanaanltesandIsraelitesorthetitlemaybeparalleltoZeusHorkios,
thegodwhopresidesovercovenants.
BAALGAD(?Baaloffortune).AplaceunderHermon,inthevalleyofLebanon,referredtoonlyasthenorthernlimitofthecountry
conqueredbyJoshua(Jos11:17,12:7,13:5).Variousidentificationshavebeensuggested,alluncertain.PerhapsBaniasisthemostprobable.
SeeCsareaPhilippi.

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R.A.S.Macalister.
BAALHAMON.TheunknownsiteofSolomonsvineyard(Ca8:11).
BAALHANAN.1.AkingofEdom(Gn36:38f.,1Ch1:49f.).2.AGederite(1Ch27:28).
BAALHAZOR.BesideEphraim,wherewereAbsalomssheepshearers(2S13:23).IdentifiedbyConderwithTellAsur,amountain
4960ft.abovethesea,anhoursrideN.E.ofBeitin.

R.A.S.Macalister.
BAALHERMON(Jg3:3,1Ch5:23).SeeHermon.
BAALEJUDAH=Baalah,No.1,i.e.Kiriathjearim.
BAALIS.KingofAmmonintimeofGedaliah(Jer40:14).
BAALMEON.AcityofMoahassignedtoReuhen.ThenameoccursinNu32:38asBaalmeon,butinJos13:17asBethbaalmeon
bothformsbeingfoundalsoontheMoahiteStonecf.Ezk25:9,1Ch5:8alsoBethmeonofJer48:23.Itistobeidentifiedwiththemodern
Main,about5milesS.W.ofMedeba.

G.L.Robinson.
BAALPEOR.ThelocaldeityofMt.Peor(Dt4:3b,Nu25:6).InDt4:3bandHos9:10itisperhapsthenameofaplace.
BAALPERAZIM.AnunidentifiedsitenearJerusalem(2S5:20,1Ch
14:11).
BAALSAMUS(1Es9:43)=MaaseiahofNeh.8:7.
BAALSHALISHAH(2K4:42).Anunknownsite,probablysomewhereinMt.Ephraim.
BAALTAMAR.AnunknownsitenearBethelandGibeah(Jg4:5).
BAALZEBUB(BEELZEBUB).APhilistinegodworshippedatEkron(2K1:2,3,6,16),whosenameintheformofBeelzebul(AVand
RVBeelzebub)hasbeenappliedtotheprinceofthedevils(Mt10:25,12:24,Mk3:22,Lk11:15,18,19).TheOTform,Baal(controller,
inhabiter)offlies,indicateseitherthatthegodwasthoughttoappearasafly,orthat,besidesoracularpowers,hepossessedtheabilityto
increaseordestroytheseinsects.Ontheotherhand,iftheNTspelling,Baalofthemansion(temple),istobepreferred,itwouldseemto
indicatethattheOTformisadeliberateperversionoriginatingwithsomepiousscribe,whowasperhapsoffendedatsuchatitlebeinggivento
anyotherthanJahweh.Suchaninterpretationwouldaccountforthevariationinspelling,andforitsapplicationtoSatan,whoserealmwas
calledthehouseparexcellenceamongtheJewsoftheNTperiod.

N.Koenig.

BAALZEPHON.Ex14:2,Nu33:7thenameofaplacenearthespotwheretheIsraelitescrossedtheRedSea,apparentlyashrineof
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BAALZEPHON.Ex14:2,Nu33:7thenameofaplacenearthespotwheretheIsraelitescrossedtheRedSea,apparentlyashrineof
Baalofthenorth.ThecorrespondinggoddessBaalitofthenorthisnamedalongwiththegodofKesem(Goshen),inanEgyp.papyrusof
theNewKingdom,asworshippedatMemphis.

F.Ll.Griffith.
BAANA.1.2.TwoofSolomonscommissariatofficers(1K4:12,16).3.FatherofZadok,oneofthosewhorebuiltJerusalem(Neh3:4).
4.OneoftheleaderswhoreturnedwithZerubbabelpossiblyidenticalwiththepreceding,andwithBaanahNo.3.
BAANAH.1.OneofthemurderersofIshbosheth(2S4:512).2.ANetophathite(2S23:29,1Ch11:30).3.Oneofthosewhoreturned
withZerubbabel(Ezr2:2,Neh7:7,10:27[?]).
BAANI.1Es9:34=BaniofEzr10:34.
BAARA.WifeofaBenjamite(1Ch8:8).
BAASEIAH.AKohathite(1Ch6:40prob.anerrorforMaaseiah).
BAASHA,kingofIsrael,obtainedthecrownbyusurpation.HewasanofficerofthearmyunderNadab,sonofJeroboamI.,andwhilethe
armywasbesiegingGibbethon,aPhilistinetown,heslewhiskingandmountedthethrone.TheexecutionofthewholehouseofJeroboam
followed.Baashawasawarlikeruler,andcarriedonwarwithJudahthroughouthisreign.Theonlyincidentpreservedtousishiscaptureand
fortificationofRamah,whichledtotheinterferenceofBenhadad,asalreadyrecountedinthearticleAsa.AlthoughBaashadiedinhisbed
afterareignoftwentyfouryears,hisdynastywasextinguishedtwoyearsafterhisdeath(1K15:2716:6).

H.P.Smith.
BABBLER.Ac17:18Whatwill(RVwould)thisbabblersay?TheGr.wordtranslatedbabblermeansonewhopicksupa
precariousliving,likeacrow.Thelanguageofsuchpersons,saysBp.Chase,was,andis,plentifuland(onoccasion)lowbutitispossible
thattheAtheniansappliedthewordtoSt.Paulnotonaccountofhisspeech,buthislooks.Inthatcasethemoderncoinagecarpetbagger
wouldgivethesense.
BABE.SeeChild.
BABEL,TOWEROF.SeeTowerofBabel.
BABI.HeadofafamilywhichreturnedwithEzra(1Es8:37)calledinEzr8:11Bebai.
BABYLON.BbelistheHebrewformofthenativenameBbili,GateofGod.ItwasalsoTintirorSeatoflife,andEorEki.Itis
likelythatthesenamesoncedenotedseparatetownsgraduallyincorporated.OtherquartersofBabylonwereShuanna,T,Shuppatu,and
Litamu.AccordingtotheHeb.tradition(Gn10:10),itwasasoldasErech,Akkad,andCalneh.NativetraditionmakesitasoldasErechand
Nippur,thelatterbeingprovedbyexcavationstodatebacktoprehistorictimes.BabylonisfromBbilani.ItlayontheE.bankofthe
Euphrates,partofitssitebeingnowoccupiedbyHillah,about50milesS.ofBaghdad.Theruinsextendfor5milesN.toS.Bbil,theN.ruin,
covers120,000sq.ft.andisstill90ft.high.ItcoverstheremainsofthecelebratedEsagilatemple.TheMujellibehisnotmuchlessinarea,
and28ft.high.
TheKasrcontainstheruinsofNebuchadrezzarspalace,alongwhoseE.sideranthesacredprocessionstreet,decoratedwithenamelled
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TheKasrcontainstheruinsofNebuchadrezzarspalace,alongwhoseE.sideranthesacredprocessionstreet,decoratedwithenamelled
tilesrepresentingthedragonandtherem,totheIstargateattheS.E.corner.Thewholewasenclosedwithinanirregulartriangle,formedby
twolinesoframpartsandtheriver,anareaofabout8sq.miles.ThecitycrossedtherivertotheW.,whereareremainsofapalaceof
Neriglissar.Inlatertimesitbecamecoterminouswithmanyotherlargecities,andHerodotusascribestoitacircuitof55miles.TheGerman
excavationsnowbeingcarriedonmaybeexpectedtosolvethemanyproblemsconnectedwiththesite.
FromtheveryearliesttimesthekingsandrulersofBabyloniaworkedatthebuildingofitstemples,palaces,walls,bridges,quays,etc.
HammurabifirstraisedittobethecapitalofallBabylonia.ItwassackedbySennacheribinb.c.689,thechiefpalaces,temples,andcitywalls
levelledwiththeground,andthewatersoftheEuphratesturnedoverit.Esarhaddonbegantorebuildit,anditstoodanotherlongsiegeunder
hisson,Ashurbanipal.NabopolassarbeganitsrestorationNebuchadrezzarraisedittoitsheightofglory.Cyrustookitwithoutresistance,and
heldhiscourtthere.DariusHystaspisbesieged,tookit,anddestroyeditswalls.Xerxesplunderedit.AlexandertheGreatplannedtorestoreit.
AntiochusSoteractuallybegantherestorationofitsgreattemple.ThefoundationofSeleuciarobbeditofitspopulation,butthetemple
servicescontinuedtob.c.29,atleast.See,further,AssyriaandBabylonia.

C.H.W.Johns.
BABYLON(inNT).BabylonwasapparentlyusedbytheearlyChurchasasymbolforRome.1.InRev.(14:8,16:19,17:5,18:2,10,21)
itsdestructionisforetold,becauseofitssins,andparticularlybecauseofitspersecution.Suchidentificationis,however,somewhatuncertain,
andrestsultimatelyontheImprobabilitythatthewordintheconnexioninwhichitappearscanrefertothecityofMesopotamia(thewordis
sousedinMt1:11,12:17,Ac7:43).ThisbasalprobabilityissupportedbythefactthatBabyloniscalledmysteryinRev17:5,issaidtobe
seatedonsevenmountains(v.9),andtobeacentreofcommerceandauthority(18:319,17,14:8).RomeisapparentlycalledBabyloninSib.
Or.V.143,1582Es.Apoc.Baruch.
ThisidentificationofBabyloninRevelationwithRomedatesatleastfromthetimeofJerome.Theattempttoidentifyitwithanapostate
JudahandJerusalemcanhardlybetakenseriously.ThefactthatRevelationutilizedtheJewishapocalypticmaterialfurthermakesit
imperativethatthetermsymbolizeapowerwhichstoodrelatedbothtoChristiansandJews,inawayparallelwiththerelationofBabylonto
theancientHebrewnation.
2.ThereferencetoBabylonin1P5:13hashadthreeinterpretations:(a)BabyloninEgypt,mentionedbyStraboandEpiphanius(b)
BabylonontheEuphratesand(c)Rome.InviewofthesymbolicuseofthewordBabylon,asmentionedintheforegoing,thelastseemsthe
mostprobable.Eusebius(HEii.15)sointerpretsthereference,and,inviewoftheancientandpersistenttradition,thereisnothingimprobable
inSt.PetershavingbeeninRome.ThisprobabilityisstrengthenedbythereferencetothepersecutiontowhichChristianswerebeing
subjected.AssyrianBabyloninthesecondhalfofthe1stelmwasindecay,and1Peterwouldbeparticularlyappropriateifsentoutfromthe
seatofapersecution,suchasthatofNero,orpossiblyofDomitian.

ShailerMathews.
BABYLONISHGARMENT(adderethShinr).StolenbyAchan(Jos7:21)literallymantleofShinarprobablyacloakof
embroideredstuff.Babyloniawasfamousinclassicaltimesforsuchcostlygarments,andthesculpturesexhibitthemostelaborately
embroidereddresses.TheBabylonianinscriptionsenumerateanalmostendlessvarietyofsuchgarments,workedinmanycolours.

C.H.W.Johns.
BACA,VALLEYOF.Anallegoricalplacename,foundonlyinPs84:6,wheretheRVrendersValleyofWeeping.Mostprobablyitis4/63
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BACA,VALLEYOF.Anallegoricalplacename,foundonlyinPs84:6,wheretheRVrendersValleyofWeeping.Mostprobablyitis
nomoreanactuallocalitythanistheValleyoftheShadowofDeathinPs23:4.

R.A.S.Macalister.
BACCHIDES.GovernorofMesopotamiaunderDemetriusSotersenttoestablishAlcimus(wh.see)inthepriesthooddefeated
JonathantheMaccabee,andatalaterperiodbesiegedhiminthefortressofBethbasiwasfinallycompelledtoentertainproposalsforpeace(1
Mac7:320,9:172,10:12Jos.Ant.XII.i.XIII.i.).
BACCHURUS.Asingerwhoputawayhisforeignwife(1Es9:24).
BACCHUS.SeeDionysus.
BACENOR.AnofficerofJudasMaccabus(2Mac12:35).
BADGER.Rockbadger(Lv11:5RVm),i.e.HyraxSyriacus.SeeConey.
BADGERSSKINS.Mentioned(inAV)astheuppercoveringofthe
Tabernacle,etc.(Ex25:5,26:14etc.),andmaterialsformakingsandals(Ezk16:10).Itisalmostcertainthewordtahashismistranslated
badger,asbadgers,thoughfoundinSouthernPalestine,arenotcommonenough,noraretheirskinssuitableforsuchusetohavebeenmade
ofthem.TheRVsealskins(mg.porpoiseskins)hardlyeasesthedifficultyzoologically,althoughhavingsomesupportfrometymology.
Delitzsch,fromthesimilarityoftahashtotheAssyr.tahshan=wether,thinksitprobablethatthewordmeansthesameinHebrew.Arecent
suggestionthattheHeb.wordtahashistakenfromtheEgyp.ths,meaningleather,seemsthemostreasonableexplanation.

E.W.G.Masterman.
BAN.ThenameofanunknowntribedestroyedbyJudasMaccabus(1Mac5:4).
BAG,PURSE,WALLET.Severalkindsofbags,etc.maybedistinguished.
(a)Theshepherdsandtravellerswalletforcarryingoneormoredaysprovisions.LikemostoftheotherOTbags,itwasmadeofskin,
generallyundressed,andwasslungacrosstheshoulder.ThisisthescripofMt10:10andparallels(RVwallet).Theformerisretainedbyour
RV(butAmer.RVwallet)torenderauniqueword,whichhadtobeexplainedeventoHebrewreadersbytheglosstheshepherdsbag(1S
17:40).(b)Amorefinishedarticle,theleathersatchelwhichservedasapurse(Lk10:4,12:33AVherebag).Forillust.seeRich,Dict.of
Antiq.217.ThepurseofMt10:9,Mk6:8,however,wasmerelythefoldsofthegirdle(seeRVm).(c)Themerchantsbag,inwhichhekept
hisstoneweights(Dt25:13),alsoservedasapurse(Pr1:14).(d)Thefavouritebagformoneyandvaluableshencethebeautifulfigure1S
25:29,wherethehundleoflife=lifesjewelcasewasonewhichcouldhetiedwithastring(2K12:10,Pr7:20,alsoGn42:35EV
bundle).Ifrequired,asealcouldbeputontheknot(Job14:17).(e)Anotherwordisusedbothforalargebag,capableofholdingatalentof
silver(2K5:23),andforthedaintyladyssatchel(Is3:22RVAVcrispingpins),(f)ThebagwhichJudascarried(Jn.12:6,13:29)was
ratherasmallbox(RVm),originallyusedforholdingthemouthpiecesofwindinstruments.

A.R.S.Kennedy.
BAGO.TheheadofafamilywhichreturnedwithEzra(1Es8:40)calledin1Es5:14Bagoi,andinEzr2:14Bigvai.
BAGOAS.AeunuchintheserviceofHolofernes(Jth12:11,13,15,13:3,14:14).
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BAGOAS.AeunuchintheserviceofHolofernes(Jth12:11,13,15,13:3,14:14).
BAGOI.SeeBago.
BAGPIPE.SeeMusic.
BAHARUMITE.SeeBahurim.
BAHURIM.TheplacewherePaltiel,sonofLaish,wasorderedtorelinquishMichal(2S3:16)whereShimeidwelt,whocursedDavid
inhisflight(2S16:5)whereAhimaazandJonathanhidinthewellfromAbsalom(2S17:18,19)andthehomeofAzmaveth,oneof
Davidsmightymen(1Ch11:33,2S23:31,whereBarhumiteiswrittenforBaharumite).ItwasinthetribeofBenjamin(cf.thepassages
relatingtoShimei),andtheaccountofDavidsflight,whichsuppliestheonlytopographicalindications,accordswiththetraditional
identificationwith
Almit,N.E.fromtheMountofOlives,andaboutamilebeyondAnata(Anathoth)fromJerusalem.

R.A.S.Macalister.
BAITERUS.TheheadofafamilywhichreturnedwithZerubbabel(1Es
5:17).
BAKBAKKAR.ALevite(1Ch9:15).
BAKBUK.TheancestorofcertainNethinimwhoreturnedwithZerubbabel(Ezr2:51,Neh7:53)calledAcubin1Es5:31.
BAKBUKIAH.1.ALevite(Neh11:17).2.Aporter(Neh12:25).
BAKEMEATS,BAKER.SeeBread.
BAKING.SeeBread.
BAKINGPAN.SeeHouse,9.
BALAAMisthesubjectofaremarkableandintricatenarrativeinNu2224,connectedwiththearrivalofIsraelinthePromisedLand,
andtherelationshipofthechosenpeopletoMoabandAmmon.BalaamwasasoothsayerofPethorontheEuphrates,calledbyBalak,kingof
Moab,tocursetheIsraelites,whowerelyingencampedintheJordanvalley.Hehaddifficultyinundertakingthetask,andhefound,whenever
heessayedtocurseIsrael,thattheLordhadforbiddenhimtodoso,andthathisburdenmustbeblessinginstead.AttherequestofBalakhe
changedhispositionagainandagainontheheightsabovetheDeadSea,inthehopeofobtainingadifferentoracle,butthemessagehehadto
deliverremainedthesame,andheforetoldthefuturesplendourofIsrael(24:2ff.).SentawaybyBalakwithouttherewardpromisedtohimif
hewoulddeliveranoracleadversetoIsrael,hereturnedtohisownland.Accordingtoonenarrative,hisendwasfullofshame.Hewas
accusedofhavinginducedIsraeltocommitimmoralityinconnexionwithreligiousworship,afeaturecommonintheSemiticnaturecults.It
wasthroughthischargethathebecameknowntosubsequentages,andhisnamebecameanameofinfamy(Nu31:8,16,2P2:15,Rev2:14
Jos.Ant.VI.vi,6).TheinspirationofBalaam,contrastedwithhissubsequentsinanddisgracefuldeath,hisknowledgeofthewillofGod,
togetherwithhisintensedesiretograsptherewardsofunrighteousness,havegivenrisetoanotablesermonliterature.BishopButlerspeaksof
theselfdeceptionbywhichhepersuadeshimselfthatthesinhecommitscanbejustifiedtoconscienceandtoGodNewmanregardshimas
aninstanceofthetroublethatcancomeonacharacter,otherwisenoble,whenthethoughtofmaterialadvancementisalwaysallowedtodwell
withitArnoldadduceshimasaninstanceofthefamiliartruththatthepurestformofreligiousbeliefmaycoexistwithastandardofaction
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withitArnoldadduceshimasaninstanceofthefamiliartruththatthepurestformofreligiousbeliefmaycoexistwithastandardofaction
immeasurablybelowitF.W.Robertsonmakeshimthetextforasermonontheperversionofgifts.
Thiscomplexityofcharacteris,however,greatlysimplifiedbytherecognitionofthevariousstratainthenarrative.Itisclearthatthe
accountofPconnectingBalaamwithIsraelsuncleannesshasnothingtodowiththeoriginalnarrative.Thisoriginalnarrativeiscontainedin
Nu2224.Accordingtoit,BalaamwasaprophetofPethorontheriverEuphrates.Hisfamehadspreadacrossthewilderness,and,when
BalakfoundhimselfinstraitsthroughtheadvanceofIsrael,hesentforBalaamtocomeandcurseIsrael.BalaamaskedGodwhetherhe
shouldgo,andwasrefusedpermission.Balakthereforesentyetgreatergifts,andonceagainBalaamaskedcounselofGod.Thistime
permissionwasgranted.SofartherehadbeennoindicationofGodsdispleasurebutnowfollows(22:2234)thestoryoftheass,through
whichGodsangerattherefusaloftheseertoacceptHisanswer,givenonceandforall,ismanifested.If,however,thereaderwillpassfrom
22:21to22:35hewillfindthatthenarrativerunssmoothly,andthatheisstillviewingBalaamscharacterfromthesamenotunfavourable
standpoint(22:35[cf.vv.20,21]istheefforttojoinupthethreadsofthestoryaftertheinterpolation).WhenBalaamisbroughtinsightof
Israel,hebreaksoutintoaburstofpraise(24:59)whichrousesthewrathofBalak.Balaamjustifieshimselfbyremindingthekingthathe
hadwarnedhimoftheconstraintoftheLord(v.13).HethenuttersanotheroraclepredictingthegloryofIsraelandthedestructionofMoah
andAmmon(vv.1719).
Thisanalysisleavesoutofaccount22:2234and23,whichseemtobelongtoanarrativedealingwiththesamefacts,butplacingamore
sinisterinterpretationontheconductofBalaam.Thestoryoftheassisplainlyoutofharmonywiththenarrativejustoutlined.Itisastory
belongingnottothewilderness,buttoalandofvineyards.ItignorestheembassythathasbeensenttobringBalaambackacrossthe
wilderness(22:15,21),foritrepresentsBalaamastravellingalone.Itisalsoextremelyunlikelythatsolongajourneyasthatfromthe
EuphratestoMoabwouldbeattempteduponanass.Thench.23,withitselaboratebuildingofaltarsandofferingofsacrifices,seemsto
belongtoalaterdatewhiletheconstantshiftingofpositionintheefforttosecureamorefavourableoraclepresentsBalaaminamuchmore
unfavourablelightthanbefore.Althoughthedetailsofthisanalysisarenotcertain,wemaytakeitthattheoriginalstoryproceedsfromJ,and
thatthesecondnarrative,morecomplicatedbothinpsychologyandritual,isfromE.
ThenarrativeofPascribingthesinofBaalpeortoBalaamisoutoftouchwithboththeothernarratives.Accordingtoit,Balaamwasa
MidianitishseerwhotriedtobringabouttheruinofIsrael,indefaultofothermeans,bypersuadingthemtogivewaytolust(Nu31:8,16,Jos.
Ant.VI.6.6).Ithasbeenconjecturedthatthisstoryarosepartlyoutofadifficultyonthepartofthepriestlynarratorinconceivingofa
heathenbeinganinspiredprophetofGod,partlyfromtheneedofaccountingforthegreatsinoftheIsraelites(DBI.233a).Balaamthus
seemstohavefallenintheestimationofIsraelfrombeingaseerofalienrace,whodistinguishedhimselfbyhisfaithfulnesstothetruthhe
knew,tobecomingsynonymouswithtemptationofakindthatwasalwaysespeciallyinsidiousfor
Israel.

R.BruceTaylor.
BALADAN.SeeMerodachBaladan.
BALAH(Jos19:3).AnunknowntownofSimeonperhapsidenticalwithBealoth(Jos15:24)andBilhah(1Ch4:29)calledBaalahin
Jos15:29,whereitisassignedtoJudah.
BALAK.ThekingofMoabwhohiredBalaam,Nu2224.SeeBalaam.
BALAMON.AtownnearDothaim(Jth8:3).
BALANCE.TheHebrewbalancesprobablydifferedbutlittlefromthoseinuseinEgyptasdescribedbyWilkinson(Anc.Egyp.[1878], 7/63
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BALANCE.TheHebrewbalancesprobablydifferedbutlittlefromthoseinuseinEgyptasdescribedbyWilkinson(Anc.Egyp.[1878],
II.246f.).Themainpartswerethebeamwithitssupport,andthescaleswhichwerehungbycordsfromtheendsoftheequalarmsofthe
beam.ThepairofscalesisusedinOTbyafigureforthebalanceasawholeonlyonceisthebeamsoused(Is46:6).Theweightswere
originallyofstoneandarealwayssotermed.Themoralnecessityofajustbalanceandtrueweightsandtheiniquityoffalseonesare
frequentlyemphasizedbytheprophets,moralteachers,andlegislatorsofIsraelseeAm8:5,Mic6:11,Pr11:1,16:11(ajustbalanceand
scalesaretheLords)20:23,Lv19:36,Dt25:13ff.

A.R.S.Kennedy.
BALDLOCUST.SeeLocust(8).
BALDNESS.SeeCuttingsintheFlesh,Hair.
BALM.AproductofGilead(Gn37:25,43:11),celebratedforitshealingproperties(Jer8:22,46:11,51:8),andanimportantarticleof
commerce(Ezk27:17).Nothingisknownforcertainaboutthenatureofthissubstance,butitisusuallysupposedtobesomekindofaromatic
gumorresin.ThereisnownoplantinGileadwhichproducesanycharacteristicproductofthisnature.Mastich,aresinmuchusedbythe
Arabsforflavouringcoffee,sweets,etc.,andasachewinggum,isconsideredbymanytobethezorofGn37:25(soRVm).Ithasbeen
creditedwithhealingproperties.ItisaproductofthePistacialentiscus,aplantcommoninPalestine.ThesocalledBalmofGileadof
commerce,andthesubstancesoldbythemonksofJerichotoday,thislatteraproductofthezakkmtree,areneitherofthemserious
claimantstobethegenuinearticle.SeealsoSpice.

E.W.G.Masterman.
BALNUUS.1Es9:31=BinnuiofEzr10:30.
BALSAM.SeeSpice.
BALTASAR.TheGr.formofBelshazzar(Dn5,etc.,Bar1:11f.)andofBelteshazzar(Dn4,etc.).
BAMAH(onlyEzk20:29)istheordinarywordforhighplace,butishereretainedinitsHebrewformasthewordmannaintheparallel
caseEx16:15,onaccountofthewordplay:What(mah)isthebamahtowhichyego(b)?See,further,HighPlace.

A.R.S.Kennedy.
BAMOTH,BAMOTHBAAL.BamothismentionedinNu21:19f.asa
stationinthejourneyofIsraelfromtheArnontotheJordan.Itisprob.identicalwithBamothbaalofNu22:41(RVmAVandRVthehigh
placesofBaal),towhichBalaamwasledbyBalak.BamothbaalismentionedasaReubenitecityinJos13:17.
BAN.Thebanisaninstitutionfromremoteantiquity,whichstillsurvivesintheJewishandChristianChurches.Itsearlierhistoryhasnot
yetreceivedthesystematictreatmentwhichitmerits.Theoriginalidea,commontoalltheSemiticlanguages,isthatofwithdrawing
somethingfromcommonuseandsettingitapartfortheexclusiveuseofadeity.InHebrewtheverbalrootacquiredthemorespecialized
meaningofdevotingtoJHisenemiesandtheirbelongingsbymeansoffireandsword,andisusuallyrenderedutterlydestroy(RVmadds
Heb.devote),whilethecognatenoun(chrem,Gr.anathema)isaccursed(AV)ordevoted(RV)thing.Inthisbrieftreatmentofalarge
subjectweproposetodistinguishbetweenthewarban,thejusticeban,andtheprivateban.
1. Thewarban,clearlytheoldestformoftheinstitution,showsvariousdegreesofseverity.Thewarbanofthefirstdegree,asitmaybe 8/63
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1.Thewarban,clearlytheoldestformoftheinstitution,showsvariousdegreesofseverity.Thewarbanofthefirstdegree,asitmaybe
termed,Involvedthedestructionnotonlyofeveryman,woman,andchildoftheenemy,butalsooftheirentirepropertyofeverydescription
(seeDt13:16).ThetreatmentoftheAmalekitesin1S15isafamiliarexample.ThecaseofAchan,afterthebanandcaptureofJericho,
affordsastrikingillustrationoftheearlyideasassociatedwiththeban.Everydevotedthing,ashenceforththeinviolatepropertyofJ,and
thereforetahoo,becameinfectedwiththedeadlycontagionofholiness(noteLv27:28mostholy,lit.holyofholies).Hencebyretaining
partofthedevotedthing(chrem)inhistentAchaninfectedthewholecampofIsrael,withdisastrousresults(Jos6:18,7:11f.,cf.Dt7:26).
Morefrequentlywemeetwitharelaxedformofthewarban,whichmaybecalledthebanoftheseconddegree.Inthiscaseonlythemen,
women,andchildrenofthedoomedcityweredevoted,whilethecattleandtherestofthespoilbecamethepropertyofthevictors(Dt2:34f.,
3:6f.,7:2,Jos11:14).Astillfurtherrelaxation,abanofthethirddegree,iscontemplatedbythelawofDt20:10ff.,bywhichonlythemales
areputtotheban,thewomenandchildrenbeingsparedastheperquisitesofthebesiegers.Ontheotherhand,onlyvirginsweretobespared
inNu31:17f.andJg21:11ff.,forspecialreasonsinthelattercase.
2.Thejusticebandiffersfromtheotherinbeingapplicableonlytomembersofthetheocraticcommunity.Itappearsintheoldest
legislationasthepunishmentoftheapostateIsraelite(Ex22:20),andisextendedintheDeuteronomiccodetotheidolatrouscity(Dt13:12ff.).
Hereonlythebanofthefirstdegreewasadmissible.AnimportantmodificationofthejudicialbanisfirstmetwithinEzr10:8,where
recalcitrantmembersofthecommunity,insteadofbeingputtodeath,areexcommunicated,andonlytheirsubstanceforfeited(RVm
devoted)totheTempletreasury.Thismodifiedchrembecamethestartingpointofalongdevelopment.FortheselaterJewishandChristian
bansseeExcommunication.
3.TheattenuatedformofbanfoundinthelatepassageLv27:28maybetermedtheprivateban.Thecasescontemplatedmanorbeast
orfieldareevidentlythoseofunusuallysolemnandinalienablededicationsbyprivatepersonsforreligiouspurposes(cf.Nu18:14,Ezk
44:27,andtheNTcorban),asopposedtotheredeemablededicationsoftheprecedingverses.Thelatterareholywhiletheformeraremost
holy.Thefollowingverse,onthecontrary,mustrefertothejusticeban.
ThebanwasaninstitutionofearlierdatethantheHebrewconquest,andwaspractisedbytheMoabitesinitsmostrigorousform(see
Meshasinscription,ll.1117),perhapsalsobytheAmmonites(2Ch29:23).Instancesofsimilarpracticesamongmanyhalfcivilizedraces
arenotedbytheanthropologists.TheoriginalmotiveofthebanisprobablyreflectedinNu21:2f.,whereitisrepresentedasthereturnmade
toJforhelpagainsttheenemyvouchsafedintermsofaprecedingvow(cf.devotiofromdevoveo).Thishastobeinterpretedinthelightof
theprimitivesolidaritybetweenagodandhisclan.EveninIsraelthewarsoftheHebrewswerethewarsofJ(Nu21:14).Thereligious
elementisfoundinthecompleterenunciationofanyprofitfromthevictory,andthisrenunciationisanexpressionofgratitudeforthefactthat
thewarGodhasdeliveredtheenemy,whoisHisenemyalso,intothehandsoftheconqueror(KautzschinHastingsDBExt.Vol.619b).The
banwasthustheoutcomeofreligiouszealinanagewhenthemoralsensewaslessadvancedthanthereligious.
WithregardtothewholesaleapplicationofthewarbanintheDeuteronomicsectionsofJoshua,moderncriticismhastaughtustoseein
thesetheidealgeneralizationsoftheexilicage.TheHebrewsoftheconquestwereintruththechildrenoftheirage,butsuchastupendous
holocaustasisimpliedinsuchpassagesasJos11:11,14mustnotbeplacedtotheircredit.ThelegislationofDt.,itmustfurtherbe
remembered,istheoutcomeofseveralcenturiesexperienceofCanaaniteheathenism,thetruecharacterofwhichthesoilofPalestineisonly
nowrevealing,andofitsbanefulinfluenceonthereligionofJ.Inthislegislationtheantiqueinstitutionofthebanwasretainedasameansof
protectingthecommunityagainstaseriousmenacetoitsreligiouslife.NeverthelesstheenactmentofDt13:12ff.remainedadeadlettertill
theageoftheMaccabees(1Mac5:6ff.).

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A.R.S.Kennedy.
BAN.Theheadofafamilywhichcouldnottraceitsdescent(1Es5:37,acorruptpassage).
BANAIAS.1Es9:35=BenaiahofEzr10:43.
BAND.ThisspellingrepresentsthreehistoricallydistinctEnglishwords:(1)Bandinthesenseofthatwhichbindstherenderingofa
varietyofHeb.words,someofwhicharealsorenderedbybond.(2)Bandinthesenseofribbon(Ex39:23RVbinding),orsash(Ex
28:8etc.RVgirdle).(3)Bandinthesenseofacompanyofsoldiers,moreorlessorganized,astherenderingofseveralHeb.words,some
ofthererangedinRVintocompanies(Gn32:7)ortroop(1K11:24)orhordes(Ezk38:6,9).
InNTbandinthisthirdsenserendersspeira,theGr.equivalentoftheRomancohors(fortheRomanarmyinNTtimesseeLegion).In
theminorprovincessuchasJudathetroopswereentirelyauxiliaries,ofwhichtheunitwasthecohortofabout500,incertaincases1000,
men.TheRomangarrisoninJerusalemconsistedofsuchacohortofprovincials,probably1000strong,thebandwhichfiguresprominently
bothintheGospelsandintheActs(Mt27:27,Mk15:16,Ac21:31,andprobablyJn18:3,12RVmcohortthroughout).Thiscohortwas
underthecommandofaRomanprefectorofamilitarytribune,thecaptainorchiefcaptain(Gr.chiliarch)ofourEV.
AnotherauxiliarycohortisprobablythatnamedtheAugustanband(Ac27:1Gr.SebasteAVAugustusband).Ithasbeenmuch
debatedwhetherthenameisatitleofhonourlikeourKingsOwn,oraterritorialdesignationsignifyingthatthecohortinquestionwas
recruitedfromSamaria,thennamedSebaste(=Augusta).Schrer(GJV3i.462)curiouslywouldcombineboththeseviews.Ramsay,onthe
otherhand,maintainsthattheAugustanbandwasapopular,notanofficial,nameforabodyoftroopsdetailedforsomespecialservicebythe
emperor(St.PaultheTraveller,p.315).AsimilaruncertaintyastoitsplaceinthemilitaryorganizationofthetimeattachestotheItalian
bandinwhichCorneliuswasacenturion(Ac10:1).ThenamemerelyshowsthatitwasacohortofRomancitizens,probablyvolunteers,from
Italy,asopposedtotheordinarycohortsofprovincials.

A.R.S.Kennedy.
BANI.1.AGadite,oneofDavidsheroes(2S23:36).2.3.4.Levites(1Ch
6:46,Neh3:17,cf.8:7[=BinnuiofEzr8:33andNeh10:9]).5.AJudahite(1Ch9:4).6.Headofafamilyofexilesthatreturned(Ezr2:10[=
BinnuiofNeh7:15]10:29,Neh10:14).7.Oneofthosewhohadmarriedaforeignwife(Ezr10:28).

Cf.Binnui.
BANIAS.AncestorofSalimoth,whoreturnedwithEzra(1Es8:36).
BANISHMENT.SeeCrimesandPunishments.
BANK.1.Amoundofearthinsiegecraft,seeFortificationandSieoecraft.2.Thetableofamoneychangerorbanker,seeMoney
changers.
BANNAS.ALevitewhoreturnedwithZerubbabel(1Es5:26).
BANNEAS.1Es9:26=BenaiahofEzr10:25.

BANNER,ENSIGN,STANDARD.ThattheHebrews,liketheEgyptians
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BANNER,ENSIGN,STANDARD.ThattheHebrews,liketheEgyptians
(Wilkinson,Anc.Egyp.[1878]I.195,illust.),Assyrians,andotherancientnations,possessedmilitaryensignsisasafeinferencefromNu2:2,
butnotfromthementionofthestandardbearerinIs10:18AV,whichistoberenderedasRVm.
Nothingcertain,however,isknownregardingthem.IntheformerpassageadistinctionseemstobemadeforanotherviewseeGraysCom.
inloc.betweentheensigns(lit.signs,cf.Ps74:4wherethereferenceisprobablytothestandardsofAntiochusarmy)ofthefathers
houses,andthestandards(thebannerofCa2:4,cf.6:4,10)ofthefourgreatdivisionsoftheHebrewtribesinthewilderness,accordingtothe
artificialtheoryofthepriestlywriter.
Equallyuncertainistherelationofthesetothens,whichwasawoodenpole(Nu21:8f.AVandRVstandardcf.theparallelismwith
mastIs30:17RVm),setuponaneminenceasasignalforthemusteringofthetroops.Thiswordisoffrequentoccurrencebothinthe
originalsenseandinthefigurativesenseofarallyingpoint,inthepropheticannouncementsofthefuture(Is5:26,11:10,Jer4:21andoften).
Therenderingalternatesbetweenensignandbanner.

A.R.S.Kennedy.
BANNUS.1Es9:34=eitherBaniorBinnuiofEzr10:38.
BANQUET.InAVbanquetandbanquetingalwaysmeanwinedrinking,notfeastinggenerally.ThusCa2:4Hebroughtmetothe
banquetinghouse(Heb.thehouseofwine),1P4:3banquetings(Gr.drinkings,RVcarousings).SeeMeals.
BAPTISM.Thisterm,whichdesignatesaNTrite,isconfinedtothevocabularyoftheNT.ItdoesnotoccurintheLXX,neitheristhe
verbwithwhichitisconnectedeverusedofaninitiatoryceremony.Thisverbisaderivativefromonewhichmeanstodip(Jn13:26,Rev
19:13),butitselfhasawidermeaning,=towashwhetherthewholeorpartofthebody,whetherbyimmersionorbythepouringofwater
(Mk7:4,Lk11:38).Thesubstantiveisused(a)ofJewishceremonialwashings(Mk7:4,He9:10)(b)inametaphoricalsense(Mk10:38,Lk
12:50cf.plungedincalamity)and(c)mostcommonlyinthetechnicalsenseofareligiousceremonyofinitiation.
1.Theearliestuseofthewordbaptismtodescribeareligiousandnotmerelyceremonialobservanceisinconnexionwiththepreaching
ofJohntheBaptist,andthetitlewhichisgiventohimisprobablyanindicationofthenoveltyofhisprocedure(Mt3:1,Mk8:28,Lk7:20cf.
Mk6:14,24).Hepreachedthebaptismofrepentancefortheremissionofsins(Mk1:4),i.e.theresultofhispreachingwastoinducemento
seekbaptismasanoutwardsignandpledgeofinwardrepentanceontheirpart,andoftheirforgivenessonthepartofGod.Baptismisrelated
torepentanceastheoutwardactinwhichtheinwardchangefindsexpression.Ithasbeendisputedwhetherthepracticeofbaptizingproselytes
ontheirreceptionintotheJewishcommunitywasalreadyestablishedinthe1stcent.probablyitwas.Butinanycasethesignificanceoftheir
baptismwasthatofceremonialcleansingJohnemployeditasasymbolandasealofmoralpurification.But,accordingtotheGospelrecord,
Johnrecognizedtheincompleteandprovisionalcharacterofthebaptismadministeredbyhim:Iindeedhavebaptizedyouwithwaterbuthe
shallbaptizeyouwiththeHolyGhost(Mk1:8).
2.JesusHimselfacceptedbaptismatthehandsofJohn(Mk1:9),overcomingthereluctanceoftheBaptistwithawordofauthority.That
JesusHimselfbaptizedisnowheresuggestedintheSynopticGospels,andisexpresslydeniedintheFourthGospel(Jn4:2)butHisdisciples
baptized,anditmusthavebeenwithHisauthority,equivalenttobaptismbyHimself,andinvolvingadmissiontothesocietyofHisdisciples.
Ontheotherhand,HisInstructionstotheTwelveandtotheSeventycontainnocommandtobaptize.Christianbaptismwastobebaptism
withtheSpirit,andtheSpiritwasnotyetgiven(Jn7:39).ItisrecordedinActs(1:5)thattheRisenLordforetoldthatthispromised
baptismwouldbereceivedafterHisdeparture,notmanydayshence.
3. Christianbaptism,althoughitfindsaformalanalogyinthebaptismofJohn,whichinitsturnrepresentsaspiritualizingofancient
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3.Christianbaptism,althoughitfindsaformalanalogyinthebaptismofJohn,whichinitsturnrepresentsaspiritualizingofancient
Jewishideasoflustration,appearsasinitsessentialcharacteranewthingafterthedescentoftheHolySpirit.Itisaphenomenonentirely
unique,andinitsinmostnaturewithoutanyanalogy,becauseitrisesasanoriginalfactfromthesoiloftheChristianreligionofrevelation
(vonDobschtz).IthasbeencustomarytotracetheinstitutionofthepracticetothewordsofChristrecordedinMt28:19.Buttheauthenticity
ofthispassagehasbeenchallengedonhistoricalaswellasontextualgrounds.Itmustbeacknowledgedthattheformulaofthethreefold
name,whichishereenjoined,doesnotappeartohavebeenemployedbytheprimitiveChurch,which,sofarasourinformationgoes,baptized
inorintothenameofJesus(orJesusChristortheLordJesus:Ac2:38,8:16,10:48,19:5cf,1Co1:13,15),withoutreferencetothe
FatherortheSpirit.Thedifficultyhencearisingmaybemetbyassuming(a)thatBaptisminthenameofJesuswasequivalenttoBaptismin
thenameoftheTrinity,or(b)thattheshorterphrasedoesnotrepresenttheformulausedbythebaptizer(whichmayhavebeenthefullerone),
buttheprofessionmadebythebaptized,andtheessentialfactthathebecameaChristianoneofChristsacknowledgedfollowers.Butitis
bettertoinfertheauthorityofChristforthepracticefromthepromptanduniversaladoptionofitbytheApostlesandtheinfantChurch,to
whichtheopeningchaptersofActsbearwitnessandfromthesignificanceattachedtotheriteintheEpistles,andespeciallyinthoseofSt.
Paul.
4.Thatbaptismwasthenormal,andprobablytheindispensable,conditionofbeingrecognizedasamemberoftheChristiancommunity
appearsfromallusionsintheEpistles(1Co12:13,Gal3:27),andabundantlyfromtheevidenceinActs.
ThefirstpreachingoftheSpiritfilledApostlesonthedayofPentecostledtomanybeingprickedintheirheartandinanswertotheir
inquiryaddressedtoPeterandtherestoftheapostles,Petersaiduntothem:Repentye,andbebaptizedeveryoneofyouinthenameofthe
LordJesusChrist(Ac2:37,38).Theythenthatreceivedhiswordwerebaptizedtothenumberofaboutthreethousandsouls.AtSamaria,
whentheybelievedPhilippreachingthethingsconcerningthekingdomofGod,andthenameofJesusChrist,theywerebaptized,bothmen
andwomen(8:12),theearliestexpressstatementthatwomenwereadmittedtotherite.InthiscasethegiftoftheSpiritdidnotfollowuntil
PeterandJohnhadcomedownfromJerusalem,andprayedforthemthattheymightreceivetheHolyGhost.Thentheylaidtheirhands
uponthem,andtheyreceivedtheHolyGhost(8:17).SaulwasbaptizedbyAnanias(9:17)inaccordancewithinstructionsrecordedby
himself(22:16),andthathemightbefilledwiththeHolyGhost.Inthesecasesthegiftfolloweduponbaptism,withorwithoutthelayingon
ofhands.InthecaseofCorneliusandhisfriends,thegiftfollowedimmediatelyuponthepreachingofthewordbyPeter,andpresumablyits
receptionintheheartofthosewhoheardanditwasafterthatthattheApostlecommandedthemtobebaptizedinthenameoftheLord
(10:48).ItwasonthegroundofthispreviouscommunicationoftheHolySpiritthatPetersubsequentlyjustifiedhisactioninadmittingthese
personstobaptism(11:1518).

5.ThepreachingofSt.Paul,nolessthanthatofSt.Peter,ledtotheprofessionoffaiththroughbaptism,thoughtheApostleseemsasa
ruletohavelefttheactualadministrationtoothers(1Co1:1417):forChristsentmenottobaptize,buttopreachthegospel.AtPhilippi
Lydiawasbaptizedandherhouseholdtherealsothejailor,andallthatwerehis(Ac16:15,33)atCorinth,CrispusandGaius,andthe
householdofStephanas(1Co1:14,16).
6.TheconditionsantecedenttobaptismareplainlysetforthinActs,viz.repentanceandprofessionoffaithinJesusasMessiahorasthe
Lord,followingonthepreachingoftheword.ThemethodofadministrationwasbaptizingwithwaterinorintothenameofJesus.
Immersionmayhavebeenemployedwhenthepresenceofsufficientwatermadeitconvenientbutthereisnothingtoshowthataffusionor
sprinklingwasnotregardedasequallyvalid.ThatbaptismwasinthenameofJesussignifiesthatittookplaceforthepurposeofsealingthe
newrelationshipofbelongingto,beingcommittedto,HisPersonality.Theblessingattachedtotheriteiscommonlyexhibitedasthegiftof
theHolySpirittheduefulfilmentoftheconditionofbaptisminvolvedipsofactotheduefulfilmentoftheconditionofreceivingtheSpirit.In
theEpistles,this,thenormalconsequenceofChristianbaptism,isanalyzedintoitsvariouselements.Theseareinthemainthree:(a)the
remissionofsins(Ac2:38,1Co6:11cf.He10:22,1P3:21).(b)Inbaptismthebelieverwastorealizemostvividlythetotalbreachwith
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remissionofsins(Ac2:38,1Co6:11cf.He10:22,1P3:21).(b)Inbaptismthebelieverwastorealizemostvividlythetotalbreachwith
hisoldlifeinvolvedinhisnewattitudetoGodthroughChrist,abreachcomparableonlywiththateffectedbydeath(Ro6:27,Col2:12)he
wastorealizealsothattheconsequencesofthisfellowshipwithChristwerenotonlydeathtosin,butanewlifeinrighteousnessasrealas
thatwhichfollowedonresurrection(Ro6:4).(c)BaptismconferredincorporationintheonebodyofChrist(1Co12:13),andwasthus
adaptedtoserveasasymbolofthetrueunityofChristians(Eph4:5).Thebodywithwhichthebelieveristhusincorporatedisconceivedof
sometimesasthecorporatecommunityofChristians,sometimesasthePersonalityofChristforasmanyofyouaswerebaptizedintoChrist,
didputonChrist(Gal3:27).
Conversely,aswiththeSacramentoftheLordsSupper,alltheelementsbothofqualificationandofexperiencearesometimessummedup
inapregnantphraseandwithoutregardtotheorderinwhichtheyemerge.Eph5:26mayfinditsbestinterpretationthroughcomparisonwith
Jn15:3(cf.17:17),i.e.asreferringtothecontinuouscleansingoftheChurchbythewordbutifthereferenceistobaptism,thenthephrase
bythewordprobablyalludestotheprofessionoffaithbythebaptized,whetherittooktheformofJesusisLord(Ro4:10cf.1Co12:3),
orwhetheritexpressedthecontentofthefaithmorefully.InTit3:5,whilebaptismistheinstrumentbywhichsalvationisrealized,
regenerationandrenewalarebothdisplayedastheworkoftheHolySpirit.AndheretheApostolicinterpretationoftheritetouchesthe
anticipationofitinourLordswordsrecordedinJn3:5.FaithwroughtbytheSpiritandfaithprofessedbythebelieverarealikenecessaryto
entranceintotheKingdomofsalvation(cf.Ro10:9,10).
In1Co15:29Paulreferstothepracticeofpersonsallowingthemselvestobebaptizedonbehalfofthedead.Suchapracticeappearsto
havehadanalogiesintheGreekmysteries,fromwhichitmayhavecreptintotheChristianChurch.Assuchitmayberegardedasapurely
magical,andwhollysuperstitious,vicariousreceptionofthesacrament.OfsuchapracticetheApostleexpressesnoapproval,butsimply
meetshisopponentswiththeirownweaponswithoutputtingtheirvaliditytotheproof(Rentdorff).
7.TheNTcontainsnoexplicitreferencetothebaptismofinfantsoryoungchildrenbutitdoesnotfollowthattheChurchofthe2ndcent.
adoptedanunauthorizedinnovationwhenitcarriedoutthepracticeofinfantbaptism.TherearegoodreasonsforthesilenceofScriptureon
thesubject.ThegoverningprincipleofSt.LukeasthehistorianoftheprimitiveChurchistonarratetheadvanceoftheKingdomthroughthe
missionarypreachingoftheApostles,andtheconversionofadultmenandwomen.ThelettersoftheApostlesweresimilarlygovernedbythe
immediateoccasionandpurposeoftheirwriting.Wehaveneitheracompletehistory,noracompleteaccountoftheorganization,ofthe
primitiveChurch.Butofonethingwemaybesure:hadtheacceptanceofChristianityinvolvedanythingsostartlingtotheJewishorthe
Gentilemindasadistinctionbetweenthereligiousstandingofthefatherofafamilyandhischildren,thehistorianwouldhaverecordedit,or
theApostleswouldhavefoundthemselvescalledtoexplainanddefendit.Forsuchadistinctionwouldhavebeenindirectcontradictionto
themostdeeplyrootedconvictionsofJewandofGentilealike.FromthetimeofAbrahamonwardstheJewhadfeltitasolemnreligious
obligationtoclaimforhissonsfromtheirearliestinfancythesamecovenantrelationwithGodashehimselfstoodin.Therewassufficient
parallelismbetweenbaptismandcircumcision(cf.Col2:11)fortheJewishChristianfathertoexpectthebaptismofhischildrentofollowhis
ownasamatterofcourse.TheApostleassumesasafactbeyonddisputethatthechildrenofbelieversareholy(1Co7:14),i.e.underthe
covenantwithGod,onthegroundoftheirfathersfaith.AndamongGentileconvertsasomewhatdifferentbutequallyauthoritativeprinciple,
thatofpatriapotestas,wouldhavethesameresult.Inahomeorganizedonthisprinciple,whichprevailedthroughouttheRomanEmpire,it
wouldbeathinginconceivablethatthechildrencouldbeseveredfromthefatherintheirreligiousrightsandduties,inthestandingconferred
bybaptism.Thusitisbecause,tothemindofJewandGentilealike,thebaptismofinfantsandchildrenyetunabletosupplytheconditionsfor
themselveswassonatural,thatSt.LukerecordssosimplythatwhenLydiabelieved,shewasbaptizedwithherhouseholdwhenthe
Philippianjailorbelieved,hewasbaptized,andallthosebelongingtohim.Iftherewerechildreninthesehouseholds,thesechildrenwere
baptizedonthegroundofthefaithoftheirparentsiftherewerenochildren,thentheprincipletookastillwiderextension,whichincludes
childrenforitwastheservantsorslavesofthehouseholdwhowereaddedtotheChurchbybaptismonthegroundoftheirmastersfaith.
8. Baptismwasaceremonyofinitiationbywhichthebaptizednotonlywereadmittedmembersofthevisiblesocietyofthedisciplesof
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8.Baptismwasaceremonyofinitiationbywhichthebaptizednotonlywereadmittedmembersofthevisiblesocietyofthedisciplesof
Christ,butalsoreceivedthesolemnattestationoftheconsequencesoftheirfaith.Hencetherearethreepartiestoit.Thepartofthebaptizedis
mainlyhisprofessionoffaithinChrist,hisconfessionwithhisheartthatheistheLords.ThesecondistheChristiancommunityorChurch
(ratherthanthepersonwhoadministersbaptism,andwhostudiouslykeepsinthebackground).Theirpartistoheartheprofessionandto
grantthehumanattestation.ThethirdistheHeadoftheChurchHimself,bywhose
authoritytheriteispractised,andwhogivestheinwardattestation,astheexperienceofbeingbaptizedopensinthebelievingsoulnew
avenuesforthearrivaloftheHolySpirit.

C.A.Scott.
BAR.Aram.wordforsonused,especiallyinNTtimes,asthefirstcomponentofpersonalnames,suchasBarabbas,Barjesus,Bar
jonah,etc.
BARABBAS(Mt27:1523=Mk15:614=Lk23:1823=Jn18:3940).Abrigand,probablyoneofthosewhoinfestedtheAscentof
Blood(wh.see).HehadtakenpartinoneoftheinsurrectionssofrequentduringtheprocuratorshipofPontiusPilateand,havingbeencaught
redhanded,wasawaitingsentencewhen
Jesuswasarraigned.Itwascustomaryfortheprocurator,bywayofgratifyingtheJews,toreleaseaprisoneratthePassoverseason,lettingthe
peoplechoosewhomtheywouldandPilate,reluctanttocondemnaninnocentman,yetafraidtowithstandtheclamouroftherulers,sawhere
awaytosaveJesus.Hisartificewouldprobablyhavesucceededhadnotthemalignantpriestsandeldersincitedthepeopletochoose
Barabbas.
Barabbas,likeBartholomewandBartimus,isapatronymic,possibly=thesonofthefather(i.e.theRabbi).Accordingtoanancient
readingofMt27:17,thebrigandsnamewasJesus.Ifso,thereisadramaticadroitnessinPilatespresentationofthealternativetothe
multitude:WhichofthetwodoyewishmetoreleasetoyouJesusthebarAbbaorJesusthatiscalledMessiah?

DavidSmith.
BARACHEL.FatherofElihu,theBuzite(Job32:2,6).
BARACHIAH.SeeZachariah.
BARAK(lightning).ThesonofAbinoamhelivedatatimewhenthe
CanaanitekingdomofHazor,havingrecoveredfromitsoverthrowbyJoshua(Jos11:1015),wastakingvengeancebyoppressingIsrael.He
iscalledfromhishomeinKedeshnaphtalibyDeborahtodeliverIsrael.Hegathersanarmyof10,000menfromthetribesofNaphtaliand
Zebulun.Withthisforce,accompaniedbyDeborah,withoutwhomherefusestogoforward,heencampsonMt.Tabor,whiletheenemyunder
SiseraliesintheplainonthebanksoftheKishon.AtthewordofDeborah,Barakleadshismendowntobattle,andcompletelydefeatsSisera.
ThelatterfleesBarakpursueshim,butonreachinghishidingplacefindsthathehasbeenalreadyslainbyJael,thewifeofHeber.Theglory
ofthevictory,therefore,doesnotliewithBarak,butwithDeborah,whowashisguidingspirit,andwithJaelwhoslewtheenemysleader(Jg
4,5).

W.O.E.Oesterley.

BARBARIAN.TheEng.wordisusedinAc28:2,4,Ro1:14,1Co14:11,Col3:11totranslateaGr.wordwhichdoesnotatallconnote14/63
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BARBARIAN.TheEng.wordisusedinAc28:2,4,Ro1:14,1Co14:11,Col3:11totranslateaGr.wordwhichdoesnotatallconnote
savagery,butmeanssimplyforeign,speakinganunintelligiblelanguage.TheexpressionfirstaroseamongtheGreeksinthedaysoftheir
independence,andwasappliedbythemtoallwhocouldnotspeakGreek.WhenGreecebecamesubjecttoRome,itwasthenextendedto
meanallexcepttheGreeksandRomans.TheremaybeatouchofcontemptinSt.Lukesuseofit,butSt.Paulusesitsimplyintheordinary
wayseeesp.1Co14:11.

A.Souter.

BARBER.SeeHair.
BARCHUS.1Es5:32=BarkosofEzr2:53andNeh7:55.
BARHUMITE.SeeBahurim.
BARIAH.AsonofShemaiah(1Ch3:22).
BARJESUS.ThenameofacertainMagian,afalseprophet,aJew(Ac13:6)whomSt.Paul,onhisvisittoCyprus,foundinthe
retinueofSergiusPaulus,theRomanproconsul.ThetitleElymas(v.8)isequivalenttoMagus(v.6),andisprobablyderivedfromanArabic
rootsignifyingwise.TheknowledgeoftheMagianswashalfmystical,halfscientificamongstthemweresomedevoutseekersaftertruth,
butmanyweremeretricksters.IntheApostolicagesuchmenoftenacquiredgreatinfluence,andBarjesusrepresents,asRamsay(St.Paul
theTraveller,p.79)says,thestrongestinfluenceonthehumanwillthatexistedintheRomanworld,aninfluencewhichmustdestroyorbe
destroyedbyChristianity,ifthelattertriedtoconquertheEmpire.Thenarrativeimpliesthattheproconsulwastoointelligenttobedeceived
bytheMagianspretensions,themotiveofwhoseoppositiontotheChristianteachersisexpressedinaBezanadditiontov.8,whichstates
thatSergiusPauluswaslisteningwithmuchpleasuretothem.InSt.Paulsjudgmentonthisfalseprophet(v.10)thereisaplayuponwords:
ElymaswasfullofdeceitandnotofwisdomBarjesus,i.e.sonofJesus,hadbecomeasonofthedevil.ThisisPauline(cf.Ph3:2).

J.G.Tasker.
BARJONAH.SeeBar,andJohn(No.6).
BARKOS.AncestorofcertainNethinimwhoreturnedwithZerubbabel(Ezr2:53,Neh7:55calledBarchusin1Es5:32).
BARLEY(serh).Asinancienttimes,sotodaybarley(Arab.shair)isthemostplentifulcerealofPalestine.Itisthechieffoodof
horses(1K4:28),mules,anddonkeys,oatsbeingpracticallyunknown.Itisstillusedbythepoorformakingbread(Jg7:13,Jn6:9,13etc.)
inthevillages,butnotinthecities.Barleywasthespecialritualofferingforjealousy(Nu5:16).Thebarleyharvest(Ru1:22)precedesthatof
wheat:itbeginsaroundJerichoasearlyasMarch,andinJerusalemandtheneighbourhoodattheendofMay.

E.W.G.Masterman.
BARN.SeeAgriculture,3,andGarner.
BARNABAS.AsurnamegivenbytheApostlestoJoseph,theLevite,whosefirstrecordeddeed(Ac4:36)wasthesellingofhisproperty
andthedevotionofitsproceedstotheneedsoftheChristiancommunity.InthisgenerousactSt.LukeseesaproofthatBarnabasis,in
accordancewiththepopularetymologyofhisname,asonofcomfort.HiskindlyintroductionofSaultotheChristiansatJerusalem
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accordancewiththepopularetymologyofhisname,asonofcomfort.HiskindlyintroductionofSaultotheChristiansatJerusalem
disarmedtheirfears(9:27)hisbroadsympathiesmadehimquicktorecognizetheworkofgraceamongsttheGreeksatAntioch(11:23),and
todiscernthefitnessofhisgiftedfriendforthatimportantsphereofservice(v.25f.).AfterayearsfellowshipinworkatAntioch,Barnabas
andSaulwereappointedtoconveythereliefsentthencetothebrethreninJuda(v.30).FromJerusalemtheybroughtback,asahelper,
JohnMark,thecousinofBarnabas(12:12,25cf.Col4:10).
ThechurchatAntiochsolemnlydedicatedBarnabasandSaultomissionaryservice(13:1f.)withJohnMarkthetwofriendssailedfor
Cyprus,andfromthispoint,withthreeexceptions,theirnamesoccurintheorderPaulandBarnabas.Harnack(PRE3ii.411)explainsthese
threepassagesthus:14:14isaccountedforbyv.12,and15:12,25bythecloserassociationofBarnabaswiththeJerusalemchurch.
AtLystra(14:12),asdoubtlessatotherplaces,PaulwasthechiefspeakerhewasalsothemoreprominentfigureattheJerusalem
conference(15:2ff.,Gal2:1.SeePaul).BetweenPaulandBarnabastherearoseasharpcontentionconcerningJohnMark(15:35ff),andthey
agreedtoworkapartGal2:13alsorecordsPaulsadversejudgmentofBarnabasattitudeinregardtothecircumcisioncontroversy.Butthe
interestingreferencetoBarnabasin1Co9:5affordswelcomeproofofSt.Paulsfamiliaritywiththeworkofhisfriend.Allthatisdefinitely
knownofBarnabasafterhebadePaulfarewellisthatwithhiscousinMarkhesailedawayuntoCyprus(Ac15:39).ForthespuriousEpistle
attributedtoBarnabas,seeCanonofNT,2.

J.G.Tasker.
BARODIS.Anameoccurringin1Es5:34(om.InEzr.andNeh.).
BARREL,1K17:12,14,15,18:33.Thelargeearthenwarejar(soAmer.RV)usedforfetchingwaterfromthewell,storinggrain,etc.,
elsewhererenderedpitcher.SeeHouse,9.
BARRENNESS.SeeChild.
BARSABBAS.SeeJoseph(inNT),5.andJudas(inNT),6.
BARTACUS.FatherofApame(1Es4:29).
BARTHOLOMEW.OneoftheTwelve,mentionedonlyinthelistsoftheApostles(Mt10:3=Mk3:18=Lk6:14).Jeromesaysthathe
wroteaGospel,preachedtotheIndians,anddiedatAlbanopolisinArmenia.Bartholomewisreallynotaname,butapatronymicBar
Talmai=sonofTalmai(cf.2S13:37).SeeNathanael.

DavidSmith.
BARTIMUS(Mk10:45).AblindmanwhomJesus,onHiswaytothelastPassover,healedatthegateofJerichoasHewasleaving
thecity,accordingto
Mt.(20:29)andMk.(10:46),whocondensethestoryofwhatbefellatJerichoasHeapproached,accordingtoLk.(18:35),whosefuller
narrativepreservestheproperorderofevents.Bartimusisnotanamebutapatronymic(cf.Bartholomew),andSt.Mark,forthebenefitof
hisGentilereaders,givestheinterpretationofit,thesonofTimus.

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DavidSmith.
BARUCH(blessed).1.SonofNeriah,thesonofMahseiahandbrotherofSeraiah(Jer51:59)knownfromJer36,45,32:1216,43:3,
8byJeremiahssideintheconflictwithJehoiakim(b.c.604),againduringthelastsiegeofJerusalem(5876),andagainamongstthe
JudansleftbehindaftertheSecondCaptivity.Baruchthescribe,namedinJer36:26alongwithJeremiahtheprophet,isalreadythe
recognizedattendantandamanuensisofthelatterheseemstohaverenderedtheprophetovertwentyyearsofdevotedservice.Hebelongedto
theorderofprinces,amongwhomJeremiahhadinfluentialfriends(26:16,36:25)BaruchsrankprobablysecuredforJeremiahs
objectionableroll(ch.36)thehearingthatwasrefusedtohisspokenwords.WhenhecastinhislotwithJeremiah,Baruchmadeaheavy
sacrificehemighthavesoughtgreatthingsforhimself,andiswarnedagainsthisnaturalambition(45:35).ThepromisethatBaruchslife
shallbegivenhimforapreywhereverhegoes,placedwhereitis
(45:5),suggeststhathesurvivedhismaster,toactashisliteraryexecutor.TheBookofJeremiah(seeart.)owesmuchtothisloyalsecretary,
thoughthefinalarrangementofthematerialsisfarfromsatisfactory.TraditionaddsnothingofanycertaintytothereferencesofScripture
see,however,Jos.Ant.X.ix.1,7.FortheApocryphalwritingsattachedtohisname,seeApocryphaandApocalypticLiterature.2.Oneofthe
wallbuilders(Neh3:20).3.Asignatorytothecovenant(10:5).4.AJudahite(11:5).

G.G.Findlay.
BARZILLAI.1.ThenameofachieftainofGileadwhobroughtsuppliestoDavidandhisarmyatMahanaim(2S17:27ff.).Afterthe
deathofAbsalom,BarzillaiwentacrossJordanwiththeking,butdeclinedtogotocourt(19:31ff.).OnhisdeathbedDavidchargedSolomon
toshewkindnesstothesonsof
Barzillai(1K2:7).HisdescendantsarementionedinEzr2:51,Neh7:63,2.TheMeholathitewhosesonAdrielissaid(2S21:8)tohave
marriedMichal[readMerab,cf.1S18:19],thedaughterofSaul.

J.G.Tasker.
BASALOTH.1Es5:31=BazluthofEzr2:62orBazlithofNeh7:54.
BASCAMA.AnunknowntownofGilead(1Mac13:23).
BASE.Tobebaseisinmod.Englishtobemorallybad,butinAVitisnomorethantobeofhumblebirthorlowlyposition.IntheRV,
however,thewordissometimesusedinthesenseofmorallylow,mean,asDt13:13.
BASEMATH.1.OneofthewivesofEsau.InGn26:34(P)sheiscalledthedaughterofElontheHittlte,whileinGn36:3(prob.R)she
issaidtohavebeenIshmaelsdaughter,andsisterofNebaioth.ButinGn28:9(P)EsauissaidtohavetakenMahalath,thedaughterof
Ishmael,thesisterofNebaioth,tobehiswifeandinGn36:2thefirstmentionedofEsauswivesisAdah,thedaughterofElontheHittite.
Thereismanifestlyaconfusionofnamesinthetext,whichcannotbesatisfactorilyexplained.2.AdaughterofSolomon,whobecamethe
wifeofAhimaaz,oneofthekingsofficers(1K4:15).
BASHAN.ThenameoftheterritoryeastoftheSeaofTiberias.ItwasthekingdomofOg,theRephaiteopponentofIsrael,andwithhis
namethecountryisalmostinvariablyassociated(Nu21:33,Dt29:7,Neh9:22etc.).TheterritorywasgiventothehalftribeofManasseh,
withareservationoftwocities,GolanandBeeshterah(Ashtarothin1Ch6:71),fortheGershoniteLevites(Jos21:27).InthetimeofJehuthe
countrywassmittenbyHazael(2K10:33).Itwasnotedformountains(Ps68:15),lions(Dt33:22),oaktrees(Is2:13,Ezk27:6,Zec11:2),
andespeciallycattle,bothrams(Dt32:14)andbullocks(Ezk39:18)thebullsandkineofBashanaretypicalofcrueltyandoppression(Ps
22:12,Am4:1).Theextentoftheterritorydenotedbythisnamecannotbeexactlydefinedtillsomeimportantidentificationscanbe
established,suchastheexactmeaningoftheregionofArgob(includedinthekingdomofOg,Dt3:4etc.),wherewerethreescoregreat
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established,suchastheexactmeaningoftheregionofArgob(includedinthekingdomofOg,Dt3:4etc.),wherewerethreescoregreat
citieswithwallsandbrazenbars,administeredforSolomonbyBengeberofRamothgilead(1K4:13).ItincludedSalecah(Salkhat,onthe
bordersofthedesert),Edrei(edDera?),Ashtaroth(perhapsTellAshareh),andGolan,oneofthecitiesofrefuge,thenameofwhichmaybe
preservedintheJaulan,theregionimmediatelyeastoftheSeaofTiberias.

R.A.S.Macalister.
BASILISK.SeeSerpent.
BASKET.ThenamesofaroundscoreofbasketsinuseinNTtimesareknownfromtheMishna(seeKrengel,DasHausgertinder
Mishnah,pp.3945).Theyweremadeofwillow,rush,palmleaf,andothermaterials,andusedinanendlessvarietyofways,forpurely
domesticpurposes,inagriculture,ingatheringandservingfruit,andforcollectingthealmsinkindforthepoor,etc.Somehadhandles,others
lids,somehadboth,othershadneither.InOTtimesthecommonestbasketwasthesal,made,atleastinlatertimes,ofpeeledwillowsor
palmleaves.ItwaslargeandflatliketheRomancanistrum,and,likeit,wasusedforcarryingbread(Gn40:16ff.)andotherarticlesoffood
(Jg6:19),andforpresentingthemealofferingsatthesanctuary(Ex29:3).Another(dd),alsoofwickerwork,probablyresembledthe
calathus,whichtaperedtowardsthebottom,andwasusedinfruitgathering(Jer24:1).InwhatrespectitdifferedfromAmosbasketof
summerfruit(Am8:1)isunknown.Afourthandlargervarietywasemployedforcarryinghometheproduceofthefields(Dt28:5blessed
shallbethybasketandthykneadingtrough,RV),andforpresentingthefirstfruits(26:2).
InNTinterestcentresinthetwovarietiesofbasketdistinguishedconsistentlybytheEvangelistsintheiraccountsofthefeedingofthe
5000andthe4000respectively,thekophinosandthesphyris.Thekophinos(Mt14:20)isprobablytobeidentifiedwiththeexceedingly
popularkphoftheMishna,whichwasprovidedwithacordforahandlebymeansofwhichitwasusuallycarriedontheback(Krengel),
withprovisions,etc.,andwhich,therefore,thediscipleswouldnaturallyhavewiththem.TheJewsofJuvenalsdaycarriedsuchaprovision
basket(cophinus).Thesphyrisorspyris(Mt15:37,Mk8:8),fromitsuseinSt.Paulscase(Ac9:25),musthavebeenconsiderablylargerthan
theother,andmightfordistinctionberenderedhamper.

A.R.S.Kennedy.
BASON(Amer.RVbasin).Chieflythelargebowlofbronzeusedbytheprieststoreceivethebloodofthesacrificialvictims(Ex27:3,
29:16,1K7:45etc.).Itisonlyoncefoundinsecularuse,ifthetextiscorrect(Am6:6,otherwiseLXX,seeBowl).Similarbowlsorbasinsof
silverwerepresentedbytheprincesofthecongregation(Nu7:13ff.)thosedestinedforSolomonsTemplewereofgold(1K7:50).The
basinsofEx12:22,2S17:28wereprobablyofearthenware.AspecialwashbasinwasusedbyJesusforwashingthedisciplesfeet(Jn13:5).

A.R.S.Kennedy.
BASSAI(AVBassa),1Es5:16=Bezai,Ezr2:17,Neh7:23.
BASTHAI(AVBastai),1Es5:31=Besai,Ezr2:40,Neh7:52.
BAT(atallph).ThebatisafamiliarobjectinPalestine,wherenofewerthanseventeenvarietieshavebeenidentified.Thetwo
commonestarethehorseshoebat(Rhinolophusferrumequinum)andthelongearedbat(Plecotusauritus).AllvarietiesinPalestineare
insectivorousexceptone,theXantharpyiagyptiaca,whicheatsfruit.Batsflitaboutonnoiselesswingsbythescoreonwarmsummer
evenings,especiallyintheJordanValley,andtheyaretobefoundingreatnumbersinruins,oldtombs,andcavesallovertheland,givingrise18/63
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evenings,especiallyintheJordanValley,andtheyaretobefoundingreatnumbersinruins,oldtombs,andcavesallovertheland,givingrise
tomanytalesofghostlyhabitation(Is2:20).Theyarecountedasuncleanfowl,thoughalittleseparatefromthebirds,inLv11:19,Dt14:18.

E.W.G.Masterman.
BATH.AliquidmeasureseeWeightsandMeasures.
BATH,BATHING.ThelattertermismostfrequentlyusedinourEVinconnexionwithpurificationfromceremonialdefilement
contactwithholythings,withthedead,etc.(seearticleCleanandUnclean)andinthissensedenotesthewashingofthebodywithwater,not
necessarilythetotalimmersionofthebodyinwater.HenceRVhasrightlyintroducedwashinmanycasesforbathe.Bathinginthemodern
andnonreligioussenseisrarelymentioned(Ex2:5Pharaohsdaughter,2S11:2[RV]Bathsheba,andthecuriouscase1K22:38).Public
bathsarefirstmetwithintheGreekperiodtheywereincludedintheplaceofexercise(1Mac1:14)andremainsofsuchbuildingsfrom
theRomanperiodarefairlynumerous.RecentlyaremarkableseriesofbathchambershavebeendiscoveredatGezerinconnexionwitha
building,whichissupposedtobethepalacebuiltbySimonMaccabus(illust.inPEFSt,1905,294f.).

TheHebrewswerewellacquaintedwiththeuseofmineralandvegetablealkalisforincreasingthecleansingpropertiesofwater(Jer2:22,
RVsoap,lye).IntheHistoryofSusannav.17isacuriousreferencetowashingballs.

A.R.S.Kennedy.
BATHRABBIM(daughterofmultitudes).ThenameofagateofHeshbon,nearwhichwerepools,towhichtheShulammiteseyesare
compared(Ca7:4).

R.A.S.Macalister.
BATHSHEBA(1Ch3:5Bathshua:thismaybeameretextualerror).WifeofUriahtheHittite,seducedbyDavid(2S11:24),and
afterwardsmarriedtohim(v.27).Thechilddied(12:18),butanotherson,Solomon,wassubsequentlyborn
(12:24).Bathsheba,instigatedandsupportedbyNathan,successfullycombatedAdonijahsattempttosecurethethrone(1K1:1153).Acting
asAdonijahsintercessorinthematterofAbishag,shewasmostrespectfullyreceivedbySolomon,butherunwiserequestwasrefused(1K
2:1325).

J.Taylor.
BATHSHUA.1.SeeBathsheba.2.SeeShua.
BATTERINGRAM.SeeFortificationandSiegecraft.
BATTLESeeWar,alsonamesofplaceswherethechiefbattleswerefought.
BATTLEAXE.SeeArmour,1(f).
BATTLEBOW.SeeArmour,1(d).

BATTLEMENT.SeeFortification,House.
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BATTLEMENT.SeeFortification,House.
BAVVAI.ThesonofHenadad(Neh3:18)rebuiltaportionofthewallofJerusalemcalledinV.24Binnui.
BAY.SeeColours,3.
BAYITH(house).OccursasapropernameinIs15:2,butthetruesenseisuncertain.
BAYTREE(ezrch,Ps37:35)isprobablyamistranslationforatreeinitsnativesoil(RV).Manyauthorities,however,wouldhere
emendtheHeb.texttoreaderez,cedar.

E.W.G.Masterman.
BAZLITH(Neh7:54),Bazluth(Ezr2:52=Basaloth,1Es5:31).FounderofafamilyofNethinimwhoreturnedwithZerubbabel.
BDELLIUM.Theprobablycorrecttr.oftheHeb.bedlach,whichinGn
2:12isclassedwithgoldandonyxasaproductofthelandofHavilah,andinNu11:7isdescribedascharacterizingtheappearance(RV)of
manna.BdelliumisthefragrantyellowresinofthetreeBalsamodendronmukul,growinginN.W.India,Afghanistan,Belucbistan,andatone
timeperhapsinArabia.

E.W.G.Masterman.
BE.Tobeistoexist,asinTobe,ornottobe,thatisthequestion.ThisprimarymeaningisfoundinGn5:24EnochwalkedwithGod
andhewasnotHe11:6hethatcomethtoGodmustbelievethatheis.Theauxiliaryuseislater.In1611beandarewere
interchangeableauxiliaryformsinthepres.indic,plu.,asPs107:30Thenaretheygladbecausetheybequiet.
BEALIAH(Jislord).ABenjamitewhojoinedDavidatZiklag(1Ch
12:5).
BEALOTH(Jos15:24).AnunknowntownintheextremesouthofJudah.SeeBalah.
BEAM.1.AtreeroughlytrimmedservingassupportoftheflatroofofanEasternhouse(2K6:2,5,Ezr6:11RV,Mt7:3ff.,Lk6:41f.),
ormoreelaboratelydressed(2Ch34:11RV,Ca1:17)andgilded(2Ch3:7).SeeHouse,Mote.2.Theweaversbeam(seeSpinningand
Weaving).3.SeeBalance.
BEANS(pl,Arab.fl).AverycommonandpopularvegetableinPalestine,usedfromancienttimestheyaretheseedsoftheVicia
faba.Thebeanplant,whichissowninOct.orNov.,isinblossominearlyspring,whenitssweetperfumefillstheair.Beansaregathered
youngandeaten,podandseedtogether,cookedwithmeatorthefullymaturebeansarecookedwithfatoroil.AsthenativeofPalestine
takeslittlemeat,suchleguminousplantsareanecessaryingredientofhisdiet(2S17:28).InEzk4:9wereadofbeansasbeingmixedwith
barley,lentils,millet,andfitchestomakebread.

E.W.G.Masterman.
BEAR(db).TheSyrianbear(Ursussyriacus,Arab.dbb)isstillfairlycommoninHermonandtheAntiLebanon,andisoccasionally
foundintheLebanonandeastoftheJordanitispracticallyextinctinPalestine.Itissmallerandofalightercolourthanthebrownbear
(Ursusarctos).Itisasomewhatsolitaryanimal,eatingvegetables,fruit,andhoney,but,whenhungry,attackingsheep(1S17:3436)and 20/63
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(Ursusarctos).Itisasomewhatsolitaryanimal,eatingvegetables,fruit,andhoney,but,whenhungry,attackingsheep(1S17:3436)and
occasionally,butveryrarely,todayatanyrate,humanbeings(2K2:24).Thefiercenessofabearrobbedofherwhelps(2S17:8,Pr17:12,
Hos13:8)iswellknown.Nexttothelion,thebearwasconsideredthemostdangerousofanimalstoencounter(Pr28:15),andthatitshould
besubduedwastobeoneofthewondersoftheMessiahskingdom(Is11:7).

E.W.G.Masterman.
BEARD.SeeHair.
BEAST

1.InOT(1)behmh,commonlyusedforaquadruped,sometimestr.cattleseeGn6:7,7:2,Ex9:9,10,25,Lv11:2etc.(2)chayyh,
usedofanimalsingeneralbutspeciallywildbeastsseeGn7:14,8:1,9:2etc.(3)bersometimestr.beastsandsometimescattleseeGn
45:17,Ex22:5etc.(4)zz,wildbeasts,Ps50:11,80:13.
2.InNT(1)thrion:Mk1:13,Ac28:4(aviper),Tit1:12,He12:20,Ja3:7,andover30timesinRev.(2)zon,ofthebeasts(AV),or
livingcreatures(RV),roundaboutthethrone(Rev5,6,8,11,etc.).

E.W.G.Masterman.
BEAST(inApocalypse).InRevelation,particularlych.13,aresymbolicpicturesoftwobeastswhoarerepresentedasthearch
opponentsoftheChristians.Thefirstbeastdemandsworship,andissaidtohaveashisnumber666anumericalsymbolmosteasilyreferred
totheEmperorNero,ortheRomanEmpire.IntheformercasethereferencewouldbeundoubtedlytothemythofNeroredivivus,andthisis,
onthewhole,themostprobableinterpretation.
Ifinsteadof666wereadwithZahn,O.Holtzmann,Spitta,andErbes,616,thenumberwouldbetheequivalentofGaiusCsar,whoin
a.d.39orderedtheprocuratorPetroniustosetuphisstatueintheTempleofJerusalem.Thisviewis,inaway,favourednotonlybytextual
variations,butbythefactthatRevelationhasusedsomuchJewishapocalypticmaterial.Howeverthismaybe,itseemsmoreprobablethatthe
referenceinRev17:1011,asreeditedbytheChristianwriter,referstoNeroredivivus,theincarnationofthepersecutingRomanEmpire,the
twotogetherstandingrespectivelyastheAntichristandhiskingdomoveragainsttheMessiahandHiskingdom.Asinallapocalyptic
writings,adefinitehistoricalrulerisarepresentativeofanempire.UntiltheMessiahcomesHissubjectsareatthe,mercyofHisgreatenemy.
Thepresentdifficultyinmakingtheidentificationisduenotonlytotheprocessofredaction,butalsotothehighlycomplexand,forthe
modernmind,allbutunintelligiblefusionofthevariouselementsoftheAntichristbelief(seeAntichrist).

ShailerMathews.
BEATING.SeeCrimesandPunishments,9.
BEATITUDES.ThiswordcomesfromtheLatinabstractbeatitudo,usedinVulg.ofRo4:6,whereDavidissaidtopronouncethe
beatitudeorblessednessoftheforgivensoul.SincethetimeofAmbrosethetermhasbeenusedtodescribetheparticularcollectionof
sayings(castintheformofwhichPs32:1isanOTspecimen)inwhichChristdepictsthequalitiestobefoundinmembersofHiskingdom
asanintroductiontothediscourseknownastheSermonontheMount(Mt5:312=Lk6:2023).Eachofthesesayingsfollowstheform
Blessed(happy)are,becauseMt.recordseightofthesegeneraldeclarations,withaspecialapplicationofthelastofthemLk.has 21/63
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Blessed(happy)are,becauseMt.recordseightofthesegeneraldeclarations,withaspecialapplicationofthelastofthemLk.has
onlyfour,towhichareaddedfourcorrespondingWoes.ThereisnoguaranteethatevenMt.givesalltheBeatitudespronouncedbyJesuson
differentoccasions,oragainthatthosehedoesgivewereallpronouncedonthatoccasion.ItisatleastpossiblethatinotherpartsoftheNT
wehavequotationsfromsayingsofthesamekind.Thus1P4:14,Ja1:12,Rev14:13mighteasilybesupposedtorestonwordsofChrist.
AccordingtotheprevailingviewofthehistoryofourGospels,theBeatitudesarederivedfromanearlycollectionofLogia,orsayingsof
Jesus,intheoriginalAramaiclanguage.ToaverylargeextenttheauthorsofMt.andLk.seemtohaveusedidenticaltranslationsofthis
documentbutintheBeatitudesthereisaconsiderabledivergence,togetherwithsomesignificantagreementsinphraseology.Puttingaside
Nos.3,5,6,7inMt.,whichhavenocounterpartsinLk.,weseethefollowingmainlinesofdifference(1)Lk.sareinthesecondperson,
Mt.sinthethird,exceptintheverseswhichapplyNo.8(5:11,12)(2)Lk.sareapparentlyexternal:thepoor,thehungry,thosethatweep,
receivefelicitationassuch,insteadofthecommiseration(Woe)whichtheworldwouldgivethem.ButsinceinLk.disciplesareaddressed,
thedivergencedoesnottouchtherealmeaning.Atheodicyisproclaimedinwhichthehardshipsofthepresent,sanctifiedtothediscipleas
preciousdiscipline,willbetransformedintoabidingblessedness.Suchareversaloftheorderofthislifeinvolveshere,aselsewhere,the
castingdownofthosewhommencounthappy(cf.Is65:13,14,Lk1:52,53,16:25,Jn16:20,Ja1:9,10).Theparadoxicalformofthesayings
inLk.producesastrongimpressionoforiginality,suggestingthathere,asoftenelsewhere,Mt.hasinterpretedthewordswhichLk.has
transcribedunchanged.Mt.hasarrangedthemaccordingtotheformofHebrewparallelism:observehowthefirstandlasthavethesame
refrain,thepoembeginningandendingonthesamenotecf.Ps8.HisNo.8sumsupintheformoftheotherBeatitudestheprincipleofthe
appendixvv.11,12,whichLk6:22,23showstobeoriginal:hetheninsertsthisasacomment,muchasheappendsasentenceofcommentto
theLordsPrayer(6:14,15).ItmayperhapsbedoubtedwhethertheBeatitudespeculiartoMt.areintheiroriginalcontext.No.3,proclaiming
thetriumphofthosewhodonotstruggletosurvive,isquotedfromPs37:11No.5isfoundasearlyasClementofRome,intheformShow
mercy,thatmercybeshowntoyouNo.6reproducesthesenseofPs24:4
No.7,echoedinJa3:18,mayhavebeenalteredinformtofittheappropriatecontext.WeseemtobejustifiedinconjecturingthatLk.inserts
alltheBeatitudeshefoundinhissourceunderthesamecontext,andthathefaithfullypreservedthewordsastheystood:theWoeslikewise
belongedtothesamediscourse.(NotethesupportgiventothembyJa5:1,andtheuseofthecommercialtechnicaltermhavereceived,so
characteristicoftheSermoncf.Mt6:2,5,16).TheglosswithwhichMt.interpretstheMessingonthepoorwasnotapparentlyknowntoSt.
James(2:5),whoseveryclearallusiontotheBeatitudeinitsLukanformdeterminestheexegesis.Therichmancouldbringhimselfwithinthe
rangeoftheblessingbyacceptingthehumiliationthatChristiandiscipleshipbrought(Ja1:10)sothatMt.sinterpretationissupportedby
thewriter,whoshowsusmostclearlythattheexactwordshavenotbeenpreservedbyhim.InNo.2Mt.seemstohaveslightlyalteredthe
original(Lk6:21).undertheinfluenceofIs61:1theprophecyfromwhichJesuspreachedinthesynagogueatNazareth,andtheobvious
suggestivecauseoftheappearanceofthepoorattheopeningoftheBeatitudes.Itshouldbeobserved,however,thatallattemptstoascertain
theoriginalformofsayingsofJesushaveatbestsolargeasubjectiveelementthatwecannotaffordtodogmatize.Therearescholarsofgreat
weight,reinforcedmostrecentlybyHarnack,whoregardMt.asgenerallypreservingthelostLogiacollectioninamoreexactformthanLk.
Moreover,wemustalwaysallowfortheprobabilitythatmodificationsintroducedbyMt.orLk.mayoftenrestonearlytraditions,sothat
elementsnotincludedintheprincipalGospelsourcesmayneverthelessbederivedfromfirsthandauthority.

JamesHopeMoulton.
BEAUTIFULGATE.SeeTemple.
BEBAI.1.Theeponymofafamilyofreturningexiles(Ezr2:11,8:11,10:28,Neh7:16,10:15,1Es5:13,9:29).2.Anunknownlocality
mentionedonlyinJth15:4.

BECHER.1.SonofEphraim,Nu26:35=1Ch7:20wherethenameappearsasBered.PatronymicinNu26:35Becherites(AV
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BECHER.1.SonofEphraim,Nu26:35=1Ch7:20wherethenameappearsasBered.PatronymicinNu26:35Becherites(AV
Bachrites).2.SonofBenjamin,Gn46:21,1Ch7:6,8andimplicitlyin1Ch8:1whereforhisfirstborn,Ashbelweshouldprobablyread
BecherandAshbel.
BECORATH.OneofSaulsancestors(1S9:1,possiblysamenameasBecherof1Ch7:8).
BECTILETH(Jth2:21).AplainbetweenNinevehandCilicia.PerhapstheBactialiofthePeutingerTables,21milesfromAntioch.
BED,BEDCHAMBER.SeeHouse,8.
BEDAD.FatherofHadad,kingofEdom(Gn36:35=1Ch1:49).
BEDAN.1.MentionedwithJerubbaal,Jephthah,andSamuelasoneofthedeliverersofIsrael(1S12:11).Thenamedoesnotoccurin
Jg.,anditisprobablyacorruptionforBarak(soLXXandPesh.).ChronologicallyBarakshouldprecedeGideon,buttheordercannotbe
pressed(cf.V.9).2.AManassite(1Ch7:17).
BEDEIAH.Oneofthosewhohadtakenforeignwives(Ezr10:35):in1Es9:34apparentlyPedias.
BEE(debrh).Thebee(Apisfasciata)isaveryimportantinsectofPalestine.Wildbeesarecommon,andstoresoftheirhoneyare
oftenfoundbywanderingBedouin,especially,itissaid,neartheDeadSea.Mostofthehoneyconsumedandexportedinlargequantitiesis
madebydomesticatedbees.Thevastnumbersofflowersandespeciallyofaromaticplantsenabletheskilledbeekeepertoproducethemost
delicatelyflavouredhoney,e.g.orangeflower,thyme,etc.becarrieshishivestodifferentpartsaccordingtotheseason.Manynowkeep
beesinhivesofEuropeanpattern,buttheordinarynativestilluniversallyusestheprimitivetubehive.Thisislikeawidedrainpipeofvery
roughearthenware,some3ft.longandabout8in.indiameter,closedattheendwithmud,leavingaholeforingressandegress.Anumberof
hivesarepiledoneabovetheother.Afewyearsago,whiletheownerofseveralswarmsofbeeswastransferringhisbrittlemudhiveson
donkeyhack,oneoftheassesstumbledandinfallingbrokeoneofthehives.Inamomentthewholeswarmfellontheunfortunateanimals
andonafinehorsestandingnear.Onedonkeywasquicklystungtodeath,andalltheotheranimalswereseverelyinjured.Cf.Dt1:44,Ps
118:12,andIs7:18,wherethehostsofAssyriaarecomparedtosuchaswarmletloose.Thataswarmofbeesshouldsettleinacarcass(Jg
14:8)iscertainlyanunusualoccurrence,asindeedissuggestedinthenarrative,butthedriedupremainsofanimals,littlebuthideandribs,so
plentifulbytheroadsidesinPalestine,oftensuggestsuitableplacesforsuchasettlement.Honeyhasprobablyalwaysbeenplentifulin
Palestine,hutitisverydoubtfulwhetheralandflowingwithmilkandhoneycouldhavemeanttheproductofbeesalone.SeeHoneyand
Vine.IntheLXXthereisanadditiontoPr6:8,inwhichthebeeis,liketheant,extolledforherdiligenceandwisdom.

E.W.G.Masterman.
BEELIADA(Baalknows).AsonofDavid,1Ch14:7,changedinconformitywithlaterusage(seeIshbosheth)intoEliada(El
knows)in2S5:16.
BEELSARUS(1Es5:8).OneoftheleadersofthoseJewswhoreturnedtoJerus.withZerub.calledBilshan,Ezr2:2,Neh7:7.
BEELTETHMUS.AnofficerofArtaxerxesresidinginPal.,1Es2:16,25(LXX15,21).Itisnotapropername,butatitleofRehum,
thenameimmediatelyprecedingitinEzr4:8.Itisacorruptionofbeltem=lordofjudgment,andisrenderedchancellorbyAVand
RVinEzr.,storywriterin1Es2:17.

BEELZEBUB.SeeBaalzebub.
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BEELZEBUB.SeeBaalzebub.
BEER(awell).1.AstationinthejourneyfromArnontotheJordan,mentionedNu21:18,withapoeticalextractcommemoratingthe
diggingofawellatthisspot.Thecontextindicatestheneighbourhood,butfurtheridentificationiswanting.Perhapsthewordstranslatedand
fromthewilderness,whichimmediatelyfollowthisextract(Nu21:18),shouldbetranslated(followingthe
LXX)andfromBeer,orthewell.ItisgenerallyidentifiedwithBeerelim(wellofmightymen?),mentionedIs15:8,andinthesecond
partofthecompoundnameitmaybeconjecturedthatthereisreferencetotheeventcommemoratedinthesong(Nu21:17,18).2.Theplace
towhichJothamranawayafterutteringhisparable(Jg9:21).Itspositionisunknown.
BEERA.AmanofAsher(1Ch7:37).
BEERAH.AReubenitewhowascarriedcaptivebyTiglathpileser(1Ch
5:6).
BEERELIM.SeeBeer.
BEERI.1.ThefatherofJudith,oneofEsauswives(Gn26:34),sometimeswronglyidentifiedwithAnah(wh.see).2.Thefatherofthe
prophetHosea(Hos
1:1).
BEERLAHAIROI(ThewelloftheLivingOnethatseethme).AwellbetweenKadeshandBered,wherethefleeingHagarwas
turnedback(Gn16:14),whereIsaacmethisbride(24:62),andwherehedweltafterAbrahamsdeath(25:11).AinMuweileh,about50miles
S.WofBeersheba,hasbeensuggestedasanotimpossibleidentification.Itisastationwherethereareseveralwells,onthecaravanroutefrom
SyriatoEgypt.
R.A.S.Macalister.
BEEROTH(wells).AGibeonitecity,usuallycoupledinenumerationwithChephirahandKiriathjearim(Jos9:17,Ezr2:25,Neh
7:29)assignedtothetribeofBenjamin(Jos18:25,2S4:2)thehomeofRechab,murdererofIshbosheth(2S4:2),andofNaharai,armour
bearerofJoab(2S23:37).Bireh,about10milesfromJerusalemonthemainroadtothenorth,istheusualidentification,andthereseemsno
specialreasonforobjectingthereto.ThecircumstancesanddateoftheflightoftheBeerothitestoGittaim(2S4:3)arenotrecorded.

R.A.S.Macalister.
BEEROTHBENEJAAKAN.ProbablycertainwellsintheterritoryofsomenomadHoritetribe(Gn36:27,1Ch1:42),theBen
JaakanahaltingplaceintheIsraelitewanderings,betweenMoserothandHorhaggidgad(Nu33:31,32,Dt10:6).Thesiteisunknown.

R.A.S.Macalister.
BEERSHEBA.AhaltingplaceofAbraham(Gn21:31),whereHagarwassentaway(Gn21:14),andwherehemadeacovenantwith
Abimelech,fromwhichtheplaceisallegedtotakeitsname(wellofthecovenant,accordingtooneinterpretation).Isaacafterhisdisputes
withthePhilistinessettledhere(26:23),anddiscoveredthewellShibah,anotheretymologicalspeculation(v.33).HenceJacobwassentaway
(28:10),andreturnedandsacrificedonhiswaytoEgypt(46:1).ItwasassignedtothetribeofJudah(Jos15:28),butsetapartforthe
Simeonites(19:2).HereSamuelssonswerejudges(1S8:2),andhitherElijahfledbeforeJezebel(1K19:3).Zibiah,themotherofJoash,
belongedtoBeersheba(2K12:1).Itwasanimportantholyplace:hereAbrahamplantedasacredtree(Gn21:33),andtheophanieswere
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belongedtoBeersheba(2K12:1).Itwasanimportantholyplace:hereAbrahamplantedasacredtree(Gn21:33),andtheophanieswere
vouchsafedtoHagar(v.17),toIsaac(26:24),toJacob(46:2),andtoElijah(1K19:5).AmoscouplesitwiththeshrinesofBethelandGilgal
(Am5:6),andoathsbyitsnumenaredenounced(8:14).ItisrecognizedasthesouthernboundaryofPalestineinthefrequentphrasefrom
DanuntoBeersheba(Jg20:1etc.).Sevenancientwellsexisthere,andithasbeensuggestedthatthesegaveitsnametothelocalitythe
suffixednumeralbeingperhapsduetotheinfluenceofthesyntaxofsomepreSemiticlanguage,asinKiriatharba(Tetrapolis).Themodern
nameisBiresSeba,whereareextensiveremainsofaByzantinecitytheancientcityisprobablyatTellesSeba,about2milestotheeast.
TillrecentlythesitewasdesertedbyallbutBedouinnowamoderntownhassprungup,builtfromtheruinsoftheancientstructures,andhas
beenmadetheseatofasubgovernor.

R.A.S.Macalister.
BEESHTERAH(Jos21:27).SeeAshtaroth.
BEETLE(chargl).InRVcricket(Lv11:22),probablyagrasshopperorlocust.SeeLocust.

E.W.G.Masterman.
BEFORE.InGn11:28HarandiedbeforehisfatherTerah,themeaningisinthepresenceofasRV,literallybeforethefaceof.
BEHEADING.SeeCrimesandPunishments,10.
BEHEMOTH.Thehippopotamus(Job40:15),asleviathan(41:1)isthecrocodile.IthasbeensuggestedthattheancientBabylonian
Creationmythunderliesthepoetsdescriptionofthetwoanimals(Gunkel,Schpf.u.Chaos,61ff.).Thisisdoubtful,butthemyth
undoubtedlyreappearsinlaterJewishliterature:Andinthatdaywilltwomonstersbeseparated,afemalenamedLeviathantodwellinthe
abyssoverthefountainsofwaters.ButthemaleiscalledBehemoth,whichoccupieswithitsbreast[?]animmeasurabledesertnamed
Dendain(En60:7,8cf.2Es6:4951,Apoc.Bar29:4,Bababathra74b).BehemothisrenderedbybeastsinIs30:6.Thismaybecorrect,
buttheoraclewhichfollowssaysnothingaboutthebeastsofthesoutheitherthetextiscorruptorthetitlemayhavebeenprefixedbecause
Rahab,anothernameforthechaosmonster,occursinv.7.Thepsalmistconfesses,BehemothwasIwiththee(Ps73:22).TheLXX
understoodthistobeanabstractnoun,BeastlikewasIwiththeeotherssubstitutethesing.,andrenderabeast,etc.

J.Taylor.
BEKA(AVBekah).SeeWeightsandMeasures.
BEL,originallyoneoftheBab.triad,butsynonym,inOTandApocr.with
Merodach,theyoungerBel,thetutelarygodofBabylon(Jer50:2,51:44,Is46:1,Bar6:41).SeealsoBaal,AssyriaandBabylonia.Beland
theDragon(inart.Apocrypha,7).
BELA.1.AkingofEdom(Gn36:32,33,cf.1Ch1:43f.).ThecloseresemblanceofthisnametothatofBalaam,thesonofBeor,the
seer,isnoteworthy,andhasgivenrisetotheTargumofJonathanreadingBalaam,thesonofBeorinGn36:32.2.Theeldestofthesonsof
Benjamin(Gn46:21,Nu26:38[patronym.Belaites],1Ch7:6,8:1).3.ARenbenitewhowasadwellerintheMoabiteterritory(1Ch5:8f.).It
isnoteworthythatthisBela,liketheEdomitekingmentionedabove,seemstohavebeentraditionallyconnectedwiththeEuphrates.
4.AnameofZoar(Gn14:2,8).

BELEMUS,1Es2:16(16,LXX).SeeBishlam.
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BELEMUS,1Es2:16(16,LXX).SeeBishlam.
BELIAL(BELIAR).Thisword,renderedbyAVandRVasapropernouninthemajorityoftheOTpassages,isinrealityacompound,
meaning
worthlessness,whencewickedness,destruction,andassuchisconstruedwithanothernoun.Inthesenseofwickedness,itoccursin1S
1:16daughterofwickedness,i.e.awickedwoman(cf.Dt13:13,15:9,Jg9:22,20:13,1S2:12,10:27,25:17,25,2S16:7,20:1,23:6,1K
21:10,13,2Ch13:7,Pr6:12,16:27,19:28,forsimilarusage).Asdestruction,itisfoundinPs17:5(cf.2S22:5)41:8andNah1:11,15
(noteinNah1:15independentuse,manunderstoodRVwickedoneothers,destroyer).Havingsuchameaning,itisusedbySt.Paulas
anameforSatan(personificationofuncleanheathenism,2Co6:15),theGreektextspellingitBeliar(AVandRVBelial),avariationdue
totheharshpronunciationoflinSyriac.

N.Koenig.
BELIEF.OlderEng.(akintoliefandlove)fortheLat.Frenchfaith,whichdisplaceditinAVeverywhereexceptin2Th2:13.RV
followsAVexceptinRo
10:16f.,whereitrestoresbelief,afterTindale,incontinuitywithbelieve.
Unbeliefhelditsgroundastheantonym(Mt13:58,etc.,Ro3:3etc.).InmodernEng.,faithsignifiesethical,beliefintellectual,credence:
faith,trustinapersonbelief,recognitionofafactortruthbeyondthesphereofsensibleobservationordemonstrativeproof.SeeFaith.

G.G.Findlay.
BELL.Anumberofsmallbronzebells,bothoftheordinaryshapewithclapperandoftheballandslitform,havebeenfoundatGezer
(PEFSt,1904,354,withillustt.).Thebellsofpuregold(Ex39:25),whichalternatedwithpomegranateornamentsontheskirtofthehigh
priestsrobe(28:33f.),weredoubtlessofoneorotheroftheseforms.Theirpurposeisstatedinv.35,buttheunderlyingideaisobscure(see
theComm.).ThebellsofthehorsesofZec14:20representanotherwordakintothatrenderedcymbals.Whethertheseornamentswere
reallybellsor,asisusuallysupposed,smallmetaldiscs(cf.thecrescentsofJg8:21RV)Isuncertain.

A.R.S.Kennedy.
BELLOWS.SeeArtsandCrafts,2.
BELMAIM(Jth4:4,7:3).ItseemstohavelainsouthofDothan,butthetopographyofJudithisverydifficult.BileaminManasseh
layfarthernorththanDothan.
BELOVED.SeeLove.
BELSHAZZAR.SonofNebuchadnezzar,lastkingofBabylon,beforeitscapturebyCyrus(Dn5:1).Thenameissomewhatvariously
given:Baltasar,Bar1:11f.[soalsoLXXandTheod.inDaniel]andJosephussayshewassonofNaboandlos.Thereisnodoubtthat
Blsharusur,sonofNabonidus,ismeant.HewasregentinBabylonduringthelatterpartofhisfathersreign.Itisprobablethathewasin
commandofBabylononitssurrender,ashehadbeenincommandofthearmyinAkkadtillthe11thyearofhisfathersreign.

C.H.W.Johns.
BELTESHAZZAR.NebuchadnezzarissaidtohaveconferredthisnameontheyouthfulDaniel(Dn1:7).TheBabylonianformwould
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BELTESHAZZAR.NebuchadnezzarissaidtohaveconferredthisnameontheyouthfulDaniel(Dn1:7).TheBabylonianformwould
beBalatsuusur
(protecthislife!)or,accordingto4:8,Belbalatsuusur.TheLXXand
TheodotionemployBaltasarbothforitandforBelshazzar(ch.5)andpseudoEpiphaniusrepeatsalegendthatNebuchadnezzarwishedto
makethetwomencoheirs.

J.Taylor.
BEN(son).ALevite,1Ch15:18,omittedinparallellistinv.20inbothMTandLXX.Thelatteromitsitalsointhefirstnamed
passage.
BENABINADAB(AVsonofAbinadab).OneofSolomonscommissariatofficers(1K4:11).
BENAIAH(Jahhathbuilt).1.AbravesoldierfromKabzeelinJudah(2S23:20ff.),captainofDavidsbodyguard(8:18,20:23).He
becameapartisanof
Solomonsandcarriedthemightymen,theCherethitesandPelethites,withhim(1K1:7,8,38).Heplayedanimportantrleintheyoung
kingscoronation(vv.38,44),andwassubsequentlyorderedtodispatchJoab,whoseplaceascommanderinchiefhethenfilled(2:2835).2.
OneofthethirtywhoformedthesecondclassofDavidsheroes(2S23:22).HecamefromPirathoninMt.Ephraim(2S23:30,cf.Jg12:15).
1Ch27:14assignstohimthecommandofthecoursefortheeleventhmonth,withtwentyfourthousandEphraimitesunderhim.3.Someten
obscurepersonsofthisnameappearin1Ch4:36,15:18,20,24,16:5,6,2Ch20:14,31:13,Ezr10:25,30,35,43,Ezk11:1,13.

J.Taylor.
BENAMMI(sonofmybloodrelativeorsonofmyfatherskinsman).Thestory(Gn19)purportstoexplainthenameAmmon(v.
38).Notwithstandingthefactthatincestuousmarriageswerecommonamongstthesepeople,itismostlikelythatthenarrativeisaproductof
thebitterhatredwhichwasexcitedbyprolongedcontestsfortheterritoryE.ofJordan.

J.Taylor.
BENDEKER(AVsonofDekar).OneofSolomonstwelvecommissariatofficers(1K4:9).
BENEBERAK.AtownintheterritoryofDan(Jos19:45),identifiedwithIbnIbrq,about5milesE.ofJaffa,ontheN.ofWdy
Nusrah.
W.Ewino.
BENEFACTOR.Lk22:25only,theythatexerciseauthorityoverthem(theGentiles)arecalledbenefactors.Thewordisanexacttr.of
theGr.Euergets,atitleofhonourbornebytwooftheGr.kingsofEgyptbeforeChristsday,PtolemyIII.(b.c.247222)andPtolemyVII.
(IX.)(b.c.147117).HenceRVproperlyspellswithacapital,Benefactors.
BENEJAAKAN.Astationinthejourneyings,mentionedNu33:31,32(cf.Dt10:6,andseeBeerothbeneJaakan).
BENGEBER(AVsonofGeber).PatronymicofoneofSolomonstwelvecommissariatofficerswhohadchargeofadistrictN.E.of
theJordan(1K4:13).
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BENHADAD.ThenameofthreekingsofDamascusinthe9thcent.b.c.
1.BenhadadI.,thesonofTabrimmonofDamascus.AttheinstanceofAsaofJudahheintervenedagainstBaashaofIsrael,andtook
fromhimvaluableterritoryonhisnorthernborder.ForthisserviceBenhadadreceivedfromAsacostlytreasuresfromtheTempleandroyal
palace(1K15:1720).
2.BenhadadII.,sonofthepreceding,wasanablegeneralandstatesman.Hewasattheheadofaleagueofwesternprinceswho
successfullyopposedtheattemptsofShalmaneserII.ofAssyriatoconquersouthernSyria.AtthebattleofKarkarinb.c.854hehadAhabof
Israelasoneofhischiefallies.InhistimewarwithIsraelwastherule,hebeingusuallysuccessful.ButAhabwasmorefortunateinthe
campaignsof856and855,whichwerefollowedbyatreatyofpeacewithconcessionstoIsrael(1K20).Ontheresumptionofhostilitiesin
thethirdyearthereafter,Benhadadwasvictorious(1K22).HewasassassinatedbytheusurperHazaelaboutb.c.843(2K8:15).

3.BenhadadIII.,sonofHazael,probablythesameastheManoftheAssyrianinscriptions.UnderhimDamascuslosthisfathers
conquestsinPalestine(2K13:24f.),andhealsosufferedheavilyfromtheAssyrians.

J.F.McCurdy.
BENHAIL(sonofmight).AprincesentbyJehoshaphattoteachinthecitiesofJudah(2Ch17:7).
BENHANAN(sonofagraciousone).AmanofJudah(1Ch4:20).
BENHESED(AVsonofHesed[=kindness]).OneofSolomonstwelvecommissariatofficerswhohadchargeofadistrictinJudah
(1K4:10).
BENHUR(AVsonofHur).OneofSolomonstwelvecommissariatofficers(1K4:8).
BENINU(perhapsourson).Oneofthosewhosealedthecovenant(Neh
10:13).
BENJAMIN.1.TheyoungestsonofJacobbyRachel,andtheonlyfullbrotherofJoseph(Gn30:22f.[JE]35:17[J]35:24[P]).Healone
ofJacobssonswasnativeborn.J(Gn35:16)putshisbirthnearEphrathinBenjamin.AlaterinterpolationidentifiesEphrathwithBethlehem,
butcf.1S10:2.P,however(Gn35:2226),givesPaddanaramasthebirthplaceofallJacobschildren.Hismother,dyingsoonafterhewas
born,namedhimBenoni(sonofmysorrow).JacobchangedthisillomenednametothemoreauspiciousoneBenjamin,whichisusually
interpretedsonofmyrighthand,therighthandbeingtheplaceofhonourastherightsidewasapparentlytheluckyside(cf.Gn48:14).
Pressedbyafamine,histenbrotherswentdowntoEgypt,andJacob,solicitousforhiswelfare,didnotallowBenjamintoaccompanythem
butJosephmadeitaconditionofhisgivingthemcornthattheyshouldbringhimontheirreturn.WhenJudah(Gn43:9J)orReuben(42:37
E)gavesuretyforhissafereturn,Jacobyielded.ThroughouttheearlierdocumentsBenjaminisatenderyouth,theidolofhisfatherand
brothers.AlateeditorofP(Gn46:21)makeshim,whenheenteredEgypt,thefatheroftensons,thatismorethantwiceasmanyasJacobs
othersonsexceptDan,whohadseven.
Thequestionis,Whatisthehistoricalsignificanceoftheseconflictingtraditions?Ymin,righthand,appearstohavebeenused
geographicallyforsouth,andBenyminmaymeanson(s)ofthesouth,i.e.thesouthernportionofEphraim.Benonimaybeconnected
withOninthetribeofBenjamin.Thetwonamesmaypointtotheunionoftworelatedtribes,andthepersistenceofthetraditionsthat
BenjaminwasthefullbrotherofJoseph,whereastheotherJosephtribes(ManassehandEphraim)arecalledsons,wouldindicatenotonlya
closerelationshiptoJoseph,butalsoacomparativelyearlydevelopmentintoanindependenttribe.Ontheotherhand,JEPallmake
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closerelationshiptoJoseph,butalsoacomparativelyearlydevelopmentintoanindependenttribe.Ontheotherhand,JEPallmake
Benjamintheyoungestson,andPgivesCanaanashisnativeland.Thispointstoatraditionalbeliefthatthetribewasthelasttodevelop.This
andthefactthatShimei,aBenjamitc,claims(2S19:20)tobeofthehouseofJoseph,suggestthatthetribewasanoffshootofthelatter.
ThelimitsofthetribalterritoryaregivenbyPinJos18:1128.Withinitlay
Bethel(elsewhereassignedtoEphraim),Ophrah,Geba,Gibeon,Ramab,Mizpeh,Gibeah,allprimitiveseatsofCanaanitishworshipand
importantcentresinthecultusofIsrael(cf.,e.g.,Bethel,Am7:10ff.).Jericho,whereinearlytimestheremayhavebeenacultofthemoon
god(jrach=moon),andJerusalemarealsoassignedtoBenjamin.Dt33:12,ascommonlybutnotuniversallyinterpreted,alsoassigns
JerusalemtoBenjamin,thoughlateritbelongedtoJudah.Anathoth,thebirthplaceofJeremiah,alsolayinBenjamin(Jos21:18[P]).Inthe
BlessingofJacob(Gn49:27)afierceandwarlikecharacterisascribedtoBenjamin.Thestatementisallthemoreimportant,sinceinthis
Blessingwehavecertainlytodealwithvaticiniaposteventum.Theruggedandunfriendlynatureofthetribalterritorydoubtlesscontributed
tomartialhardihood.ThetribeparticipatedinthewaragainstSisera(Jg5:14).AlateandcompositestoryisfoundinJg1921ofanalmost
completeannihilationofthetribebytherestoftheIsraelites.LaterthetribegavetounitedIsraelitsfirstking,SaulofGibeah.IthadinAsas
army,accordingto2Ch14:8,280,000pickedwarriorsanexaggerationofcourse,butaverysignificantoneinthisconnexion.Benjamin,
underSheba,akinsmanofSaul,ledintherevoltagainstDavidwhenthequarrelprovokedbyDavidspartisanshipbrokeoutbetweenJudah
andthenortherntribes(2S20:1ff.).FromthefirstthetribewasloyaltothehouseofSaulandviolentlyopposedtoDavid(cf.2S16:5,20:2).
IntherevoltagainsttheoppressionsofRehoboamitjoinedwiththeNorth(1K12:20).AvariantaccountjoinsitwithJudah(12:21f.),butthis
isonlyareflexionoflatertimes.ThehistoryofthetribeisunimportantafterDavid.BesidesSaulandJeremiah,St.Paulalsotraceddescentto
thistribe(Ph3:5).SeealsoTribes.2.AgreatgrandsonofBenjamin(1Ch7:10).3.Oneofthosewhohadmarriedaforeignwife(Ezr10:32
prob.alsoNeh3:23,12:34).

JamesA.Craig.
BENJAMINGATE.SeeTemple.
BENO(hisson).InbothAVandRVapropernamein1Ch24:26,27,butweshouldperhapsrender,ofJaaziahhisson,eventhesons
ofMeraribyJaaziahhisson(Oxf.Heb.Lex.s.v.).
BENONI.SeeBenjamin.
BENZOHETH.AmanofJudah(1Ch4:20).
BEON(Nu32:3).Prob.=BaalMeon(wh.see).
BEOR.1.FatherofBalaam,Nu22:5,24:3,15J,Jos24:9,alsoNu31:8,Dt23:4,Jos13:22,Mic6:5,2P2:15(Bosor,AVandRVm).2.
FatherofBela,kingofEdom,Gn36:32J,1Ch1:43.
BERA.KingofSodomattimeofChedorlaomersinvasion(Gn14:2).
BERACAH(blessing).1.OneofSaulsbrethrenwhojoinedDavidatZiklag(1Ch12:3).2.Thevalleyofblessing,where
JehoshaphatgavethanksforvictoryovertheAmmonites,Moabites,andEdomites,whohadmarchedfromEngeditoTekoa(vv.2,20).The
namesurvivesattheruinBereiktonthemainroadfromJerusalemtoHebron,westofTekoa.
BERAIAH.AmanofBenjamin(1Ch8:21).
BEREA(1Mac9:4).SeeBera,3.
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BEREA(1Mac9:4).SeeBera,3.
BERECHIAH.1.FatherofAsaph(1Ch6:39,AVBsrachiah).2.Sonof
Zerubbabel(1Ch3:20).3.FatherofMeshullam,oneofNehemiahschiefs(Neh3:4,30,6:19).4.ALeviteguardoftheark(1Ch9:16,
15:23).5.FatheroftheprophetZechariah(Zec1:1).6.AnEphraimitechief(2Ch28:12).
BERED.1.Anunknownplace,mentionedbutonce(Gn16:14)asanindicationfixingthesiteofBeerlahairoi.Theidentificationwith
Halasah,whichhasbeensuggested,ismereguesswork.2.SeeBecher,No.1.

R.A.S.Macalister.
BERI.AdivisionofanAsheriteclan(1Ch7:35).
BERIAH.1.SonofAsher(Gn46:17,Nu26:44,1Ch7:30f.).2.SonofEphraim,begotteninthedaysofmourningoccasionedbythe
deathofEphraimsfoursons,whowerekilledbythemenofGathwhilstcattleraidinghencethefalseetymology,beraah=inaffliction(1
Ch7:23).3.ABenjamiteatAijalon,who,withShema,puttheGathitestoflight(cf.No.2).4.SonoftheLeviteShimei(1Ch23:10f.).He
andhisbrotherJeushhadnotmanysons,andthereforewerecountedasasinglefamily.

J.Taylor.
BERIITES.DescendantsofBeriah,No.1(Nu26:44).
BERITES.2S20:14.ThereadingBichritesissuggested,thoughnotactuallygiven,byLXXandVulg.Seeart.Sheba.
BERNICEorBERENICE.SisterofAgrippaII.(Ac25:13,23,26:30),marriedtoheruncleHerod,kingofChalcis.
BERODACHBALADAN.SeeMerodachbaladan.
BERA.1.AtowninthedistrictofMacedoniacalledEmathia.Theearliestcertainreferencetoitoccursinaninscriptionoftheendof
the4thcent.b.c.AfterthebattleofPydna(b.c.168)itwasthefirstcitywhichsurrenderedtotheRomans.Inwinterb.c.4948itwasthe
headquartersofPompeysinfantry.InSt.PaulstimetherewasaJewishcommunitytheretowhichhepreachedthegospelwithsuccess(Ac
17:10,13[Sopater,anative]20:4).Itwasapopulouscity,andisinmoderntimescalledVerriabyGreeks,KaraferiabyTurks,andBerby
Slavs.

2.TheplacewhereAntiochusEupatorcausedMenelaus,theexhighpriest,tobeputtodeath(2Mac13:4).Itisnowthewellknown
HaleborAleppo,withabout100,000inhabitants.
3.Mentioned1Mac9:4,perhapsthesameasBeeroth(Jos9:17)orBeroth(1Es5:19)modernBireh,about10milesN.ofJerusalem.

A.Souter.
BEROTH.1Es5:19=BeerothofEzr2:25.

BEROTHAH,BEROTHAI.AcityofSyria,despoiledbyDavid(2S8:8),andnamedbyEzekielasalimitingpointinhisideal
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BEROTHAH,BEROTHAI.AcityofSyria,despoiledbyDavid(2S8:8),andnamedbyEzekielasalimitingpointinhisideal
restorationofthekingdom(Ezk47:16).EzekielplacesitbetweenHamathandDamascusthesiteisotherwiseunknown.In1Ch18:8,which
isparallelto2S8:8,forBerothaiissubstitutedCun.[Berothitein1Ch11:39isobviouslymeantforBeerothite.SeeBeeroth].

R.A.S.Macalister.
BERYL.SeeJewelsandPreciousStones.
BERZELUS.SeeZorzelleus.
BESAI.NethinimwhoreturnedwithZerub.(Ezr2:49,Neh7:52=Basthai,1Es5:31).
BESODEIAH(Neh3:6).Meshullam,thesonofBesodeiah,tookpartinrepairingtheOldGate.
BESOM(lit.sweeper)occursonlyfig.Is14:23,Iwillsweepit[Babylon]withthesweeperofdestruction.Onesuchbesomoftwigs
thewriterremembershavingseeninthemuseumofEgyptianantiquitiesinCairo.

A.R.S.Kennedy.
BESOR(Brook).Atorrentvalley,apparentlyS.orS.W.ofZiklag(1S30:9,10,21).ItisprobablythemodernWadyGhuzzeh,which
emptiesitselfintotheseaS.W.ofGaza.
BESTIALITY.SeeCrimesandPunishments,3.
BETAH(2S8:9).SeeTibhath.
BETANE(Jth1:9).AplaceapparentlysouthofJerusalem,andnotBethany.ItmaybethesameasBethanoth.
BETEN(Jos19:25).AtownofAsher,noticednexttoAchshaph.Thesiteisdoubtful.Inthefourthcenturyitwasshown8Romanmiles
eastofPtolemais(Acco).ItmaybethepresentvillageelBaneh.
BETH.ThesecondletteroftheHeb.alphabet,andassuchusedinPs119astheheadingofthesecondpart,eachverseofwhichbegins
withthisletter.
BETHABARA.Mentionedonceonly,Jn1:28,asthesceneofJohnsbaptismtheprincipalcodices,followedbytheRV,hereread
Bethany.ThereisnocluetothepositionofBethabara,exceptthatitwasprobablyinornearGalilee(cf.Mt3:13).Identificationwithaford
namedAbrah,about12milessouthoftheoutletoftheSeaofGalilee,haswithsomeplausibilitybeensuggested.

R.A.S.Macalister.
BETHANATH.AtownofNaphtali,nowthevillageAinatha,inthemountainsofUpperGalilee.
BETHANOTH(Jos15:59).AtowninthemountainsofJudahnearGedor.ItisthepresentBeitAinn,S.E.ofHalhul.
BETHANY.Avillageabout15stadia(2910yardsorabout1mile)fromJerusalem(Jn11:18)ontheroadfromJericho,closeto
Bethphageandonthe
MountofOlives(Mk11:1,Lk19:29).ItwasthelodgingplaceofChristwheninJerusalem(Mk11:11).HerelivedLazarusandMarthaand
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MountofOlives(Mk11:1,Lk19:29).ItwasthelodgingplaceofChristwheninJerusalem(Mk11:11).HerelivedLazarusandMarthaand
Mary(Jn11:1),andhereHeraisedLazarusfromthedead(Jn11).HerealsoHewasentertainedbySimontheleper,atthefeastwherethe
womanmadeherofferingofointment(Mt26:6,Mk14:3).FromoveragainstBethanytookplacetheAscension(Lk24:50).Inthiscasethe
topographicalindicationsagreeexceptionallywiththeconstanttraditionwhichfixesBethanyatthevillageofelAzariyeh,ontheS.E.ofthe
MountofOlivesbesidetheJerichoroad.ThetombofLazarusandthehouseofMarthaandMaryaredefinitelypointedoutinthevillage,but
ofcoursewithoutanyhistoricalauthority.ForapossibleBethanyinGalilee,seeBethabara.

R.A.S.Macalister.
BETHARABAH(placeoftheArabah[wh.see],Jos15:6,61,18:22).AplaceintheJerichoplain,apparentlynorthofBethhoglah,in
thewilderness.Thenamehasnotbeenrecovered.
BETHARBEL(Hos10:14only).Thesiteisquiteuncertain.ItissaidtohavebeenspoiledbyShalman(perhapsShalmaneserIII.),and
mayhavebeeninSyria.TwoplacescalledArbelaexistinPalestine,one(nowIrbid)westoftheSeaofGalilee(Jos.Ant.XII.xi.1),theother
(Irbid)intheextremenorthofGilead,bothnoticedinthe4thcent.a.d.(Onom.s.v.Arbela).
BETHASMOTH(1Es5:18).ForBethazmaveth.SeeAzmaveth.
BETHAVEN(houseofiniquity,oridolatry?).ClosetoAi(Jos7:2),bythewilderness(18:12),northwestofMichmash(1S13:5),
andonthewaytoAijalon(14:23),stillinhabitedinthe8thcent.b.c.(Hos5:8).ThecalvesofBethavenwereprobablythoseatBethelclose
by(Hos10:5).BethelisprobablymeantalsoinHos4:15,5:8(seeAm5:5)10:8(Aven).
BETHAZMAVETH(Neh7:28).SeeAzmaveth.
BETHBAALMEON(Jos13:17).SeeBaalMeon.
BETHBARAH (Jg 7:24).Near Jordan and the valley of Jezreel. Some suppose it to be the same as Bethabara, in which case the
gutturalhasbeenlostincopying.
BETHBASI(1Mac9:62,64).JosephusreadsBethhoglah.Thenamehasnotbeenrecovered.
BETHBIRI(1Ch4:31).AtownofSimeon,perhapstextualerrorforBethlebaoth,Jos19:6=Lebaoth,Jos15:32.TheruinBirehon
thewestslopesoftheDebirhillsmaybeintended.
BETHCAR (house of a lamb).A place mentioned once only, 1 S 7:11, as the terminus of the pursuit of the Philistines under
Samuelsguidance.Thesiteisquiteunknown,savethatitmusthavebeensomewherenearJerusalem,onthewest.

R.A.S.Macalister.
BETHDAGON(houseofDagon).1.AcityofJudah(Jos15:41),somewhereintheShephelah.Thenameispreservedinthemodern
BeitDejan,some4milesS.E.ofJaffa.This,however,isquiteamodernvillage.NearitisaRomansite,namedKhurbetDajun.TheBiblical
Bethdagonisstilltoseek.2.AbordercityinthetribeofAsher(Jos19:27),notyetdiscovered.

R.A.S.Macalister.

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BETHDIBLATHAIM(houseoftwofigcakes?).InJer48:22mentionedwithDibonandNebothenextcamptoDibonbeforeNebo
(Nu33:48f.).
BETHEDEN(Am1:5marg.).SeeEden[Houseof].
BETHEL.1.Onarockyknollbesidethegreatroadtothenorth,about12milesfromJerusalem,standsthemodernBeiln,avillageof
some400inhabitants,whichrepresentstheancientBethel.Fourspringsfurnishgoodwater,andinancienttimestheyweresupplementedbya
reservoirhewnintherock,southofthetown.Luzwastheoriginalnameofthetown.ThenameBethelwasfirstappliedtothestonewhich
Jacobsetupandanointed(Gn28:22).SeePillar.Buttheplace(v.11etc.)wasevidentlyonewithholyassociations.Itwasvisitedby
Abraham,whosacrificedhere(12:8).ThismayhaveinducedJacobtocomehitheronhiswaytothenorth,andagainonhisreturnfrom
Paddanaram.FromaneminencetotheeastalmostthewholeextentoftheplainsofJerichoisvisible.ThismayhavebeenthesceneofLots
selfishchoice(Gn13).BethelintheendprevailedoverLuz,andthetowncametobeknownbythenameofthesanctuary,the
neighbourhoodofwhichlentitdistinction.

Bethel,aroyalCanaanitecity(Jos12:16),felltoBenjamininthedivisionoftheland(18:22),buthefailedtomakegoodhispossession.It
wasfinallytakenbyEphraim(Jg1:22,1Ch7:28).HitherthearkwasbroughtfromGilgal(Jg20:18
LXX),andBethelwasresortedtoasaplaceofsacrifice(1S10:3).TheprophetessDeborahdweltbetweenBethelandRamah(Jg4:5).In
judgingIsrael,SamuelwentfromyeartoyearincircuittoBethel(1S7:10).NodoubttheancientsanctityoftheplaceledJeroboamtochoose
Bethelasthesiteoftherivalshrine,whichhehopedmightcounteracttheinfluenceofthehouseoftheLordatJerusalem(1K12:26ff.).It
becamethegreatsanctuaryoftheNorthernKingdom,andthecentreoftheidolatrouspriestswhoservedinthehighplaces(v.32ff.).At
Bethel,JeroboamwasdenouncedbythemanofGodoutofJudah(13:19).ItwasoneofthetownstakenfromJeroboambyAbijahkingof
Judah(2Ch13:19).ItisnoteworthythatElijahissilentregardingthecalfworshipatBethelandthataschooloftheprophets,apparentlyin
sympathywithhim,flourishedthere(2K2:2f.).ButthedenunciationsofAmos(3:14,4:4,5:5etc.)andHosea(Hos4:15,5:8etc.)lack
nothinginvehemence.ThepriestresidedatBethel,whowasbroughtbythekingofAssyriatoteachthemixedpeoples,wholivedinthe
countryduringtheExile,themanneroftheGodoftheland(2K17:29ff.).Bethelwasreoccupiedbythereturningexiles(Ezr2:28etc.).We
finditinthehandsofBacchides(1Mac9:50).ItwasoneofthetownsinthemountainstakenbyVespasianinhismarchonJerusalem(Jos.
BJIV.ix.9).
2.AtowninJudah,notidentified,calledindifferentplaces,Bethul,Bethel,andBethuel(Jos19:4,1S30:27,1Ch4:30).

W.Ewing.
BETHEMEK(houseofthedeepvalley,Jos19:27).AtownofZebuluninthebordervalley,eastofAcco,apparentlynearCabul.The
namehasnotbeenrecovered.
BETHER(mountainsofcuttingorofdivisions,Ca2:17).Ifapropername,thefamoussiteofBether,nearJerusalem,mightbe
intended.BetheriscelebratedfortheresistanceoftheJewstoHadrianunderBarCochbaina.d.135.ThesitewasrecognizedbyCanon
WilliamsatBittr,southwestofJerusalemavillageonacliffinastrongposition,witharuinnearitcalledRuinoftheJews,froma
traditionofagreatJewishmassacreatthisplace.SeeMalobathron.
BETHESDA.AreservoiratJerusalem,remarkable(accordingtoaglossinsertedinthetextinsomeauthoritativeMSS)foraperiodic
disturbanceofthewaterwhichwassupposedtogiveithealingproperties.Herewerefiveporches.Itwasbythesheepgate.Animpotent
man,oneofthemanywhowaitedforthetroublingofthewater,washerehealedbyChrist(Jn5:2).TheonlybodyofwateratJerusalemthat
presentsanyanalogousphenomenonistheintermittentspringknownastheVirginsFountain,intheKidronvalley,butitisnotnearthe
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presentsanyanalogousphenomenonistheintermittentspringknownastheVirginsFountain,intheKidronvalley,butitisnotnearthe
Sheepgate.Thereislittlethatcanbesaidinfavourofanyotherofthenumerousidentificationsthathavebeenproposedforthispool.

R.A.S.Macalister.
BETHEZEL(Mic1:11).Perhapsplacenear,seeAVm:mentionedwithZaananandShaphir.Itseemstohavebeenaplaceinthe
Philistineplain,butthesiteisunknown.Accordingtosomeitis=AzelofZec14:5.
BETHGADER(1Ch2:51),mentionedwithBethlehemandKiriathjearim.ItmaybethesameasGeder,Jos12:13.
BETHGAMUL(Jer48:23).AplaceinMoab,noticedwithDibon,Kiriathaim,andBethmeon.ItisnowtheruinUmmelJeml,
towardstheeastoftheplateau,southofMedeba.
BETHGILGAL(Neh12:29,AVhouseofGilgal),perhapsidenticalwith
GilgaltotheeastofJericho.SeeGilgal
BETHHACCHEREM(placeofthevineyard),Neh3:14,Jer6:1.Itappearstohavehadacommandingpositionforabeaconor
ensign.TraditionfixedonHerodiumsouthofBethlehem,probablybecauseitwasaconspicuoussitenearTekoa,withwhichitisnoticed.A
possiblesiteisAinKarim,westofJerusalem,wheretherearevineyards.
BETHHARAMwassituatedinthevalleyplainoftheJordan(Jos13:27).InNu32:36Bethharan.ItssitehasbeenrecoveredatTell
Rmehatthemouthofthe
WadyHesbn,6mileseastfromthefamiliarbathingplaceofpilgrimsintheJordan.ItwasrebuiltandfortifiedbyHerodAntipaswhenhe
becametetrarch,andinhonouroftheRomanempresswascalledLiviasorLibias.Merrill(EastoftheJordan,p.383)givesreasonsfor
believingthatitwasinthepalaceherethatHerodcelebratedhisbirthdaybythefeastrecorded(Mt14:612,Mk6:2128),andthatthe
BaptistsheadwasbroughthitherfromMachrus,some20milessouth.
BETHHARAN(Nu32:36).SeeBethharam.
BETHHOGLAH(placeofthepartridge),Jos15:6,18:19.IntheJerichoplain.NowthelargespringcalledAinHajlah,partridge
spring,southeastofJericho.
BETHHORON.Theupperandnether,twotownsrepresentedbythevillagesBeitUrelfokaandBeitUrettahta,saidtohavebeen
builtbySheerah(1Ch7:24).Theirposition,ascommandingtheancientgreathighroadfromthemaritimeplainintotheheartofthe
mountainsofBenjamin,madetheseplacesofgreatimportance,andseveralcelebratedbattlesoccurredintheirneighbourhood.HereJoshua
defeatedtheCanaanites(Jos10:1014).Solomonfortifiedboththesecities(2Ch8:5,1K9:17).BythisroadShishak,kingofEgypt,invaded
Judah.HereJudasMaccabusdefeatedtheSyriangeneralSeron(1Mac3:1324)andfiveyearsafterwardsNicanor(7:3950)morethan
200yearslatertheJewsatthesameplacebeatbacktheRomanarmyunderCestiusGallus.Infewplacesin
Palestinecanwewithgreaterprecisionsethistoryinitsgeographicalsettingthewholeancientroad,withabundanttracesofRomanwork,
canbefollowedthroughout,andthetwoBeitUrs,lessthantwomilesapart,standsentinelabovetheroadasthetwoBethhoronsdidin
ancienttimes.TheBethhoronswereonthefrontierbetweenBenjaminandEphraim(Jos16:35and18:13,14).Theybelongedtothelatter
(Jos21:22),andfollowedtheNorthernKingdom.PossiblySanballattheHoronite(Neh2:10)wasfromhere.

E.W.G.Masterman.
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BETHJESHIMOTH(theplaceofthedesert).TheS.limitoftheencampmentontheplainsofMoabatthecloseofthejourneyings
(Nu33:49).InJos12:8itismentionedasintheS.oftheArabahtowardstheDeadSea.In13:20itisassignedtoReubenandinEzk25:9itis
spokenofasbelongingtoMoab.Eusebiusplacesit10milesS.ofJericho.SomeruinsandawellattheN.E.endoftheDeadSeabearthe
nameofSuwaimeh,whichmaybeamodificationofJeshimothandthissituationsuitstheBiblicalnarrative.
BETHLEAPHRAH(AVhouseofAphrah).Thenameofatown
apparentlyinPhil.territory,whosesiteisquiteunknown(Mic1:10).Inthecallat
BethleAphrahrollthyselfinthedust,thereisadoubleplayuponwords,Aphrahcontainingapunningallusiontoaphar(dust),and
hithpallashi(rollthyself)toPelishti(Philistine).
BETHLEBAOTH(Jos19:6houseoflionesses?).AtownofSimeon.See
Bethbiri.
BETHLEHEM(houseofbreador,accordingtosome,ofthegodLakhmu).ThenameoftwoplacesinPalestine.

1.BethlehemofJudah,otherwiseEphrathorEphrathah,nowrepresentedbythetownofBeitLahm,5milesS.ofJerusalem.Onthe
waythitherRachelwasburied(Gn35:19,48:7).HencecamethetwoLeviteswhoseadventuresarerelatedinJg17,19.Itwasthehomeof
Elimelech,thefatherinlawofRuth(Ru1:1),andhereRuthsettledwithhersecondhusbandBoaz,andbecametheancestressofthefamilyof
David,whoseconnexionwithBethlehemisemphasizedthroughouthishistory(1S16:118,17:12,20:6etc.).ThePhilistineshadherea
garrisonduringDavidsoutlawry(2S23:14,1Ch11:16).HereAsahelwashuried(2S2:32),andhencecameElhanan,oneofthemighty
men(2S23:24,cf.21:19).Rehoboamfortifiedit(2Ch11:6),andherethemurderersofGedaliahtookrefuge(Jer41:17).WhethertheSalma
referredtoin1Ch2:51,54asfatherofBethlehem(whateverthatexpressionmayexactlymean)bethesameastheSalmonwhowasfather
ofBoaz(Ru4:20)atheorytheGreekversionseemstojustifyisdoubtful.Thetownhadsomesanctity,andisindicated(Ps132:6)asa
suitableplacefortheTabernacle.ThebirthoftheMessiahthereisprophesiedinMic5:2(quotedMt2:6,Jn7:42),aprophecyfulfilledbythe
birthofChrist(Mt2:1,5,Lk2:4,15).HereHerodsenttoseekthenewbornChrist,andnotfindingHimorderedthemassacreoftheinfants
ofthecity(Mt2:8,16).Themoderntown,containingabout8000inhabitants,isChristianandcomparativelyprosperous.Withinitstandsthe
basilicaoftheNativity,foundedbyConstantine(about330),andrestoredbyJustinian(about550)andmanylateremperors.Withinitare
showngrottoesinwhichthevariouseventsoftheNativityarelocalizedwiththeusualunreasoningdefiniteness.
2.BethlehemofZebulun,aplacenamedbutonce(Jos19:15),inenumeratingthetownsofthattribe.ItisidentifiedwithBeitLahm,7
milesN.W.ofNazareth.ItisprobablethatthiswasthehomeofIbzan,thejudge(Jg12:810),asalmostallthejudgesbelongedtothe
northerntribes.

R.A.S.Macalister.
BETHLOMON(1Es5:17).ForBethlehemofJudah.
BETHMAACAH.AdescriptiveepithetofthecityofAbel(2S20:14,15),whereAbelandB.shouldbeAbelofB.(cf.1K15:20,
2K15:29).SeeAbel(of)BethMaacah.
BETHMARCABOTH(placeofchariotsJos19:5,1Ch4:31).Acityof
Simeoninthesouthernplains,nearZiklag,desertedinDavidstimesiteunknown.

BETHMEON.SeeBaalMeon.
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BETHMEON.SeeBaalMeon.
BETHMERHAK(2S15:17RV,forAVaplacethatwasfaroffRVmtheFarHouse).Stadeandothersunderstandittomeanthe
lasthouseofthecity.NotownsocalledisknownbetweenJerusalemandJericho.
BETHMILLO(Jg9:6RVm2K12:20AVm,texthouseofMillo).See
Millo.
BETHNIMRAH(placeoftheleopard,Nu32:36etc.,calledNimrahv.3,and,somethink,NimrimIs15:6,seeNimrim).Atownin
theterritoryE.ofJordanallottedtoReuben.ItisrepresentedbythemodernTellNimrn,6milesE.oftheJordan,about10milesN.ofthe
DeadSea,ontheS.bankofWdyShaib.

W.Ewing.
BETHPAZZEZ(Jos(19:21).AtownofIssacharnearEngannimandEnhaddah.Thenamehasnotbeenrecovered.
BETHPELET(RVinAVBethpalet,Job15:27,Bethphelet,Neh
11:26).ThePaltite,2S23:26,calledbyscribalerrorPelonitein1Ch11:27,27:10,wasaninhabitantofthisplace.Thesitewassouthof
Beersheba,butisunknown.
BETHPEOR.AcitybelongingtoReuben(Jos13:20),locatedmostprobablysomefourorfivemilesnorthofMt.Nebo,nearthe
Pisgahrange.Justoppositetoit,intheravine(WdyHesbnprobably),theIsraelitesencamped(Dt3:29,4:46).Moseswasburiedinthe
valleyoveragainstBethpeor(Dt34:6).CondersuggestsasiteseveralmilestotheS.,nearAinelMinyeh,buttheimpressiongivenbyNu
25:18isthatthecitywasnotsofardistantfromtheplainofShittim.

G.L.Robinson.
BETHPHAGE(houseoffigs).TheplacewhenceChrist,ontheroadfromJerichotoJerusalem,sentHisdisciplestofetchtheass(Mt
21:1,Mk11:1,Lk19:29).ItmusthavebeenclosetoBethany,andistraditionallyidentifiedwithAbuDis,avillagethatsatisfiesthis
condition.

R.A.S.Macalister.
BETHRAPHA(houseofthegiant?).Anunknownplacementionedin1Ch4:12.
BETHREHOB.AtownordistrictnearLaish(Jg18:28),whoseinhabitantsjoinedtheAmmonitesagainstDavid(2S10:6).Itssiteis
unknown.

R.A.S.Macalister.
BETHSAIDA.AplaceontheshoreoftheSeaofGalilee,whitherChristwentafterfeedingthefivethousand(Mk6:45,cf.Lk9:10),
andwhereHehealedablindman(Mk8:22)thehomeofPhilip,Andrew,andPeter(Jn1:44,12:21).ItwasdenouncedbyChristforunbelief
(Mt11:21,Lk10:13).ThetownwasadvancedbyPhilipthetetrarchfromavillagetothedignityofacity,andnamedJulias,inhonourof
Csarsdaughter.Thesituationisdisputed,and,indeed,authoritiesdifferastowhetherornotthereweretwoplacesofthesamename,one
east,onewestoftheJordan.EtTell,onthenorthernshoreofthesea,eastoftheJordan,isgenerallyidentifiedwithBethsaidaJulias:those 36/63
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east,onewestoftheJordan.EtTell,onthenorthernshoreofthesea,eastoftheJordan,isgenerallyidentifiedwithBethsaidaJulias:those
whoconsiderthatthenarrativeofthecrossingsoftheLake(Mk6:45)requiresanothersitewestoftheJordan,seekitusuallyatAinet
TabighanearKhanMinyeh.Thelatestwriters,however,seeminclinedtoregardthehypotheticalsecondBethsaidaasunnecessary(see
Sanday,SacredSitesoftheGospels,p.41),andtoregardetTellasthesceneofalltheincidentsrecordedaboutthetown.

R.A.S.Macalister.

BETHSHEAN,BETHSHAN.Thesiteofthisancientstronghold,allottedtoManasseh,althoughintheterritoryofIssachar(Jos
17:11ff.,Jg1:27),ismarkedbythegreatmoundandvillageofBeisn,inthethroatoftheValeofJezreel,whereitopensintotheGhr.
ManassehfailedtoejecttheCanaanites,butatalaterdatetheywerereducedtoservitude.HerethePhilistinesdishonouredthebodiesof
Saulandhissons(1S31:7ff.).DuringtheGreekperioditwasknownasScythopolisbuttheancientnameagainprevailedintheformof
Beisn.AfterchangesoffortuneintheMaccabnstruggle,andinthetimeimmediatelysucceeding,itattainedconsiderableprosperityasa
memberoftheDecapolis(1Mac12:40,Jos.Ant.XIV.V.3,BJIII.IV.7,etc.).Theremustalwayshavebeenastrongadmixtureofheathen
inhabitants(Jos.Vita,6,AbhodaZarahi.4).ItisnowinthehandsofabodyofCircassians.

W.Ewing.
BETHSHEMESH(houseortempleofthesun).1.AtowninJudah(Jos
15:10etc.,calledIrShemeshinJos19:41)allottedtothechildrenofAaron(Jos21:15).Hitherthearkwasbroughtwhensentbackbythe
Philistines,andtheinhabitantsweresmittenbecauseoftheirprofanecuriosity(1S6).HereAmaziahwasdefeatedandcapturedbyJehoash,
kingofIsrael(2K14:11,13).ItwasoneofthecitiestakenbythePhilistinesinthetimeofAhaz(2Ch28:18).Itisidentifiedwiththemodern
AinShems,ontheS.slopeofWdyesSurr,15milesW.ofJerusalem.2.AcityinIssachar(Jos19:22),unidentified.3.AcityinNaphtali(
Jos19:38),unidentified.4.AcityinEgypt,aseatofheathenidolatry(Jer43:13),identifiedwiththeancientHeliopolis,calledAinShemsby
theArabs(WallisBudge,TheNile,281f.).

W.Ewing.
BETHSHITTAH(placeoftheacacia,Jg7:22).InthevicinityofAbelmeholah.ItisthepresentShutta.avillageonaknoll,inthe
Jezreelvalley.
BETHSURA(1Mac4:29,61,6:7,26,31,49,60,9:52,10:14,11:65,14:7,2Mac13:19,22).TheGreekformofBethzur.In2Mac
11:5Bethsuron.
BETHTAPPUAH(placeofapples,Jos15:53).AtownofJudahintheHebronmountains(seeTappuahin1Ch2:43).Nowthe
villageTaffuh,westofHebron.
BETHUEL.1.ThesonofNahorandMilcah,nephewofAbraham,andfatherofLabanandRebekah(Gn22:23,24:15,24,47,50,
25:20,28:2,5).InGn28:5(P)heiscalledBethueltheSyrian.2.1Ch4:30orBethul(Jos19:4).SeeBethel,2.
BETHUL(Jos19:4).SeeBethel,No.2.
BETHULIA.ThelocalityofthescenesoftheBookofJudith(Jth4:6,7etc.).IfnotasynonymforJerusalemitself,itisanunknownsite
southoftheplainofJezreel.Mithilyahfromthesimilarityofthename,Sanurfromitscommandingposition,andevenShechem,haveallbeen
suggestedaspossiblesites.
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suggestedaspossiblesites.

E.W.G.Masterman.
BETHZACHARIAS(1Mac6:32,33).Avillageonthemountainpass,southofJerusalemandwestofBethlehem,nowtheruinBeit
Sakaria.ItwasthesceneofthedefeatofJudasMaccabusbyLysias.
BETHZUR(houseofrock,Jos15:58,1S30:27[inLXX],1Ch2:45,2Ch11:7,Neh3:16).TheBethsuraof1Mac4:29etc.Atown
ofJudahinthe
Hebronmountains,fortifiedbyRehoboam,andstillimportantaftertheCaptivity.JudasMaccabusheredefeatedtheGreeksunderLysiasin
b.c.165.Itisthepresentruinedsite,BeitSur,onacliffwestoftheHebronroad,nearHalhul.
BETOLION(AVBetolius,1Es5:21inEzr2:28Bethel).FiftytwopersonsofthisplacereturnedfromcaptivitywithZerubbabel.
BETOMASTHAIM(Jth15:4,AVBetomasthem)BETOMESTHAIM(4:6,AVBetomestham).ApparentlyN.ofBethuliaand
facingDothan.ThereisasitecalledDeirMassinW.oftheDothanplain,buttheantiquityofthisnameisdoubtful.
BETONIM(Jos13:26).InN.Gilead.ThenamemaysurviveinthatoftheButeindistrict,theextremeN.ofGilead.
BETROTHING.SeeMarriage.
BEULAH(married[ofawife]).AnallegoricalnameappliedtoIsraelbytheDeuterolsaiah(Is62:4,5).Shewasnolongertobeawife
desertedbyGod,asshehadbeenduringtheCaptivity,butmarried(1)toGod,(2)byastrangeapplicationofthefigure,toherownsons.
BEWITCH.SeeMagic.
BEWRAY.Tobewray(fromAngloSaxonprefixbeandwregan,toaccuse)isnotthesameastobetray(frombeandLat.tradereto
deliver).Tobewray,nowobsolete,meansinAVtomakeknown,reveal,asMt26:73thyspeechbewrayeththee.Adams(Works,ii.328)
distinguishesthetwowordsthus:hewillnotbewrayhisdisease,lesthebetrayhiscredit.Sometimes,however,hewrayisusedinanevil
sense,andisscarcelydistinguishablefromhetray.Cf.bewrayerin2Mac4:1abewrayerofthemoney,andofhiscountry.
BEZAANANNIM(Jos19:33RVm).SeeZaanannim.
BEZAI1.Oneofthosewhosealedthecovenant(Neh10:18).2.TheeponymofafamilythatreturnedwithZerub.(Ezr2:17,Neh7:23)
=Bassaiof1Es5:16.
BEZALEL.1.ThechiefarchitectoftheTabernacle.ThenameoccursonlyinPandintheBk.ofChron.(1Ch2:20,2Ch1:5).It
probablysignifiesintheshadow(i.e.undertheprotection)ofEl.AccordingtoPsrepresentation,BezalelwasexpresslycalledbyJ(Ex
31:2)tosuperintendtheerectionofthetentofmeeting,andendowedwiththespecialgiftsrequiredfortheproperexecutionofhistask(vv.
3,5).HewasalsochargedwiththeconstructionofthefurnitureforcourtandTabernacle,aswellaswiththepreparationofthepriestly
garments,andofthenecessaryoilandincense.Amongthegiftsthusbestoweduponhim,nottheleastwasthegiftofteachingtheartsof
whichhewashimselfamaster,tohissubordinates(Ex35:34),thechiefofwhomwasOholiab(Ex31:6,35:34etc.).2.Oneofthesonsof
Pahathmoabwhohadmarriedforeignwives(Ezr10:30).

A.R.S.Kennedy.
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BEZEK.TwoplacessocalledareperhapstobedistinguishedinOT.1.Jg
1:5. A place attacked by Judah after Joshuas death, probably Bezkah, a ruin W. of Jerusalem, in the lower hills. 2. 1 S 11:8, where Saul
gatheredIsraelbeforeadvancingonJaheshgileadThemostlikelysiteinthisconnexionistheruinIbzik,N.E.ofShechem,oppositeJabesh.
BEZER(fortress).1.AnAsherite(1Ch7:37).2.Acitybelongingto
Reuben,situatedinthewilderness,onthemshr,orfiattableland,E.ofJordan(Dt4:43,Jos20:8)acityofrefugeallotted,accordingtoP,
totheMerarites(Jos21:36,whence1Ch6:78,(63)).ItismentionedalsobyMesha(Moab.Stone,l.27),asbeinginruinsinhisday,andas
havingbeenrebuiltbyhim,afterhisrevoltfromAhab,andexpulsionoftheIsraelitesfromtheterritoryN.oftheArnon.Fromitsbeing
describedasbeinginthewilderness(cf.Dt2:8)itmaybeinferredthatitwassituatedtowardstheE.borderoftheMoabitetableland.The
sitehasnotyetbeenrecovered.
BEZETH.Anunknownsite,apparentlynearJerusalem(1Mac7:19).
BIBLE

1.TheName.ThewordBiblestrictlyemployedisthetitleoftheJewishandChristianScriptures,thoughoccasionallybyaloose
usageofthetermitisappliedtothesacredwritingsofpaganreligions.ItisderivedfromaGreekwordBibliaoriginatinginbiblos,theinner
barkofpapyrus(paper)literallymeaning
LittleBooksbutsincethediminutivehadcomeintocommonuseinlatepopularGreekapartfromitsspecificsignification,thetermreally
meanssimplybooks.ItistheGr.tr.oftheHeb.wordforbooks,whichistheoldestdesignationfortheJewishScripturesasacollection
(seeDn9:2).ThetitleHolyBooksequivalenttoourHolyScripturecamelateramongtheJews(1Mac12:9,Ro1:2,2Ti3:15).The
GreekwordBibliaisfirstmetwithinthisconnexionintheIntroductiontoSirach,writtenbythegrandsonofSirach,thephrasetherestofthe
booksimplyingthattheLawandtheProphetspreviouslynamed,aswellasthosebookssubsequentlyknownspeciallyastheWritings,are
included.ItisusedintheHebrewsense,fortheOT,bytheunknownauthoroftheChristianhomilyinthe2ndcent.designatedTheSecond
EpistleofClement(xiv.2).ItdoesnotappearasatitleofthewholeChristianScripturesbeforethe5thcent.,whenitwasthusemployedby
GreekChurchwritersinlistsofthecanonicalbooks.ThenceitpassedoverintotheWest,andthentheGreekwordBiblia,reallyaneuter
plural,cametobetreatedasaLatinsingularnoun,asignificantgrammaticalchangethatpointedtothegrowingsenseoftheunityof
Scripture.ThewordcannotbetracedinAngloSaxonliterature,andwefirsthavetheEnglishformofitinthe14thcentury.ItoccursinPiers
PlowmanandChaucer.ItsadoptionbyWyclifsecureditasthepermanentEnglishnamefortheScriptures,asLuthersuseofthe
correspondingGermanwordfixedthatforContinentalProtestants.
2.ContentsandDivisions.TheJewishBibleistheOTtheProtestantChristianBibleconsistsoftheOTandtheNT,butwiththe
ApocryphaincludedinsomeeditionstheRomanCatholicBiblecontainstheOTandNT,andalsotheApocrypha,thelatterauthoritatively
treatedasScripturesincetheCouncilofTrent.ThemaindivisionisbetweentheJewishScripturesandthosewhichareexclusivelyChristian.
TheseareknownrespectivelyastheOTandtheNT.ThetitleTestamentisunfortunate,sinceitreallymeansawill.Itappearstobederived
fromtheLatinwordtestamentum,awill,whichisthetr.oftheGr.worddiathk,itselfintheclassicsalsomeaningawill.ButtheLXX
employsthisGr.wordasthetr.oftheHeb.berith,awordmeaningcovenant.ThereforetestamentintheBiblicalsensereallymeans
covenant,andthetwopartsofourBiblearetheOldCovenantandtheNewCovenant.WhenweaskwhytheGr.translatorsusedthe
wordmeaningwillwhiletheyhadreadytohandanotherwordmeaningcovenant(viz.synthk),theanswerhasbeenproposedthatthey
perceivedtheessentialdifferencebetweenGodscovenantswithmenandmenscovenantsonewithanother.Thelatterarearrangedonequal
terms.ButGodscovenantsaremadeandofferedbyGodandacceptedbymenonlyonGodsterms.ADivinecovenantislikeawillinwhich
amandisposesofhispropertyonwhatevertermshethinksfit.Ontheotherhand,however,itmaybeobservedthattheworddiathkisalso
usedforacovenantbetweenmanandman(e.g.Dt7:2).TheoriginofthistermasappliedbyChristianstothetwomaindivisionsofScripture39/63
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usedforacovenantbetweenmanandman(e.g.Dt7:2).TheoriginofthistermasappliedbyChristianstothetwomaindivisionsofScripture
isJeremiahspromiseofaNewCovenant(Jer31:31),endorsedbyChrist(Mk14:24,1Co11:25),andenlargeduponinNTteaching(e.g.Gal
4:24,He8:6).Here,however,thereferenceistotheDivinearrangementsandpledges,nottothebooksofScripture,anditisbyasecondary
usagethatthebookscontainingthetwocovenantshavecometobethemselvesdesignatedTestaments,orCovenants.
TheJewishdivisionoftheOTisintothreepartsknownas(1)theLaw,(2)theProphets,and(3)theWritings,ortheSacredWritings
(Hagiographa).TheLawconsistedofthefirst5booksofourBible(Genesis,Exodus,Leviticus,Numbers,Deuteronomy),ascribedto
Mosesanditwastreatedaspeculiarlysacred,themostholyandauthoritativeportionofScripture.ItwastheonlypartoftheHebrew
ScripturesacceptedbytheSamaritans,whoworshippedtheverydocumentcontainingitalmostasafetish.ButthenameLaw(Heb.Torah,
Gr.Nomos)issometimesgiventothewholeJewishBible(e.g.Jn10:34).TheProphetsincludednotonlytheutterancesascribedtoinspired
teachersofIsrael,butalsothechiefhistoricalbookslaterthanthePentateuch.Therewerereckonedtobe8booksoftheProphets(Joshua,
Judges,Samuel,Kings,Isaiah,Jeremiah,Ezekiel,andtheMinorProphets)and11oftheHagiographa(Psalms,Proverbs,Job,Songof
Solomon,Ruth,Lamentations,Ecclesiastes,Esther,Daniel,Ezra,andChronicles).Thustherewerereckonedtobeinall24books.Josephus
reckoned22probablyjoiningJudgestoRuthandLamentationstoJeremiah.ThelistwasreducedtothisnumberbytakingSamuel,Kings,
EzraandNehemiah,andChroniclesasonebookeach,andbymakingonebookoftheMinorProphets.EzraisnotdividedfromNehemiahin
theTalmudortheMassora.

ThebooksnowknownastheApocryphawerenotintheHebrewBible,andwerenotusedinthePalestiniansynagogues.Theywerefound
intheLXX,whichrepresentstheenlargedGreekCanonofAlexandria.FromthistheypassedintotheLatinversions,andsointoJeromes
revisioo,theVulgate,whichintimebecametheauthorizedBibleoftheRomanCatholicChurch.TheywerenotacceptedbytheProtestantsas
Divinelyinspired,butwereprintedinsomeProtestantBiblesbetweentheOTandtheNT,notintheiroldplacesintheSeptuagintandVulgate
versions,wheretheywereinterspersedwiththeOTbooksasthoughformingpartoftheOTitself.TheApocryphaconsistsof14books(1and
2Esdras,Tobit,Judith,TheRestofEsther,TheWisdomofSolomon,Sirach,BaruchwiththeEpistleofJeremy,TheSongoftheThreeHoly
Children,TheHistoryofSusanna,BelandtheDragon,ThePrayerofManasses,1and2Maccabees).

TheNTwasslowlyformed.ProbablythefirstcollectionofanyofitsbookswasthebringingtogetheroftheSynopticGospelsintoone
volume(calledbyJustinMartyrTheMemoirsoftheApostles).SubsequentlytheFourthGospelwasincludedinthisvolumeTatians
Diatessaronisawitnesstothisfact.MeanwhilecollectionsofSt.PaulsEpistleswerebeingmade,andthustherecametobetwovolumes
knownasTheGospelandTheApostle.TheApocalypsewasearlyhonouredasapropheticalbookstandingbyitself.Graduallytheother
NTbooksweregatheredinprobablyformingathirdvolume.ThustheNTliketheOTconsistedofthreepartstheFourGospels,the
PaulineWritings,andtheremainingbooks.Thesimilaritymaybetracedastepfurther.Inbothcasesthefirstofthethreedivisionshelda
primacyofhonourtheLawamongtheJews,theGospelsamongtheChristians.ThecompleteNTconsistsof27books,viz.FourGospels,
Acts,13EpistlesofSt.Paul,Hebrews,James,2EpistlesofSt.Peter,3ofSt.John,Jude,Revelation.
WithinthebooksoftheBibletherewereoriginallynodivisions,exceptinthecaseofthePsalms,whichwerealwaysindicatedasseparate
poems,andelsewhereinthecaseofdefinitestatementsofdifferencesofcontents,suchastheSongofMiriam,theSongofDeborah,the
wordsofAgur,andthewordsofKingLemuel(inProv.).Forconvenienceofreadinginthesynagogues,theLawwasdividedintosections
(calledParshahs).SelectionsfromtheProphets(calledHaphtrahs)weremadetogowiththeappointedsectionsoftheLaw.Thefirst
indicationsofdivisionsintheNTareascribedtoTatian.Theydidnotbreakintothetext,butwereinsertedinthemargins.Theearliest
divisionsoftheGospelswereknownastitles(Titloi)somewhatsimilardivisionswereindicatedintheEpistlesbyheadingsorchapters
(Kephalaia),aformofwhichwithmorenumerousdivisionsthanthetitleswasalsointroducedintotheGospels.Eusebiusbasedhis
harmonyonthereferencesofthesectionssaidtohavebeenarrangedbyAmmoniusofAlexandriaintheearlypartofthe3rdcent.,and
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harmonyonthereferencesofthesectionssaidtohavebeenarrangedbyAmmoniusofAlexandriaintheearlypartofthe3rdcent.,and
thereforeknownastheAmmonianSections.Thesearemuchshorterthanourchapters.ThusinMatthewtherewere68titlesand355
AmmonianSectionsinMarkthenumberswere48and236,inLuke83and342,andinJohn18and232respectively.Thechaptersinthe
ActsandtheEpistlesareascribedtoEuthalius,adeaconofAlexandria(subsequentlybishopofSulci,inSardinia)inthe5thcentury.These
chaptersnearlycorrespondedinlengthtotheGospeltitles.Thustherewere40inActs,19inRomans,etc.Astillsmallerdivisionofthe
booksofScripturewasthatofthestichoi,orlines,awordusedforalineofpoetry,andthenforasimilarlengthofprose,markedoffforthe
paymentofcopyists.Subsequentlyitwasemployedforthepieceofwritingwhichareaderwassupposedtorenderwithouttakingbreath,and
themarksofthestichoiwouldbehelpsforthereader,indicatingwherehemightpause.InMatthewtherewere2560stichoithesameGospel
has1071modernverses.Scrivenercalculates19,241stichoiforthe7959modernversesofthewholeNTgivinganaverageofnearly21/2
stichoiperverse.CardinalHugodeSanctoCaroiscreditedwithhavingmadeourpresentchapterdivisionsabouta.d.1248whenpreparinga
Bibleindex.Butitmaybethatheborrowedthesedivisionsfromanearlierscholar,possiblyLanfranc,orStephenLangton.TheHebrewBible
wasdividedintoversesbyRabbiNathaninthe15thcentury.HenryStephensstatesthathisfatherRobertStephensmadeversedivisionsin
theNTduringtheintervalsofajourneyonhorsebackfromParistoLyons.Whetherheactuallyinventedthesearrangementsorcopiedthem
fromsomepredecessor,theywerefirstpublishedinStephensGreekTestamentof1551.
3.HistoricalOrigin.TheBibleisnotonlyalibrary,thebooksofwhichcomefromvariouswritersindifferentperiodsoftimemanyof
thesebooksmaybesaidtobecomposedofsuccessiveliterarystrata,sothattheauthorsofthemostancientpartsofthembelongtomuch
earliertimesthantheirfinalredactors.AlltheOTwriters,andalsoallthoseoftheNTwithoneexception(St.Luke),wereJews.TheOTwas
nearlyallwrittenintheHolyLandtheonlyexceptionsbeinginthecaseofbookscomposedinthevalleyoftheEuphratesduringtheExile(
Ezekiel,possiblyLamentations,DeuteroIsaiah,orpartofit,perhapssomeofthePsalms,arevisionoftheLaw).TheNTbookswerewritten
inmanyplacesmostoftheEpistlesofSt.PaulcanbelocatedtheGospelandEpistlesofSt.JohnprobablycomefromEphesusorits
neighbourhoodbutthesitesoftheoriginofalltheotherbooksaredoubtful.

ProbablytheoldestbookoftheBibleisAmos,writtenaboutb.c.750.Alittlelaterinthegreat8thcent.wecometoHosea,Isaiah,and
Micah.The7thcent.givesusNahum,Zephaniah,Jeremiah,andHabakkukamongtheprophets,alsoDeuteronomy,andatthebeginningof
thiscenturywehavetheearliestcompletehistoricalbooks,SamuelandJudges.Theendofthiscenturyorbeginningofthe6thcent.givesus
Kings.Inthe6thcent.alsowehaveObadiah(?),Ezekiel,part,ifnotall,oftheDeuteroIsaiah(4050),Haggai,Zechariah(18),
Lamentations,Ruth.The5thcent.givesusthecompletedPentateuchorrathertheHexateuch,
Joshuagoingwiththe5booksoftheLaw,perhapsthelatterpartoftheDeuteroIsaiah(5160),Malachi,Books1and2ofthePsalter.The4th
cent.hasProverbs,Job,Book3ofthePsalter,andtheProphetsJoelandJonah.Fromthe3rdcent.wehaveChronicles,EzraandNehemiah,
Zechariah(914),Ecclesiastes,Esther.Lastly,the2ndcent.iscreditedwithDanielandBooks4and5ofthePsalter.
Severaloftheselaterdatesaremoreorlessconjectural.Moreover,theyrefertothecompletionofworkssomeofwhicharecompositeand
contain elements which originated in much earlier times. Thus Proverbs and the 5 Books of the Psalms are all collections which, though
probablymadeatthedatesassignedtothem,consistofmaterialsmanyofwhichareconsiderablyolder.Whenwelooktotheanalysisofthe
books,andinquireastothedatesoftheirconstituentparts,wearecarriedbacktoprehistoricages.TheHexateuchcontainsfourprincipal
parts,knownasJ
(theJahwisticpropheticnarrative),E(theElohisticpropheticnarrative),D(DeuteronomyandDeuteronomicnotesinotherbooks),P(the
PriestlyCode,representedespeciallybyLeviticus,theauthorofwhichrevisedtheearlierpartsoftheLawbooksandinsertedadditionsinto
them).ButJandEarecloselyintertwinedanindicationthattheyhavebothbeenrevisedandtheresultofthisrevisiongivesusthe
compositenarrativeknownasJE.Thuswehavenowthreemainstrata,viz.(1)JE,thepropheticelement,writteninthespiritoftheprophets,
datedaboutb.c.700(2)D,themoralandlegalelement,seenespeciallyinDeuteronomy,datedaboutb.c.620(3)P,thepriestlyelement,
datedaboutb.c.444.TheauthorofPappearstohaverevisedthewholeworkandgivenitoutasthecompleteLaw.Thismayhavebeendone41/63
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datedaboutb.c.444.TheauthorofPappearstohaverevisedthewholeworkandgivenitoutasthecompleteLaw.Thismayhavebeendone
bytheEuphratesduringtheExile,sothattheLawbookbroughtuptoJerusalemwouldbethePentateuch(ortheHexateuch),oritmayhave
beenaftertheReturn,inwhichcasetheLawbookwouldbeonlyP.Butinanycasethewholeworkafteritscompletionunderwentsome
furtherslightrevisionbeforeitassumeditspresentform.SeeHexateuch.

IfnowweasknotwhatwasthefirstcompletebookoftheOT,butwhatwasthefirstportionoftheOTactuallywritten,itisnoteasyto
giveareply.Theliteratureofmostpeoplesbeginswithballads.PossiblytheSongofDeborahisaballadwhichshouldhaveassignedtoitthe
firstplaceinthechronologicalorderofHebrewwritings.Suchahalladwouldbehandeddownintraditionbeforeitwasputintowriting.Then
someofthelawsinExodus,thoseoftheBookoftheCovenant,mayhavecomedownintraditionoreveninwriting,fromaremote
antiquity.ThecodeofHammurabi,kingofBabylon,b.c.22852242,wasawrittenlawnearly1000yearsearlierthanthetimeofMoses.The
strikingresemblancebetweensomeofthelawsofIsraelandsomeoftheseBabylonianlawspointstoacertainmeasureofdependence.This
mightgobacktopatriarchaldaysbut,ofcourse,itwouldhavebeenpossibleforthejewsintheExiletohaveaccesstothisvenerablecodeat
theverytimePwasbeingconstructed.
ThereismuchlessrangeofquestionforthedatesoftheNTbooks.Theearliestdatepossibleforanyofthemisa.d.44forJames
although,asProf.Harnackholds,perhapsthisisalmostthelatestwrittenbookoftheNT.Layingasidethemuchdisputedquestionofthedate
ofJames,wehave1Thess.asapartfromthistheearliestwrittenNTbook.Followingtheusuallyacceptedchronology,thedateofthisEpistle
isa.d.53(Harnack,a.d.49Turner,a.d.51).ThelatestwrittenNTbookis2Peter,whichmustbeassignedtoalatedecadeofthe2ndcentury.
ApartfromthisEpistle,whichstandsquitebyitselfasapseudonymouswork,andJames,whichmaybeeithertheearliestoroneofthelatest
NTbooks,thelastwrittenworksaretheJohanninewritings,whichcannotbeearlierthanneartheendofthe1stcentury.Thuswehavea
periodofabout50yearsforthecompositionofthebulkoftheNTwritings,viz.thesecondhalfofthe1stcent.a.d.

4.OriginalLanguages.ThebulkoftheOTwaswritteninHebrew,andwithoutvowelpoints.HebrewistheIsraelitedialectofthe
Canaanitelanguage,whichbelongstotheSemiticfamily,andiscloselyalliedtoAramaic.SomeportionsoftheOT(viz.documentsinEzr
4:76:18and7:1226,Dn2:47:28andafewscatteredwordsandphraseselsewhere)areinAramaic,thelanguageofSyria,whichwas
widelyknown,beingfoundinBabylonia,Egypt,andArabia.
AftertheExile,sinceAramaicthenbecametheeverydaylanguageoftheJews,Hebrewwasrelegatedtoapositionofhonourableneglectas
thelanguageofliteratureandtheLaw,andAramaiccameintogeneraluse.ProbablytheearliestwritingswhichareembodiedintheNTwere
inthislanguage.WhenPapiassaysthatMatthewwrotetheoraclesoftheLordintheHebrewdialect,hewouldseemtomeanAramaic.
SinceJesustaughtinAramaic,itisnotlikelythatHisdiscoursesweretranslatedintothemorearchaiclanguageitismoreprobablethatthey
werewrittendownintheverylanguageinwhichtheywerespoken.Similarly,itisprobablethattheGospelaccordingtotheHebrewswasin
Aramaic.But,howeverfarwemaygowithDr.MarshallandDr.AbbottinallowingthatAramaicwritingsaretobedetectedbeneathand
behindourGospels,itcannotbeheldthatanyoftheseGospels,oranyotherNTbooks,aretranslationsfromthatlanguage.Matthew,themost
JewishoftheGospels,containsquotationsfromtheLXXaswellasdirecttranslationsfromtheHebrewOT,whichshowsthatwhileitsauthor
oratalleventstheauthorofoneofitssourcesknewHebrew,theGospelitselfwasaGreekcomposition.AlltheNTwasoriginally
writteninGreek.ItwaslongheldthatthisGreekwasapeculiardialect,andassuchitwasnamedHellenisticGreek.Butthediscoveryof
contemporaryinscriptionsandpapyri(especiallytheOxyrhynchuspapyri)showsthatthecolloquialGreek,usedincommerceandpopular
intercourseallroundtheMediterraneanduringthe1stcent.,hasthesamepeculiarformsthatwemeetwithintheNT,manyofwhichhadbeen
attributedtoSemiticinfluences.ThesediscoveriesnecessitatetherewritingofgrammarsontheGreekoftheNT,asProf.DeissmannandDr.
J.H.Moultonhaveshownbytheirrecentstudiesinthenewfieldofresearch.ItmuststillbeadmittedthatacertainamountofHebrew
influenceisfeltintheNTstyle.ThisismostapparentintheGospels,especiallyMatthewandabovealltheearlierchaptersofLuke(except
thePreface),andalsointheApocalypse.ThePrefaceofLukeisthenearestapproachtoclassicalGreekthatwehaveintheNT.Afterthis
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thePreface),andalsointheApocalypse.ThePrefaceofLukeisthenearestapproachtoclassicalGreekthatwehaveintheNT.Afterthis
comeHebrews,themiddleandlatterpartoftheGospelofLuke,andActs.St.PaulswritingsandtheGeneralEpistlestakeanintermediate
positionbetweenthemostHebraisticandtheleastHebraisticwritings.TheFourthGospeliswritteningood
GreekbutthestructureofthesentencesindicatesamindaccustomedtothinkinHebreworAramaic.Nevertheless,inspiteofthese
differences,itremainstruethatthegrammarandstyleoftheNTareinthemainthegrammarandstyleofcontemporaryGreekthroughoutthe
RomanEmpire.
5.Translations.TheOTwasfirsttranslatedintoGreek,forthebenefitofJewsresidinginEgypt,intheversionknownasthe
Septuagint(LXX),whichwasbegununderPtolemyII.(b.c.285247),andalmost,ifnotquite,completedbeforethecommencementofthe
Christianera.AnotherGreekversionisascribedtoAquila,whoissaidtohavebeenadiscipleofthefamousRabbiAki0ba,andisbysome
evenidentifiedwithOnkelos,theauthoroftheTargum.Thisversion,whichiscommonlydatedabouta.d.150,isremarkableforitspedantic
literalness,theHebrewbeingrenderedwordforwordintoGreek,regardlessoftheessentialdifferencesbetweenthetwolanguagesin
grammarandconstruction.Ontheotherhand,abouttheendofthe2ndcent.a.d.,Symmachus,who,accordingtoEpiphanius,wasaSamaritan
turnedJew,althoughEusebiuscallshimanEbionite,producedaversiontheaimofwhichwastorendertheoriginaltextintoidiomaticGreek
ofgoodstyle,withtheresult,however,thatinsomeplacesitbecameaparaphraseratherthanatranslation.Lastlymaybementionedthe
versionofTheodotion,aMarcionitewhowentovertoJudaism.Thisisreallyarevisionofthe
LXXitisassignedtoabouttheyeara.d.185.OtherversionsofallorpartsoftheOTareknownastheQuintaandtheSextathereare
doubtfulreferencestoaSeptima.

Oralparaphrases,theTargums,orinterpretations,weremadeinAramaicforthebenefitofPalestinianJewsbuttheearliestwritten
paraphraseisthatknownastheTargumofOnkelostheofficialTargumofthePentateuchthecompilationofwhichinwholeorpartis
assignedtothe2ndor3rdcent.a.d.Later.withindicationsatleastaslateasthe7thcent.a.d.,initspresentformistheJerusalemTargum,
knownastheTargumofpseudoJonathan.ThisismorefreeandinterpolatedwithHaggadisticelements.TheofficialTargumoftheProphets
alsobearsthenameofJonathan.OriginatinginPalestineinthe3rdcent.a.d.,itreceiveditsfinalshapinginBabyloninthe5thcentury.The
TargumsoftheHagiographaaremuchlaterindate.
TheoldestversionsoftheNTaretheSyriacandtheLatin,bothofwhichmaybetracedbackinsomeformtothe2ndcent.a.d.,butthereis
muchdifferenceofopinionastotheoriginaltextoftheformer.First,wehavethePeshitta,literally,thesimpleversion,whichhasbecome
thestandardacceptedtextintheSyrianChurch.Thereisnodoubtthatinitspresentformthistextrepresentssuccessiverevisionsdowntoa
latePatristicage.Twootherversions,ortwoformsofanotherversionoftheGospels,werediscoveredinthe19thcent.,viz.theCuretonian,
editedbyCureton,andtheSinaitic,foundinaMSatthemonasteryofSt.CatherineonMountSinai.Lastly,thereistheversionrepresentedby
TatiansDiatessaron,whichmaybedistinctfromeitherofthese.WhileitisadmittedthataprimitivetextunderlyingthePeshittamaybeas
ancientasanyoftheseversions,scholarsarefairlyagreedthatthePeshitta,asweknowit,isconsiderablymorerecentthanTatianandthe
SinaiticGospels,bothofwhichmaybeassignedtothe2ndcent.a.d.TheearliestLatinVersionappearedbeforetheendofthe2ndcent.and
probablyinNorthAfrica,whereLatinwasthelanguagecommonlyused,whileGreekwasthenthelanguageofChristianliteratureatRome.
TertullianknewtheNorthAfricanLatinVersion.SomewhatlaterseveralattemptsweremadeinItalytotranslatetheNTintoLatin.The
confusionoftextinducedDamasus,bishopofRome,tocommittoJerome(a.d.382)thetaskofpreparingareliableLatinversionoftheBible.
ThiscametobeknownastheVulgate,whichfor1000yearswastheBibleoftheWesternChurch,andwhich,sincetheCouncilofTrent,has
beenhonouredbyRomanCatholicsasaninfalliblycorrectrenderingofthetruetextofScripture.Augustinereferstoaversionwhichhecalls
ltala,butithasbeenshownthatthiswasprobablyJeromesversion.TheNTwasearlytranslatedintoCoptic,anditappearedinthree
dialectsofthatlanguage.TheSahidicVersion,inUpperEgypt,canbetracedbacktothe4thcentury.TheBohairic,formerlyusedat
Alexandria,hasbeenassignedtoasearlyadateasthe2ndcent.butProf.Burkittshowsreasonsforbringingitdowntothe6th.Itisthe
versionnowusedecclesiasticallybytheCopts.Lastly,thereistheFayumicVersion,representedbyMSSfromtheFayum.TheoriginalGothic
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versionnowusedecclesiasticallybytheCopts.Lastly,thereistheFayumicVersion,representedbyMSSfromtheFayum.TheoriginalGothic
VersionwastheworkofUlfilasinthe4thcentury.Hehadtoinventanalphabetforit.Thisworkmaybeconsideredthefirstliteraryproduct
inaTeutoniclanguage.TheEthiopicandArmenianVersionsmaybeassignedtothe5thcentury.SubsequentagessawtheGeorgianVersion
(6th),theAngloSaxon(8thto11th),theSlavonic(9th).TheReformationperiodfromWyclifonwardssawnewtranslationsintothe
vernacularbutthegreatageofBibletranslationisthe19thcentury.TheBritishandForeignBibleSocietynowproducestheScripturesin
over400languagesandversions.

W.F.Adeney.
BICHRI.ShebathesonofBichri(2S20:1)shouldratherbeShebatheBichrite,i.e.adescendantofBecher(Gn46:21).
BIDKAR.AnofficerofAhabandafterwardsofJehu(2K9:25).
BIER.SeeMourningCustoms,Tomb.
BIGTHA.AeunuchofAhasuerus(Est1:10).
BIGTHAN(Est2:21),orBIGTHANA(6:2).OneofthetwoeunuchswhoseplotagainstthelifeofAhasueruswasdiscoveredandfoiled
byMordecai.
BIGVAI.1.AcompanionofZerubbabel(Ezr2:2=Neh7:7cf.Ezr2:14[1Es5:14Bagoi,8:40Bago]=Neh7:19,Ezr8:14).2.A
signatorytothecovenant(Neh10:16).
BILDAD.SeeJob.
BILEAM(1Ch6:70).ALeviticalcityofManasseh,thesameasIbleamofJos17:11,Jg1:27,2K9:27:prob.themod.Belame(see
MooreonJg1:27).
BILGAH(cheerfulness).1.Headofthe15thcourseofpriests(1Ch24:14).
2.ApriestwhoreturnedwithZerub.(Neh12:5,18).ThesameasBilgai(Neh
10:8).
BILGAI.SeeBilgah.
BILHAH.1.AslavegirlgiventoRachelbyLaban(Gn29:29(P)),andbyhertoJacobasaconcubine(Gn30:3,4(JE))themotherof
DanandNaphtali(Gn30:4,7(JE)35:25(P)46:25(R),1Ch7:13).ShewasguiltyofincestwithReuben(Gn35:22(P)).Theetymologyis
uncertain.Thesenarrativesandgenealogiesprobablyembodyearlytraditionsastotheoriginandmutualrelationsofthetribes,ratherthan
personalhistory.Tribesaretracedtoaconcubineancestress,becausetheywerealateaccessiontoIsrael.2.ASimeonitecity(1Ch4:29)=
Baalah(Jos15:29),Balah(Jos19:3),and,accordingtosome,Baalath(Jos19:44,1K9:18,2Ch8:6).Siteuncertain.
BILHAN.1.AHoritechief,thesonofEzer(Gn36:27=1Ch1:42).2.AdescendantofBenjamin,sonofJediael,andfatherofseven
sonswhowereheadsofhousesintheirtribe(1Ch7:10).
BILL.1.IntheparableoftheUnjustSteward(Lk16:6f.)bill,RVbetterbond,renderstheGr.grammata,theequivalentofthe
contemporaryHeb.legaltermshetr(lit.writing),anacknowledgmentofgoodsormoneyreceivedwrittenandsignedbythedebtorhimself

(BababathraX.8).Edersheimsstatement(LifeandTimesofJesus,ii.272)thattheGr.wordwasadoptedintoHebrewisbasedonafalse
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(BababathraX.8).Edersheimsstatement(LifeandTimesofJesus,ii.272)thattheGr.wordwasadoptedintoHebrewisbasedonafalse
reading.See,further,Debt.2.BillofdivorceseeMarriage.

A.R.S.Kennedy.
BILSHAN(inquirer).AcompanionofZerubbabel(Ezr2:2,Neh7:7=Beelsarus,1Es5:8).
BIMHAL(sonofcircumcision?).AdescendantofAsher(1Ch7:33).
BINDINGANDLOOSING.SeePoweroftheKeys.
BINEA.AdescendantofJonathan(1Ch8:37,9:43).
BINNUI(abuilding).1.HeadofafamilythatreturnedwithZerub.(Neh7:15=BaniofEzr2:10).2.ALevite(Ezr8:33[prob.=Bani
ofNeh8:7and
BunniofNeh9:4],Neh12:8).3.AsonofPahathmoab(Ezr10:30=Balnuusof1Es9:31).4.AsonofBaniwhohadmarriedaforeignwife
(Ezr10:38).ThereappearstobeaconfusioninsomeinstancesbetweenthesimilarnamesBinnul,Bani,Bigvai.
BIRD.1.InOT:(1)ph.tr.birdsorfowl.usuallyjoinedwithofheavenoroftheair:seeGn1:21,30,Lv17:13,2S21:10,Jer
4:25,Ezk31:6,13:(2)ayit,usuallytr.fowls(AV)andbirdsofprey(RV):Gn15:11,Job28:7,Is18:6,Ezk39:4(3)tsippr(cf.Arab.
asfr).smallbirdslikesparrowswhichtwitter:Gn7:14,Lv14:6,Ps84:3etc.(4)baalknph,possessorofawing,Pr1:17.2.InNT:(1)
peteina,Mt13:4,Lk13:19etc.(2)ornea,birdsofprey,Rev18:2,19:17,21.
BirdsaboundinPalestine,andevidentlydidsoinancienttimes.Theyweresympatheticallywatchedandstudiedweread,forexample,of
theirmigrations(Jer8:7etc.),theircareoftheiryoung(Dt32:11,Mt23:37etc.),thehelplessnessoftheiryoung(Pr27:8,Is16:2etc.),their
nesting(Ps104:12,17)indeed,everyphaseofbirdlifeistouchedupon.Therearemanyreferencestothesnaresofthefowler(seeSnares).
Birdsaredividedintocleanandunclean.Insomecasestheywereallowedassacrificialofferings(Lv1:1417,14:433).Itisacuriousthing
thattheduckisnotapparently(unless,assomethink,in1K4:23,underthefattedfowlbarburmabsm)mentionedintheOT,although
abeautifullymodelledclayduckofanearlyperiod,certainlyearlierthantheOTrecords,wasfoundduringtherecentexcavationsinGezer.
AllbirdsmentionedbynameintheBiblearedealtwithinseparatearticles.

E.W.G.Masterman.
BIRSHA(etym.andmeaningunknown).KingofGomorrahatthetimeofChedorlaomersinvasion(Gn14:2).
BIRTH.SeeChild,CleanandUnclean,1.
BIRTHDAY.Birthdaycelebrationsarementionedonlyinconnexionwithroyalty,viz.Pharaohsbirthday(Gn40:20),themonthly
celebrationofthatofAntiochusEpiphanes(2Mac6:7),andthebirthdayfeastgivenbyHerodAntipas
(Mt14:6,Mk6:21).Thedayofourking,towhichHosearefers(7:5),mayhavebeentheanniversaryeitherofthekingsbirthorofhis
accession.Someauthorities
(e.g.Edersheim,LifeandTimesofJesus,i.672)regardHerodsfeastascelebratingtheanniversaryofhisaccessionaviewbasedona
mistakenexegesisoftheTalmudicpassageAbodazaraI.3(seethefulldiscussioninSchrer,GJV3i.438441).

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A.R.S.Kennedy.
BIRTHRIGHT.SeeFirstborn.
BIRZAITH(1Ch7:31).ApparentlyatownofAsher,probablyBrezZeit,nearTyre.
BISHLAM(peaceful?).AnofficerofArtaxerxesinPal.atthetimeofthereturnfromcaptivityunderZerub.(Ezr4:7)calledBelemus
in1Es2:16.
BISHOP(Gr.episkopos,Lat.episcopus,Ital.vescovo,Fr.vque,Germ.
Bischof),ELDER(Gr.presbyteros,Lat.presbyterus,Fr.prtre,Eng.priest).ThetwowordsaresocloselyconnectedintheNTthatthey
mustbetakentogetherhere.
1.Theterms.TheGreekwordforbishopiscommoninthegeneralsenseofanoverseer,andinparticularofsundrymunicipalofficers.
InLXXitisusedinIs60:17oftaskmasters,inNeh11:19ofminorofficials,andin1Mac1:51ofthecommissionersofAntiochuswho
enforcedidolatry.But,sofaraswecansee,itwasnotthecommonnameforthetreasurersofprivateassociations.
IntheNTthewordisfoundfivetimes.InAc20:28St.PaulremindstheeldersofEphesusthattheHolyGhosthasmadethembishops
overtheflockinPh1:1hesendsagreetingtothesaintsatPhilippiwithbishopsanddeaconsin1Ti3:2hetellsTimothythatthebishop
mustbeblameless,etc.inTit1:7hegivesasimilarchargetoTitusand1P2:25speaksofChristastheshepherdandbishopofyour
souls.
IntheOTthewordelderisusedfromearlytimesofanofficialclasshavingjurisdictionbothcivilandreligious,sothatwhensynagogues
werebuilt,theeldersofthecitywouldnaturallybetheeldersofthesynagogue,withtherightofregulatingtheservicesandexcluding
offenders.

InNTtimestheideawouldbecarriedovertothechurches.ItisindirectlyrecognizedinLk22:26butwecannotinfertheexistenceof
eldersfromAc5:6,fortheyoungermenwhocarryoutAnaniasaresimplytheyoungmeninv.10whentheycarryoutSapphira.Thefirst
cleartraceofChristianeldersisatJerusalem.InAc11:30(a.d.44)theyreceivetheofferingsfromBarnabasandSaulin15:6(a.d.50)they
takepartintheConferencein21:18(a.d.58)theyjoininthewelcometoSt.Paul.EarlierthanthismaybeJa5:14,wherethewordseemsto
denoteofficials.AfterthiswehearnomoreofthemtillthePastoralEpistlesand1Peter.

ForthelasttwohundredyearsithasbeengenerallyagreedthatbishopsandeldersintheNTandforsometimelateraresubstantially
identical.For(1)bishopsandeldersareneverjoined,likebishopsanddeacons,asdistinctclassesofofficials.(2)Ph1:1isaddressedto
bishopsanddeacons.Hadtherebeenanintermediateclassofelders,itcouldnotwellhavebeenomitted.So1Ti3ignorestheelders,though
(5:17)therewereeldersatEphesus,andhadbeen(Ac20:17)forsometime.Conversely,Tit1:67describeseldersinstead,andnearlyinthe
samewords.(3)ThebishopdescribedtoTimothy,theeldersofAc20,thoseof1Ti5:17,thosedescribedtoTitus,andthoseof1P5:2,all
seemtoholdasubordinateposition,andtohaveratherpastoraldutiesthanwhatweshouldcallepiscopal.(4)Thesamepersonsarecalled
eldersandbishops(Ac20:17,28).ThewordsarealsosynonymousinClementofRome,and(byimplication)intheTeachingoftheApostles
andinPolycarp.IgnatiusisthefirstwriterwhomakesasinglebishoprulerofaChurchandevenhepleadsnoApostoliccommandforthe
change.

ThegeneralequivalenceofthetwoofficesintheApostolicageseemsundeniableandiftherewereminordifferencesbetweenthem,none46/63
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ThegeneralequivalenceofthetwoofficesintheApostolicageseemsundeniableandiftherewereminordifferencesbetweenthem,none
havebeenclearlytraced.Theonlyseriousdoubtiswhetherbishopsanddeaconsoriginallydenotedofficesatall.Thewordsratherdescribe
functions.ThusPh1:1tobishopsanddeacons(noarticle)willmeansuchasoverseeandsuchasservethatis,thehigherandthelower
officials,whatevertitlestheymaybear.ThiswouldseemprovedbyTit1:5,7thatthouappointelders,forthebishop(overseer)mustbe
blameless.Theargumentisthattheeldermustbesoandso,becausethebishopmustbesoandso.Thisisvainrepetitionifthebishopisonly
theelderunderanothername,andbadlogicifheisarulerovertheeldersbutitbecomesdearifthebishopisnotadefinedofficial,butan
overseergenerally.Then,theelderbeingaparticularsortofoverseer,theargumentwillbefromageneralruletoaparticularcase.
2.Appointment.AtfirstpopularelectionandApostolicinstitutionseemtohavegonetogether.TheSeven(Ac6:5,6)arechosen
bythepeopleandinstitutedbytheApostleswithprayerandlayingonofhands.InthecaseoftheLycaonianelders(Ac14:23)the
Apostlesappointedthemwithprayerandfastings.SimilarlytheeldersinCrete(Tit1:6)areappointedbyTitus,andapparentlythe
bishopsatEphesusbyTimothy.Inthesecasespopularelectionandlayingonofhandsarenotmentionedbutneitheraretheyexcluded.1
Ti5:22doesnotrefertoordinationatall,norHe6:2toordinationonly.Theoneisofthelayingonofhandsinrestoringoffenders,while
theothertakesinalloccasionsoflayingonofhands.ButinanycaseTimothyandTituswouldhavetoapprovethecandidatebefore
institutinghim,sothatthedescriptionofhisqualificationsisnoproofthattheyhadtoselecthiminthefirstinstance.Conversely,popular
electionisveryprominent(Clement,andTeaching)inthenextagebutneitherdoesthisexcludeformalapprovalandinstitution.The
eldersarealreadyattached(1Ti4:14)totheApostlesintheconveyanceofspecialgiftsandwhentheApostlesdiedout,theywouldact
aloneintheinstitutiontolocaloffice.Thedevelopmentofanepiscopateisafurtherquestion,andverymuchaquestionofwordsifthe
bishop(inthelatersense)wasgraduallydevelopedupwardfromtheelders.Butthenextstageafterthiswasthat,whilethebishop
institutedhisownelders,hewashimselfinstitutedbytheneighbouringbishops,orinstilllatertimesbythebishopsofthecivilprovinceor
byametropolitan.Theoutlineoftheprocessisalwaysthesame.Firstpopularelection,thenformalapprovalbyauthorityandinstitution
byprayer,with
(atleastcommonly)itssymbolicaccompanimentsoflayingonofhandsandfasting.

3.Duties

(1)Generalsuperintendence:EldersinAc20:28,1Ti5:17,1P5:2,2(rulingbadly)bishopsin1Ti3:5.Indicatedpossiblyin1Co12:28
helps,governments:moredistinctlyinEph4:11pastorsandteachers,inpointedcontrasttoapostles,prophets,andevangelists,whose
officewasnotlocal.So1Th5:12thosethatareoveryou,Ro12:8hethatruleth.andHe13:7,17,24themthathavetheruleoveryou,
remindusofthebishopsandelderswhorule(1Ti3:4,5:17).So,too,therulersinClementmustbebishopsorelders,forthesebishops
plainlyhavenoearthlysuperior,sothattheymustbethemselvestherulers.
Underthisheadwemayplacethesharetakenbytheelders:(a)atJerusalem(Ac15:6)inthedeliberationsoftheApostolicConference,
and(Ac21:18)inthereceptionheldbyJames(b)elsewhere(1Ti4:14)inthelayingonofhandsonTimothy,whetherthatcorrespondsto
ordinationortosomethingelse.
(2)Teaching:1Th5:12rulersadmonishingintheLord1Ti3:2thebishopapttoteach5:17doublehonourtotheelderswhorulewell,
especiallythosewhotoilinwordandteachingTit1:9theelderorbishopmustbeabletoteach,andtoconvincethegainsayers.Yet1Ti5:17
seemstoimplythateldersmightrulewellwhotoiledinotherdutiesthanwordandteachingandifso,thesewerenotthesoleworkofall
elders.

Preachingisratherconnectedwiththeunlocalministryofapostles,prophets,andevangelists:butintheirabsencethewholefunctionof
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Preachingisratherconnectedwiththeunlocalministryofapostles,prophets,andevangelists:butintheirabsencethewholefunctionof
publicworshipwoulddevolveonthelocalministryofbishopsanddeacons.ThisbecomesquiteplainintheTeachingandinClement.

(3)Pastoralcare:Thisisconspicuouseverywhere.Toitwemayalsorefer:(a)visitingofthesick(Ja5:14)withaviewtoanointingand
curenotasaviaticumattheapproachofdeath(b)careofstrangersandafortioriofthepoor(1Ti3:2,Tit1:8,thebishoptobealoverof
strangers).
H.M.Gwatkin.
BISHOPSBIBLE.SeeEnglishVersions.
BIT,BRIDLE.TheHebrewsweredoubtlesswellacquaintedwiththebit,butthereisnoclearmentionofitasdistinctfromthebridle,
thewordsforwhichinGr.andLat.includebit,headstall,andreins.InJa3:3thecontextisdecisiveforbridle(RVandAVbit)inPs32:9
forbitandbridleweshouldprobablyrenderbridleandhalter,andsointheotherpassageswherethetwoHebrewwordsrespectivelyoccur,
e.g.bridle,Pr26:3,buthalter,Job30:11.

InPs39:1bridleshouldcertainlybemuzzle(cf.thecorrespondingverbinDt25:4).Thecrocodilesdoublebridle(Job41:13)ishis
jaws,butthetextisdoubtful.

A.R.S.Kennedy.
BITHIAH(daughter,i.e.worshipper,ofJ).ThedaughterofaPharaoh,whobecamethewifeofMered,adescendantofJudah(1Ch
4:18).WhetherPharaohistobetakenhereastheEgyp.royaltitleorasaHeb.propername,itisdifficulttodetermine.
BITHRON(2S2:29thegorge,probablynotapropername).AravineleadingtoMahanaim.
BITHYNIA.AdistrictintheN.W.ofAsiaMinor,whichhadbeenaRomanprovincesinceb.c.74.Foradministrativepurposesitwas
generallyunitedwiththeprovinceofPontus,whichboundsitontheE.,underonegovernor.Theprovincewassenatorialtillabouta.d.165,
andgovernedbyaproconsul.TheyoungerPlinygoverneditfroma.d.111113byaspecialcommissionfromtheemperorTrajan.Pauland
SilaswerepreventedbytheSpiritfrompreachinginBithynia(Ac16:7),andthebeginningsofChristianitythereareunknown.Itisprobable
thatitcamebytheBlackSea.ThattherewerechurchesthereafterSt.PaulstimeiscertainfromtheaddressoftheFirstEpistleofPeter,
whichwasprobablywrittena.d.7580.

A.Souter.
BITTERHERBS(merrm,Ex12:8,Nu9:11).ThebitterherbsofthemodernJewishPassoverinPalestinearespeciallylettuceand
endive.Othersalads,suchasparsley,cucumber,chicory,andwatercress,arealsocommonlyeaten,indeedareprimefavourites.Theauthorof
La3:15,inusingthesamewordmerrm(tr.bitterness),doubtlesshadmorebitterandlesswholesomeplantsinhismind,perhapsthe
colocynthorEcballiumelaterium,thewildgourdof2K4:39.See,further,Passover.

E.W.G.Masterman.
BITTERWATER(lit.,asRV,WaterofBitterness,Nu5:18).SeeJealousy.
BITTERN(Is14:23,34:11,Zeph2:14).AlthoughthebirdofthisnametheBotaurusstellarisisfoundinPalestine,especiallyinthe48/63
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BITTERN(Is14:23,34:11,Zeph2:14).AlthoughthebirdofthisnametheBotaurusstellarisisfoundinPalestine,especiallyinthe
Hulehmarshes,thephilologicalevidenceisquiteagainstthistranslation.TheHeb.wordiskippd,andisgenerallyacceptedtobethe
equivalentoftheArab.kunfudh,porcupine.ThisanimalsuitstheScripturalrequirementsatleastaswellasthebittern.It(theHystrix
cristata)iscommonalloverPalestine.Largespecimensmeasureasmuchas3ft.fromthenosetothetipofthespines.Theporcupineisa
vegetableeating,nocturnalanimalitissolitaryinitshabits,andverytimidofman.Itglidesaboutinthetwilightorstarlightinamostweird
way,givingventattimestopeculiarshortgrunts.Whenrousedtoselfdefence,theporcupineismostdangerousitserectquills,whichpierce
likeaneedle,makeitmostdifficulttocapture.Inallrespectstheporcupineisalikelyandappropriateinhabitantofdesolateruinsuntrodden
bythefootofman.PorcupineareeatenbybothfellahinandBedouin.

E.W.G.Masterman.
BITUMEN,asphalt,ormineralpitchisaninflammableviscoussubstance,composedofhydrocarbonsofthesameseriesasthosewhich
constitutemineraloilorpetroleum.Ithasinfactbeendescribedaspetroleumhardenedbyevaporationandoxidation,andmayvaryin
consistencyfromasolidtoasemiliquidcondition.ItoccursbothinMesopotamiaandPalestine.ThespringsatKit,ontheEuphrates,150
milesaboveBabylon,arementionedbyHerodotus(i.179),andstillyieldanabundantsupply.TherearesimilarspringsatKalatSherkat,on
theTigris,60milesS.ofNineveh(Layard,NinevehanditsRemains,II.467).InPal.itisfoundatHasbeyah,nearMt.Hermon,andinthe
neighbourhoodoftheDeadSea(hencecalledAsphaltitisLimnbyJosephus[BJIV.viii.4]andLacusAsphaltitesbyPliny[HNV.XV.15]).
Someofthelimestonestratainthelastnamedlocalityarehighlybituminous,andmassesofbitumenareknowntofloatontheDeadSeaitself
afterearthquakes.IntheOTtherearethreeHeb.wordswhichdenotesomeformofthissubstance.

IntheFloodstorykpher(LXXasphaltos,EVpitch)isusedintheconstructionoftheark(Gn6:14).Hmar(AVandRVslime,RVm
bitumen)wasthemortaremployedbytheearlyBabylonianbuilders(Gn11:3,LXXasphaltos).Bitumenpitsorwells,intowhichthepitchy
liquid(LXXasphaltos)oozedfromtheearth,arementionedasoccurringintheValeofSiddim,i.e.theDeadSeabasin(Gn14:10).Thisis
quiteinkeepingwiththenatureoftheregion,thoughsuchwellsarenotnowfoundinit.InEx2:3hmarisoneofthesubstanceswithwhich
thearkofbulrusheswasmadewatertight,theotherbeingzepheth(EVpitch).LXXincludesbothinthegeneralrenderingasphaltopissa,and
theyprobablydenotethemoresolidandthemoreliquidvarietiesofbitumenrespectively.ZephethalsooccurstwiceinIs34:9(LXXpissa,
EVpitch).Thecontextmakesitprobablethatthereferenceisagaintobitumen.

JamesPatrick.
BIZIOTHIAH(Jos15:28).Acorruptionforbenthehhervillages,referringtoBeersheba(cf.alsoNeh11:27).
BIZTHA(Est1:10).OneoftheseveneunuchsorchamberlainsofkingAhasuerus.
BLACK.SeeColours,2.
BLAIN.Ablainisaninflammatoryswellingonthebody.InoneoftheplaguesofEgyptthedustbecameaboilbreakingforthwith
blainsuponmananduponbeast(Ex9:9,10).SeeBotch,Medicine,andcf.Wyclifstr.ofJob2:7HesmotIobwiththewerstestinkende
bleynefrothesoleofthefotuntothenol.Thewordisstillretainedinthecompoundchilblain.
BLASPHEMY.ThemodernuseofthiswordismorerestrictedinitsrangethanthatofeithertheOTortheNT.1.Intheformeritis
narrowerinitsscopethaninthelatter,beingalmostuniversallyconfinedtolanguageordeeds(1Mac2:6)derogatingfromthehonourofGod
andHisclaimstotheoverlordshipofmen(Lv24:1016,cf.1K21:10,13,2K19:6etc.).Thecontemptuousscorningofsacredplaceswas
regardedasblasphemy(see1Mac2:6,7:38,cf.Ac6:13),aswasalsothelightandirresponsibleutteranceofthesacredName(Is52:6,Ezk
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regardedasblasphemy(see1Mac2:6,7:38,cf.Ac6:13),aswasalsothelightandirresponsibleutteranceofthesacredName(Is52:6,Ezk
36:20,Dt5:11),thedegradationofJehovahworshipbyconformitytopaganrites(Ezk20:27),andthecontinuedwilfultransgressionof
DivinecommandsanddespisingofthewordoftheLord(Nu15:30f.).TheincidentofthemangatheringsticksontheSabbathseemstobea
concreteexampleofblasphemy(Nu15:32f.).
2.WhenwecometotheNT,thewordisfoundmorefrequently,andisemployedinamannermorenearlyalliedtotheusageofclassical
writings.TheEVhasaccordinglytr.itoftenasrailingorslanderoustalkgenerally(Mt15:19=Mk7:22,Eph4:31,Col3:8,1Ti6:4,Jude
9),lookedat,however,onitsethicalandreligiousside.Thecognateverb,too,istreatedinthesameway(Mk15:29=Mt27:39,Lk22:65,
23:39,Ro3:8,14:16,1Co4:18,10:30,Tit3:2,1P4:4,14,2P2:2,10,12,Jude8,10),asisalsothederivedadjective(2Ti3:2,2P2:11).

OneofthemostfrequentofthechargesbroughtbytheJewsagainstJesuswasthatofblasphemy,andwhenweinquireintothemeaningof
theaccusation,we
findthatitwastheapplicationtoHimselfofDivineattributesandprerogatives
(Mk2:7=Mt9:3,Mk14:64=Mt26:65,Jn10:33,36).Ontheotherhand,theNTwritersregardedtheunreasoningattitudeoftheJewstothe
claimsandteachingofJesusasblasphemous(Mk15:29=Mt27:39,Lk22:65,23:39,Ac13:45,18:6).Itisinterestingalsotonoticethatthis
isthewordputbytheauthoroftheActsintothemouthofthetownclerkofEphesuswhenhewasappeasingtheriotousmobwhowere
persuadedthatSt.Paulandhiscompanionshadinsultedthelocaldeity(Ac19:37).
3.Thelegalpunishmentforblasphemywasdeath(Lv24:16),andsotheJewsclaimedthelifeofJesus,asthejustandlawfuloutcomeof
Hiswordsandteaching(Jn19:7,cf.10:33,8:58f.).TheprotomartyrStephenlosthislife,too,onachargeofblasphemy(Ac6:13,7:58),
whenhisenemies,inaviolentandsuddenfitofrage,forgotthelimitationimposedonthemasvassalsoftheRomanEmpire(cf.Jn18:31see
Westcott,GospelofSt.John,AdditionalNoteinloc).OntheblasphemyagainsttheHolyGhost,seeart.Sin,III.1.

J.R.Willis.
BLASTING.SeeMildew.
BLASTUS.AchamberlainofAgrippaI.,throughwhoseinterventionthepeopleofTyreandSidonsecuredahearingatCsarea(Ac
12:20).
BLEMISH.SeeMedicine.
BLESSEDNESS.ThesubstantivedoesnotoccureitherinAVorRVoftheOT,andhasrightlybeenexpungedfromtheRVofRo4:6,9,
Gal4:15,wherealoneithadplaceintheAVoftheNT.BlessedandhappyarefoundinbothTestamentsasavaryingtranslationofthe
sameHeb.orGr.wordblessedgreatlypreponderating.TheBiblicalblessednessrepresentsaconceptionofhappinessinwhichthereligious
relationistakenintoaccount,withitsemotionsanditsissues.IntheOTtheseissuessometimeslieratherinmaterialprosperitylife,long
life,wealth,children,outwardpeacebutitisrecognizedthattheconditionsofthesearespiritual(Ps1),andinnotafewinstancestheinward
andspiritualisitselfrepresentedasthecontentoftruehappiness(e.g.Ps32[butseev.10],Pr4:7[butsee3:2,10]).
IntheNTthestressisdecisivelyshiftedtothespiritualcontentofblessedness,whichmayconsistwiththemostadverseearthlyconditions
(Mt5:10,11,Lk6:22,Ja1:12).Thethoughtofcompensationinfuturerewardisnotabsent,evenfromtheBeatitudes(esp.intheirLukan
form,Lk6:2026)buttherewardisclearlyonlytheconsummationofablessednessalreadyattainedbythepoorinspirit,themeek,the

merciful,etc.IntheteachingofJesusthesummumbonumappearsnowasplaceintheKingdomofGod,nowaseternallife(e.g.Mt25:34,Mk
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merciful,etc.IntheteachingofJesusthesummumbonumappearsnowasplaceintheKingdomofGod,nowaseternallife(e.g.Mt25:34,Mk
10:17,23,Jn3:35,4:14),andbotharedescribedasapresentpossession(Lk17:20,21,Jn3:36).

Finally,intheJohanninewritingsthereligiousrelation,alreadyintheOTanessentialconditionofblessedness(e.g.Ps2:12,33:12),is
madesupremeandinitselfallsufficing.EternallifeispersonalunionwithChrist,revealeroftheFather,bytrustandfellowship(e.g.Jn5:24,
6:54,17:3,1Jn5:1120).ForsomanbecomespartakerofthelifeofHimwhoisHimselftheblessedGod(1Ti1:11,
6:15).

S.W.Green.
BLESSING.SeeBeatitudes.
BLINDNESS.SeeMedicine.
BLOOD.Amongallprimitiveracestheblood,especiallyofhumanbeings,hasbeenandisregardedwithsuperstitious,orrather,tobe
just,religiousawe.BytheHebrewsalsobloodwasInvestedwithpeculiarsanctityastheseatofthesoul(nephesh),thatisoftheprincipleof
life(Lv17:11thelife[Heb.nephesh]ofthefleshisintheblood).Fromthisfundamentalconceptionofbloodasthevehicleoflifemaybe
derivedallthemanifoldsocialandreligiousbeliefsandpracticeswithregardtoit,whichplaysolargeapartinScripture.SeeAtonement,
CleanandUnclean,Covenant,Food,Propitiation,Sacrifice.

A.R.S.Kennedy.
BLOOD,AVENGEROF.SeeAvengerofBlood,andKin[Nextof].
BLOOD,FIELDOF.SeeAkeldama.
BLOOD,ISSUEOF.SeeMedicine.
BLOODYFLUX,BLOODYSWEAT.SeeMedicine.
BLUE.SeeColours,5.
BOANERGES(Mk3:17),SonsofThunder.TheMastersappellationofJamesandJohn.Jerometakesitasareferencetotheirfiery
eloquence.Othersderiveitratherfromtheirfierydispositioninearlydays(cf.Lk9:5256).Itwouldthusbeaplayfulyetserioussobriquet,
constantlyremindingthemoftheirbesettingsinandwarningthemtoovercomeit.

DavidSmith.
BOAR.Thewildboar(Arab.khanzir)isquitecommonintheJordanValley,speciallyinthereedthicketsneartheDeadSea.Itisalso
foundonMountTabor.Itisstillnotedforitsdestructiveness(Ps80:18).ThoughaforbiddenfoodtotheMoslemaswellastheJew(Lv11:7,
Dt14:8),thefleshiseatenbythenominallyMoslemBedouinofPalestine.SeeSwine.

E.W.G.Masterman.BOAT.SeeShipsandBoats.

BOAZ.ABethlehemiteofwealth,thesonofSalmongrandfatherofJesse,andthusancestorofDavid(Ru4:21,22,1Ch2:11,Mt1:5, 51/63
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BOAZ.ABethlehemiteofwealth,thesonofSalmongrandfatherofJesse,andthusancestorofDavid(Ru4:21,22,1Ch2:11,Mt1:5,
6,Lk3:32).HebecamethesecondhusbandofthewidowedRuth,whomhemarried(accordingtoancientHebrewcustom)asnextofkin,
whenhernearkinsmanrefusedtoundertakethisduty(Ru4:110).SeeRuth.
W.O.E.Oesterley.
BOAZ,thenameofoneofthetwobronzepillarswhichstoodinfrontofSolomonsTemple.TheotherwasnamedJachin(1K7:21,2Ch
3:17).SeeJachinandBoaz,Temple.
BOCCAS.SeeBorith.
BOCHERU.AdescendantofJonathan(1Ch8:38,9:44).
BOCHIM(weepers,Jg2:1).Unknownasageographicalsite.Possiblytheorig.readingwasBethel.
BODYinOTrepresentsvariousHeb.words,especiallythatforflesh.InEx24:10itmeans,byacommonidiom,theframeworkof
heaventhereisnopersonification.InNT,thoughthebodymaybetheseatofsinanddeath(Ro6:6,7:24),itisnevertreatedwithcontempt
(Ro12:1,1Co6:13,19)Ph3:21isawellknownmistranslation.AccordinglyitcouldbeusedmetaphoricallyoftheChurch,Christbeing
sometimestheHead,sometimestheBodyitself.

C.W.Emmet.
BODYGUARD.SeeArmy,1,Guard.
BOHAIRICVERSIONS.Seeartt.Text(OTandNT).
BOHAN.AsonofReuben,acc.toJos15:6,18:17(bothP).ThestoneofBohanismentionedinthesetwopassagesasformingamarkof
divisionbetweenJudahandBenjamin.Itisimpossibletoidentifythesitewhereitstood.
BOILS.SeeMedicine.
BOLLED.Thebollofaplantisitsseedvesselorpod.Cf.Fitzherbert,Thebollesofflaxemadedryewiththesontogetoutthe
sedes.ThusEx9:31theflaxwasbolled,meansithadreachedtheseedstage.ButtheHeb.meansonlythatitwasinflower.
BOLSTER.Thisword,whichappearssixtimesinAV(1S19:13,16,26:7,
11,12,16)astherenderingofaHeb.wordsignifyingtheplaceatthehead,
headplace,hasrightlydisappearedfromRV,whichgivesheadthroughout.

A.R.S.Kennedy.
BOLT.SeeHouse,6.
BOND.1.SeeBand.2.SeeBill.3.SeeChain.
BONDAGE,BONDMAID,BONDMAN,etc.SeeSlave,Slavery.

BONESisusedwidelyinOTasasynonymforthebody,livingordead,ortheperson(Ps42:10,51:8).Asthesolidframeworkofthe
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BONESisusedwidelyinOTasasynonymforthebody,livingordead,ortheperson(Ps42:10,51:8).Asthesolidframeworkofthe
body,thebonesaretheseatofhealthandstrength,sothatbreaking,rottenness,drynessofthebonesarefrequentfiguresforsicknessormoral
disorder(Pr14:30,17:22,Ps6:2,22:14).BoneofmyboneanswerstotheEnglishphraseofthesamebloodbuttheconcludingwordsof
Eph5:30shouldbeomitted.InLk24:39theuniqueexpressionseemstoemphasizethenatureoftheResurrectionbody,asdifferentfromthe
ordinaryfleshandblood.SeeGibson,ThirtyNineArticles,p.188.

C.W.Emmet.
BONNET.WiththeexceptionofIs3:20,thisistheAVdesignationofthespecialheaddressoftherankandfileofthepriesthood
accordingtothepriestlywriter(Ex28:40,29:9etc.,RVheadtire).Itconsistedofalongswatheoffinewhitelinenwoundroundthehead
noteEx29:9RVbind(orwind)headtirestoformaneggshapedturban.Cf.Jos.Ant.III.vii.3andRich,Dict.Rom.andGr.Ant.s.v.
pileusforillust.oftheeggshapedcapofUlysses,withwhichJeromecomparesthepriestlyturban.SeeDress,5,Mitre.

A.R.S.Kennedy.
BOOK.1.ArollofpapyrusorparchmentseeWriting.2.Asacredorcanonicaldocument(Dn9:2)seeCanonofOT.3.Bookoflife,
etc.seenextart.andEschatology.
BOOKOFLIFE.ThelegalisticconceptionofmoralitywhichexistedamongtheJewsinvolvedarecordofthedeedsoflifeonthebasis
ofwhichthefinaljudgmentofGodwouldbegiven.Alliedwiththiswasanotherconception,derivedfromthecustomofenrollingcitizens
(Jer22:30,Neh7:5,64,12:22f.cf.Ex32:32),ofalistofthosewhoweretopartakeoftheblessingsoftheMessianic
Age.AsecondnaturalstepwastoconceiveofGodaskeepingtwosetsofbooks,a
BookofLife(Dn12:1ff.,Mal3:16,Ps69:28)fortherighteous,andaBookofDeathforthewicked(Jubxxx2022).Tohaveonesname
blottedoutfromtheBookofLifewasequivalenttocompletecondemnation(Eth.Enoch108:3).
IntheApocalypticwritingsofJudaismtheFinalJudgmentwastobebasedupontherecordscontainedinthebookssupposedlykeptbythe
archangelMichael.InsomecasesRabbinicalthoughtelaboratedthefigureuntileachmanwastoreadandsignhisrecord.Thejudgmentof
Godwasthussupposedtobebaseduponabsolutejustice,anddeterminedbythebalanceofrecordedgoodandevildeeds.IntheNTaretobe
foundreferencesbothtothebooksofrecords(Rev20:12,15cf.Dn7:10,Eth.Enoch89:61ff.),andtothebookscontainingalistofthose
whoweretoenjoyeternallife(Lk10:20,Ph4:3,He12:23,Rev3:5,13:8,17:6,21:27).

ShailerMathews.
BOOT.SeeArmour,2(d),Dress,6.
BOOTH.TheHeb.sukkh(noteGn33:17RVm)wasasimplestructuremadeofthebranchesoftrees,whichthepeasanterectedforrest
andshelterinhisfieldorvineyard(Is1:8RV).InAVandRVitisvariouslyrenderedbooth,cottage,hut,pavilion,tabernacle,tent.The
boothwasalsoaconvenientshelterforcattle(Gn33:17)andforthearmyinthefield(2S11:11RV).

A.R.S.Kennedy.

BOOTHS,FEASTOF.SeeTabebnacles.
BOOTY.SeeWar.Cf.Ban.
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BOOTY.SeeWar.Cf.Ban.
BORDER(ofthegarment).SeeFrinoes.
BORITH.AnancestorofEzra(2Es1:2)calledin1Es8:2Boccas,andinEzr7:4Bukki.
BORROWING.SeeDebt.
BOSOR(1Mac5:26,36).AtowninGilead.Thesiteisuncertain.
BOSORA(1Mac5:26,28).MentionedwithBosor.ApparentlythegreatcityofBosrahtheRomanBostraontheE.ofBashan,which
isnotmentionedinthe
Bible.
BOSS.OnlyJob15:26,whereitisdoubtfulwhethermetalbossesforstrengtheningtheshieldareimpliedinthefigure,orwhetherwe
shouldrenderthestoutcurvesofhisbucklers.

A.R.S.Kennedy.
BOTCH.Abotch(connectedwithbeatandboss)isaswelling,aneruptionintheskin.ItoccursinreferencetoDt28:27thebotchof
Egypt.SeeBlain,Medicine.Themodernwordisboil,whichisalsothemorecommonwordforthesameHeb.inAV.FortheEng.wordsee
MiltonPLxii.180
Botchesandblainesmustallhisfleshimboss.
BOTTLE.AlthoughglasswasnotunknowninPalestineinBibletimes,thevariouswordsrenderedbottleinAVdenotealmost
exclusivelyreceptaclesofskin.InRVtheNTrevisershavewiselyintroducedskinsandwineskinsinthefamiliarparable(Mt9:17||),but
theirOTcollaboratorshavedonesoonlywhere,asinJos9:4,13,thecontextabsolutelyrequiredit.Theseskinsofthedomesticanimals,in
particularofthegoat,wereusednotonly,aswehaveseen,forwine,butforwater(Gn21:14),milk(Jg4:19),oil,andotherliquids.Theywere
doubtlessused,asatthepresentday,bothtannedanduntanned.Inlatertimes(Mishna),thelargerskinssometimesreceivedacoatingofpitch
ontheinside,andwerefurnishedattheneckwithareedtoserveasafunnel.
ThepottersearthenbottleofJer19:1,10wasanarrowneckedwinejar,whichmightalsobeusedforhoney(1K14:3EVcruse).

A.R.S.Kennedy.
BOTTOMLESSPIT.SeeAbyss.
BOW,BATTLEBOW.SeeArmour,1(d).
BOWELS.ThebowelsareinBiblicallanguagetheseatoftheemotions.HencePs40:8Thylawisinthemidstofmybowels,i.e.the
objectofmydeepestaffection.
BOWL.Itisimpossibletodistinguishwithcertaintybetweenthenumerouswordsreodered,somewhatindiscriminately,cup,bason,
andbowl.ThewanderingBedouinoftodaymakelittleuse,forobviousreasons,ofthefragileproductsofthepottersart,preferringvessels
ofskin,wood,andcopper.ThelordlydishwithwhichSiserawasserved(Jg5:25)wasabowl,doubtlessofwoodsotoo,perhaps,Gideons
bowl(6:38)whichbearsthesamename.Forordinarydomesticpurposesbowlsofglazedorunglazedearthenwarewerepreferred,ofwhich 54/63
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bowl(6:38)whichbearsthesamename.Forordinarydomesticpurposesbowlsofglazedorunglazedearthenwarewerepreferred,ofwhich
specimensinendlessvarietyhavebeenunearthed(seePottery).Amongthewealthierclassessilverandevengold(1K10:21)wereemployed.
OfoneorotheroftheseweredoubtlessthelargebowlsthewordelsewhereusedfortheBasons(wh.see)fromwhichthenoblesof
Samariaquaffedtheirwine(Am6:6).Similar,probably,werethelargewinebowls,distinguishedfromthesmallercups,towhichJeremiah
refers(Jer35:5RVandAVpots).
Fromtheabovearetobedistinguishedthebowlorreservoirfortheoilofthecandlestick(Zec4:2f.),thegoldencuplikeornamentsof
theTabernaclelampstand(Ex25:31AVbowls,RVcups),andthebowlsofthechapiters(2Ch4:12f.RVandAVpommels).See,
further,Cup,Bason,Vial.

Foranimportantritualuseofbowlsandlamps,recentlydiscovered,seeHouse,3.

A.R.S.Kennedy.
BOX.1.Thenatureoftheprophetsboxofoil(2K9:1,3RVvial,as1S10:1AV)isunknown.Wasitanothernameforthebornof
oilof1K1:39?2.Forthealabasterbox(Mt26:7||,RVcruse)seeJewelsandPreciousStones,adfin.3.ForJudasmoneybox(Jn12:6,
13:29AVbag,RVmbox)seeBag.4.Nothingisknownoftheperfumeboxes(lit.houses,i.e.receptaclesofperfume[orperhaps
ointment])oftheJerusalemladies(Is3:20RVandAVtablets).

A.R.S.Kennedy.
BOXTREE(teashshr,Is41:19,60:13,Ezk27:6).Whethertheteashshrwastheboxtree(Buxuslongifolia)orthesherbin,mod.
Arab.forthecypress(Cupressussempervirens),asRVadopts,or,asotherspropose,akindofjuniper,isquiteunsettled.Sogoodanauthority
asPostrejectsthefirstasimprobable.

E.W.G.Masterman.
BOY.SeeChild,Family.
BOZEZ (1 S 14:4).A steep cliff on one side of the Michmash gorge opposite Seneh. It seems to be the northern cliff, a remarkable
bastionofrockE.ofMichmash.
BOZKATH.AtownofJudah(Jos15:39,2K22:1),intheplainnearLachishandEglon.Unknown.
BOZRAH(fortification).1.AnEdomitecityknownonlyastheplaceoforiginofJobah,sonofZerah,oneoftheEdomitekings(Gn
36:33,1Ch1:44).Itwas,however,ofsuchimportanceinthekingdomofEdomthatitiscoupledwiththenameofthelatterinpoetic
parallelisms(e.g.thedenunciationinIs34:6cf.Jer49:22).ThereferenceinIs63:1todyedgarmentsofBozrah,andinMic2:12tosheep
ofBozrah,mayindicatetheindustriesforwhichitwasnoted.Theguessesthathavebeenmadeatitsidentificationareofnoimportance.2.A
MoabitecitydenouncedbyJeremiah(48:24),andalsounknown.

R.A.S.Macalister.
BRACELETS.SeeOrnaments,4.
BRAMBLE.SeeThorns.
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BRAMBLE.SeeThorns.
BRAN.TheburningofbranforincenseismentionedinBar6:43asanaccompanimentoftheidolatrousworshipofthewomenof
Babylon.
BRANCH.1.ThegreatvarietyofHeb.wordsrenderedbyourbranchmaybegatheredfromthefollowinglistofpassages,ineachof
whichadifferenttermisused:Gn40:10,Ex25:33,Nu13:23,Is16:8,27:10,Jer11:16,Zec4:12,Ps104:12,Job15:32,18:16.Inthe
followingversesRVorRVmaddsorsubstitutesanotherword:Is18:5(spreadingbranches)25:6(song),Ezk17:3,22(top,loftytop),
Ps80:15(Heb.son:RVmofGn49:22,inlikemannerhasHeb.daughters),Pr11:28(leaf)Job8:16(shoot).IntheNTfourGreek
wordsaretranslatedbranch,butRVmpointsoutthatlayersofleavesaremeantatMk11:8,andatJn12:13palmbranchesareinquestion.
2.Branchisusedfigurativelyforhumanoffspring(Job15:32),especiallyforthescionofaroyalhouse(Dn11:7)alsoforpersonsinlofty
station(Is9:14).TheHeb.netser,properlysignifyingsproutorshoot,butrenderedbranch(Is11:1),isadesignationoftheMessianic
kingnotimprobablythiswasintheEvangelistsmindwhenhewroteMt2:23.WehavethesameEnglishtermatJer23:5,33:15,where
anotherword,tsemach,isatitleoftheMessiah,intimatingthatthisshootshouldariseoutofthelowestateoftherestoredremnant.Zec
3:8,6:12,followingJeremiah,actuallymakesTsemachapropername.TheTarg.onJer.and
Zech.unhesitatinglysubstitutesforittheMessiah.

J.Taylor.
BRASIER.SeeCoalandFirepan.
BRASSisanalloyofcopperandzinc,thegeneraluseofwhichiscomparativelymodern.Inancienttimesitsplacewassuppliedby
bronze,analloyofcopperandtin.WherebrassoccursinEV,wemustunderstandeitherbronzeorcopperitself.Insomeofthereferences,
suchasthosetomining(Dt8:9outofwhosehillsthoumayestdigbrass)andsmelting(Job28:2Ironistakenoutoftheearth,andbrassis
moltenoutofthestone),itisclearthatonlycoppercanbemeant,andRVmadoptsthisrenderingeverywhere(seeonGn4:22).Copperisnot
foundinPalestineproper,butintheLebanonandHermon(possiblythemountainsofbrassofZec6:1).Weaponsofcopperhavebeenfound
atTellelHesy(datingfromc.b.c.1500).FromveryearlytimescopperwaslargelyworkedbytheEgyptiansintheSinaiticpeninsula,where
tracesoftheminingandsmeltingarestilltobeseen.AfullaccountoftheseoperationsandtheirremainsisgiveninFlindersPetries
ResearchesinSinai.

JamesPatrick.
BRAVERY.InIs3:18thebraveryoftheirtinklingornaments,braverymeanssplendour,ostentation.Thewordisconnectedwith
brag.BRAZENSEA.SeeTemple.
BRAZENSERPENT.SeeSerpent[Brazen].
BREACH.Breachisaliteraltrans,oftheHeb.in2S6:8and1Ch13:11theLordhadmadeabreachuponUzzah,andinJob16:14
Hebreakethmewithbreachuponbreach.Thewordinbothplacesisusedfigurativelyofanoutburstofwrath.
BREAD.ThepreeminenceofbreadinthedietaryoftheHebrewsisshownbythefrequentuseinOT,fromGn3:19onwards,ofbread
forfoodingeneral.Itwasmadechieflyfromwheatandbarley,occasionallymixed,moreespeciallyintimesofscarcity,withotheringredients

(Ezk4:9seeFood).Barleywasinearliertimesthemainbreadstuffofthepeasantry(Jg7:13)andpoorerclassesgenerally(Jn6:13,cf.JosBJ56/63
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(Ezk4:9seeFood).Barleywasinearliertimesthemainbreadstuffofthepeasantry(Jg7:13)andpoorerclassesgenerally(Jn6:13,cf.JosBJ
V.x.2).

Thefirststepinbreadmaking,afterthoroughlysiftingandcleaningthegrain,wastoreduceittoflourbyrubbing,pounding,orgrinding
(cf.Nu11:8).Inthefirstprocess,notyetextinctinEgyptforcertaingrains,thegrainwasrubbedbetweentwostones,thecornrubbersor
corngrinders,ofwhichnumerousspecimenshavebeenfoundatLachishandGezer(PEFSt,1902,3261903,118cf.Erman,Egypt.180
forillust.ofactualuse).FortheothertwoprocessesseeMortarandMillrespectively.Threequalitiesofflouraredistinguishedacoarsersort
gotbytheuseofthepestleandmortar,thebeaten(RVbruisedcornofLv2:14,16,ordinaryflourormeal,andthefinemealfor
honouredguests(Gn18:6)orfineflourforakingskitchen(1K4:22)andtheritualmealofferings.
Theflourwasthenmixedwithwaterandkneadedinthewoodenbasinorkneadingtrough(Ex8:3,12:34).Inacaseofurgencythedough
wasatoncemadeintocakesandfired.Theseunleavenedcakesweretermedmazzothandwerealonepermittedforthealtarandduring
PassoverandtheimmediatelyfollowingFeastofUnleavenedCakes(Mazzoth).Onordinaryoccasions,however,asmalllumpofyesterdays
baking,whichhadbeenreservedforthepurpose,wasbrokendownandmixedwithtodaysbatch.Thewholewasthensetasideforafew
hourstillthoroughlyleavened(seeLeaven).
ThreemodesoffiringbreadarefoundinOT,asintheEastatthepresentday.(a)ThefirstisrepresentedbyElijahscakebakenonthehot
stones(1K19:5RVm).Afewflatstonesaregatheredtogether,andafirelighteduponthem.Whenthestonesaresufficientlyheated,the
embersarerakedaside,thecakesarelaidonthestonesandcoveredwiththeembers.Afteralittletheashesareagainremoved,thecakeis
turned(Hos7:8)andoncemorecovered.Presentlythecakeisready.(b)InSyriaandArabiatodayaconvexironplateismuchused,
especiallyamongtheBedouin.Itisplacedoverasmallfirepitwiththeconvexsideuppermost,onwhichthecakesofdougharelaidand
fired.TheHebrewbakingpan(Lv2:5,7:9RV)musthaveresembledthisspeciesofirongirdle.(c)Thesettledpopulation,however,
chieflymadeuseofoneorotherofthevariouskindsofoven,thenasnowcalledtannur.Inoneform,whichmaybetermedthebowloven,
sinceitconsistsofalargeclaybowlinverted,withamovablelid,theheatisappliedbyheapingcattledung,etc.,ontheoutside.Thecakesare
bakedontheheatedstonescoveredbytheoven.Inotherpartsofthecountrythejarovenisused.Thisisreallyalargeearthenwarejarwhich
isheatedbyfuel,consistingofstubble(Mal4:1),grass(Mt6:30),drytwigs(1K17:12)andthelike,placedinthebottomofthejar.When
thelatteristhoroughlyheated,thecakesareappliedtotheinsidewalls.Fromthistypewasdevelopedthepitoven,whichwasformedpartly
intheground,partlybuiltupofclayandplasteredthroughout,narrowingfromthebottomupwards.Manyofthesepitovenshavebeen
discoveredintherecentexcavations.Itistothesmokeissuingfromoneofthese,whilebeingheated,thatthesmokeoftheruinedcitiesofthe
plainiscomparedinGn19:28(EVfurnace,andoftenunnecessaryrenderingforoven).Suchnodoubtweretheovensoftheprofessional
bakersinthestreetnamedaftertheminJerusalem(Jer37:21).
Breadmakingwasatalltimesthespecialchargeofthewomenofthehousehold.Evenwhen,aswehavejustseen,bakingbecamea
recognizedindustry,alargepartofthebakersworkhadbeen,asnowintheEast,merelytofirethebreadbakedbythewomenathome.

Aconsiderablevarietyofbakemeats(Gn40:17,lit.food,theworkofthebaker)ismetwithinOT,butonlyinafewcasesisitpossible
toidentifytheirnatureorform.TheordinarycaketheloafofOTandNTwasroundandfairlythicksuchatleastwastherollingcakeof
barleybreadofJg7:13.Thesecakeswerealwaysbrokenbythehand,nevercut.Acakefrequentlyusedforritualpurposes(Ex29:2and
often)seems,fromitsname,tohavebeenpiercedwithholeslikethemodernPassovercakes.Theprecisenatureofthecracknelsof1K14:3
(Amer.RVcakes)isunknown.Thewafer,oftennamedinritualpassages(cf.alsoEx16:31),wasevidentlyaverythinspeciesofcake.For
whatmaybecalledthepastryoftheHebrews,thecuriousinthesemattersarereferredtotheart.BakemeatsintheEncyc.Bibl.col.460f.
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A.R.S.Kennedy.
BREAKFAST.SeeMeals.
BREASTPLATE.SeeArmour,2(c).
BREASTPLATE(oftheHighPriest).Inthedirectionsfortheofficialdressofthehighpriest,aslaiddownbythepriestlywriter,a
prominentplaceisoccupiedbythebreastplateorpectoral.Thefullerdesignationthebreastplateofjudgment(Ex28:15,Sir45:10)is
significantofthepurposeofthebreastplate,whichwastoformafittingreceptacleorpouchfortheUrimandThummim(wh.see),bymeans
ofwhichjudgmentwaspronounced.ThespecialdirectionsforthemakingofthebreastplatearegiveninEx28:1330(cf.39:821).Itwas
madeofanoblongpieceofrichlywroughtlinen,which,foldedintwo,formedasquareofhalfacubit,or9inches,intheside.Attachedtothe
outersidewerefourrowsofpreciousstonesingoldsettings,twelveinall,eachstonehavingengraveduponitthenameofatribefora
memorialbeforeJcontinually(28:29).Thebreastplatewaskeptinpositionbymeansoftwocordsofwreathenworkofgold,bywhichit
wasattachedtoacoupleofgoldouches(probablyrosettesofgoldfiligree)ontheshoulderpiecesoftheephod,whilethelowerpartwas
fastenedtotheephodbyalaceofblue(28:28)ateachcorner.

A.R.S.Kennedy.
BREECHES.Rathershortdrawersofwhitelinenorderedtobewornbythepriestsongroundsofmodesty(Ex28:42,Lv16:4,Ezk
44:18,Sir45:8).JosephusdescribesthoseworninhistimeinhisAnt.III.vii.1.ThemoderntrousersarerepresentedinAVbyHosen(wh.
see).

A.R.S.Kennedy.
BRETHRENOFTHELORD.JesuswasMarysfirstborn(Lk2:7),andshesubsequently(accordingtotheviewacceptedinthe
presentarticle)boretoJosephfoursons,James,Joseph,Judas,andSimon,andseveraldaughters(Mt
13:5556=Mk6:3).DuringHisministrytheLordsbrethrendidnotbelieveinHim.TheysneeredatHim(Jn7:35),andoncethey
concludedthatHewasmad,andwishedtoarrestHimandconveyHimawayfromCapernaum(Mk3:21,31).AftertheResurrection,
however,convincedbysotremendousademonstration,theyjoinedthecompanyofthebelievers(Ac1:14).
Inearlydays,partlyatleastintheinterestsofthenotionofMarysperpetualvirginity,twotheorieswerepromulgatedinregardtothe
BrethrenoftheLord.(a)TheyweresupposedtobesonsofJosephbyaformermarriage,havingthusnobloodrelationshipwithJesus.So
Origen,ClementofAlexandria,Epiphanius.(b)TheywereheldtobeHiscousins,sonsofMary,thewifeofAlphus(Mt27:56=Mk15:40)
brotherhereimplyingmerelykinship,asAbrahamcallshimselfandhisnephewLotbrethren(Gn13:8),andLabancallsJacob,hissisters
son,hisbrother(29:16).SoJeromeandAugustine.ThatMary,thewifeofAlphusandmotherofJamestheLittle,wasasisterofMarythe
motherofJesus,isaninferencefromJn19:25,whereitissupposedthatonlythreewomenarementioned:(1)Hismother,(2)Hismothers
sister,viz.,Mary,thewifeofClopas(=Alphus),and(3)MaryMagdalene.Butthereareprobablyfour:(1)Hismother,(2)hersisterSalome,
themotherofthesonsofZebedee(cf.Mt.=Mk.),(3)Mary,thewifeofClopas,and(4)MaryMagdalene.Itisveryunlikelythattwosisters
shouldhavebeennamedMaryandmoreover,James,thesonofAlphus,wasanApostle(Mt10:3=Mk3:18=Lk6:15),andnoneofthe
LordsbrethrenwasanApostleinHislifetime(cf.Ac1:1314).

DavidSmith.

BRIBERY.SeeCrimesandPunishments,5.
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BRIBERY.SeeCrimesandPunishments,5.
BRICK.TheuseofsundriedbricksasbuildingmaterialinOTtimes,alongsideofthemoredurablelimestone,isattestedbothbythe
excavationsandbyScripturereferences(seeHouse).Theprocessofbrickmakingshowsthesamesimplicityineveryageandcountry.
Suitableclayisthoroughlymoistened,andreducedtoauniformconsistencybytrampingandkneading(Nah3:14RVgointotheclay,and
treadthemortar).Itthenpassestothebrickmoulder,whoplacestherightquantityinhismould,anopenwoodenframewithoneofitsfour
sidesprolongedasahandle,wipingoffthesuperfluousclaywithhishand.Themouldisremovedandthebrickleftonthegroundtodryinthe
sun.Sometimesgreaterconsistencywasgiventotheclaybymixingitwithchoppedstrawandtherefuseofthethreshingfloor,asrelatedin
thefamiliarpassageEx5:719.Asregardsthedailytaleofbrickstherereferredto,anexpertmoulderinEgypttodayissaidtobeableto
turnoutnofewerthanabout3000bricksperdiem(Vigouroux,Dict.delaBible,i.1932).TheEgyptianbricksresembledourowninshape,
whilethoseofBabyloniaweregenerallyasbroadastheywerelong.AccordingtoFlindersPetrie,theearliestPalestinebricksfollowedthe
Babylonianpattern.
ThereisnoevidenceinOTofthemakingofkilnburntbricks,whichwasevidentlyaforeigncustomtotheauthorofGn11:3.The
brickkilnof2S12:31,Nah3:14isreallythebrickmould(soRVm).IntheobscurepassageJer43:9RVhasbrickwork.Acuriousritual
useofbricksasincensealtarsismentionedinIs65:3.
Referencemayalsobemadetotheuseofclayasawritingmaterial,whichwasintroducedintoPalestinefromBabylonia,and,aswenow
know,continuedinuseincertainquarterstillthetimeofHezekiahatleast.Plansofbuildings,estates,andcitiesweredrawnonsuchclay
tablets,apracticewhichillustratesthecommandtoEzekieltodrawaplanofJerusalemuponatilsorclaybrick(4:1,seetheelaboratenoteby
HauptinEzekiel(PB),98ff.).

A.R.S.Kennedy.
BRIDE,BRIDEGROOM.SeeMarriage.
BRIDGE.Only2Mac12:13AV,whereRVreadsthepropernameGephyrun.FortheextremeantiquityofthearchseeArch.
BRIDLE.SeeBit.
BRIER.SeeThorns.
BRIGANDINE.Thebrigandwasoriginallysimplyalightarmedirregularfootsoldier,andthecoatofmailwhichheworewascalled
abrigandine.ThewordisusedinJer46:4,51:3(RVcoatofmail).SeeArmour.
BRIMSTONE,orsulphur,isoneofthechemicalelements.Itisfoundinvolcanicregionsbothuncombinedasadepositandalsoasa
constituentofthegases(sulphurdioxideandsulphurettedhydrogen)whichareexhaledfromtheearthordissolvedinthewaterofhot
springs.SuchsulphurspringsareabundantintheJordanValleyandontheshoresoftheDeadSea.TheaccountofthedestructionoftheCities
ofthePlain(Gn19:24,28,Lk17:29)statesthattheLordraineduponthembrimstoneandfirefromtheLordoutofheaven,andthemost
generallyacceptedviewisthatthedisasterwasduetoaneruptionofpetroleum,causedbyanearthquake.Thisismoreprobableongeological
groundsthanavolcaniceruption.Ineithercasethebrimstonewouldnotbesolidsulphur,butthechokinggasesmentiooedabove,which
wouldaccompanytherainoffire(seeDriver,inloc.Tristram,LandofIsrael,353f.Dawson,EgyptandSyria,129f.).Thispassagesuggests
theimageryofanumberofothersinwhichfireandbrimstoneareagenciesofdestruction(Ps11:6,Ezk38:22,Rev9:17,18,14:10,19:20,
20:10,21:8).Inthelastthreeofthesethepeculiarfeatureofthelakemaybeareminiscenceofavolcaniccraterfilledwithmoltenlavaand 59/63
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20:10,21:8).Inthelastthreeofthesethepeculiarfeatureofthelakemaybeareminiscenceofavolcaniccraterfilledwithmoltenlavaand
exhalingsulphurousfumes(cf.thegreatmountainburningwithfire,Rev9:6).InDt29:23thereisawarningthatifIsraelisdisobedient,
theirwholelandwillbebrimstoneandsalt,likethedesolateregionroundtheDeadSea.InIs34:9asimilarthreatisutteredagainstEdom.
InIs30:33thebreathoftheLordkindlingTophet,islikeastreamofbrimstone.

JamesPatrick.
BROADPLACE.SeeCity.
BROID.Tobroidortobraidistoplait.BothspellingsareusedinAV,1Ti
2:9withbroidedhair(Gr.inplaits),Jth10:3braidedthehairofherhead.
BROIDER.ThisEng.wordhasnoconnexionwithbroid.Itmeanstoadornclothwithneedlework.Themod.formisembroider.
BroideroccursinEx28:4andinEzk16:10,13,18,26:16,27:7,16,24.SeeEmbroidery.
BRONZE.SeeBrass.
BROOCH.Ex35:22RV,forAVbracelets.SeeOrnaments,5.
BROOK.TheHeb.wordsthusrenderedare1.Aphq,meaningtheactualbedofthestream(Ps42:1),tr.alsobystreamandriver.
2.YeralmostalwaysusedoftheNileandwatertrenchesofEgypt.Itistr.brookonlyinIs19:6,7,8.Onceitisusedforthewater
channel(Job28:10)once(Is33:21)itisrenderedstreamwhileinDn12itstandsfortheTigris.3.Mkhal(2S17:20),awordofuncertain
derivationandmeaning.4.NachalisthemostusualwordforEVbrook.ItistheexactequivalentoftheArabwdy,whichmeansavalley
containingastreamofwater.Itmaybeappliedtothevalley(Nu21:12etc.),ortothewatercoursealone(Dt9:21etc.),whichisstillthe
wady,evenafterithasescapedfromthevalley.
TheslopesofthemountainrangeofWesternPalestinearedeeplyfurrowedbyasuccessionofgreatwadys.Thesidesofthemountainsthat
dipintotheJordanValleyarefarsteeperthanthosetotheW.,andthestreamsflowingeastwardplungedownthroughawfulchasms,worn
deepwiththelapseofages.Inthelongerdescentwestwardthevalleysfrequentlyopenintobeautifulandfertileglades.Forthemostpartthe
brooks,fedonlybytherain,dryupinthesummertime,andthemillsalongtheirbanksfallsilent,wakingtofreshactivityagainonlywiththe
musicoftherushingstorm.Thereare,however,streamsfedbyperennialsprings,suchaselAujehandtheKishon,W.ofJordan,andthe
YarmukandtheJabbokontheeast.

W.Ewing.
BROOM.SeeJuniper.
BROTHER.SeeFamily,andBrethrenoftheLord.
BROTHERLYLOVE.Philadelphiaisnotbrotherlikelove,butbrotherlove,theloveonehasforbrothersorsisters,scil,loveofthe
brethren,soAVin1P1:22andRVuniformly(addRo12:10,1Th4:9,He13:1,2P1:7).Theadjectivein1P3:8shouldberendered
lovingyourbrethren,notlovingasbrethren(AV,RV).Thisadj.appearsinclassicalGr.initsprimary(family)sense,astheepithet,e.g.,of
theGrcoEgyptiankingPtolemyPhiladelphus,andofAttainsII.ofPergamus,founderofPhiladelphia(Rev1:11etc.),namedafterthisking.
ThetermreceivednowiderapplicationineitherGreekorJewish(OT)ethicsJewscalledeachotherbrethrenasbeingchildrenofthe
stockofAbraham(Ac13:26).Firstoccurringinitsreligioususein1Thess.,PhiladelphialookslikeacoinageofSt.Paulsbutitselements 60/63
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stockofAbraham(Ac13:26).Firstoccurringinitsreligioususein1Thess.,PhiladelphialookslikeacoinageofSt.Paulsbutitselements
lieintheteachingofJesus.CallingnooneonearthfatherbecausetheyhaveoneFather,theheavenlyFather,Hisdisciplesareall
brothers(Mt23:8,9cf.6:9):theloveofthenaturalhouseholdistransferred,withadeepenedsense,tothehouseholdoffaith(seeGal
6:10,Eph2:19).ThissentimentisformedinthecommunitygatheredaroundChristitsfirstborn,thefamilyofthesonsandheirsofGod
andjointheirswithChrist(Ro8:1417,29).Gotomybrethren,theRisenLordhadsaid,andtellthem,IascenduntomyFatherandyour
Father(Jn20:17cf.Mt12:49,5028:10)HerequiredthemtocherishtowardeachothertheloveHeshowedtowardthem,makingthisthe
markofdiscipleship(Jn13:34,35,15:12,13,1Jn2:7,8,3:11,4:20,21,2Jn5,1Co8:11etc.).Thebodytowhichthislovebelongsiscalled
thebrotherhoodin1P2:17(also5:9),wherelovetothebrotherhoodisassociatedwithrespectforhumanityandfearofGodasa
fundamentalChristianinstinct(cf.1Th4:9,Col3:14,1Co13,etc.).St.Pauldescribesthisaffectionasthemutualcareofmembersof
onebody(1Co12:1227):itforbidsenvy,unkindness,schismitanimates,andvirtuallyincludes,allservicesanddutiesofChristians
towardseachother(1Co13,Gal5:1315)itisthefirstfruitoftheSpirit(Gal5:22,cf.4:6,7,5:6),thefruitofGodslovetousandthetest
ofourlovetoGod(1Jn4:1121),thefulfilmentofthelaw(Ro13:810),andthecrownofChristianpurity(1P1:22)theCrosssuppliesits
modelanditsinspiration(Eph4:315:2,1Jn3:16).WhenSt.Paulspeaksoflove,hemeansbrotherloveinthefirstplace,butnot
exclusively(Gal6:10,1Th5:15,Ro12:1821cf.Mt5:4348etc.).AmongstthemanifestationsofPhiladelphia,hospitality(philoxenia)is
conspicuous(He13:1,2,1P4:810,3Jn58)alsocommunicationorministeringtothenecessitiesofthesaints(Ro12:12,13,15:25,He
6:10,13:16,1Jn3:17,18).Theprominence,andstrangenesstotheworld,ofthisfeatureofprimitiveChristianityarestrikinglyattestedbythe
EpistletoDiognetus,1,TertulliansApol.39,and(fromoutside)LuciansdeMortePeregrini,xii.16,andJuliansEpist.49.

G.G.Findlay.
BROWN.SeeColours,2.
BRUIT.Abruit(pronouncedasbrute)isarumourorreport(Fr.bruit,frombruiretoroar).Thus2Mac4:39thebruitofhismanliness
wasspreadeverywhereNah3:19allthathearthebruitoftheeshallclapthehandsoverthee.
BUCKET.SeeHouse,9.
BUCKLE.SeeOrnaments,5.
BUCKLER.SeeArmour,2(a).
BUGEAN.AdescriptiveepithetappliedtoHamaninAd.Est12:6RV(AVhasAgagite).BougaiosoccursinHomer(Il.xiii.824,Od.
xviii.79)asatermofreproach=bullyorbraggart.WhethertheSept.intendeditinthissense,orasagentilicadjective,iswholly
uncertain.
BUILDER.SeeArtsandCrafts,3.
BUKKI.1.SonofJogli,aprinceofthetribeofDan,andoneofthetenmenentrustedwiththetaskofdividingthelandofCanaan
amongthetribesofIsrael(Nu34:22).2.SonofAbishuaandfatherofUzzi,fifthindescentfromAaroninthelineofthehighprieststhrough
Phinehas(1Ch6:6,51,Ezr7:4).In1Es8:2heiscalledBoccas,forwhichBorithissubstitutedin2Es1:2.
BUKKIAH.ALeviteofthesonsofHeman,andleaderofthesixthbandorcourseintheTempleservice(1Ch25:4,13).
BUL.1K6:38,theCanaanitenameforthemonthwhichtheBabylonianstermedMarcheshvan.Seetime.

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BULL,BULLOCK.SeeOx.
BULRUSH.SeeReed.
BULWARK.SeeFortificationandSiegecraft.
BUNAH(intelligence).AmanofJudah,asonofJerahmeel(1Ch2:25).
BUNCH.Besidesmeaningbundle(ofhyssop,Ex12:22,Heb.somethingtiedtogether)andcluster(ofralsins,2S16:1,1Ch12:40,
Heb.somethingdried),bunchisusedalsoforthehumpofacamelinIs30:6.Cf.Shaks.Rich.III.
I.iii.248
Thispoisnousbunchbackdtoad.
BUNDLE.AbundleofmoneyisspokenofinGn42:35,ofmyrrhinCa1:13,oflifein1S25:29(onwh.seeExp.Times,xvii.435)
alsoinJer10:17RVmabundleforajourney(seeDriversJer.p.354)andinNToftares(Mt13:30)andofsticks(Ac28:3).
BUNNI,Neh9:4,10:15,11:15,butineachcaseperhapsthetextiscorrupt.
BURDEN.ThewordsorenderedintheOTisderivedfromarootwhichmeanstoliftorcarry.Ithasthetwosensesofanactual
burdenandapropheticutterance.Instancesoftheformerare2K5:17,Neh13:19,Nu4:15.RelatedusagesarefrequentinIs22:25theword
suggeststhepressureofsomethinghangingonapeg,inNu11:11theresponsibilityandinHos8:10theprivilegeofgovernment,inPs38:4
theresponsibilityforsin.Thesecondsenseisthatofasolemnutterance,andthemarginalalternativeoracle(Is14:28etal.)istohe
preferred.Itwascustomarytoexplainthisuseofthewordasduetothethreateningcharacteroftheutterancebutmanyoftheutterancesare
notthreatening(cf.Zec12,9:1,917inPr30:1and31:1RVputsoracleinthetextandburdeninthemargin),andthewordplayinJer
23:33ff.involvesareproofofthemenwhoweredisposedtoregardtheoracleofGodasliterallyaburden.Mostutterancesoftheprophets,
moreover,wereofnecessityfromtheiroccasionminatory.Burdeninthissecondusagedenotessimplysomethingtakenupsolemnlyupon
thelips,bothweightyinitselfandweightyinitscommunication.Itisnotusedofmerelyhumanutterances,butalwayscarrieswithitthe
suggestionofDivineinspiration,actualorfalselyassumed(La2:14).
IntheNT,Ac21:3isaninstanceoftheliteraluse.Thefiguresareeasy.ThewordisusedfortheordinancesoftheLawasinterpretedby
thePharisees(Mt23:4,Lk11:46),fortheprohibitionsoftheApostolicdecree(Ac15:28cf.Rev2:24),forthepressureandloadoflife(Mt
20:12),foranexactingorevenlegitimatechargeuponothers(2Co11:9,12:13f.),fortheimagineddifficultiesoffollowingChrist(Mt11:30).
Twootherkindsofburdenswiththeirrighttreatmentarecontrasted.Othermenserrorsandsorrowsmustbesharedinsympathy(Gal6:2)
thoughintheserviceofChristtherecanbenotransferofobligations,buteachmanmustcarryhisownkitanddohisownduty(Gal6:5).

R.W.Moss.
BURGLARY.SeeCrimesandPunishments,6.
BURIAL.SeeMourningCustoms,Tomb.
BURNING.SeeCrimesandPunishments,11.
BURNINGBUSH.SeeBush.
BURNTOFFERING.SeeSacrifice.
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BURNTOFFERING.SeeSacrifice.
BUSH(seneh,Ex3:24,Dt33:16).Theburningbushhastraditionallybeensupposedtobeakindofbramble(Rubus),ofwhich
Palestinehasseveralvarieties,butoneofthethornyshrubsofSinaioftheacaciafamilywouldseemmoreprobable.Sacredbushesandtrees
arecommoninPalestineandArabia.In(orat)thebushinMt12:26||Lk20:37=thepassagedealingwiththeburningbush(RVinthe
placeconcerningthebush).
E.W.G.Masterman.
BUSHEL.SeeWeightsandMeasures.
BUTLER.SeeCupbearer.
BUTTER.SeeFood,Milk.
BUZ.1.ThesecondsonofNahorandMilcah,andnephewofAbraham(Gn22:21).Elihu,oneofthefriendsofJob(Job32:2),iscalled
aBuzite,andmayhavebelongedtoatribeofthatnameagainstwhichjudgmentsaredenouncedbyJeremiah(Jer25:23).2.Amanofthe
tribeofGad(1Ch5:14).
BUZI.ThefatheroftheprophetEzekiel(ch.1:3)andconsequentlyamemberofthepriestlyhouseofZadok.Ofthemanhimselfnothing
isknown.JewishwriterswereledtoidentifyhimwithJeremiah,partlybyasupposedconnexionofthenamewithaverbmeaningdespise,
andpartlybyatheorythatwhenthefatherofaprophetisnameditistobeunderstoodthathealsowasaprophet.
BUZITESeeBuz.
BY.IntheAuthorizedVersionofisgenerallyusedfortheagentandbyfortheinstrument.ThusMt1:22thatitmightbefulfilledwhich
wasspokenof(RVby)theLordby(RVthrough)theprophet.

In1Co4:4Iknownothingbymyself,bymeanscontraryto,against,asinHamiltonsCatechism,1559(theTabil),Jugisquhilkfurlufe
ofrewardisdolsonythingbytheordourofjusticealsofol.vii.,cursltarthaiquhilkgaogisbyyecommondisofGod.
BYANDBY.InAVbyandbymeansimmediately,notasnowaftersometime.ThusLk21:8theendisnotbyandby(RV
immediately).
BYWAY.SeeRoads.

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CAB.SeeWeightsandMeasures.
CABBON(Jos15:40).AtownofJudahnearEglon.SeeMachdena.
CABIN.TheEng.wordcabinisnowchieflyconfinedtoanapartmentinaship,butwasformerlyusedofanysmallroom.Itoccursin
AVforthecell(whichisthewordinAVmandRV)inwhichJeremiahwasconfined(Jer37:16).Cf.
Spenser,FQI.vi.23
Solonginsecretcabinthereheheld

Hercaptivetohissensualdesire.
CABUL(Jos19:27,1K9:13).AtownofAsherontheborderofZebulun.ThedistrictwascededbySolomontoTyre.Prob.thelarge
villageKabul,E.ofAcco.
CSAR.ThisisthecognomenorsurnameofthegensJulia,whichwasborne,forexample,byitsmostillustriousrepresentative,Caius
JuliusCsar.TheemperorAugustus(b.c.23a.d.14)haditbyadoption,andwasofficiallynamed
ImperatorCsarAugustus.Hisstepson,theemperorTiberius,officially
TiberiusCsarAugustus(a.d.1437),haditthroughhisadoptionbyAugustus.
Itwasbornealso,amongstotherlessimportantpersons,bytheemperorCaius
CsarGermanicus(nicknamedCaligula,Boots)(a.d.3741),whowasasonof
Germanicus,theadoptedsonoftheemperorTiberius.ThesealoneamongtheRomanemperorshaditasafamilyname,butalltheemperors
boreitasatitleexceptVitellius(a.d.69),andhencewefinditcontinuedinthetitlesKaiserandCzar.Thebeginningofthisuseisseeninthe
NT.Therethenameisfoundalways,excepttwice(Lk2:1,3:1),byitself,simplyequaltotheEmperor.Theremainingemperorsofthe1st
cent.areClaudius(wh.see),Nero(wh.see),Galba(9June6815Jan.69),Otho(15Jan.25Apr.69),Vitellius(2Jan.6920[?]Dec.70),
Vespasian(6979),Titus(717981),Domitian(8196),Nerva(9698),Trajan(9798117).
A.Souter.
CSARSHOUSEHOLD.InPh4:22theythatareofCsarshousesendspecialgreetingstothePhilippians.St.Paulwrotefrom
Rome,wherehewasinsemicaptivity,andsomeoftheChristiansinRomebelongedtotheefficientandtalentedbodyofslavesandfreedmen
whoworkedintheImperialpalaceandperformedvariedservicefortheemperorNero.Thenumberoftheseservantswasverylarge,and
amongstthemwereaccountants,governorsofprovinces,secretaries,stewards,etc.,aswellasagreatmanyofficialsconcernedwithhumbler
duties.Theywerepersonsofinfluenceandoftenofconsiderablewealth,drawnfromallnationswithintheEmpire.Thetestimonyof
inscriptionsmakesitcertainthatmostofthepersonsnamedinRo16wereofCsarshousehold.
A.Souter.
CSAREA(mod.Kaisariyeh).AcityrebuiltbyHerodtheGreatonthesiteofStratonsTower,onthecoastofPalestine,betweenJoppa
andDora.Itsspecialfeatureswerealargeharbourprotectedbyahugemoleandbyawallwith10loftytowersandcolossiapromenade
roundtheport,witharcheswheresailorscouldlodgeatempleofAugustusraisedonaplatform,andvisiblefaroutatsea,containingtwo
colossalstatuesofRomeandtheEmperorasystemofdrainagewherebythetideswereutilizedtoflushthestreetswallsembracinga
semicircularareastretchingforamilealongtheseacoasttwoaqueducts,oneofthem8milesinlength,displayinggreatengineeringskilla 1/137
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semicircularareastretchingforamilealongtheseacoasttwoaqueducts,oneofthem8milesinlength,displayinggreatengineeringskilla
hippodromeanamphitheatrecapableofseating20,000personsatheatreacourtofjustice,andmanyothernoblestructures.Thecitytook12
yearstobuild,andHerodcelebrateditscompletion(b.c.109)withsumptuousgamesandentertainmentswhichcost120,000.Herodused
theportforhisfrequentvoyages.HerehecondemnedtodeathhistwosonsAlexanderandAristobulus.AfterthebanishmentofHerods
successorArchelaus,CsareabecametheofficialresidenceoftheRomanprocuratorsofPalestine(brokenonlybythebriefintervalduring
whichitwasundertheindependentruleofHerodAgrippaI.,whomethistragicdeathherein
b.c.44[Ac12:2023]).Thefifthofthese,PontiusPilate,orderedamassacreinthehippodromeofCsareaofthoseJewswhohadflockedto
imploretheremovalfromJerusalemoftheprofaneeaglestandardsandimagesoftheEmperorrecentlyintroduced.Onlyontheirbaringtheir
necksfordeathandthusrefusingtosubmit,didPilaterevoketheorder,anddirecttheensignstoberemoved.Christianityearlyfounditsway
here,PhilipprobablybeingthefounderoftheChurch(Ac8:40),whilePaulpassedthroughafterhisfirstvisittoJerusalem(Ac19:31).
CsareawasthesceneofthebaptismofCornelius(Ac10).HerealsotheHolySpiritforthefirsttimefellonheathen,thusinauguratingthe
GentilePentecost(v.44).PaulmayhavepassedthroughCsarea(Ac18:22)atthetimewhennumbersofJewishpatriots,capturedby
Cumanus,hadherebeencrucifiedbyQuadratus,legateofSyria.ItwasatCsareathatPaulsarrestinJerusalemwasforetoldbyAgabus(Ac
21:814).HerehewasimprisonedfortwoyearsunderFelix(Ac23).DuringthattimeariotbrokeoutbetweenGreeksandJewsastotheir
respectiverights,andFelixorderedageneralmassacreoftheJewstobecarriedoutinthecity.OntherecallofFelix,NerosentPorcius
Festus,whotriedPaul(Ac25:9)andalsoallowedhimtostatehiscasebeforeHerodAgrippaII.andBerenice(Ac26).Thewickednessofthe
lastprocurator,GessiusFlorus,finallydrovetheJewsintorevolt.AriotinCsarealedtoamassacreinJerusalem,andsimultaneously20,000
oftheJewishpopulationofCsareawereslaughtered.DuringtheGreatWar,Csareawasusedasthebaseforoperations,firstbyVespasian,
whowashereproclaimedEmperorbyhissoldiers(a.d.69),andlatterlybyhissonTitus,whocompletedthedestructionofJerusalem.The
lattercelebratedthebirthdayofhisbrotherDomitianbyforcing2500JewstofightwithbeastsinthearenaatCsarea.Thecitywasmadeinto
aRomancolony,renamedColoniaPrimaFlaviaAugustaCsarensis,releasedfromtaxation,andrecognizedasthecapitalofPalestine.
SeveralChurchCouncilswereheldatCsarea.Itwasfroma.d.200to451theresidenceoftheMetropolitanbishopofPalestine.Origen
taughthere,andEusebiuswasitsbishopfroma.d.313to340.ItwasthebirthplaceofProcopius,thehistorian.Ina.d.548theChristianswere
massacredbytheJewsandSamaritans.In638itsurrenderedtotheMoslemsunderAbuObeida.Itwasrecoveredin1102byBaldwinI.,who
massacredtheSaracensinthemosque,oncetheChristiancathedral.ThelootcontainedthesocalledHolyGrailofmedivallegend.Saladin
recapturedCsareain1187,butitwasretakenbyRichardI.in1192.Thecity,however,wassoruinedthatwhenrestoreditcoveredonly
onetenthoftheoriginalground.In1251LouisIX.fortifieditstrongly.In1265itwasstormedbySultanBibars,whoutterlydemolishedit.To
dayitisawildernessofdrearyruins,tenantedonlybyafewwanderingshepherds.

G.A.FrankKnight.
CSAREAPHILIPPI.ThesceneofChristschargetoPeter(Mt16:1320,Mk8:27).HerewasasanctuaryofPanafactstill
rememberedinthemodernnameBaniasandwhenHerodtheGreatreceivedtheterritoryfromAugustusin
b.c.20,heerectedhereatemple.HissonPhiliprefoundedthecity,andchangeditsnamefromPaneastoCsareainhonourofAugustus
addinghisownnametodistinguishthetownfromthesimilarlynamedcityfoundedbyhisfatherontheseacoast.Forawhileitwascalled
Neronias,butultimatelytheoldnamecameoncemoretothesurfaceandoustedtheothers.HereTituscelebratedwithgladiatorialshowsthe
captureofJerusalem.ItwascapturedbytheCrusadersin1130,andfinallylostbythemtotheMoslemsin1165.Itlies1150ft.abovethesea
inarecessoftheHermonmountains,andiswellwatered.UndertheancientcastleoftheCrusadersacopiousstreamissuedfromacave,now

muchchokedwithfallenfragmentsofrock,wherewastheshrineofPan.Themodernvillageissmall,andtheremainsoftheRomancity
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muchchokedwithfallenfragmentsofrock,wherewastheshrineofPan.Themodernvillageissmall,andtheremainsoftheRomancity
meagre.

R.A.S.Macalister.
CAGE.Birdsweretakentomarketinacageorcoopofwickerwork(Jer5:27)asimilarcagemightholdadecoybirdinfowling(Sir
11:30).OneofAshurbanipalshuntingscenesshowsacageofstrongwoodenbarsfromwhichalionisbeingletloose(cf.Ezk19:8RV).In
Rev18:2render,withRV,holdorprisonforAVcage.

A.R.S.Kennedy.
CAIAPHAS.JosephCaiaphas,thesoninlawofAnnas(Jn18:13),washighpriestbetweena.d.18and36andthusthememorable
yearofourLordstrialfellinthecourseofhispontificate(Jn11:51,18:13).Hewas,likeallthepriestlyorder,aSadduceeandhewasaman
ofmasterfultemper,withhisfullshareoftheinsolencewhichwasaSadducancharacteristic.HefiguresthriceintheNT.1.Aftertheraising
ofLazarus,therulers,alarmedattheaccessofpopularitywhichitbroughttoJesus,convenedameetingoftheSanhedrintodeterminewhat
shouldbedone.Caiaphaspresidedexofficio,andwithahighhandforcedaresolutionthatJesusshouldbeputtodeath(Jn11:47ff.).2.He
presidedatthesubsequentmeetingoftheSanhedrinwhenJesuswastriedandcondemnedandthereagainhedisplayedhischaracterbyhis
opendeterminationtofindHimguilty,andhisshamelessdisregardoftheformsoflawinordertobringaboutthatend(Jn18:24,Mt26:57
68=Mk14:5365=Lk22:6671).3.HetookpartintheexaminationofPeterandJohn(Ac4:6).

DavidSmith.
CAIN.InGn4:1thename(Qayin)isderivedfromqnh,procure.This,however,islinguisticallyimpossible.Itisprobablytobe
connectedwitharootsignifyingtoforgeinmetal(cf.vv.2224).
1.(a)vv.116(J).CainandAbelarerepresentedasthesonsofAdamandEve.Butitisclearthatthenarrativewasatonetime
independentofAdamandEveitpresupposesamuchlaterstageinhumanprogress.Thedistinctionbetweenpastoralandagriculturallife(v.
2),andbetweencerealandanimalofferings(vv.3,4),thecustomofbloodrevenge(v.14),andthelargeincreaseinthenumberofhuman
beingsimpliedinCainsfearofbeingslain(vv.14,15),inhispossessionofawife(v.17),andinhiserectionofacity(ib.),allshowthata
longperiodmustbeunderstoodtohaveelapsedsincetheprimitiveconditionofthefirstpair.Themeaningofcertainpassagesinthestoryis
uncertainvv.7,13,15mustbestudiedinthecommentaries.WhenCainwascondemnedtobeafugitiveandawanderer,hefeareddeathin
revengeforhismurderofAbelbutJahwehappointedasignforhim.Thisisnotexplained,butthewriterprobablythoughtofitas
somethingwhichrenderedCainsacrosanct,sothat,accordingtoadeeplyrootedSemiticconception,itwouldbeadefilementandacrimeto
touchhim(seeart.Holiness).Andhewentanddwelt(v.16)inthelandofNd(Wanderland).Thefactthatthestoryappearstodescribe
conditionslongsubsequenttothoseofthefirstpairhasledmanywriterstoholdthatCainistheeponymousancestorofatribe,andthatthe
traditionwasintendedtoexplainthewildandwanderinglifeofArabiannomads.Thiskindoflife,sodifferentfromtheprosperouspeaceof
settledagriculturalcommunities,musthavebeentheresultofaprimitivecurse,incurredbysomecrime.Andthenarrativerelatesthatthe
settled,agriculturalCainitetriberuthlesslydestroyedmembersofanadjacenttribeofpastoralhabitsthatthefearofstrictbloodrevengewas
sogreatthattheCainiteswereobligedtoleavetheircountry,andbecomewanderingnomadsandthatsometribalsignorbadgesuchasa
tattoo,orincisionsinthefleshwasadopted,whichmarkeditspossessorsasbeingundertheprotectionoftheirtribalgod.Itisfurther
conjectured,owingtotheformationofthetwonamesfromthesameroot,thatCainstandsfortheKenites(cf.Nu24:22,Jg4:11withRVm).3/137
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conjectured,owingtotheformationofthetwonamesfromthesameroot,thatCainstandsfortheKenites(cf.Nu24:22,Jg4:11withRVm).
SeeDriver,Genesis,p.72.

(b)vv.1724seemtocontainadifferenttradition,butincorporatedalsobyJ.Cainserectionofacityscarcelyseemstoharmonizewith
hisbeingafugitiveandawandererinfearofhislife.Thepurposeofthetraditionwastoexplaintheoriginofearlyartsandsocialconditions
e.g.thebeginningsofcitylife(v.17),polygamy(v.19),nomadlife(v.20),music(v.21),metallurgy(v.22).
2.Thevalueofthestorylies,asalways,mainlyinitsreligiousteaching.Weknownotofhowmuchcrudesuperstitionandpolytheismthe
traditionmayhavebeendivestedbythepropheticalwriterwhoeditedit.Butinitspresentform,theconnexionofCainwithAdamandEve
suggeststhethoughtoftheterribleeffectsoftheFall:thenextgenerationreachesadeeperdegreeofguiltCainismorehardenedthanAdam,
inthathefeelsnoshamebutboldlytriestoconcealhisguiltandthepunishmentisworseAdamwastotillthegroundwithlabour,butCain
wouldnothenceforthreceivefromtheearthherstrength.Thestoryteachesalsothesacrednessofhumanlife,themoralholinessofGod,and
thetruththataresultofsinisaliabilitytosuccumbtofurthersin(v.7b).

3.IntheNTCainisreferredtoinHe11:4,Jude11,1Jn3:12.Thelatterpassagemustbeexplainedbyvv.9,10.ThechildrenofGod
quachildrenofGodcannotsinandconverselythechildrenofthedevilcannotdorighteousnessorloveoneanother.Cain,then,
murderedhisbrotherbecausehebelongedtothelattercategory,andhisbrothertotheformer.

A.H.MNeile.
CAINAN.1.ThesonofEnosandfatherofMahalaleel(Lk3:37).SeeKenan.2.ThesonofArphaxad(Lk3:36,whichfollowsLXXof
Gn10:24,11:12).ThenameiswantingintheHeb.textofthelasttwopassages.
CAKE.SeeBread.
CALAH.TheKalachoftheinscriptions,oneofthegreatfortresseswhichafterthefallofNineveh(cf.Jon4:11andtheGreekwriters)
weresupposedtomakeupthatcity.BothNinevehandCalahwere,however,alwaysseparateinstructureandinadministration.Calahlayon
thesiteofthegreatmodemmoundsofNimrd,aswasfirstprovedbytheexplorerLayard.InGn10:11f.itissaidtohavebeenfoundedby
Nimrod,and,alongwithNinevehandothercities,tohaveformedpartofthegreatcity.Itwasthecapital,oratleastthechiefroyal
residence,underseveralofthegreatestAssyriankings,whosepalaceshavebeenexcavatedbymodernexplorers.Herealsowasfoundthe
famousblackobeliskofShalmaneserII.

J.F.McCurdy.
CALAMOLALUS(1Es5:22).Acorruptplacename,probablyduetoaconglomerationofthetwonamesLodandHadidinEzr2:33
(cf.Neh7:37).
CALAMUS.SeeReed.
CALCOL.A,Judahite,adescendantofZerah(1Ch2:6),otherwisedescribedin1K4:31(whereAVhasChalcol)asasonofMahol,
famousforwisdom,butsurpassedbySolomon.

CALDRON.SeeHouse,9.
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CALDRON.SeeHouse,9.
CALEB(dog,oneofthenumerousanimalnamesintheOTwhichtestifytoearlytotemisticconceptions).ThesonofJephunneh(Nu
13:6).Asanindividual,heappearsasoneofthespieswhoweresenttospyoutthelandofCanaan.HerepresentedthetribeofJudah,and,
togetherwithJoshua,advocatedanimmediateattackuponthelandthefearofthepeoplehedenouncesasrebellionagainstJahweh(Nu14:9)
this,however,isresentedbythepeople,whothreatentostonebothhimandJoshua.Thecarryingoutofthisthreatisfrustratedbythe
appearanceoftheShekinah(thegloryoftheLord)intheTabernacle(v.10).AsarewardforhisfaithfulnessCalebisspeciallysingledout
forJahwehsfavour(Nu14:24,30,38,Dt1:36).HeisthusoneofthegreatchampionsofJahweh.

Asanameofaclan,Caleb(=Calebites)formedabranchofthechildrenofKenaz,anEdomitetribe,whosettledinthehillcountrynorth
oftheNegebtheyhadpossessionsalsointheNegebitself(Jos14:1315,1S30:14,1Ch24:2ff.)theyultimatelybecameabsorbedinthe
tribeofJudah.
W.O.E.Oesterley.
CALEBEPHRATHAH.Namedin1Ch2:24astheplacewhereHezron
died.Itisnotimprobable,however,thatweshouldread:afterHezrondied,CalebcameuntoEphraththewifeofHezronhisfather.
CALENDAR.SeeTime.
CALF,GOLDEN.Theincidentofthegoldencalf,isrelatedindetailinEx32(cf.Dt9:721),achapterwhichbelongstothecomposite
PropheticsourceofthePentateuch(JE).Attherequestofthepeople,whohadbeguntodespairofMosesreturnfromthemount,Aaron
consentedtomakeagodwhoshouldgobeforethemonthejourneytoCanaan.Fromthegoldenearringsoftheirwivesandchildrenhe
fashionedanimageofayoungbullthis,ratherthancalf,istherenderingoftheHeb.wordinthepresentconnexion.Theviewthatcalfis
diminutiveandsarcasticforbullisprecludedbytheuseofthewordelsewheretodenotetheyoungbutmatureanimal.AfeasttoJwas
proclaimedforthefollowingday,andanaltarerectedonwhichsacrificewasoffered.ThesequeltellsofMosesreturn,ofthedestructionof
theimage,andfinallyofMosescalltohistribesmen,thesonsofLevi,toprovetheirzealforthepureworshipofJbytakingsummary
vengeanceonthebacksliders,3000ofwhomfellbytheirswords.
Twotothreecenturieslater,bullimagesagainemergeinthehistoryofIsrael.AmongthemeasurestakenbyJeroboamI.forthe
consolidationofhisnewkingdomwasonewhichwasprimarilydesignedtosecureitsindependenceoftherivalkingdomoftheSouthinthe
allimportantmatterofpublicworship.Withthisendinview,perhapsalsowiththesubsidiarypurposeofreconcilingthepriesthoodofthe
localsanctuariestotheneworderofthings,Jeroboamsetuptwogoldencalves,oneatBethelandtheotheratDan,thetwomostimportant
sanctuaries,geographicallyandhistorically,inhisrealm(1K12:2633,2Ch11:14f.).OftheworkmanshipofJeroboamscalves,asofthat
ofAaron,itisimpossibletospeakwithcertainty.Theformerprobably,thelatterpossibly(cf.Ex32:20),consistedofawoodencoreoverlaid
withgold.TheviewthattheHeb.termnecessarilyimpliesthattheimagesweresmall,hasbeenshownabovetobegroundless.Itisalso
uncertainwhethertheotherchiefsanctuariesofthekingdomwereatalaterperiodprovidedwithsimilarimages,theleadingpassage(Am
8:14)beingcapableofanotherinterpretation.

WithregardtothereligioussignificanceofthisactiononthepartofJeroboam,itisnowadmittedonallhandsthatthebullsaretobe
recognizedassymbolsofJ.He,andHealone,wasworshippedbothinthewilderness(seeEx32:5afeasttoJ)andatBethelandDan
underthesymbolofthegoldenbull.ForthesourceofthissymbolismwemustnotlooktoEgypt,asdidthescholarsofformerdays,buttothe
primitivereligiousconceptionsoftheSemiticstocktowhichtheHebrewsbelonged.Evidence,bothliteraryandmonumental,has
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primitivereligiousconceptionsoftheSemiticstocktowhichtheHebrewsbelonged.Evidence,bothliteraryandmonumental,has
accumulatedinrecentyears,showingthatamongtheirSemitickinthebullwasassociatedwithvariousdeitiesasthesymbolofvitalenergy
andstrength.Jeroboam,therefore,mayberegardedashavingmerelygivenofficialsanctiontoasymbolismwithwhichtheHebrewshadbeen
familiar,ifnotfromtimeimmemorial,atleastsincetheirassociationwiththeCanaanites.

AcomparisonofEx32:8with1K12:28showsthatthetwonarrativeshavealiteraryconnexion,ofwhichmorethanoneexplanationis
possible.Intheopinionofmostrecentscholars,theauthororeditorofEx32hasadaptedthetraditionalmaterialonwhichheworkedsoasto
provideapolemic,inthespiritofHosea,againsttheestablishedworshipoftheNorthernKingdom,whichishererepresentedascondemnedin
advancebyJHimself(Ex32:7f.).TheattitudeofAmostothisfeatureoftheestablishedworshipatBethelisnotsoevidentasmighthave
beenexpected,butoftheattitudeofHoseatherecanbenodoubt.Itisoneofprofoundscornandbitterhostility(see8:5f.,10:5,13:2thelast
passagegivestheinterestingdetailthatthebullswerekissedliketheblackstoneintheKaabaatMecca).Inthesamespirit,andinharmony
withthetruecharacterofthereligionofJ),asrevealedthroughtheprophetswhosucceededHosea,theDeuteronomiceditoroftheBooksof
KingsrepeatedlycharacterizestheintroductionofthebullimagesintothecultofJasthesinwherewithJeroboammadeIsraeltosin(1K
14:18,15:26etc.).
A.R.S.Kennedy.
CALITAS.OneoftheLeviteswhoundertooktorepudiatehisstrangewife,1Es9:23.Heboreasecondname,Colius.ALeviteofthe
samename,andprobablythesameperson,ismentionedinv.48asoneofthosewhoexpoundedtheLaw.SeealsoKelaiah.
CALLISTHENES(2Mac8:33).ASyrian,capturedbytheJewsinasmallhouse,wherehehadtakenrefugeafterthegreatvictoryover
NicanorandGorgias,inb.c.165(cf.1Mac4:134).Atafestivalincelebrationofthevictory,theJewsburntCallisthenestodeath,becausehe
hadsetfiretotheportalsoftheTemple(cf.1Mac4:38).
CALNEH,CALNO.1.CalnehisassociatedinGn10:10withBabylon,Erech,andAccadastheearliestcitiesofShinar.TheTalmudic
assertionthat
CalnehmeansNippurreceivessomesupportfromtheageandimportanceofNippur,butitisnotknownthatthiswaseverthenameofthat
city.Kulunu,theearlynameofanimportantcitynearBabylon,maybemeant.2.Calneh,linkedwithHamathandGathinAm6:2,isprobably
theKulnia(Kullani)associatedwithArpadandHadrach,Syriancities,intheAssyriantributelists,KullanhunowsixmilesfromArpad.3.
Calno,comparedwithCarchemishinIs10:9,isprobablythesameasNo.2.

C.H.W.Johns.
CALVARY(Lk23:33).SeeGolgotha.
CALVESOFTHELIPS.Hos14:2(AVsowillwerenderthecalvesofourlipsRV[as]bullocks[theofferingof]ourlips),an
obscurepassage.AveryslightchangeoftheMTyieldstheLXXandSyr.renderingthefruitofourlips.
CAMEL.ThebonesofcamelsarefoundamongtheremainsoftheearliestSemiticcivilizationatGezer,b.c.3000orearlier,andtoday
camelsareamongthemostcommonandimportantofdomesticatedanimalsinPalestine.Theyhavethusbeenassociatedwitheveryeraof
historyintheland.Twospeciesareknown:theonehumpedCamelusdromedarius,byfarthemorecommoninBiblelandsandtheBactrian,
twohumpedCamelusbactrianus,whichcomesfromtheplateauofCentralAsia.Thislatteristodaykeptinconsiderablenumbersby
TurkomanssettledintheJaulan,andlongcaravansofthesemagnificentbeastsmaysometimesbeencounteredcomingacrosstheJordaninto6/137
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TurkomanssettledintheJaulan,andlongcaravansofthesemagnificentbeastsmaysometimesbeencounteredcomingacrosstheJordaninto
GalileeorontheJerichoJerusalemroad.TheC.dromedariusiskeptchieflyforburdenbearing,andenormousaretheloadsofcorn,wood,
charcoal,stone,furniture,etc.,whichthesepatientanimalscarry:600to800lbs.arequiteaverageloads.Theirownersoftenrideonthetopof
theload,orontheemptybaggagesaddlewhenreturningMoslemwomenandchildrenarecarriedinakindofpalanquinthecamels
furnitureofGn31:34.Forswifttravellingadifferentbreedofcamelknownashajnisemployed.Suchacamelwillgetoverthegroundat
eighttotenmilesanhour,andkeepgoingeighteenhoursinthetwentyfour.TheseanimalsareemployednearBeersheha,andalsoregularly
tocarrythemailsacrossthedesertfromDamascustoBaghdad.TheymaybethedromedariesofEst8:10.

CamelsarebredbycountlessthousandsinthelandstotheE.oftheJordan,wheretheyformthemostvaluablepossessionsoftheBedouin,
astheydidoftheMidianitesandAmalekitesofold(Jg7:12).TheBedouinlivelargelyuponthemilkofcamels(Gn32:15)andalso
occasionallyeattheirflesh,whichwasforbiddentotheIsraelites(Dt14:17,Lv11:4).Theyalsoridethemontheirraids,andendeavourto
capturethecamelsofhostileclans.Thefellahinusecamelsforploughingandharrowing.
Thecamelisastupidandlongenduringanimal,butattimes,especiallyincertainmonths,heoccasionallyrunsamok,andthenheisvery
dangerous.Hisbiteisalmostalwaysfatal.Thecamelshairwhichisusedforweaving(Mk1:6,Mt3:4)isspeciallytakenfromtheback,
neck,andneighbourhoodofthehump:overtherestofthebodytheordinarycamelhashishairwornshort.Hisskiniskeptanointedwitha
peculiarsmellingcompositiontokeepoffparasites.Thespecialadaptationofthecameltoitssurroundingsliesinitscompoundstomach,two
compartmentsofwhich,therumenandthereticulum,areespeciallyconstructedforthestorageofareservesupplyofwateritshump,which
thoughusefultomanforattachmentofburdensandsaddles,isprimarilyareservestoreoffatanditswonderfulfibrouspaddedfeetadapted
tothesoftestsandysoil.Thecamelisthusabletogolongerwithoutfoodanddrinkthananyotherburdenbearinganimal,andisableto
traversedesertsquiteunadaptedtotheslenderfootofthehorseandtheass.Onslipperysoil,rockormud,thecamelis,however,ahelpless
flounderer.Thecamelsfoodischieflytibn(choppedstraw),kursenneh,beans,oilcake,andoccasionallysomegrain.Thereseems,however,
tobenothorntoosharpforitsrelish.

IntheNTreferencestothecamelitismoresatisfactorytotaketheexpressionsswallowacamel(Mt23:24)andItiseasierforacamel
togothroughtheeyeofaneedle,etc.(Mt19:24||),astypesofordinaryOrientalproverbs(cf.theTalmudicexpressionanelephantthrougha
needleseye)thantoweavefanciedandlabouredexplanations.ThepresentwriteragreeswithPostthatthegatecalledtheneedleseyeisa
fabrication.

E.W.G.Masterman.
CAMELSHAIR.SeeCamel,Dress,1.
CAMON.SeeKamon.
CAMP.SeeWar.
CAMPHIRE(kpher,Ca1:14,4:13)isthehennaplant(Lawsoniaalba),asmallshrubwhichmaystillbefoundatEngedi.Itisagreat
favouritewiththepeopleofPalestinetoday,andaclusteroftheflowersisoftenputinthehairtheperfumeismuchadmired.Itisalso
extensivelyusedforstainingthehands(especiallythenails),thefeet,andthehairitstainsanochrered,butfurthertreatmentofthenailswith
amixtureoflimeandammoniaturnsthecolouralmostblack.Oldwomenfrequentlyreddentheirhair,andMoslemstheirbeards,bymeansof7/137
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amixtureoflimeandammoniaturnsthecolouralmostblack.Oldwomenfrequentlyreddentheirhair,andMoslemstheirbeards,bymeansof
henna.

E.W.G.Masterman.
CANA.AGalilanvillage,whereChristturnedwaterintowine(Jn2:1)andhealedwithawordanohlemanssonwholaysickat
Capernaum(4:46).Nathanaelwasanativeofthisplace(21:2).Threesiteshavebeensuggestedasidentifications,anyoneofwhichwould
satisfythemeagreindications.TheseareKanatelJelil,perhapsthemostprobable,northofSephuriehAinKana,eastofNazarethandKefr
Kenna,northeastof,andalittlefartherfrom,thesametown.Thelastisthesitefixeduponbyecclesiasticaltradition.

R.A.S.Macalister.
CANAAN.Seenextart.Ham,Palestine.
CANAANITES.AnamegivenintheJdocumenttothepreIsraelitishinhabitantsofPalestine(e.g.Gn24:37,38:2,Ex3:8,17,13:5,
11,Nu14:43,45,21:1,3,Jg1:1,5,17,23,29,30,33).

InthisusagethePdocumentconcurs,thoughtheEdocumentgenerallycallsthemAmorites(wh.see).TheEdocument(Nu13:29)says
thattheCanaanitesdwellbythesea,andtheAmoritesinthemountains.AllthewritersuniteincallingPalestinethelandofCanaan.Opinions
differastowhetherthepeoplewerenamedfromthelandorthelandfromthepeople.TheearliestusageintheelAmarnatablets(whereitis
calledKinaiandKinani)andintheEgyptianinscriptionsoftheXlXthdynasty,seemstoconfinethenametothelowlandofthecoast(cf.
KIBv.50.41,151.50andMller,AsienundEuropa,205ff.).ThePhnicians,muchlater,ontheircoinscalledtheirlandCanaanandtwoor
threeGreekwriterstestifythattheycalleditChna(cf.Schrder,Phn.Sprache,6ff.).AviewproposedbyRosenmllerhasbeenheldby
manymodernscholars,viz.:thatCanaanmeanslowland,andwasappliedtotheseacoastofPalestine,asopposedtothecentralrangeand
theLebanons.Ifthisviewwerecorrect,theCanaaniteswouldhavereceivedtheirnameaftersettlinginthecoastland.Thisviewhasbeen
provedincorrectbyMoore(Proc.ofAm.Or.Soc.1890,p.lxviiff.).ProbablyCanaanitewasatribalname,andthepeoplegavetheirnameto
theland(cf.Paton,EarlyHistoryofSyriaandPalestine,68).ItappearsfromDt3:9thatthelanguageoftheCanaanitesdifferedonly
dialecticallyfromthatoftheAmorites.Bothpeopleswerethereforecloselyrelated.ProbablytheCanaaniteswerealaterwaveofAmorites.In
Is19:18HebrewiscalledthelanguageofCanaan,astatementwhichissubstantiatedbytheMoabiteStone,thePhnicianinscriptions,
andtheHebrewidiomsintheelAmarnatablets.ItappearsfromthelatterthattheCanaaniteshadgiventheirnametothecountrybeforeb.c.
1400.PatonconnectstheirmigrationwiththatmovementofraceswhichgaveBabyloniatheKassitedynastyaboutb.c.1700,andwhich
pushedtheHyksosintoEgypt.Probablytheircomingwasnolaterthanthis.
InJg.1wearetoldofmanyCanaaniteswhomIsraeldidnotatfirstconquer.AfterthetimeofSolomon,however,thoseresidentinthehigh
landswhohadnotbeenabsorbedintotheIsraelitishtribes(cf.Israel3,11),werereducedtotaskwork.ThecomingofthePhilistines
pushedtheCanaanitesoutofthemaritimeplainsouthofMt.Carmel,sothatultimatelythePhniciansweretheonlypureCanaanitesleft.
TheleadingPhniciancitiesweresuchcommercialcentresthatCanaaniteafterwardsbecameequivalenttotrader(cf.Hos.12:8,Is23:8,
Zeph1:11,Ezk17:4,Pr31:24).

GeorgeA.Barton.
CANANANorCANAANITEoccursinMt10:4andMk3:18asa
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CANANANorCANAANITEoccursinMt10:4andMk3:18asa
designationofSimon,oneofthedisciplesofJesus.Thefirstisthecorrectreading,theGr.Kananaiosbeingthetransliterationofkannayy
(alateHeb.derivativefromkann=jealous).ItisrenderedinLk6:15andAc1:13byZlts(zealot).TheCananansorZealotswerea
sectfoundedbyJudasofGamala,whoheadedtheoppositiontothecensusofQuirinius(a.d.6or7).Theybitterlyresentedthedominationof
Rome,andwouldfainhavehastenedbytheswordthefulfilmentoftheMessianichope.DuringthegreatrebellionandthesiegeofJerusalem,
whichendedinitsdestruction(a.d.70),theirfanaticismmadethemterribleopponents,notonlytotheRomans,buttootherfactionsamongst
theirowncountrymen.
CANDACE.QueenofEthiopia.Aeunuchbelongingtoher,inchargeofhertreasure,wasbaptizedbyPhilip(Ac8:27).Thenamewas
bornebymorethanonequeenofEthiopia.TheCandacewhoinvadedEgyptinb.c.22(Strabo)is,ofcourse,earlierthanthis.ACandaceis
perhapsnamedononeofthepyramidsofMeroe.SeeCush.
F.Ll.Griffith.
CANDLE,CANDLESTICK.SeeLamp.
CANE.SeeReed.
CANKERWORM.SeeLocust.
CANNEH.AtownnamedwithHaranandEden(Ezk27:23),notidentified.Mez(Gesch.derStadtHarrn,34)suggeststhatitmaybea
clericalerrorforbn,i.e.bnEden,sonsofEden(seeGuthe,Bibelwrterbuch,s.v.).

W.Ewing.
CANONOFTHEOLDTESTAMENT

1.Explanationofterms.ThewordTestamentistheEng.tr.OftheGr.
Diathk,whichinitsturnrepresentstheHeh.BerthorCovenant.TheepithetOldwasintroducedbyChristiansaftertheNThadcome
intobeing.JewsrecognizenoNT,andhaveapolemicinterestinavoidingthisdesignationoftheirHolyScripture.TheGr.wordkann,
meaningprimarilyameasuringrod,arule,acatalogue,wasappliedbyChristianauthorsofthe4thcent.tothelistofbookswhichtheChurch
acknowledgedtobeauthoritativeasthesourceofdoctrineandethics.IninvestigatinghowtheHebrewraceformedtheirBible,theselater
appellationsoftheirsacredbookshavetobeusedwiththereservationsindicated.
2.Thethreeperiodsofformation.Brieflystated,theprocessofformingtheOTCanonincludesthreemainstages.Underthe
influenceofEzraandNehemiah,theLaw(Torah)asinthePentateuchwassetapartasHolyScriptureatsomedatepriortob.c.200,the
Prophets(Nebm),includingthepropheticinterpretationofhistoryinthefourbooksJoshua,Judges,Samuel,Kingshadbeen
constitutedintoasecondcanonicalgroupbyb.c.132,most,thoughnotall,oftheremainingbooksrankedasScripture.Thisthirdgroup
wasdefined,andtheOTCanonfinallyfixed,bytheSynodofPalestinianJewsheldatJamnia,nearJoppa,abouttheyeara.d.90.

3.Precanonicalconditions
(a) Theartofwriting.Theformationoflanguageandtheinventionofwritingmustprecedetheadoptionofasacredbook.Anilliteraterace
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(a)Theartofwriting.Theformationoflanguageandtheinventionofwritingmustprecedetheadoptionofasacredbook.Anilliteraterace
canhavenoScripture.IsraelslanguagewasinitsmainfeaturesaninheritancefromthecommonancestorsoftheSemitesevenitsreligious
vocabularywasonlyinpartitsowncreation.Astowriting,theSemitesinBabyloniahadusedthecuneiformsyllabicscript,andEgypthad
InventedthehieroglyphsbeforetheHebrewshadarisenasaseparaterace.But,happilyfortheCanon,analphabethadbecomethepossession
ofsomeoftheSemiticfamilybeforetheHebrewshadanythingtoputonrecord.TheprovincialgovernorsofCanaanaboutb.c.1400sent
theirreportstoEgyptinBabyloniancuneiformwhereasMesha,kingofMoab,andPanammu,kingofYadiinNorthSyria,inextant
Inscriptionsfromaboutb.c.900,makeuseofanAramaicalphabet.Afterb.c.1400,andsometimebeforeb.c.900,mustthereforebeplaced
thegenesisoftheHebrewalphabet.

(b)Absenceofanyprecedent.Inthecaseofothersacredbooks,theinfluenceofahistoricalprecedenthascontributedtotheiradoption.
RecognizingtheOT,Christianswerepredisposedtousealiteraryrecordinpreservingtherevelationtheyhadreceived.SimilarlyIslam
admittedthesuperiorityofthepeopleofabook(JewsandChristians),andwereeasilyinducedtoaccordlikesanctitytotheirownKoran.
ButsuchaprecedentdidnotcomeintooperationintheearlyreligionofIsrael.ItistruethattheCodeofHammurabi(c.b.c.2200)was
recordedonstone,andpubliclysetforthastheruleofcivillifeinBabylonia.Butthismethodofregulatingcommunallifecanhardlyhave
affectedtheearliestlegislatorsinIsrael.TherelationoftheCodeofHammurabitotheMosaicLawsappearstobecorrectlyindicatedbyMr.
Johns:ThecoexistinglikenessesanddifferencesargueforanindependentrecensionofancientcustomdeeplyinfluencedbyBabylonianlaw.
EgyptalsohadliteraturebeforeMoses,buttheHebrewsappeartohaveactedonanindependentinitiativeinproducingandcollectingtheir
religiousliterature.TheOTCanonisthuspeculiarinbeingformedasthefirstofitskind.
(c)Religiousexperience.Otherconditionsofalessgeneralkindhavealsotobenoted.Thereligiousleadersofthepeoplemusthavehad
definiteconvictionsastotheattributesofJehovahbeforetheycouldjudgewhetheranygivenprophetordocumentweretrueorfalse.Thelife
depictedinthebookofGenesisrevealsanonwritingage,whenreligiousexperienceandunwrittentraditionwerethesoleguidestoduty.The
Sinaiticlegislation,althoughitformedthebasisofnationallife,didnottilllateinthemonarchypenetratethepopularconsciousness.Mosaic
LawprovidedthatDivineguidancewouldbegiventhroughthevoiceofprophetsandofpriests(Dt18:18,19:17,21:5,24:8)withthese
livingsourcesofdirection,itwouldbelesseasytofeeldependenceonabook.Thesymbolismofasacrificialsystemcompensatedforthe
wantofliterature.Itwasonlyafterbooksofvariouskindshadbecomeprevalentthattheutilityofwritingbegantobeappreciated.Isaiah
(30:8),aboutb.c.740,perceivesthatwhatisinscribedinabookwillbepermanentandindisputable.Ontheotherhand,Hosea(8:12),about
b.c.745,seesalimittotheefficacyofacopiousliterature.TheexponentsofthetraditionalLawappeartohaveapplieditwitharbitrary
freedom.EvenahighpriestinJosiahsreignhadapparentlyhadnooccasiontoconsulttheLawbookforalongperiod.Variationsappearin
thereasonsannexedeventotheDecalogueandthepriestswhoofferedincensetothebrazenserpentintheTempleinthedaysofHezekiah
cannothaveregardedtheTablesoftheLawinthelightofcanonicalScripture.

4.Josiahsreformation.ThefirsttraceofaCanonistobefoundinthereignofKingJosiahaboutb.c.621.BythistimetheNorthern
KingdomhaddisappearedwiththeFallofSamaria(b.c.722).Ithadleftbehind,asitscontributiontothefutureBible,atleasttheworksof
HoseaandtheElohisthistorian.Theprophets,IsaiahI.,Amos,andMicah,haddeliveredtheirmessageacenturyago,andtheirwordswerein
thepossessionoftheirdisciples.Thefateofthetentribeshadvindicatedthepropheticwarnings.ThebeginningsofIsraelshistoryweremade
familiarbythebeautifulnarrativesoftheJahwisthistorian.Manysongswereknownbyheart,andcontributedtothegrowthofafeelingthat
thenationhadaDivinemissiontofulfil.Laws,thathadbeenkeptforrarereferenceinthesanctuary,werestudiedbydisciplesofthe

prophets,andwereexpoundedwithanewsenseoftheirDivineobligation.Theannalsofthemonarchyhadbeendulyrecordedbytheofficial
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prophets,andwereexpoundedwithanewsenseoftheirDivineobligation.Theannalsofthemonarchyhadbeendulyrecordedbytheofficial
scribes,buttheirreligioussignificancewasasyetunthoughtof.Otherbooks,whichafterwardsdisappeared,werealsoincirculation.
SuchweretheBookoftheWarsoftheLord(Nu21:14),andtheBookofJashar(Jos10:13,2S1:18).InsuchconditionsatJerusalemthere
cameaboutJosiahsreformation,describedin2K22,23.

5.InspirationrecognizedintheBk.ofDeuteronomy.AbookidentifiedonsatisfactorygroundswithourDeuteronomy(excluding
possiblytheprefaceandtheappendix)wasdiscoveredintheTempleandreadtotheking.Inconsequence,Josiahconvenedageneral
assemblyatJerusalem,andreadthewordsofthebooktoallthepeople.AllpartiesagreedthatthisLawbookshouldconstituteasolemn
leagueandcoveoantbetweenthemselvesandJehovah.Thegroundsofitsacceptanceareitsinherentspiritualpower,theconvictionit
producedthatittrulyexpressedthewillofJehovah,andalsoitsconnexionwiththegreatnameofMoses.Thebookwasnotimposedmerely
byroyalauthoritythepeoplealsostoodtothecovenant.TheseconditionscombinetogiveDeuteronomycanonicalauthorityofanincipient
kindfromthatdateonwards(b.c.622).
6.Pentateuchmadecanonical.ThenextstageinthegrowthoftheCanonisfoundinthetimeofEzraandNehemiah(b.c.457444).
Muchhadhappenedintheintervening170years.ThecaptivityinBabylon(b.c.586536)intensifiednationalfeelingandmadetheirbooks
moreprecioustotheexiles.Templeceremonialhadnownoplaceinreligiouspracticeandspiritualaspirationturnedtoprayerandreading,
bothpublicandprivate.FreshexpositionsoftheMosaicLawwerepreparedbytheprophetEzekiel(b.c.592570),andbytheanonymous
priestwhoputtheLawofHoliness(Lv1726)intowrittenform.JustastheFallofJerusalemina.d.70suppliedtheIncentiveforrecording
intheMishnatheoraltraditionofthePharisees,soinBabylonexpatriationimpelledthepriestlyfamiliestowriteouttheirhereditaryusages,
thusformingthedocumentknownasthePriestlyCode.Theproblemofsuffering,nationalandindividual,wasconsideredintheworkofthe
SecondIsaiahandinthebookofJob.ThepasthistoryofIsraelwaseditedsoastoshowthemethodofDivineProvidence.TheRestorationof
theTemple(b.c.516)andthepropheciesofHaggaiandZechariahbegananewchapterinthestoryofJudaism.ManyoftheJewsremainedin
Babylon,andcontinuedtheiractivityinthestudyofthenationalliterature.FromBabylontheysentEzrathescribe(b.c.457)andNehemiah
(b.c.444)withhelpfortheJerusalemcommunity.UndertheinfluenceoftheseleadersthePentateuchwasmadecanonical(Neh810).This
workhadbeenformedbyconstructingaHarmonyofthevariousexpositionsofMosaicLaw(Ex2023,Deut.,Lv1726,andthePriestly
Code)andcombiningthesewiththehistoriesoftheJahwistandtheElohist.Theinitialcosmologyshowsthehighplaneofreligiousthought
thathadnowbeenattained.Someoppositionappearstohavecomefromthepriests,whofavouredmixedmarriagesandaSamaritanalliance
butthepeopleasawholemakeasurecovenantandwriteit.Andourprinces,ourLevites,andourpriestssealuntoit(Neh9:38).Thatthis
CanonincludedonlytheTorahisprovedbythefactthattheSamaritans,whowereseveredfromJudaismshortlyafterNehemiahstime,never
hadanyCanonbeyondthePentateuch.TheirapocryphalJoshuadoesnotprovethatEzrasCanonwastheHexateuch.HadJoshuabeen
attachedtotheLaw,theLXXversionofitwouldhavebeenlessinaccurate.Norisiteasytoseehowabooksosolemnlyadoptedcouldever
afterhavebeenrelegatedtoasecondaryplace.
7.CanonoftheProphets.ThenextadditiontotheCanonconsistsofthe
Prophets,reckonedas8booksJoshua,Judges,Samuel,Kings,Isaiah,Jeremiah,Ezekiel,andtheTwelve(MinorProphets)formingone
book.Noaccountoftheircanonizationisavailable,andtheprocesshastobeinferredfromwhatisknownoftheperiod.Thebooks
themselvesgivesomeguidance.UndertheinfluenceofDeut.,historywasstudiedsoastorevealtheprogressofaDivinepurpose.Thebooks
ofKingsrecordeventsdowntoaboutb.c.560,hencetheirpreparationfortheCanonmusthavebeensometimelater.Isaiahincludesthe
worksofthefirstandsecondofthatname,besideschaptersfromlatersources.Theredactionofthewholemusthavebeenmadeatatime
whentheseparateauthorshipwasforgotten.Jeremiah(b.c.627586)issupplementedbyextractsfromthebookofKingswrittenafter560.
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whentheseparateauthorshipwasforgotten.Jeremiah(b.c.627586)issupplementedbyextractsfromthebookofKingswrittenafter560.
TheTwelveincludeMalacbi,whowrotebetweenb.c.458and432.JonahandZechariaharealsolate,andthelatterbookhasasupplementof
uncertaindate.InternalevidencethusimpliesthatwhentheLawwasmadecanonical,theprophetshadnotbeencarefullyeditedorcollected
intoonegroup.TheChronicler,writingaboutb.c.300,recognizesthattheLawhasbecomeHoly
Scripture,buthemakesthefreestuseofthehistoryinSamuelandKings.After
Malachithepeoplebecamewellawarethatthevoiceoftrueprophecyhadceased(Zec13:3,Neh6:7,14,Ps74:9,1Mac9:27,etc.).The
predictionsoftheprophetshadbeenominouslyvindicatedbythecourseofhistory.Suchobservationswouldtendcontinuallytoincreasethe
venerationforthepropheticliterature.TherivalryofHelleniccultureafterthecooquestsofAlexandertheGreat(c.b.c.300)maypossibly
havesuggestedtotheJewsanIncreaseoftheirownsacredCanon.Atallevents,thecanonizationofthepropheticliteraturehadbecome
matterofpasthistorybyb.c.200.ThislimitisfixedbythetestimonyofJesusbenSira,whowritesthebookintheApocryphacalled
Ecclesiasticus.HispraiseofthefamousmeninIsrael(chs.4450)showsthattheLawandtheProphetswereinvestedwithcanonical
authorityinhisday.TheLectionaryoftheSynagoguewouldquicklyestablishtheuniquepositionoftheLawandtheProphetsasHoly
Scripture(cf.Ac13:15,27).

8.TheHagiographamadecanonical.ThethirddivisionoftheOTiscalledinHebrewKethbhm,i.e.Writings.InGreekthenameis
Hagiographa,i.e.SacredWritings.InaHebrewBiblethesebooksarearrangedinthefollowingorder:
1.ThePoeticalBooks:Psalms,Proverbs,Job.
2.TheFiveMegilloth(Rolls):Canticles,Ruth,Lamentations,Ecclesiastes,Esther.
3.Daniel,EzraNehemiah,Chronicles.
ThisgroupismuchmorevariedinformandsubstancethanthefirsttwopartsoftheCanon.Severalofthesebooksmayhavebeenprizedas
highlyastheProphets,thoughtheirinclusionintheSecondCanonwouldhavebeenincongruous.ThePsalter,forinstance,hadbeenforlong
familiarthroughitsuseinTempleservicesanditsinfluenceonreligiouslifewasgreat,apartfromanydeclarationofcanonicity.Butassome
Psalms(e.g.74,79)appeartohavebeencomposedaboutb.c.170160,thefinalcollectionofthesmallerhymnariesintothePsalteroffive
bookscannothavebeenmadebeforeb.c.150.ThepriestlysummaryofhistoryinChron.,Ezr.Neh.wouldbewidelyacceptableinanage
whenthePriestlyCodewasthedominantinfluence.ThebookaboutDaniel,publishedduringtheMaccabanpersecutions(b.c.165),quickly
wonrecognitionandproveditsreligiousworth.

(a)Disputedbooks.AhesitatingapprovalwasextendedtoEsther,Canticles,andEccleslastes,owingtothenatureoftheircontents.Other
books,apocalypticandapocryphal,werecompetingforaplaceinthereligiouslibrary.Thereisnomeansofshowinghoworwhenthethird
groupwasseparatedfromotherbooks.TheconjectureisprobablethattheeffortofAntiochusEpiphanestodestroythecopiesoftheLawmay
haveevokedthedeterminationtopreservethelaterreligiousliteraturebygivingitaplaceintheCanon.
(b)ProloguetoSirach.TheearliesttestimonytotheexistenceofsacredbooksinadditiontotheLawandtheProphetsisgiveninthe
ProloguetoEcclesiasticus.ThegrandsonofbenSirawroteinEgyptaboutb.c.132,andmadeaGreektranslationofhiskinsmansWisdom.
IntheprefaceherefersthreetimestotheLaw,theProphets,andtheotherbooksofourfathers.HespeaksofGreekversionsofthesebooks.
Butthisstatementdoesnotsaythatthethirdgroupwasdefinitelycompleted.Inthe1stcent.a.d.,theschoolsofHillelandShammaldiffered
astowhetherEcclesiasteswasintheCanonornot.
(c) NewTestament.TheNTexpressesadoctrineofHolyScriptureitacknowledgesathreefolddivision(Lk24:44)itimpliesthat
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(c)NewTestament.TheNTexpressesadoctrineofHolyScriptureitacknowledgesathreefolddivision(Lk24:44)itimpliesthat
ChronicleswasthelastbookintherolloftheOT(Mt23:35,Lk11:51)butitdoesnotquoteEsther,Cant.,Eccl.,andleavesundecidedthe
questionwhetherthesedisputedbookswereasyetadmittedtotheCanon.

(d)Philo.PhiloofAlexandria(d.a.d.40)acknowledgestheinspirationofScripture(theMosaicLawpreeminently),andquotesmany
of,butnotnearlyall,theOTbooks.HisuseoftheGreekApocryphaforinformationonly,suggests,however,thathedidknowofa
Palestinianlimittothethirdgroup.
(e)Josephus.Josephus(a.d.100),defendinghisearlierbooksagainstadversereviews,maintainsthatJewishrecordshadbeenmadeby
trainedhistorians.TheelegantinconsistenciesofGreeknarrativeshadnoplaceinhisauthorities.
Itisnotthecasewithus,hesays(c.Apion.i.8),tohavevastnumbersofbooksdisagreeingandconflictingwithoneanother.Wehave
buttwoandtwenty,containingthehistoryofalltime,booksthatarejustlybelievedin.Thoughsogreatanintervaloftimehaspassed,no
onehasventuredeithertoaddortoremoveortoalterasyllableanditistheinstinctofeveryJewfromthedayofhisbirthtoconsiderthese
booksastheteachingofGod,toabidebythem,and,ifneedbe,cheerfullytolaydownlifeintheirbehalf.
Thenumber22isprobablyduetohisreckoning,withtheLXX,RuthandJudgesasone,andLamentationsandJeremiahasone.Itisless
likelythatherefusedtocountCant,andEccl.asScripture.HiswordsrevealtheprofoundreverencenowentertainedfortheOTasawhole,
althoughindividualsmaystillhavecherishedobjectionstoparticularbooks.

(f)SynodofJamnia.ThecompletionoftheHebrewCanonmustbeassociatedwithasynodheldatJamnia,nearJoppa,wherethe
SanhedrinsettledafterJerusalemwastakenbyTitus(a.d.70).ThepopularityoftheAlexandrianOT,includingApocrypha,andthegrowing
influenceofNTbookscausedtheRabbinicalteacherstoremovealldoubtastothelimitsoftheirScripture.AllHolyScripturesdefilethe
hands(theHebrewphraseforarecanonical):CanticlesandEccleslastesdefilethehands.SuchwasthedictumatJamnia(c.a.d.90)to
whichRabbiAkiba(d.a.d.135)appealedindismissingthepossibilityofreopeningdiscussiononthelimitsoftheCanon.

9.Text.TheHebrewBiblewasnowcomplete.Elaborateprecautionsweretakentosecureanunchangeabletextandasystemofvowel
signswasinventedsomecenturieslatertopreservetheoldpronunciation.IthasbeenconsideredstrangethattheoldestdatedMSoftheOT
shouldbesorecentasa.d.916,whereastheGreekBibleandNTarefoundinMSSofthe4thand5thcenturies.Thismaybeduetothe
requirementoftheSynagoguethatthecopyinuseshouldbeperfect,andthatanyrolldeficientinawordorlettershouldbesuppressed,ifnot
destroyed.ThevigilantcareofcopiesinuselessenedtheinterestinsupersededMSS.

10.RelationoftheChurchtotheOT.TheNTfreelyacknowledgesDivineinspirationintheOT.SuchaformulaasAllthiswasdone
thatitmightbefulfilledwhichwasspokenoftheLordbytheprophet(Mt1:22),ImpliesthattheSupremeDisposerofeventshadIntimated
Hispurposethroughtheprophets.Posterity,therefore,rightlyapprehendsanyoccurrencewhenithasdetecteditsplaceintheschemeof
thingsforetoldbytheprophets.ButitisalsorecognizedthatScripturemaybemisapplied,andthatthereforecriticismisessential.The
InterpretationoftheOTmustdifferamongJewsandChristians.ThelogicofeventscannotbeIgnored,andtheAdventoftheMessiahcannot
betreatedasanegligibleaccident.TheattitudeofourLordhastheeffectofmakingtheOTasubordinatestandardascomparedwithHisown
wordsandtheteachingoftheApostles.HedidnotreportthewordoftheLordasreceivedbyvisionorprophecyinHisownnameHe
suppliedwhatwaswantinginLawandProphets.HedidnotpronounceanybookinItselfadequatetodeterminethecommunionbetweenthe
LivingGodandlivingmenallScripturemustbeilluminatedbythetestimoniumSpiritusSancti.The24Hebrewbooksarevalidforthe
ChurchonlyinsofarastheirauthorityissanctionedbytheNT.But,subjecttothislimitation,theOTremainsprofitableforteaching,for 13/137
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ChurchonlyinsofarastheirauthorityissanctionedbytheNT.But,subjecttothislimitation,theOTremainsprofitableforteaching,for
reproof,forcorrection,forInstructionwhichisinrighteousness(2Ti3:16).

D.M.Kay.

CANONOFTHENEWTESTAMENT

1.Title.TheGreekwordcanon,meaningoriginallyarodandsoaruleformeasuring,isusedinavarietyofsensesbythePatristic
writers,amongthemostfamiliarinstancesbeingtheexpressionsruleoftruthandruleoffaithforthedoctrinalteachingofficially
recognizedbythebishops.Hence,sincewemeetwiththephrasecanonicalbooksinOrigen,asrenderedbyRufinustranslation,beforewe
seethesubstantivecanonappliedtothelistofNTbooks,ithasbeenarguedthattheadjectivewasfirstusedinthesenseofregulative,so
thatthephrasemeansthebooksthatregulatefaithormorals.Butthesubstantivemustmeanthelistofbooks,andinAthanasiuswehavea
passiveparticipleinthephrasecanonizedbooks,i.e.booksbelongingtotheCanonsoonafterwhichtheactualwordcanonisappliedto
thebooksoftheNTbyAmphilochius,thebishopofIconium(endof4thcent.a.d.).TheNTCanon,then,isthelistofNTbooks,andthis
simplemeaning,ratherthantheregulativebooks,isthemorelikely
Interpretationoftheexpressiontohaveoccurredtopeoplewhowereinthehabitofusingthetermforlistsofofficials,listsoffestivals,etc.
ThequestionoftheCanondiffersfromquestionsoftheauthenticity,genuineness,historicity,inspiration,value,andauthorityoftheseveral
NTbooksinconcerningitselfsimplywiththeiracceptanceintheChurch.Primarilythequestionwasastowhatbookswerereadinthe
churchesatpublicworship.ThosesousedbecameincourseoftimetheChristianScriptures.Then,havingthevalueofScripturegradually
associatedwiththem,theycametobetreatedasauthoritative.ThefirststageisthatofuseintheformofChurchlessonsthesecondthatofa
standardofauthoritytobeemployedasthebasisofinstruction,andtobeappealedtoindisputedcasesofdoctrineordiscipline.
2.TheFormationoftheCanoninthe2ndCentury.TheveryearliestreadingofNTbooksinthechurchesmusthaveoccurredinthe
caseofepistlesaddressedtoparticularchurches,whichofcoursewerereadinthosechurchesnextcomethecircularletters(e.g.Eph.,1
Peter),whichwerepassedroundagroupofchurches.Stillthisinvolvednorepeatedliturgicaluseofthesewritingsasinachurchlectionary.
DuringtheobscureperiodofthesubApostolicagewehavenoindicationoftheuseofepistlesinchurchworship.ClementofRomeassumed
thatthechurchatCorinthwasacquaintedwith1Corinthians,althoughhewaswritingnearly40yearsafterSt.PaulhadsentthatEpistletothe
church,andanewgenerationhadarisenintheintervalbutthereisnoprooforprobabilitythatitwasregularlyreadattheservices.The
earliestreferencestoanysuchreadingpointtotheSynopticGospelsasalonehavingthisplaceofhonour,togetherwiththeOTprophets.This
wasthecaseintheworshipdescribedbyJustinMartyr(1Apol.lxvii.).AlittlelaterJustinsdiscipleTatianpreparedhisHarmony
(Diatessaron)foruseinthechurchatEdessa.ThiswasconstructedoutofallfourGospelsi.e.itincludedJohn,aGospelprobablyknownto
Justin,thoughnotincludedinhisMemoirsoftheApostles.Asyetnoepistlesareseenintheplaceofhonourofchurchreadingsidebyside
withOTScriptures.ButlongbeforethisacollectionhadbeenmadebyMarcion(c.a.d.140)inhisefforttoreformtheChurchbyrecalling
attentiontothePaulineteachingwhichhadfallenintoneglect.MarcionsCanonconsistedofamutilatedGospelofSt.Lukeand10Epistles
ofSt.Paul(the3PastoralEpistlesbeingomitted).AlthoughotherearlyChurchwritersevidentlyalludetoseveraloftheEpistles(e.g.
ClemensRom.,Ignatius,Polycarp,Barnabas),thatisonlybywayofindividualcitation,withoutanyhintthattheyareusedinacollectionor
treatedasauthoritativeScripture.MarcionistheearliestwhoisknowntohavehonouredanyoftheEpistlesinthisway.Butwhenwecometo
Irenus(180)weseemtobeinanotherworld.IrenuscitesasauthoritativemostofthebooksoftheChristianScriptures,thoughhedoesnot
appeartohaveknownHebrews.WenowhaveaNTsidebysidewiththeOToratalleventswehaveChristianbooksappealedtoas
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authoritativeScripture,justasinthepreviousgenerationtheLXXwasappealedtoasauthoritativeScripture.Hereisevidenceofadouble
advance:(1)intheadditionoftheEpistlestotheGospelsasacollection,(2)intheenhancementofthevalueofallthesebooksforthe
settlementofquestionsofdoctrine.

ThisisoneofthemostimportantdevelopmentsinthethoughtandpracticeoftheChurch.Andyethistoryisabsolutelysilentastohow,
when,where,andbywhomitwasbroughtabout.NothingismoreamazinginthehistoryoftheChristianChurchthantheabsenceofallextant
contemporaryreferencestosogreatamovement.The30yearsfromJustinMartyr,whoknewonlyacollectionof3Gospelsasspecially
authoritative,andthatsimplyasrecordsofthelifeandteachingofChrist,toIrenus,withhisfrequentappealstotheEpistlesaswellasthe
Gospels,sawthebirthofaNTCanon,butleftnorecordofsogreatanevent.Irenus,thoughbishopofLyonsandVienneinGaul,wasin
closecommunicationwithAsiaMinorwherehehadbeenbroughtup,andProf.HarnackconjecturesthatbishopsofAsiaMinorinagreement
withtheChurchatRomedeliberatelydrewupandsettledtheCanon,althoughwehavenohistoricalrecordofsosignificantanevent.Itmay
be,however,thatIrenuswashimselfapioneerinamovementthenecessityofwhichwasrecognizedasbycommonconsent.Some
authoritativestandardofappealwaswantedtosavetheessenceofChristianteachingfrombeingengulfedinthespeculationsofGnosticism.
TheGospelswerenotsufficientforthispurpose,becausetheywereacceptedbytheGnostics,who,however,interpretedthemallegorically.
Whatwasneededwasastandardofdoctrinaltruth,andthatwasfoundintheEpistles.

NearthistimewehavetheearliestknownCanonafterthatofMarcion,themostancientextantlistofNTbooksintheCatholicChurch.
ThisisnamedtheMuratorianFragment,afteritsdiscovererMuratori,whofounditina7thor8thcent.monkscommonplacebookinthe
AmbrosianLibraryatMilan,andpublisheditin1740.ThefragmentisamutilatedextractofalistofNTbooksmadeatRomeprobablybefore
theendofthe2ndcent.,sincetheauthorreferstotheepiscopateofPiusasrecent(nuperrimetemporibusnostris),andPiusI.,whodiedina.d.
157,istheonlybishopofRomeofthatnameintheearlyagetowhichunquestionably,asinternalevidenceindicates,theoriginalcomposition
mustbeassigned.ThefragmentbeginsinthemiddleofasentencewhichappearstoalludetoSt.PetersconnexionwithourSecondGospel,
andgoesontomentionLukeastheThirdGospelandJohnastheFourth.Thereforeitevidentlyacknowledgedthe4Gospels.
ThenithasActs,whichitascribestoLuke,anditacknowledges13EpistlesofPauladmittingthePastorals,butexcludingHebrews,though
itsubsequentlyreferstoanEpistletotheLaodiceans,andanothertotheAlexandriansforgedunderthenameofPaul,aswellasmany
otherswhicharenotreceivedintheCatholicChurchbecausegalloughtnottobemixedwithhoney.Further,this
CanonincludesJude,2EpistlesofJohn,andtheApocalypse,whichitascribesto
John.ItalsohastheBookofWisdom,whichitsayswaswrittenbythefriendsofSolomoninhishonour,andtheApocalypseofPeter,
althoughacknowledgingthatthereisaminoritywhichrejectsthelatterwork,forwereadwereceivemoreovertheApocalypsesofJohnand
Peteronly,which[latter]someofourbodywillnothavereadinthechurch.Thisindicatesthattheauthorschurchasawholeacknowledges
theApocalypseofPeter,andthatheassociateshimselfwiththemajorityofhisbrethreninsodoing,whilehecandidlyadmitsthatthereare
somedissentients.Lastly,theCanonadmitsHermasforprivatereading,butnotforuseinthechurchservices.Wehavehere,then,mostofour
NTbooksbut,ontheonehand,Hebrews,1and2Peter,James,andoneofthe3EpistlesofJohnarenotmentioned.Theyarenotnamedtobe
excluded,liketheforgedworksreferredtoabovepossiblytheauthordidnotknowoftheirexistence.Atalleventshedidnotfindthemused
inhischurch.Ontheotherhand,Wisdom,withoutquestion,andtheApocalypseofPeter,thoughrejectedbysome,areincludedinthiscanon,
andHermasisaddedforprivatereading.

Passingontothecommencementofthe3rdcent.,wecomeuponanotheranonymouswriting,anantigamblingtractentitledConcerning
diceplayers(deAleatoribus),whichProf.HarnackattributestoVictorofRome(a.d.200230).InthistracttheShepherdofHermasandthe
DidachearebothquotedasScripture.TheauthorreferstothreedivisionsofScripture:(1)PropheticwritingstheOTProphets,the
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DidachearebothquotedasScripture.TheauthorreferstothreedivisionsofScripture:(1)PropheticwritingstheOTProphets,the
Apocalypse,Hermas(2)theGospels(3)theApostolicWritingsPaul,1John,Hebrews.

NeitheroftheseCanonscanberegardedasauthoritativeeitherecclesiasticallyorscientifically,sinceweareignorantoftheirsources.But
theybothindicateacrystallizingprocess,intheChurchatRomeabouttheendofthe2ndandbeginningofthe3rdcenturies,thatwastending
towardsourNT,thoughwithsomecuriousvariations.ThewritingsoftheFathersofthisperiodagreeinthemainwithIrenusintheir
citationsfrommostoftheNTbooksasauthoritativeaconditionverydifferentfromthatofJustinMartyrhalfacenturyearlier.Two
influencesmayberecognizedasbringingthisresultabout:(1)useinchurchesatpublicworship,(2)authoritativeappealsagainstheresy
especiallyGnosticism.Itwasnecessarytosettlewhatbooksshouldbereadinchurchandwhatbooksshouldbeappealedtoindiscussion.The
formerwastheprimaryquestion.Thebooksusedattheirservicesbythechurches,andthereforeadmittedbythemashavingarighttobeso
employed,werethebookstobeappealedtoincontroversy.Thetestingfactwaschurchusage.Canonicalbookswerethebooksreadatpublic
worship.Howitcameaboutthatcertainbooksweresousedandothersnotisbynomeansclear.Prof.Harnackstheorywouldsolvethe
problemifwecouldbesureitwasvalid.Apartfromthis,(1)traditionalusageand(2)assuranceofApostolicauthorshipappeartohavebeen
twogroundsreliedupon.

TurningtotheEast,wefindClementofAlexandria(a.d.165220)acknowledgingthe4GospelsandActs,and14EpistlesofPaul
(Hebrewsbeingincluded),andquoting1and2John,1Peter,Jude,andtheApocalypse.HemakesnoreferencetoJames,2Peter,or3John,
anyofwhichhemayperhapshaveknown,aswehavenolistofNTbooksfromhishand,forhedoesnotnamethesebookstorejectthem.
Still,theprobabilityasregardssome,ifnotall,ofthemisthathedidnotknowthem.InthetrueAlexandrianspirit,Clementhasawideand
comprehensiveideaofinspiration,andthereforenoverydefiniteconceptionofScripturalexclusivenessorfixedboundariestotheCanon.
Thushequotes
Barnabas,ClementofRome,Hermas,thePreachingofPeter,theApocalypseofPeter,andtheSibyllineWritingsasinsomeway
authoritative.HewasaliteraryeclecticwhodelightedtowelcomeChristiantruthinunexpectedplaces.StillhehadaNTintwovolumes
whichheknewrespectivelyasTheGospelandTheApostle(seeEuseb.HEvi.14).Origen(a.d.184253),whowasamorecritical
scholar,treatedquestionsofcanonicitymorescientifically.HeacknowledgedourbooksoftheOTandsomepartsoftheApocrypha,suchas1
Mac.andintheNTthe4Gospels,Acts,13EpistlesofPaul,Hebrews(thoughthelatterasofdoubtfulauthorshipneverthelessinhishomily
onJoshuaheseemstoincludeitamongSt.Paulsworks,sincehemakesthem14,whenhewritesthatGod,thunderingonthe14trumpetsof
his[i.e.Pauls]Epistles,threwdowneventhewallsofJericho,thatisalltheinstrumentsofidolatryandthedoctrinesofthephilosophers),1
Peter,1John,Revelation.HedoesnotdirectlymentiontheEpistlesofJamesorJude,althoughheseemstorefertothemonceinarhetorical
way,classingPeter,James,andJudewiththe4EvangelistsasrepresentedbyIsaacsservantsifwearetotrustRufinusversion.He
mentions2Peterand2and3Johnasofdisputedgenuineness,andreferstotheGospeloftheHebrewsinanapologetictone,theGospelsof
PeterandJames,andtheActsofPaul,andquotesHermasandBarnabasasScripture,whileheadmitsthat,thoughwidelycirculated,Hermas
wasnotacceptedbyall.Itisasignificantfact,however,thathewrotenocommentariesonanyofthosebooksthatarenotincludedinourNT.

3.TheSettlementoftheCanonintheFourthandFifthCenturies.AnimportantsteptowardsthesettlementoftheCanonon
historicalandscientificlineswastakenbyEusebius,who,withhiswidereadingandthegreatlibraryofPamphilustoresortto,alsobroughta
fairandjudiciousmindtofacetheproblemsinvolved.Eusebiussawclearlythatitisnotalwayspossibletogiveadefiniteaffirmativeor
negativeanswertothequestionwhetheracertainbookshouldbeintheCanon.Thereforehedrewupthreelistsofbooks(1)Thebooksthat
areadmittedbyall,(2)thebookswhichheisdisposedtoadmitalthoughtherearesomewhorejectthem,(3)thebooksthatheregardsas
spurious.Afourthclass,whichreallydoesnotcomeintothecompetitionforaplaceintheCanon,consistsofhereticalworkswhicharetobe
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spurious.Afourthclass,whichreallydoesnotcomeintothecompetitionforaplaceintheCanon,consistsofhereticalworkswhicharetobe
rejectedasaltogetherabsurdandimpious(HEiii.25).Thefirstclass,consistingofthebooksuniversallyacknowledged,containsthe4
GospelsActstheEpistlesofPaulwhichinoneplace(iii.3)arereckonedtobe14,andthereforetoincludeHebrews,althoughinanother
place(vi.14)Hebrewsisplacedinthesecondclass,amongthedisputedbooks1Peter1JohnandRevelation(doubtfully).Thesecond
class,consistingofbookswidelyaccepted,thoughdisputedbysome(butapparentlyalladmittedbyEusebiushimself),containsJamesJude
2Peterregardedinanotherplace(iii.3)asspurious2and3John.Thethirdclass,consistingofspuriousworks,containstheActsofPaul
theShepherdofHermastheApocalypseofPetertheDidacheandperhaps,accordingtosome,theRevelation.Undertheordersof
Constantine,Eusebiushad50copiesoftheScripturessumptuouslyproducedonvellumforuseinthechurchesofConstantinople.Ofcourse
thesewouldcorrespondtohisownCanonandsohelptofixitandspreaditsinfluence.Afterthisthefluctuationsthatwemeetwitharevery
slight.AthanasiusinoneofhisFestalLetters(a.d.365)undertakestosetforthinorderthebooksthatarecanonicalandhandeddownand
believedtobeDivine.HisNTexactlyagreeswithourCanon,asdoestheNTof
Epiphanius(c.a.d.403).CyrilofJerusalem(whodieda.d.386)givesalistof
DivineScriptureswhichcontainsalltheNTexcepttheRevelationand
AmphilochiusofIconium(a.d.395)hasaversifiedcatalogueoftheBiblicalbooks,inwhichalsoallourNTbooksappearexceptthe
Revelation,whichheregardsasspuriousAmphilochiusreferstodoubtsconcerningHebrewsandtoaquestionastowhetherthenumberof
CatholicEpistlesis7or3.EvenChrysostom(whodied
a.d.405)neveralludestotheRevelationorthelast4CatholicEpistles.ButthenhegivesnolistoftheCanon.OneoftheApostolicalCanons
(No.85),whichstandasanappendixtothe8thbookoftheApostolicalConstitutions(85),andcannotbedatedearlierthanthe4thcent.in
theirpresentform,givesalistofthebooksofScripture.SirachishereplacedbetweentheOTandtheNTwithaspecialrecommendationto
takecarethatyouryoungpersonslearnthewisdomoftheverylearnedSirach.ThenfollowtheNTbooksthe4Gospels,14Epistlesof
Paul(Hebrewsthereforeincludedinthiscategory),2EpistlesofPeter,3ofJohn,James,Jude,2EpistlesofClement,the8booksofthe
Constitutions,Acts.Thus,whileClementandeventheApostolicalConstitutionsareincluded,theRevelationisleftout,afteracommon
customintheEast.ManifestlythisisanerraticCanon.

ReturningtotheWest,atthislaterperiodwehaveanelaboratediscussionontheCanonbyAugustine(a.d.430),wholaysdownrulesby
whichthecanonicityoftheseveralbooksclaimedfortheNTmaybedetermined.(1)Therearethebooksreceivedandacknowledgedbyall
thechurches,whichshouldthereforebetreatedascanonical.(2)Therearesomebooksnotyetuniversallyaccepted.Withregardtothese,two
testsaretobeapplied:(a)suchasarereceivedbythemajorityofthechurchesaretobeacknowledged,and(b)suchasarereceivedbythe
Apostolicchurchesaretobepreferredtothosereceivedonlybyasmallernumberofchurchesandtheseoflessauthority,i.e.nothavingbeen
foundedbyApostles.Incase(a)and(b)conflict,Augustineconsidersthattheauthorityonthetwosidesistobelookeduponasequal
(ChristianDoctrine,II.viii.12).ThusthetestsaresimplyChurchreception,thoughwithdiscriminationastotherespectiveauthorityofthe
severalchurches.TheapplicationofthesetestsgivesAugustinejustourNT.
Jerome(a.d.420)alsoacceptsourNT,sayingconcerningHebrewsandtheRevelationthatheadoptsbothontheauthorityofancient
writers,notonthatofpresentcustom.HeisawarethatJameshasbeenquestionedbuthestatesthatlittlebylittleincourseoftimeithas
obtainedauthority.JudewasevenrejectedbymostpeoplebecauseitcontainedquotationsfromApocryphalwritings.Neverthelesshehimself
acceptsit.Henotesthat2and3JohnhavebeenattributedtoapresbyterwhosetombatEphesusisstillpointedout.Theimmensepersonal
influenceofAugustineandtheacceptanceofJeromesVulgateasthestandardBibleoftheChristianChurchgavefixitytotheCanon,which
wasnotdisturbedforathousandyears.NoGeneralCouncilhadpronouncedonthesubject.ThefirstCouncilclaimingtobe(Ecumenical
whichcommitteditselftoadecisiononthesubjectwasaslateasthe16thcent.(theCouncilofTrent).Wemaybethankfulthatthedelicate
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whichcommitteditselftoadecisiononthesubjectwasaslateasthe16thcent.(theCouncilofTrent).Wemaybethankfulthatthedelicate
andyetvitalquestionofdeterminingtheCanonwasnotflungintothearenaofecclesiasticaldebatetobesettledbythetriumphofpartisan
churchmanship,butwasallowedtomatureslowlyandcometoitsfinalsettlementunderthetwofoldinfluencesofhonestscholarshipand
Christianexperience.Therewereindeedlocalcouncilsthatdealtwiththequestionbuttheirdecisionswerebindingonlyontheprovinces
theyrepresented,although,insofarastheywerenotdisputed,theywouldberegardedasmoreorlessnormativebythoseotherchurchesto
whichtheyweresent.AsrepresentingtheEastwehaveaCanonattributedtotheCouncilofLaodicea(c.a.d.360).Thereisadisputeasto
whetherthisisgenuine.ItisgivenintheMSSvariouslyasa60thcanonandaspartofthe59thappendedinredink.HalftheLatinversions
arewithoutitsoaretheSyriacversions,whicharemucholderthanouroldestMSSofthecanons.ItcloselyresemblestheCanonofCyrilof
Jerusalem,fromwhichWestcottsupposedthatitwasinsertedintothecanonsofLaodiceabyaLatinhand.Itsgenuinenesswasdefendedby
HefeleandDavidson.Jlicherregardsitasprobablygenuine.ThisCanoncontainstheOTwithBaruchandtheEpistleofJeremy,andallour
NTexcepttheRevelation.ThenintheWestwehavethe3rdCouncilofCarthage(a.d.397),whichordersthatbesidestheCanonical
ScripturesnothingbereadintheChurchunderthetitleofDivineScriptures,andappendsalistofthebooksthusauthorizedinwhichwehave
theOT,theApocrypha,andjustourNTbooks.Herewehaveawholeprovincespeakingforthosebookswhenweaddthegreatauthorityof
Augustine,whobelongstothisveryprovince,andtheinfluenceoftheVulgate,wecanwellunderstandhowtheCanonshouldnowbe
consideredfixedandinviolable.Thusthematterrestedfortencenturies.

4.TreatmentoftheCanonattheRenaissanceandtheReformation.ThequestionoftheCanonwasrevivedbytheRenaissanceand
theReformation,theonemovementdirectingcritical,scholarlyattentiontowhatwasessentiallyaliteraryquestion,theotherfacingitinthe
interestofreligiouscontroversy.Erasmuswrites:Theargumentsofcriticism,estimatedbytherulesoflogic,leadmetodisbelievethatthe
EpistletotheHebrewsisbyPaulorLuke,orthattheSecondofPeteristheworkofthatApostle,orthattheApocalypsewaswrittenbythe
EvangelistJohn.Allthesame,Ihavenothingtosayagainstthecontentsofthesebooks,whichseemtometobeinperfectconformitywith
thetruth.If,however,theChurchweretodeclarethetitlestheybeartobecanonical,thenIwouldcondemnmydoubt,fortheopinion
formulatedbytheChurchhasmorevalueinmyeyesthanhumanreasons,whatevertheymaybeamostcharacteristicstatement,revealing
thescholar,thecritic,thetimidsoulandthesatirist(?).WithintheChurchofRomeevenCardinalCajetanLuthersopponentatAugsburg
freelydiscussestheCanon,doubtingwhetherHebrewsisSt.Paulswork,andwhether,ifitisnot,itcanbecanonical.Healsomentions
doubtsconcerningthefiveGeneralEpistles,andgiveslessauthorityto2and3JohnandJudethantothosebookswhichheregardsas
certainlyintheHolyScriptures.TheReformationforcedthequestionoftheauthorityoftheBibletothefront,becauseitsetthatauthorityin
theplaceoftheoldauthorityoftheChurch.Whilethischieflyconcernedthebookasawhole,itcouldnotprecludeinquiriesastoitscontents
andtherightsoftheseveralpartstoholdtheirplacesthere.ThegeneralanswerastotheauthorityofScriptureisanappealtothetestimony
oftheHolySpirit.Calvinespeciallyworksoutthisconceptionverydistinctly.ThedifficultywastoapplyittoparticularbooksoftheBible
soastodetermineineachcasewhethertheyshouldbeallowedintheCanon.Clearlyafurthertestwasrequisitehere.Thiswasfoundinthe
analogyoffaith(Analogiafidei),whichwasmoreespeciallyLuthersprinciple,whilethetestimonyoftheHolySpiritwasCalvins.With
LuthertheReformationwasbasedonjustificationbyfaith.ThistruthLutherheldtobeconfirmed(a)byitsnecessity,nothingelseavailing,
and(b)byitseffects,sinceinpracticeitbroughtpeace,assurance,andthenewlife.ThenthoseScriptureswhichmanifestlysupportedthe
fundamentalprinciplewereheldtobeipsofactoinspired,andthemeasureoftheirsupportofitdeterminedthedegreeoftheirauthority.Thus
thedoctrineofjustificationbyfaithisnotacceptedbecauseitisfoundintheBiblebuttheBibleisacceptedbecauseitcontainsthisdoctrine.
Moreover,theBibleissortedandarrangedingradesaccordingasitdoessomoreorlessclearly,andtoLutherthereisaNTwithintheNT,a
kernelofall
Scripture,consistingofthosebookswhichheseesmostclearlysetforththegospel.
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Thushewrote:JohnsGospel,theEpistlesofPaul,especiallyRomans,Galatians,Ephesians,and1Peterthesearethebookswhichshow
theeChrist,andteachallthatitisneedfulandblessedfortheetoknowevenifyouneverseeorhearanyotherbook,oranyotherdoctrine.
ThereforeistheEpistleofJamesamereepistleofstraw(einerechtestroherneEpistel)sinceithasnocharacterofthegospelisit(Prefaceto
NT1,1522thepassagewasomittedfromlatereditions).LutherplacesHebrews,James,Jude,andtheApocalypseattheendofhistranslation,
aftertheotherNTbooks,whichhedesignatesthetrueandcertaincapitalbooksoftheNT,forthesehavebeenregardedinformertimesina
differentlight.HeregardsJudeasindisputablyanextractorcopyfrom2Peter.Nevertheless,whilethusdiscriminatingbetweenthevalues
oftheseveralbooksoftheNT,heincludesthemallinhistranslation.LuthersfriendCarlstadthasacuriousarrangementofScriptureinthree
classes,viz.(1)ThePentateuchandthe4Gospels,asbeingtheclearestluminariesofthewholeDivinetruth(2)TheProphetsofHebrew
reckoningandtheacknowledgedEpistlesoftheNT,viz.13ofPaul,1Peter,1John(3)theHagiographaoftheHebrewCanon,andthe7
disputedbooksoftheNT.Dr.WestcottsuggestedthattheomissionofActswasduetoitsbeingincludedwithLuke.Calvinismore
conservativewithregardtoScripturethantheLutherans.StillinhisCommentarieshepassesover2and3JohnandtheRevelationwithout
notice,andherefersto1JohnastheEpistleofJohn,andexpressesdoubtsasto2Peterbutheadds,withregardtothelatter,Sincethe
majestyoftheSpiritofChristexhibitsitselfineverypartoftheEpistle,Ifeelascrupleinrejectingitwholly,howevermuchIfailtorecognize
initthegenuinelanguageofPeter(Com.on2Peter,Argument).Further,Calvinacknowledgestheexistenceofdoubtswithrespectbothto
JamesandtoJudebutheacceptsthemboth.HeallowsfulllibertyofopinionconcerningtheauthorshipofHebrewsbuthestatesthathehas
nohesitationinclassingitamongApostolicalwritings.Inspiteofthesevarietiesofopinion,theNTCanonremainedunaltered.AttheCouncil
ofTrent(1546)forthefirsttimetheRomanCatholicChurchmadeanauthoritativestatementontheCanon,utteringananathema(anathema
sit)onanybodywhodidnotacceptintheirintegrityallthebookscontainedintheVulgate.ThustheApocryphaistreatedasequally
canonicalwiththeOTbooksbuttheNTCanonisthesameinRomanCatholicandProtestantCanons.
TranslationsoftheBibleintothevernacularofvariouslanguageslaidthequestionoftheCanontorestagain,byfamiliarizingreaderswiththe
sameseriesofbooksinallversionsandeditions.
5.TheCanoninModernCriticism.Inthe18thcent.theveryideaofaCanonwasattackedbytheDeistsandRationalists(Toland,
Diderot,etc.)butthecriticalstudyofthesubjectbeganwithSemler(17715),whopointedouttheearlyvariationsintheCanonandattacked
theveryideaofaCanonasanauthoritativestandard,whilehecriticisedtheusefulnessandtheologicalvalueoftheseveralbooksoftheNT.
SubsequentcontroversyhasdealtlesswiththeCanonassuchthanwiththeauthenticityandgenuinenessofthebooksthatitcontains.Inthe
viewsofextremenegativecriticismcanonicityassuchhasnomeaningexceptasahistoricalrecordofChurchopinion.Ontheotherhand,
thosewhoacceptadoctrineofinspirationinrelationtotheNTdonotconnectthisverycloselywithcriticalquestionsinsuchawayasto
affecttheCanon.ThusdoubtsastotheauthorshipofthePastoralEpistles,2Peter,James,etc.,havenotgivenrisetoanyseriousproposalto
removethesebooksfromtheNT.TheCanonrestsmainlyontraditionandusage.Butthejustificationforitwhenthisissoughtisusually
found(1)intheApostolicauthorshipofmostoftheNTbooks(2)intheApostolicatmosphereandassociationoftheremainingbooks(3)in
thegeneralacceptanceandcontinuoususeoftheminthechurchesforcenturiesasatestoftheirvalue(4)intheirinherentworthtodayas
realizedinChristianexperience.Itcannotbesaidthatthesefourtestswouldgiveanindefeasiblerighttoeverybooktoclaimaplaceinthe
Canonifitwerenotalreadytheree.g.thesmallEpistleofJudebuttheythrowtheburdenofproofonthosewhowoulddisturbtheCanon
byaseriousproposaltoejectanyofitscontentsandinfactnosuchproposalasdistinctfromcriticalquestionsofthedates,authorship,
historicity,etc.,oftheseveralbooksisnowengagingtheattentionofscholarsorchurches.

W.F.Adeney.
CANOPY.AloanwordfromtheGr.knpeion,amosquitonet.ItisusedtorenderthiswordinthedescriptionofthebedofHolofernes
withitsmosquitocurtain(Jth10:21etc.)alsoinIs4:5RVforHeb.chuppahinthesenseofaprotectivecovering.ThisHeb.wordisbecoming
naturalizedinEnglishtodenotethecanopyunderwhichaJewishbridegroomandbridestandwhiletheweddingceremonyisbeing
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naturalizedinEnglishtodenotethecanopyunderwhichaJewishbridegroomandbridestandwhiletheweddingceremonyisbeing
performed.

A.R.S.Kennedy.
CANTICLES.SeeSongofSongs.
CAP.SeeDress,5(a).
CAPERBERRY(abyynah).Ec12:5RVAVdesire.TheRVtr.issupportedbytheLXX,Pesh.andtheMishna.Thecaperberryis
thefruitofCapparisspinosa,acommonPalestineplant,which,largelyonaccountofitshabitofgrowingoutofcrevicesinwalls,hasbeen
identifiedwiththeHyssop(wh.see).Variouspartsofthecaperplantareextensivelyusedasmedicinebythefellahn.Thefamiliarcapersof
commercearetheflowerbuds.Thefailureofthecaperberryinoldagemayhavebeenitsceasingtoactasastimulant,eitherasan
aphrodisiacorastomachic.

E.W.G.Masterman.
CAPERNAUM.TheheadquartersofChristinHisGalilanministry,afterHisrejectionatNazareth(Mt4:13,Jn2:12).Herehehealed
thecenturionspalsiedservant(Mt8:513,Lk7:210),providedthehalfshekelfortheTempletribute(Mt17:24),taughtinthesynagogue
(Mk1:21,Lk4:31,Jn6:59),performedmanymiracles(Mk1:232:12,Lk4:3341),taughthumilitytothedisciples(Mk9:33),healeda
noblemanssonbyawordfromCana(Jn4:46).ForitsunbeliefHedenouncedthecity(Mt11:23,Lk10:15).Thoughitwasevidentlyatown
ofconsiderableimportance,thesiteisforgottenandisamatterofdispute.ThetwositesmostinfavourareTellHumandKhanMinyeh,both
onthenorthsideoftheSeaofGalilee,theformeraboutmidwaybetweenthelatterandthemouthoftheJordan.AtTellHumareextensive
ruins,includingtheremainsofasynagogue.
KhanMinyehdoesnotshowsuchimportantremains,and,astheseseemalltobeArab,thebalanceofprobabilityisonthesideofTellHum,
whosenameshouldprobablybewrittenTelhum,andregardedasacorruptionofCapharTanhum,theTalmudicformofthecitysname(see
thelatestdiscussiononthesubjectinPEFST1907,p.220).IftheremainsatTellHumarenotCapernaum,itisdifficulttosaywhatimportant
citytheyrepresent(seeSandaysart.CapernauminHastingsDCG).
R.A.S.Macalister.
CAPHorKAPH.EleventhletterofHeb.alphabet,andassuchusedinthe119thPsalmtodesignatethe11thpart,eachverseofwhich
beginswiththisletter.
CAPHARSALAMA(1Mac7:31).ApparentlynearJerusalem.KefrSilwn,thevillageofSiloam,ispossiblyintended.
CAPHIRA(1Es5:19).AtownofBenj.,inhabitantsofwhichreturnedwithZerubbabelcalledinEzr2:25Chephirahcf.Neh7:29.
CAPHTOR.TheregionwhencethePhilistinescametoPalestine(Am9:7,Jer47:4).HenceinDt2:23CaphtorimmeansthePhilistines.
InGn10:14CaphtorimisusedofthecountryitselfinplaceofCaphtoritshouldbeplacedinthetextimmediatelyafterCasluhim.Many
identificationsofCaphtorhavebeenattempted.ThefavouritetheoryhasbeenthatitmeanstheislandofCrete(cf.Cherethites).Nextin
favouristheviewthatCaphtorwasthecoastoftheEgyptianDelta.IthasalsobeenidentifiedwithCyprus.Thecorrecttheoryissuggestedby
inscriptionsofRamsesIII.ofEgypt(c.b.c.1200),whotellsofhishavingrepelledagreatinvasionbyenemieswhohadenteredSyriaand
Palestinefromthenorth.TheleadersofthesebarbarianswerecalledPurusati,which(Egyp.rbeingSem.l)isequivalenttotheHeh.Pelisht.
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Palestinefromthenorth.TheleadersofthesebarbarianswerecalledPurusati,which(Egyp.rbeingSem.l)isequivalenttotheHeh.Pelisht.
ConnectingthesefactswiththecircumstancethatthesoutherncoastofAsiaMinor,moreespeciallyCilicia,wascalledKeftoorKaftointhe
Egyptianinscriptions,itappearsveryprobablethatthisKaftoandCaphtorareidentical.Thefurtherconjecturemightbehazardedthatthe
writingoftheHebrewwawasavowelletterinanoriginalKaftogaverisetotheadditionalrsh.ComparethesimilarcaseAshkenaz.

J.F.McCurdy.
CAPPADOCIA.AlargedistrictinthemideasternpartofAsiaMinor,formedintoaRomanprovinceina.d.17.Itwasadministeredby
aprocuratorsentoutbythereigningemperor,beingregardedasanunimportantdistrict.Ina.d.70VespasianuniteditwithArmeniaMinor,
andmadethetwotogetheralargeandimportantfrontierprovince,tobegovernedbyanexconsul,underthetitleoflegatusAugustipro
prtore,ontheemperorsbehalf.TheterritorytotheN.andW.ofCilicia,thekingdomoftheclientkingAntiochus,wasincorporatedinitat
thetime,anditafterwardsreceivedvariousaccessionsofterritory.JewsfromCappadociaarementionedinAc2:9,andtheirpresencethere(c.
b.c.139)isimpliedin1Mac15:22wherealetterintheirfavourisaddressedbytheRomanSenatetokingArathes.Cappadociawasnot
visitedbySt.Paul,probablyasinsufficientlyRomanized,butitwasoneoftheprovincestowhich1Peter(?abouta.d.7080)wassent.

A.Souter.
CAPTAIN.ThiswordoccursveryfrequentlyintheOT(AVandRV),andappearstohavebeenfavouredbythetranslatorsasa
comprehensivetermtodenotearuler,oramilitarycommanderofanyunit,whateveritssizemightbe.Inmodernmilitarylanguageitmeans
especiallythecommanderofacompanyofinfantry,numberingabout100to110men,andisquiteunsuitableasatranslation.Itrepresentsin
OT13differentHebrewwords.InEzekielitisoftenusedforthesecularheadoftheMessianickingdom:princewillthereandoften
elsewheredoasarenderingofficerandchiefwillsuitotherpassages.Therearefurtherplaceswherenoneofthesewordswilldoasa
translation.IntheNTittranslatesfourGreekwords,andmeans:(1)Jn18:12,Ac22:28aRomanmilitaryofficer,atribuneofthesoldiers,in
commandofabout1000men,constitutingthegarrisonofJerusalem(henceRev6:15,19:18inageneralsense)(2)Lk22:4,52,Ac4:1etc.,
thecaptainoftheTemple,aLevite,whohadunderhimabodyofpolice,probablythemselvesalsopriests,whosedutyitwastokeeporderin
theTempleatJerusalemandguarditbynight(3)He2:10(RVauthor)leader,initiator(4)Ac28:16AVcaptainoftheguard(wantingin
RV),adoubtfulreadingandofdoubtfulsense.SeealsoArmy,2.

A.Souter.
CAPTIVITY.SeeIsrael,I.23.
CARABASION(1Es9:34).Acorruptnameofoneofthosewhoputawaytheirstrangewives.ItseemstocorrespondtoMeremothin
Ezr10:36.
CARAVAN.SeeTradeandCommerce.
CARBUNCLE.SeeJewelsandPreciousStones.
CARCAS(Est1:10).OneoftheseveneunuchsorchamberlainsofkingAhasuerus.

CARCHEMISHwasthenortherncapitaloftheHittiteempire,butwasprobablyalsoofconsequencebeforetheeraoftheHittites,asit
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CARCHEMISHwasthenortherncapitaloftheHittiteempire,butwasprobablyalsoofconsequencebeforetheeraoftheHittites,asit
commandedtheprincipalfordoftheEuphratesontherightbank,andwasthereforeindispensabletotravelandcommerceinNorthernSyria.
ItwasshownbyGeorgeSmithtohavelainonthesiteofthemodernJerablusorHierapolis.Itwasanobstacletothemarchoftheinvading
Egyptiansaboutb.c.1600.SeveralAssyrianconquerorsattemptedtocaptureit.ItwastakenfinallybySargoninb.c.717(cf.Is10:9),after
whichitbecamethecapitalofanAssyrianprovince.HereNebuchadrezzardefeatedPharaohnechoinb.c.605,andthusendedthelatest
nativeEgyptianrgimeinAsia(Jer46:2,2Ch35:20).

J.F.McCurdy.
CAREFULNESS.CarefulandcarefulnessdonotexpressapprobationintheEnglishoftheBible,astheydonow.Tobecarefulistobe
tooanxious,toworry.Becarefulfornothing,saysSt.Paul(Ph4:6),andIwouldhaveyouwithoutcarefulness(1Co7:32).Latimersays:
Considertheremedyagainstcarefulness,whichistotrustinGod.Again,tobecarelessisnotblameworthy,meaningsimplytobewithout
apprehension,tofeelsafe,asJg18:7theydweltcareless,afterthemanneroftheZidonians,quietandsecure.
CARIA(S.W.ofAsiaMinor)ismentionedonlyin1Mac15:23asoneofthedistrictstowhichtheRomanSenatesentaletterinfavourof
theJewsinb.c.139138.Itwasfreeatthatdate,withitsinlandStatesfederated.ThemoreimportantStates,Rhodes,etc.,areseparately
named.

A.Souter.
CARITESoccursintheKethbhoftheHeb.textandmarginofRVin2S20:23,wheretheKerhasCherethites,andinRVof2K11:4,
wheretheAVhascaptains(RVmexecutioners).TheCariteswerepossiblyPhil.mercenariesfromCaria,astheCherethiteswerefromCrete.
CARMEL.1.AtowninthemountainssouthofHebron,intheterritoryofJudah(Jos15:55).HereSaulsetupamemorialofhis
conquestoftheAmalekites(1S15:12),andhereNabal(1S25:2)andUzziah(2Ch26:10AV)hadproperty.
ItwasthehomeofHezralorHezro,oneofDavidsfollowers(2S23:35,1Ch11:37).ItisidentifiedwithKurmul,about10milesS.E.of
Hebron.2.AhillypromontorybywhichtheseacoastofPalestineisbroken,formingthesouthsideofthehayofAcca.Itcontinuesasaridge
runninginaS.E.direction,borderingtheplainofEsdraelonontheS.,andfinallyjoiningthemainmountainridgeofthecountryinthedistrict
roundaboutSamaria.OnthisridgewasJokneam,reducedbyJoshua(Jos12:22).ThepromontorywasincludedintheterritoryofAsher
(19:26).
ItwasthesceneofElijahssacrifice(1K18),andhitherafterElijahstranslationElishacameonthewaytoSamaria(2K2:25).Elishawas
foratimeestablishedhere(4:25).ThefruitfulnessofCarmelisalludedto(Is33:9,35:2,Am1:2)itwaswooded(Mic7:14),afactwhich
madeitagoodhidingplace(Am9:3).TheheadoftheShulammiteiscomparedtoCarmel(Ca7:5).

Themountainseemsfromaveryearlyperiodtohavebeenaplaceofsanctity.InthelistofTahutmesIII.ofplacesconqueredbyhimin
Palestine,MasperoseesinonenamethewordsRoshKodsu,holyheadland,referringtoCarmel.Thesitewasprobablychosenforthe
sacrificewherebytheclaimsofBaalandJehovahweretested,becauseitwasalreadyholyground.AnaltarofJehovahexistedherebefore
Elijah(1K18:30).ThetraditionalsiteisattheE.endoftheridge,butitisprobablyamerecoincidencethatonthebankoftheriverKishon
justbelowthereisamoundknownasTellelKasis,themoundofthepriest.Tacitus(Hist.ii.78)referstothemountainasthesiteofan
oracletheDrusesholdthetraditionalsiteofthesacrificeofElijahsacredandthemountainhasgivenitsnametotheCarmeliteorderof
friars.
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R.A.S.Macalister.
CARMI.1.AJudahite,thefatherofAchan(Jos7:1,18,1Ch2:7).2.The
Carmiof1Ch4:1shouldprobablybecorrectedtoChelubai,i.e.Caleb(cf.1Ch2:9,18).3.TheeponymofaReubenitefamily(Gn46:9,Ex
6:14,1Ch5:3),theCarmitesofNu26:6.
CARMONIANS(2Es15:30,AVCarmanians).Apeopleoccupyingan
extensivedistrictnorthoftheentrancetothePersianGulf,betweenPersisonthewestandGedrosiaontheeast.Theyaresaidtohave
resembledtheMedesandPersiansincustomsandlanguage.ThenamesurvivesinthepresenttownanddistrictofKirman.Intheaboveverse
thereferenceisprobablytoSaporI.(a.d.240273),thefounderoftheSassaniddynasty,who,afterdefeatingValerian,overranSyria,and
destroyedAntioch.
CARNAIM,1Mac5:26,43,44,andCarnion,2Mac12:21,26(RVmCarnain).TheancientAshterothKarnaim(wh.see).
CARNELIAN.SeeAgateunderJewels.
CARNION.SeeCarnaim.
CAROB(Lk15:16)RVm.SeeHusks.
CARPENTER.SeeArtsandCrafts,1.
CARPUS.AninhabitantofTroas,withwhomSt.Paulstayed,probablyonhislastjourneytoRome(2Ti4:13).ThenameisGreek,but
wehavenomeansofprovinghisnationality.
CARRIAGE.ThiswordisalwaysusedintheAVintheliteralsenseofsomethingcarried,neverinthemodernsenseofavehicleused
forcarrying.ThusAc21:15wetookupourcarriages(RVbaggage).
CARSHENA.OneofthewisemenorcounsellorsofkingAhasuerus(Est
1:14).
CART,WAGON.Thecart,likethechariot,isanAsiaticinvention.Theearliestwheeledcartsshowalightframeworksetuponanaxle
withsolidwheels(illust.inWilkinson,Anc.Egyp.[1878],i.249).Thetypeofcartinuseunderthe
Heb.monarchymaybeseenintheAssyrianrepresentationofthesiegeofLachish(Layard,MonumentsofNineveh,ii.pl.23),wherewomen
captivesandtheirchildrenareshownseatedinwagonswithalowwoodenbody(cf.1S6:14),furnishedwithwheelsof6and8spokes.They
weredrawnbyapairofoxen(Nu7:3,7,8)exceptionallybytwocows(1S6:7,10)yokedtoapolewhichpassedbetweenthem,and
wereusedforthetransportofpersons(Gn45:19ff.)andgoods(Nul.c.),includingsheavesofgraintothethreshingfloor(Am2:13).The
renderingcoveredwagons(Nu7:3)isdoubtful.Forthethreshingwagon,seeAgriculture,3.

A.R.S.Kennedy.
CASEMENT.OnlyPr7:6AVRVlattice,asJg5:28,wherethesamewordisusedinbothplacesparalleltowindow.Cf.alsothe
Heb.textofSir42:11Lettherebenolatticetotheroomwherethydaughterdwells.See,further,House,7.
CASIPHIA.AsettlementintheneighbourhoodofAhava(wh.see)InNorthBabylonia(Ezr8:17),whosesitehasnotbeenidentified.
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J.F.McCurdy.
CASLUHIM.AnameoccurringinGn10:14,1Ch1:12,inconnexionwiththenamesofotherpeoplestherespokenofasdescended
fromMizraim,esp.theCaphtorimandPhilistines.
CASPHOR(1Mac5:26,36,AVCasphon2Mac12:13Caspin).NearalargelakeinGilead.Thesiteisunknown.
CASSIA.1.qiddah.Ex30:24,Ezk27:19.2.qetsith,Ps45:8.Boththesewordsapparentlyrefertosomekindofcassiawood.The
cassiabarkfromtheCinnamomumcassiaisverysimilarinsmellandpropertiestoCinnamon(wh.see).

E.W.G.Masterman.
CASTANET.SeeMusicandMusicalInstruments.
CASTLE.1.InGn25:16,Nu31:10,1Ch6:54,anobsolete,ifnoterroneous,renderinginAVofaworddenotinganomad
encampment(soRV).

2.In1Ch11:5,7AVspeaksofthecastleofZion,thecitadeloracropolisoftheJebusitecity,butRVrendersasin2S5:7,9
stronghold.Adifferentword(birah)isusedofthecastleorfortwhichinNehemiahsdaydefendedtheTemple
(Neh2:8,7:2),andofthefortifiedroyalresidenceofthePersiankingsatSusa(Neh1:1,Est1:2etc.RVpalace,marg.castle).Thefortress
inJerusalemtowhichtheauthorsofthebooksofMaccabeesandJosephusgivethenameofAcra,istermedthecastlein2Mac4:27,5:5,
10:20AV,whereRVhasthroughoutcitadel(soalso1Mac1:33andelsewhere).See,further.City,FortificationandSiegecraft,4.

A.R.S.Kennedy.
CASTORANDPOLLUX.SeeDioscuri.
CAT.ThisanimalismentionedonlyintheApocr.(Ep.Jerv.22[Gr.21]).TherearetwospeciesofwildcatintheHolyLand.
CATERPILLAR.SeeLocust.
CATHOLICEPISTLES.ThetitleofCatholicwasgivenbytheearlyChurchtothesevenEpistleswhichbearthenamesofJames,
Peter,Jude,andJohn.
Thereismuchuncertaintyastothemeaningofthetitle.PerhapsthemostprobableexplanationisthatthisgroupofEpistleswaslookedupon
as addressed to the Church generally, while the Pauline Epistles were written to particular churches and were called forth by local
circumstances.
CATHUA(1Es5:30).OneoftheheadsoffamiliesofTempleservantswhoreturnedwithZerubbabelfromcaptivity.Itappearsto
correspondtoGiddelinEzr2:47cf.Neh7:49.
CATTLE.ThewordcommonlyusedinOTismiqneh,meaningprimarilypossessionsorwealthoxen,camels,sheep,andgoatsbeing
theonlywealthofpeoplesinanomadicstageofcivilization.Itincludessometimeshorsesandasses,e.g.Ex9:3,Job1:3.Thewordisalso

sometimesrenderedpossessions(e.g.Ec2:7),flocks(Ps78:46),andherds(Gn47:18).ForotherwordsrenderedinEVcattle,see
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sometimesrenderedpossessions(e.g.Ec2:7),flocks(Ps78:46),andherds(Gn47:18).ForotherwordsrenderedinEVcattle,see
Beast.SeealsoOx,Sheep,Shepherd,etc.

E.W.G.Masterman.
CAUDA(AVwronglyClaudanowGaudho)isanislandofftheS.coastofCrete.St.Paulsship,sailingfromMyratoRome,shortly
afterroundingCapeMatalawasmakinginaW.N.W.direction,whenasuddenstrongwindcomingfromE.N.E.droveitalongatarapidrate
forabout23miles,tillitgotundertheleeofCauda(Ac27:16).Suchachangeofwindisfrequentthereatthepresentday.

A.Souter.
CAUL.TheEng.wordcaulisused(1)InIs3:18foraveilofnetwork.(2)InEx29:13,Lv3:4,10,15,4:9,7:4,8:16,25,9:10,19for
thefattymassattheopeningoftheLiver(wh.see).(3)InHos13:8forthepericardium,
CAUSEY.ThisEng.wordwasusedintheoriginaleditionofAVin1Ch26:16,18,andinthemarginofPr15:19andIs7:3.Itisnow
foundonlyinPr15:19marg.,beingchangedinmoderneditionsintheotherplacesintocauseway.TheHeb.wordisliterallyaraisedway,
andisusedofapublicroad,butneverofastreetinacity.ThewordcauseyisstillusedinScotlandfortheraisedfootpathbythesideofa
roadorstreet.
CAVE.ThesoftlimestonehillsofPalestineaboundincaves,naturalandartificialandthesemusthaveattractedattentionfromavery
earlyperiod.TheaboriginalraceofHoriteswerecavedwellers,andtheexcavationatGezerhasrevealedremainsofaprobablyanalogous
raceinW.Palestine.Lot(Gn19:30)andDavid(1S22:1etc.)dweltforatimeincavesandtheiruseasplacesofhidingandrefugeis
illustratedbymanypassages,e.g.,Jos10:16,Jg6:2,1K18:4etc.Caveswerealsoused,atallperiodsinthehistoryofPalestine,forsepulture,
asinthecaseofMachpelah(Gn23).ProbablythemostremarkableseriesofcavesyetdiscoveredinPalestinearethegreatlabyrinths
tunnelledinthebillsroundBeitJibrinoneofthese,inTellSandahannah,containssixtychambers,unitedbydoorsandpassages,andgroups
containingfourteenorfifteenchambersarequite
commoninthesamehill.AnotherartificialcavenearBeitJibrincontainsahall80ft.highand400ft.longithasnowfallenin.Othergroups
ofcaves,onlylessextensive,occurinvariouspartsofPalestineonbothsidesoftheJordan.Littleornothingisknownaboutthehistoryof
thesegreatexcavationsnodefiniteinformationabouttheiroriginhasyetbeenyieldedbythem,sofarastheyhavebeenscientifically
explored.
R.A.S.Macalister.
CEDAR(erez).ThefinestofthetreesofLebanon,theprincipalconstituentofitsglory(Is35:2,60:13)itwasnotedforitsstrength(Ps
29:5),itsheight(2K19:23)anditsmajesty(1K4:33,2K14:9,Zec11:1,2).Itswoodwasfullofresin(Ps104:16),and,largelyonthat
account,wasoneofthemostvaluablekindsoftimberforbuilding,especiallyforinternalfittings.Itwasexceedinglydurable,beingnot
readilyinfectedwithworms,andtookahighpolish(cf.1K10:27,Ca1:17,Jer22:14).Itwassuitable,too,forcarvedwork(Is44:14,15).In
alltheserespectsthecedarofLebanon(CedrusLibani)answerstotherequirements.ThoughbutadwarfincomparisonwiththeIndian
cedar,itisthemostmagnificenttreeinSyriaitattainsaheightoffrom80to100feet,andspreadsoutitsbrancheshorizontallysoastogivea
beautifulshade(Ezk31:3)itisevergreen,andhascharacteristiceggshapedcones.ThegreatregionofthiscedarisnowtheCilicianTaurus
MountainsbeyondMersina,butsmallgrovessurviveinplacesinthe
Lebanon.ThemostfamousoftheseisthatatKadisha,wherethereareupwardsof
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Lebanon.ThemostfamousoftheseisthatatKadisha,wherethereareupwardsof
400trees,someofgreatage.InafewreferenceserezdoesnotmeantheCedrusLibani,butsomeotherconifer.Thisisspeciallythecase
wherecedarwoodisusedintheritualofcleansingafterdefilementbycontactwithaleper(Lv14:4)oradeadbody(Nu19:6).Probably
erezhereisaspeciesofjuniper,JuniperusSabina,whichgrowsinthewilderness.ThereferenceinNu24:6tocedartreesbesidethewaters
canhardlyapplytotheLebanoncedar,whichflourishesbestonbaremountainslopes.

E.W.G.Masterman.
CEDRON.SeeKidron.
CEILED,CEILING.SeeCieled,Cieling.
CELLAR.SeeHouse.
CENCHRE(AVCenchreaiswrong)wasthesouthernharbourofCorinth,andwasontheSaronicGulfabout7milesE.ofCorinth.It
wasamerevillage,andexistedsolelyforthetransitofgoodstoandfromCorinth.ThenceSt.PaulsetsailforSyria(Ac18:18).Phbe,the
ladycommendedforherservicetothechurchhere(Ro16:1),carriedSt.PaulsEpistletoRome.

A.Souter.
CENDEBUS.AgeneralofAntiochusVII.Sidetes,whowasgiventhecommandoftheseacoast,andsentwithanarmyintoPalestine
inordertoenforcetheclaimsofAntiochusagainstSimonMaccabus.InabattlewhichtookplaceinaplainnotfarfromModintheJews
gainedacompletevictoryoverCendebus,andpursuedtheSyriansasfarasKidronandtheneighbourhoodofAshdod(1Mac15:38,16:9
cf.Jos.Ant.XIII.vii.3).
CENSER.SeeFirepan,Incense.
CENSUS.SeeQuirinius.
CENTURION.AcenturionwasaRomanmilitaryofficer,correspondinginthenumberofinfantrycommandedbyhim(100)tothe
moderncaptain,butinhisstatuslikeournoncommissionedofficers.Thepassagetothehigherrankswasevenmoredifficultinhiscase
thanitisamongstournoncommissionedofficers.However,thechiefcenturionofalegion.knownasthecenturionofthefirst(chief)pike,
wassometimespromotedtotheequestrianorder.TheCapernaumcenturion(Mt8:513,Lk7:210)wasprobablyinHerodsarmy,notinthe
Romanarmystrictlysocalled.SomeofthosementionedintheNTwereonspecialserviceincommandoftheirunits,andseparatedfromthe
cohortsorlegionsofwhichtheyformedapart.

A.Souter.
CEPHAS.SeePeter.
CHABRIS.OneofthethreerulersofBethulia(Jth6:15,8:10,10:6).
CHADIASAI(AVtheyofChadias,1Es5:20.)Theyarementionedasreturning,tothenumberof422,withZerubbabel.Thereareno
correspondingnamesinthelistsofEzraandNehemiah.
CHREAS(AVChereas)heldcommandatthefortressofGazara,i.e.
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CHREAS(AVChereas)heldcommandatthefortressofGazara,i.e.
probablyJazerinthetransJordanicterritory(see1Mac5:68).HewasslainuponthecaptureofGazarabyJudasMaccabus(2Mac10:32
38).
CHAFF.SeeAgriculture,3.
CHAINisusedintwodifferentsenses.1.ChainsforsecuringprisonersaredenotedbyavarietyofwordsinOTandNT,whicharealso
renderedbybondsorfetters,althoughthemonumentsshowthatropesweremoregenerallyusedforthispurpose.2.Achainofprecious
metalwaswornasasignofrank,asbyJosephandDaniel,orpurelyasanornament.SeeOrnaments,2.

A.R.S.Kennedy.
CHALOEDONY.SeeJewelsandPreciousStones.
CHALDA,CHALDANS.TheHeb.KasdimisgeneraliyrenderedChaldees(Gn11:28),andinJer50:10,51:24,24:525:12,and
often,isusedforBabylonian.ThewordisderivedfromtheBab.nameKaldforthedistrictS.E.ofBabyloniaproper,ontheseacoastasit
thenwas.Fromb.c.1000onwardsitscapitalwasBitYakin.ThepeoplewereAramans,independentandaggressive.Inthetimeof
Babylonianweaknesstheypushedintothecountry,andMerodachbaladanwasaChaldanusurper.NabopolassarwasalsoaChaldan,and,
fromhistime,ChaldameantBabylonia.TheChaldanswereSemitesandnotthesameastheKashdu,Kashshu,orKassites,whoconquered
Babylonia,andruleditfromthe13thcent.b.c.onwards,buttheycamethrough,andprobablyhadabsorbedapartof,thecountrytowhichthe
KassiteshadalreadyassuredthenameKashda.

ThenameasappliedsinceJerometotheAramaicportionsofDanielandEzraisincorrect.TheuseofthetermChaldan(Dn1:4and
often)todenoteaclassofastrologersisnotfoundinnativesources,butarosefromatransferofanationalnametotheBabyloniansingeneral,
andoccursinStrabo,Diodorus,etc.ItcanhardlybeolderthanPersiantimes.

C.H.W.Johns.
CHALKSTONES(Is27:9only).Theexpressionisofmuchinterest,asshowingthatthepracticeofburninglimestoneandslakingwith
waterwasfollowedinPal.inOTtimes.
CHALLENGE.TochallengeinthelanguageofAVistoclaim,asinGoldingstr.ofCalvinsJob,p.578Iobneuerwentaboutto
challengesuchperfection,astohavenosinneinhim.ThewordoccursinEx22:9,intheheadingofIs45Byhisomnipotencyhe
challengethobedienceandinJob3:5AVm.
CHALPHI(AVCalphi).ThefatherofJudas,oneofthetwocaptainsofJonathanMaccabuswhostoodfirminabattlefoughtagainst
theSyriansatHazorinN.Galilee(1Mac11:70).
CHAMBER.Nowobsolescent,isusedbyAVinavarietyofconnexionswheremodernusageemploysroom,ase.g.bedchamber,
upperchamber,etc.See,generally.House.FortheTemplechambers,seeTemple.
CHAMBERLAIN.InOTthewordoccursin2K23:11andrepeatedlyin

Est.,wheretheoriginaliseunuch(srs)butitisgenerallybelievedthatthisnameisnottobetakenalwaysinaliteralsense,andhenceitis
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Est.,wheretheoriginaliseunuch(srs)butitisgenerallybelievedthatthisnameisnottobetakenalwaysinaliteralsense,andhenceitis
oftenrenderedbythewordofficer.InEsther,however,thechamberlainevidentlybelongstothatclassofpersonswhoareentrustedwiththe
watchfulcareoftheharemsofOrientalmonarchs.InNTatAc12:20itissaidthatthepeopleofTyreandSidonsoughtthefavourofHerod
AgrippathroughthemediationofBlastusthekingschamberlain,showingthattheofficewasoneofconsiderableinfluence.Theword
occursagaininAVinRo16:23,butisrenderedinRVmoreaccuratelytreasurerofthecity.
CHAMBERSOFTHESOUTH.SeeStars.
CHAMELEON.Thechameleon(Chamleonvulgaris)isaverycommonPalestinelizard.Itmaybefoundonhotdaysclingingwithits
birdlikefeetandprehensiletailtothetrees,orpassingwithslowanddeliberatewalkovertheground.Itisremarkableforitsmarvellous
protectivegiftofchangingthecolourofitsskintoresembleitssurroundings,andforitseyeswhich,moving
Independently,onelookingbackwardswhiletheotherlookstothefront,giveitanunusualrangeofvision.Eventodayitissupposedbythe
ignorant,asinoldentimes,toliveuponair.Inrealityitlivesonsmallinsects,catchingthembymeansofitslongstickytongue,whichitcan
protrudeandwithdrawwithextraordinaryquickness.TwowordsinLv11:30arerenderedchameleonintheEng.versions.IntheAVkach
issotranslated,butintheRVwehavelandcrocodile(seeLizard)whileintheRVtinshemethmoleinAVistr.chameleon.Both
renderingsareveryuncertain.SeeMole.
E.W.G.Masterman.
CHAMOIS(zemer,Dt.14:5).Thetr.ofzemeraschamoisinEVandascamelopard,i.e.giraffe,inLXX,arebothcertainlyincorrect,
asneitheroftheseanimalsoccursinPalestine.Tristramsuggeststhewildsheep,Ovistragelaphus,ananimalabout3feethighwithlong
curvedhorns.ItiswellknowntotheBedouln.

E.W.G.Masterman.
CHAMPAIGN.ThisspellinginmoderneditionsofAVhasreplacedchampion(Dt11:30,Jth5:1)andchampion(Ezk37:2marg.)ofthe
1611editionofAV.Thewordmeansanopenplain.
CHANCELLOR.SeeBeeltethmusandRehum.
CHANGESOFRAIMENT(Gn45:22,Jg14:12f.,2K5:5).Aliteraltr.ofaHeb.expressionwhichnotmerelydenotesachangeof
garmentsinthemodernsense,butimpliesthatthechangesaresuperior,inmaterialortextureorboth,tothoseordinarilyworn.Hencegala
dresses,festalrobes,orthelike,maybetakenasafairequivalent.GiftsofsuchgalarobeshavealwaysbeencommonintheEastasspecial
marksoffavourordistinction.Cf.Dress,7.

A.R.S.Kennedy.
CHANUNEUS(AVChannuneus),1Es8:48.ALevite,answeringtoMerari,iftoanything,intheparallellistinEzr8:19.
CHAPHENATHA(1Mac12:37).ClosetoJerusalemontheeast.Unknown.
CHAPITER.SeeTemple.
CHAPMAN.Achapmanisatrader,thewordbeingstillusedinsomeplacesforatravellingmerchant.Itoccursin2Ch9:14AVand
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CHAPMAN.Achapmanisatrader,thewordbeingstillusedinsomeplacesforatravellingmerchant.Itoccursin2Ch9:14AVand
BV,andalsoin1K10:15RV.TheAmer.RVhastraderinbothplaces.
CHARAATHALAN(AVCharaathalar),1Es5:36.Anamegiventoa
leaderofcertainfamilieswhoreturnedunderZerubbabel.ButCharaathalanleadingthemandAllarisduetosomeperversionoftheoriginal,
whichhasCherub,Addan,Immer,threenamesofplacesinBabylonia,fromwhichthereturnwasmade(Ezr2:59cf.Neh7:61).
CHARAX(2Mac12:17,RVtoCharax,AVtoCharaca).EastofJordan,andapparentlyinthelandofTob.Unknown.
CHAREA,1Es5:32=Harsha,Ezr2:52,Neh7:54.
CHARGER.Anobsoletewordforalargeflatdishonwhichmeatwasserved.TheAmer.RVeverywheresubstitutesplatter,e.g.Nu
7:13ff.,Mt14:8andparallels.
CHARIOT.TheoriginalhomeofthechariotwasWesternAsia,fromwhichitpassedtoEgyptandothercountries.InOTchariotsare
associatedmainlywithwarlikeoperations,althoughtheyalsoappearnotinfrequentlyasthecarriages,sotosay,ofkings,princes,andhigh
dignitaries(Gn50:9,2K5:9,Jer17:25cf.Ac8:28ff.thecaseoftheEthiopianeunuch)intimesofpeace.Whenroyalpersonagesdrovein
state,theywereprecededbyabodyofrunners(2S15:1,1K1:5).

ThewarchariotappearstohavebeenintroducedamongtheHebrewsbyDavid(2S8:4LXX),butitdidnotbecomepartoftheorganized
militaryequipmentoftheStatetillthereignofSolomon.Thismonarchissaidtohaveorganizedaforceof1400chariots(1K10:26,2Ch
1:14),whichhedistributedamongtheprincipalcitiesofhisrealm(1K9:19,10:26).Atthistime,also,aconsiderabletradesprangupin
connexionwiththeimportationofchariotsandhorses.ItwasnotfromEgypt,however,whichwasneverahorsebreedingcountry,thatthese
wereimportedasstatedinthecorrupttextof1K10:28f.,butfromtwodistrictsofAsiaMinor,intheregionofCappadociaandCilicia,named
MusriandKu(seeSkinner,Cent.Bible,inloc).InthefollowingverseachariotfromMusriissaidtohavecost600shekelsofsilver(see
Money),andahorse150,huttheGr.textgives100shekelsand50shekelsrespectively.Similarlyin2K7:6thereferenceistothechariotry
oftheHittitesandtheiralliesofMusri.

UntiltheMacedonianperiod,whenwefirsthearofchariotsarmedwithscythes(2Mac13:2),thewarchariotofantiquityfollowedone
generaltype,alikeamongtheAssyriansandtheEgyptians,theHittitesandtheSyrians.Itconsistedofalightwoodenbody,whichwasalways
openbehind.Theaxle,fittedwithstoutwheelswith6or8spokes(fortheHeb.termssee1K7:33),wassetasfarbackaspossibleforthe
sakeofgreatersteadiness,andconsequentlyasureraim.Thepolewasfixedintotheaxle,andafterpassingbeneaththefloorofthechariot
wasbentupwardsandconnectedbyabandofleathertothefrontofthechariot.Thehorses,twoinnumber,wereyokedtothepole.Traces
werenotused.InAssyrianrepresentationsathirdhorsesometimesappears,evidentlyasareserve.Thebodyofthechariotnaturallyreceived
considerabledecoration,forwhich,andforotherdetails,referencemaybemadetoWilkinsonsAnc.Egyp.(1878),i.224241,and
RawlinsonsFiveGreatMonarchies(1864),ii.121,wherenumerousillustrationssarealsogiven.Thechariotsofironoftheancient
Canaanites(Jos17:16,Jg1:19,4:3)werechariotsofwhichthewoodworkwasstrengthenedhymetalplates.

InEgyptandAssyriathenormalnumberoftheoccupantsofawarchariotwastwothedriver,whowasoftenarmedwithawhip,andthe
combatant,anarcherwhosebowcaseandquiverwereusuallyattachedtotherighthandsideofthecar.EgyptianrepresentationsofHittite

chariots,however,showthreeoccupants,ofwhomthethirdcarriesashieldtoprotecthiscomrades.Thiswasalmostcertainlythepractice
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chariots,however,showthreeoccupants,ofwhomthethirdcarriesashieldtoprotecthiscomrades.Thiswasalmostcertainlythepractice
amongtheHebrewsalso,sinceafrequentlyrecurringmilitaryterm,shlsh,signifiesthethirdman,presumablyinsuchachariot.

Mentionmaybemade,finally,ofthechariotssetupattheentrancetotheTempleatJerusalem,whichweredestroyedbyJosiah.Theywere
doubtlessdedicatedoriginallytoJ,althoughtheyaretermedbytheHebrewhistorianchariotsofthesun(2K23:11),theirinstallation
havingbeencopiedfromtheBabyloniancustomofrepresentingShamash,thesungod,ridinginachariot.

A.R.S.Kennedy.
CHARITY.ThewordcharityneveroccursinAVinthesenseofalmsgiving,butalwayswiththemeaningoflove.Itcomesfromthe
Vulg.caritas,whichwasfrequentlyusedtotranslatetheGreekagap,probablybecauseamorhadimpureassociations,andbecausedilectio
(whichissometimessoused)wasscarcelystrongenough.WycliffollowedtheVulg.,asdidafterwardstheRhemishtranslators.Tindaleand
theGenevanVersionpreferredlovebutintheBishopsBiblecharitywasagainoftenused,andtheAVfollowedtheBishopsinthis.Inthe
RV,however,charityneveroccurs,theGr.agapbeingeverywhererendered
love.

ForFeastofCharity(Jude12AV)seeLoveFeast.
CHARM.SeeAmuletsandChakmsandMagicDivinationandSorcery.
CHARME(1Es5:25).CalledHarim,Ezr2:39,Neh7:42Theformin1Es.isderivedfromtheHeb.,andnotfromtheGr.forminthe
canonicalbooks.
CHARMIS(Gn46:9).SonofMelchiel,oneofthreerulersoreldersofBethnlia(Jth6:15,8:10,10:6).
CHASE.SeeHunting.
CHASEBA(1Es5:31).ThereisnocorrespondingnameinthelistsofEzraandNehemiah.
CHASTITY.SeeCrimesandPunishments,andMarriage.
CHEBAR.AcanalinBabylonia(Ezk1:1ff.)besidewhichtheprincipalcolonyofthefirstExileofJudahwasplanted.Ithasbeen
identifiedbythePennsylvaniaexpeditionwiththecanalKabaru,namedincuneiformdocumentsofthetimeofArtaxerxesi.Itapparentlylay
totheeastofNippur.Thenamemeans
great.HencefortheriverChebarwemayreadtheGrandCanal.

J.F.McCurdy.
CHECKERWORK.Adesignationappliedin1K7:17(only)tothenetornamentonthepillarsbeforetheTemple.
CHEDORLAOMER.AnearlykingofElam,who,accordingtoGn14,exerciseddominionoveraconsiderablepartofWesternAsia.
Hisvassals,Amraphel,kingofShinar,Arioch,kingofEllasar,andTidal,kingofGoiim,helpedhimtodefeattheCanaaniteprincesofSodom,
Gomorrah,Adman,Zeboiim,andZoar,whohadrebelledagainsthimafterhavingacknowledgedhisauthorityfortwelveyears.Chedor
laomerandhisalliesdefeatedtheCanaaniteprincesinthevalleyofSiddim,andsackedSodomandGomorrah.Butthestoryrelatesthatthey30/137
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laomerandhisalliesdefeatedtheCanaaniteprincesinthevalleyofSiddim,andsackedSodomandGomorrah.Butthestoryrelatesthatthey
wereinturndefeatedbyAbram,theHebrew,whosurprisedthembynightandrecoveredthespoilofSodomandhisnephewLot.Thename
ofChedorlaomerisapurelyElamitename(KudurLagamarorKutirLagamar),thoughithasnotyetbeenfoundupontheinscriptionsasthat
ofanearlykingofElam.ButtherecentexcavationsofM.deMorganatSusaconfirmtheBiblicalstory,byrevealingtheconsiderablepart
whichElamplayedintheearlyhistoryofWesternAsia.

L.W.King.
CHEEK.Theseatofhealthandbeauty(Ca1:10,5:13).Tobesmittenonthecheekwastheclimaxofinsultandviolence.Thatthe
commandinMt5:39isnottobeinterpretedliterallyisshownbyChristsownprotestinJn18:23.

C.W.EmmetCHEESE.SeeMilk.
CHELAL.Onewhohadmarriedaforeignwife(Ezr10:30).
CHELLIANS.ProbablytheInhabitantsofthetownChellus(wh.see).Cf.Jth1:9,2:23.
CHELLUS.Fromthetext(Jth1:9)thisplaceissupposedtohavebeensituatedS.W.ofJerus.nearBetaneandN.ofKadeshandthe
riverofEgypt,i.e.theWadyelArishbutanycertainidentificationisImpossible.
CHELOD.Jth1:6breads,notasAVandRVmanynationsofthesonsofChelodassembledthemselvestobattle,buttherecame
togethermanynationsuntothearray(orranks)ofthesonsofCheleul.Itisnotcertainwhetherthemanynationsarealliesof
NebuchadrezzarorofArphaxad,orwhethertheycometohelportofightthesonsofChelod.Probablyv.6bsummarizesv.6ahencesons
ofChelodshouldbeNebuchadrezzarsarmy.Butheis,inJth.,kingofAssyrians,notChaldsans.NoprobableconjectureastoAram.
originalhasbeenmade.
CHELUB.1.AdescendantofJudah(1Ch4:11).2.ThefatherofEzri,oneofDavidssuperintendents(1Ch27:26).
CHELUBAI(1Ch2:9).AnotherformofCaleb.Cf.1Ch2:18,42,andseeCaleb,andCarmi,No.2.
CHELUHI.OneofthesonsofBaniwhohadmarriedaforeignwife(Ezr
10:35).
CHEMARIM.InEVthiswordisfoundonlyinZeph1:4buttheoriginalofwhichitisthetransliterationisusedalsoat2K23:5and
Hos10:5,andinbothinstancesChmrimisplacedinthemarginofAVandRV.Chmer,ofwhichChmrimistheplural,isofAram.
origin,andwhenusedinSyr.carriesnounfavourableconnotation.IntheHeb.oftheOT,however,Chmrimalwayshasabadsenseitis
appliedtothepriestswhoconductedtheworshipofthecalves(2K23:5,Hos10:5),andtothosewhoservedtheBaalim(Zeph1:4).Kimchi
believedtheoriginalsignificanceoftheverbalformwastobeblack,andexplainedtheuseofthenounbytheassertionthattheidolatrous
priestsworeblackgarments.Otherstaketheroottomean,tobesad,thechumrabeingasad,asceticperson,amonkorpriest.
CHEMOSH.ThenationalgodoftheMoabites(Nu21:29inJg11:24probablyChemoshisascribalorothererrorforMilcom[wh.
see],whoheldthesamepositionamongtheAmmonites).Hisritesseemtohaveincludedhumansacrifice(cf.2K3:27).Itwasforthis
abominationofMoabthatSolomonerectedatemple(1K11:7),laterdestroyedbyJosiah(2K23:13).
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N.Koenig.
CHENAANAH.1.ABenjamite(1Ch7:10).2.ThefatherofZedekiahthefalseprophetinthereignofAhab(1K22:11,2Ch18:10).
CHENANI.ALevite(Neh9:4).
CHENANIAH.ChiefoftheLevitesattheremovalofthearkfromthehouseofObededom(1Ch15:22,27),namedamongtheofficers
andjudgesoverIsrael
(26:29).
CHEPHARAMMONI(villageoftheAmmonites,Jos18:24).AtownofBenjamin.ProbablytheruinKefrnanearBethel.
CHEPHIRAH(village,Jos9:17,18:26,Ezr2:25,Neh7:29).OneofthefourHivitecitieswhichmadepeacewiththeHebrewsre
peopledaftertheCaptivity,havingbelongedtoBenjamincalledin1Es5:19Caphira.NowKefrehS.W.ofGibeon.
CHEQUERWORK.SeeSpinningandWeaving.
CHERAN.OneofthechildrenofDishon,thesonofSeir,theHorite(Gn36:26,1Ch1:41).
CHERETHITESANDPELETHITES.Theseweremercenarysoldiers,whoprobablybegantoattachthemselvestoDavidwhilsthe
wasanoutlaw(2S22:2etc.),andsubsequentlybecamethekingsbodyguardandthenucleusofhisarmy(2S8:18,15:18,20:7,23,1K1:38,
44,1Ch18:17).Benaiah,whomJosephuscallscaptainoftheguard(Ant.VII.xi.8),wastheircommander.TheyaccompaniedDavidinhis
retreatfromJerusalem(2S15:18),foughtagainstAbsalom(2S20:7,23),actedasSolomonsbodyguardathiscoronation(1K1:38,
44).TheCherethiteswereaPhilistineclan(1S30:14),dwellingonthecoast(Ezk
25:16,Zeph2:5)andthenamePelethitesmayhavebeenacorruptformofPhilistines.Unwillingnesstobelievethatforeignersstoodsonear
thenationalheroledcertainJewishscholarstoassertthatthetwoclanswereIsraelites.TheappellationCherethiteseemstobeconnected
withCrete,andthereisgoodground(butseeCaphtor)forthebeliefthatCaphtor,fromwhichAm9:7saysthePhilistinescame,istobe
identifiedwithCrete.TheLXXofEzk25:16,Zeph2:5usesCretansastheequivalentofCherethites.

J.Taylor.

CHERITH.ThebrookbywhichElijahlived(1K17:3,5)wasbefore,i.e.ontheE.ofJordan.ThepopularidentificationofCherith
withtheWadyKeltbetweenJerusalemandJerichoisunwarranted.
CHERUB(Ezr2:59,Neh7:61).Oneoftheplacesfromwhichcertainfamilies,onthereturnfromBabylon,failedtoprovetheirregister
asgenuinebranchesoftheIsraelitepeople.SeeCharaathalan.
CHERUBIM.1.ThemostimportantpassagefordeterminingtheoriginoftheHebrewconceptionofthecherubimisPs18:10.Thepoet,
indescribingatheophanyofJehovah,representstheGodofIsraelasdescendingtoearthontheblackthundercloud:Herodeuponacheruh
anddidfly,yea,hesoaredonthewingsofthewind.Accordingtothispassage,thecherubisapersonificationofthestormcloud,or,as
othersprefertointerpret,ofthestormwindwhichbearsJehovahfromheaventoearth.

2. WeshallnextdiscussthepartthecherubimplayinthereligioussymbolismoftheOT.IntheTabernaclethereweretwosmallgolden
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2.WeshallnextdiscussthepartthecherubimplayinthereligioussymbolismoftheOT.IntheTabernaclethereweretwosmallgolden
cherubim,oneateachendofthemercyseat.Itwasthesefiguresthatinvestedthearkwithitsspecialsignificanceasanemblemofthe
immediatepresenceofJehovah.CherubicfigureswereembroideredonthecurtainseparatingtheHolyofHoliesfromtheHolyPlace,andon
theothertapestriesofthesanctuary.IntheTempletwohugecheruhimofolivewood,overlaidwithgold,overshadowedthearkwiththeir
wings(1K6:2328).CherubicfigureswerealsofoundamongtheotherdecorationsoftheTemple(1K6:29,32,35).Inbothsanctuariesthey
arefiguresofreligioussymbolismtheyactasbearersofDeity,andareconsequentlyemblematicofJehovahsimmediatepresence.Hencewe
havethephraseThouthatsittestonthecherubim(Ps80:1etal.).InEzekielsInauguralvision(ch.1)thefourcompositefiguresofthe
livingcreaturesareinalaterpassagetermedcherubim(10:2).TheysupportthefirmamentonwhichthethroneofJehovahrests,andinthis
connexionweagainhavethemasbearersofDeity.IntheParadisestory,thecherubimperformanotherfunctiontheyappearasguardiansof
thetreeoflife(Gn3:24J).AdifferentversionofthisstoryisalludedtobyEzekiel(28:14,16)accordingtothisprophet,acherubexpelsthe
princeofTyrefromEden,thegardenofGod.Inboththesepassagestheyperformthefunctionofguardiansofsacredthings,andinviewof
thisitisprobablethat,intheTempleandTabernacle,theywerelookeduponasguardiansofthecontentsofthearkaswellasemblemsofthe
Divinepresence.

3.Astothefigureofthecherubiminthesanctuarieswehavenoclue,andJosephusisprobablycorrectwhenhesaysthatnooneknowsor
canguesstheirform.TheprophetEzekielandtheresultsofBabylonianexcavationsassistusinsolvingtheenigma.Theprophetsliving
creatureswerecompositefigures,eachhavingthefaceofaman,alion,anox,andaneagle.Wearenottosupposethattheseforms
correspondedexactlytoanythingthattheprophethadseen,butheworkedoutthesefiguresinhisgorgeousimagination,combiningelements
HebrewandBabylonian.Thenativeelementistosomeextentanunsolvedriddle,butofthecontributionmadebyBabylonianarttherecanbe
noreasonabledoubt.Thehugecompositefigureswithhumanhead,eagleswings,andbullsbody,whichwereplacedasguardiansatthe
doorsoftemplesandpalacesinBabylonia,suppliedtheprophetwiththematerialforhisvision.ThewriterofthestoryoftheGardenofEden
hadsomesuchfiguresinmind.BasinghisconjectureonEzekielsvision,Schultz(OTTheol.ii.p.236)imaginesthatthecherubimofthe
sanctuarywerecompositefigureswithfeetofoxen,wingsofeagles,manesoflions,andhumanbodiesandfaces,standinguprightand
spreadingtheirwingsovertheark.Thisviewissomewhatproblematic.CheyneandDillmannprefertoassociatethemwiththegriffin,which
sooftenappearsinmythologyasaguardianofsacredtreasures.TheformerassertsthattheHebrewcherubimwereofHittiteorigin.Itisnot
correcttosupposethattheyweredirectlyborrowedeitherfromtheBabyloniansortheHittites,buttheHebrewimaginationcombinedforeign
andnativeelementsastheyweresuitedtoitspurpose.ThederivationoftheHeb.wordfromtheBab.kurubu,adesignationofthesteergod,
is,althoughadvocatedbyDelitzsch,exceedinglyuncertainandisdeniedbyZimmern.Wearenowinapositiontojudgethethreetheoriesas
tothenatureofthecherubim,thattheywere(1)real,(2)symbolical,and(3)mythical.Thattheywerehigherangelicbeingswithactual
existenceisnowgenerallydiscarded.Theywereinrealitycreationsoftheimagination,theformbeingborrowedfrommythologicalsources
andafterwardsinvestedwithasymbolicmeaning.

4.InJewishtheologythecherubimareoneofthethreehighestclassesofangels,theothertwobeingtheseraphimandophanim,which
guardthethroneoftheMostHigh.TheyappearasyouthfulangelsinRabbinicalliterature.Philoallegorizesthemasrepresentingtwo
supremeattributesofGodHisgoodnessandauthorityhealsomentionsotherviews(forJewishideas,cf.JEs.v.).Thelivingcreaturesof
theApocalypticvisionareborrowedfromEzekielsimagery.Startingwiththispassage(Rev4:6ff.),andborrowingelementsfromJewish
theology,someChristiantheologianshaveincorrectlymaintainedthatthecherubimofScriptureweresupramundanespiritualessences.

JamesA.Kelso.
CHESALON.NearKiriathjearimontheborderofJudah(Jos15:10).NowthevillageKeslaonthehillN.ofKiriathjearim.
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CHESALON.NearKiriathjearimontheborderofJudah(Jos15:10).NowthevillageKeslaonthehillN.ofKiriathjearim.
CHESED.OneofthesonsofNahorandMilcah(Gn22:22J).HeisobviouslyhereintroducedintothegenealogyoftheTerahitesasthe
presumptiveforefatheroftheKasdimorChaldans.ThisprobablyrepresentsadifferenttraditionfromthatinP,whereUroftheChaldees
(i.e.Kasdim)isspokenofasthedwellingplaceofTerah(Gn11),Nahorsfather.
CHESIL(Jos15:30).TheLXXreadsBethel,probablyforBethul,asintheparallelpassage,Jos19:4,andChesilofMTisprob.atextual
error.
CHESTNUTTREE(armn,Gn30:37,Ezk31:8.RVplane).ThereisnodoubtthattheRViscorrect.Thechestnuttreeisonlyan
exoticinPalestine,buttheplane(Arab.dilb)isoneofthefinesttreesoftheland.Itattainsgreatdevelopmentawonderfulspecimen,which
hasasmallroomorshopwithinitshollowtrunk,istobeseeninoneofthestreetsofDamascus.Theplane(Planusorientalis)peelsitsouter
layersofbarkannually,leavingawhitestreakysurface.Itflourishesspeciallybywatercourses(Sir24:14).

E.W.G.Masterman.
CHESULLOTH(Jos19:18).ThesameasChislothtabor,Jos19:12.AplaceontheborderofZebulun.NowtheruinIkslatthefoot
oftheNazarethhills,inthefertileplainW.ofTabor.
CHETH.EighthletterofHeb.alphabet,andassuchusedinthe119thPsalmtodesignatethe8thpart,eachverseofwhichbeginswith
thisletter.
CHEZIB(Gn38:5).SeeAchzib,No.2.
CHIDON.Thename,acc.to1Ch13:9,ofthethreshingfloorwhereUzzahwasstruckdeadforrashlytouchingtheark(seeUzzah).In2
S6:6thenameisgivenasNacon.Nolocalityhaseverbeenidentifiedwitheithername.
CHIEFOFASIA.Ac19:31RVchiefofficersofAsiaRVmAsiarchs.SeeAsiarch.
CHILD,CHILDREN

1.Valuesetonthepossessionofchildren.ThroughouttheBibleanoteworthycharacteristicistheimportanceandhappinessassigned
tothepossessionofchildren,and,correspondingly,theintensesorrowand
disappointmentofchildlessparents.ChildrenwereregardedasDivinegifts(Gn4:1,33:5),pledgesofGodsfavour,theheritageoftheLord
(Ps127:3).Itfollowednaturallythatbarrennesswaslookeduponasareproach,i.e.apunishmentinflictedbyGod,andinvolving,forthe
woman,disgraceintheeyesoftheworld.
Thus,SarahwasdespisedbyhermorefortunatehandmaidHagar(Gn16:4)
Rachel,inenvyofLeah,cried,GivemechildrenorelseIdie(Gn30:1)Hannahsrivaltauntedhertomakeherfret,becausetheLordhad
shutupherwomb(1S1:6)ElisabethrejoicedwhentheLordtookawayherreproachamongmen(Lk1:25).Hemakeththebarrenwoman
tokeephouseandtobeajoyfulmotherofchildren(Ps113:9),criesthePsalmistastheclimaxofhispraise.Therewardofamanwhofears
theLordshallbeawifelikeafruitfulvine,andchildrenlikeolivebranchesroundabouthistable(Ps128:3).OurLordreferstothejoyofa
womanatthebirthofamanintotheworld(Jn16:21).Notonlyisnaturalparentalaffectionsetforthintheseandsimilarpassages,butalsoa
strongsenseoftheworldlyadvantageswhichaccompaniedtheconditionofparentage.Amanwhowasafather,especiallyafatherofsons,
wasarichmanhispositionwasdignifiedandinfluentialhispossessionsweresecuredtohisfamily,andhisnameperpetuated.Befruitful 34/137
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wasarichmanhispositionwasdignifiedandinfluentialhispossessionsweresecuredtohisfamily,andhisnameperpetuated.Befruitful
andmultiplywasablessingdesiredbyeverymarriedcoupleforthesakeofthelatterpartoftheblessing,thenecessaryaccompanimentof
fruitfulnessreplenishtheearth,andsubdueitandhavedominionforfatherhoodinvolvedexpansionofpropertyandincreasein
importanceandwealth.

2.Thefilialrelationship.Thepositionofchildrenwasoneofcompletesubordinationtotheirparents.Gn22,Jg11:39,andthe
sacrificestoMolechofchildrenbytheirparents(Lv18:21,20:25,2K23:10,Jer32:35)indicatethatthefatherhadpowersoflifeanddeath
overhischildrenthesepowersarelimitedinDt21:1821.Reverenceandobedienceonthepartofchildrentowardstheirparentswere
stronglyenjoined(Ex20:12,Lv19:3,Dt27:16,Pr1:8etc.).Anyonesmitingorcursinghisfatherormotheristobeputtodeath(Ex21:15,
17).Anyonewhoisdisrespectfultohisparentsisaccursed(Dt17:16).Irreverenceonthepartofchildrentowardsanolderpersonisvisited
byasignalinstanceofDivinejudgment(2K2:23,24).SeveralpassagesintheBookofProverbsurgecare,eventoseverity,intheupbringing
ofchildren(Pr3:12,13:24,15:5,22:6,29:15etc.).Theoutcomeofthisdependenceofchildrenupontheirparents,andoftheirsubordination
tothem,wasanintenselystrongsenseoftheclosenessofthefilialbond,andahorrorofanyviolationofit.Asonwhocouldbringhimselfto
defyhisfatherandbreakawayfromhishomelifewasindeednolongerworthytobecalledason(Lk15:19).ThedisobedienceofIsraelis
bewailedinpenitencebytheprophetbecauseitappearstohimlikethemostheinouscrime,therebellionofchildrenagainstalovingfather:
Surelytheyaremypeople,childrenthatwillnoterr.Inhisloveandinhispityheredeemedthem,andhebarethemandcarriedthemall
thedaysofold.Buttheyrebelled(Is63:810).InthisconnexionsomeofthesentencesinourLordschargetotheTwelvemusthavefallen
uponstartledears(Mt10:21,3538).Childrenwereexpectedtofollowinthefootstepsoftheirparentsandtoresemblethem.Hencesuch
expressionsasAbrahamschildren,whichcarriedthenotionofresemblanceincharacter.Hencealsothefigurativeuseoftheword
children:childrenoftransgressionchildrenofdisobedience.Phraseslikethesearecloselyconnectedwithothersinwhichthewords
childrenorsonsareusedinaspiritualsenseconveyingtheideasofloveandtrustandobedience.St.PeterspeaksofMark,myson.In
touchinganxietyfortheirspiritualwelfare,St.Paul,writingtotheGalatians,addressesthem:MylittlechildrenandSt.John,inhisEpistles,
isfondofthesameexpression.

3.Thefeelingforchildhood.Tendernesstowardschildlife,appreciationofthesimplicity,thehelplessness,ofchildren,affectionof
parentsfortheirchildren,andchildrenfortheirparents:allthesearefeaturesoftheBiblewhichthemostsuperficialreadercannotfailto
observe.Therearemanytouchingandvividexamplesofandreferencestoparentallove.AllthesonsanddaughtersofJacobroseupto
comforthimforthelossofJoseph,butherefusedtobecomforted(Gn37:35).IfIbebereavedofmychildren,Iambereaved(43:14),ishis
despairingcrywhenBenjaminalsoistakenfromhimBenjamin,achildofhisoldage,alittleoneandhisfatherlovethhim(44:20).
HannahdedicatedherlittlesontotheserviceoftheLordingratitudeforhisbirthandthenyearbyyearmadealittlerobeandbroughtitto
him(1S2:19).Davidfastedandlayallnightuponthegroundprayingforthelifeofhissickchild(2S12:16).Thebriefaccountofthedeath
oftheShunammitesboyisapassageofrestrainedandpatheticbeauty(2K4:18ff.).Isaiahsfeelingfortheweaknessandhelplessnessof
childrenisdisplayedinthementionofthewordsfirstarticulatedbyhisownson(Is8:4)andinhisdescriptionofthetimewhentheearth
shouldbefulloftheknowledgeoftheLord,andlittlechildren,stilldependentforlifeandprotectionupontheirmotherscare,should,without
fearofharmonherpart,beallowedtoplayamongwildbeastsandhandletheaspandtheadder(11:69).Zechariahdreamsofthehappytime
whenJerusalemshallbefullofboysandgirlsplayinginthestreets(Zec8:5).Thebeautyofachildshumblesimplicityisacknowledgedby
thePsalmist,wholikenshisownsoultoaweanedchildwithitsmother(Ps131:2)unconsciouslyanticipatingthespiritofOne,greaterthan
he,whosaidthatonlythosewhobecameaslittlechildrenshouldinanywiseentertheKingdomofheaven(Mt18:3),andwhogavethanksto
HisFatherforrevealingthethingsofGodtobabes(Mt11:25).
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E.G.Romanes.
CHILDREN(SONS)OFGOD.ThereareafewpassagesintheOTinwhichthetermsonsofGodisappliedtoangelicbeings(Gn
6:14,Job1:6,2:1,38:7cf.Dn3:25RV).OncethejudgesofIsraelarereferredtoasgods,perhapsasappointedbyGodandvestedwith
Hisauthority(butthepassageisveryobscuremaythewordsbeironical?),and,inparallelphrase,assonsoftheMostHigh(Ps82:6,cf.Jn
10:34also,Ps29:1,89:6RVm).

Withtheseexceptions,theterm,withthecorrelativeoneofFather,designatestherelationofmentoGodandofGodtomen,withvarying
fulnessofmeaning.Itisobviousthattheuseofsuchafigurehaswidepossibilities.TocallGodFathermayimplylittlemorethanthatHeis
creatorandrulerofmen(cf.Zeus,fatherofgodsandmen)oritmayconnotesomephaseofHisprovidencetowardsafavouredindividual
ornationor,again,itmayassertthatafathersloveatitshighestisthetruestsymbolwecanframeofGodsessentialnatureandGods
dispositiontowardsallmen.Similarly,menmayconceivablybestyledchildrenofGodfrommeredependence,fromspecialprivilege,from
morallikeness,orfinallyfromafullandwillingresponsetotheDivineFatherhoodinfiliallove,trust,andobedience.Itis,therefore,not
surprisingthattheScripturefactspresentavaryingandprogressiveconceptionofGodasFatherandofmenasHischildren.

I.IntheOT.ThemostcharacteristicuseofthefigureisinconnexionwithGodsprovidentialdealingswithHispeopleIsrael.That
favourednationasawholeisHisson,HetheirFather:itisbecausethistieisviolatedbyIsraelsingratitudeandapostasythattheprophets
rebukeandappeal,whilehere,too,liesthehopeoffinalrestoration.ThusHoseadeclaresthatGodlovedIsraelandcalledHissonoutof
Egypt(Hos11:1,cf.Ex4:22Israelismyson,myfirstborn)and,inspiteoftheDivinerejectionoftheNorthernKingdom(Hos1:9Lo
ammi,notmypeople),prophesiesthatitshallstillbesaidtothemyearethesonsofthelivingGod(1:10).SotooIsaiah:Ihavenourished
andbroughtupchildren,andtheyhaverebelledagainstmeIsraeldothnotknow,mypeopledothnotconsider(1:2,3).InDeuteronomy
thesamefigureisused(1:318:5,14:1,2),andintheSongofMoses(Dt32)receivesstrikingdevelopment.GodistheFatherofIsrael,
whomHebegatbydeliveringthemfromEgypt,nourishedinthewildernessandestablished(vv.6,1015,18)thepeopleareHissonsand
daughters,Hischildren(vv.19,20).Yettheyarewarnedthatthissonshiphasmoralimplications,andmaybeforfeitedbyneglectofthem
(v.5theyhavedealtcorruptlywithhim,theyarenothischildren)andthehintisgivenofthebringinginoftheGentilesthroughasonship
based,notonnationalprivilegebutonfaithandobedience(v.21,cf.Ro10:12,13,19).

Thustherelationisnotmerelyformalbutethical,andonbothsides.TheDivineFatherhoodtowardsIsraelismanifestedinprotectingand
redeeminglove:itinvolvestheDivinefaithfulness,towhichHispeoplemaymakeappealintheirextremity(Jer31:9,1820,Is43:6,63:16,
64:812).ThefactofIsraelssonshipcarrieswithittheobligationoffilialresponse:asonhonourethhisfatherifthenIbeaFather,where
isminehonour?(Mal1:6).Butsuchresponseis,ofnecessity,notonlynational,butalso,andfirst,individualandthewayisopenedfora
conceptionofGodasFatherofeveryman(cf.Mal2:10),andofallmenas,atleastpotentially,childrenofGod.

ThePsalmshavebeenleftforseparatereference.ForifthereligionofIsraelhadreallyattainedtoanyclearconceptionofGodasFather
andofmenasHischildren,itwouldmostnaturallyfindutteranceinthesecompositions,inwhichwehaveatoncethedevoutestexpressionof
thepersonalreligiousconsciousnessandthechosenvehicleoftheworshipofthecongregation.ButthedominatingconceptionisofGodas
KingandofmanasHisservant.True,theDivinecareformanandtheDivinehelparesetforthunderawealthofimagery:Godisshield,rock,
fortress,refuge,shepherd,light,salvation,butnotFather.TwiceonlyisthenameusedofHim,notasappellativebutinsimile,todescribeHis
tendermercies.HeisaFatherofthefatherless(Ps68:5)Likeasafatherpitiethhischildren,sotheLordpitieththemthatfearhim
(103:13,cf.Is66:13).OncethetermthychildrenisappliedtoIsrael,eventhepureinheart(Ps73:15,1)andinseveralpassagestheterm36/137
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(103:13,cf.Is66:13).OncethetermthychildrenisappliedtoIsrael,eventhepureinheart(Ps73:15,1)andinseveralpassagestheterm
sonofGodisusedofthetheocraticking,asrepresentingidealIsrael(Ps2:7seealsoPs89:26,27,2S7:14,He1:5).

Itcannot,then,besaidthatintheOTwehaveadoctrineofmenaschildrenof
God,springingfrom,anddevelopedunder,aconceptionofGodasessentiallyFather.NorisitclearthatlaterJudaismmadeadvancetowards
thiscloserandmoreindividualconvictionofsonship.
Boussetaffirmsthatthebeliefcomestolight,moreandmorefrequentlythenearerweapproachtoJesusowntime,thatGodistheFather
ofeachindividualbeliever(Jesus,p.113,Eng.ed.).ButagainstthismaybesetthejudgmentofWendt:InthelaterJudaism,downtothe
timeofJesus,therewasbynomeansadevelopmentoftheconceptionofGodincliningtoamoreprevalentuseofthenameofFather.The
developmentproceededratherinthewayofenhancingtotheutmosttheideaofGodstranscendentgreatnessandjudicialauthorityovermen.
AccordingtothePharisaicview,themoralrelationofmantoGodwasoneoflegalsubjection(TeachingofJesus,i.190).
TherelevantpassagesintheApocrypha,atleast,leavethegulfunbridgedbetweenOTandNT(To13:4,Wis5:5,14:3,Sir23:1,4,36:12,
51:10,Ad.Est16:16),andnowheredoesourLordsteachingappearinsharpercontrasttocurrentreligiousideasthaninrelationtotheDivine
Fatherhood(e.g.Jn8:3942).

II.IntheNT.TheoutstandingfactisthatintheselfrevelationofJesusChrist,aswellasinHisteaching,thecharacteristicnameforGod
isFather.HeentersintofullinheritanceoftheOTconceptionoftheDivinepowerandtranscendence,proclaimsaKingdomofGod,and
developsitsmeaningforHisdisciplesbuttheKingisalsoFather,andthestressofChriststeachingonthissideisnotontheKingshipbuton
theFatherhoodofGod.InwhatuniquesenseHeknewGodasHisownFather,HimselfasSonofGod,wedonothereinquire(seeJesus
Christ),notingonlyhowsimply,inthedeepestexperiencesofjoyortrouble,HisfaithuttereditselfinthenameFather(Mt11:25,26:39,Lk
23:46).ButtherewasthatinHisreligiousconsciousnesswhichHecouldfreelysharewithHisdisciplesaschildrenofGod:thefaintand
haltinganalogyoftheOTbecamethroughHimaclearandsteadfastrevelationoftheDivineFatherhood,andofsonship,initsfullestsense,
asthepossibleandindeednormalrelationofhumantoDivine.

1.TheSynopticGospels.TheessentialanduniversalFatherhoodofGodappearsinsuchsayingsasthatofMt5:4348,and,supremely,
intheparableoftheProdigalSon.Evenwhen,asgenerally,itisindiscoursetothedisciplesthatthetermyourFatherisused,itstill
connoteswhatisinGod,awaitinginmanthatobedientrecognitionwhichissonship.ItistheappealofChristtoHisdisciplesagainst
hypocrisy,unforgivingness,lackoffaith(Mt6:1,15,26)itstandsassymboloftheDivineprovidence,forgiveness,redemptioninaword,
oftheDivinelove(Lk6:36,11:13,Mk11:25),andhenceitgivesthegroundandmannerofallaccesstoGod,Whensoeveryepray,say,
Father(Lk11:2).

IfwithJesustheFatherhoodofGodliesinHisdispositiontowardsmen,notinthemerefactthatHecreatedthem,sothefilialrelationship
isethical.GodisFather,menmustbecomechildren.IntheSynopticGospelsthetermimplyinggenerationchild(children)ofGodisnot
used,andthereferencestosonsofGodarefew,thoughsufficienttoemphasizethemoralconditionsofsonship.Thus,thepeacemakers
shallbecalledsonsofGod(Mt5:9):lovetoonesenemieshasforitsmotivethatyemaybecomesonsofyourFatherwhichisinheaven
(Mt5:45,cf.Lk6:35).ButsincesonshipisvirtuallyidenticalwithmembershipoftheKingdomofGod,thesedirectreferencesmustbe
supplementedbythemanysayingsinwhichtheconditionsofentranceintotheKingdomarelaiddown:itistherighteous(andwhattheterm
meansissetforthintheSermonontheMount)whoshallshineforthasthesuninthekingdomoftheirFather(Mt13:43).

2. TheGospel(and1Ep.)ofSt.John.IntheFourthGospel(consideredhereratherthaninitschronologicalsequence,forthesakeof37/137
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2.TheGospel(and1Ep.)ofSt.John.IntheFourthGospel(consideredhereratherthaninitschronologicalsequence,forthesakeof
comparisonwiththeSynoptics)certainelementsinourLordsrevelationoftheFatherreceivenewemphasis.

(a)TheuniqueSonshipofJesusistheprevailingtheme(Jn1:14,18,20:31).HencetheSynopticphraseyourFatherallbutdisappears.
Whatitimpliesisnotabsent,butistobereachedthrougharichunfoldingof,andfellowshipwith,thepersonalreligiousconsciousnessof
JesusHimself,underthetermsmyFatherand,especially,theFather.OnlyoncedoesHespeaktothedisciplesofyourFather,when,after
Hisresurrection,HelinksthemwithHimselfasbrethreninthemessage,IascenduntomyFatherandyourFather,andmyGodandyour
God(Jn20:17,cf.14:20).

(b)ThesonshipofthedisciplesistobeattainedthroughJesusChrist:NoonecomethuntotheFatherbutthroughme(Jn14:6).Whatis
exceptionalinthe
Synoptics(Mt11:25,Lk10:22)becomesthenormalteachingoftheFourth
Gospel:tosee,know,believe,love,confesstheSon,istheonewayofaccesstotheFather(Jn1417,1Jn2:23).Moreover,theimpulseof
attractiontoChristisitselffromtheFather(Jn6:44,65),andtheDivineinitiative,aswellasthecompletenessofthebreakrequiredwiththe
worldandtheflesh(1Jn2:16,Jn3:6),isdescribedasbeingbornanew,bornoftheSpirit,bornofGod(Jn3:38,1:13,1Jn3:9).In1
Jn.themoralfruitsofthisnewbirtharesetforthrighteousness,incapabilitytosin,love,faithintheSonofGod,victoryovertheworld(1Jn
2:29,3:9,4:7,5:1,4).

ThesearetheelementswhichcombineintheconceptionofsonshipintheJohanninewritings:theactualphrasechildren(notsons)of
GodoccursJn1:12,11:52,1Jn3:1,2,10,5:2.

3.TheEpistlesofSt.Paul.St.PaulspeaksbothofchildrenofGodandofsonsofGod.Hisdoctrinecomprisesthemysticalandthe
ethicalelementsalreadynoted,whileitisenrichedanddevelopedbyadditionalfeatures.InhisspeechatAthens(Ac17:28)heforamoment
adoptstheGreekpointofview,andregardsallmenastheoffspringofGod.Apartfromthis,heliketheFourthGospel,butinhisownway
connectssonshipwithfaithinChrist:itispartofhisdoctrineofredemption,astatusandprivilegeconferredbyGoduponmenthrough
faithinChrist,attestedbytheindwellingSpiritandHisfruits.YeareallsonsofGod,throughfaith,inChristJesus(Gal3:26)TheSpirit
himselfbearethwitnesswithourspirit,thatwearechildrenofGod(Ro8:16)AsmanyasareledbytheSpiritofGod,thesearesonsof
God(Ro8:14).ItisaschildrenofGodthathisconvertshaveamoralmissiontotheworld(Ph2:15).

TheideaofsonshipasaDivinelyconferredstatusisexpressedbySt.PaulundertheRomancustomofAdoption(wh.see),bywhicha
strangercouldbelegallyadoptedassonandendowedwithalltheprivilegesofthechildbybirth(Eph1:514,cf.Ro8:29).Thefigure
suggestsfreshpointsofanalogy.TotheRomans,St.Paulmakesmoralappealonthegroundthatinexchangeforthespiritofbondagethey
hadreceivedthespiritofadoption,wherebywecry,Abba,Father(Ro8:15).InthepassageGal3:234:7belikensthestateofthefaithful
undertheLawtothatofyoungchildrenneedingatutorheirs,yet,becauseunderguardians,differingnothingfrombondservants.The
LawastutorhasledthemtoChrist,inwhomtheyarenowsonsofGodChristhasredeemedthemfromthebondageofLawthatthey
mightreceivetheadoptionofsons,and,becausetheyaresons,GodsentforththeSpiritofhisSonintoourhearts,crying,Abba,Father.
Thespiritualsonship,opentoallbelievers,shouldbenostumblingblocktoIsrael,thoughtothemspeciallybelongedtheadoption(Ro9:4).
ItfulfilsthetypicaldistinctionwithinIsraelitselfofchildrenofthefleshandchildrenofthepromise:byDivineelectionalonemen
becomechildrenofGod,sonsofthelivingGod(Gal4:28,Ro9:8,26).
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St.Paulfurtherconceivesofsonshipaslookingforwardforitsfullrealization.
Wearewaitingforouradoption,towittheredemptionofourbody(Ro8:23).AsChristwasSonofGod,yetwasbyHisresurrection
declaredtobetheSonofGodwithpower(Ro1:4),sowilldeliverancefromthebondageofcorruptionrevealthesonsofGod,andall
creationshallshareinthelibertyofthegloryofthechildrenofGod(Ro8:1825).Thisultimaterealizationofsonshipistobeconformedto
theimageofhisSon,thathemightbethefirstbornamongmanybrethren(Ro8:29,cf.1Jn3:2).Finally,thegreatnessandthecertaintyofthe
futuregloryaresetforthunderthethoughtofthesonasheir(Ro8:17,Gal4:17cf.Eph1:1418).

4.OtherNTwriters.TheopeningchaptersoftheEpistletotheHebrewsemphasizethegreatnessandfinalityofarevelationthrough
theSon,whoinstoopingtoredeemmenisnotashamedtocallthembrethrentheyarechildrenwhosenatureHeshares,sonswho
throughHimarebroughttoglory(He2:918).AndatthecloseoftheEpistlethereadersareexhortedtoregardsufferingastheDivine
chastening,whichmarksthemoutassonsandcomesfromtheFatherofspirits(12:413).

IftheEp.ofSt.JamessuggestsauniversalviewoftheFatherhoodofGodinthephrasestheGodandFather,theLordandFather,the
Fatheroflights(Ja1:27,3:9,1:17),italsoendorsesthedeeperspiritualsonshipunderthefigure,Ofhisownwillhebroughtusforthbythe
wordoftruth(1:18).ThesamemetaphorofspiritualbirthisusedbySt.Peter.In1P1:23thisbirth,asinJames,isthroughthewordof
Godin1:3itisattributedtotheresurrectionofJesusChrist,andisjoinedwiththePaulinethoughtofaninheritanceyettobefullyrevealed.
ThenameFatherappearsasthedistinctivelyChristiannameforGodifyecallonhimasFather(1:17).Buttheideaofsonshipisnot
developed:thethoughtdoesnotoccurintheenumerationofChristianprivilegesin2:110,wherethephrasesonsofthelivingGodisabsent
fromthereferencetoHosea,thoughfoundinthecorrespondingreferencebySt.Paul(cf.1P2:10withRo9:25,26).

Finally,inRevelationwemeetwiththisfigureofsonship,withemphasisonitsethicalside,inthevisionofthenewheavenandthenew
earth:Hethatovercomethshallinheritthesethings:andIwillbehisGod,andheshallbemyson(Rev21:7,cf.v.8).

S.W.Green.
CHILDREN,SONGOFTHETHREE.SeeApocrypha,p.42b.
CHILEAB.ThesecondsonofDavidbyAbigail,thewidowofNabaltheCarmelite(2S3:3).In1Ch3:1heiscalledDaniel.
CHILIARCH(Rev19:18RVm).SeeBand.
CHILIASM.Apeculiardoctrineofthefuture,baseduponadevelopedandliteralizedexpositionoftheeschatologicalpicturesofthe
NT.ItincludesthedoctrineoftheMillennium(whenceitsnamefr.Gr.chilioi),thatistosay,theperiodof1000yearsbetweenthe
resurrectionofthesaintsandthatoftherestofthedead,ofthevisibleappearanceofChristtoestablishHisKingdomofrisensaintsanddefeat
anequallyliteralAntichrist,andoftheLastJudgment.

ThegermofdevelopedChiliasmistobefoundintheteachingoftheApostles,andparticularlyinRev.20butitseemstohavehadno
greatprominenceindoctrinaldevelopmentuntilthemiddleofthe2ndcent.,whenitspreadfromAsiaMinor,particularlyamongtheJewish
Ebionites.JustinMartyrbelievedintheearthlyreignofChrist,butknewthatsomeorthodoxChristiansdidnot.Papiasdescribesthecoming
KingdomwiththeextravagantimageryoftheJewishApocalyptic.TheMontanistswereextremecbiliasts,butOrigenopposedthedoctrine.

AugustinemaybesaidtohavegiventhedeathblowtothechiliasticexpectationintheearlyChurchbyhisidentificationoftheChurchwith 39/137
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AugustinemaybesaidtohavegiventhedeathblowtothechiliasticexpectationintheearlyChurchbyhisidentificationoftheChurchwith
theKingdomofGodonearthandthroughouttheMiddleAgeshisviewobtained.

ArevivalofchiliasticconceptionscamewiththeReformation,whenattentionwasagainconcentratedonNTteaching.Thefanaticsamong
thereformingsects,particularlytheAnabaptistsatMnster,expectedthespeedyestablishmentofChristonearth,apparentlytakingsome
stepstowardspreparationtherefor.The
AugsburgandHelveticConfessions,however,condemnChiliasm,andtheleadingReformers,whiletheyexpectedthespeedycomingof
Christ,didnotattempttoliteralizedescriptionsofthisevent.Throughoutthe17thcent.thechiliasticviewsagainappearafactdoubtless
due,asinthetimeoftheearlyChurchandoftheReformation,topersecution.Theview,however,wasneverregardedasstrictlyorthodox,
althoughadvocatedbyprominentwritersonboththeContinentandinEngland.

InmoderntimesChiliasmhasbeenchampionedbyanumberofprominenttheologians,butparticularlybysectsliketheMormons,the
SecondAdventists,and,aspremillenarians,bymanyprofessionalevangelists.Thereis,however,nouniformityinthesechiliasticviews,
exceptastothebeliefinthecomingoftheMillennium(seeMillennium),inwhichallshare.TheopinionsastothenatureoftheKingdom
alsorangefromextremelysensuousviewslikethoseofcertainoftheearlyChurchFatherstothehighlysocialisticviewsofmenlikeOetinger.
Atthepresenttime,outsideofthecircleofthepremillenarians,chiliasticviewshavelittleinfluence,andthetendencyisstrongtosubstitute
beliefinsocialevolution,undertheinspirationofChristianity,forthecataclysmicestablishmentofaliteralkingdombyJesusatHissecond
Advent.

ShailerMathews.
CHILIONandMahlonwerethetwosonsofElimelechandNaomi(Ru1:1,2).TheymarriedwomenoftheMoabitesMahlonmarrying
Ruth,andChilionOrpah(Ru4:10)andafterasojournoftenyearsinMoabiteterritorydiedthere.Chilionmeanswastingaway.Mahlon
meanssickly.NeitherofthesenamesoccurselsewhereintheBible.ThetwonamesoccurinvaryingorderinRu1:2and4:9,sothatno
conclusioncanbedrawnastowhichwastheelder.
CHILMADoccursinEzk27:23atthecloseofthelistofnationsthattradedwithTyre.ThenamehasbeenthoughttobetheAram.form
ofCharmande,atownontheEuphratesmentionedbyXenophon(Anab.i.5.10).GeorgeSmithidentifiedChilmadwiththemodern
KalwdhanearBaghdadbutneitheroftheseconjectureshasmuchprobability.
CHIMHAM.Probablytheson(cf.1K2:7)ofBarzillaitheGileadite,whoreturnedwithDavidfrombeyondJordantoJerusalemafter
thedeathofAbsalom(2S19:31f.).See,further,Geruthchimham.
CHIMNEY.SeeHouse,7.
CHINNERETH.Acity(Dt3:17,Jos11:2[inlatterspeltChinneroth]19:35)whichgaveitsnametotheSeaofChinnereth(Nu34:11,
Jos12:3,13:27),theOTdesignationoftheSeaofGalilee.Thesiteofthetownisuncertain,butitfollowsRakkath(probablyTiberias),and
mayhavebeenintheplainofGennesaret(cf.1K15:20).
CHIOS.AnislandinthegeanSeaoppositetheIonianpeninsulainAsiaMinor.Inthe5thcent.b.c.theinhabitantsweretherichestof
alltheGreeks.Thecitywasdistinguishedinliteraturealso,andclaimedtobethebirthplaceofHomer.UptothetimeofVespasianitwas,
undertheRomanEmpire,afreeState.ThechiefcitywasalsonamedChios.St.PaulpasseditonhislastvoyageinthegeanSea(Ac20:15).
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undertheRomanEmpire,afreeState.ThechiefcitywasalsonamedChios.St.PaulpasseditonhislastvoyageinthegeanSea(Ac20:15).

A.Souter.
CHISLEV(AVChisleu,Neh1:1,Zec7:1).SeeTime.
CHISLON(strength).FatherofElidad,Benjaminsrepresentativefordividingtheland(Nu34:21P).
CHISLOTHTABOR,Jos19:12.SeeChesulloth.
CHITHLISH(Jos15:40,AVKithlish).AtownintheShephelahofJudah.
Thesiteisunknown.
CHITTIM(1Mac1:1,8:5)forKittim(wh.see).
CHIUN.Am5:26(seeRephan,Siccuth).Asshownbytheappositionalphraseyourgodstar,thisnamereferstotheAssyr.Kaiwanu,
theplanetSaturn(=Ninib,wargod),whosetemple,BitNinib,intheprovinceofJerusalemismentionedbytheEgyptiangovernorsofthis
cityasearlyasb.c.1450.Thetranslationofthewordasanappellative(pedestal)bysomeisduetothevocalizationoftheMassoretes,who
aresupposedtohaveconsidereditacommonnoun.However,itisfarmoreprobablethatthey,consciousofitsreference,substitutedforthe
originalvowelsthoseofthewordshiqqts(abomination)anepithetoftenappliedtostrangegods.

N.Koenig.
CHLOE(mentionedonlyin1Co1:11).St.PaulhadbeeninformedofthedissensionsatCorinthprob.bysomeofherChristianslaves.
ChloeherselfmayhavebeeneitheraChristianorabeathen,andmayhavelivedeitheratCorinthoratEphesus.InfavourofthelatterisSt.
Paulsusualtact,whichwouldnotsuggesttheinvidiousmentionofhisinformantsnames,iftheyweremembersoftheCorinthianChurch.
CHOBA(Jth4:4Chobai15:4,5,noticedwithDamascus).PerhapsthelandofHobah(wh.see).
CHOIR(Neh12:8RVm).SeePraise.
CHOLA.AnunknownlocalitymentionedinJth15:4.
CHOLERisusedinSir31:20,37:30inthesenseofadisease,perhapscholera,diarrhaOxf.Eng.Dict.(RVcolic)andinDn8:7,
11:11inthesenseofbitteranger.Bothmeaningsareold,andbelongedindeedtotheLat.choleraasearlyasthe3rdand4thcenturies.
CHORAZIN.AplacereferredtoonlyinthedenunciationbyChrist(Mt11:21,Lk10:13).ItiswithprobabilityidentifiedwithKerazeh,
northofTellHum,whereareremainsofpillars,walls,etc.,ofbasalt.

R.A.S.Macalister.
CHORBE(AVCorbe),1Es5:12=Zaccai,Ezr2:9,Neh7:14.
CHOSAMUS(1Es9:32).ItisnotimprobablethattheGr.readingisduetoacopyistserror,especiallyseeingthatthethreeproper
namesthatfollowSimeoninthetextofEzr10:31areomittedin1Esdras.
CHRIST.SeeJesusChrist,andMessiah.
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CHRIST.SeeJesusChrist,andMessiah.
CHRISTIAN.Thisname,fromveryearlytimesthedistinctivetitleofthefollowersofJesusChrist,occursonlythriceinNT(Ac11:26,
26:28,1P4:16).
1.Timeandplaceoforigin.Ouronlyinformationonthispointcomesfrom
Ac11:26.ItwasinAntioch,andinconnexionwiththemissionofBarnabasandSaultothatcity,thatthenamearose.Ithassometimesbeen
suggestedthattheinfrequentuseofChristianintheNTpointstoaconsiderablylaterorigin,andthattheauthorofActshadnobetterreason
forassigningittosoearlyadatethanthefactthatthefoundingofthefirstGentilechurchappearedtohimtobeanappropriateoccasionforits
comingintouse.ButapartfromSt.Lukeswellestablishedclaim,asthehistorianofChristandearlyChristianity,tohavetracedthecourseof
allthingsaccuratelyfromthefirst,hisownnonemploymentofthewordasageneraldesignationforthedisciplesofChristsuggeststhathe
hadnoreasonotherthanagenuinehistoricaloneforreferringtotheoriginofthenameatall.

2.Authorsofthename.(1)ItisexceedinglyunlikelythatitwasoriginallyadoptedbytheChristiansthemselves.AstheNTshows,
theywereinthehabitofusingotherdesignationsthedisciples(Ac11:26andpassim),thebrethrenAc9:30,Ro16:14andconstantly),
theelect(Ro8:33,Col3:12),thesaints(Ac
9:13,Ro12:13),believers(Ac5:14,1Ti4:12),theWay(Ac9:2,19:9).ButinNTtimesweneverfindthemcallingthemselvesChristians.
InAc26:28itiskingAgrippawhoemploysthename.Andthoughin1P4:16itcomesfromthepenofanApostle,thecontextshowsthathe
isusingitasatermofaccusationonthelipsoftheChurchsenemies.

(2)ItcannothavebeenappliedtothefollowersofJesusbytheJews.TheJewsbelievedintheChrist,i.e.theAnointedOne,the
MessiahandtheyardentlylookedforHimtocome.ButitwastheirpassionatecontentionthatJesusofNazarethwasnottheChrist.Tocall
HisfollowersChristianswasthelastthingtheywouldhavethoughtofdoing.Theyreferredtothemcontemptuouslyasthissect(Ac28:22,
cf.24:5,14),andwhencontemptpassedintohatredtheycalledthemNazarenes(Ac24:5,cf.Jn1:46).ItistruethatAgrippa,aJewishking,
makesuseofthenamebutthiswasnearly20yearsafter,andwhen,inthatRomanworldwithwhichhelivedincloserelations,ithad
becometherecognizeddesignationofthenewfaith.

(3)AlmostcertainlythenameoweditsorigintothenonChristianGentilesofAntioch.AstheseAntiochenessawBarnabasandSaul
standingdaybydayinthemarketplaceoratthecornersofthestreets,andproclaimingthattheChristhadcomeandthatJesuswastheChrist,
theycaughtupthewordwithoutunderstandingit,andbestowedthenameofChristiansonthesepreachersandtheirfollowers.Probablyit
wasgiven,notasamerenickname,butasatermofconvenience.Yetdoubtlessitcarriedwithitasuggestionofcontempt,andsomaybe
comparedtosuchtitlesasPuritanandMethodistoriginallyappliedbythosewhostoodoutsideofthespiritualmovementswhichthe
namesweremeanttocharacterize.
3.Thespreadofthename.Originatinginthiscasualway,thenametookdeeprootinthesoilofhumanspeech,andthethreepassages
oftheNTinwhichitoccursshowhowwidelyithadspreadwithinthecourseofasinglegeneration.InAc26:28wefinditonthelipsofa
Jewishruler,speakinginCsareabeforeanaudienceofRomanofficialsandwithin20yearsafteritwasfirstusedinAntioch.Afewyears
laterSt.PeterwritestotheelectwhoaresojournersoftheDispersioninPontus,Galatia,Cappadocia,Asia,andBithynia(1P1:1)and,
withoutsuggestingthatChristianwasanamewhichtheChurchhadyetadoptedasitsown,heassumesthatitwasperfectlyfamiliartothe
electthemselvesoveravastregionoftheDispersionandfurtherimpliesthatbythistime,thetimeprobablyofNerospersecution(a.d.64),
tobecalledaChristianwasequivalenttobeingliabletosufferpersecutionforthesakeofChrist(4:16).ItwaslaterstillthatSt.Lukewrote

theBookofActsandwhenhesaysthatthediscipleswerecalledChristiansfirstinAntioch(Ac11:26),heevidentlymeansthatthiswasa
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theBookofActsandwhenhesaysthatthediscipleswerecalledChristiansfirstinAntioch(Ac11:26),heevidentlymeansthatthiswasa
namebywhichtheywerenowcommonlyknown,thoughhisownusagedoesnotsuggestthattheyhadevenyetassumeditthemselves.

OutsideoftheNTwefindTacitusandSuetoniustestifyingthatthedesignationChristian(orChrestian)waspopularlyusedinRomeat
thetimeoftheNeronianpersecutionwhilefromPliny,earlyinthe2ndcent.,welearnthatbyhisdayitwasemployedinRomancourtsof
law.AreyouaChristian?wasthequestionhewashimselfaccustomedtoputtopersonsbroughtbeforehimonachargeofbeingfollowers
ofChrist.BythetimeofPolycarpsmartyrdom(soonafterthemiddleofthe2ndcent.),thetermofaccusationandcrossexaminationhas
becomeoneofjoyfulprofession.IamaChristianwasPolycarpsrepeatedanswertothosewhourgedhimtorecant.Itwasnaturalthatthose
whowerecalledtosufferasChristiansshouldcometogloryinthenamethatbroughtthecallandtheopportunitytoconfessChrist.Andsoa
namegivenbytheoutsideworldinacasualfashionwasadoptedbytheChurchasatitleofgloryandpride.

4.Themeaningattachedtothename.TheoriginalmeaningwassimplyafollowerofChrist.TheAntiochenesdidnotknowwho
thisChristwasofwhomthepreachersspokesolittledidtheyknowthattheymistookforapropernamewhatwasreallyadesignationof
Jesus.But,takingittobeHispersonalname,theycalledChristsdisciplesChristians,justasPompeysfollowershadbeencalled
Pompeians,ortheadherentsofHerodsdynastyHerodians.Nodoubttheyusedthewordwithatouchofgoodhumouredcontemptthe
ChristianswerethefollowersofsomebodyorothercalledChrist.Itiscontemptagain,butofanintenserkind,thatseemstobeconveyedby
AgrippaswordstoSt.Paul,WithbutlittlepersuasionthouwouldestfainmakemeaChristian!(Ac26:28).In1Peteradarkershadowhas
fallenuponthename.NerohasmadeitcriminaltobeaChristian,andthewordisnowonenotofscornmerely,butofhatredandfear.The
StateranksaChristianwithmurderersandthievesandothermalefactors(cf.1P4:14withv.15).OnitsadoptionbytheChurch,deeper
meaningsbegantobereadintoit.IttestifiedtothedignityoftheChurchsLordtheAnointedOne,therightfulKingofthatKingdom
whichhathnoend.ItproclaimedtheprivilegesthatbelongedtoChristiansthemselvesfortheytoowereanointedwiththeoilofGodtobea
holygeneration,aroyalpriesthood.Moreover,inGreekthewordchristos(anointed)suggestedthemorefamiliarwordchrestos(gracious).
TheChristianswereoftenmisnamedChrestiansfromanideathatthefounderoftheirreligionwasoneChrestos.Andthisheathenblunder
conveyedahappyandbeautifulsuggestion.ItispossiblethatSt.PeterhimselfisplayingonthewordChristwhenhewrites(1P2:3),Ifso
beyehavetastedthattheLordisgracious(chrestos).AndbyandbywefindTertullianremindingtheenemiesoftheChurchthatthevery
nameChrestians,whichtheygavetoChristspeopleinerror,isonethatspeaksofsweetnessandbenignity.

5.Thehistoricalsignificanceofthename.(1)ItmarkedthedistinctemergenceofChristianityfromJudaism,andtherecognitionofits
righttoaseparateplaceamongthereligionsoftheworld.Hitherto,tooutsiders,ChristianityhadbeenonlyaJewishsect(cf.thewordsof
Gallio,Ac18:14,15),norhadthefirstApostlesthemselvesdreamtofbreakingawayfromsynagogueandTemple.ButtheAntiochenessaw
thatChristsdisciplesmustbedistinguishedfromtheJewsandputintoacategoryoftheirown.Theyunderstood,howeverdimly,thatanew
religionhadsprungupontheearth,andbygivingitsfollowersthisnewname,theyhelpedtoquickeninthemindoftheChurchitselfthe
consciousnessofaseparateexistence.(2)Itmarkedthefact,notheretoforerealized,thatChristianitywasareligionfortheGentiles.Probably
itwasbecausethemissionariestoAntiochnotonlypreachedChrist,butpreachedHimuntotheGreeksalso(Ac11:20),thattheinhabitants
discernedinthesementheheraldsofanewfaith.ItwasnotthewayofJewishRabbistoprofferJudaismtoGreeksinthemarketplace.
ChristianityappearedinAntiochasauniversalreligion,makingnodistinctionbetweenJewandGentile.(3)Itisnotwithoutsignificancethat
itwasfirstinAntiochthattheChristiansreceivedthisname.ItshowshowtheChurchscentreofgravitywasshifting.Uptothistime
ChristiansaswellasJewslookedtoJerusalemineverythingasthemotherofthemall.ButJerusalemwasnotfittedtobethechiefcityofa
universalfaith.Paulsawthisclearlyhelpedtoitwithoutdoubtbyhisexperiencesatthisverytime.AndsoAntiochbecametheheadquarters
ofhismissionarylabours,andthroughhimtheheadquartersofaggressiveChristianityintheearlyApostolicage(13:1ff.,14:26f.,15:1ff.,2243/137
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ofhismissionarylabours,andthroughhimtheheadquartersofaggressiveChristianityintheearlyApostolicage(13:1ff.,14:26f.,15:1ff.,22
f.,35ff.,18:22ff.).Itservedasasteppingstoneforthatmovement,inevitablefromthedaywhenChristianitywasfirstpreacheduntothe
Gentiles,whichbyandbymadeRome,themetropolisoftheworld,themothercityalsooftheuniversalChurch.(4)Thenamemarkedthe
factthatChristianitywasnotthereligionofabookoradogma,anideaoraninstitution,butafaiththatcentredinaPerson.Themenof
AntiochweremistakenwhentheysupposedthatChristwasapersonalname,buttheymadenomistakeinthinkingthatHewhosenamethey
tooktobeChristoswasthefoundationstoneofthisnewfaith.Bycallingthedisciples
Christians they became unconscious prophets of the truth that Christianity, whether regarded from the side of historical revelation or of
personalexperience,isallsummedupinthePersonofJesusChrist.

J.C.Lambert.
CHRISTIANITY.WhenthenameChristian(seeprecedingart.)hadcometobethespecificdesignationofafollowerofJesusChrist,
itwasinevitablethatthewordChristianityshouldsoonerorlaterbeusedtodenotethefaithwhichChristiansprofess.Theworddoesnot
occurintheNT,however,andfirstmakesitsappearanceinthelettersofIgnatiusearlyinthe2ndcentury.Butfor1800yearsithasbeenthe
regulartermforthereligionwhichclaimsJesusChristasitsfounder,andrecognizesinHisPersonandworkthesumandsubstanceofits
beliefs.

Christianitypresentsitselftousundertwoaspectsobjectiveandsubjective,pastandpresent,worldhistoricalandpersonal.Itisagreat
factofuniversalhistory,butalsoatruthofpersonalexperience.Itisarevelationgivenfromabove,butalsoanappropriationeffectedfrom
within.Wemustthinkofittherefore(1)asitwashistoricallyrevealedtotheworld(2)asitisrealizedinthelifeoftheindividual.

I.ChristianityasaHistoricalRevelation.Indealingwiththispartofthesubjecttwooppositemistakesmustbeavoided.(1)Firstthe
mistakeofthosewhoconfoundhistorywithdogma,principleswithinstitutions,andreadbackintoChristianityasaDivinerevelationthelater
creedsandritesandordersoftheChurch.ItwasinevitablethattheChristianreligioninthecourseofitshistoryshouldclotheitselfinoutward
forms,butitisnottobeidentifiedwiththeformsithasassumed.Indealingwiththesubject,wearelimited,ofcourse,bytheplanofthis
work,totheBiblicalmaterial.Butapartfromthat,theviewtakeninthepresentarticleisthat,inseekingtodiscoverChristianityinits
essentialnature,wemustaccepttheNTasourauthorityandnorm,inasmuchastherealonewefindthehistoricalrecordofthelifeandself
witnessofJesusChrist,andalsothewritingsofthatApostolicgroupwhichmovedintheimmediatelightofHismanifestationasthatwas
givennotonlyinHislifeonearth,butinHisdeathandresurrectionandtheirextraordinaryspiritualresults.
(2)Ontheotherhand,wemustavoidtheerrorofthosewho,whentheyinsistongoingbacktoChrist,anddemandthesubstitutionofthe
ChristofhistoryfortheChristofdogma,assumethatnothingthatissupernaturalcanhehistorical,andthattheChristwhomwefindinthe
NTtheChristoftheIncarnationandtheResurrectionandtheAtonement,theChristwhowroughtmiraclesandclaimedtobetheSonof
God,andwassoacceptedbythosewhohadknownHiminthefleshandsubsequentlyknewHimintheSpiritisnottheJesusofhistoryat
all.Tothisitcanonlybesaidherethattherealityofallegedsupernaturalfacts,liketherealityofanyotherallegedfacts,dependsuponthe
evidence,andisnottoberuledoutbyanypresuppositions.Further,thatwhilefromthenatureofthecasethereisadifferencebetweenthe
teachingofJesusduringHisearthlyministryandtheteachingoftheApostlesregardingtherisenChrist,theevidenceofourLordsown
consciousnessandhistory,evenaswefinditintheSynopticGospels,pointstothecorrectnessoftheApostolicconclusionsaboutHim.We
thereforeholdthatwhateverChristianityis,itisnotwhatcertainmodernwritersdescribeasthereligionofJesus,butsomethingvery
differentandthatasitisnottobeconfoundedwithchurchlydogmasandinstitutions,itisjustaslittletobeidentifiedwithanethicaltheism
basedonthebeautyofChristscharacterandthepurepreceptsofHisSermonontheMount.ThemenwhowerefirstcalledChristians(Ac 44/137
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basedonthebeautyofChristscharacterandthepurepreceptsofHisSermonontheMount.ThemenwhowerefirstcalledChristians(Ac
11:26)hadneverseenJesusorlistenedtoHisteaching,andthegospelthatlaiditsgraspuponthemandwonforthemthisdistinctivename
wasneitheraharerepetitionoftheMastersteachingnoramereexhibitionofHisperfectlife.Onthecontrary,itwassuchagospelasmeets
usintheEpistlesofSt.PaulandthesermonsreportedinActsthegospelofOnewhonotonlylivedaspotlesslifeandspakeasneverman
spake,butdiedforoursinsandwasraisedagainforourjustification,andwastherebydeclaredtobetheSonofGodwithpower.Itisin
accordance,therefore,withtheoriginalapplicationofthenameChristianthatinseekingforthemeaningofthewordChristianitywe
shouldmakefulluseoftheApostolictestimonyregardingChrist.

1.Asareligionappearinginhistory,Christianityhaditshistoricalrelationsanditshistoricalroots.(a)Itwasrelatedtoalltheoldethnic
faiths,andtoeveryreligiousexperienceofvisionandlonging,ofstrivinganddespair,thatthesoulofmanhadeverknown.Themodernstudy
ofComparativeReligionisenablingustorealizethisasithasneverbeenrealizedbeforebuttheNTmakesthegeneraltruthperfectlyplain.
Godspeakstomaninthevisibleworld(Ro1:20),HewritesHislawonthenaturalheart(2:15),HeneverleavesHimselfwithoutwitness(Ac
14:17).AndontheirpartmengropethroughthedarknessafterGod(Ac17:27),beingdimlyconsciousofthetruththattheyarealsoHis
offspring(v.28).AndsowhenChristcomes,HecomesnotonlyastheLightoftheworld(Jn8:12),butasthetrueLightwhichIightethevery
manthatcomethintoit(1:9)astatementwhichimpliesthatevenapartfromHishistoricalmanifestationinJuda,theheavenlyChristwas
theLightandLifeofallmen,andthatthereisasenseinwhichasoulmaybenaturallyChristianasTertulliansaid.

(b)ButwhileChristianitywasandisrelatedtoalltheethnicfaiths,itwasdeeplyrootedinthesoiloftheOT.Inthepaganreligionswefind
manyanticipationsofChristianity,butinJudaismthereisadefiniteandDivinepreparationforit.Lawandprophecy,priesthoodandsacrifice
allcontributeddirectlytothisresult.St.PauldeclaresthatthelawwasourschoolmastertobringusuntoChrist(Gal3:24).TheEvangelists
drawattentionagainandagaintothefact,soevidenttoeverydiscerningreaderofScripture,thattheprophetswereheraldsoftheChristwho
wastocome.TheauthorofHebrewsshowsusthattheministriesofTabernacleandTemplewereexamplesandshadowsofChristsheavenly
Priesthood.IntheFourthGospelwefindJesusHimselfaffirmingthatsalvationisoftheJews(Jn4:22)andinthatverysermoninwhichHe
setsforththemanifestoofHisownKingdom,HeproclaimsthatHecametofulfilandnottodestroytheLawandtheProphetsofIsrael(Mt
5:17).

2.Butnotwithstandingitshistoricalconnexionswiththepast,Christianitywasareligionabsolutelynew.Thepaganfaiths,sofarfrom
explainingitsorigin,serverathertorevealtheworldsgreatneedofit.St.PaulseizedonthistruthwhenhesawinthealtaratAthens
inscribedToanUnknownGod,anunconsciousappealtotheChristianmissionarytodeclaretheGodandFatherofJesusChrist(Ac
17:22ff.).AndevenJudaismnomoreaccountsforChristianitythanthesoilaccountsforthemightytreewhichspringsoutofit.While
carefullyrelatingHimselftoJudaism,Jesusnolesscarefullydiscriminatedbetweenthepermanentandthepassinginitsinstitutions.He
claimedtherightnotonlytogiveafreshreadingofitsancientlaws(Mt5:21ff.,27ff.),buteventoabrogatecertainlawsaltogether(vv.33ff.,
38ff.,43ff.).HesetHimselfnotmerelyabovethemofoldtime(Mt5passim),butaboveMoses(19:7ff.||,22:24ff.||,Jn6:32ff.)and
Solomon(Mt12:42||),Abraham(Jn8:53ff.)andDavid(Mt22:41ff.||).ItwasthisfreedomofJesusindealingwiththeoldreligionthat
astonishedHishearers:Hetaughtthemashavingauthority,andnotastheirscribes(7:28f.).Moreover,Hisattitudeofindependencetowards
JudaismisillustratedbytheoppositionoftheJewishleaderstoHimself.HiscondemnationandcrucifixionisthestandingproofthatHeand
HisreligiondidnotgrowoutofJudaismbyanyprocessofnaturalevolution.St.Paulsetstheimmensedifferencebetweenthetwofaithsin
theclearestlightbyhiscontrast,sofullyworkedoutinRom.andGal.,betweentheLawofMosesandthegraceofChrist.Andverysoonin
thehistoryoftheearlyChurchtherecamethatinevitablecrisiswhichdecidedthatthoughJudaismhadbeenthecradleofChristianity,itwas
nottobeitsnursingmother(cf.Fairbairn,ChristinModernTheology,p.52)thatChristianitywasnotamerespiritualizedJudaism,buta
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nottobeitsnursingmother(cf.Fairbairn,ChristinModernTheology,p.52)thatChristianitywasnotamerespiritualizedJudaism,buta
newanduniversalreligionrecognizingnodistinctionbetweenJewandGreek,circumcisionanduncircumcision,andseeinginChristHimself
theallinall.

3.When,withtheNTasourguide,weseekfortheessentialfeaturesofobjectiveChristianity,thefollowingcharacteristicspresent
themselves:

(a)ItisarevelationofGodthroughthelifeandinthePersonofJesusChrist.Uponthisthevastmajorityofthosewhocallthemselves
Christiansarepracticallyagreed.GodwasinChrist(2Co5:19)andinthehumanfaceofJesustheresoshonethebrightnessoftheEternal
Glory(4:6)thathethathathseenHimhathseentheFather(Jn14:9).InHisteachingJesusrevealedGodtousasourFatherinheaveninHis
owntendernessandpityandboundlessloveformenHeshoweduswhattheheavenlyFatherhoodreallymeans.Andso,aswereadthe
Gospels,theassurancegrowsthatinlookingonthefaceofJesusChristweareseeingrightintotheheartoftheinvisibleGod.
Therearethose,however,who,whilefullyadmittingallthis,yethesitatetorecognizeinthehistoricalJesusapersonalrevelationofthe
Divinenatureinhumanform.ForthemJesusastheRevealerhastheworthofGodwithoutbeingHimselfGod.ButthisisnottheChristwho
ispresentedtousintheNTandifwefallshortoftheNTviewofChrist,ourChristianitywillnotbetheChristianityoftheNT.If,onthe
otherhand,wetaketheGospelsandEpistlesasourauthorities,wemustholdupontheirevidencenotonlythatGodwasinChrist,butthat
HesodweltinChristthatChristHimselfwasGodandthathistoricalChristianityisnothinglessthananimmediaterevelationoftheDivine
naturethroughtheincarnationofGodinJesusChrist.
(b)ChristianityisthereligionnotonlyoftherevelationofGodbutoftheredemptionofman.Thepaganismthatrearedaltarstoan
unknownGodprovedimpotenttoredeemhumanlifefromthedominionofevil(seeRo1:21ff.),whilethevisionsoftheDivinethatcameto
trueIsraelitesonlymadethemmoredeeplyconsciousoftheirsinandneed(cf.Is6:5).ThepurposeofJesusisannouncedinHisveryname
Hecametosavehispeoplefromtheirsins(Mt1:21).Hisowntestimonyruns:TheSonofMancametoseekandtosavethatwhichwas
lost(Lk19:10).St.PaulsetsChristbeforeusastheDivineReconcilerandRedeemer.GodwasinChristreconcilingtheworlduntoHimself
(2Co5:19,cf.Ro5:10)HesentforthHisSonthatwemighthaveredemptionthroughHisblood,andmightreceivetheadoptionofsons(Gal
4:4,5,Eph1:7).AnditisthewitnessofthewholeNTthatChristaccomplishedHisworkofseekingandsaving,ofreconcilingand
redeeming,bytakingoursinsuponHim,bysufferingwithmenandforthem,bydyingatlastonthecrosstheJustfortheunjust,byrising
fromthedeadandsittingdownatGodsrighthandtodispensethosespiritualgiftsandpowerswherebyweareenabledtoovercomethe
world.

(c)ItfollowsfromwhathasjustbeensaidthatChristianityisthereligionofperfectedcharacter.Whatevermaybethecasewithother
faiths,Christianitypermitsofnodivorcebetweenreligionandmorality.ItisnotfromthepainsofsinmerelythatJesuscomestoredeemus,
butfromsinitself.InkeepingwiththisHesetsupanidealstandardofpersonalattainmentYeshallbeperfect,Hesays,asyourheavenly
Fatherisperfect(Mt5:48).Unlikethereligionsofthepaganworld,Judaismwasbaseduponamorallawofwonderfulpurityandbreadth.
ButthelawwhichJesusgaveandwhichHisApostlesenforcedisbroaderandloftierbeyondcomparisonalawforheartandmindaswellas
fortheoutwardlife,forbiddingunreasonableangerequallywithmurder(v.21ff.),andunholydesirenolessthanadultery(v.27f.).Moreover,
Christnotonlyenjoinedthisheavenlystandardofcharacter,butexemplifieditpersonally.ItisnotatheoreticalidealthatHesetsbeforeus,
butonethathasbeenrealizedinahumanlife.TheethicsofJesusaretheethicsofHisownexamplethemindofChrististheChristians
indwellinglaw(Ph2:5).

(d) Christianityisthereligionofaregeneratedsociety.Ithasthepromisenotofpersonalperfectiononly,butoftheestablishmentofa
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(d)Christianityisthereligionofaregeneratedsociety.Ithasthepromisenotofpersonalperfectiononly,butoftheestablishmentofa
Societypure,blessed,andworldwide.ThekingdomwasthecharacteristicwordofJesusinproclaimingHismessageandsobothMt.and
Mk.describeHisgospelasthegospelofthekingdom(Mt4:23,9:35,Mk1:14).AndastheruleofaDivineKingisthefirstimplicationof
theword,thesecondistheharmoniousrelationofthesubjectsoftheKingdomtooneanother.LoveistheruleoftheKingdom(Mt5:43ff.||,
Jn13:34,
15:12,17)andlovefromitsverynatureisthefulfillingofallsociallaw(Ro13:8,10,Gal5:14).TheChurchwhichChristestablishedisthe
organizationofthissocialKingdomformoralandreligiousends(Mt16:18f.,18:17).AndwhenChristspeopleshallhavebeenjoined
togetherinaperfectharmonyofbrotherlyloveandmutualcooperation,evenastheyareseverallyjoinedtoHimwhoistheirHead(Ro12:5,
1Co12:27,Eph1:22f.,4:15f.,5:23),therewillcometherealizationofthatperfectSocietywhichisvariouslyshadowedforthintheNTunder
thefiguresofaKingdomfromwhichtherehavebeencastforthallthingsthatcausestumbling(Mt13:41),agloriousChurchwithoutspotor
wrinkleoranysuchthing(Eph5:27),aHolyCity,theNewJerusalem,descendingoutofheavenfromGod(Rev21:10f.).

II.ChristianityasaPersonalExperience.Christianityisnotonlyarevelationinhistory,butarealityofpersonallife.Without
ChristianstherewouldbenoChristianity.WhatisitthenthatconstitutesmenChristians,andsotranslatesthehistoricalfactoftherevelation
ofJesusChristintothereligionwhichhaslivedthroughthecenturiesandsurroundsustoday?

1.Herefaithisthefundamentalthing.JustasChristianity,regardedasahistoricalrevelation,mayallbesummedupinthefactofChrist,
so,whenitisconsideredasapersonalreality,itmayallbeincludedinthefaiththatlaysholdofandappropriatesChrist.Thewholeeffortof
JesusduringHisearthlyministrywasdirectedtothisendtosecurefaithinHimself.AndwhenHisdeathandresurrectionandthe
experiencesofPentecosthadrevealedHimtoHisfollowersinHisfullerglory,faithinChristcrucifiedandrisenbecamethefirstdemandof
theChristianpreacher(Ac2:36ff.,3:15f.,8:37,11:20f.,13:38f.etc.).Somuchwasthisthecase,thatbeforethediscipleswerecalled
Christianstheywerecalledbelievers(Ac5:14,10:45,16:1,1Ti4:12),whileothersweredistinguishedfromthemasunbelievers(Ac14:2,
1Co6:8andpassim).AndasChristhadshownHimselftobenottherevealeroftheFatheronly,butthebringerofredemptiontosinfulmen,
faithinHimcametomeanspecificallytrustinHimasOnewhowasabletomeetthesinnersgreatestneedtheneedofredemptionfromsin.
SoSt.PetercalledupontheJewsinJerusalemtorepentandbebaptizedinthenameofJesusChristuntotheremissionofsins(Ac2:38).So
St.Paulinlikemanner,whenthePhilippianjailorcriedoutinthenight,WhatmustIdotobesaved?replied,BelieveontheLordJesus,
andthoushaltbesaved(Ac16:30,31)wordswhichcontaininbrieftheessenceoftheApostolictestimonyastothewayofsalvation.And
whenwewouldlearnfromtheNThowtheChristianityofthosewhohavetrustedinChrististoliveandincreaseandbeperfected,wefind
thatitisfaithagain,stillclingingtoChrist,thatisthevitalprincipleofthelifewhichfaithhasbegun.ThroughfaithChristdwellsinour
hearts(Eph3:17).ThisisthesecretofthatabidinginChristwhichsecuresHisabidinginus(Jn15:4),andresultsinthefruitfulnessthat
makesusworthytobecalledHisdisciples(v.8).

2.ThenextprincipleoftheChristianlifeisobedience.Betweenfaithandobediencethereisnooppositionanymorethanbetweenthe
rootsofatreeanditsfruitsandflowers.Andyet,intheonecaseasintheother,thesecretspringoflifeanditsoutwardmanifestationsmaybe
distinguishedandseparatelyconsidered.TherootofChristianity,aswehaveseen,isthereligiousprincipleoffaithbutfromthatrootthere
growsanethicalpracticebringinglifeintoconformitywithallDivinelaws.TheactualconductofprofessedlyChristianpeoplehasalways
servedastheworldsroughtestofChristianity.Asappliedbytheworld,itisarude,imperfecttestfortheobediencewroughtbyfaithisa
productfartoofineandsubtletobefullyjudgedbytheworldscoarsethumbandfinger.ThelawbywhichaChristianwalksisalawthatit
needsaChristianmindtoappreciate.Butthoughoftenroughlyapplied,thetestofobediencetoGodisanunfailinggaugeofwhatclaimstobe
Christianity.ItwasChristHimselfwhosaid,Thereforebytheirfruitsyeshallknowthem.Noteveryonethatsaithuntome,Lord,Lord,shall
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Christianity.ItwasChristHimselfwhosaid,Thereforebytheirfruitsyeshallknowthem.Noteveryonethatsaithuntome,Lord,Lord,shall
enterintothekingdomofheavenbuthethatdoeththewillofmyFatherwhichisinheaven(Mt7:20,21).

3.Thethirdgreatprincipleislove.ForChristianityissocialaswellasethicalandreligious.ItisaDivineKingdomwhosesubjectsstand
inadefiniterelationnotonlytotheirKingbuttoalltheirfellows.NowloveistheproperattitudeofeveryChristiantoallthoseofwhatsoever
nameforwhomChristdiedandlovebindsmentogetherastheyareboundbynothingelse.Evenworldlykingdomsarebeginningtolearn,
throughthegradualinfiltrationofChristianideasintothegeneralmind,thatneitherforcenormutualselfinterestisthetruebondofsociety,
butthebrotherhoodoflove.Howtoproduceandsecuresuchbrotherhoodremainsthedifficultyforthestatesmenoftheworld.ButJesus,
whofirstgaveclearutterancetothisgreatsociallaw,alsofurnishedthesufficientmotiveforgivingeffecttoitwithinHisownKingdom.His
lovetotheminspiresHisdisciplestoloveoneanother(Jn13:34,15:12),andalsotoloveallmenaftertheexampleoftheDivine
philanthropy(Mt5:43ff.||cf.Tit3:4,Ro5:8).AndsothefaithinChristwhichintheethicalsphereblossomsintoobediencetoGod,fills
thesocialspherewiththebloomandfragranceofauniversallovetoman.ThusoncemorewearebroughtbacktoHimwhoisatoncethe
objectofChristianfaithanditsleaderandperfecter(He12:2).AndwhetherwethinkofChristianityasrevealedorrealized,asahistorical
manifestationoftheDivineorapresenthumanexperience,wemayjustlysaythatitisallcomprehendedinJesusChristHimself.J.C.
Lambert.
CHRISTOLOGY.SeePersonofChrist.
CHRONICLES,I.ANDII.

1.PositioninCanon.ItisquiteclearfromlinguisticandotherconsiderationsthatChron.Ezr.Neh.originallyformedonebook.Asthe
firstpartofthislargeworkdealtwithaperiodwhichwasalreadycoveredbySamuelandKings,itwasomitted,tobeginwith,inthe
formationoftheCanonwhilethelatterpartofthebook,dealingwiththeecclesiasticallifeofJerusalemaftertheExile,wasgrantedaplace.
OnlyastheliturgicalandritualinterestbecamemoreandmorestrongwasitseenthatChron.containedmatterofspecialimportancefromthat
pointofview.HencethebookwasincludedintheCanonafterEzr.andNeh.,whichhadoriginallyformeditssecondandconcludingportion.
IntheEnglishBible,whichfollowstheLXX,theoriginalorderhasbeenrestored,butChron.isthelastbookintheHebrewcanon.ItsHebrew
nameisDibhreHayymim,i.e.theAnnals.TheLXXentitledittheParaleipomena,orthingsleftout,areferencetothefactthatChron.
containsmuchnotfoundintheearliernarrativesofSamuelandKings.OurwordChroniclesistheAnglicizedformofChronicon,thename
giventothebookbyJeromeintranslatingDibhreHayymim.

2.Aim.ThekeytotheunderstandingandestimationofChron.liesinacleargraspofitsaim.Itisnothistory,asweunderstandthe
term,buthistoryrewrittenfromalatestandpoint,withtheintentionofcarryingbackintoaremotepasttheoriginofcustomswhichthewriter
consideredtobevitalfortruefaith.HeisconcernedwiththehistoryofJudah,andthathistoryinterestshimonlyinsofarasithasspecial
referencetotheworshipandinstitutionsofthesecondTemple.Thisdetermineshischoiceofmatter,andthetreatmentofsuchfactsashe
selects.TheNorthernKingdom,politicallysomuchmoreimportantthanthekingdomofJudah,hardlycomeswithinhisrangeofview,andis
referredtoonlywhenthenarrativeabsolutelynecessitatesit.

3.Contents.Withthiscluethecontentsofthebookareeasilygrouped.

(i) 1Ch19,AdamtothedeathofSaul.Thesechaptersarefilledmainlywithgenealogicaltables,buteveninthesethe
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(i)1Ch19,AdamtothedeathofSaul.Thesechaptersarefilledmainlywithgenealogicaltables,buteveninthesethe
ecclesiasticalinterestissupreme.JudahandLevihavethegreatestspacegiventothem(2:34:23,6).

(ii)1Ch1029,fromthedeathofSaultotheaccessionofSolomon.

(iii)2Ch19,thereignofSolomon.

(iv)2Ch1036,fromthedivisionofthekingdomdowntothefallofJerusalem,andtherestorationedictofCyrus.

Thematerialismostcarefullychosen,withtheobjectofbringingouttheimportanceofJudah,thegreatnessofthelineofDavid,the
religiousvalueofJerusalem,andthepositionoftheLevites.AcomparisonofthenarrativeinChron.withtheearliernarrativesofSamueland
KingswilldomorethananythingelsetoconvincethereaderofthepragmatismoftheChronicler.

(a)OmissionsinChronicles.ThewholecareerofSamuelthereignofSaul,exceptitsclosethestruggleDavidhadtoestablishhimself
onthethronethestoryofUriahandBathshebathestoryofAmnonandTamarAbsalomsrebellionandDavidsflightthecharacteristically
OrientalintriguesattendingSolomonsaccessionhisallianceswithforeignwomenandhisidolatriesinlaterlifehisstruggleagainst
disaffectionandrebellionpracticallytheentirehistoryoftheNorthernKingdomallthesesectionsareomitted,withtheviewof
suppressingwhatmightbeheldtobediscreditabletothereligiousheroes.

(b)TheadditionstothenarrativeshowhowtheChroniclersthoughtsran.Hegives,asweshouldhaveexpected,fullstatisticallists(1Ch
12)hedescribesatlengthmattersthathavetodowiththegradualelevationofthesanctuaryatJerusalem(1Ch13,15,16)hedetailsthe
orderingoftheTempleministryandthegenealogiesofitsmembers(1Ch2229).Thereisalargeclassofadditionsconnectedwithritual,
andespeciallywithmusicalmatters,afactwhichhasledtothesuggestionthatthewriterwasperhapsoneofthemusicians(2Ch5:12,13,7:1
,3,6,13:812,17:8,9,20:19,21).Hesohandleshistoricaleventsastomakethembearouthisparticulartheoryoftheworkingof
Providence.ToloveGodistobeblessedtosinagainstGodisimmediatelytofeelthepressureofHishandthereligiousmeaningof
particulareventsispointedouttothewrongdoersbyprophetsoftheLord(1Ch10:13,14,2Ch12:2,13:321,15:115,16:712,20:37,
21:10,1619).In2Ch8:11theremovalofthedaughterofPharaoh,whomSolomonhadmarried,fromthecityofDavidtothehousethathe
hadbuiltforher,issaidtohavebeenoccasionedbythehouseofDavidhavingbecometooholybecauseofthecomingoftheark.The
compilerofKingsassignsnosuchreasonfortheremovaltothenewhouse(1K3:1,7:8,9:24).Itwasastumblingblocktothelaterwriter
thatsobadakingasManassehshouldhaveenjoyedsolongareign,andsoheisdescribedaslatterlyapenitent,althoughKingshasno
thoughtofanysuchchange(cf.2Ch33:1119with2K21andJer15:4).

(c)Alterationshavebeenmadeinthenarrativewiththeviewofremovingwhatseemedoffensivetothelaterage.Kingsdistinctlysaysthat
AsaandJehoshaphatdidnotabolishthehighplaces,althoughtheydidwhatwasrightinthesightoftheLord(1K15:14,22:43).Sucha
conjunctionofwelldoingwithidolatryisincredibletotheChronicler,sohesaysthatthehighplaceswereabolishedbythesekings(2Ch
14:5,17:5).HefindsitnecessarytochangeseveralnarrativesintheinterestsoftheLevites,whowerenotassignedsoimportantaplacein
mattersofritualunderthemonarchyasinthedayswhenhewaswriting(cf.1Ch13,15with2S62Ch5:4with1K8:3).Accordingtothe
originalaccount(2K11),JehoiadawasassistedinhisrebellionagainstAthaliahbytheforeignbodyguard.In2Ch23thebodyguardis
replacedbytheLevites.TheruleofthesecondTempledidnotallowalienstoapproachsoneartothesacredthings.
Occasionallythereisamisunderstandingoftheoldernarrative.1K22:48tellshowJehoshaphatbuiltTarshishships,i.e.largeseagoing
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Occasionallythereisamisunderstandingoftheoldernarrative.1K22:48tellshowJehoshaphatbuiltTarshishships,i.e.largeseagoing
vesselssuchaswereusedbythePhniciansfortheirtradeontheMediterranean,fortheSouthArabiangoldtrade.TheChroniclerthinksthat
TarshishshipsmeansshipstogotoTarshish(2Ch20:37).

4.Historicity.ItisthusevidentthatChron.isnottobeconsideredashistory,inthesenseinwhichwenowusetheword.Theeventsof
thetimewithwhichthewriterdealshavebeentreatedinaparticularreligiousinterest.Somefactshavebeenstatednotsimplyastheywerein
themselves,butastheyappearedtoonewhosevisionwasinfluencedbyhistheologicalviewpoint.Otherfactshavebeensuppressedwhen
theyinterferedwiththeconveyingoftheimpressionthatDavidandSolomonwerealmostimmaculatekings.Toapastagewereattributedthe
customsandceremonialofthedaysinwhichthewriterlived.ThePriestsCodewassupposedtohavebeenrecognizedandobservedby
DavidevenbeforetheTemplewasbuilt.AgainandagainananachronismhasbeencommittedthattheLevitesmighthavetheplaceofhonour
intherecord.Somespecialfeaturesofthismethodofwritinghistoryare:

(a)Exaggeratednumbers.Everyonehasfeltdifficultywithregardtothesenumbers.Palestinetodayisbynomeansthinlypopulated,
butthetotalnumberofitsinhabitantsisonlyabout600,000.Atitsgreatestprosperitythenumbermayhavereached21/2millions.Butwe
read(2Ch13:3,17)thatAbijahwith400,000menfoughtagainstJeroboamwith800,000,andkilled500,000ofthem.Asa(2Ch14:8)takes
thefieldagainstZerahtheEthiopian,whohas1,000,000men,with300,000menofJudah,and280,000ofBenjamin,thesmallestofthe
tribes,whichhadpreviouslybeenpracticallywipedoutbytheslayingof25,000men(Jg20:46).Whenthenumberscanbecheckedbythe
parallelpassagesintheoldernarrative,thetendencyoftheChroniclertoexaggerateismanifest.1Ch18:4,19:18makeDavidcapture7000
horsemenandslay7000chariotmen,while2S8:4,10:18give700ofeach.Accordingto1Ch21:25,Davidpays600shekelsofgoldfor
Orransthreshingfloor,whileaccordingto2S24:24hegivesonly50shekelsofsilver.DavidgatherstogetherforthebuildingoftheTemple,
accordingto1Ch22:14,100,000talentsofgoldand1,000,000talentsofsilverbut,accordingto1K10:14,thewholerevenueingoldof
thekingdom,inthemuchricherdaysofSolomon,wasonly666talentsofgold.

(b)Anachronismscreepintoshowthatthewriterwascarryingbacktothatearlierdaythecustomsandnamesofhisowntime.1Ch26:18
statesthatoneofthegatesoftheTemplethefirstTemplewascalledParbar.ThereisherethedoublemistakeofsupposingthattheTemple
existedinDavidstime,andthatoneofthegatesofthefirstTemplehadaPersianname.1Ch29:7speaksofthecoindaricordramas
beingcurrentinthetimeofDavid.ThiscoinwasPersian,andwascurrentinPalestineonlyaftertheCaptivity.

(c)Thespeechesputintothemouthsofthepersonageshavenotbeentakenfromanyancientdocument,butbearoneverylinethe
characteristicsoftheverypeculiarHebrewstyleoftheChronicler.
5.Date.1Ch3:1724appearstogivesixgenerationsofthedescendantsofZerubbabel,andwouldthusbringthebookdowntoabout
b.c.350.Thepreciserenderingofthepassageis,however,alittleuncertain.EvidenceastodateisclearerfromNeh.,which,aswehaveseen,
wasoriginallypartofChronicles.Neh
12:11speaksofJaddua,whowas,asweknowfromJosephus,acontemporaryof
AlexandertheGreat(b.c.333).Neh12:22mentionsthereignofDariusthePersian,i.e.DariusIII.,whoreignedb.c.336332.Chron.must
thereforebedatedaboutb.c.300.

6. Sources.Chron.containsseveraladditionstothenarrativeofSamuelandKingsadditionsthathavenotbeeninsertedbecauseof
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6.Sources.Chron.containsseveraladditionstothenarrativeofSamuelandKingsadditionsthathavenotbeeninsertedbecauseof
anyspecialecclesiasticalinterest(2Ch11:812,17,23,14:915,20,25:810,13,26:815,28:515).DoestheChroniclerthenpreserveany
freshandoriginaltradition,ordoeshemerelyworkupoldermaterial?ApartfromSamuelandKings,hismainauthoritywasaworkcited
underavarietyofdifferenttitles,theBookoftheKingsofIsraelandJudah(2Ch27:7,35:27,36:8),theBookoftheKingsofJudahand
Israel(2Ch
16:11,25:26,28:26).Thisbookmusthavecontainedgenealogicaltables(1Ch9:1),aswellasotherparticularsnotmentionedinanybook
thathascomedowntous(2Ch27:7,33:18).AnothersourceistheMidrashoftheBookofKings(2Ch24:27).Amidrashwasan
expositionofthereligiouslessonsthatcouldbedrawnfromahistoricalworkChron.itselfisanexcellentinstanceofamidrash,andthis
earliermidrashmayhavebeenthewritersmodel.Hefrequentlyreferstowritingsquotedunderthenameofprophets:1Ch29:29(Samuel,
Nathan,andGad),2Ch9:29(Nathan,Ahijah,andIddo),12:15(ShemaiahandIddo),13:22(Iddo),26:22
(Isaiah).AshenevercitesatthesametimetheBookoftheKingsofIsraelandJudah,itisprobablethatthesepassages,connectedwiththe
variousprophets,wereonlyexcerptsfromthatbook.FromtheextractsthatChron.preservesofthisbookitisprobablethatitwaspostexilic,
unlessindeedtheChroniclerinusingithasthoroughlytransformeditsstyleanddictionintohisown.

Chron.,then,sofarfrombeingafreshsourcefortheperiodofwhichittreats,isamidrashofJewishorder.Thehistoryistreatedina
particularreligiousinterest,thecustomsandritualofthelateragearecarriedbackintotheearlier.Thebookisevidencenotoftheconditionof
thingsunderthemonarchy,butofthereligiousbeliefandceremonialobservancesofatimewhennationallifehadceased,andwhenthe
peoplesinterestwasconfinedtotheworshipoftheTemple.
R.BruceTaylor.
CHRONOLOGYOFTHEOLDTESTAMENT.Theimportanceofafixed
erabywhichtodateeventswasnotdiscoveredbytheHebrewsuntilaftertheirnationalexistencecametoanend.Alltheendeavourstofix
suchanerawhichwefindinourOTlikethedatingofthebuildingofSolomonsTemple480yearsfromtheExodus(1K6:1)belongto
thepostexilicperiod.Duringtheexistenceofthemonarchyallthatwasthoughtnecessarywastodatebytheyearsofthereigningking.Ifwe
hadacompleteseriesofpublicdocumentsforallthereigns,thiswouldanswerverywellforhistoricalpurposes.Butwhathasactuallycome
downtousisatbestonlyafragmentaryseriesofnoticesbasedinpartonofficialrecords.

NumericalstatementsthereareinplentyintheBible,andamongthemallthoseintheBooksofKingsmostdeserveattentionasthebasis
forascientificchronology.Atfirstsighttheiraccuracyseemstobeguaranteed,becausetheycheckeachotherforthetimecoveredbythetwo
kingdomsofIsraelandJudah.Notonlydoestheauthorgiveusthelengthofthereignsinthetwolines,buthehastakenpainstoworkouta
seriesofsynchronisms,thatis,hedatestheaccessionofeachkingbytheregnalyearofhiscontemporarymonarchintheotherkingdom.But
comparisonofthesefigureswitheachothershowsthattheycannotallbeaccurate.Forexample,welearnthatJehoshaphatofJudahcameto
thethroneinthefourthyearofAhabofIsraelalsothatAhabreigned22years.YetwearetoldthatAhaziah,whofollowedAhabafterhis
death,cametothethroneintheseventeenthyearofJehoshaphat,andinadditionthatAhaziahsbrotherJehoram,whocouldbecrownedonly
afterthetwoyearsreignassignedtothelatter,succeededintheeighteenthofJehoshaphat(1K22:41,51,2K3:1).

Thisexamplemakesusgiveupthesynchronismsandturnourattentiontothelengthofreigns,wherewehavereasontosupposethatthe
figuresaredrawnfromearlierdocuments.ThehistorygivesaconvenientpointofdivisionattheaccessionofJehuinIsraelandofAthaliahin

Judah,forthesetwocametothethroneinthesameyear.Thetwoseriesoflengthsofreignsoughttogivethesamesumfortheperiod.But
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Judah,forthesetwocametothethroneinthesameyear.Thetwoseriesoflengthsofreignsoughttogivethesamesumfortheperiod.But
theydonot.Inonelinewefind95yearsandintheother98.

Itispossiblethatthediscrepancyhereisduetothemodeofreckoning.Thereignsaregivenassomanyyearswithoutregardtofractions,
yetitwillbemanifestthatfewifanyreignsareanexactnumberofyearswithnomonthsordays.Wherethemethodofdatingbyregnalyears
isinvogue,thefractionsmaybetreatedintwoways.Ifakingdiesinthetenthyearofhisreign,forexample,thecalendaryearmaycontinue
tobecalledhistenthandthenextcalendaryearwillbethefirstofhissuccessor.Butitwillalsobepossibletobeginatoncetodatebythe
firstyearofthenewking,makingthenextcalendaryearhissecond.Inthislattercasethepublicrecordswillshowmoreyears(judgingbythe
dates)thanthereactuallyare,byoneineachreign.Accordingtothismethod,thenumberofyearsfromRehoboamtoAthaliahwouldbe90,
whichcannotbefarfromcorrect.Thenextperiod,however,fromAthaliahtoHezekiah,andfromJehutothefallofSamaria,givesus
greaterdifficulty.Herewefindthesumofyearsinonelinetobegreaterthanintheotherbymorethantwenty.Thevarioushypotheseswhich
havebeenadvancedtoovercomethisdiscrepancydonotconcernusinthepresentarticle.Allthatweneedtonoteisthatthefiguresofthe
Hebrewtextdonotgiveusasurebasisforachronology.

IfthisistrueinwhatwehavereasontosupposeisthemostreliableoftheOTdates,thecaseisevenworsewhenweexaminetheearlier
periodofthehistory.NodoubttheauthorsofthePentateuchalnarrativesthoughtthemselvesabletogivethelengthoftimewhichhadelapsed
fromthecreationoftheworld.Thereisnootherwaytointerprettheirlanguage.InthegenealogyofthesonsofAdam,forexample(Gn5),
wereadhowAdamwas130yearsoldwhenhebegatSeth,Seth105yearsoldwhenhebegatEnosh,andsoondowntothesixhundredthyear
ofNoahslife,inwhichtheFloodcame.Thesummingupofthefiguresgivesus1656yearsfromtheCreationtotheFlood.

Theunhistoricalcharacterofthenumbersinthistableisnowgenerallyconceded.Theconclusionsofnaturalscienceconcerningthe
durationofmanupontheearthareenoughtoinvalidatethecalculation.Butthisgivesadditionalinteresttotheinquiryastowhattheauthors
hadinmind.IthasbeenpointedoutthatiftothesumwehavejustobtainedweaddtheyearsfromtheFloodtotheExodusofIsraelfrom
Egypt,weget2666,thatis,twothirdsof4000.Nowtheinterestthatthewriterhadinthiscalculationwasprobablyduetothetheorywhichhe
hadformedorwhichhadcomedowntohimbytradition,thatthelengthoftimefromtheCreationtothecomingoftheMessiahwouldbe
4000years.

Fourthousandis100generationsof40yearseach.AnyonewhoisfamiliarwiththeOTfigureswillrecallhowcommonitistofind40
yearsasaroundnumber.The40yearsofthewildernesswandering,40yearsofpeaceinthetimeofseveraloftheJudges,40yearseachfor
DavidandSolomon,aresufficientlymarked.Thenwerecallthe480yearsfromtheExodustothebuildingoftheTemple12generationsof
40yearseach.ItisprobablealsothatasimilartermwascountedfromthebuildingoftheTempletoitsrebuildingunderDariusortotheend
oftheExile,whileitisnotwithoutsignificancethatthedurationoftheNorthernKingdomwascalculatedtobe240years.

AllthisshowsthattheselateBiblicalwritersweredominatedbyatheory.Itmustbenoticedalsothatmorethanonetheoryhadan
influence.TheGreektranslators,workinginthesecondcenturybeforeChrist,hadaHebrewtextwhichdifferedconsiderablyfromoursinthis
matterofnumbers.Theyreckonednearly600yearsmorefromtheCreationtotheFloodthanthesuminourBible,whilefromtheFloodto
theCallofAbrahamtheymakenearly800more.ThecopyofthePentateuchwhichcirculatedamongtheSamaritanshasastilldifferent
system.Thequestionwhichofthesesystemsistheearliestisstillunsettled.Itmaybesaidtohaveonlyanacademicinterest,sinceweknow
thatnooneofthemgivesusauthenticdatafortheantiquityoftheworld.
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FortunatelyourappreciationoftheBibledoesnotdependupontheaccuracyofitsdates.Ingeneralthepictureitgivesofthesequenceof
eventsfromthetimeoftheJudgesdowntotheFallofJerusalemiscorrect.Oflateyearswehavereceivedwelcomelightonthedatesof
certainBiblicaleventsfromtheAssyrianandBabylonianinscriptions.Theseempireshadmadegreatadvancesinastronomy,and
consequentlyintheregulationofthecalendar.Whiletheydidnotdatefromafixedera,theyhadareckoningoftimewhichsecuredaccuracy
fortheirhistoricalrecords.Eachcalendaryearwasnamedforanofficialwhomwecallaneponym,andrecordswerekeptshowingtheseries
ofeponymswithbriefnotesoftheeventsineachonesyear.Theselistshavecomedowntousinfragmentaryform,butweareablebythem
tocorrectsomeofthedatesofourHebrewhistory.TheaccuracyoftheBabyloniansystemhasbeentestedbyitsrecordsofeclipsesasfar
backastheyearb.c.763.

MorethanahundredsystemsofBiblicalChronologyhavebeeninventedorreckonedoutanothertestimonytotheuncertainnatureofthe
Biblicaldata.Thereceivedsystem,whichhasfoundaplaceinthemarginofourreferenceBibles,iswellknowntobethatofthelearned
ArchbishopUssher.BytheBabyloniancanonwearenowabletocorrectitsfigures.Thesearefortheearlyperiodtoohigh.ThusforDavid,
Usshergivesusthedate1056.ButreckoningbackfromtheearliestAssyrianallusiontoIsrael,thisshouldbeabout1010.Theamountoferror
islessaswecomedowntolatertimes,anddisappearsattheFallofSamaria.FromDaviddowntothecaptureofBabylonbyCyrus,therefore,
weareabletogiveapproximatelycorrectdatesforourhistory.BeforethetimeofDavidtheremustbesomeuncertainty,whichuptothe
presenttimehasnotbeenmuchmitigatedbytheEgyptianinscriptions.FromthetimeoftherebuildingoftheTempleunderDariuswearealso
inuncertainty,thoughthisperioddoesnotbulklargelyinthereceivedOT.

H.P.Smith.
CHRONOLOGYOFTHENEWTESTAMENT.Inthisarticleitis
proposedfirsttoexaminethebooksoftheNT,soastodetermineasfaraspossibletheirrelativechronology,thatis,thelengthoftime
betweentheprincipaleventsnarratedandthentoinvestigatethepointsofcontactbetweentheNTandsecularhistory,andthustoarriveatthe
probabledatesoftheincidentsintheformer.Itmust,however,herememberedthattheGospelsandActsarenotbiographiesorhistoriesinthe
modernsenseoftheterms.ThewritershadareligiousobjecttheywishedtoteachcontemporaryChristianstobelieve(Jn20:31),andwere
notcarefultochronicledatesforthebenefitofposterity.SirW.Ramsaypointsout(St.PaultheTraveller6,p.18)thatawantofthe
chronologicalsensewasafaultoftheage,andthatTacitusinhisAgricolaisnobetter(untilthelastparagraph)thanthesacredwriters.Itmust
alsobenotedthatreckoninginoldtimeswasinclusive.Thusthreeyearsafter(Gal1:18)meansinthethirdyearafter(cf.Ac19:8,10with
20:31)threedaysandthreenights(Mt12:40)meansfromtodaytothedayaftertomorrow(Mt17:23).Cf.alsoGn42:17f.

I.RelativeChronology

1.IntervalbetweenourLordsbirthandbaptism.ThisisdeterminedbyLk3:23tohavebeenabout30years,buttheexactinterval
isuncertain.TheRVtranslates:Jesushimself,whenhebegan(lit.beginning)[toteach(cf.Mk4:1)],wasaboutthirtyyearsofage,andso
mostmoderns,thoughthewordbeginning,standingbyitself,isawkwarditperhapsdenotestherealcommencementoftheGospel,the
chaptersontheBirthandChildhoodbeingintroductory(Plummer).
Thedifficultyofthephrasewasearlyfelt,fortheOldSyriacandthePeshittaSyriacomittheparticiplealtogether,andClementofAlexandria
(Strom.i.21)hasmerelyJesuswascomingtohisbaptism,beingabout,etc.TheAV,followingIrenusandalsotheValentinianswhomhe
wasopposing,renders:begantobeabout30yearsofage,whichcanmeanonlythatJesuswas29yearsold.Irenus(Haer.II.xxii.4f.)
saysthatJesuswasbaptizedbeing30yearsold,havingnotyetcompletedhis30thyear,Hethenpossessingthefullageofateacher.The53/137
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saysthatJesuswasbaptizedbeing30yearsold,havingnotyetcompletedhis30thyear,Hethenpossessingthefullageofateacher.The
translationofAVisjudgedtobegrammaticallyimpossible,thoughitisoddthattheGreekspeakingIrenusdidnotdiscoverthefact,unless
wearetosupposethathisLatintranslatormisrepresentshim.Letus,then,taketheRVtranslationbutwhatisthemeaningofabout30
years?Turner(art.ChronologyofNTinHastingsDBthemostcompletemodernworkonthesubjectinEnglish)and
Plummer(St.Luke,inloc.)thinkthatanyagefrom28to32wouldsuitbutRamsay,whoremarksthatSt.Lukesauthorityforhisearly
chapterswasclearlyaverygoodone,andthathecouldnothavebeenignorantoftherealage,thinksthatthephrasemustmean30plusor
minusafewmonths.ThereseemstobesomedoubtastotheagewhenaLevitebeganhisministryatthistime,astheagehadvariedbutwe
mayfollowIrenusinthinkingthat30wasthefullagewhenapublicteacherbeganhiswork.Onthispoint,then,internalevidencebyitself
leavesusalatitudeofsomelittletime,whetherofafewmonthsorevenofafewyears.

2.Durationoftheministry.Verydivergentviewshavebeenheldonthissubject.(a)ClementofAlexandria(loc.cit.),andother2nd
and3rdcent.Fathers,theClementineHomilies(xvii.19,awholeyear),andtheValentinians(quotedbyIrenus,ii,xxii.1),applyingthe
acceptableyearoftheLord(Is61:2cf.Lk4:18f.)literallytotheministry,madeitlastforoneyearonly.TheValentiniansbelievedthatJesus
wasbaptizedatthebeginning,anddiedattheend,ofHis30thyear.AoneyearministryhasalsobeenadvocatedbyvonSoden(EBi,art.
Chronology)andbyHort(seebelow).ThelatterexcisesthepassoverfromJn6:4.ThisviewissaidtobethatoftheSynoptists,who,
however,givehardlyanyindicationsofthepassingoftime.(b)TheotherextremeisfoundinIrenus(loc.cit.),whoheld,asagainstthe
Valentinians,thattheministrylastedformorethantenyears.HetakesthefeastofJn5:1tobeaPassover,butdoesnotmentionthatofJn6:4.
Heconsiders,however,thatthePassoversmentionedinJn.arenotexclusivethatJesuswasalittlelessthan30yearsoldatHisbaptism,and
over40whenHedied.Thisappears(hesays)fromJn8:56f.,whichindicatesonewhohadpassedtheageof40andmoreover,Jesus,who
cametosaveallages,musthavepassedthrougheveryage,andinthedecadefrom40to50amanbeginstodeclinetowardsoldage.He
declaresthatthistraditioncamefromJohnthediscipleoftheLordthroughthosewhowereconversantinAsiawithhimi.e.probably
Papiasandthatthesameaccounthadbeenreceivedfromotherdisciples.ButhereIrenusalmostcertainlymakesablunder.Fora3rdcent.
traditionthat
Jesuswasborna.d.9,wasbaptizeda.d.46,anddieda.d.58attheageof49,seeChapmaninJThStviii.590(July,1907).(c)Eusebius(HEi.
10),followedastohisresultsprovisionallybyRamsay(WasChristbornatBethlehem?3,p.212f.),makestheministrylastoverthreeyears
(notquitefourfullyears),andthistilllatelywasthecommonview.Melito(c.a.d.160)speaksofJesusworkingmiraclesforthreeyears
afterHisbaptism(AnteNic.Chr.Lib.xxii.p.135).(d)Origenandothers,followedbyTurner(op.cit.p.409f.),Sanday(art.JesusChristin
HastingsDB,p.610ff.),andHitchcock(art.DatesinHastingsDCG,p.415f.),allowalittlemorethantwoyearsfortheministry(Judas
didnotremainsomuchasthreeyearswithJesus,c.Cels.ii.12).
IndicationsofaministryofmorethanasingleyeararefoundintheSynoptics
e.g.Mk2:23(harvest)6:39(springgreengrass),forthelengthofthejourneysof
6:5610:32showsthatthespringof6:39couldnotbethatoftheCrucifixion.ThusMk.impliesatleastatwoyearsministry.InLk.alsowe
seetracesofthreeperiodsintheministry:(1)3:214:30,preachinginthewildernessofJudaandinNazarethandGalilee,brieflyrecorded
(2)4:319:50,preachinginGalileeandthe
North,relatedatlength(3)9:51end,preachinginCentralPalestineasfarasJerusalem.Ramsay(op.cit.p.212)takeseachoftheseperiods
ascorrespondingroughlytooneyear.InJn.wehaveseveralindicationsoftime:2:13,23(Passover),4:35(fourmonthsbeforeharvest
harvestnear),5:1(afeastorthefeast),6:4(Passover,butseebelow),7:2(Tabernacles,autumn),10:22(Dedication,winter).Intwocases
(5:1,6:4)thereisaquestionoftextin5:1thereadingafeastissomewhatbetterattested,andispreferableoninternalgrounds,forthe
feastmightmeaneitherPassoverorTabernacles,andsincetherewouldbethisdoubt,thephrasethefeastisanunlikelyone.Ifso,we
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feastmightmeaneitherPassoverorTabernacles,andsincetherewouldbethisdoubt,thephrasethefeastisanunlikelyone.Ifso,we
cannotuse5:1asanindicationoftime,asanyminorfeastwouldsuitit.In6:4Hortexcisesthepassover(WestcottHort,NTinGreek,App.
p.77ff.).ButthisisagainstallMSSandVSS,andrestsonlyontheomissionbyIrenus(who,however,merelyenumeratesthePassovers
whenJesuswentuptoJerusalemyetthementionof6:4wouldhaveaddedtohisargument),andprobablyonOrigen(forhimandforothers
adduced,seeTurnerop.cit.p.408)oninternalgroundstheomissionisveryimprobable,anddoesnotinrealityreconcileJn.andthe
Synoptics,forthelatterwhencloselyexamineddo,aswehaveseen,implymorethanasingleyearsministry.ThenoteoftimeinJn4:35
seemstopointto(say)January(thereareyetfourmonthsandthencomeththeharvest),whilethespiritualharvestwasalreadyripe(the
fieldsarewhitealreadyuntoharvest),thoughOrigenandotherslessprobablytaketheformerclausetorefertothespiritual,thelatterto
thematerial,harvest,whichlastedfrom15thAprilto31stMay(seeWestcott,Com.inloc.).Wemayprobablyconcludethenthatinthe
ministry,asrelatedinJn.,therewerenotfewerthanthreePassovers,andthatitthereforelasted(atleast)rathermorethantwoyears.Butdid
theFourthEvangelistmentionallthePassoversoftheministry?Irenusthoughtthathementionedonlysomeofthemandthoughhis
chronologyisclearlywrong,andbased(aswasthatofhisopponents)onafancifulexegesis,Lightfoot(Sup.Rel.p.131)andWestcott(Com.
p.lxxxi.)areinclinedtothinkthatinthisrespecthemaytoaverylimitedextentberight.Turner,ontheotherhand,considersthatthe
enumerationinJn.isexclusive,andthatthenotesoftimethereareintendedtocorrectafalsechronologydeducedfromtheSynoptics.Onthe
wholewecanonlysaythatthechoiceapparentlyliesbetweenaministryofratherovertwoyears,andoneofratheroverthreeyearsandthat
theprobabilityoftheformerappearstobeslightlythegreater.

3.IntervalbetweentheAscensionandtheconversionofSt.Paul.Wehavenocertaininternalevidenceastothelengthofthis
interval.Ac2:46f.mayimplyalongorashorttime.WehavetoincludeinthisperiodthespreadoftheChurchamongtheHellenists,the
electionoftheSeven,andthedeathofStephen,followedcloselybySt.Paulsconversion.ForthisperiodRamsayallows21/2to4years,
Harnacklessthanoneyearbuttheseconclusionscomeratherfromexternalchronology(seeII.)thanfrominternalconsiderations.Itisquite
probablethatintheearlychaptersofActsSt.LukehadnotthesameexactauthoritythathehadforSt.Paulstravels,orevenforhisGospel
(seeLk1:2f.).

4.St.Paulsmissionarycareer.TherelativechronologyofSt.PaulsChristianlifemaybedeterminedbyastudyofActscombined
withGal1:18,2:1.
IndicationsoftimearefoundinAc11:26,18:11,19:8,10,20:6,16,31,21:15,27,24:1,11,27,25:1,6,27:9,27,28:7,1114,17,30.With
thesedatawemayreconstructthechronologybutthereisroomforuncertainty(1)astowhetherthevisittoJerusaleminGal2:1wasthatof
Ac11:30orthatofAc15:4,andwhetherthethreeyearsandfourteenyearsofGal1:18,2:1areconsecutive(soLightfoot,Rackham),or
concurrent(soRamsay,Turner,Harnack)(2)astothelengthoftheFirstMissionaryJourneyand(3)astothelaterjourneysaftertheRoman
imprisonment.Ifthethreeyearsandfourteenyearsareconsecutive,atotalofabout16years(seeabove)isrequiredfortheinterval
betweentheconversionandthevisitofGal2:1.ButastheintervalatTarsusisindeterminate,andtheFirstJourneymayhavebeenanything
fromonetothreeyears,allsystemsofrelativechronologycanbemadetoagree,exceptinsmalldetails,byshorteningorlengtheningthese
periods.Foradiscussionofsomeofthedoubtfulpointsnamedseeart.Galatians[Ep.tothe],3,andforthedetailsoftheeventsseeart.
ActsoftheApostles,5ff.
Thefollowingtable,inwhichtheyearofSt.Paulsconversionistakenas1,givesthevariousevents.Ramsayscalculationistakenasa
basis,andthedifferencesofopinionarenoted.
1,2.ConversionnearDamascus,Ac9:3,22:5,26:12retirementtoArabia,Gal1:17preachinginDamascus,Ac9:2022(?),Gal1:17.
3.FirstvisittoJerusalem,Ac9:26,Gal1:18,threeyearsafterhisconversion.
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3.FirstvisittoJerusalem,Ac9:26,Gal1:18,threeyearsafterhisconversion.

411.AtTarsusandinSyriaCilicia,Ac9:30,Gal1:21[soHR,butTgivestwoyearsless,Lthreeyearsless].
12.ToAntiochwithBarnabas,Ac11:26.

13.SecondvisittoJerusalem,withalms11:30[=Gal2:1,R?]

1416.FirstMissionaryJourney,toCyprus,13:4Pamphylia,andSouthern
Galatia(PisidianAntioch,13:14Iconium,13:51Lystra,14:6Derbe,14:20),andbackbyAttaliatoAntioch,14:26[soHRTL
giveoneyearless].
17.ApostolicCouncilandthirdvisittoJerusalem,15:4[=Gal2:1,TL?soSandayandmostcommentators].

1820.SecondMissionaryJourney,fromAntiochthroughSyriaCiliciatoDerbeandLystra,Ac15:41,16:1throughthePhrygoGalatic
regionoftheprovinceGalatiatoTroas,16:68toMacedonia,16:11Athens,17:15andCorinth,18:1,where18monthsarespent
thencebyseatoEphesus,18:19Jerusalem(fourthvisit),18:22andAntioch,wheresometimeisspent,18:23.

2124.ThirdMissionaryJourney,fromAntiochbytheGalaticregionandthePhrygianregion,18:23,toEphesus,19:1,wheretwoyears
andthreemonthsarespent,19:8,10byTroas2Co2:12,toMacedonia,Ac20:1andCorinth,20:2(see2Co13:1),wherethree
monthsarespentthencebackbyMacedoniatoTroas,Miletus,andCsarea,20:4f.,15,21:8fifthvisittoJerusalem,21:17and
arrest,21:33imprisonmentatCsarea,23:33.

25.InCsarea,24:27.

26.DepartureforRome,autumn,27:1shipwreckoffMalta,28:1.

27.ArrivalatRome,28:10.

28.(end)or29(early).Acquittal.
2934.Laterjourneysanddeath[soRLgivesoneyearless,Ttwoyearsless].
II.PointsofContactwithGeneralHistory.Itwillheusefultogivethedatesoftheearlieremperors,andthoseoftheprocuratorsof
Juda.SomeofthelatterdatesareapproximateonlyinformationastothemisderivedfromJosephusAntiquities,andtosomeextentfrom
hisJewishWars(BJ).
RomanEmperors.

Augustus

[b.c.31(a)]a.d.14(Aug.19)
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[b.c.31(a)]a.d.14(Aug.19)
Tiberius1437(Mar.16)

Caligula(Gaius)3741(Jan.24)

Claudius4154(Oct.13)

Nero5468

Galha6869

Otho69

Vitellius69

Vespasian6979

Titus7981

Domitian8196
(a)i.e.thebattleofActiumJuliusCsardiedb.c.44,andEusebiusdatesAugustusreignfromthatyear(HEi.5,9),asdoesalsoIrenus
(Haer.III.xxi.3).
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RulersofJuda.
HerodtheGreat,king(a)b.c.374

Archelaus,ethnarch(b)b.c.4a.d.6Procurators.Coponius(c)a.d.69?

MarcusAmbivius(d)912?

AnniusRufus(e)1215?

ValeriusGratus(f)1526

PontiusPilate(g)2636

Marcellus(h)3637?Marullus(i)3741?

HerodAgrippa,king(j)4144

Procurators.CuspiusFadus(k)4446?
TiberiusAlexander(l) 46?48
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Cumanus(m) 4852

5258 or 59
AntoniusFelix(n)
?

PorciusFestus(o) 59?61

Albinus(p) 6165

GessiusFlorus(q) 6566
(a)Hehadbeenkingdejuresinceb.c.40.(b)Josephus,Ant.XVII.xi.4,xiii.2hereignedovernineyears.(c)ib.XVIII.i.1hearrived
withQuiriniusatthetimeofthetaxing,Ac5:37.(d)ib.ii.2.(e)ib.inhistimethesecondemperoroftheRomans[Augustus]died.(f)ib.
sentbyTiberiusheruledelevenyears.(g)ib.andiv.2heruledtenyearsandwasdeposedandsenttoRome,arrivingtherejustafter
TiberiusdeathTurnermakeshisaccessiontoofficea.d.27.(h)ib.iv.2senttemporarilybyVitellius,governorofSyria,(i)ib.vi.10sentby
Caligulaonhisaccession,(j)ib.andXIX.v.1madekingbyClaudiusonhisaccession,havingbeenpreviouslygiventhetetrarchiesofPhilip
andLysaniasbyCaligula.(k)ib.XIX.ix.2sentbyClaudiusonAgrippasdeath.(l)ib.XX.v.2.(m)ib.(n)ib.vii.
1,viii.9brotherofPallassentbyClaudiusinhistimewastherebellionofone
TheudasrecalledbyNero,seebelow,12.(o)ib.viii.9ff.(p)ib.ix.1sentbyNeroonFestusdeathwhilehewasonhiswaytoJuda,
thebrotherofJesuswhowascalledChrist,whosenamewasJames,wasstonedbytheJews.(q)ib.xi.1thelastprocuratorhewas
appointedthroughtheinfluenceofPoppahishadgovernmentprecipitatedtheJewishWar.FortheprocuratorsseealsoBJII.viii.1,ix.4,
xi.6,xii.1f,8,xiii.7,xiv.1f.,etc.
1.Dateofthenativity.Earlychronologyisinsuchconfusionthatitisverydifficulttoassignexactdatestothevariousevents,andthe
earlyFathersgiveuslittleornoguidance.ClementofAlexandria(Strom.i.21)saysthatourLordwasborn194years1month13daysbefore
thedeathofCommodus[a.d.192],inthe28thyearofAugustusbuthisdatingofCommodusiswrong(see4below).Thecalculationofour
Christianera,duetoDionysiusExiguusinthe6thcent.,isobviouslywrongbyseveralyears.Eventhedatingbytheregnalyearsofemperors
isopentoconsiderabledoubt,asitisnotalwayscertainfromwhatepochcalculationismadee.g.whetherfromthedeathofthepredecessor,
orfromtheassociationwiththepredecessorascolleague.ForthebirthofChristindicationshavebeenfoundinthedeathofHerod,theLukan
census,andtheStaroftheMagi.
(a) DeathofHerod.Thisprobablytookplaceb.c.4,possiblyb.c.3.HissonArchelaus(Mt2:22),whosucceededhiminpartofhis
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(a)DeathofHerod.Thisprobablytookplaceb.c.4,possiblyb.c.3.HissonArchelaus(Mt2:22),whosucceededhiminpartofhis
dominionswiththetitleofethnarch,wasdeposed(DionCassius,lv.27)intheconsulshipofLepidusandArruntius(a.d.6),eitherinhisninth
(soJoseph.BJII.vii.3)orinhistenthyear(soAnt.XVII.xiii.2andtheLife,1,speaksofhistenthyear).Thiswouldgivetheabovedates
forHerodsdeathforvariousconsiderationswhichmakeb.c.4thepreferabledateseeTurner,op.cit.p.404.WemustthenplaceourLords
birthoneortwoyearsbeforeatleast,forHerodslewthemalechildrenoftwoyearsoldandunder(Mt2:18),andwehavetoallowforthe
sojourninEgypt.

(b)TheLukancensus(Lk2:1ff.)wouldsuittheresultjustreachedseeart.
Luke[Gospelacc.to],7

(c)TheMagi.KeplercalculatedthedateoftheNativityfromaconjunctionofplanets,whichhebelievedthestarintheeasttobe
(Ramsay,WasChristbornatBethlehem?3,p.215ff.).Butitisimpossibletobuildchronologicalresultsonsuchanuncertainbasis.
ThedatearrivedatbyRamsayfromtheseconsiderationsisb.c.6(summer),byTurner,b.c.6(spring)orb.c.7.Wemustremainin
ignoranceofthedayandmonth.ThecalculationswhichgiveDec.25andJan.6arebothbasedonafancifulexpositionandawrongdatefor
theCrucifixionseethepresentwritersart.CalendarinHastingsDCGi.261f.

2.TheBaptismofourLord.AccordingtoSt.Luke(3:1),theBaptistbegantopreachinthefifteenthyearofTiberius,Pilatebeing
procurator.Eusebius(HEi.10)saysthatChristwasbaptizedinthefourthyearofPilatesgovernorship,and(HEi.9)thatPilatewas
appointedaboutthetwelfthyearofthereignofTiberiusthelatterstatementisquotedfromJosephus(Ant.XVIII.ii.2),buttheformer
seemstobeEusebiusowndeductionfromSt.Luke.ButPilatecannothavereachedPalestinebeforea.d.26or27,ashistenyearsended
shortlybeforeTiberiusdeathina.d.37,andnodatelaterthana.d.27ispossibleforourLordsbaptism,ifwetakeintoaccountthedateof
theNativityandSt.LukesstatementofourLordsage.Itisprobable,therefore,thatPilatesaccessiontoofficeandJohnsappearanceasa
preacherbothbelongtothesameyear,saya.d.26.Doesthis,however,suitSt.Lukesphrase,the15thyearoftherule(orhegemony)of
Tiberius,forthatistheexactphrase?The15thyearfromthedeathofAugustuswouldbeAug.a.d.28toAug.a.d.29.Ramsaysupposes
(WasChristbornatBethlehem?,p.202)thattheruleofTiberiusisdatedfromthegrantbyAugustusofashareinthegovernmentofthe
provincesjustbeforehecelebratedhistriumphoverthepeopleofPannoniaandDalmatia,Jan.16,a.d.12andthiswouldbringustoc.a.d.
2526.Thissystemofcountingyearsisnotfoundelsewhere,butitisquiteapossibleone.Turnerinclinestothesamesupposition.

3.TherebuildingoftheTemple.InJn2:20,ataPassovernotlongafterthe
Baptism,theJewssaythattheTemplewas46yearsinbuilding,which,sincetheTemplewashardlycompletedattheoutbreakoftheWar
(Joseph.Ant.XX.ix.7),canonlymeanthattherebuildinghadbegun46yearsbeforethePassoverinquestion.Butthisrebuildingbeganin
Herods18thyeardefacto(ib.XV.xi.1forthecomputationofBJI.xxi.i.,seeTurner,p.405)i.e.thePassoverofb.c.19wouldbethatof
thefirstyearoftherebuilding,andthereforethePassoverofa.d.27thatofthe46thyear.Thiswouldagreewiththeresultalreadyreached.

4.DateoftheCrucifixion.TheFathersseemtohaveknownnothingcertainlyastotheexactyearofourLordsdeath.Clementof
Alexandria(loc.cit.),whobelievedinaoneyearministry,givesthe16thyearofTiberius,421/4yearsbeforetheDestructionofJerusalem
(thiswouldbea.d.28),whichwas128years10months3daysbeforethedeathofCommodus(thiswouldmakethelatter7yearstoolate).A
commontradition(Tertullian[?],adv.Jud.8[Patr.Lat.ii.656]Lactantius,Div.Inst.IV.10,deMort.Pers.2[Patr.Lat.vi.474,vii.194])
assignstheCrucifixiontotheconsulshipofL.RubelliusGeminusandC.Fifius(?)GeminusHippolytus(inDan.iv.)andtheActsofPilate
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assignstheCrucifixiontotheconsulshipofL.RubelliusGeminusandC.Fifius(?)GeminusHippolytus(inDan.iv.)andtheActsofPilate
givethenamesasRufusandRubellio,i.e.a.d.29,orpossiblya.d.28.Thelatestpossibleyearisa.d.33(soEusebius,HEi.10),for
Josephus(Ant.XVIII.iv.3,6)relatesthatCaiaphaswasdeposedjustbeforehetellsusofthedeathofHerodPhilip,whichoccurredinthe
20thyearofTiberius,i.e.a.d.3334,reckoningfromAugustusdeathJosephusorderhaseveryappearanceofbeingchronological.

Now,itisnotcertainonwhichdayofthemonthNisantheFridayofthe
Passionfell.WemustputasideWestcottssuggestionthatourLorddiedonaThursday,ascontradictingentirelytheEasternideaofthethird
dayandafterthreedays(seeabove).ButtheSynopticswouldsuggestthatourLordatethePassoverwiththediscipleson14thNisan,and
diedonthe15th,whileJn.wouldleadustosupposethatHediedon14thNisanatthetimeofthekillingofthelambs.Thedeterminationof
thisdifficultquestionwillonlyaffectthechronologicalinvestigationifinapossibleyearofthePassiononlyNisan15oronlyNisan14can
positivelybesaidtohavefallenonaFriday.ButthereissomeuncertaintyinthereckoningofNisan.TheJewishmonthswerelunar,and(in
earlytimesatleast)thefirstdayofthemonthwasnotthatofthetruenewmoon,butthatonwhichitwasfirstvisible.Thiswouldbesome30
hourslaterthanthetruenewmoon.ButitseemscertainthattheJewsatthetimeoftheGospelnarrativehadsomesortofcalendricalrulesor
someroughcycletodeterminethefirstdayofalunarmonthotherwisetheJewsoftheDispersionwouldneverhavebeensureofobserving
thePassoverallonthesameday,andthedifferenceofacloudyorofabrightskyonaparticulardaywouldintroduceconfusion.Thuswe
havetoexercisegreatcaution.Atableofthetruenewmoons,andofthedayswhenthemoonmaybepresumedtohavebeenfirstvisible,
froma.d.27to36inclusive,isgivenbyDr.Salmon(Introd.,lect.XV.).Hisresultisthatina.d.27,30,33,34,oneorotherofthetwodays
Nisan14and15mighthavefallenonaFriday.Wemayomitthefirstandlastoftheseyears,andwehavelefta.d.30and33.Buta.d.29,
whichhasthebesttraditionalsupport,isalsocalendricallypossible.TakingtheequinoxasMarch21,Nisan14thatyearwouldbeSunday,
April18themoonwouldhavebeenfirstvisibleonMonday,April4.Buttheequinoxwasnotthen,asnow,accuratelydetermined,and
Turner(op.cit.p.411f.)givesanargumentforbelievingthatNisanina.d.29wasreallythemonthbeforethatsupposedbySalmon.Inthat
caseNisan14wouldfallononeofthethreedaysMarch1719,ofwhichMarch18wasaFriday.Thusa.d.29isadmissible,andthechoice
almostcertainlyliesbetweenitanda.d.30fora.d.33ishardtofitinwiththecalculationastotheNativity,andnodoubtthatyearwas
selectedbecauseofthedatingofthefifteenthyearofLk3:1fromthedeathofAugustus.Ofthetwoyears,then,a.d.30ischosenby
Lightfoot,Salmon,andWieselera.d.29byTurner,andinthisconclusionRamsaynowacquiesces(WasChristborn,etc.?3,p.202),asdoes
alsoSanday(art.JesusChristinHastingsDB,p.610).Ofthedaysofthemonth,Nisan14isupheldby
ClaudiusApollinaris(c.150),ClementofAlexandria,Hippolytus,Tertullian(?),Africanusandbymanymoderns,e.g.Sanday(art.Jesus
ChristinHastingsDB)andWestcott.Nisan15issupportedbyOrigen,pseudoCyprian,Ambrose,Chrysostomandinmoderntimesby
Edersheim(LT),Lewin(Fastisacri),andMcClellan(Com.onNT).Butthechoicebetweenthesedaysshouldbedeterminedbyinternal
evidenceoftheGospelsratherthanbythechronologicalinvestigations,whicharetoouncertaintobetrustworthy.

5.AretasandtheoccupationofDamascus.TurnerdeducestheearliestpossibledatefortheconversionofSt.Paulfromtheincidentof
2Co11:32f.,andaccordinglygivesa.d.38forthefirstvisittoJerusalem,a.d.35or36fortheConversion.But,intheopinionofthepresent
writer,forreasonsstatedinart.Aretas,theincidentcannotbeusedindeterminingthechronologyatall.Ifitissoused,thedateisconsistent
withtheviewthatthesecondvisitsynchronizeswiththeApostolicCouncil(above,i.4).Ramsay,however(St.Paul6,p.xiv),adducesasan
externalsupportforhisdate(a.d.33)forSt.Paulsconversion,a4thcent.orationfoundinSt.Chrysostomsworks,whichsaysthatPaul
servedGod35yearsanddiedattheageof68.Ifhediedina.d.67,thiswouldgivea.d.33fortheConversion.ButPatristicchronologyisvery
erratic.

6. HerodAgrippatheElderreceivedHerodPhilipstetrarchyandthetitleofkingearlyina.d.37fromCaligula,andsomewhatlater
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6.HerodAgrippatheElderreceivedHerodPhilipstetrarchyandthetitleofkingearlyina.d.37fromCaligula,andsomewhatlater
Antipastetrarchy(Josephus,BJII.ix.6)andClaudiusgavehimthewholeofhisgrandfatherskingdom,whichheheldforthreeyearstill
hisdeath,ashehadgovernedhistetrarchiesthreeotheryears(ib.xi.6).Weseefromhiscoins,whichwereissueduptohisninthyear,that
hediedina.d.44or45probablyhissecondyearbeganwiththeNisannextafterhisaccessionina.d.37.Ofthesetwodates,then,Josephus
enablesustochoosea.d.44.ThisfixesAc12:20ff.,thoughtheeventsofAc12:1ff.neednothavebeenimmediatelybeforeAgrippasdeath
andgivesa.d.41forhisaccessiontoHerodtheGreatsdominions.Itisthereforeprobable,butnotcertain,thattheCorneliusepisode(Ac10)
mustbedatedbeforea.d.41,asitisnotlikelythatacenturionoftheItaliccohortwouldbestationedatCsareaduringAgrippassemi
independentrule(seeart.Cornelius).

7.TheFamine.ThiswaspredictedbyAgabus,andhappenedinthereignofClaudius(Ac11:27ff.).Ifwecandatethefamine,itwill
helpustofixSt.PaulssecondvisittoJerusalem,asthiswasoccasionedbythesendingofalmsthroughhimtothefaminestrickenChristians
there.InClaudiusreignthereweremanyfamines,andnotineverycountryatthesametime.WereadofHelena,queenofAdiabene,a
converttoJudaism,arrivingatJerusaleminthemiddleofthefamine,apparentlyintheprocuratorshipofTiberiusAlexander,probably
thereforeafterthesummerofa.d.46(Joseph.Ant.XX.ii.5,v.2).Orosius,aSpanishwriterwhovisitedPalestinea.d.415,putsthefaminein
Claudiusfourthyear,i.e.ina.d.44(Hist.vii.6),butRamsay(St.Paul6,p.68)showsthathisdatesatthisperiodareayeartooearlythuswe
arriveata.d.45.Itisprobablethatabadharvestina.d.45resultedinafamineina.d.46,andSt.Paulsvisitmightthenbeeitherinthemiddle
ofthefamine,oratanyrateduringtheprecedingwinter,whenthebadharvestshowedthatthefaminewasimminent.

8.SergiusPaulus.Thetermofofficeofthisproconsulcannotbedated(fortheinscriptionreferringtoit,seeart.ActsoftheApostles,
12)but,astheproconsulsina.d.51,52areknown,St.PaulsvisittoCyprusmusthavebeenbeforethat.

9.ClaudiusexpulsionoftheJews.Theedict(Ac18:2)ismentionedbySuetonius.Tacitus,whoseAnnalsaredefectivefortheearly
yearsofClaudius,speaksonlyoftheexpulsionofastrologersina.d.52(Ann.xii.52).Suetonius(Claudius,25)saysthattheedictwasdue
toJewishtumultsattheinstigationofoneChrestus,aconfusionnotunnaturalinaheathenwriter.Orosius(Hist.vii,6)quotesJosephusas
sayingthatthedecreewasmadeintheninthyearofClaudius,
i.e.a.d.49,butthisshouldprobablybe(asabove,7)a.d.50.Josephus,asamatteroffact,doesnotrefertothematteratall,sothatOrosius
authoritymusthavebeensomeotherwriter.ThearrivalofAquilaandPriscillaatCorinth,ifweacceptOrosiusstatement,musthavebeen
laterthanthis,perhapsina.d.51(soRamsayTurnerputsitoneyear,Harnackthreeyearsearlier).

10.Gallio.AchaiahadbeenmadeasenatorialprovincebyClaudiusina.d.44,andtheproconsulshipofGallio,whoseemstohave
arrivedattheendofSt.
PaulsstayatCorinth(Ac18:12),wasnodoubtseveralyearslaterthanthis.GalliowasbrothertoSeneca,whowasindisgracea.d.4149,but
wasrecalledandmadeprtorina.d.50.Pliny(HNxxxi.33)saysthatGalliobecameconsulthiswasprobablyafterhisproconsulshipin
Achaia.HeissaidbySeneca(Ep.104)tohavecaughtfeverinAchaia,andthisistheonlyindicationoutsideActsofhisproconsulship.The
probabilityisthathedidnotboldthisofficewhileSenecawasoutoffavouratCourt,andthereforea.d.50wouldbetheearliestyearforthe
incidentofAc18:12.Itmayhavehappenedsomefewyearslater.

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11.ThePassoveratPhilippi.Ramsay(St.Paul6,p.289f.)considersthatSt.PaulleftPhilippionaFriday(Ac20:8).Hetracesbackthe
journeyfromthedeparturefromTroas(v.7),ontheassumptionthatthesermonandEucharisticcelebrationatTroaswereonwhatwecall
Sundaynight.ButwouldanyEasterncallthisthefirstdayoftheweek(seeart.Calendar,I.1inHastingsDCG)?IfRamsayscalculation
beaccepted,thefurtherassumptionisthatSt.Paul,whowasinbastetoreachJerusalem,leftPhilippionthemorrowofthePassover,which
thereforefellonThursday.Butina.d.57itiscalculatedthatitdidsofall(April7),andthisthereforeisRamsaysdateforSt.Paulsfifthvisit
toJerusalemandhisarrestthere.Thereisatripleelementofdoubtinthiscalculation(a)astothedayonwhichTroaswasleft,(b)whether
St.PaulstartedfromPhilippionthedayafterthePassover,(c)astothecalculationofthePassover.Wemustthereforeprobablydismissthis
elementincalculatingtheyears,thoughRamsaysdateisforotherreasonsquiteprobable.

12.FelixandFestus.FelixmarriedDrusilla,sisterofAgrippaII.,notlongafterthelattersaccessiontothetetrarchiesofHerodPhilip
andLysanias(c.a.d.5253)forshehadmarriedAzizusofEmesaonAgrippasaccession,andnolongtimeafterwarddesertedhimfor
Felix(Joseph.Ant.XX.vii.1,2).ThusSt.Paulsarrestcouldnothavebeenbeforethesummerofa.d.54.Felixseemstohavebecome
procuratorina.d.52,butpreviouslybehadheldsomeofficeinSamaria(andpossiblyinJuda)under,orconcurrentlywith,Cumanusand
thisaccountsforthemanyyearsofAc24:10(seeart.Felix).AnapparentcontradictionbetweenTacitus,Josephus,andEusebiusisresolved
byTurner(op.cit.p.418)asagainstHarnack(Chronologie,p.233f.),whointerpretsEusebiusasmeaningthatFelixcameintoofficeina.d.
51.

ThedateofFestusarrivalisgreatlydisputed.Lightfoot,Wieseler,andSchrerconcludethatitcouldnothavebeenbeforea.d.60or61,
becauseofAc24:10,andbecauseJosephusdescriptionoftheeventswhichhappenedunderFeliximpliesthelapseofmanyyears.Butfor
theseeventsfiveorsixyearsareamplysufficientandforthemanyyearsseeabove.Eusebius(Chronicle),followedbyHarnack,saysthat
FestusarrivedinthesecondyearofNero,i.e.Oct.a.d.55toOct.a.d.56.ButEusebiusprobablymakesthefirstyearofanemperorbeginin
theSeptemberafterhisaccession(Turner,p.418),andthiswouldmakethesecondyeartobeSept.a.d.56toSept.a.d.57accordingly
Rackham(Acts,p.454)givesa.d.57forFestusarrival.AnotherargumentforanearlydateforFestusarrivalisthatFelixwasacquitted,after
hisrecall,throughtheinfluenceofhisbrotherPallas(Joseph.Ant.XX.viii.9),andthiscouldonlyhavebeen(itissaid)whilePallaswasstill
inoffice(JosephussaysthatPallaswasatthattimeheldinthegreatesthonourbyNero).ButhewasdismissedjustbeforeBritannicus14th
birthday,inthespringofa.d.55(Tacitus,Ann.xiii.14f.).This,however,wouldmakeFestusarrivalinanycasetooearlyitwouldbeinthe
summerofa.d.54,beforeClaudiusdeath,whichcontradictsEusebius(Chron.,andHEii.22).HarnacksupposesthatTacituswrote
fourteenthbirthdayinerrorforfifteenth.Itis,however,preferabletosupposethatPallasstillretainedinfluenceevenafterhehadleft
office.TurnersuggeststhatatanyratetheacquittalofFelix,whenaccusedbytheJews,showsthatPoppahadnotyetacquiredherinfluence
overNero.Thisbeganina.d.58,thoughhedidnotmarryhertilla.d.62,theyearofPallasmurderbyhim.Thisconsideration,then,militates
againstLightfootsdate(a.d.60or61).Harnacksdate(a.d.56)comesfromfollowingEusebiusandaccordinglybedatestheeventsofActs
twoorthreeyearsatleastbeforeRamsayandTurner.Eventhatearlydate,ifPallaswasstillinofficewhenFelixwasacquitted,isnoteasyto
reconcilewithTacitusstatement.ItdoesnotseemsafetorelyonEusebiuschronologyinthiscase,consideringthatinothercasesitisso
inaccurate.

13.PersecutionsofNeroandDomitian

(1)DeathofSt.PeterandofSt.Paul.ThereisnogoodreasonforsupposingthatthetwoApostlesdiedonthesamedayoreveninthe
sameyear,thoughwemayprobablyconcludethattheybothweremartyredunderNero.Theirjointcommemorationisduetotheirbodies
havingbeentransferredtotheCatacombstogetheronJune29,a.d.258(sothePhilocaliancalendar,a.d.354).ClementofRome(Cor.5)
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havingbeentransferredtotheCatacombstogetheronJune29,a.d.258(sothePhilocaliancalendar,a.d.354).ClementofRome(Cor.5)
mentionstheminthesameconnexionasexamplesofpatienceIgnatius,writingtotheRomans(4),says:IdonotenjoinyouasPeterand
PauldidTertulliansaysthattheywerebothmartyredatRomeunderNero(Scarp.15,dePrscr.36[Patr.Lat.ii.174f.,59]),andso
Origen(Euseb.HEiii.1)DionysiusofCorinthsaysaboutthesametime(Euseb.HEii.25)Caius(c.a.d.200)describestheirgravesnear
Rome(Euseb.ib.).Prudentius(Peristeph.xii.5),inthe4thcent.,isthefirsttosaythattheydiedonthesameday.Eusebiusputstheirdeathat
theveryendofNerosreign,i.e.notlongbeforea.d.68.Thedeterminingconsiderationsare:(a)theconnexionoftheirdeathswiththefireat
RomeinJulya.d.64(b)thenecessaryintervalafterSt.Paulsacquittalforhislatertravels,whichwouldtakesomethreeyearsandthis,if
wetookLightfootschronology(Clement,i.75n.),wouldprobablypreventusfromfixingona.d.64astheyearofSt.Paulsdeath(c)the
dateofSt.PetersFirstEpistle,ifagenuineworkand(d)thefactthatSt.MarkattendedbothApostles,thesuggestionbeingthatheservedSt.
PeterafterSt.Paulsdeath.Thelastconsideration,iftrue,wouldmakeSt.Petersmartyrdomthelaterofthetwo.Thedateof1Peterisa
difficulty.ItmakesChristianityacrime(1P4:14,soinRev.),anditissaidbyPfleiderernottohavebeensobeforethereignofTrajan.At
firstChristianswereaccusedofilldoingatalaterperiodtheywereputtodeathasChristians.Ramsaygivesreasonsforbelievingthatthe
changewasmadebyNero,anddevelopedintheintervala.d.6896undertheFlavianemperors(Ch.inRom.Emp.pp.245,252ff.,280).The
factofpersecutionsbeingmentionedmakesitunlikelythat1Peterwaswrittenbeforea.d.64(Lightfoot,Clement,ii.498f.),andits
indebtednesstosomeofSt.PaulsEpistlesimpliessomeintervalaftertheywerewritten.Dr.Bigg,however(Internal.Crit.Com.),pleadsfor
amuchearlierdate,inanargumentthatwillnotbearabbreviation:hethinksthatthepersecutionsmentionedwerenotfromtheStateatall,but
fromtheJews.Ramsay,ontheotherhand,thinksthattheprovincesofAsiaMinorcannothavebeensofullyevangelizedas1Peterimplies
beforea.d.
65,andthattheEpistlewaswrittenc.a.d.80,soonafterwhichdateSt.Peterdied.ButthisisagainstallthePatristictestimony,whichthereis
littlereasontoreject.Probably,then,wemustdatethedeathofbothApostlesinNerosreign.Twooftheargumentsmentionedaboveonthe
onehandthatthetwomartyrdomsmusthavebeenincloseconnexionwiththeRomanfireand,ontheotherhand,thatSt.Markcanonlyhave
attendedontheoneApostleaftertheothersdeathappeartohavelittleweight.If,asseemslikelyfromwhathasalreadybeensaid,the
generalschemeofchronologyadoptedbyLightfootandWieselerplacestheeventsofActsayearortwotoolateallthrough,theargumentfor
postponingthedateofSt.Paulsdeath,toallowforhistravels,falls,althoughthelaterdateforthedeathisinitselfquiteprobable.Onthe
whole,theconclusionseemstobethatthemartyrdomsmayhavetakenplaceatanytimebetweena.d.64anda.d.68,moreprobablytowards
theendthantowardsthebeginningofthatperiod,thoughnotnecessarilyinthesameyear.

(2)TheApocalypse.ThisworkgivesusourlastchronologicalindicationsinNT.Like1Peter,itimpliespersecutionfortheNamebut,
unlike1Peter,itimpliesemperorworship.ThetoneofantagonismtotheEmpireisentirelydifferentfromthatofSt.PaulsEpistlesandthe
Acts.RomeworshipwasgreatlydevelopedbyDomitian,andwasscarcelyatallprominentinNerostime.ThisfeatureinRev.,then,pointsto
thescenebeinglaidintheDomitianicpersecutionandthatdateisarguedforbySwete(Apocalypse,p.xcv.ff.themostcompleteEnglish
commentaryonthework)andRamsay(Ch.inRom.Emp.p.295ff.).ItisacceptedbySanday(JThStviii.481ff.,July1907).Lightfoot,
however(Bibl.Ess.p.51,Sup.Rel.p.132),andWestcott(St.John,Introd.p.lxxxiv.)argueforadateduringNerospersecution,mainly
becauseofthedifferenceofstylebetweenRev.andJn.,thelatterbeingdatedlateinthecenturythisargumentassumesidentityofauthorship,
andmakeslittleallowanceforapossibledifferenceofscribes.OtherargumentsfortheNeronicdatehavebeentakenfromthenumberofthe
Beast,whichissupposedtospell,inHebrewletters,thenamesNeroCsar,andfromtheindicationastothekings(emperors)in17:10.The
earlierdatewasinfashionagenerationago,butareactionhaslatelysetin,andtheopinionofIrenusisnowlargelysupported,namely,that
thebookwaswrittentowardstheendofthereignofDomitian,whodieda.d.96(Iren.Haer.v.30.3Euseb.HEiii.18).Theevidenceseems
topreponderatelargelyinfavourofthesuppositionthatthelastdecadeofthe1stcent.isthatillustratedbythelastbookoftheNTCanon.
III.Results.ThefollowingtablegivesthedatesarrivedatbyHarnack,Turner,Ramsay,andLightfoot,respectively.Theresultsof
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III.Results.ThefollowingtablegivesthedatesarrivedatbyHarnack,Turner,Ramsay,andLightfoot,respectively.Theresultsof
LightfootareinthemainalsothoseofWieseler,Lewin,andSchrer.Tothepresentwritertheintermediatedatesseemtobetheonlyones
whichfulfilallthenecessaryconditionsbutTurnersyearforSt.PaulsconversionappearslessprobablethanRamsays.Inview,however,of
theconfusioninreckoningImperialyears,lunarmonths,andthelike,itwouldbevaintoexpectanythinglikecertaintyindeterminingNT
dates.

H.

7wor6sp 6s
Nativityof
Christ,b.c.

27sp 25wor26sp
Baptismof
Christ,a.d.

Crucifixion 29or30 29 29 30

30 35or36 33 34
Conversionof
St.Paul

33 38 35 37
FirstVisitto
Jerusalem

SecondVisit 44 46 45aand46sp 45

FirstMiss. 4546? 4748 4749 4849

Journey
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Journey
Council(Third 47 49 49wand50sp 51
Visit)

4750 4952 5053 5154

SecondM.J.
andFourth
Visit

5054 5256 5357 5458

ThirdMiss.
Journey

54 56 57 58
FifthVisitand
arrest

56 58s 59s 60or61

Festus
succeeds

57sp 59sp 60sp 61sp

St.Pauls
arrivalin
Rome

Acquittal 61sp 61wor62sp 63sp

64 64or65 67 67

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DeathofSt.
Paul

DeathofSt. 64 64or65 80 64
Peter
A.J.Maclean.

CHRYSOLITE,CHRYSOPRASE.SeeJewelsandPreciousStones.
CHURCH.1.Thewordecclesia,whichinitsChristianapplicationisusuallytr.church,wasappliedinordinaryGreekusagetothe
dulyconstitutedgatheringofthecitizensinaselfgoverningcity,anditissousedoftheEphesianassemblyinAc19:39.Itwasadoptedinthe
LXXtotr.aHeb.word,qhl,signifyingthenationofIsraelasassembledbeforeGodorconsideredinareligiousaspect(Jg21:8,1Ch29:1,
Dt31:30etc.).InthissenseitisfoundtwiceintheNT(Ac7:38RVchurch,He2:12RVcongregation).Thetermispracticallyequivalent
tothefamiliarsynagoguewhich,however,wasmorefrequentlyusedtotranslateanotherHeb.word,dhh.Thiswillprobablyexplainour
LordswordsinMt18:17.ForsynagoguewasthenameregularlyappliedaftertheBabylonianexiletolocalcongregationsofJewsformally
gatheredforcommonworship,andfromthemsubsequentlytransferredtosimilarcongregationsofHebrewChristians(Ja2:2).Tellittothe
ecclesiacanhardlyreferdirectlytocommunitiesofJesusdisciples,asthesedidnotexistinthetimeoftheGalilanministry,butratherto
theJewishcongregation,oritsrepresentativecourt,intheplacetowhichthedisputantsmightbelong.Therenewalofthepromiseconcerning
bindingandloosinginv.18(cf.16:19)makesagainstthisinterpretation.AndtheassuranceofChristspresenceinv.20canhavereference
onlytogatheringsofdisciples.ButitmaywellbethatwehavethesesayingsbroughttogetherbyMatthewinviewoftheChristian
significanceofecclesia.Thereisnoevidencethatecclesia,likesynagogue,wastransferredfromthecongregationofIsraeltothereligious
assemblieswhichwereitslocalembodiment.But,thoughnotthetechnicalterm,therewouldbenodifficultyinapplyingit,withoutfearof
misunderstanding,tothesynagogue.AndthiswouldbethemorenaturalbecausethetermisusuallyappliedtoIsraelinitshistoricalrather
thaninitsidealaspect(seeHort,ChristianEcclesia,p.12).

2.EcclesiaisusedconstantlywithitsChristianmeaninginthePaulineEpistles.Itsearliestusechronologicallyisprobablyin1Th1:1.
ButthegrowthofitsuseisheststudiedbybeginningwithActs.Herethetermfirstoccursin5:11,appliedtotheChristiansofJerusalemin
theircorporatecapacity.In1:15St.Peterisrepresentedasstandingupinthemidstofthebrethren.ThusfromthefirstChristiansarea
brotherhoodorfamily,notapromiscuousgathering.Thatthisfamilyisconsideredcapableofanorderedextensionisevident(a)fromthe
stepsimmediatelytakentofillavacantpostofauthority(1:25),and(b)fromthewayinwhichconvertsonreceivingbaptismarespokenofas
addedtoafellowship(2:47AVaddedtothechurch,butseeRV)whichcontinuesintheApostlesteaching,andthebondofacommontable
andunitedprayer(2:42,46).Thiscommunityisnowcalledtheassemblageofthemthatbelieved(4:32),thewordused,ascomparedwithits
employmentelsewhere,suggestingnotathrongorcrowdbutthewholebodyofthedisciples.InEx12:6wehavethephrasethewhole
assemblyofthecongregation(Gr.synagg)ofIsrael.When,therefore,itbecamenecessarytofindacollectivenameforthebelievers,
ecclesia,thealternativetosynagogue,wasnotunnaturallychosen.ForthedisciplesmeetinginJerusalemwere,asamatteroffact,thetrue
Israel(Gal6:16),thelittleflocktowhomwastobegiventheMessianicKingdom(Lk12:32).Moreover,theywereaChristiansynagogue,
and,butfortheriskofconfusion,mighthavebeensocalled.Thename,therefore,asappliedtotheprimitivecommunityofJesus,isonthe
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and,butfortheriskofconfusion,mighthavebeensocalled.Thename,therefore,asappliedtotheprimitivecommunityofJesus,isonthe
onehanduniversalandideal,ontheotherlocalandparticular.IneithercasetheassociationsareJewish,andbythesethesubsequenthistory
ofthenameisdetermined.

3.AsChristianityspread,thelocalunitsofthebrotherhoodcametohecalledecclesi(Ac9:31,13:1,14:23,15:41,20:17etc.),the
originalcommunitybeingnowdistinguishedastheecclesiainJerusalem(8:1).ThuswereachthefamiliaruseofthePaulineEpistles,e.g.
theecclesiaoftheThessalonians(1Th1:1),ofLaodicea(Col4:16),ofCorinth(1Co1:2)cf.1P5:13,Rev2:1etc.Theyaresummedupin
theexpressionalltheecclesiofChrist(Ro16:16).Thislanguagehasdoubtlessgivenrisetothemodernconceptionofthechurchesbutit
mustbeobservedthatthePaulineideaisterritorial,theonlyapparentdeparturefromthisusagebeingtheapplicationofthenametosections
ofalocalecclesia,whichseeminsomeinstancestohavemetforadditionalworshipinthehousesofprominentdisciples(Ro16:5,1Co
16:19etc.).TheexistenceofindependentcongregationsofChristianswithinasinglearea,liketheHellenisticandHebrewsynagogues(see
Ac6:1,9),doesnotappeartobecontemplatedintheNT.
4.TheconceptionofaCatholicChurchinthesenseofaconstitutionalfederationoflocalChristianorganizationsinauniversal
communityispostApostolic.ThephraseisfirstfoundinIgnatius(c.a.d.115seeLightfoot,Apost.Fathers,Pt.2.ii.p.310).Butinthe1st
cent.theChurchofJerusalem,astheseatofApostolicauthority(Ac8:1,14),stillexercisesaninfluenceupontheothercommunities,which
continuesduringtheperiodoftranslationtotheworldwidesociety.AtJerusalemSaulreceivestherighthandoffellowshipandrecognition
fromthepillarApostles(Gal2:9).ThenceApostlesgoforthtoconfirmandconsolidatetheworkofevangelists(Ac8:14).Thither
missionariesreturnwithreportsofnewlyfoundedGentilesocietiesandcontributionsforthepoorsaints(Ac15:2,24:17,1Co16:13).Itis
thiscommunitythatpromulgatesdecisionsonproblemscreatedbytheextensionofChristianity(Ac15:2229).Tillafterthedestructionof
thecityina.d.71thisChurchcontinued,underthepresidencyofJamestheLordsbrother(Gal2:12,Ac12:17,15:13,21:18),andthenof
othermembersoftheChristianroyalfamily(Eusebius,HEiii.11,19,20),tobethetypicalsocietyofJesusdisciples.

5.ButalreadyintheNTthatidealelement,whichdistinguishedtheprimitivefellowshipastheKingdomofMessiah,isbeginningto
expressitselfinaconceptionoftheecclesiawhich,whileitneverlosestouchwiththeactualconcretesocietyorsocietiesofChristians,has
neverthelessnoconstitutionalvalue.ItisscarcelypossibletosupposethattheadoptionofthenameecclesiafortheChristiansocietywas
altogetherunrelatedtothecelebrateduseofthewordbythe
LordHimselfinHisconversationwiththedisciplesatCsareaPhilippi(Mt16:1320||).Twosuggestionswithregardtothispassagemaybe
dismissed.Thefirstisthatitwasinterpolatedtosupportthegrowthofecclesiasticalauthorityinthe2ndcent.thisrestssolelyonan
assumptionthatbegsthequestion.ThesecondisthatecclesiahasbeensubstitutedforkingdominourLordsutterancethroughsubsequent
identificationofideas.ButtheoccasionwasonethatChristevidentlyintendedtosignalizebyauniquedeliverance,thefullsignificanceof
whichwouldnotbecomeapparenttillinterpretedbylaterexperience(cf.Mt10:38,Jn6:53).Themetaphorofbuildingasappliedtothenation
ofIsraelisfoundintheOT(Jer33:7cf.Am9:11,Ps102:16).ThereisthereforelittledoubtthatJesusmeantHisdisciplestounderstandthe
establishmentofMessiahsKingdomandthattheuseofthelesscommonwordecclesia,farfrombeingunintentional,isdesignedtoconnect
withthenewandenlargedIsraelonlythespiritualassociationsofJehovahscongregation,andtodiscouragethetemporalaspirationswhich
theywereonlytooreadytoderivefromthepromisedKingdom.

6.TheKingdomofGod,orofHeaven,isaprominentconceptionintheSynopticGospels.ItisrathertheKingdomthantheKingthat
ChristHimselfproclaims(Mk1:14,15,cf.Mt4:17).Theidea,partiallyunderstoodbyHiscontemporaries,wasbroadenedandspiritualized
byJesus.Ithadbeenoutlinedbyprophetsandapocalypticwriters.ItwastorealizethehopesofthatcongregationofIsraelwhichhadbeen
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byJesus.Ithadbeenoutlinedbyprophetsandapocalypticwriters.ItwastorealizethehopesofthatcongregationofIsraelwhichhadbeen
purchasedandredeemedofold(Ps74:2),andofwhichthe
Davidicmonarchyhadbeenthepledge(Mic4:8,Is55:3etc.).Typicalpassagesare
Dn2:44,7:14.ThiswastheKingdomwhichthecrowdhailedattheTriumphal
Entry(Mt21:9||).ChristbeginsfromthepointofJewishexpectation,buttheKingdomwhichHeproclaims,thoughnotlessactual,surpasses
anypreviousconceptioninthemindsofHisfollowers.Itisalreadypresent(Lk11:20,17:21RVm)inHisownPersonandwork.Itisrevealed
asahistoricalinstitutionintheparablesoftheTares(Mt13:24ff.)andtheDragnet(13:47ff.).Otherparablespresentitasanidealwhichno
historicalinstitutioncansatisfy,e.g.Treasurehidinafield(13:44),amerchantmanseekinggoodlyPearls(13:45),agrainofMustardSeed
(13:21,32).WecannotsolvetheprobleminvolvedinChristsvariouspresentationsoftheKingdombysayingthatHeusesthewordin
differentsenses.Heisdealingwitharealitytoovasttobesubmittedtothehumanunderstandingotherwisethaninaspectsandpartialviews
whichnopowersofcombinationwillenableusadequatelytoadjust.ThetwofoldconceptionoftheKingdomasatoncearealityandanideal
isfinallybroughthomebythoseutterancesofJesuswhichreferitsrealizationtotheendoftheage.Danielsprophecyistoberealizedonly
whentheSonofManshallcomeinHisKingdom(24:3,15,25:31,26:64).Itisthenthattheblessedaretoinheritwhatneverthelesswas
preparedforthemfromthebeginningoftime(25:34).AndallviewsoftheKingdomwhichwouldlimitittoanexternallyorganized
communityareprovedtobeinsufficientbyadeclarationlikethatofLk17:20,21.Butevenwhencontemplatedideally,theMessianic
Kingdompossessesthoseattributesoforderandauthoritywhichareinseparablefromasociety(Mt19:28).

Itishardlytobedoubted,therefore,thatthenameecclesia,asgiventotheprimitivecommunityofChristiansatJerusalem,evenif
suggestedratherbythesynagoguethanbyourLordsdeclarationtoSt.Peter,couldnotbeusedwithoutidentifyingthatsocietywiththe
KingdomofGod,sofarasthiswascapableofrealizationinaninstitution,andendowingitwiththoseidealqualitieswhichbelongthereto.
ThedescentoftheHolySpirituponthedisciplesatPentecost,fulfillingasitdidtheexpectationofabaptismoffirethatwastoaccompanythe
establishmentoftheKingdom(Ac1:5,2:3,4,Mt3:11),connectstheChurchwiththeKingdom,andthescatteringofitsmembersafter
Stephensdeath(Ac8:1)wouldbegintofamiliarizethediscipleswiththeideaoftheunityinChristunbrokenbylocalseparation(cf.8:1and
9:31).

7.ButitisonlyinthetheologyofSt.PaulthatwefindtheKingdomoftheGospelsinterpretedintermsoftheactualexperienceofthe
Christianecclesia.TheextensionofthefellowshipbeyondthelimitsofasinglecityhasshownthattheidealChurchcannotbeidentified
simpliciterwithanyChristiancommunity,whiletheidealizationofthefederatedecclesi,naturalenoughinalaterage,is,intheabsenceofa
widerecclesiasticalorganization,notyetpossible.ItisstillfurtherfromthetruthtoassertthatSt.Paulhadtheconceptionofaninvisible
Church,ofwhichthelocalcommunitieswereatbesttypical.WehavenoevidencethatSt.Paulregardedmembershipoftheuniversal
ecclesiaasinvisible(Hort,Christian
Ecclesia,p.169).ThemethodbywhichtheApostlereachedhisdoctrineofthe
ChurchisbestillustratedbyhischargetotheeldersatMiletustofeedtheflockofGodoverwhichtheHolyGhosthadmadethemoverseers
(Ac20:28).HerethelocalEphesianChurchrepresentspracticallyGodsChurchpurchasedwithHispreciousblood(v.28),arealcommunity
ofwhichvisibilityisanessentialcharacteristic,butwhichbythenatureofthecaseisincapableofacompletemanifestationinhistory.The
passagecombinesinaremarkabledegreethethreeelementsintheDivineSociety,namely,theredeemedcongregationofIsrael(Ps74:2),the
KingdomorecclesiaofMessiah(Mt16:18),andthebodyestablishedupontheAtonement(Col1:2022,Eph2:13).Allthreenotesare
presentintheteachingoftheEpistlesconcerningtheecclesia.ItisthehistoricalfactoftheinclusionoftheGentiles(Eph2:18)thatisthe
startingpoint.ThosenationswhichundertheoldcovenantwerealienfromthepeopleofGod(Eph2:12)arenowincludedinthevast
citizenshiporpolity(v.13ff.)whichmembershipinalocalecclesiainvolves.TheChurchhasexistedfromalleternityasanideainthemind69/137
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citizenshiporpolity(v.13ff.)whichmembershipinalocalecclesiainvolves.TheChurchhasexistedfromalleternityasanideainthemind
ofGod(3:311),theheritagepreparedforChrist(1:10,11).Itisthepeopleofpossession(1:14,cf.1P2:9,Tit2:14),identifiedwiththe
commonwealthofIsrael(Eph2:12),andassuchtheimmediateobjectofredemption(5:25)butthroughthereconciliationoftheCross
extended(2:14),and,asitwere,reincorporatedonawiderbasis(v.15),asthesphereofuniversalforgiveness(v.16),thehomeoftheSpirit
(v.18),andtheonebodyofChrist(4:12etc.),inwhichallhaveaccesstotheFather(2:18).Theinterlacedfiguresofgrowthandbuilding
(4:12,16),underwhichitispresented,witnesstoitsorganicandthereforenotexclusivelyspiritualcharacter.Baptism,administeredbythe
localecclesiandresultinginrightsanddutiesinrespectofthem,isyetprimarilythemethodofentrancetotheidealcommunity(Ro6:3,4,1
Co12:13,Gal3:27,28,Eph4:5),towhichalsobelongthoseofficesandfunctionswhich,whetheruniversalliketheApostolate(1Co12:27,
28)orparticularlikethepresbyterate(Ac20:17,28cf.1Co12:811,Eph4:11),areexercisedonlyinrelationtothelocalsocieties.Itisthe
ChurchofGodthatsufferspersecutioninthepersonsofthosewhoareoftheWay(1Co15:9,Ac8:3,9:1)isprofanedbymisuseofsacred
ordinancesatCorinth(1Co11:22)becomesatEphesusthepillarandgroundofthetruth(1Ti3:16).

ThatSt.Paul,inspeakingoftheChurchnowinthelocalnowintheuniversalsense,isnotdealingwithideasconnectedonlybyanalogy,is
provedbytheeasewithwhichhepassesfromtheonetotheotheruse(Col4:15,16cf.1:18,24andEph.passim).TheChurchisessentially
visible,theshrineofGod(1Co3:16,17),thebodyofChrist(Eph1:23etc.)schismandpartystrifeinvolvingabreachintheunityofthe
Spirit(4:3).UnderanotherfiguretheChurchisthebrideofChrist(5:25ff.),Hiscomplementorfulness(1:23),derivingitslifefromHimas
HedoesfromtheFather(v.22,1Co11:3).
8.ThustheBiblicalviewoftheChurchdiffersalikefromthematerializedconceptionofAugustine,whichidentifiesitwiththe
constitutionallyincorporatedandcumenicalsocietyoftheRomanEmpire,withitscanonlawandhierarchicaljurisdiction,andfromthat
KingdomofChristwhichLuther,asinterpretedbyRitschl,regardedastheinwardspiritualunionofbelieverswithChrist(Justificationand
Reconciliation,Eng.tr.p.287).TheprincipleoftheChurchslifeisinward,sothatthemeasureofthestatureofthefulnessofChrist
remainstheobjectofChristianhope(Eph4:13).Butitsmanifestationisoutward,andincludesthoseministrieswhich,thoughmarred,as
historyshows,byhumanfailureandsin,aresetintheChurchforthebuildingupofthebody(v.11,12).JustasmembersofthelegalIsrael
arerecognizedbyourLordassonsoftheKingdom(Mt8:12),sothebaptizedarethecalled,thesaints,themembersofthebody.Thereisno
warrantintheNTforthatsharpseparationbetweenmembershipinthelegalworshippingChurchandtheKingdomofGodwhichis
characteristicofRitschlianism.

9.TheChurchinitscorporatecapacityistheprimaryobjectofredemption.Thistruth,besidesbeingdefinitelyasserted(Eph5:25,27,Ac
20:28,Tit2:14),isinvolvedintheconceptionofChristasthesecondAdam(Ro5:1221,1Co15:2022),thefederalheadofaredeemed
raceunderliestheinstitutionsofBaptismandtheEucharistandisexpressedintheApostolicteachingconcerningthetwoSacraments(see
above,also1Co10:1618,11:2034).TheChurchisthusnotavoluntaryassociationofjustifiedpersonsforpurposesofmutualedification
andcommonworship,butthebodyinwhichtheindividualbelievernormallyrealizeshisredemption.ChristslovefortheChurch,forwhich
HegaveHimself(Eph5:25),constitutingaroyalpriesthood,aholynation,apeopleofpossession(1P2:5,9)throughHisblood(Eph2:13),
completestheparallel,orrathermarkstheidentity,withthehistoricalIsrael.MembershipinAbrahamscovenantedrace,ofwhich
circumcisionwasthesign(Gn17:8),broughttheIsraeliteintorelationwithJehovah.Thesacrificescoveredthewholechurchinthe
wilderness(Ac7:38),andeachworshipperapproachedGodinvirtueofhisinclusionintheholypeople.Noforeignermighteatofthe
Passover(Ex12:45).Thepropitiatoryritualofthe

DayofAtonementwasexpresslydesignedfortheconsecrationofthewholenation(Lv16).SothesacrificeoftheCrossisourPassover(1Co
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DayofAtonementwasexpresslydesignedfortheconsecrationofthewholenation(Lv16).SothesacrificeoftheCrossisourPassover(1Co
5:7).TheworshipoftheChristiancongregationisthePaschalfeast(v.8,cf.He13:1016).InChristthosewhoarenowfellowcitizenshavea
commonaccesstotheFather(Eph2:18,He10:22).ThroughtheMediatorofanewcovenant(12:24)thosethatareconsecrated(10:14,22)
arecometotheChurchofthefirstborn(12:23),whichincludesthespiritsoftheperfectedsaints(ib.)inthefellowshipofGodshousehold
(Eph2:19,He10:21).Seealsofollowingarticle.

J.G.Simpson.
CHURCHGOVERNMENT.1.Thegeneraldevelopmentseemsfairlyclear,thoughitslaterstagesfallbeyondNTtimes.TheApostles
werefoundersofchurches,andthereforeregulatedandsupervisedthefirstarrangementsthenwereaddedsundrylocalandunlocalrulers
thentheunlocaldiedout,andthelocalsettleddownintothethreepermanentclassesofbishops,elders,anddeacons.Thechiefdisputed
questionsconcerntheoriginofthelocalministry,itsrelationtotheother,andthetimeandmannerinwhichitsettleddownunderthe
governmentof(monarchical)bishops.
2.TwiceoverSt.PaulgivessomethinglikealistofthechiefpersonsoftheChurch.In1Co12:28hecountsupfirst,apostlessecond,
prophetsthird,teachersthenpowersthengiftsofhealing,helps,governments,kindsoftongues.Itwillbenoticedthatallthewordsafter
thefirsttwoplainlydescribefunctions,notoffices.Afewyearslater(Eph4:11)hetellsushowtheascendedLordhimselfgavesomeas
apostles,someprophets,someevangelists,somepastorsandteachers,fortheworkofservice(diakonia)theyareallofthemdeacons
(diakonoi),whatevermoretheymaybe.

3.AttheheadofbothlistsistheApostle.TheApostleswerenotlimitedtothe
Eleven,ortothenumbertwelve,thoughtwelvewasalwaystheidealnumber(1Co15:5,Rev21:14perhapsAc2:14,6:2).WhetherMatthias
remainedanApostleornot,PaulandBarnabaswerecertainlyApostles(e.g.Ac14:14),andsowasJamestheLordsbrother(Gal1:19).The
olddisciplesAndronicusandJunias(notJunia)werenotableApostles(Ro16:7).Ontheotherhand,Timothyseemsexcludedbythe
greetingsofseveralEpistles(e.g.2Co.),andApollosbytheevidenceofClementofRome,whomostlikelyknewthetruthofthematter.
TheApostlesfirstqualificationwastohaveseentherisenLord(Ac1:22,1Co9:5),forhisfirstdutywastobearwitnessofthe
Resurrection.ThisqualificationseemsnevertohavebeenrelaxedinNTtimes.Adirectcallwasalsoneeded,for(1Co12:28,Gal1:1,Eph
4:11)nohumanauthoritycouldchooseanApostle.ThecallofBarnabasandSaulwasacknowledged(Ac13:8)byacommissionfromthe
churchatAntiochandifMatthiasremainedanApostle,wemustsupposethatthedirectcallwasrepresentedbysomelaterDivine
recognition.

ThereforetheApostlewasinnosensealocalofficial.Hisworkwasnottoservetables,buttopreachandtomakedisciplesofallnations,
sothatheledawanderinglife,settlingdownonlyinhisoldage,orinthesenseofmaking,say,EphesusorCorinthhiscentreforawhile.The
storieswhichdividetheworldamongtheTwelvearelegends:theonlydivisionweknowofwasmade(Gal2:8)attheConference,whenit
wasresolvedthattheThreeshouldgototheJews,PaulandBarnabastotheGentiles.Withthispreachingwentthefoundingandgeneralcare
ofchurches,thoughnottheirordinarygovernment.St.Paulinterferesonlyincasesofgrosserrororcorporatedisorder.Hispointisnotthat
theGalatiansaremistaken,butthattheyarealtogetherfallingawayfromChristnotthattheCorinthianisabadoffender,butthatthechurch
seesnogreatharminthematter.

HedoesnotadvisetheCorinthiansonfurtherquestionswithoutplainhints(1Co6:5,10:14,11:14)thattheyoughttohavesettledmostof
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HedoesnotadvisetheCorinthiansonfurtherquestionswithoutplainhints(1Co6:5,10:14,11:14)thattheyoughttohavesettledmostof
themforthemselves.

4.NexttotheApostlecomestheshadowyfigureoftheProphet.HetoosustainedtheChurch,andsharedwithhim(Eph2:20,3:5)the
revelationofthemystery.Hespokeinthespiritwordsofwarning,ofcomfort,oritmightbeofprediction.Hetooreceivedhiscommission
fromGodandnotfrommen,andwasnolocalofficerofachurch,evenifhedweltinthecity.ButhewasnotaneyewitnessoftherisenLord,
andthecareofallthechurchesdidnotrestonhim.Womenalsomightprophesy(1Co11:5),likePhilipsdaughters(Ac21:9)at
Csarea,orperhapsthemysticJezebel(Rev2:20)atThyatira.YetevenintheApostolicageprophecy(1Th5:20)isbeginningtofallinto
discredit,andfalseprophetsareflourishing(1Jn.,2Pet.,Jude).ThismaybethereasonforthemarkedavoidanceofthenameApostleby
andofSt.John.

5.ItwillbeseenthatSt.Paulslistsleavenoplaceforalocalministryofoffice,unlessitcomesinunderhelpsandgovernmentson
pastorsandteachers.Yetsuchaministrymusthaveexistedalmostfromthefirst.Wehave(1)theappointmentoftheSevenatJerusalem(Ac
6)(2)eldersatJerusalemintheyears44,50,58(11:30,15:8,22,21:18),appointedbyPaulandBarnabasineverychurchabout48(14:23),
mentionedJa5:14atEphesusin58(Ac20:17),mentioned1P5:1(3)PhheadeaconessatCenchrein58(Ro16:1),bishopsanddeacons
atPhilippiin63(Ph1:1).AlsointhePastoralEpistles,TimothyatEphesusabout66is(1Ti3,4)inchargeoffourorders:(1)bishops(or
elders)(5:1)(2)deacons(3)deaconesses(3:11)(women[inGr.withoutthearticle]cannotbewivesofdeacons)(4)widows.WithTitusin
Creteonlybishopsarementioned(Tit1:5).Totheseweadd(5)theprominentquasiepiscopalpositionsofJamesatJerusalemin44(Ac
12:17),in50,andin58and(6)ofTimothyandTitusatEphesusandinCrete.
Tothesewemustnotadd(1)theyoungmen(neteroi)whocarriedoutAnanias(Ac5:6).[Thetacitcontrastwithpresbyteroiisofage,
notoffice,foritisneaniskoiwhoburySapphira](2)theindefiniteproistamenoiof1Th5:12andRo12:8,andtheequallyindefinite
hgoumenoiofsomeunknownchurchshortlybefore70(He13:7,17).[Iftheseareofficials,wecansaynomorethanthatthereareseveralof
them](3)theangelsofthesevenchurchesinAsia.[Thesecannotsafelybetakenliterally.]
6.ThequestionsbeforeusmaybeconvenientlygroupedroundthethreelaterofficesofBishop,Elder,andDeacon.Butbishopand
deaconseematfirsttohavedenotedfunctionsofoversightandserviceratherthandefiniteoffices.Theeldercarriesoveramoreofficial
characterfromthesynagoguebutinanycasethereisalwaysagooddealofgiveandtakeamongofficialsofsmallsocieties.Ifso,weshall
notbesurprisedifwefindneitherdefiniteinstitutionofofficesnorsharpdistinctionofduties.

(1)Deacons.Thetraditionalview,thatthechoiceoftheSeveninAc6markstheinstitutionofapermanentorderofdeacons,isopen
toseriousdoubt.TheopinionofCyprianandlaterwritersisnotworthmuchonaquestionofthiskind,andeventhatofIrenusisfarfrom
decisive.Thevagueworddiakonia(usedtoointhecontextoftheApostlesthemselves)isbalancedbytheavoidanceoftheworddeacon
intheActs(e.g.21:8Philiptheevangelist,oneoftheSeven).Since,however,PhbewasadeaconessatCenchrein58,therewere
probablydeaconsthereandatCorinth,thoughSt.PauldoesnotmentionanyandatPhilippiwehavebishopsanddeaconsin63.Inboth
cases,however,thedoubtremains,howfarthenamehassettledintoadefiniteoffice.Seeart.Deacon.

(2)Elders.EldersatJerusalemreceivetheofferingsin44fromSauland
Barnabas.TheyarejoinedwiththeApostlesattheConferencein50,andwithJamesin58.AsPaulandBarnabasappointeldersineverycity
ontheirfirstmissionaryjourney,andwefindeldersatEphesusin58,wemayinferthatthechurchesgenerallyhadelders,thoughthereisno
furthercertainmentionofthemtillthePastoralEpistlesand1Peter.ProbablyJa5:12isearlier,buttherewecannotbesurethatthewordis 72/137
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furthercertainmentionofthemtillthePastoralEpistlesand1Peter.ProbablyJa5:12isearlier,buttherewecannotbesurethatthewordis
official.

ThedifferenceofnamebetweeneldersandbishopsmaypointtosomedifferenceoforiginordutiesbutinNT(andinClementofRome)
thetermsarepracticallyequivalent.ThustheeldersofEphesusarereminded(Ac20:28)thattheyarebishops.InthePastoralEpistles,
TimothyappointsbishopsanddeaconsTitus,eldersanddeacons,thoughTimothyalso(1Ti5:17)haseldersunderhim.Thequalifications
oftheelder,asdescribedtoTitus,arepracticallythoseofthebishopasgiventoTimothy,anditisadded(Tit1:7)thattheeldersmustbesuch
becausethebishopmustbeblameless,etc.whichisdecisivethatthebishopsofficewasatleastaswideastheelders.Moreover,inboth
casesthedutiesimpliedareministerial,notwhatwecallepiscopal.Iftheeldersdutyistorule(1Ti5:17),hedoesitsubjecttoTimothy,
muchasamodernelderrulessubjecttohisbishop.
(3)Bishops.SeeBishop.

H.M.Gwatkin.
CHURCHES,ROBBERSOF.ThisisinAc19:37anAVmistranslation(RVhasrobbersoftemples).EventheRVisinexact.The
wordoughttobetranslatedsimplysacrilegiouspersons,thatis,personsactingdisrespectfullytothegoddessofEphesus.In2Mac4:42(RV
authorofthesacrilege)theexpressionisappliedtoLysimachus,brotherofMenelausthehighpriest,whoperishedinariotcausedby
sacrilege(b.c.170).

A.Souter.
CHURCHES,SEVEN.SeeAngelsoftheSevenChurches,Revelation[Bookof],alsotheartt.onEphesus,Smyrna,etc.
CHUSI(Jth7:18),mentionedwithEkrebel(Akrabeh),ispossiblyKuzah,5milesS.ofShechemand5milesW.ofAkrabeh.
CHUZA(Amer.RVChuzas).ThestewardofHerodAntipas.HiswifeJoanna(wh.see)wasoneofthewomenwhoministeredtoour
LordandHisdisciples(Lk8:3).
CIELED,CIELING(Amer.RVceiled,ceiling).Thelatteroccursonly1K6:15,whereithasitsmodernsignification(reading,
however,untothebeams[orrafters]ofthecieling).Theverb,ontheotherhand,shouldeverywhereberenderedpanelled(2Ch3:5,Jer
22:14,Ezk41:16,Hag1:4yourpanelledhouses),thereferencebeingtothepanelsofcedarorothercostlywoodwithwhichtheinnerwalls
werelined.SeeHouse,4.

A.R.S.Kennedy.
CILICIA.AdistrictintheS.E.cornerofAsiaMinor,whichinNTtimeswasdividedintotwoportions.TheRomanprovinceCilicia,
whichisalonereferredtointheNT,stretchedfromalittleE.ofCorycustoMt.Amanus,andfromtheCilicianGatesandAnazarbustothe
sea.ForadministrativepurposesitwascombinedwithSyriaandPhnicia.ThesenseoftheunityofSyriaandCiliciaisseenclearlyinGal
1:21(alsoinAc15:23,41).ThecapitaloftheprovinceCiliciawasTarsus(Ac21:39,22:3).Theotherportiontowhichthenamewasapplied

wastheclientkingdomofkingAntiochus,whichwasunderthesuzeraintyofRome,andincludedCiliciaTracheia(RuggedCilicia)totheW.,
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wastheclientkingdomofkingAntiochus,whichwasunderthesuzeraintyofRome,andincludedCiliciaTracheia(RuggedCilicia)totheW.,
aswellasabeltsurroundingtheRomanprovinceontheN.andE.Neitherdistricthasasyetbeenthoroughlyexplored.

A.Souter.
CIMMERIANS.The name, which has come to us through the Greek, of the people known as Gomer (wh. see) in the Bible, the
Gimirrofthecuneiforminscriptions.
J.F.McCurdy.
CINNAMON(Ex30:23,Pr7:17,Ca4:14,Rev18:13).AlmostwithoutdoubttheproductofCinnamomumzeylanicumofCeylon.The
innerbarkisthepartchieflyused,butoilisalsoobtainedfromthefruit.Cinnamonisstillafavouriteperfumeandflavouringsubstancein
Palestine.

E.W.G.Masterman.
CIRCUIToccurs4timesinAV:1S7:16(alateanddoubtfulpassage,acc.towhichSamuelwentoncircuittovarioushighplaces),Job
22:14(RVmandAmer.
RVvault,i.e.thevaultofheaven),Ps19:6(ofthesunscourseintheheavens),Ec1:8(ofthecircuitsofthewind).Besidesretainingthese
instances,RVsubstitutesmade[make]acircuitforAVfetchacompassin2S5:23,2K3:9,Ac28:13.SeeCompass.
CIRCUMCISION.ThisriteisnotofIsraeliteorigintherearesomegoodgroundsforthebeliefthatitcametotheIsraelitesfromthe
Egyptians.Thefactofaflintbeingusedforitsperformance(Jos5:2,3)witnessestotheimmenseantiquityoftherite.Itsoriginalmeaning
andobjectarehiddeninobscurity,thoughthetheorythatitwasregardedasanecessarypreliminarytomarriagehasmuchtocommendit.
AmongtheIsraelitesitbecamethesignoftheCovenantPeoplewhoeverwasuncircumcisedcouldnotpartakeofthehopesofthenation,nor
couldsuchjoinintheworshipofJahwehhecouldnotbereckonedanIsraelite(Gn17:14).NotonlywaseveryIsraeliterequiredtoundergo
circumcision,buteveneveryslaveacquiredbytheIsraelitesfromforeignlandshadlikewisetobecircumcised(Gn17:12,13)accordingto
Ex12:48,49evenastrangersojourninginthemidstofIsraelhadtosubmittotherite,atalleventsifhewishedtojoininthecelebrationof
thePassover.OriginallymalechildrenwerenotcircumcisedinIsrael(cf.Jos5:59),butboyshadtoundergoitonarrivingattheageof
pubertybutinlaterdaystheLawcommandedthateverymalechildshouldbecircumcisedontheeighthdayafterbirth(Lv12:3).

IntheOTtherearetwoaccountsastotheoccasiononwhichcircumcisionwasfirstpractisedbytheIsraelitesaccordingtoGn17:1014
thecommandwasgiventoAbrahamtoobservetheriteasasignofthecovenantbetweenGodandhim,asrepresentingthenationthatwasto
bewhileaccordingtoEx4:25,26itsoriginisconnectedwithMoses.Itwastheformerthat,inlaterdays,wasalwayslookeduponasitsreal
originandthustheriteacquiredapurelyreligiouscharacter,andithasbeenoneofthedistinguishingmarksofJudaismeversincetheExile.
Thegivingofanameatcircumcision(Lk1:59,2:21)didnotbelongtotheriteoriginally,butthishasbeenthecustomamongJewseversince
thereturnfromtheCaptivity,andprobablyevenbefore.

IntheearlyChurchSt.PaulhadavigorouswarfaretowageagainsthisJudaizingantagonists,anditbecameavitalquestionwhetherthe
GentilescouldbereceivedintotheChristiancommunitywithoutcircumcision.Asiswellknown,St.Paulgainedtheday,butitwasthis

questionofcircumcision,whichinvolvedofcoursetheobservanceoftheentireMosaicLaw,thatwastherockonwhichunionbetweenthe
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questionofcircumcision,whichinvolvedofcoursetheobservanceoftheentireMosaicLaw,thatwastherockonwhichunionbetweenthe
earlyChristiansandtheJudaizingChristianssplit.HenceforththeJewishandtheChristiancommunitiesdriftedfurtherandfurtherapart.

CircumcisioninitssymbolicmeaningisfoundfairlyfrequentlyintheOTanuncircumcisedheartisonefromwhichdisobedienceto
Godhasnotbeencutoff(seeLv26:41,Dt10:16,30:6)theexpressionuncircumcisedlips(Ex6:12,30)wouldbeequivalenttowhatis
saidofMoses,asonewhospakeunadvisedlywithhislips(Ps106:33,cf.Is6:5)inJer6:10wehavetheexpressiontheirearis
uncircumcisedinreferencetosuchaswillnothearkentothewordoftheLord.AlikefigurativeuseisfoundintheNT(e.g.Col2:11,13).
W.O.E.Oesterley.
CISTERN.InPalestine,theclimateandgeologicalformationofthecountryrenderthestorageofwateraprimenecessityofexistence.
Hencecisterns,mostlyhewninthesolidrock,wereuniversalinBibletimes,andevenbeforetheHebrewconquest(Dt6:11,Neh9:25,both
RV).ThusatGezerithasbeenfoundthattherockwashoneycombedwithcisterns,oneappropriatedtoeachhouse[cf.2K18:31]orgroup
ofhouses(and)fairlyuniformincharacter.Acircularshaft,about3feetindiameterand5feetdeep,cutthroughtherock,expands
downwardsintoachamberroughlysquareorcircularinplan,about13to25feetindiameterandgenerallyabout20feetdeep.Thewallis
generallycoveredwithcoarseplaster(PEFSt1903,111f.).

Acisternmightcontainonlyrainwaterconveyedfromthecourtorflatroofduringtherainyseasonbyguttersandpipes,ormightbefed
byaconduitledfromaspringatadistance.ThelargestoftheinnumerablecisternsofJerusalem,thegreatseaintheHaramarea,whichis
estimatedtohaveheld3,000,000gallons,deriveditswatersupplypartlyfromsurfacedrainageandpartlyfromwaterbroughtbyaconduit
fromSolomonsPoolsnearBethlehem(Wilson).

Themouthofacistern,throughwhichthewaterwassometimesdrawnbyawheel(Ec12:6),waslegallyrequiredtohaveacover(Ex
21:33,cf.Jos.Ant.IV.viii.37).Adisusedortemporarilyemptycisternformedaconvenientplaceofdetention,asinthecaseofJoseph(Gn
37:20ff.)andofJeremiah(Jer38:6ff.).
A.R.S.Kennedy.
CITADEL(1Mac1:33,3:45etc.[RVm]).SeeFortification,4.
CITHERN(1Mac4:54AV).SeeMusic.
CITIESOFTHEPLAIN.SeePlain[Citiesofthe].
CITIZENSHIP.SeePaul,Rome.
CITY.ThesurprisinglylargenumberofplacesintheleastofalllandswhichreceiveinScripturethehonourabledesignationofcityis
initselfevidencethattheOTcities,liketheNTships,mustnotbemeasuredbymodernstandards.TherecentexcavationsinPalestine
haveconfirmedthisconclusion.Inhisrecentwork,Canaandaprslexplorationrcente(1907),theDominicanscholar,FatherVincent,has
preparedplansonauniformscaleofthevarioussitesexcavated(seeop.cit.27ff.withplate).Fromthesethemodestproportionsofanancient
CanaaniteorHebrewcitymaybebestrealized.TheareaofLachish,forexample,didnotexceed15acresTaanachandMegiddoeach
occupiedfrom12to13acresanareaaboutequaltotheprobableextentoftheJehusitecityonOphelcapturedbyDavid(2S5:6ff.).Gezer,75/137
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occupiedfrom12to13acresanareaaboutequaltotheprobableextentoftheJehusitecityonOphelcapturedbyDavid(2S5:6ff.).Gezer,
atthetimeofitsgreatestexpansion,didnotexceed23acres,orthereby,thecircuitofitsouterwallbeingonly1500yards,about1/3ofthe
extentofthepresentwallofJerusalem.

Withtheexceptionofcitiesontheseaboard,thesituationoftheCanaanitecitywasdetermined,aselsewhereinthatoldworld,bytwo
supremeconsiderationsthepresenceofanadequatewatersupplyandthecapabilityofeasydefenceagainsttheenemy.Thecitiesof
Canaan,saysVincent,werealmostinvariablypercheduponaprojectingspurofamountainslope,oruponanisolatedeminenceintheplain:
Megiddo,Gezer,TellesSafy[Gath?]nottomentionthehilloftheprimitiveJerusalemarecharacteristicexamplesoftheformersite,
TaanachandLachishofthelatter.Withthiswellknownfactagreesthementionofthecitiesontheirmounds(Jos11:13RV,Jer30:18RVm
[Heb.tillm,theArabictell,nowsocommoninthetopographicalnomenclatureofWesternAsia]).
Therelationbetweenthecityandthedependentvillageswasregardedasthatofamother(2S20:19amotherinIsrael)andher
daughters,apointlostinourrenderingvillages(e.g.Jos15:32,36,41andpassim),thoughnotedinthemargins.Fromthesethecitywas
outwardlydistinguishedbyitsmassivewalls(cf.Nu13:28,Dt1:28walleduptoheaven),ontheconstructionofwhichrecentexcavation
hasthrownafloodofnewlight(seeFortification).Closeto,ifnotactuallyupon,thewalls,housesweresometimesbuilt,aswelearnfromJos
2:15(cf.2Co11:33).
Thestreetsarenowseentohavebeenexceedinglynarrowandtohavebeenlaidoutonnodefiniteplan,amazeofnarrowcrooked
causewaysandblindalleys,asatGezer.Onlyattheintersectionofthemoreimportantstreets,andespeciallynearthecitygates,werebroad
places(Jer5:1,Neh8:1,3,16RVwhereAV,asoften,hasstreets)themarkets(Mt11:16,Lk11:43)andmarketplaces(Mt20:3,Lk
7:32)ofNTwherethecitizensmettodiscusspublicaffairs,thechildrentoplay,andtheelderstodispensejustice.Theimportanceofthe
gates,whichwereclosedatnightfall(Jos2:5),istreatedofinart.FortificationandSieoecraft,5.
Duringthenightthewatchmenmountedguardontheramparts,orwentaboutthecity(Ca3:3,Is62:6cf.Ps127:1).AfeatureofanEastern
cityinancientasinmoderntimeswastheaggregationinaparticularstreetorstreetsofrepresentativesofthesamecraftoroccupation,from
whichthenameofthestreetorquarterwasderived(seeArtsandCrafts,10).

ThehouseswereabsurdlysmalltoWesternideas(seeHouse),forthecityfolklivedtheirlifeinthecourtsandstreets,retiringtotheir
housesmainlytoeatandsleep.Everycityofanyimportance,andinparticulareveryroyalcity,haditscastle,citadel,oracropolis,asthe
excavationsshow,towhichtheinhabitantsmightfleeasalastdefence.SuchwasthestrongtowerwithinthecityofThebez(Jg9:51).
Indeedthecommontermforcity(ir)isoftenusedinthisrestrictedsensethusthestrongholdofZionisrenamedDavidscastleor
citadel(2S5:7,AVcityofDavid),andthecityofwaters(12:27)atRabbathammonisreallythewaterfort.

Asregardsthewatersupply,itwasessential,aswehaveseen,tohaveoneormorespringsintheimmediatevicinity,towhichatthetime
ofevening(Gn24:11)thecitymaidenswentforthtodraw(seeWell).Againstthelongrainlesssummer,andespeciallyagainsttheoft
recurringcasesofsiege,itwasnotlessnecessarythatthecityshouldbeprovidedwithopenpoolsandcoveredcisternsforthestorageof
water.Mesha,kingofMoab,tellsinhisfamousinscriptionhow,astherewasnocisterninthemidstofacertaincity,hesaidtoallthe
people:makeyoueachacisterninhishouse(cf.Cistern).

IntheinternalaffairsofthecitythekinginCanaanitedayswassupreme.UndertheHebrewmonarchyandlater,lawandjusticewerein
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IntheinternalaffairsofthecitythekinginCanaanitedayswassupreme.UndertheHebrewmonarchyandlater,lawandjusticewerein
thehandsoftheeldersofthecity(Dt19:12,21:3ff.,Ru4:2etc.).Inadditiontofreemen,possessingthefullrightsofcitizenshipthemen
ofthecityparexcellencewiththeirwivesandchildren,thepopulationwillhaveincludedmanyslaves,mostlycaptivesofwar,anda
sprinklingofsojournersandpassingstrangers(seeStranger).

Nocity,finally,waswithoutitssanctuaryorhighplace,eitherwithinitsownprecincts,asinmostcitiesofnote(seeHighPlace),oronan
adjoiningheight(1S9:12ff.).Withduereligiousrites,too,thecityhadbeenfoundedinfaroffCanaanite,oreven,aswenowknow,inpre
Canaanitedays,whenthefoundationsacrificeclaimeditshumanvictim(seeHouse,3).Asurvivalofthiswidespreadcustomisalmost
certainlytoberecognizedinconnexionwiththerebuildingofJericho,thefoundationofwhichwaslaidbyHieltheBethelite,withthelossof
Abiramhisfirstborn,andwhosegatesweresetupwiththelossofhisyoungestson,Segub(1K16:34RV).

A.R.S.Kennedy.
CLASPS.SeeTaches.
CLAUDA.SeeCauda.
CLAUDIA.ARomanChristian,perhapswifeofPudensandmotherofLinus(2Ti4:21)butLightfoot(Clement,i.76)showsthatthis
isimprobable.ThetwoformernamesarefoundinasepulchralinscriptionnearRome,andaClaudiawaswifeofAulusPudens,friendof
Martial.Iftheseareidentified,ClaudiawasaBritishladyofhighbirthbutthisisveryunlikely.

A.J.Maclean.
CLAUDIUS.Claudius,thefourthRomanemperor,whoborethenamesTiberiusClaudiusCsarAugustusGermanicus,reignedfrom
(24th)25thJan.41tillhismurderon13thOct.54a.d.HewasasonofNeroClaudiusDrusus(thebrotheroftheemperorTiberius)and
Antoniaminor(adaughterofthetriumvirMarkAntonyandOctavia,sisteroftheemperorAugustus),andwasbornon1stAugust10b.c.at
Lyons.Fromchildhoodhewasweakly,andapreytodisease,whichaffectedhismindaswellashisbody.Thiscausedhimtobeneglectedand
despised.Hewas,however,amanofconsiderableability,bothliteraryandadministrative,asheshowedwhenhewascalledtosucceedhis
ownnephewGains(Caligula)asemperor.HehasbeencomparedwithJamesI.(VI.ofScotland)inbothhisweakandhisstrongpoints.Itwas
inhisreignthatthefirstrealoccupationofBritainbytheRomanstookplace.HeistwicementionedinActs(11:28and18:2).Thegreat
famineoverthewholeoftheRomanworldwhichAgabusforetoldtookplaceinhisreign.TheexpulsionofJewsfromRome,dueto
dissensionsamongstthem,occurredintheyear50.ThislatterdateisoneofthefewfixedpointsofchronologyintheBookofActs.Thereign
ofClaudiuswassatisfactorytotheEmpirebeyondtheaverage.Thegovernmentoftheprovinceswasexcellent,andamarkedfeaturewasthe
largenumberofpublicworksexecutedundertheemperorssupervision.
A.Souter.
CLAUDIUSLYSIAS.SeeLysias.
CLAW.InDn4:33clawmeansabirdsclawbutinDt14:6andZec11:16ithastheobsoletemeaningofananimalshoof.

CLAY.SeePottery.
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CLAY.SeePottery.
CLEANANDUNCLEAN

Introductory.Thewordsclean,unclean,purity,purification,haveacquiredintheprocessofreligiousdevelopmentaspiritual
connotationwhichobscurestheiroriginalmeaning.Theirprimitivesignificanceiswhollyceremonialtheconceptionstheyrepresentdate
backtoaveryearlystageofreligiouspractice,soearlyindeedthatitmaybecalledprereligious,insofarasanyusefuldelimitationcanbe
establishedbetweentheepochinwhichspellandmagicpredominated,andthatatwhichgermsofarudimentaryreligiousconsciousnesscan
bedetected.Inaconspectusofprimitivecustom,oneofthemostwidespreadphenomenaistheexistenceoftaboo.Anthropologyhasyetto
saythelastwordaboutit,anditsgeneralcharacteristicscanbedifferentlysummarized.But,broadlyspeaking,taboospringsfromthereligion
offear.Thesavagemetwithmuchwhichhecouldnotunderstand,whichwassupranormaltohisexperience.Suchphenomenaappearedto
himchargedwithapotencywhichwassecretanduncanny,andhighlyenergetic.Theywerethereforetobeavoidedwithgreatcaretheywere
tabootohim.Itwouldberashtodogmatizeabouttheoriginofthisnotionitmostprobablydatesbacktodayspriortoanyconscious
animisticbeliefs,andmayevenbetraceableultimatelytoinstinctswhichmankindshareswiththehigheranimals.Nodoubtinlatertimesthe
ideawasartificiallyexploitedindeferencetotheexigenciesofambitionandavariceonthepartofchiefsandpriests,tothedistrustof
innovations(cf.Ex20:25,Dt27:5,6,Jos8:31),totherecommendationsofelementarysanitation,etc.Butoriginallythesavageregardedas
taboocertainpersons,materialsubstances,andbodilyactsorstateswhichbeconsideredtopossessakindoftransmissibleelectricenergywith
whichitwasverydangeroustomeddleandthesetabooswerejealouslyguardedbythesanctionsofcivilauthority,andlaterofreligious
belief.

Itseemsprobablethatevenatsuchanearlyepochtabooscouldbeviewedfromtwodistinctpointsofview.Ataboomightbeeithera
blessingoracurse,accordingasitwashandledbyanexpertoralayman.Thusbloodproduceddefilement,but,properlytreated,itmight
removeimpurity.Achieforkingwastaboo,andtotouchhimproducedtheprimitiveequivalentofkingsevilandyethistouchcould
removethediseaseitcreated.Thereasonsforthistwofoldpointofviewareveryobscure,anddonotcomewithinthescopeofthisarticle.But
thedifferentiationseemstohaveexistedinaconfusedwayattheearliestera.
Afterwardsthisnotioncrystallizedintoaveryvitaldistinction.Ontheonehandwefindtheconceptionofholinessasexpressinganofficial
consecrationanddedicationtotheDivinebeings.Asanctuary,aseason,apriestorchief,weresetapartfromcommonlifeandplacedina
peculiarrelationofintimacytoGodorthegodstheyweretabooedasholy.Ontheotherhand,certaintabooswereheldtoarisefromthe
intrinsicrepulsivenessoftheobjectorcondition,arepulsivenesswhichaffectedbothGodandmanwithdislike.Suchtabooswereduetothe
essentialuncleannessoftheirobject.
Withtheriseofanimisticbeliefsandpracticesthisdifferentiationwasreinforcedbythedualismofbenevolentandmalignantspirits.
Uncannyenergyvariedaccordingasitarosefromtheoneortheotherclass,andmuchcaremustbetakentopropitiatetheoneandavertthe
poweroftheother.Thusontheonesidewefindsacrificialritual,whichhasasitsobjecttopleasethegooddemons,andontheothersidewe
haveacatharticritual,whichaimsatexpellingevildemonsfromthevicinity(cf.Lv16,wherethetwonotionsareunitedinoneceremony).
Butevenafterthegrowthofsuchrefinements,ideasandrulessurvivedwhichcanbeexplainedonlyasrelicsofprimitiveandevenprimeval
taboocustoms.AstilllaterstageisseenwhenrulesofpurityareattributedtotheconsciouscommandofGod,andtheirmotiveisfoundinHis
ownpersonalcharacter(Lv11:44).TheJewishsacredbooksteemwithreferenceswhichdemonstratethesurvivalofprimitivetaboos.Thus
FrazerdrawsespecialattentiontotheNaziritevows(Nu6:121),totheSabbathregulations(Ex35:2,3),totheviewsastodeath(Nu
19:11ff.),andchildbirth(Lv12).Similarlytheoriginoftheconceptionofholinessmaybeseenintheideathatitistransmissiblebycontact
(Ex29:37,30:29,Lv6:27,Ezk44:19),orinthepenaltyformeddlingwithaholyobject(1S6:19,2S6:7)whilstallusionstoritual
uncleannessoccurfrequentlyinEzekiel,andthelegislationonthesubjectformsalargepartofLeviticusandDeuteronomy.Insomecases
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uncleannessoccurfrequentlyinEzekiel,andthelegislationonthesubjectformsalargepartofLeviticusandDeuteronomy.Insomecases
theseideasmayhaveariseninprotestagainsthistoricaldevelopmentsofHebrewcustom.ThusithasbeensupposedthattheNaziritevows
originatedinthedesireforareturntoprimitivesimplicitybywayofcontrasttothehabitsofPalestinianCanaanites.Butmanyofthe
regulationsaboutuncleannesscanbeexplainedonlybyareferencetoprimitiveritualism,withitsconceptionsofobjectschargedwithasecret
energywhichtheordinarymandoeswelltoshun.

Thewordclean,itmayberemarked,conveyedoriginallynopositiveidea.Acleanobjectwasonewhichwasnotunderataboo,which
hadcontractednoceremonialtaint.Andsoagainpurificationmeanttheremovalofaceremonialtaintbyceremonialmeans,theunclean
objectbeingthusrestoredtoanormalcondition.Fireandliquidswerethebestmediaofpurification.Similarlycommon,theoppositeof
holy,merelymeantundedicatedtoGod,andexpressednoethicalorspiritualnotion.Infact,whentheconceptionsofholinessand
uncleannesshadbeendefinitelydifferentiated,therulewouldbethat,thoughtheholymustbeclean,thecleanneedinnowaybeholy.Later
thought,however,confusedthetwoideas(cf.Ac10:14).
I.UncleannessintheOT.Theconsequencesofuncleannessandthemethodsofpurificationnaturallydifferedindifferentraces.Butin
theJewishreligionuncleannesswasalwaysheldtodisqualifyamanforDivineworshipandsacrifice.Inpracticeacertainamountoflaxity
seemstohavebeentolerated(Ezk22:26,44:7),thoughthisdidnotpasswithoutprotest(Ezk44:9,Is52:1).But,strictly,anuncleanmanwas
debarredfromreligiousoffices(Lv7:19,20)andnobodycouldperformtheminanuncleanplace,e.g.inanylandbutPalestine(2K5:17,
Hos
9:3).
TheJewishrulesaboutuncleannesscanberoughlyclassifiedunderfivemainheads:sexualimpurity,uncleannessduetoblood,
uncleannessconnectedwithfood,withdeath,andwithleprosy.Thisdivisionisnotscientificsomerulesareequallyinplaceinmorethanone
classbutatpresentnonebutaroughclassificationispossible.

1.Sexualimpurity.Allprimitivereligionsdisplaygreatterrorofanyfunctionsconnected,howeverremotely,withtheorgansof
reproduction.Sexualintercourseproduceduncleannessandlateranimismtaughtthatdemonswatchedoversuchperiodsandmustbeaverted
withscrupulouscare.Thetimewhenmarriageisconsummatedwasespeciallydangerous,andthisideaisclearlyseeninTo8:13,thoughthis
instanceisuniqueinJewishsacredliterature.But,apartfromthis,theJewsconsideredallintercoursetodefiletillevening,andtonecessitatea
purificatorybath(Lv15:18).Undercertaincircumstances,whencleannesswasespeciallyimportant,completeabstinencefromwomenwas
required(Ex19:15).Thus,too,from1S21:5itappearsasifsoldiersonacampaigncameunderthisregulationperhapsbecausewarwasa
sacredfunction,dulyopenedwithreligiousrites(cf.2S11:11),andthismayalsobethecauseforabridegroomsexemptionfrommilitary
serviceforayearaftermarriage(Dt24:5).

Uncircumcisionwasregardedasunclean.Thereasonforthisisnotobviousritesofcircumcisionwereperformedbymanyprimitive
nationsatthetimeofpuberty(whetherfordecorativepurposes,orinordertoprepareayoungmanorwomanformarriage,orforsomeother
reason),anditispossiblethatamongtheJewsthiscustomhadbeenthrownbacktoanearlierperiodoflife.Oritmaybethattheyregarded
circumcisionasimposingadistincttribemarkontheinfant.Theconditionofuncircumcisionmightbeheldasuncleanbecauseitimplied
foreignnationality.Taboosonstrangersareverycommoninsavagenations.

Seminalemissionmadeamanuncleantilltheevening,andnecessitatedbathingandwashingofclothes(Lv15:16,17).
Childbirthwasuniversallyregardedasaspecialcentreofimpurity,thoughamongtheJewswefindnoevidencethatthenewbornchild
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Childbirthwasuniversallyregardedasaspecialcentreofimpurity,thoughamongtheJewswefindnoevidencethatthenewbornchild
wassubjecttoitaswellasthemother.Themotherwascompletelyuncleanforsevendaysafterthatshewasinaconditionofmodified
impurityfor33days,disqualifiedfromenteringthesanctuaryortouchinganyhallowedthing.(Theseperiodsweredoubledwhenthebaby
wasagirl.)Afterthis,inordertocompleteherpurification,shemustofferalambofthefirstyearandapigeonorturtledove,thoughpoorer
peoplemightsubstituteanotherpigeonordoveforthelamb(Lv12,cf.Lk2:24).

Analogousnotionsmayperhapsbetracedintheprohibitionofanysexualimpersonation(Dt22:5),anyminglingofdifferentspecies(Dt
22:911,Lv19:19),andinthedisqualificationsoneunuchs,bastards,andtheAmmonitesandMoabites,theoffspringofanincestuousunion
(Dt23:16)thoughsomeoftheseruleslookliketheproductoflaterrefinement.

Humanexcretaweresourcesofuncleanness(Dt23:1214)butthedirectionsonthissubjectverypossiblydatefromtheepochofmagical
spells,andarosefromthefearlestamansexcrementmightfallintoanenemyshandsandbeusedtoworkmagicagainsthim.

Theprohibitiontopriestsofwoolengarmentswhichcausedsweat,ispossiblyanextensionofasimilarnotion(Ezk44:1718).Finally,the
abstinencefromeatingthesinewofthethigh,whichinGn32:32isexplainedbyareferencetothestoryofJacob,mayhaveoriginatedinthe
ideathatthethighwasthecentreofthereproductivefunctions.

2.Uncleannessduetoblood.Thefearofblooddatesbackinallprobabilitytothemostprimevaltimes,andmaybeinpartinstinctive.
AmongtheJewsitwasamoststringenttaboo,andtheiraversionfromitwasreinforcedbythetheorythatitwastheseatoflife(Dt12:23).A
clearinstanceoftheallembracingnatureofitspollutingpowerisseeninDt22:8.Thesameideawouldprobablycausetheabstinencefrom
eatingbeastsofprey,carrionbirds,andanimalswhichhaddiedwithoutbeingbled(Ezk4:14,Ex22:31,Lv17:15,22:3).Tobreakthisrule
causeddefilement(1S14:33,Ezk33:25).SuchatabooissouniversalandancientthatitcannotreasonablybeaccountedforbytheJewish
hatredforheathenofferingsofblood.

Thetaboosonmenstrualbloodandabnormalissuesmustcomeunderthiscategoryorthatofsexualimpurity.Menstruationwasterribly
feared.Itwasexceedinglydangerousforamaneventoseetheblood.Thewomaninsuchaconditionwasuncleanforsevendays,andher
impuritywashighlycontagious(Lv15:1924).Similarly,abnormalissuesproducedcontagiousuncleannessforsevendaysaftertheyhad
stopped.Thepurificationrequiredwastheofferingoftwoturtledovesandtwoyoungpigeons.Amanbadalsotobatheandwashhisclothes,
butwearenottoldthatawomanwasunderthesamenecessity,thoughitishardlycrediblethatshewasexempt(Lv15:215,2530).

3.Uncleannessconnectedwithfood.Anthropologynolongerexplainsallfoodtaboosassurvivalsoftotemism,thoughnodoubtthis
explanationmayaccountforsome.Itappearsratherthattheriolatrywasthemoregeneralphenomenon.Forreasonswhichcannotevenbe
conjecturedinmanycases,certainanimalsweretreatedassacred,andtahooedaccordinglyitmightbethattheanimalwasveryusefulor
verydangerousorverystrangethesavagehadnoconsistenttheoryoftaboo.Someanimalsmaybecasesofsympathetictabootheywerenot
eatenfromthefearlesttheirqualitiesshouldbeimpartedtotheconsumer.Inlatertimessomeanimalsmightbetabooedfrommoreelaborate
motives.Butfoodtabooscoversowidearange,andappearinmanycasessoinexplicable,thatnosinglederivationofthemcanbeadequate.

TheJewsthemselvesdatedthedistinctionbetweencleananduncleananimalsfromanearlyantiquity(cf.Gn7:2and8:20)Gn9:3,
however,appearstoembodyatheoryofantediluvianvegetarianism.
ThelistsofcleananduncleanbeastsaregiveninLv11andDt14:4ff.Itisimpossibletogiveanycertainexplanationoftheseparateitems.
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ThelistsofcleananduncleanbeastsaregiveninLv11andDt14:4ff.Itisimpossibletogiveanycertainexplanationoftheseparateitems.
Cleananimalsarethereclassifiedasthosewhichpartthehoof,areclovenfooted,andchewthecud.Butthislookslikeanattemptoflater
speculationtogeneralizeregulationsalreadyexistent.Thecriterionwouldexcludetheass,horse,dog,andbeastsofprey,whicharenowhere
mentionedasunclean.Thelastclass,aswehaveseen,wouldprobablybesoondifferentgrounds.Thehorseanddogseemtohavebeen
connectedwithidolatrousrites(2K23:11,Is66:3),andsoperhapswereforbidden.ButJg6:4appearstotreattheassasanordinaryarticleof
diet.(Thecircumstancesin2K6:25areexceptional.)Therulethatakidmustnotbeseethedinitsmothersmilk(Ex23:19,34:26,Dt14:21)
isdifficulttoaccountfor.Amagicalconceptionappearstounderlietheprohibition,andithasbeensuggestedthatsomenationsusedto
sprinklethebrothonthegroundforsomesuchpurposes.Inthatcasethetaboowouldbeofgreatantiquity.Butthematterisnotatpresent
satisfactorilyexplained.ThetabooonthetreeinEden(Gn3:3)hardlycallsfordiscussion.Sofarasweknow,ithadnosubsequenthistory
andthegeneralcolouringofthestorymakesitimprobablethattheprohibitionhadanyorigininJewishcustom.

4.Uncleannessconnectedwithdeath.Death,aswellasbirth,wasasourceofgreatterrortothesavage.Theanimistichorrorofghosts
andtheoriesofacontinuedexistenceafterdeath,gavearationaleforsuchterrorbutitprobablyexistedinpreanimisticdays,andthe
precautionsexercisedwithregardtodeadbodieswerederivedpartlyfromtheintrinsicmysteriousnessofdeath,partlyfromthevalueofa
corpseformagicalpurposes.AmongtheJewsacorpsewasregardedasexceptionallydefiling(Hag2:13).Evenaboneoragravecaused
infectiousuncleanness,andgraveswerewhitenedinordertobeeasilyrecognizable.Hewhotouchedacorpsewasuncleanforsevendays(Nu
19:11ff.).Purificationwasnecessaryonthethirdandseventhdaysandonthelattertheuncleanpersonalsowashedhisclothesandbathed.A
corpsedefiledatentandallopenvesselsinit.Forsimilarreasonswarriorsneededpurificationafterabattle(Nu31:1924)amurderer
defiledthelandandhadtofleetoacityofrefuge,wherehemustremaintillthedeathofthehighpriest(Nu35).Ithasbeensuggestedthat
thisprovisionwasduetothenotionthatthehighpriest,thetemporaryrepresentativeofJahweh,wasregardedassufferingfromthe
defilementofmurderasGodsuffered,andasthelandsuffered(Dt21:1).Itissingularthatapparentlyapersonwhowasuncleanfrom
touchingacorpsemightyeteatthePassover(Nu9:612).
ThekinsmenofadeadmanwereusuallyalsouncleanHos9:4pointstoasimilarideaamongtheJews.Indeed,mourningcustomswerein
originprobablywarningsofsuchimpurity.SomeofthemostcommonareprohibitedinDt14:1andLv19:28,perhapsbecauseoftheir
heathenishassociations.

Theritualofpurificationfromcorpsedefilement,describedinNu19,mustbeofhighantiquity.Thepurifyingmediumwaswater,the
bloodandashesofaredheifer,withcedar,hyssop,andscarlet.Thiswassprinkledovertheuncleanpersononthethirdandseventhdays,and
thepriestandattendantswhoperformedtheceremonywerethemselvesdefiledbyittillevening,andneededpurification(cf.Dt21).The
ritualthusunitesthethreegreatcatharticmedia,fire,water,andaromaticwoodsandplants.Thelast,perhaps,wereoriginallyconsideredtobe
efficaciousinexpellingthedeathdemonsbytheirscent.

5.Uncleannessconnectedwithleprosy.Orientalsconsideredleprosytheonespeciallyuncleandisease,whichrequirednothealingbut
cleansing(cf.Nu12:12).Itappearstohavebeenakindofelephantiasis,andLv13givesdirectionsforitsdiagnosis.Ifpronouncedunclean,
theleperwasexcludedfromthecommunity(cf.2K7:3).Hecouldnotattendasynagogueserviceinawalledtown,thoughinopentownsa
specialpartofthesynagoguewasoftenreservedforlepers.Ifhewascured,hemustundergoanelaborateprocessofpurificatoryritual(Lv
14),including(a)thesacrificeofonebirdandthereleaseofanother,perhapsregardedascarryingawaythedemonfragrantplants,water,and
thebloodofthedeadbirdwereusedatthisstage(b)thewashingofclothes,shavingofthehair,andbathingofthebodythen(c)afterseven

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daysintervalthissecondprocesswasrepeatedandfinally(d)ontheeighthdaysacrificeswereoffered,andthemanceremoniallycleansed
withthebloodandoilofthesacrifice.

II.UncleannessintheNT.Legalcasnistrycarriedthecatharticritualtoahighpitchofcomplexity,andJesuscameintofrequentconflict
withtheJewishlawyersoverthepoint(cf.Mk7:15).Hedenounceditenergetically(Lk11:38,Mt15:10),and,byinsistingonthesupreme
importanceofmoralpurity,threwceremonialideasintoasubordinateposition.Thefullforceofthisteachingwasnotatoncerealized(cf.Ac
10:14).ThedecreeinAc15:29stillrecommendscertaintaboos.ButSt.Paulhadnoillusionsonthesubject(cf.Ro14:14,1Co6:13,Col
2:16,20
22,Tit1:15).Inpracticehemadeconcessionstothescruplesofothers(Ac21:26,Ro14:20)asJesushaddone(Mk1:44)anditwas
recognizedthatamanwhohadscruplesmustnotbeencouragedtoviolatethem.Butitwasinevitablethatwiththeprocessoftimeand
reflexion,ceremonialprohibitionsandritualisticnotionsofcleannessshoulddisappearbeforetheChristianinsistenceontheinternalelements
inreligion.Therearecertainsurvivalsofsuchnotionsevennow,andceremonialismisnotextirpated.Butitsscopeisverynarrow,anditisthe
customtoexplainsuchritualregulationsassurvive,ongroundsthataccordbetterwiththespiritofChristianityandtheideasofcivilized
society.
A.W.F.Blunt.
CLEMENT.ThenameofafellowworkerwithSt.Paul(Ph4:3).TherearenosufficientgroundsforidentifyinghimwithClement,
bishopofRome,thewriteroftheEpistletotheChurchofCorinth.

J.G.Tasker.
CLEOPAS.OnlyLk24:18whethertobeidentifiedwithClopasofJn19:25andAlphusofMt10:3etc.,isamatterofdispute.
CLEOPATRA.1.AdaughterofPtolemyEpiphanes.Shemarriedinb.c.173herownbrotherPtolemyPhilometor(Ad.Est11:1),and
afterwardshersecondbrotherPtolemyPhyscon(Liv.xlv.13,Epit.59Justin,xxxviii.8).ShegreatlyfavouredtheJewsinEgypt(Jos.c.
Apion.ii.5),andencouragedOniasIV.intheerectionofthetempleatLeontopolis(Jos.Ant.XIII.iii.2).2.AdaughterofPtolemy
Philometor.Inb.c.150shewasgiveninmarriagebyherfathertoAlexanderBalas(1Mac10:57,58Jos.Ant.XIII.iv.1).WhenBalaswas
drivenintoArabia,shebecame(b.c.146),atherfathersbidding,thewifeofhisrival,DemetriusNikator(1Mac11:12Jos.Ant.XIII.iv.7
Liv.Epit.52).
CLOKE(AVandRV,butAmer.RVcloak).SeeDress,4.
CLOPAS(AVCleophas)isnamedonlyinJn19:25.SeeAlphusandBrethrenoftheLord.
CLOSET.TheGr.wordsorenderedinNTproperlydenotesastorechamberasLk12:24RV,thenanyinnerormoreprivateroomas
opposedtothelivingroomsoMt6:6,Lk12:3RVinnerchamber.Cf.1K20:30,22:25,lit.achamberwithinachamber,andHouse,2.
ForJL2:16seeDriver,JoelandAmos,inloc.
A.R.S.Kennedy.
CLOTHES,CLOTHING.SeeDress.
CLOUD.InScripture,aswithus,thecloudsarethevisiblemassesofaqueousvapour,darkeningtheheavens,sourcesofrainand
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CLOUD.InScripture,aswithus,thecloudsarethevisiblemassesofaqueousvapour,darkeningtheheavens,sourcesofrainand
fertility,tellingthepresentstateoftheweatherorindicatingacomingchange.Theyservealsoforfiguresofinstabilityandtransitoriness(Hos
6:4),calamity(La2:1),thegloomofoldage(Ec12:2),greatheight(Job20:6),immensenumbers(He12:1).Thefollowingpointsshouldbe
noted.1.ThepoetictreatmentinJob.Thewatersareboundupsecurelyintheclouds,sothattheraindoesnotbreakthrough(26:8)whenthe
oceanissuesfromchaoslikeanewbornchild,Godwrapsitintheswaddlingbandsofclouds(38:9)thelawsoftheirmovementsare
impenetrablemysteries(36:29,37:16,38:37).2.ThecloudindicatesthepresenceofGod,andatthesametimeveilstheinsufferable
brightnessofHisglory(Ex16:10,19:9etc.).SimilarlythebrightcloudbetokenstheFatherspresence,andHisvoiceisheardspeakingfromit
(Mt17:5).ButadarkcloudwouldeffectuallyhideHim,andthusfurnishesafigurefordispleasure(La3:44).AtRev10:1thecloudisan
angelsgloriousrobe.3.ThepillarofcloudandfiredirectsandprotectsthejourneyingsoftheExodus(Ex13:21,Ps105:39).This
correspondswiththefactthatarmiesandcaravanshavefrequentlybeendirectedbysignalsoffireandsmoke.4.Thecloudalternateswiththe
cherubasJahwehschariot(Ps18:10,Is19:1).Indeed,thecherubisapersonificationofthethundercloud.TheMessianicpeopleandthe
MessiahHimselfsweepthroughtheheavenwithclouds(Dn7:13,Mk14:62,Rev1:7),orontheclouds(Mt26:64):hencethelaterJews
identifiedAnani(=Heoftheclouds,1Ch3:24)withtheMessiah.Thesaintsaretobecaughtupintheclouds(1Th4:17).TheMessiahs
throneisawhitecloud(Rev14:14).5.IntheCloudVisionofApoc.Bar5373,thecloudfromwhichthetwelvestreamsofwaterpouris
thewideworldwhichtheAlmightycreatedaverypeculiarpieceofimagery.

J.Taylor.
CLOUT.Jer38:1112oldcastclouts.ThewordisstillusedinScotlandforcloths(asindishclout),butforclothesonly
contemptuously.Formerlytherewasnocontemptintheword.SirJohnMandeville(Travels,Macmillansed.p.75)says,Andinthatwellshe
washedoftentimethecloutsofhersonJesuChrist.TheverbtocloutoccursinJos9:5,ofshoes(Amer.RVpatched).
CLUB.OnlyJob41:29RV,forAVdart.Thestoutshepherdsclub,withitsthickendprobablystuddedwithnails,withwhichhe
defendedhisflockagainstwildbeasts,isrenderedbyrodinPs23:4andelsewhere.
CNIDUS.AcityofCaria,inS.W.ofAsiaMinor.ItwasthedividingpointbetweentheS.andW.coastsofAsiaMinor,andatthispoint
St.PaulsshipchangeditscourseinthevoyagetoRome(Ac27:7).ItcontainedJewishinhabitantsasearlyasthe2ndcent.b.c.(1Mac
15:23),andhadtherankofafreecity.

A.Souter.
COAL.MineralcoalwasunknowninBibletimes.Wherevercoal(orcoals)ismentioned,therefore,wemustinthegreatmajorityof
casesunderstandwoodorcharcoal.SeveralspeciesofwoodusedforheatingpurposesarenamedinIs44:1416,towhichPs120:4adds
coalsofbroom(RVm).Intwocases,however,thelivecoalofIsaiahsvision(Is6:6)andthecoalsonwhichwasacakehakenfor
Elijah(1K19:6),theHeb.worddenotesahotstone(soRVmseeBread).Thecharcoalwasgenerallyburnedinabrasier(Jer36:22ff.RV,
AVhearth)orchafingdish,thepanoffireofZec12:6RV.See,further,House,7.
Coal,orrathercharcoal,suppliesseveralScripturemetaphors,themostinterestingofwhichisillustratedbytheexpressionofthewise
womanofTekoa,thusshalltheyquenchmycoalthatisleft(2S14:7).Bythisshemeans,asshownbythefollowingwords,thedeathofher
sonandtheextinctionofherfamily,anideaelsewhereexpressedasaputtingoutofoneslamp(Pr13:9).

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A.R.S.Kennedy.
COAST.Coast,nowconfinedtotheshoreofthesea,wasformerlyusedoftheborderbetweentwocountries,ortheneighbourhoodof
anyplace.WhenSt.Paulpassedthroughtheuppercoasts(Ac19:1),hewasintheinteriorofAsiaMinor.Herodslewallthechildrenthat
wereinBethlehem,andinallthecoaststhereof(Mt2:16).
COAT.SeeDress,2(d),4.
COATOFMAIL.SeeArmour,Arms,2(c).
COCK.Mt26:34,74,Mk13:35,14:30,72,Lk22:34,60,61,Jn13:30,18:27.CocksandhenswereprobablyunknowninPalestine
untilfromtwotothreecenturiesbeforeChriststime.InthefamouspaintedtombatMarissa(seeMareshah),aworkofaboutb.c.200,we
havethecockdepicted.CocksandhenswereintroducedfromPersia.TheabsenceofexpressmentionofthenfromtheLaw,andthefactthat
itisacleanbird,havemadeitpossiblefortheJewsformanycenturiestosacrifice,thesebirdsontheeveoftheDayofAtonementacock
foreachmaleandahenforeachfemaleinthehousehold.TalmudictraditionfindsreferencestothecockinIs22:17,Job38:36,andPr30:31,
butalltheseareverydoubtful.Thecockcrowingwasthenameofthe3rdwatchofthenight,justbeforethedawn,inthetimeofourLord.
Duringthistimethecockscrowatirregularintervals.

E.W.G.Masterman.
COCKATRICE.SeeSerpent.
COCKER.Sir30:9Cockerthychild,andheshallmaketheeafraid,thatis
pamper.Cf.Shaks.KingJohnV.i.70
Shallabeardlessboy,

Acockerdsilkenwanton,braveourfields?andHull(1611),NocreaturesmorecockertheiryoungthantheAsseandtheApe.
Thewordisnotfoundearlierthanthe15thcentury.Itsoriginisobscure.
COCKLE(boshh,Job31:40).AVmstinkingweedsorRVmnoisomeweedsarebothmorecorrect.SirJ.Hooperhassuggested
stinkingarums,whicharecommonPalestineplants,butthemoregeneralrenderingissafer.

E.W.G.Masterman.
CLESYRIA,HollowSyria,isproperlythegreathollowrunningN.andS.betweentheLebanonandAntiLebanonranges(1Es4:48
Strabo,xvi.2).ItcorrespondstotheBiqathhaLebnnofJos11:17etc.possiblyalsotoBiqathAvenofAm1:5.Thefirstelementofthe
namepersistsinthemodernnameofthevalleyS.ofBaalbek,elBuq.TheOrontesdrainsthevalleynorthward,andtheLitnisouthward,
bothriversrisingnearBaalbek.Thesoilisrich,producingsplendidcropsofwheat,etc.,whilesomeofthefinestvineyardsinSyriaclothethe
adjoiningslopes.

CleSyriacametohaveawidersignificance,coveringindeed,with
Phnicia,alltheSeleucidterritoryS.oftheRiverEleutherus(2Mac3:5etc.
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Phnicia,alltheSeleucidterritoryS.oftheRiverEleutherus(2Mac3:5etc.
Strabo,xvi.753).In1Es2:17etc.,CleSyriaandPhniciadenotethewholePersianprovince,stretchingfromtheEuphratestotheborders
ofEgypt.JosephusreckonsthecountryE.ofJordantoCleSyria(Ant.I.xi.5,XIII.xiii.2f.,etc.),includinginitScythopolis,theonly
memberoftheDecapoliswestoftheriver.

W.Ewing.
COFFERoccursonlyin1S6:8,11,15,andtheHeb.termargz,ofwhichitisthetr.,isalsofoundnowhereelse.Itappearstohavebeen
asmallchestwhichcontained(?)thegoldenfiguressentbythePhilistinesasaguiltoffering.
COFFIN.Gn50:26only(ofthedisposalofJosephsbodyinEgypt).Israelitishburialrites(seeMourningCustoms,Tomb)didnot
includetheuseofcoffins.
COHORT.SeeBand,Legion.
COINS.SeeMoney.
COLHOZEH(seeingall).AJudahite(Neh3:15,11:5).
COLIUS(1Es9:23).SeeCalitas,Kelaiah.
COLLAR.SeeOrnaments,2.
COLLEGE.ThisstandsinAV(2K22:14,2Ch34:22)fortheHeb.
mishneh,whichRVcorrectlyrenderssecondquarter,aquarterofthecitylyingtothenorth(Zeph1:10),andpossiblyreferredtoinNeh
11:9,whereourversionshavesecondoverthecity.TheideaofacollegecamefromtheTarg.on2K22:14,houseofinstruction.

J.Taylor.
COLONY.ThewordcoloniaisapureLatinword,whichiswritteninGreeklettersintheonlyplacewhereitoccursintheBible(Ac
16:12),andexpressesapurelyRomaninstitution.ItisapieceofRometransportedbodilyoutofRomeitselfandplantedsomewhereinthe
RomanEmpire.Inotherwords,itisacollectionofRomancitizensoldierssettledonamilitaryroadtokeeptheenemiesoftheEmpirein
check.TheseretainedtheircitizenshipofRomeandconstitutedthearistocracyofeverytowninwhichtheyweresituated.Theirconstitution
wasonthemodelofRomeandtheItalianStates.AnumberofplacesarementionedintheNTwhichwerereallycoloni,butonlyone,
Philippi,issonamed,andthereasonforthisnamingisnodoubtthattheauthorofActswasproudofthiscity,withwhichhehadsome
connexion.PisidianAntioch,Lystra,Corinth,andPtolemais,nottomentionothers,werecoloni.Sometimesthesecoloniweremerely
settlementsofveteransforwhomtheirgeneralshadtofindahome.

A.Souter.
COLOSSwasanancientcityofPhrygia(RomanprovinceAsia),atonetimeofgreatimportance,butdwindlinglaterasitsneighbour
Laodiceaprospered.ItwassituatedintheupperpartofthevalleyoftheLycus,atributaryoftheMander,about10milesfromLaodicea,and
13fromHierapolis.ThethreecitiesnaturallyformedasphereofmissionarylabourforEpaphras(Epaphroditus),aninhabitantofColoss
(Col4:12,13),Timothy(Col1:1),andothers.St.Paulhimselfnevervisitedanyofthem(Col2:1).Ithasbeensuggestedwithgreatprobability
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(Col4:12,13),Timothy(Col1:1),andothers.St.Paulhimselfnevervisitedanyofthem(Col2:1).Ithasbeensuggestedwithgreatprobability
thatinRev1:11,3:14thesinglechurchofLaodiceamustrepresenttheotherchurchesoftheLycusvalleyalso.ThechurchinColossaehad
developedJudaizingtendencieswhichSt.PaulfounditnecessarytocombatintheEpistlewhichhascomedowntous.If,asseemscertain,
theepistlefromLaodicea(Col4:16)isourEpistletotheEphesians,italsowasreadinthechurchatColoss.
BothletterswerecarriedfromRomebyTychicus,whowasaccompaniedbyOnesimus,whosemasterPhilemonwasaninhabitantofColoss.
Seealsofollowingarticle.

A.Souter.
COLOSSIANS,EPISTLETOTHE

1.Authenticity.ThisEpistleisoneofthetenEpistlesofSt.PaulincludedinMarcionscollection(a.d.140).Itappearstohavebeen
acceptedwithoutquestionasgenuinebothbyChurchmenandbyheretics,andisreferredtobytheMuratorianFragment,byIrenus,andby
ClementofAlexandria.Itsauthenticityremainedundisputedtilltheearlypartoflastcentury,andwasthencontestedonlyoninternalgrounds
ofstyleandsubjectmatter.
Astothefirstobjection,theEpistleismarked,toagreaterdegreethanSt.Paulsearlierwritings,byacertainruggednessofexpression,a
wantoffinishthatbordersonobscurity.Thevocabularyalsodiffersinsomerespectsfromthatoftheearlierwritings,butthisisamply
accountedforbythedifferenceofsubject.Asamatteroffact,theresemblancesinstyletoSt.Paulsotherwritingsareasmarkedasthe
differencesandinanycaseargumentsfromstyleindisproofofauthenticityareveryunreliable.ThelaterplaysofShakespeare,ascompared
withthoseofhismiddleperiod,showjustthesamecondensationofthoughtandwantoffluencyandfinish.

Theargumentfromsubjectmatterismoreimportant.TheEpistlewasregardedbyearlierGermancriticsaspresupposingafullydeveloped
systemofGnosticteaching,suchasbelongstothemiddleofthe2ndcent.,andacorrespondinglydevelopedChristology.Butamorecareful
studyoftheEpistlehasshownthatwhatSt.Paulhasinviewisnotasystemofteaching,butratheratendency.Wordslikeplrma,towhich
laterGnosticismgaveatechnicalsense,areusedinthisEpistlewiththeirusualnontechnicalsignification.AndourstudyofearlyChristian
andJewishthoughthasshownthatGnostictendenciesdatefromamuchearliertimethanthegreatGnosticteachersofthe2ndcent.,andare,
indeed,olderthanChristianity.TheChristologyoftheEpistlecertainlyshowsanadvanceonthatofSt.PaulsearlierEpistles,especiallyin
theemphasislaidonthecosmicalactivityofthepreincarnateChrist.ThismaybeaccountedforinpartbythespecialpurposeoftheEpistle
(seebelow),andinpartbyadevelopmentinSt.PaulsownChristologicalideas.Itisirrationaltodenytheauthenticityofan
EpistleclaimingtobeSt.Pauls,merelybecauseitshowsthatthemindoftheApostlehadnotremainedstagnantduringaperiodof
imprisonmentthatmusthavegivenhimspecialopportunitiesforthought.(SeeEphesians.)
ManyGermancritics,suchasHarnackandJlicher,arenowinagreementwiththeleadingBritishscholarsinacceptingtheEpistleasSt.
Pauls.TheauthenticityoftheEpistleissustainedbyitscloserelationtotheEpistletoPhilemon,thePaulineauthorshipofwhichishardly
seriouslydisputed.(Ontherelationofour
EpistletotheEpistletotheEphesiansseeEphesians.)

2.IntegrityandText.TheintegrityoftheEpistleisnowgenerallyadmitted,thoughcertainobscuritiesinthetexthavegivenriseto
someconjecturalemendations.HoltzmannattemptedtoprovethatthisEpistleandtheEpistletotheEphesiansarerecensionsofoneoriginal
EpistleofSt.Pauls,whichhetriedtoreconstructbyextractingaPaulinenucleusofaboutfortyversesbuthisconclusionshavenotbeen
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EpistleofSt.Pauls,whichhetriedtoreconstructbyextractingaPaulinenucleusofaboutfortyversesbuthisconclusionshavenotbeen
acceptedbylaterscholars.Morerecently,vonSodenhasproposedtherejectionofaboutnineverses,butnotonanyadequategrounds.It
wouldhavebeennoeasytasktointerpolateagenuineEpistleofSt.Pauls,jealouslyguardedasitwouldhavebeenbytheChurchtowhichit
wassent.

3.TimeandPlaceofWriting.TheEpistletotheColossiansbelongstothegroupoffourEpistleswrittenbySt.Paulincaptivity(4:3,
18).OfthisgroupthreetheEpistlestotheEphesians,totheColossians,andtoPhilemonwerewrittenatthesametimeandsentbythe
samemessenger,Tychicus.TheremainingEpistleofthegroupthattothePhilippianswasalmostcertainlywrittenfrom
RometowardstheendofSt.Paulstwoyearsimprisonmentthere.TheotherthreeEpistlesweremostprobablywrittenfromRome,though
somecriticshavedatedthemfromtheperiodofSt.PaulsimprisonmentatCsarea.
4.OccasionandPurpose.MostofSt.PaulsEpistleswerewrittenundersomedefiniteexternalstimulus.InthecaseofthisEpistletwo
eventsseemtohaveledtoitscomposition.(1)Epaphras,whohadbeenthefirstevangelistoftheColossians,andwhoseemstohaveheldat
ColossapositionsomewhatsimilartothatwhichTimothyisrepresentedinthePastoralEpistlesasholdinginEphesus,hadcometoRome
bringinginformationastothespecialneedsanddangersoftheColossianChurch.AsheelectedtoremainatRome,andapparentlysharedfor
atimetheApostlesimprisonment(Philem23),TychicuswassenttoAsia,takingwithhimthisletter.(2)Onesimus,arunawayslavefrom
Coloss,hadfoundhiswaytoRomeandhadtherecomeundertheinfluenceofSt.Paul.TheApostletookadvantageofTychicusjourneyto
sendOnesimusbacktohismasteratColoss,withaletterofcommendation(seePhilemon).

ThespecialpurposeoftheEpistle,asdistinctfromitsgeneralpurposeasamessageofgoodwill,wastowarntheColossianChristians
againstadangerofwhichEpaphrashadnodoubtinformedSt.Paul.TheexactnatureofthesocalledColossianheresyisamatterofsome
uncertainty.OnitsdoctrinalsideitwasprobablyablendofJewishKabbalisticideaswithfloatingOrientalspeculations.Itappearstohave
deniedthedirectagencyofGodintheworkofcreation,andtohaveinculcatedtheworshipofangelsandothermysteriouspowersofthe
unseenworld(2:18).Onitspracticalsideitcombinedrigorousasceticism(2:23)andstrictobservanceofJewishceremonial(2:18)withan
arrogantclaimtospecialenlightenmentinspiritualthings(2:18).Itsspecialdangerlayinthefactthatittendedtoobscure,oreventodeny,the
uniquegrandeuroftheascendedLord,theoneMediator,throughfaithinwhomthelifeoftheChristianwasliftedintothenewatmosphereof
liberty.Ononeside,therefore,thisEpistlemaybecomparedwithHeI,wherethesupremacyoftheSonoverallangelsisstronglyinsistedon,
whileontheothersideittakesupthelineofthoughtoftheEpistletotheGalatianstherelationoftheChristianlifetoexternalordinances.
ThewayinwhichSt.Pauldealswiththequestioncanbestbeseenbyashortsummaryofthe
Epistle.

5.Summary.Aftertheusualsalutation,thanksgiving,andprayer,inwhichSt.PaulassociatesTimothywithhimself(perhapsbecause
hewasknownpersonallytotheColossianChurch),heplungesatonceintoadoctrinalstatement(1:132:3)ofthePersonandWorkofChrist,
whoistheimageoftheinvisibleGod,theoriginandgoalofallcreatedthings,inwhomallthefulness(plrma)oftheGodheadabides.After
apersonalreferencetohisowncommissionandtohissufferingsfortheChurch,hepassestothedirectlycontroversialpartoftheEpistle
(2:43:4),warningtheColossiansagainstbeingledastraybystrangephilosophies.ThefulnessoftheGodheadisinChristHeisoverall
principalitiesandpowersthelifeofexternallyimposedordinancesTouchnot,tastenot,handlenotisalifetowhichtheChristianhas
diedinChrist.Hehasrisentoanewlifewhosecentreandsecretareinheaven.Hemuststillmortifythedeedsoftheflesh,butfromanew
motiveandinthepowerofanewlife.ThethirdsectionoftheEpistle(3:54:6)appliesthisprincipletovariousrelationsoflifethemutual
relationofChristians,husbandsandwives,childrenandfathers,slavesandmastersandlastly,totherelationofSt.Paultothem,andtotheir
relationwiththeworld.Theclosingsection(4:718)dealswithpersonalmatterswiththemissionofTychicus,withwhomSt.Paultactfully
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relationwiththeworld.Theclosingsection(4:718)dealswithpersonalmatterswiththemissionofTychicus,withwhomSt.Paultactfully
associatesOnesimuswithSt.Marksproposedvisit,inconnexionwithwhichSt.Paulwritesawordofspecialcommendation,showinghow
completelytheformerdiscordhasbeenhealed.ThenfollowawarmcommendationofTychicus,greetingsfromLukeandDemas,instructions
forexchangingletterswiththeneighbouringChurchofLaodicea,andafinalmessageforArchippus,whohadapparentlysucceeded,in
Epaphrasabsence,tothesupervisionoftheColossianChurch.

J.HowardB.Masterman.
COLOURS.ThecoloursnamedinOTandNT,asinotherancientliteratures,arefewinnumber,andoftheseseveralareusedwith
considerablelatitude.

1.WhiteasthecolourofsnowinIs1:18,oftheteethdescribedasmilkwhite(Gn49:12),andofhorses(Zec1:8,6:3,6)alsoofwool
(Rev1:14)theprevailingcolourofthePalestiniansheepbeingwhite(seeCa4:2,6:6)andofgarments(Ec9:8,Mk9:3).Gray(andgrey)
occursonlyintheexpressiongrayhairs,whilegrisled(lit.grey,fromFrenchgris)apparentlymeansblackwithwhitespots(Gn31:10,Zec
6:3,6cf.6below).Greenisnotacolouradjective(in
Est1:6readasRVm),butanounsignifyinggreenplantsandherbs,ase.g.inGn1:30andMk6:39.Akindredwordrenderedgreenish(Lv
13:49,14:37)isprobablyagreenishyellow,sinceitisalsousedinPs68:13ofyellowgold.

2.Thedarkercolourslikewisemergeintoeachother,blackandbrown,forexample,notbeingclearlydistinguished.Blackisthecolourof
hair(Ca5:11blackasaraven),ofhorses(Zec6:2,6,Rev6:5),andofink(2Co3:3).InCa1:5thesameHeb.wordsignifiesdark
complexioned(AVblack).Labansblacksheep(Gn30:32ff.RV)wereprobablydarkbrown(AVbrown).

3.Redisthecolourofblood(2K3:22),andofgrapejuice(Is63:2).Thesamewordisusedofthereddishbrowncolourofthered
heiferofNu19,andofthechestnuthorseofZechariahsvision(1:8,AVred),althoughtheprecisecolourdistinctionbetweenthelatterand
hiscompanion,thesorrel(AVmbayinZec6:3EVbayshouldprob.bestrong,andinv.7[byaslightchangeoftext]perh.red)horse,
isnotclear.Redisusedalsoofthesky(Mt16:2f.lit.ofthecolouroffire).
4.Crimsonandscarletareshadesofthesamecolour,andwerebothderivedfromthesameinsect,thecoccusilicisorcochineal,which
attachesitselftotheleavesandtwigsofthequercuscoccifera(Post),andistermedinHebrewthescarletworm.Scarletcolouredgarments
wereregardedasamarkofdistinctionandprosperity(2S1:24,Pr31:21),butinOTscarletismostfrequentlymentionedasoneofthefour
liturgical,or,asweshouldsay,ecclesiasticalcolours(seebelow).Vermilionismentionedasapigment(Jer22:14,Ezk23:14).

5.AssociatedwithscarletinthePriestsCodeofthePentateucharefoundtwocolours,argmnrenderedpurple,andtkhlethrendered
blue.Inrealitythesearetwoshadesofpurple,theredtonepredominatingintheformer,thebluetoneinthelatter.Sincebluepredominatesin
ourmodernpurple,itwouldbewelltodropthecumbroustermsredpurpleorpurplered,andbluepurpleorpurpleblue,infavourofthe
simplernamespurpleandviolet,asinthemarginofEst1:6,8:15(AV).Bothshadeswereobtainedbytheuse,asadye,ofacolourlessfluid
secretedbytheglandofashellfish,themurextrunculus,whichwasfoundingreatquantitiesonthePhniciancoast.HenceTyrebecamethe
chiefseatofthemanufactureofthepurpleclothforwhichPhniciawasfamousthroughouttheancientworld(cf.Ezk27:7,16).Purple

raimentisrepeatedlymentionedinScriptureaswornbykingsandnobles.ItwasasKingoftheJewsthatourLordwasderisivelyrobedin 88/137
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raimentisrepeatedlymentionedinScriptureaswornbykingsandnobles.ItwasasKingoftheJewsthatourLordwasderisivelyrobedin
purple(Mk15:17,Jn19:2).

InthePriestsCode,ashasbeennoted,fromEx25onwards,violet(AVblue),purple,andscarletareusedandalwaysinthis
ordertodenotethefinelinenthread,spunfromyarnthathadbeendyedthesecolours(seeesp.Ex35:25),which,withthenaturalwhite
thread,wasemployedinweavingtherichmaterialforthevarioushangingsoftheTabernacle,andforcertainpartsofthepriestsdress.
6.Jacobssmallcattle,ringstraked,speckled,andspotted(Gn30:39etc.),showedwhitemixedwithblackorbrowninthecaseofthe
sheep,andblackmixedwithwhiteinthecaseofthegoats.ForJosephscoatofmanycoloursseeDress,2(d).

ItmaybeaddedthattheartofdyeingwasoneinwhichtheJewsoflatertimesexcelled.Accordingtotradition,aswehavejustseen,
purpleandscarletalsored(Ex26:14)dyeswereknownasearlyastheExodustime(cf.Jg5:30RVm).InNTtimes,asmaybeseenfrom
theMishna,dyeingwasaflourishingbranchofnativeindustry.ThetrueTyrianpurplewasalwaysamonopoly,andconsequentlyimported
butmanylesscostlydyeswereknown,suchasthecochinealinsectforscarlet,dyerswoad(isatis)fortrueblue,madder(Heb.pah,cf.Tola
benPuah,i.e.Cochineal,sonofMadder,Jg10:1),andothers.

A.R.S.Kennedy.
COLTisappliedintheBiblenottotheyounghorse,buttotheyoungass,andonce(Gn32:15)totheyoungcamel.OutsidetheBibleitis
notappliedtotheyoungofanyanimalbutthehorse.
COMFORT,fromlateLat.confortare,tostrengthen,reinforce,denotedinoldEng.(a)physical,or(b)mentalrefreshmentofanactive
kind(invigoration,encouragement)obsoletemeanings.Inmodernuseitdenotes(c)mentalrefreshmentofthesofterkind(consolation).
Sense(a)appearsinGn18:6,Jg19:5,8,Ca2:5(c)elsewhereinOT.InNT,comfortusuallyrepresentsaGr.verbandnoun,commonin
Paul,whichincludeanykindofanimatingaddressinthisconnexionthesense(b)prevails,asinAc9:31,16:40,Ro1:12,15:4,2Co13:11
etc.thetenderersignification(c)appearsinMt5:4,2Co1:3ff.etc.FortheaboveGr.noun,however,AVfourteentimeswritesconsolation
(interchangingcomfortandconsolationin2Co1:37),alikeinsenses(b)and(c):thisRVreplacesseventimes(inPaul)bycomfort.
ComfortisalsoinAVtherenderingofasecondandrarergroupofGr.wordsdenotingconsolation(insorrow):soinJn11:19,31,1Co14:3,
andPh2:1(cf.AVandRV),1Th2:11,5:14theoriginalofcomfort(soothing)inCol4:11isanisolatedexpressionkindredtothelast.Of
goodcomfortinPh2:19rendersafourthGr.word=ingoodheart,cheerfulwhileofgoodcomfortinMt9:22||=ofgoodcheerinv.2and
elsewhere(soRVhere,andinMk10:49).

ForOTandNT,comforthasitssourceinthetenderloveofGodforHispeople,andfortheindividualsoulitismediated(intheNT)by
thesympathyofChrist,thevisitingsoftheHolySpirit,thehelpofbrethren,andthehopeofgloryitcounteractsthetroublesoflife,andthe
discouragementofworkforGod:seeesp.Jn16:33,Ro5:25,2Co1:37.

G.G.Findlay.
COMFORTER.SeeAdvocate.
COMINGOFCHRIST.SeeParousia.
COMMANDMENTS.SeeTenCommandments.
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COMMANDMENTS.SeeTenCommandments.
COMMENTARY(2Ch13:22,24:27RV).TheHeb.(midrash)hasbeenadoptedintoEnglish.ButtheMidrashisnotexactlywhatwe
understandbyacommentaryitisanimaginativedevelopmentofathoughtorthemesuggestedbyScripture,especiallyadidacticor
homileticexposition,oranedifyingreligiousstory(Driver).
COMMERCE.SeeTradeandCommerce.
COMMON.InAc10:14f.synonymouswithceremoniallyunclean(cf.Mk7:2,andseeCleanandUnclean).
COMMUNICATION.WhileconversationinAVmeansmanneroflife,conduct,communicationmeansconversation,talk.SoCol
3:6filthycommunication(RVshamefulspeaking)andelsewhere.Theverbtocommunicateisnowusedinarestrictedsense,sothatits
occurrencesinAV,whereithasthegeneralmeaningofmakingcommoncausewithone,maybemisunderstood.Cf.theRhemishtr.ofJn4:9:
FortheJewesdonotcommunicatewiththeSamaritanes(AVhavenodealingswith).
COMMUNION(Gr.koinnia).InEVkoinniaistr.communioninonly3passages(1Co10:16,2Co6:14,13:14),whileitis
frequentlyrendered
fellowship(AV12,RV15times),andtwicecontributionordistribution(Ro15:26,2Co9:13[RVhascontrib.inbothcasesAV
contrib.inthefirstpassage,distrib.inthesecond]).Butitiscommunionthatbringsusnearesttotheoriginal,andsetsusinthepathof
therightinterpretationofthewordoneveryoccasionwhenitisusedintheNT.

Koinniacomesfromanadj.whichmeanscommon,and,likecommunion,itsliteralmeaningisacommonparticipationorsharingin
anything.Similarly,intheNTtheconcretenounkoinnosisusedofapartnerintheownershipofafishingboat(Lk5:10)theverbkoinnein
ofsharingsomethingwithanother,whetherbywayofgiving(Ro12:13,Gal6:6)orofreceiving(Ro15:27,1Ti5:22)andtheadj.koinnikos
(1Ti6:18)isrenderedwillingtocommunicate.

1.KoinniameetsusfirstinAc2:42,whereRVaswellasAVobscuresthemeaningnotonlybyusingthewordfellowship,butby
omittingthedef.article.Theverseoughttoread,Andtheycontinuedstedfastlyintheapostlesteachingandthecommunion,inthebreaking
ofbreadandtheprayers.Andthemeaningofcommunioninthiscasecanhardlybedoubtful.Thereferenceevidentlyistothathavingall
thingscommonwhichisreferredtoimmediatelyafter(v.44f.),andthenatureandextentofwhichSt.Lukeexplainsmorefullyatalater
stage(4:325:4).Itappearsthatthecommunionwastheregularexpressionforthatcommunityofgoodswhichwassomarkedafeatureof
theChristianityofthefirstdays,andwhichoweditsoriginnotonlytotheunselfishenthusiasmofthatPentecostalperiodandtheexpectation
oftheLordsimmediatereturn,buttotheactualneedsofthepoorerChristiansinJerusalem,cutofffromthemeansofselfsupportbythe
socialostracismattendantonexcommunicationfromthesynagogue(Jn9:22,34,12:42,16:2).

2.ThetypeofkoinniainJerusalemdescribedinAc2seemstohavedisappearedverysoon,butitsplacewastakenbyanorganized
diakonia,adailyministrationtothepoor(6:1,2).AndwhentheChurchspreadintoalargerworldfreefromthehostileinfluencesofthe
synagogue,thosesocialconditionswereabsentwhichinJerusalemhadseemedtomakeitnecessarythatChristsfollowersshouldhaveall
thingscommon.ButitwasaspecialfeatureofSt.PaulsteachingthatChristianseverywhereweremembersoneofanother,sharersineach
otherswealthwhethermaterialorspiritual.AndinparticularhepressedconstantlyuponthewealthierGentilechurchesthedutyoftaking
partinthediakoniacarriedoninJerusalemonbehalfofthepoorsaints.Inthisconnexionwefindhimin2Co8:4usingthestriking
expressionthekoinniaofthediakonia[thecommunionoftheministration]tothesaints.TheChristiansofCorinthmighthave
communionwiththeirbrethreninJerusalembyimpartingtothemoutoftheirownabundance.Hence,byanaturalprocessinthedevelopment
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communionwiththeirbrethreninJerusalembyimpartingtothemoutoftheirownabundance.Hence,byanaturalprocessinthedevelopment
ofspeech,thekoinnia,frommeaningacommonparticipation,cametobeappliedtothegiftswhichenabledthatparticipationtoberealized.
InRo15:26and2Co9:13,accordingly,thewordisproperlyenoughrenderedcontribution.AndyetintheApostolicChurchitcouldnever
beforgottenthatacontributionorcollectionforthepoorbrethrenwasaformofChristiancommunion.

3.Fromthefirst,however,communionundoubtedlyhadalargeranddeepersensethanthosetechnicalonesonwhichwehavebeen
dwelling.ItwasoutoftheconsciousnessofacommonparticipationincertaingreatspiritualblessingsthatChristianswereimpelledto
manifesttheirpartnershipinthesespecificways.AccordingtoSt.Paulsteaching,thosewhobelievedinChristenjoyedacommon
participationinChristHimselfwhichboundthemtooneanotherinaholyunity(1Co1:9,cf.v.10ff.).Inthegreatcentralriteoftheirfaith
thiscommonparticipationinChrist,andaboveallinHisdeathanditsfruits,wasvisiblysetforth:thecupofblessingwasacommunionofthe
bloodofChristthebrokenbreadacommunionofthebodyofChrist(1Co10:16).FlowingagainfromthiscommonparticipationinChrist
therewasacommonparticipationintheHolySpirit,foritisfromtheloveofGodasmanifestedinthegraceofChristthatthereresultsthat
communionoftheHolyGhostwhichisthestrongestbondofunityandpeace(2Co13:14cf.
v.11,Ph2:1f.).ThusthecommunionoftheChristianChurchcametomeanafundofspiritualprivilegewhichwascommontoallthe
membersbutalsopeculiartothem,sothattheadmissionofamantothecommunionorhisexclusionfromitwashisadmissionto,or
exclusionfrom,theChurchofChristitself.WhentheJerusalemApostlesgavetherighthandsofcommuniontoPaulandBarnabas(Gal
2:9),thatwasasymbolicrecognitionontheirpartthatthesemissionariestotheuncircumcisionweretruedisciplesandApostlesofChrist,
sharerswiththemselvesinalltheblessingsoftheChristianfaith.
4.Wehaveseenthatinitsrootmeaningkoinniaisapartnershipeitheringivingorinreceiving.HenceitwasappliedtoChristianduties
andobligationsaswellastoChristianprivileges.TherighthandsofcommuniongiventoPaulandBarnabaswerenotonlyarecognitionof
gracereceivedincommon,butmutualpledgesofanApostolicservicetothecircumcisionontheonehandandtheheathenontheother(Gal
2:9).St.PaulthanksGodforthecommunionofthePhilippiansinthefurtheranceofthegospel(Ph1:5),andpraysonbehalfofPhilemon
thatthecommunionofhisfaithmaybecomeeffectual(Philem6),i.e.thattheChristiansympathiesandcharitiesinspiredbyhisfaithmay
comeintofulloperation.ItisthesameuseofkoinniathatwefindinHe13:16,wheretheproperrenderingisforgetnotthewelldoingand
thecommunion.HerealsothecommunionmeanstheactsofcharitythatspringfromChristianfaith,withaspecialreferenceperhapstothe
technicalsenseofkoinniareferredtoabove,asasharingofonesmaterialwealthwiththepoorerbrethren.

5.Inalltheforegoingpassagesthekoinniaseemstodenoteamutualsharing,whetherinprivilegeorinduty,ofChristianswithone
another.Buttherearesomecaseswherethecommunionevidentlydenotesamoreexaltedpartnership,thepartnershipofaChristianwith
ChristorwithGod.ThisiswhatmeetsuswhenSt.PaulspeaksinPh3:10ofthecommunionofChristssufferings.Hemeansadrinkingof
thecupofwhichChristdrank(cf.Mt20:22f.),amoralpartnershipwiththeRedeemerinHispainsandtears(cf.Ro8:17).ButitisSt.John
whobringsthishigherkoinniabeforeusinthemostabsolutewaywhenhewrites,OurcommunioniswiththeFatherandwithhisSonJesus
Christ(1Jn1:3,cf.v.6),andmakesourcommuniononewithanotherdependuponthispreviouscommunionwithGodHimself(v.7,cf.v.
6).Yet,thoughthekoinniaorcommunionisnowraisedtoahigherpower,ithasstillthesamemeaningasbefore.Itisamutualsharing,a
reciprocalgivingandreceiving.AndinhisGospelSt.Johnsetsthelawofthiscommunionclearlybeforeuswhenherecordsthewordsofthe
LordHimself,Abldeinme,andIinyou(Jn15:4).ThecommunionofthehumanandtheDivineisamutualactivity,whichmaybesummed
upinthetwowordsgraceandfaith.ForgraceisthespontaneousandunstintedDivinegivingasrevealedandmediatedbyJesusChrist,while
faithinitsidealformistheactionofasoulwhich,receivingtheDivinegrace,surrendersitselfwithoutanyreserveuntotheLord.
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J.C.Lambert.
COMMUNITYOFGOODS.SeeCommunion.
COMPASS.Acompassisthespaceoccupiedbyacircle,orthecircleitself:Pr8:27hesetacompassuponthefaceofthedeep(AVm
andRVacircle)usuallyexplainedofthehorizon,whichseemstobeacirclerestingontheocean.Tofetchacompass(Nu34:5,Jos15:3,2
S5:23,2K3:9)istomakeacircuitorsimplygoround.Thetoolformakingacircleisacompass(Is44:13).SeeArtsandCrafts,1.
COMPASSION.SeePity.
CONANIAH.1.ALevitewhohadchargeofthetithesandofferingsinthetimeofHezekiah(2Ch31:12,13).2.AchiefoftheLevites
inJosiahsreign(2Ch35:9)calledin1Es1:9Jeconias.
CONCISION.AnameappliedcontemptuouslybyS.Paul(Ph3:2)tothemerelyfleshlycircumcision(Gr.katatomtheordinaryword
forcircumcisionisperitom).
CONCORDANCES.TheLatinwordconcordanti,foranalphabeticallistofthewordsofScripturedrawnupforpurposesofreference
totheplaceswheretheyoccur,wasfirstusedbyHugodeSanctoCaro,whocompiledaConcordancetotheVulgatein1244.Thiswasrevised
byArbottus(1290),andbecamethebasisofaHebrewConcordancebyIsaacNathan(143745).Nathansworkwasrevisedandenlargedby
JohnBuxtorf,theelder,whoseConcordantiBibliorumHebraic(1632)heldtheplaceofstandardConcordancefortwocenturies,and
servedasthemodelformanyothers.JohnTaylorsHebrewConcordanceadaptedtotheEnglishBible,disposedafterthemannerofBuxtorf
(2vols.folio,Norwich,175457),isanotherlinkinthesuccession.ThefirstConcordancetotheEnglishBibleisthatofJohnMarbeck(folio,
London,1550).TheearliestConcordancetotheSeptuagintisConradKirchers(1607).ThefirstGreekNTConcordancewaspublishedat
Basleanonymouslyin1546.Intheuseofthefollowinglistsitwillbeunderstoodthat,whilethemostrecentworks,otherthingsbeingequal,
aretobepreferred,thereissomuchcommonmaterialthatmanyoftheolderworksarebynomeansobsolete.
1.Hebrew.Fuerst,Libr.SacrorumVet.Test.ConcordantiHeb.atqueChald.(1840)TheEnglishmansHebrewandChaldee
ConcordanceofOT(2vols.,Bagster)B.Davidson,AConcordanceoftheHeb.andChaldeeScriptures(Bagster,1876)BagstersHandy
HebrewConcordance[aninvaluablework]Mandelkern,Vet.Test.Concordanti(folio,Leipzig,1896),andasmallereditionwithout
quotations(Leipzig,1897).

2.Greek

(a)TheSeptuagint.BagstersHandyConcordanceoftheSeptuagintHatchRedpathsConcordanceoftheSeptuagintandotherGreek
VersionsoftheOT,withtwosupplementalfasciculi(ClarendonPress,189297).Thisisthestandardwork,replacingTrommius
ConcordantiGrcVersionisvulgodictLXXInterpretum(2vols.Amst.1718).

(b)TheNT.TheEnglishmansGreekConcordanceoftheNT(Bagster)C.F.
Hudson,GreekConcordancetoNT,revisedbyEzraAbbot(do.)Schmoller,
ConcordantimanualesNTgrci(1890)Bruder,ConcordantiomniumvocumNTgrci4(1888).Alltheseworksarenowsupersededby
MoultonGedensConcordancetotheGreekTestament(Edinburgh,T.&T.Clark,1897).
3.English.UntilrecenttimesthestandardworkwasCrudensCompleteConcordancetotheHolyScriptures(1sted.1738.Crudensis 92/137
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3.English.UntilrecenttimesthestandardworkwasCrudensCompleteConcordancetotheHolyScriptures(1sted.1738.Crudensis
trulyamarvellouswork,andwasfrequentlycopied,withoutacknowledgment,insubsequentproductions.Itwasevenissuedinabridgment
themostuselessandprovokingofallliteraryproducts).MorerecentworksareEadiesAnalyticalConcordance
YoungsAnalyticalBibleConcordance(Edin.187984),withsupplem.vol.byW.
B.StevensonStrongsExhaustiveConcordance(Hodder&Stoughton,1894)ThomssConcordancetoRVofNT(1882).

W.F.AdeneyandJ.S.Banks.
CONCUBINE.SeeFamily,Marriage,6.
CONCUPISCENCE.Concupiscenceisintensedesire,alwaysinabadsense,sothatitisunnecessarytosayevilconcupiscenceasin
Col3:5.Thereferenceisnearlyalwaystosexuallust.
CONDUIT.SeeJerusalem.
CONEY(EVtr.ofshphn,RVmrockbadger).TheHyraxsyriacus,calledbytheArabswabr,alsotheghanambeniIsrael(thesheep
ofthechildrenofIsrael).Theconeyisasmallrabbitlikeanimal,withshortearsandamerestumpofatail.Ithasstiffgreyishbrownhair,
withsofter,lightercolouredhaironthebellyitisnocturnalinitshabits,andlivesinholesintherocks.Coniesareveryplentifulalongthe
rockyshoresoftheDeadSea,andalsointheLebanon,especiallyaboveSidontheycan,however,beseenasaruleonlybetweensunsetand
sunrise.Theyaregregariousintheirhabits,anddisappearintotheirrockyfastnesses(Ps104:18,Pr30:24,26)withthegreatestrapidityonthe
slightestapproachofdanger.TheBedouin,whenhuntingthem,liehiddenformanyhoursduringthenightclosetotheirholes.Theyfeedon
grassandsweetsmellingherbs,andtheirfleshisesteemedforeatingbytheBedouintheydonotactuallychewthecud(Lv11:5,Dt14:7),
thoughtheyworktheirjawsinawaythatresemblesaruminant.Structurallytheconeyissopeculiarastohaveanorder,theHyracoidea,to
itself.

E.W.G.Masterman.
CONFECTION.ThiswordinAVmeansperfume(Ex30:35),andconfectionary(1S8:13),meansperfumer.
CONFESSION.InEng.thewordsconfess,confessiondenoteeitheraprofessionoffaithoranacknowledgmentofsinandtheyare
usedinEVinbothofthesemeanings.

1.Confessionoffaith.(1)IntheOTthewordconfessisfoundinthissenseonlyin1K8:33,35=2Ch6:24,26.Butthe
acknowledgmentofGodasGodandtheproclamationofpersonaltrustinHimmeetuscontinuallyinthelivesoronthelipsofpatriarchs,
prophets,andpsalmists.TheBookofPsalmsinparticularisastorehouseofconfessionalutterancesinprayerandsong(see7:1,48:14etc.).

(2)ComingtotheNT,wefindthatconfessisoffrequentoccurrenceinthesenseweareconsidering,andthatconfessionnowgathers
expresslyroundthePersonandtheNameofJesusChrist.Moreover,theideaofconfessionhasbeenelaborated,itsimmediaterelationtofaith
andvitalimportanceforsalvationbeingclearlybroughtout.

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(a)Themeaningofconfession.IntheearlierperiodofourLordsministry,confessionmeantnomorethantheexpressionofbeliefthat
JesuswastheexpectedMessiah(Jn1:41).EventhetitleSonofGod(Mt8:29||,cf.Jn1:34,49)atthisstagecanbeusedonlyinits
recognizedMessianicsense(Ps2:7).AgreatadvanceinfaithandinsightismarkedbySt.PetersconfessionatCsareaPhilippi,Thouart
theChrist,theSonofthelivingGod(Mt16:16||).ThiswasthehighestpointreachedbyApostolicbeliefandprofessionduringtheLords
earthlyministry,anditanticipatedthoselaterviewsofChriststruenaturewhichfoundembodimentintheCreedsoftheChurch.Afterthe
Resurrection,confessionofChristcarriedwithitreadinesstobearwitnesstothatsupremefact(Jn20:28,29,Ro10:9)andthisofcourse
impliedanacceptanceofthehistoricaltraditionastoHismarvellouslifeandcharacterwhichmadeitimpossiblefordeathtoholdHim(cf.Ac
2:24).Allthatwasatfirstdemandedofconverts,however,mayhavebeentheconfessionJesusisLord(1Co12:3cf.Ph2:11,2Ti1:8)a
viewthatisconfirmedbythefactoftheirbeingbaptizedinto(orin)thenameoftheLord(Ac8:16,10:48,19:5).Atalaterperiodthe
growthofheresymadeamorepreciseconfessionnecessary.IntheJohannineEpistlesitisessentialtoconfess,ontheonehand,thatJesus
Christiscomeintheflesh(1Jn4:2,3,2Jn7),and,ontheother,thatJesusistheSonofGod(1Jn4:15).Withthisdevelopedtypeof
confessionmaybecomparedtheglossthathasbeenattachedtothenarrativeoftheEthiopianeunuchsbaptism(Ac8:37,seeRVm),probably
representingaformulathathadcometobeemployedasabaptismalconfession.Itwasoutofbaptismalformulaslikethisthattheregradually
grewthoseformalConfessionsoftheearlyChurchwhichareknownastheApostlesandtheNiceneCreeds.

(b)Thevalueofconfession.UponthisJesusHimselflaysgreatstress.IfweconfessHimbeforemen,HewillconfessusbeforeHis
FatherinheavenifwedenyHim,Hewillalsodenyus(Mt10:32f.||,cf.Mk8:38).ThegloriousblessingHegavetoSt.PeteratCsarea
PhilippiwastherewardoftheApostlessplendidprofessionoffaithanditcontainedtheassurancethatagainsttheChurchbuiltontherock
ofbelievingconfessionthegatesofHadesshouldnotprevail(Mt16:1719).IntheEpp.thevalueofconfessionisemphasizednotless
strongly.AccordingtoSt.Paul,thespiritoffaithmustspeak(2Co4:13),andconfessionisnecessarytosalvation(Ro10:810).AndSt.John
regardsatrueconfessionofChristasasignofthepresenceoftheDivineSpirit(1Jn4:2),aproofofthemutualindwellingofGodinmanand
maninGod(v.15).

2.Confessionofsin.(1)ThisholdsaprominentplaceintheOT.TheMosaicritualmakesprovisionfortheconfessionofbothindividual
(Lv5:1ff.,26:40)andnational(16:21)transgressionsandmanyexamplesmaybefoundofhumbleacknowledgmentofbothclassesofsin,for
instanceinthePenitentialPsalmsandinsuchprayersasthoseofEzra(10:1),Nehemiah(1:6,7),andDaniel(9:4ff.,20).
ItisfullyrecognizedintheOTthatconfessionisnotonlythenaturalexpressionofpenitentfeeling,buttheconditionoftheDivinepardon
(Lv5,6,Ps32:5,Pr28:13).

(2)IntheNTconfessoccursbutseldomtoexpressacknowledgmentofsin(Mt3:6=Mk1:5,Ja5:16,1Jn1:9).Butthedutyof
confessingsinbothtoGodandtomanisconstantlyreferredto,andtheindispensablenessofconfessioninordertoforgivenessismadevery
plain(Lk18:10f.,1Jn1:9).

(a)ConfessiontoGod.ThismeetsusatmanypointsinourLordsteachinginHiscallstorepentance,inwhichconfessionisinvolved
(Mt4:17=Mk1:15,Lk11:29,32,24:47),inthepetitionforforgivenessintheLordsPrayer(Mt6:12,Lk11:4),intheparablesofthe
ProdigalSon(Lk15:17,18,21)andthePhariseeandthePublican(18:10f.).ItisverynoteworthythatwhileHerecognizesconfessionasa
universalhumanneed(Lk11:4||),HeneverconfessessinonHisownaccountorsharesintheconfessionsofothers.

(b) Confessiontoman.BesidesconfessiontoGod,Christenjoinsconfessiontothebrotherwehavewronged(Mt5:23,24),andHe
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(b)Confessiontoman.BesidesconfessiontoGod,Christenjoinsconfessiontothebrotherwehavewronged(Mt5:23,24),andHe
makesitplainthathumanaswellasDivineforgivenessmustdependuponreadinesstoconfess(Lk17:4).InJa5:16(RV)wearetoldto
confessoursinsonetoanother.ThesinsherespokenofareundoubtedlysinsagainstGodaswellassinsagainstman.Buttheconfession
referredtoisplainlynottoanyofficialoftheChurch,muchlesstoanofficialwiththepowerofgrantingabsolution,butamutual
unburdeningofChristianheartswithaviewtoprayeroneforanother.

J.C.Lambert.
CONFIRMATION.ThenounconfirmationisusedonlytwiceinAV(Ph1:7,He6:16),thereferenceinthefirstcasebeingtothe
establishmentofthetruthofthegospel,andinthesecondtotheratificationofastatementbyanoath.Theverbconfirm,however,isfound
frequentlyinbothOTandNT,invariousshadesofmeaning,butwiththegeneralsenseofstrengtheningandestablishing.Theonlyquestions
ofinterestare(1)whetherconfirmisusedinNTtodenotetheecclesiasticalriteofConfirmationand(2)whetherthatriteisreferredto
underthe
layingonofhands.
1.Thereare3passagesinActs(14:22,15:32,41)inwhichPaulandBarnabas,orJudasandSilas,orPaulbyhimself,aresaidtohave
confirmedthesoulsofthedisciples,thebrethren,thechurches.Innoneoftheseisthereanyindicationoftheperformanceofarite,and
thenaturalsuggestionisthatthewordisusedsimplyofaspiritualstrengthening.

2.IntheOrderofConfirmationintheBookofCommonPrayer,thelayingonofhandsuponthosethatarebaptizedandcometoyears
ofdiscretion,asperformedbythebishop,issaidtobedoneaftertheexampleofThyholyApostles.Presumablythereferenceistosuch
passagesasAc8:1517,19:6,He6:2.InthepassagesinActs,however,theimpositionofhandsisassociatedwiththeimpartationof
extraordinaryspiritualgifts,whileofHe6:2nomorecanbesaidthanthatintheearlyChurchtheactappearstohavebeencloselyassociated
withbaptism.ThatitmightprecedebaptisminsteadoffollowingitisshownbyAc9:17,18whichfurthershowsthatitmightbeperformed
byonewhowasnotanApostleorevenanofficialoftheChurch.Inalllikelihooditwassimplyanaturalandbeautifulsymbolaccompanying
prayer(Ac8:15),whichhadcomedownfromOTtimes(Gn48:14),andhadbeenusedbyChristHimselfintheactofblessing(Mt19:13
15).See,further,LayingonofHands.

J.C.Lambert.
CONFISCATION.SeeBan,2,Excommunication.
CONFUSIONOFTONGUES.SeeTongues[Confusionof].
CONGREGATION,ASSEMBLY.InAVthesetermsarebothemployedtorendereitherofthetwoimportantHeb.wordsdhahand
qhl,withadecidedpreference,however,infavourofcongregationfortheformer,andassemblyforthelatter.InRV,aswereadinthe
Reviserspreface,anefforthasbeenmadetosecuregreateruniformityontheselines.Ofthetwo,qhlisthemorewidelydistributed,
althoughneitherisfrequentinpreexilicliteraturedhah,whichisnotusedinthepropheticorDeuteronomicsourcesofthePentateuch,is
foundatleast115timesinthePriestsCodealone,whereitdenotesthetheocraticcommunityofIsraelasawhole,thechurchnationinits
relationtoJ.Thefulldesignation,asfoundinNu1:2andascoreoftimeselsewhere,is(thesumof)allthecongregationofthechildrenof
Israel,whichistheequivalentoftheDeuteronomicphrasealltheassembly(qhl)ofIsrael(Dt31:30,RVandAVcongregation).Inthe95/137
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Israel,whichistheequivalentoftheDeuteronomicphrasealltheassembly(qhl)ofIsrael(Dt31:30,RVandAVcongregation).Inthe
olderandmoresecularwritersthesameideawouldhavebeenexpressedbythesumofthepeopleofIsrael,asin2S24:2.

Itisextremelydoubtfulifthereisanyvalidgroundfortheattemptstofindadistinctionbetweenthetwoexpressionscongregationand
assembly,evenwithinPitself,asifassemblyrepresentedeitherpickedmembersofthecongregation(EBicol.345),orthelatterinits
capacityasanassemblyofworshippers.ForinoneandthesameversePemployscongregationandassemblyassynonymousterms,asin
Lv4:13,Nu16:3RV,andinthepriestlyredactionofJg20:1f.,thewholebodyofthepeoplebeingintendedineverycase.Theonlytwo
passageswhichseemtoimplythattheassemblywasalimitedsectionofthecongregation,viz.Ex12:6,Nu14:5alltheassemblyofthe
congregation,etc.,clearlyshowconflatereadings(cf.LXX.).Whatdifference,finally,canbedetectedbetweentheassemblyofJofNu
16:3,20:4(cf.Dt23:3,4)andthecongregationofJof27:17,31:16allPpassages?
IntheLXXdhahisinmostcasesrenderedbysynagg,qhlbyecclsia,bothbeingused,accordingtoSchrer,withoutessential
distinctiontosignifythereligiouscommunityofIsrael,inthisagreeing,ashasbeenarguedabove,withtheoriginalandwithourAV.The
subsequenthistoryofthesetermsintheJewishandearlyChristianChurchesisofconsiderableinterest.LaterJudaism,asSchrerhasshown,
begantodistinguishbetweensynaggandecclsiainthedirectionofapplyingtheformerinanempirical,thelatterinanideal,sense,theone
tosignifythereligiouscommunityinaparticularplace,theotherthecommunityofthosecalledbyGodtosalvation,theidealIsrael.This
Jewishusageexplainshow,whilesynaggisoccasionallyfoundinearlyPatristricliteratureinthesenseoftheChristiancongregation,its
rivalfinallygainedtheday.TheChristiansynagoguebecametheChurch,whiletheJewishChurchremainsthesynagogue(seeunder
Church,Synagoque).
Theexpressionsolemnassembly,inwhichsolemnhasitsetymological,butnowobsolete,senseofstated,appointed(lit.yearly,
sollennis),representsathirdHeb.wordapplicableoriginallytoanyreligiousgathering(Am5:21,Is1:13,
2K10:20),butafterwardslimitedtothoseappointedfortheseventhdayoftheFeastofUnleavenedCakes(Mazzoth,Dt16:8),andtheeighth
oftheFeastofBooths(Lv23:36,Nu29:35).

HolyconvocationoccursfrequentlyinthePriestlysectionsofthePentateuch(esp.Lv.1726[h]).

Themountofthecongregation,intheuttermostpartsofthenorth(Is14:13RV),towhichthekingofBabylonaspired,wasthe
BabylonianOlympusorabodeofthegods.AnechoofthismythologicalconceptionisprobablytobefoundinthesimilarphrasePs48:2.

FortabernacleofthecongregationseeTabernacle.

A.R.S.Kennedy.
CONIAH(Jer22:24,28)=Jehoiachin(wh.see).
CONSCIENCE.Thetermoccurs30timesintheNTitsignifiesjointknowledge.Thetwothingsknowntogethermaybetwomotives,
twodeeds,etc.orthecomparisoninstitutedmaybebetweenastandardandavolition,etc.Selforothersmaybejudged,andapproval(Ac
23:1,24:16,Ro9:1,2Co1:12,1Ti1:5,19,3:9,2Ti1:3,He13:18,1P3:16,21)ordisapproval(Jn8:9,He9:9,10:2,22)maybetheissue.
Theconvictionthatacertaincourseofconductisrightisaccompaniedbyasenseofobligation,whetherthatcoursereceives(Ro13:5)orfails
tosecure(1P2:19,Ac4:19,20)legalconfirmation.Thebeliefonwhichtheconsciousnessofdutydependsisnotnecessarilywise(1Co8:7,
10,12,Ac26:9),thoughtheholdersofthebeliefshouldreceivecarefulconsiderationonthepartofmoreenlightenedmen(Ro15:1,1Co8,96/137
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10,12,Ac26:9),thoughtheholdersofthebeliefshouldreceivecarefulconsiderationonthepartofmoreenlightenedmen(Ro15:1,1Co8,
10:25,29).Unfaithfulnesstomoralclaimsleadstofearfuldeterioration,resultinginconfusion(Mt6:22,23)andinsensitiveness(1Ti4:2,Tit
1:15).

1.Sphere.Thesphereofconscienceisvolitioninallitsmanifestations.Thatwhichmerelyhappensandofferstousnoalternative
movementliesoutsidemorality.Lettherebeapossibilityofchoice,andconscienceappears.Appetites,sofarastheycanbecontrolled
incentivesofactionadmittingpreferencepurposesanddesires,alldeedsandInstitutionsthatembodyandgiveeffecttohumanchoiceall
relationshipsthatallowvariationsinourattitudegivescopeforethicalinvestigation,andinthemconscienceisdirectlyorindirectly
implicated.Consciencemakesavaluation.Itisconcernedwithright,wrongworthiness,unworthinessgood,badbetter,worse.This
appraisementisultimatelyoccupiedwiththeincentivesthatpresentthemselvestothewill,inregardtosomeofwhich(envyandmalice,for
instance)thereisanImmediateverdictofbadness,andinregardtoothersaverdictofbetterorworse.Thedispositionsthatarecommended
bytheSavioursconductandteachingspurityofheart,meekness,mercifulness,desireforrighteousness,etc.arerecognizedasworthyof
honour.TheconsciencecensurestheselfishnessoftheUnjustJudge(Lk18:6),andassentstotheinjunctionofconsideratenessandjustice(Ph
2:4).Therightnessofmanygeneralstatementsisdiscernedintnitively,andiscarriedovertothedeedsthatagreetherewith.Sidgwick
considersthatthestatementIoughtnottoprefermyownlessergoodtothegreatergoodofanotherisaxiomatic,andthatsomesuch
intnitivelydiscernedprincipleisanecessaryfoundationofmorals.Wedonotquestionthebasenessofsomepleasurestheircurseisgravenon
theirforeheads.Bothmediatelyandimmediatelywearriveatethicalconvictions.Theappearanceinoneslifeofapersonofdistinguished
excellencewillcausemanyvirtuestoshineinourestimation.Themindsurveyingacourseofconductcanjudgeitasbadorgoodonthe
whole.Aprecepttoseektoraisethewholetoneofoneslife(Mt5:48,Col4:12)isfelttobereasonable,andasthecapacityforimprovement
isgreaterinmanthaninanyothercreature,bettermotives,deeds,habits,aims,charactersmayrighteouslybedemanded.
2.Obligation.Intherecognitionofanyconductasrightthereisinvolvedanauthoritativeprescriptiontodoit.Thisfeelingof
oughtnesswhichisthecoreofconsciencecanbeexhibitedbutnotanalyzed.Itisanultimate.Itisunique.Itisanevidencewithinthesoul
thatweareundergovernment.Thereisacategoricalimperativetoaimatthatwhichwehaveadmittedtoberight.Fromthedutydiscerned
thereissuesacommandwhichcannotbesilencedsolongasthedutyispresenttothemind.Likingsordislikings,hopesorfears,popularityor
unpopularitynomatterwhatmaybeadvanced,thedictatorialmandateisunaltered:
Tismansperditiontobesafe,

Whenforthetruthheoughttodie.
WhenJesusChristassertsHissupremacyanddemandsdeferencetoHimselfatallcosts,Hedoessoastheincarnationofthemorallaw.Tobe
HisfriendistobeunderHisorders(Jn15:14),andoneisboundtofollowHimwithoutregardtoanyclaimsthatcanbeurgedbyselfor
kindred(Mt10:37,38,Lk14:33).Letitbeascertainedthatthisisthewayandthecommandisatonceheard,Walkyeinit.Theperemptory
claimmadebyconscienceiseminentlyreasonable,becauseitrestsuponwhatwehaveadmittedtoberight.Itisaprovisioninournaturethat
linksorthatwouldlinkifwewereloyalbeliefandpractice,andwouldcauseustobebuildersaswellasarchitects.Haditstrengthasit
hasrighthaditpowerasithasmanifestauthority,itwouldabsolutelygoverntheworld(Butler,Serm.ii.).

3.Theethicalfeeling.Theperceptionofoughtnesshasitsownemotionaltone.Thereis,ofcourse,asenseofreliefwhenthemindhas
arrivedatadecisionbutistherenotanadditionalelement?Istherenotaninclinationatleastafaintoneinfavourofthebehest?Andin
menhabituallyconscientious,isnottheinclinationimmediateandstrong?Allmenareclearlyawarethattheyarewrongincaseofrefusalto97/137
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menhabituallyconscientious,isnottheinclinationimmediateandstrong?Allmenareclearlyawarethattheyarewrongincaseofrefusalto
obey.Manisabornjudgeofhimself,andtheverdictthatresultsfromselfexaminationbringspeaceoruneasiness.Herodisillateaseby
reasonofselfjudgment(Mk6:20),andsoisFelix(Ac24:25).Peterseeshimselfasonewhohasbrokenthelaw,andthelighthurtshim(Lk
5:8).AllthebestmenhavehadsomeexperiencelikethatofIsaiah(6:5)andthatofJob(42:6),forwiththemthemoralsusceptibilityhasbeen
great.Alltheemotionalaccompanimentsofpenitenceandremorse,aswellastheglowincidenttothehearingofnobledeedsall
anticipationsoftheLordsWelldone!areinstancesofmoralfeeling.Thesepleasuresandpainsareaclassbythemselves.Theyareas
distinctfromthoseofsensationandintellectascoloursaredistinctfromsound.Thatpleasuresarequalitativelydifferentwasrightly
maintainedbyJ.S.Mill,thoughhisgeneraltheorywasnothelpedbytheopinion.Inconsciousnessweknowthatsorrowforsinisnotofthe
sameorderasanyphysicaldistress,norisittoberankedwiththefeelingofdisappointmentwhenwearebaffledinascientificinquiry.The
differencebetweenthemoralandtheunmoralemotionsisoneofkindandnotofquantity,ofworthandnotofamount:somepleasureslowin
thescaleofvalueareveryintense,whilethemoralsatisfactionsmayhavesmallintensityandyetarepreferredbygoodmentoanyphysicalor
intellectualdelights.Itshouldbenoticedthatthepleasureattendantuponachoiceofconductknowntoberightmaybenotunmixedforthe
feelings,clingingforawhiletothatwhichhasbeendiscarded,interferewiththesatisfactionduetothechangethathasbeenmade.Converts
arehauntedbyrenouncedbeliefs,andtheirpeaceisdisturbedbesidethemaincurrentofemotionthereisastreamwhichcomesfrompast
associationsandhabits.

4.Educationofconscience.(1)Notrainingcanimparttheideaofright:itisconstitutional.(2)Malevolentfeelings(asvindictiveness,
thedesiretogivepaingratuitously)areknownbyalltobewrongimmediatelytheyareperceivedatwork,theyareunconditionally
condemned.(3)Theinwardlookmakesnomistakeastoourmeaning,getsnowaveringreplytosuchquestionsas,Doyoudesiretohavefull
light?toknowallthefacts?tobeimpartial?toactasagoodmanshouldactinthisparticular?Forthisaccurateselfknowledgeprovisionis
madeinournature.(4)Somegeneralmoralprinciplesareacceptedassoonasthetermsareunderstood.(5)Whentwocompetingincentives
aretobejudged,weknow,andcannotbetaught,whichisthehigher.(6)Theimperativelodgedinamoralconvictionisintuitivelydiscerned.
Idonotknowhowtoimpartthenotionofmoralobligationtoanyonewhoisentirelydevoidofit(Sidgwick).(7)Thefeelingofdishonour
comestouswithouttuitionwhenwehaverefusedcompliancewithknownduty.Belongingtoamoralorder,wearemadetoreactincertain
definitewaystotruths,socialrelations,etc.Thetouchofexperienceisenoughtoquickenintoactioncertainmoralstates,justasthefeelings
ofcoldandheatareoursbecauseofthephysicalenvironment,andbecausewearewhatweare.Wecanevokewhilewecannotcreatethe
elementarymoralqualities.Anerringconscienceisachimera(Kant).Conscienceintuitivelyrecognizesmorallawitissupremeinits
authorityitcannotbeeducated(Calderwood).Thesesentencesarenotintendedtodenythatintheapplicationofprinciplesthereisdifficulty.
Onemayreadilyadmittheaxiomsofgeometry,andyetfindmuchperplexitywhenaskedtoestablishageometricaltheoremthetruthof
whichdirectlyorindirectlyflowsfromtheaxioms.TheApostlePaulprayedthathisfriendsmightimproveinmoraldiscrimination(Ph1:10,
Col1:9).Wehavetolearnwhattodo,andoftentheproblemssetbyourdomestic,civic,andchurchrelationshipsarehardevenforthebest
andwisesttosolve.Theschemeofthingstowhichwebelonghasnotbeenconstructedwithaviewtosavingusthetroubleofpatient,
strenuous,andsometimesverypainfulinvestigationandthought.

5.Implications.Ofthemanyimplicationsthefollowingarespeciallynoteworthy.Thefeelingofresponsibilitysuggeststhequestion,to
Whom?Beingundergovernment,wefeelaftertheRulerifhaplywemayfindHim.JesustellsusoftheRighteousFather.Thesolemnvoice
ofcommandisHis.ThepreferenceswhichweknowtoberightareHis.Thepainfeltwhenrighteousdemandsareresisted,andthejoy
accompanyingobedience,aretheynotHisfrownandsmile?Neitherourhigherselfnorsocietycanbethesourceofanauthoritysoaugustas
thatofwhichweareconscious.Tothebestmindswelookforguidancebuttherearelimitstotheirrightsoverus,andhowreadytheyareto
referustoHimbeforewhomtheybow!WearemadetobesubjectsoftheHolyOne.AdmittingthatweareincontactwithDivineAuthority,98/137
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referustoHimbeforewhomtheybow!WearemadetobesubjectsoftheHolyOne.AdmittingthatweareincontactwithDivineAuthority,
andthatHisbehestsareheardwithin,theencouragingpersuasionisjustifiedthatHesympathizeswiththesoulinitsbattlesandrendersaid
(Ph2:12,13).TheinferencethatitisGodwithwhomwehavetodomakesitfittingforustosaythatconscienceismanscapacitytoreceive
progressivelyarevelationoftherighteousnessofGod.Butislawthelastword?Maytherenotbemercyandanatonement?Cannotthe
accusingvoicesbehushed?Maythemanwhoadmitsthesentenceofconsciencebepardoned?ConscienceisaJohntheBaptistpreparingthe
wayfortheSaviour,whohasareplytothequestionWhatmustIdotobesaved?
W.J.Henderson.
CONSECRATION.SeeCleanandUnclean,Nazirite.
CONSOLATION.SeeComfort.
CONSUMPTION.TheHeb.word(klh)whichistranslated
consummationinDn9:27isrenderedconsumptioninIs10:23,28:22,theseEng.wordshavingthenthesamemeaning.Cf.Foxe,Actes
andMon.,ChristshallsitattherighthandofGodtilltheconsumptionoftheworld.Consumptionoccursalsowiththesamemeaningin
Is10:22(Heb.killyn).ButinLv26:16,Dt28:22itisusedofadiseaseofthebody.SeeMedicine.
CONTENTMENT.1.TheworddoesnotoccurintheOT,butthedutyisimpliedintheTenthCommandment(Ex20:17),andthe
wisdomofcontentmentisenforcedinPr15:17,17:1bytheconsiderationthatthosewhoseemmostenviablemay,beworseoffthan
ourselves.ButthebarecommandmentThoushaltnotcovetmayonlystirupallmannerofcoveting(Ro7:7f.)andthoughamanmay
sometimesbereconciledtohislotbyrecognizingaprincipleofcompensationinhumanlife,thatprincipleisfarfromapplyingtoeverycase.
Itisnotbymeasuringourselveswithoneanother,butonlybyconsciouslysettingourselvesintheDivinepresence,thattruecontentmentcan
everbeattained.FaithinGodisitslivingroot(cf.Ps16:6withv.5alsoHab3:17f.).
2.IntheNTthegraceofcontentmentisexpresslybroughtbeforeus.OurLordinculcateditnegativelybyHiswarningsagainst
covetousness(Lk12:1521),positivelybyHisteachingastotheFatherhoodofGod(Mt6:2532||)andtheKingdomofGod(v.33,cf.v.
19f.).St.Paul(Ph4:1113)claimstohavelearnedthesecretofbeingcontentinwhatsoeverstatehewas.Thewordheusesisautarks,lit.
selfsufficient.ItwasacharacteristicwordoftheStoicphilosophy,implyinganindependenceofeverythingoutsideofoneself.The
Apostlesselfsufficiencywasofaverydifferentkind(seev.13),foritrestedonthatgreatpromiseofChrist,Mygraceissufficient(arkei)for
thee(2Co12:9).ChristiancontentmentcomesnotfromaStoicnarrowingofourdesires,butfromthesenseofbeingfilledwiththerichesof
Christsgrace.ForotherNTutterancessee1Ti6:8,He13:5.

J.C.Lambert.
CONVENIENT.ThisEng.wordoftenhasinAVitsprimarymeaningofbefitting,asRo1:28Godgavethemovertoareprobatemind,
todothosethingswhicharenotconvenient(RVfitting).Sointhetrans.ofAgrippasVanArtes(1684)Shesanganddancdmore
exquisitelythanwasconvenientforanhonestwoman.
CONVERSATION.InEVthewordisalwaysusedinthearchaicsenseofbehaviour,conduct.IntheOT,AVgivesittwice(Ps
37:14,50:23),representingHeb.derek=way(cf.RVandRVm).IntheNTitisusedinAVtorenderthreesetsofwords.(1)Thenoun
anastroph=behaviour(Gal1:13,Eph4:22,1Ti4:12,He13:7,Ja3:13,1P1:15,18,2:12,3:1,2,16,2P2:7,3:11),RVsubstitutingin
eachcasemanneroflife,mannerofliving,life,living,orbehaviourthevb.anastrephesthai=tobehaveoneself(2Co1:12,Eph
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eachcasemanneroflife,mannerofliving,life,living,orbehaviourthevb.anastrephesthai=tobehaveoneself(2Co1:12,Eph
2:3).
(2)Thenounpoliteuma=citizenshiporcommonwealth(Ph3:20)thevb.
politeuesthai=toactasacitizen(Ph1:27).(3)tropos=manner,character,lit.turning(He13:5).Cf.RVandRVmthroughout.The
mainpointtonoticeisthatineverycaseconversationintheBiblerefersnottospeechmerely,buttoconduct.

J.C.Lambert.
CONVERSION.ThenounoccursonlyinAc15:3(epistroph),butinAVconvertisfoundseveraltimesbothinOT(Heb.shbh)and
NT(Gr.epistreph,streph)todenoteaspiritualturning,RVinmostcasessubstitutingturn.Turnistohepreferredbecause(1)inthe
Eng.ofAVconvertmeantnomorethanturn(2)conversionhascometobeemployedinasensethatoftengoesbeyondthemeaningof
theoriginals.RVhasfurthercorrectedAVbygivingact.turnforpass.beconvertedinMt13:15,18:3,Mk4:12,Lk22:32,Jn12:40,Ac
3:19,28:27,wheretheGr.vbs.arereflexiveinmeaning.InOTshbhisusedtodenoteaturning,whetherofthenation(Dt30:10,2K17:13
etc.)oroftheindividual(Ps51:13,Is55:7etc.).InNTepistreph,strephareusedesp.ofindividuals,butsometimesinasensethatfalls
shortofconversionastheconsciouschangeimpliedinbecomingaChristian.Mt18:3wasspokentotruedisciples,andtheconversion
demandedofthemwasarenunciationoftheirfoolishambitions(cf.v.1).Lk22:32wasaddressedtotheleaderoftheApostles,andhis
conversionwashisreturntohisMastersserviceafterhisfall.InActsandEpp.,however,convertorturnisemployedtodenote
conversioninthefullChristiansense(Ac3:19,9:35,11:21,14:15[cf.15:3conversion],2Co3:16,1Th1:9).Conversionasaspiritualfact
comesbeforeusrepeatedlyintheGospels(Lk7:47ff.,15:17ff.,19:8ff.,23:42,43)andinthehistoryoftheApostolicChurch(Ac2:41,47,
8:5,6,12,9:3ff.,16:30ff.etc.).RVbringsoutthefactthatintheNTconversion(asdistinguishedfromregeneration[wh.see])isanactivityof
thesoulitself,andnotanexperienceimposedfromabove.Thisviewofitsnatureisconfirmedwhenwefindrepentance(Ac3:19,26:20cf.
Ezk14:6,18:30)andfaith(Ac11:21cf.20:21)associatedwithitastheelementsthatmakeupthemoralactofturningfromsinandselfto
GodinChrist.
J.C.Lambert.
CONVINCE.Adams(Serm.ii.38)says:Whatsoeveriswritteniswritteneitherforourinstructionordestructiontoconvertusifwe
embraceit,toconvinceusifwedespiseit.ThisisthemeaningofconvinceintheAV.Itiswhatwenowexpressbyconvict.ThusJude15
toconvinceallthatareungodlyamongthemoftheirungodlydeeds.
COOKINGANDCOOKINGUTENSILS.SeeHouse,9.
COPPER.SeeBrass,andMiningandMetals.
COPPERSMITH(2Ti4:14).SeeAlexander,ArtsandCrafts,2.
COR.SeeWeightsandMeasures.
CORAL.SeeJewelsandPreciousStones.
CORASHAN(AVChorashan,1S30:30)isthepresentreadingofMT,buttheorig.textwasundoubtedlyBorashan.Theplacemaybe
thesameasAshanofJos15:42,19:7.
CORBAN.SeeSacrificeandOffering.
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CORBAN.SeeSacrificeandOffering.
CORD,ROPE.Hebrewpossessesaconsiderablenumberofwordsrendered,withoutanyattemptatuniformity,bycord,rope,anda
varietyofotherterms.ItisdifficultfortheEnglishreadertorecognizethesameoriginalinthePsalmistsbowstring(Ps11:2)andthegreen
withs(RVmnewbowstrings)withwhichSamsonwasboundoragaininthetentropesofIs33:20(EVcords)andtheshipstacklings
ofv.23.Theformersetwereprobablyofanimalsinewsorgut,thelatteroftwistedflax.Thestrongerropeswereofthreestrands(Ec4:12).
Nodoubtthefibresofthepalmand,asatthepresentday,goatshairwerespunintoropes.Theprocessofropemakingfromleatherthongsis
illustratedonanEgyptiantomb,thewreathenwork(lit.ropework)ofEx28:14(seeRV),where,however,goldwireisthematerialused.
Ec12:6speaksalsoofasilvercord,andJob41:2ofaropeofrushes(seeRVm).TheGr.wordforthecordsofourSavioursscourge(Jn
2:15)andtheropesofAc27:32alsodenotedoriginallysucharope.

Theeverydayuseofcordsforbindingevildoerssuggestedthemetaphorofthewickedmanholdenwiththecordsofhissin(Pr5:22),
whilefromthehunterssnarescomesthefigureofPs140:5alsothecordsofdeathofPs116:3RV.
A.R.S.Kennedy.
CORE.SeeKorah.
CORIANDERSEED(gad,Ex16:31,Nu11:7).AproductoftheCoriandrumsativum,acommoncultivatedplantallovertheEast.It
hasacarminativeactiononthestomach.Itisaglobularfruitabouttwicethesizeofahempseed.

E.W.G.Masterman.
CORINTHwasthecapitaloftheRomanprovinceAchaia,and,ineveryrespectexcepteducationally(seeAthens),themostimportantcity
inGreeceinRomantimes.ItwasalsoamostimportantstationontheroutebetweenE.andW.,thenextstationtoitontheE.beingEphesus,
withwhichitwasincloseandcontinualconnexion.ItssituationmadeitaleadingcentreofChristianity.Thecityoccupiedapowerfulposition
attheS.extremityofthenarrowisthmuswhichconnectedthemainlandofGreecewiththePeloponnese.Itscitadelrises1800feetabovesea
level,anditwasinadditiondefendedbyitshighwalls,whichnotonlysurroundedthecitybutalsoreachedtotheharbourLechum,onthe
W.(11/2milesaway).Theotherharbour,Cenchre,ontheE.,ontheSaronicGulf,wasabout81/2milesaway.Theviewfromthecitadelis
splendid.ThepovertyofthestonysoilandtheneighbourhoodoftwoquietseasmadetheCorinthiansamaritimepeople.Itwascustomaryto
haulshipsacrossfromtheoneseatotheotheronamadetrackcalledtheDiolkos.Thismethodatoncesavedtimeandprotectedthesailors
fromthedangersofavoyageroundCapeMalea(S.ofthePeloponnese).Largershipscouldnot,ofcourse,beconveyedinthisway,andin
theircasethegoodsmusthavebeenconveyedacrossandtranshippedattheotherharbour.Theplacewasalwayscrowdedwithtradersand
othertravellers,andwefindSt.PaulspeakingofGaiusofCorinthasmyhostandofthewholeChurch(Ro16:23).
ThecityhadbeendestroyedbytheRomansin146b.c.,butexactlyahundredyearsafterwardsitwasrefoundedbyJuliusCsarasa
colonia,underthenameLausJuliaCorinthus(seeColony).AnumberofRomannamesintheNTarefoundinconnexionwithCorinth
Crispus,TitiusJustus(Ac18:7,8),Lucius,Tertius,Gaius,Quartus(Ro16:2123),Fortunatus(1Co16:17).Thepopulationwouldconsistof
(1)descendantsoftheRomancolonistsof46b.c.,thelocalaristocracy(2)residentRomans,governmentofficialsandbusinessmen(3)a
largeGreekpopulation(4)otherresidentstrangers,ofwhomJewswouldformalargenumber(theirsynagogueAc18:4).Ofthesesome

joinedSt.Paul(Ac18:48,Ro16:21,1Co9:20),andthehatredagainsthiminconsequenceledtoaplotagainsthislife.Thechurch,
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joinedSt.Paul(Ac18:48,Ro16:21,1Co9:20),andthehatredagainsthiminconsequenceledtoaplotagainsthislife.Thechurch,
however,consistedchieflyofnonJews(see1Co12:2).

St.PauldidnotatfirstintendtomakeCorinthacentreofwork(Ac18:1),butaspecialrevelationalteredhisplans(Ac18:910),andhe
remainedthereatleast18months.TheoppositionhemetintheJewishsynagoguemadehimturntotheGentiles.St.Paulleftthebaptismof
hisconvertsalmostentirelytohissubordinates,andhimselfbaptizedonlyStephanas(1Co16:15),Gaius(Ro16:23),andCrispus,therulerof
thesynagogue(1Co1:1416).SomeweeksafterhisarrivalinCorinth,St.PaulwasjoinedbySilasandTimothy,returningfromMacedonia.
NewsbroughtbyTimothycausedhimtowritetheretheFirstEp.totheThess.(1Th3:6),andtheSecondwasprobablywrittentherealso,
immediatelyafterthereceiptofananswertotheFirst.WhileSt.PaulwasinCorinth,Galliocamethereasproconsulofthesecondgradeto
governAchaia,probablyinthesummeroftheyear52a.d.TheJewsbroughtanactionbeforehimagainstSt.Paul,butGallio,rightly
recognizingthathiscourtcouldtakenocognizanceofachargeofthesorttheybrought,dismissedtheaction.St.Paulspreachingwasthus
declaredtoheinnowayanoffenceagainstRomanlaw,andinfuturehereliedmoreonhisrelationtotheState,againsttheenmityofthe
Jews.AftertheexaminationGalliopermittedthepopulacetoshowtheirhatredtotheJews(Ac18:17).ItwasinCorinththatSt.Paulbecame
acquaintedwithPriscaandAquila(Ac18:2,3,18,26),andhelivedintheirhouseduringallhisstay.Theyworkedatthesameindustryas
himself,andnodoubtinfluencedhisplansforlaterwork.TheyalsoleftforEphesuswithhim.

ChristianitygrewfastinCorinth,buttheinevitabledissensionsoccurred.ApolloshadcrossedfromEphesustoCorinth(Ac18:27,2Co
3:1)anddonevaluableworkthere(Ac18:27,28,1Co1:12).Heunconsciouslyhelpedtobringaboutthisdissension,asdidalsoCephas,if
(butseenextart.3)hevisitedCorinth.Thesubjectofthesedissensionsis,however,moreappropriatelydealtwithunderthefollowingtwo
articles.TheApostlewroteatleastthreeletterstothechurch:thefirst,whichislost(1Co5:9)thesecond,whichwecallFirstCorinthians,
andwhichwasprobablycarriedbyTitus(TimothyalsovisitedCorinthattheinstanceofSt.Paul,1Co4:17)thethird,ourSecond
Corinthians,whichwastakenbyTitusandLuke(2Co8:1618,12:18).St.PaulspentthreemonthsinGreece,chieflynodoubtatCorinth,in
thewinterof5657.WhethertheCorinthiansactuallycontributedornottoSt.PaulscollectionforthepoorChristiansatJerusalemmust
remainuncertain(butseep.159b,2adfin.).

A.Souter.

CORINTHIANS,FIRSTEPISTLETOTHE

1.OccasionoftheEpistle.SomefourorfiveyearshadelapsedsinceSt.
PaulsfirstevangelizationofCorinthwhenheaddressedthepresentEpistletotheChristiansinthatgreatcentreofcommerce.Nodoubtthere
hadbeenfrequentcommunications,especiallyduringtheApostlesstayinAsia,forthejourneybetweenCorinthandEphesuswasaveryeasy
onebutthecommunicationswereprobablybyletteronly.Aformerepistleismentionedin1Co5:9,inwhichSt.Paulhadbiddenhis
disciplestohavenocompanywithfornicatorsadvicewhichwasnodoubtconsideredhardtoobeyinthemostviciousandpleasureloving
cityoftheworld,andwhichtosomeextentismodifiedinthepresentEpistle(5:10f.)andaletterfromtheCorinthianstoSt.Paulisthe
immediateobjectoftheApostleswritingonthepresentoccasion(7:1).Butbeforeansweringit,hereprovestheCorinthiansforcertainabuses
whichhehadheardoffromthe[household]ofChloe(1:11),namely,schismandpartyspirit,abadcaseofincest,andlitigiousnessforthey
ofChloeseemtohavebeenSt.Paulsinformantsonallthesematters.Chloewasperhapsawomanofimportancewhocarriedonatradein
Corinth,asLydiaofThyatiradidatPhilippi(Ac16:14).ShethereforenotimprobablybelongedtoAsiaMinorthereferencetoherseemsto
implythatshewasnotaCorinthian,andtheyofChloewouldbeheragentswhopassedtoandfrobetweenEphesusandCorinth.Having102/137
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implythatshewasnotaCorinthian,andtheyofChloewouldbeheragentswhopassedtoandfrobetweenEphesusandCorinth.Having
reprovedtheCorinthiansfortheseabuses,theApostleanswersthequestionsputintheirlettertohim,astomarriageandothersocial
questionsperhapsalsoastoChristianworship,thedoctrineoftheResurrection,andthecollectionforthepoorofJuda.Wemayconsider
thesetopicsinorder.

2.ThestateoftheCorinthianChurch.ItwillberememberedthatthemajorityoftheChristiansatCorinthwereGentiles,thoughthere
weresomeJewsamongthem(Ro16:21,1Co7:18,9:20,12:13),includingsuchinfluentialmenasCrispus(Ac18:8)and(probably)
Sosthenes(Ac18:17,1Co1:1).ItwastheheathenantecedentsoftheCorinthiansthatledtomostoftheevilsforwhichSt.Paulrebukesthem
(6:11,12:2).TheApostle,thoughhehadnotintendedtostaylonginCorinthwhenhefirstwentthere,desiringtoreturntoMacedonia(1Th
2:18),yet,whenhiswishwasfoundtobeimpracticable,threwhimselfwithallhisheartintothetaskofmakingheathenCorinth,thefamous
tradecentrewhichlayononeofthegreatestroutesofcommunicationintheEmpire,intoareligiouscentreforthespreadofthegospel(cf.Ac
18:5).ButthedifficultieswerenotthosewithwhichhehadmetinAthens,wherethephilosophicinhabitantsderidedhim.AtCorinththe
vicesofthecityhadloweredthetoneofpublicopinionandwhenSt.PaulpreachedChristcrucifiedwithallplainnessofspeech(1Co
1:17ff.),manyheardhimgladly,butretainedwiththeirnominalChristianitytheiroldheathenideasonmorals.Hepreachednolonger
wisdomtotheJewishlawyerortheGreeksophist(1:20),butsalvationtotheplainmantheGentileshadnosenseofsin,andthepreaching
ofapersonalSaviourwastothemfolly(1:23).Weneednotindeedsuppose,asSirW.Ramsay(ExpositorVI.[i.]98)pointsout,thatthe
passage1:26ff.describesCorinthianChristiansasdistinguishedfromthoseinotherplacesthedisciplesatCorinthwerenotmerelythedregs
ofsociety,separatedfromtherestofthepopulation,asthenegrofromthewhitemaninsomecountriestoday.Ramsaythinksthatthespecial
workoftheChurchwastoraisethethoughtfulandeducatedmiddleclasses.Itcertainlyincludedmenofmeans(11:20ff.).Still,theupper
classesandthelearnedwereeverywherelessattractedbyChristianitythanwerethepoor,withcertainconspicuousexceptions,suchasSt.
Paulhimself.
IthasbeendebatedhowfartheChurchwasorganizedatCorinthatthistime.TheministryisseldomreferredtointhesetwoEpistlesthe
bishopsanddeaconsofPh1:1arenotmentionedbutwereadofapostles,prophets,andteachers(12:28).Itwould,however,beunsafeto
concludethattherewasnotasettledlocalministryatCorinth.St.PaulhadcertainlyestablishedpresbytersineveryChurchonhisFirst
Journey(Ac14:23),andsoapparentlyinAsiaonhisSecond(20:17).InthisEpistletheregularministersareperhapsnotexplicitlymentioned,
becausetheyweretheverypersonswhoweremostresponsibleforthedisorders(Goudge,WestminsterCom.p.xxxvi),whileinch.12the
possessionofspiritualgiftsisthesubjectofdiscussion,andthementionoftheregularministrywouldnotbegermanetoit.Asettledorderof
clergyisimpliedin9:7,12,14.
3.PartySpiritatCorinth.ItismorecorrecttosaythattherewerepartiesintheChurchthanthattheCorinthianshadmadeschisms.
Weread,notofrivalorganizations,butoffactionsintheoneorganization.ItisnoteworthythatClementofRome(Cor.1,47),writingless
than50yearslater,referstothefactionsprevalentatCorinthinhistime.TheGreekswerefamousforfactionstheircitiescouldnever
combinetogetherforlong.InSt.PaulstimetherewasaPaulparty,andalsoanApollosparty,aCephasparty,andaChristparty(1:12),
thoughthewordsbutI[am]ofChristareinterpretedbyEstius(Com.ed.Sausen,ii.110)andmanyGreekandLatincommentators,andalso
perhapsbyClementofRome(seebelow,10),asbeingSt.Paulsownobservation:Youmakeparties,takingPaul,Apollos,Cephasas
leaders,butI,Paul,amnopartyman,IamChrists(cf.3:23).If,however,wetakethemoreusualinterpretationthattherewerefourparties,
wemayaskwhatlinesofthoughttheyseverallyrepresented.TheApollospartywouldprobablyconsistofthosewhodisparagedSt.Paulasnot
beingsufficientlyeloquentandphilosophical(cf.2:1,13,Ac18:24,2Co10:10,11:6).TheCephaspartywouldbethepartyofthe
circumcision,asinGalatia.AtCorinththegreatdisputeabouttheLawwasasyetinitsinfancyitseemstohavegrownwhen2Corinthians
waswritten(see7(c)below).TheChristparty,ithasbeenconjectured,wastheultralatitudinarianparty,whichcaricaturedSt.Pauls
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waswritten(see7(c)below).TheChristparty,ithasbeenconjectured,wastheultralatitudinarianparty,whichcaricaturedSt.Pauls
teachingaboutliberty(cf.Ro6:1)or(Alford)consistedofthosewhomadeameritofnotbeingattachedtoanyhumanteacher,andwho
thereforeslightedtheApostleshipofSt.Paul.AnotherviewisthattheChristpartyconsistedoftheJudaizersmentionedin2Co.andGal.as
denyingSt.PaulsApostleship(Goudge,p.xxi.:cf.2Co10:7whereSt.PaulsopponentsclaimtobepeculiarlyChrists)butitisnoteasyin
thatcasetodistinguishthemfromtheCephasparty.Thereisnosufficientreasonfordeducingfrom1Co1:12,9:5thatSt.Peterhadvisited
Corinth,andthatthispartyconsistedofhispersonaldisciples.St.Paul,then,reprovesalltheseparties,andmostemphaticallythosewho
calledthemselvesbyhisname.TheywereunitedbybaptismwithChrist,notwithhim(1:13).

4.MoralScandals(ch.5).AChristianhadmarriedhis(probablyheathen)stepmother.Perhapshisfatherhadbeenseparatedfromher
onhisbecomingaChristian,but(if2Co7:12referstothisincident)wasstillaliveandthesonthereuponmarriedher.TheCorinthian
Church,inthelowstateofpublicopinion,didnotcondemnthis,anddidnotevenmentionitintheirlettertoSt.Paul.St.Paulreprovesthem
fortoleratingsuchfornicationasisnotevenamongtheGentiles[thewordnamedoftheAVtexthasnosufficientauthority].Thereisa
difficultyhere,fortheheathentoleratedevenmoreincestuousconnexions,asbetweenamanandhishalfsister.Ramsay(Exp.VI.[i.]110)
supposestheApostletomeanthattheRomanlawforbadesuchmarriage.TheRomanlawofaffinitywasundoubtedlyverystrict,andCorinth,
asacolony,wouldbefamiliarwithRomanlawthoughthelawwasnotusuallyputinforce.TheJewsstronglydenouncedsuchconnexions
(Am2:7).TheApostlesaysnothingofthepunishmentoftheheathenstepmother(cf.1Co5:12),butthemanistobedelivereduntoSatan
(5:5,cf.1Ti1:20).
Thisphraseprobablymeanssimpleexcommunication,includingtherenouncingofallintercoursewiththeoffender(cf.5:13),though
manytakeittodenotetheinflictionofsomemiraculouspunishment,disease,ordeath,anddenythattheoffenderof2Co2and7isthe
incestuousCorinthianof1Co5.RamsayconjecturesthatthephraseisaChristianadaptationofapaganidea,thatapersonwrongedby
anotherbutunabletoretaliateshouldconsigntheoffendertothegodsandleavepunishmenttoheinflictedbyDivinepowerSatanwouldbe
lookedonasGodsinstrumentinpunishingtheoffenderandthelatter,beingcastoutoftheChristiancommunity,wouldbeleftasapreyto
thedevil.
5.LegalScandals.St.PaulrebukestheCorinthiansforlitigiousness,6:18.Thispassageisusuallyinterpretedassupersedingheathen
imperialtribunalsbyvoluntaryChristiancourtsforallcases,suchastheJewsoftenhad.Ramsay(Exp.VI.[i.]274)suggeststhattheApostle,
whousuallytreatsRomaninstitutionswithrespect,isnothereconsideringseriousquestionsofcrimeandfraudatall,noryetlawcourts
whetherheathenorChristian,butthosesmallermatterswhichGreekswereaccustomedtosubmittoarbitration.InRomantimes,asthis
proceduredeveloped,thearbitersbecamereallyjudgesofaninferiorcourt,recognizedbythelaw,andthemagistratesappointedthem.Inthis
viewSt.PaulreprovestheCorinthiansfortakingtheirumpiresfromamongtheheatheninsteadoffromamongtheirChristianbrethren.

6.QuestionsofMoralSinandofMarriage(6:127:40).Probablythepassage6:1220ispartoftheanswertotheCorinthianletter.
Thecorrespondenthadsaid,Allthingsarelawfulforme.Butallthings(theApostlereplies)arenotexpedient.Meatsareforthebelly,and
thebellyformeats(i.e.justasfoodisnaturaltothebody,soisimpurity).Butbotharetransitory,andthebodyasawholeisfortheLordin
virtueoftheResurrectionfornicationisaserioussin,foritdestroysthespiritualcharacterofthebody.Truemarriageisthemostperfect
symboloftherelationbetweenChristandtheChurch(6:15ff.cf.Eph5:23ff.).Inch.7theApostleanswerstheCorinthiansquestionsabout
marriage.Itisusuallythoughtthattheywishedtoextolasceticism,basingtheirviewonourLordswordsinMt19:11f.,thattheysuggested
thatcelibacywastobestronglyencouragedinall,andthattheApostle,thoughagreeingasanabstractprinciple,yet,becauseofimminent
persecutionandJesusimmediatereturn(7:26,29),repliedthatinmanycasescelibacywasundesirable.ButRamsaypointsoutthatsucha
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questionisunnaturaltobothJewsandGentilesofthattime.Thebetterheathentriedtoenforcemarriageasacureforimmoralitywhilethe
Jewslookedonitasanuniversalduty.Ramsaysupposes,therefore,thattheCorinthianswishedtomakemarriagecompulsory,andthatSt.
Paulpleadsforavoluntarycelibacy.AgainstthisitisurgedthattheEssenes(aJewishsect)upheldnonmarriage.Butitisdifficulttothink,in
viewof11:11andEph5:23ff.,thatSt.Paulheldthecelibatelifetobeessentiallythehigherone,andthemarriedlifeonlyamatterof
permission,aconcessiontoweakness.Afterpositivecommandsastodivorce(7:10ff.)theApostleanswersin7:25ff.anotherquestion:
whichwouldbeeither(seeabove)asuggestionthatfathersshouldhediscouragedfromfindinghusbandsfortheirdaughters,orthatthey
shouldbecompelledtodoso.Onthelattersupposition,St.Paulsaysthatthereisnoobligation,andthatthedaughtermaywellremain
unmarried.Thesubjectisconcludedwithadviceastowidowsremarriage.

7.SocialQuestions(8:111:1)

(a)Food.AnotherquestionwaswhetherChristiansmayeatmeatswhichhadpreviouslybeenofferedtoIdols,asmostofthemeatsoldin
Corinthwouldhavebeen.St.PaulsanswerisarunningcommentaryontheCorinthianswords(soLock,Exp.V.[vi.]65Ramsayagrees):
Weknowthatweallhaveknowledgewearenotboundbyabsurdceremonialrestrictions.Yes,butknowledgepuffethupwithoutloveand
humilityitisnothingbesidesnotallhaveknowledge.ThefalsegodsarereallynonexistentwehavebutoneGodasthereisnosuchthing
reallyasanidolwearefreetoeatmeatsofferedinidoltemples.Butthereareweakerbrethrenwhowouldbescandalized.Meatwillnot
commendustoGod:itisindifferent.Butdonotletyourlibertycauseotherstofall(notethechangeofpronouninv.8f.).
WhyisthedecreeofAc15:29notquoted?LocksuggeststhatitisbecauseatCorinththerewasnoquestionbetweenJewandGentile,but
onlybetweenGentileandGentile,andJewishopinionmightbeneglected.Ramsay(Exp.VI.[ii.]375)thinksthatthedecreeisnotmentioned
becauseitwastheverysubjectofdiscussion.TheCorinthianshadsaid(hesupposes):WhyshouldwebetieddownbytheCouncilsdecree
hereatCorinth,solongafter?Weknowbetterthantosupposethatanonexistentidolcantaintfood.St.Paulreplies,maintainingthespiritof
thedecree,thatoffencemustnotbegiventotheweakerbrethren(soHort).
(b)IdolFeasts(8:1013,10:1411:1).St.Paulabsolutelyforbidseatingatidolfeasts.ProbablymanyoftheCorinthianshadretained
theirconnexionwithpaganclubs.Thepaganfeastmeantabrotherhoodorspecialbondofunionbutthetwokindsofbrotherhoodwere
incompatible.AChristianwho,outofcomplaisance,attendsanidolfeast,isreallyenteringahostilebrotherhood.
(c)DigressiononForbearance(9:110:13).St.Paulsaysthathehabituallyconsiderstherightsofothersanddoesnotpresshisown
rightsasanApostletothefullheimpliesthattheCorinthiansshouldnotpresstheirlibertysoastoscandalizeothers.Thispassageshows
howlittleasyettheJudaizershadbeenatworkinCorinth.St.PaulannounceshispositionasanApostle,andtherightoftheChristian
ministertoliveofthegospel,buthewillnotusehisrightstothefull(9:18RV).Heteachesselfdenialandearnestnessfromtheexampleof
theIsthmiangames(9:24ff.),andshowsthattheIsraelites,inspiteofalltheirprivileges,fellfromlackofthisselfdiscipline.Itisnoteworthy
thathespeaksofourfathers(10:1).Perhaps,havingaddressedtheGentilesinparticularinch.9,henowturnstotheJewishsectionofthe
CorinthianChurchhereferstoaRabbinicallegendin10:4.OrhemayheconsideringthewholeChurchasbeingthespiritualdescendantsof
Israel.

8.ChristianWorship(11:214:40)

(a) VeilingofWomen.Inreply(asitseems)toanotherquestion,St.PaulsaysthatitistheChristiancustomformenprayingor
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(a)VeilingofWomen.Inreply(asitseems)toanotherquestion,St.PaulsaysthatitistheChristiancustomformenprayingor
prophesyingtohavetheirheadsuncovered,butforwomentohavetheirscovered.Thisapparentlytrivialmatterisaninstanceofthe
applicationofChristianprinciplestoChristianceremonial.TheJewsofbothsexesprayedwithheadcoveredandwithaveilbeforetheface
(cf.2Co3:14ff.)thereforeSt.PaulsinjunctiondoesnotfollowJewishcustom.Itisbasedonthesubordinationofthewomantotheman,and
isillustratedbytheexistenceofregulatedranksamongtheangelsforthisseemstobethemeaningof11:10.

(b)TheEucharist.TheCorinthiansjoinedtogetherinasocialmealsomewhatlatercalledanAgapeorLovefeastandtheEucharist,
probablyinimitationbothoftheLastSupperandoftheJewishandheathenmealstakenincommon.TothiscombinationthenameLords
Supper(hereonlyinNT)isgiven.Butthepartyspirit,alreadyspokenof,showeditselfinthiscustomtheCorinthiansdidnoteattheLords
supper,buttheirown,becauseoftheirfactions.St.PaulthereforegivesthenarrativeofourLordsInstitutionashehimselfhadreceivedit,
stronglycondemnsthosewhomakeanunworthycommunionasguiltyofthebodyandthebloodoftheLord,andinculcatespreparationby
selfprobation.
ItischieflythispassagethathasledsometothinkthatthewriteroftheEpistleisquotingtheSynopticGospels(seebelow,10)the
Lukanaccount,aswehaveitinourBibles,isverylikethePauline.Butthedeductionisveryimprobable.EvenifourLukantextisright,the
resultisonlywhatweshouldhaveexpected,thatthecompanionofSt.Paulhastakenhismastersformofthenarrative,whichhewould
doubtlesshavefrequentlyheardhimuseliturgically,andhasincorporateditinhisGospel.Asamatteroffact,however,itisnotimprobable
thattheLukanformwasreallymuchshorterthanthePauline,andthatsomeearlyscribehaslengthenedittomakeitfitinwith1Co11:23ff.
(WestcottHort,NTinGreek,ii.Append.p.64).
(c)SpiritualGifts(chs.1214).ThepublicmanifestationofthepresenceoftheSpiritknownasspeakingwithtongues(seeart.Tongues
[Giftof]),seemstohavebeenverycommonatCorinth.Afterthemagnificentdigressionofch.13,whichshowsthatofallspiritualgiftslove
isthegreatest,thatitaloneiseternal,thatwithoutitallothergiftsareuseless,St.Paulappliestheprinciplethatspiritualgiftsaremeanstoan
end,notanendinthemselvesandhethereforeupholdsprophecy(i.e.,inthisconnexion,theinterpretationofScriptureandofChristian
doctrine)assuperiortospeakingwithtongues,becauseitedifiesallpresent.Hesays,further,thatwomenaretokeepsilence(i.e.notto
prophesy?)inthepublicassemblies(14:34f.,cf.1Ti2:12).In11:5(Cf.Ac21:9)somewomenaresaidtohavehadthegiftofprophecyso
thatwemustunderstandthattheywereallowedtoexerciseitonlyamongwomen,orintheirownhouseholds.ButpossiblytheApostlehas
chieflyinhismindquestionsaskedbywomeninthepublicassemblies(cf.14:35).

9.TheResurrectionoftheBody(ch.15).This,theonlydoctrinalchapteroftheEpistle,containsalsotheearliestevidenceforour
Lordsresurrection.ApparentlytheGentileconvertsatCorinthfeltagreatdifficultyinacceptingthedoctrineoftheresurrectionofthebody
itappearedtothemtoomaterialadoctrinetohetrue(15:12,cf.2Ti2:18).St.PaulrepliesthatChristhasrisen,asmanystillalivecantestify,
andthatthereforethedeadwillrise.Forhistreatmentofthesubjectseeart.PaultheApostle,iii.10,TheCorinthianscepticismdoesnotseem
tohavediedoutattheendofthecentury,forClementofRome,writingtoCorinth,stronglyemphasizesthedoctrine(Cor.24f.).

St.PaulconcludestheEpistlewithdirectionsabouttheregularcollectingofalmsforthepoorChristiansofJuda,andwithpersonal
noticesandsalutations.
10.DateandgenuinenessoftheEpistle.ItisreferredtoasSt.PaulsbyClementofRome,c.a.d.95(Cor.47),whospeaksofthe
partiesofPaul,Cephas,andApollos,butomitstheChristparty(seeabove3)wecannotinferfromhisphrasetheEpistleoftheblessed
PaulthatheknewonlyoneEpistletotheCorinthians,asearlyusageshows(Lightfoot,Clement,ii.143).Thereareotherclearallusionsin 106/137
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PaulthatheknewonlyoneEpistletotheCorinthians,asearlyusageshows(Lightfoot,Clement,ii.143).Thereareotherclearallusionsin
Clement.Ignatius(Eph.18f.)refersto1Co1:20,23f.,4:13andprobably2:6Polycarp(11)quotes1Co6:2asPaulsreferencesarefound
intheMartyrdomofPolycarp,inJustinMartyr,andintheEpistletoDiognetuswhileIrenus,ClementofAlexandria,andTertullianatthe
endofthe2ndcent.quotetheEpistlefully.Ofthe2ndcent.hereticstheOphitesandBasilidescertainlyknewit.Internalevidencefullyhears
outtheexternalnoEpistleshowsmoreclearlythemarkoforiginalityandtheundesignedcoincidencesbetweenitandActs,whichPaley
drawsout,pointinthesamedirection.ItisinfactoneofthefourgenerallyacceptedEpistlesofSt.Paul.Seeart.PaultheApostle,i.2,for
thegeneralargumentsadducedagainsttheirgenuineness.AgainstthatofourEpistleinparticularithasbeenallegedthatitisdependenton
Romansthus,4:6(thethingswhicharewritten)issaidtobeaquotationofRo12:3,surelyamostfancifulideaandontheSynoptic
Gospels,especiallyintwoparticulars,theaccountoftheLastSupper(see8(b)above),andthatoftheResurrectionappearancesofourLord
(15:4ff.).Therealproblemofthelatterpassage,however(asGoudgeremarks,p.xxvii.),isnottoaccountfortheextenttowhichitruns
parallelwiththeGospels,buttoexplainwhyitdoesnotrunmorenearlyparallelwiththem.Fewwillheconvincedbyacriticismwhich
practicallyassumesthataChristianwriterofthe1stcent.couldonlyknowthefactsofourLordsearthlylifefromourGospels.Wemaythen
takethegenuinenessoftheEpistleasbeingunassailable.

Ifso,whatisitsdate?RelativelytotherestofthePaulinechronology,itmayheapproximatelyfixed.IntheyearofhisarrestatJerusalem,
St.PaulleftCorinthintheearlyspring,afterspendingthreemonthsthere(Ac20:3,6).Hemustthereforehavearrivedthereinlateautumnor
earlywinter.ThisseemstohavebeenthevisittoCorinthpromisedin2Co13:1,whichwasthethirdvisit.Twovisitsinallmusthave
thereforepreceded2Cor.(somethinkalso1Cor.),andinanycaseanintervalofsomemonthsbetweenthetwoEpistlesmustbeallowedfor.
In1Co16:6theApostlehadannouncedhisintentionofwinteringinCorinth,anditispossiblethatthevisitofAc20:3isthefulfilmentofthis
intention,thoughSt.Paulcertainlydidnotcarryoutallhisplansatthistime(2Co1:15f.,23).Ifso,1Cor.wouldhavebeenwrittenfrom
EphesusinthespringoftheyearbeforeSt.PaulsarrestatJerusalem.
Thisdateisfavouredbytheallusionof5:7f.,whichsuggeststomanycommentatorsthattheEasterfestivalwasbeing,orabouttohe,
celebratedwhenSt.Paulwrote.Itisalittledoubtful,however,whethertheGentilechurcheskepttheannualaswellastheweeklyfeastofthe
Resurrectionatthisearlydateseeart.Calendar,TheChristian,inHastingsDCGi.256.
Ramsay(St.PaultheTrav.p.275)thinksthatwemustdateourEpistlesomesixmonthsearlier,inthesecondautumnbeforeSt.Pauls
arrest.Theeventsalludedtoin2Cor.requirealongintervalbetweentheEpistles.Moreover,theCorinthianshadbegunthecollectionforthe
poorJewsayearagowhenSt.Paulwrote2Cor.(8:10,9:2),anditseems,therefore,thatatleastayearmusthaveelapsedsincethe
injunctionof1Co16:1.Itissuggested,however,thatweshouldrathertranslatethephraselastyear,andthattoonewhousedthe
Macedoniancalendar,andwhowroteintheautumn,lastspringwouldalsobelastyear,forthenewyearbeganinSeptember.Onthe
whole,however,theargumentabouttheEasterfestivalseemstobeprecarious,andtheconditionsareprobablybettersatisfiedifalonger
intervalbeallowed,andtheFirstEpistleputabout18monthsbeforeSt.Paulsarrest.Theabsolute,asopposedtotherelative,datewill
dependonourviewoftherivalschemesgiveninart.ChronologyoftheNT,iii.

A.J.Maclean.
CORINTHIANS,SECONDEPISTLETO

1. CircumstancesoftheEpistle.ThecircumstancesofthisEpistlearemoredifficulttodiscoverthanthoseofanyotherofSt.Pauls 107/137
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1.CircumstancesoftheEpistle.ThecircumstancesofthisEpistlearemoredifficulttodiscoverthanthoseofanyotherofSt.Pauls
Epistles.Thehistoricalsituationhasbeenwelldescribedasatracklessforest,andasaconsequencetheviewsofwritersareveryvaried.We
maybeststartbynoticingthattheEpistlewasclearlywrittenwhentheApostlewasburdenedbysomegreatanxiety,perhapsphysical,but
assuredlyspiritual(11:28).Thisanxietyseemstohavebeenconnectedwithatleastthreethings:(a)amissionofTitus(b)aletterSt.Paulhad
writtentoCorinth,eitherour1Cor.,oranEpistlenowlost(7:8)(c)thetreatmentofsomeoffenderatCorinth,eithertheguiltyoneof1Co
5:1,orsomeresoluteopponentofSt.Paulsauthority.In13:1wereadofaprojectedthirdvisit(forsuchseemsthemostnaturalinterpretation
ofthewords),andthispresupposesasecondvisitofwhichwehavenorecord.Fourquestionsthenneedtobeanswered.(1)WhyTitus
missionshouldhavecausedanxiety?(2)WhatwastheletterthatledtoSt.Paulsconcernastoitseffect?(3)Whowastheoffenderreferred
to?(4)Whendidthesecondvisittakeplace?

2.St.PaulandCorinth.TheChurchwasfoundedin53or54ontheSecondMissionaryJourney(Ac18:1).St.Paulremainedtheretwo
years.Afterleaving,hekeptupcommunications(2Co12:17),thoughitwasonlyatEphesusontheThirdMissionaryJourneyin56(Ac19:1)
thathecouldresumepersonalintercourse.Whilethere,heheardoftheterribleimmorality,andwroteashortletter(1Co5:9),orderingthem
tohavenointercoursewithfornicators.Thisletter,nowlost,maybereferredtoin2Co1:18andifso,itmayhavecontainedastatementthat
hewouldcometoCorinthbeforegoingtoMacedonia.Thisproject,however,wasaltered(1Co16:5).Aboutthesametime(a.d.56)he
possiblypaidasecondvisitfrom
EphesustoCorinth,whichcausedhimgreatpainandgrief(2Co2:1,12:14,21,
13:1).Theninthespringof57hewrote1Cor.,andonthestrengthofhis
Apostolicauthorityorderedthepunishmentoftheincestuousperson(1Co5:15).AtthesametimehesentTimothyonamission(1Co4:17,
16:10)tosupportandsupplementhisletter.ItispossiblethatTimothyreturnedwiththesadnewsthattheChurchrefusedtocarryoutSt.
Paulsorders,orpossiblythattherewasagrowingoppositiontohisauthorityundersomeJudaizingringleader.Thenfollowedthemissionof
Titus,carryingwithhimaletter,our1Cor.,oranothernowlost(2Co2:3,7:8),inwhichSt.PaulinsistedonChurchdiscipline.Paulleaves
Ephesusowingtoriot(Ac19),expectstoseeTitusinTroas,butdoesnotmeethimuntiltheyreachMacedoniainthesummerorautumnof57
(2Co2:12,13).ThenewsTitusbroughtfromCorinthismixed.ThemajorityoftheChurchhadobeyedhisordersandpunishedtheoffender
(2Co2:611),buttheJudaizershadgrownstrongerinoppositiontotheApostle,charginghimwithinconsistency,falseApostleship,boasting,
andmoneymaking.TheywerealsoprobablyendeavouringtothwarthiscollectionsforJerusalem(1Co16:1,2Co8:9).Notleastofallwas
thestillexistingdangerforGentileconvertsofrelapsingintoheathenworshipandimpurity(2Co6:14,7:1,12:1921).Asaresultofthis
news,St.Paulwritesour2Cor.,inwhich(1)heexpressesgreatsatisfactionatthegoodnewsofdisciplineexercisedagainstevildoers,(2)
justifiesthecollectionforJerusalem,and(3)vindicateshisApostolicauthority.Thenfollowedavisit(thethird)toCorinth,andastayof
threemonths(Ac20:3).
Themostuncertainpointistheplaceofthesecondvisit.Asabovestated,itisthoughtbysometohavetakenplacebeforeour1Cor.was
written,thoughotherssuggestitshouldcomesoonafterTimothysmissionandasaresultofhisfailure.Onthisview,however,itisdifficult,
ifnotimpossible,toaccountforTitusmission.Itisalsourged(RobertsoninHastingsDB)thataplaceforthesecondvisitcannotbefound
anteriortoour1Cor.,anditmustthereforeberemovedaltogetherfromthesphereandcircumstancesofourtwoEpistles.Itisalsouncertain
whethertheoffenderistheoneof1Cor.,asseemsmoreprobable,orsomeentirelydifferentpersonwhowasavirulentopponentofSt.Pauls
Apostolicauthority.Godetmakesoutastrongandalmostconvincingcaseforadifferentsetofcircumstancesin2Cor.fromthosein1
Corinthians.ThereisequaluncertaintyastotheletteraboutwhichSt.PaulwasanxiousMostprobablyitisonenowlost,andnotour1
Corinthians.Denney(Expos.Bible)considerstheconnexionbetween1and2Cor.socloseastoneednohypothesesofadditionalEpistles
nowlost.Hewouldexplain2Cor.entirelyoutof1Corinthians.Bernardfavoursthisview(soformerlyPlummer).Ontheotherhand,Godet
placesthesecondvisitbetweenour1and2Cor.,whichvisitisthoughttobethepainfulandrecentonein2Co1:8f.,23.Thefollowing,
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placesthesecondvisitbetweenour1and2Cor.,whichvisitisthoughttobethepainfulandrecentonein2Co1:8f.,23.Thefollowing,
modifiedfromRobertson(HastingsDBi.495),isperhapsthebestschemeofevents:(1)FoundationofChurchatCorinth(Ac18:15).(2)
ApollosatCorinth(Ac19:1,1Co1:12).(3)St.PaulatEphesus(Ac19:1).[ThesecondvisittoCorinthifbeforeour1Cor.](4)Lostletterof
1Co5:9(perhapsannouncingtheplanof2Co1:16).(5)SomewouldputsecondvisittoCorinthhere.(6)VisitofStephanasandothersfrom
CorinthtoSt.PaulatEphesus(1Co16:17,18),askingforadviceoncertainmatters(1Co7:1,8:1).(7)1Cor.sentbyTitusandthebrother
(2Co12:18).(8)St.PauldeterminestopayadoublevisittoCorinth(2Co1:15).(9)PainfulnewsfromCorinththroughTitusleadstoa
changeofplan.(10)Aseverelettersent.(11)TitussenttoCorinth(2Co7:715),with,onthewhole,favourableresults.(12)Titusreturns
andmeetsSt.PaulinMacedonia.(13)TitussenttoCorinthwith2Corinthians.(14)St.PaulsvisittoCorinthandthreemonthsstay(Ac
20:3).
Itisinterestingtonotethehappyresultsofthisletter.NotonlydidtheApostlegoagaintoCorinth,butactuallywinteredthere.Stillmore,
itwasduringthesethreemonthsthathewrotehisgreatEpistletotheRomans,thequiettoneandmassivestrengthofwhichbearwitnessto
therestfulnessoftheApostlesmindandheart,aswellastothecompletevictoryovertheJudaizers.Notleastofall,hisfavouriteprojectthe
collectionforJerusalemwasbroughttoasuccessfulcompletion,andtheChurchofCorinthhadsomeofitsmembersincludedinthe
delegationtoJerusalem(Ac20:4).HisvigorousEpistlewasthereforenotinvain,andCorinthandthewholeChurchhavebeenthegainersby
itintheoverrulingprovidenceofGod.
3.Date.1Cor.waswritteninthespringof57,and2Cor.probablyinthesameyear,thoughitisimpossibletosaydefinitelywhatwas
theexactintervalbetweenthem.TheallengrossingtopicofthecollectionforJerusalem(chs.8and9)indicatesthedateasduringthetimeof
theThirdMissionaryJourney.St.PaulhadleftAsia(1:8),andhadpassedthroughTroas(2:12),andwasinMacedonia(2:13,9:2).FromAc
20:3weknowthathewinteredatCorinth,andso2Cor.fitsinexactlywithAc20:2.Waite(SpeakersCom.)thereforesuggestsOctober57
andnotearlier.ThiswouldsuitthecircumstancesofTimothysandTitusvisits,andaccountforthegreatchangeatCorinthtowardsSt.Paul.
GodetwouldputjustoverayearbetweenthetwoEpistles,arguingthatsuchachangeofcircumstancesandtonecouldnothavearisenwithin
afewmonths.

4.Integrity.Thereisnogroundforsupposingthattheletterisnotnowinitsoriginalform.Recentattemptstoseparateitintotwo
lettersandtoidentifyoneofthem(chs.1013)withthesupposedlostpainfulEpistle,arenotonlynotconvincingintheirarguments,butalso
havethegreatweightoftextualcriticismandChurchtraditionagainstthem.Itisimpossibletosupposethatalltraceofsuchtextualchanges
couldhavebeenentirelyremoved.Ourauthoritiesforthetextareearlyenoughtomakeusquestionthepossibilityofasufficienttimeelapsing
forsoseriousamodificationoftheoriginaltext.Thesubjectmatterentirelyagreeswiththesituationdescribedabove.Thestrongfeelings
underwhichtheEpistlewaswritten,andtheconflictingemotionswhichswayedtheApostle,amplyaccountforitsruggednessand
abruptness.

5.Character.NotevenGalatiansgivessofullarevelationoftheApostlesmindandsoulasdoes2Corinthians.Ithasbeenrightly
calledPaulsApologia,andas1Cor.isthefirstchapterofEcclesiasticalHistory,so2Cor.isthefirstchapterofEcclesiasticalBiography.It
revealsthepersonalcharacterofthegreatApostleoftheGentilesinitstwofoldaspectoftendernessandstrength,gentlenessandseverity,
meeknessandindignation.InquestioninghisApostolicauthority,theJudaizerswerereallyquestioningthegospelhepreached,andindirectly
theMasterhelovedandserved.Wearenotsurprised,therefore,tonoticethevehemenceofhisvindicationandthetorrentofironyand
denunciationwithwhichheoverwhelmshisopponents.Hereasnowhereelseweseethemanhewas,sternyettender,withawillofsteeland
yetaheartofwax.Theironhandandthevelvetglovearecombinedinnocommondegree.Hisspiritualexperiencesarealsobroughtouthere
asnowhereelsehisvisions(12:1),histhorn(v.7),hisconflicts(2:10,12:7),hisphysicalweakness(4:7),hisconstantsufferings(11:2327),
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asnowhereelsehisvisions(12:1),histhorn(v.7),hisconflicts(2:10,12:7),hisphysicalweakness(4:7),hisconstantsufferings(11:2327),
WeseesomethingofwhathehadtoendurefromhisunscrupulousJudaizingfoesintheirremarksabouthispersonalappearance(10:10),his
fickleness(1:17),hispretendedApostleshipandJewishbirth(11:22),andhisdoubtful,ifnotdishonest,motivesaboutthecollection(6:3).But
ifweseewhatheendured,weseealsowhatheenjoyedinunionwithhisMaster.Wehavenotafewindicationsofhispersonalrelationto
ChristandhisonenesswithhisMasterinsuffering(1:5,4:10),fellowship(12:8,9),andthehopeofglory(5:1).Thekeynoteofchs.19is
comfortintribulation,andofchs.1013boastinginweakness.TheEpistleisthusnoteworthyforitsremarkablerevelationoftheinnerlife
oftheApostleashefacedhisenemies,pleadedwithhisfriends,boretheburdenofthecareofalltheChurches,andlivedinfellowshipand
communionwithHisunseenLordandMaster.

ThedoctrinalelementoftheEpistleisnecessarilynotprominent,butthefoundationsofthecharacteristicPaulinepositionareboth
assumedandseen.Thecomparisonbetweenthetwodispensations(ch.3),theteachingaboutChristsdeath(5:1421),theeschatology(4:16
5:8),theChristology(8:19),andtheTrinitarianexpressionoftheconcludingBenediction(13:14),areamongtheleadingApostolicthoughts.
6.Authenticity.TherearebutslighttracesoftheEpistleinthewritersofthe2ndand3rdcenturies,thoughthisisnottobewondered
at,becauseofitspersonalratherthandoctrinalcharacter.TheevidenceforthetextoftheEpistleis,ofcourse,practicallyonthesamebasisas
thatof1Corinthians.Therealproofsofauthenticityareinternal,andarefoundinthecharacteroftheEpistle.ItistoomanifestlyPaulinein
itsintenselyindividualcharactertobeotherthangenuine,andhenceithaslongbeenoneofthefourundisputedEpistlesofPaul.

7.Analysis.ThepersonalandemotionalnatureofthecontentsmakesanalysisfarlesseasythanthatofEpistleswhichwerewritten
underverydifferent,becausequieter,circumstances.PerhapswemaybestunderstandandmasterthecontentsoftheEpistleif,generally
followingGodet,weanalyzeitunderitsthreemainsections.Theirconnexionismainlychronological:1:127:16dealingwiththepastin
relationtohimselfandCorinth,8:19:15dealingwithaspecialandimportantmatterofpresentduty,and10:113:10takingupaquestionthat
affectedtheentirefutureofhisrelationstothemandthewholeChurch.

(1)PersonalIntroduction,1:111.

(2)1:127:16.HimselfandhisministrywithspecialreferencetoCorinth.ThePast.

(a)1:122:11.Explanationofhischangeofplans.

(b)2:127:3.AfterpersonalreferenceshepassestodiscusstheChristianministry.

i.Itspower,2:144:6.

ii.Itstribulationsandhopes,4:75:10.

iii.Itsobjectandsource,5:1121.iv.Itsfulfilmentbyhimself,6:17:3.

(c)7:416.ThereturnofTitusanditsgladresults.
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(c)7:416.ThereturnofTitusanditsgladresults.
(3)8:19:15.HiseffortsonbehalfofthepoorsaintsinJerusalem.ThePresent.

(a)8:15.TheexampleofMacedonia.(b)8:69:5.ThenewmissionofTitus.

(c)9:615.TheCorinthianChurchencouragedtogive.

(4)10:113:10HisapproachingvisittoCorinth,andtheconsequentneedofapersonalvindicationinthefaceofenemies.TheFuture.

(a)10:118.HisclaimtoApostolicauthority.
(b)11:112:18.HisclaimtosuperiorityofApostleship.

(c)12:1913:10.Hiscontemplatedvisitandmodeofprocedure.

(5)Personalconclusion,13:1113.

[NoteThechronologytgivenabovefollowsLightfoot.AccordingtoTurner
(HastingsDB,art.ChronologyoftheNT)thedateswouldallbetwoyears
earlier.]

W.H.GriffithThomas.
CORMORANT(Lv11:17,Dt14:17,shlk).Theshlk,asthemeaningofthewordimplies,wassomekindofplungingbird.Two
varietiesofcormorant,PhalacrocoraxcarboandP.pygmus,occurinPalestinebothontheseacoastsandoninlandwaters,e.g.theDead
Sea.Itwasanuncleanbird.SeealsoPelican.

E.W.G.Masterman.
CORN.Thistermmaybetakentoinclude(1)Barley,(2)Wheat,(3)
Fitches,(4)Lentils,(5)Beans,(6)Millet,(7)Rye,wrongtranslationforVetches,(8)Pulseformostofwhichseeseparatearticles.Ryeand
oatsarenotcultivatedinPalestine.

E.W.G.Masterman.
CORNELIUS.Aproselyteofthegateordevoutman(Ac10:1,seeart.ActsoftheApostles,6),whosebaptismwasastepforward
towardsadmittingtheGentilesintotheChurch.HewasaRomancenturionoftheItaliccohort(seeart.Band).Aninscriptionrecently
discoverednearViennashowsthatanItaliccohortwasstationedinSyriac.a.d.69,andthismakesSt.Lukesstatement(oncesaidtobean
anachronism)quiteprobable.IfthepresenceofsuchanofficerinCsareawasnotpossibleduringthesemiindependentruleofAgrippa(a.d.
4144),wemustdatetheepisodebeforethatbutwecannotassertsuchanimpossibility.
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A.J.Maclean.
CORNER,CORNERSTONE.1.ThespecialsanctitywhichintheHebrewmindattachedtocornersistoberegardedasaninheritance
fromcertainprimitiveandwidelyspreadanimisticconceptions.Severaloftheseweretakenupand,sotosay,regularizedinthelater
legislation(cf.theremarksonAzazelunderAtonement[Dayof]).Exampleswillbefoundintheideasassociatedwiththecornersofthealtar
(Zec9:15),usuallytermedthehorns(Altar,7),theunreapedcornersofthefield(Lv19:9Agriculture,3),thecornersofthebeardand
headhair(v.27)andoftheuppergarmentorcloak(Fringes).

2.Anotherillustrationisfoundintheimportanceattachedamongmanypeoplestothecornerstoneinthefoundationcourseofevery
importantbuilding,whichwaslaidwithreligiousrites,including,inearlytimes,theburialbeneathitofahumanvictim(seeHouse,3).The
correctedtextofIs28:16speaksofapreciousfoundationcornerstone,whichisneitherZion(asusuallyinterpreted),northefutureMessiah,
butacalmtrustinJhencetheprophetaddshethattrustsshallnotbemovedorputtoshame(LXX,cf.1P2:6andKittel,Bib.Heb.).Jer
51:26andJob38:6bothassociatethecornerstonewiththefoundations.HencethefigurativeuseofthewordforthechiefmenoftheState,as
itscorners,i.e.supportsanddefences(Jg20:2,1S14:38[cf.marg.],Is19:13RV,Zec10:4).Ontheotherhand,thestoneofPs118:22which
becametheheadofthecorner(RV)thereferenceistoZionisunderstoodbymanytobethecornerstoneofthetopmostcourse.(cf.the
headstoneofZec4:7,whichisdifferentfromthefoundationofv.9).InNTthispassageandIs28:16receiveaMessianicapplication,Jesus
ChristbeingboththefoundationandtheheadofHisChurch(Mt21:42||,Ac4:11,1P2:6f.).

A.R.S.Kennedy.
CORNET.SeeMusicandMusicalInstruments.
CORRUPTION.Jewishanthropologyconceivedofmanascomposedoftwoelements,thephysicalbodyandthesoul.Atdeaththesoul
wenttoSheol,andthebodydecayed.Thetermcorruptioncame,therefore,tostandforthephysicalaspectsofthatstatewhichfollowed
deathandprecededtheresurrection.InthissenseitisusedinAc2:27,31,13:3437,1Co15:42,50cf.also1Co15:5354.Thereisno
evidencethatithadamoralforce,althoughsomehavefoundsuchanimplicationinGal6:8,wherethereferenceisrathertoabeliefthatthe
wickedwillnotshareinthegloriesoftheresurrection.Neitherisitatermtoindicateannihilation,whichideadoesnotseemtohavebeenheld
bythePalestinianJews.JesusthroughHisresurrectionisrepresented(2Ti1:10)ashavingbroughtlifeandincorruptiontolight.The
resurrectionasapartofsalvationisthusplacedinsharpestcontrastwiththeconditionofthepersonalityfollowingphysicaldeath,since,asSt.
Paulsays(2Co5:1f.),foramanwhoissaved,thedecompositionofthephysicalbodyisbutanoccasionfortheassumptionofan
incorruptibleheavenlybody.

ShailerMathews.
COS.AnislandoffthecoastofCaria,S.W.ofAsiaMinor,famousforitsfertilityandbeauty.ItwasaDoriancolony,andagreatseatof
theworshipofsculapiusandofthestudyofmedicine.Itspositionmadeitalsoanimportantplacefromatradepointofview,asitlayonthe
crosslinesoftrafficbetweenGreece,AsiaMinor,Syria,andEgypt.ItisuncertainwhetherCos,whichhadbeenafaithfulallyoftheRomans,
wasincorporatedintheprovinceofAsiainb.c.139(seeCaria),butitcertainlywasapartofitinthetimeofAugustus.Itstradeconnexion
madeitoneoftheJewishcentresofthegan.TheJewstherewerefavouredbytheRomansinb.c.139138(1Mac15:23).Itwasaplace
ontherouteoftheJewishpilgrimstoJerusalem(cf.Ac21:1).HerodtheGreatwasabenefactorofthepeopleofCos.

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A.Souter.
COSAM.AnancestorofJesus(Lk3:28).
COSMOGONY.SeeCreation.
COSSANS.AnameadaptedfromtheGreekformofBab.Kassh,asemibarbarouspeopleinhabitingthemountainregionbetween
ElamandMediaproper.
TheyanswertoCush(wh.see)inGn10:8(and2:13?)asdistinguishedfromtheAfricanCush.Theywereapowerfulpeoplebetweenthe18th
andthe12thcenturiesb.c.,duringwhichtimeBabyloniawasruledbyaCossandynasty.
J.F.McCurdy.
COTTONisthebettertr.(soRVm)ofkarpas,whichinAVandRVistr.green,Est1:6.Itwaseithermuslinorcalico.

E.W.G.Masterman.
COUCH.SeeHouse,8.TheverbtocouchoccursinDt33:13thedeepthatcouchethbeneath.Thewordmeanssimplytoliedown,
butitisusedalmostexclusivelyofanimals,asistheHeb.wordalso.Thesubterraneandeep,saysDriver,isperhapspicturedasagigantic
monster.
COULTER.Only1S13:20f.forthewordelsewhererenderedplowshare,andsoitshouldbehere,astheHebrewplough,likeits
Syrianrepresentativetoday,hadnocoulter.SeeAgriculture,1.
COUNCIL.SeeSanhedrin.FortheCouncilofAc15,Gal2,seePaul,Galatians[Ep.to],3.
COUNSELLOR.ThisisthespellinginmoderneditionsoftheAV.Intheed.of1611itiscounseller,exceptinEzr8:25,Pr12:20,
15:22,wherethespellingiscounsellour.Thewordisusedmostlyofakingscounsellor,ormoregenerallyofonewhogivescounsel.Butin
Dn3:2,3itmeansajusticeandinMk15:43,Lk23:50,itisusedofJosephofArimathaasamemberoftheSanhedrin.InDn3:24,27,
4:36,6:7thepeculiarwordrenderedcounsellorinAVishesitatinglytranslatedbyDriverministerRVretainscounsellor.
COUNTERVAIL.Tocountervail(Est7:4,Sir6:15)istomakeupfor,giveanequivalent,asinMoresUtopia:Allthegoodesinthe
worldearenotliabletocountervaylemanslife.
COURAGE.InDn11:25courageistherenderingoftheHeb.wordfor
heartinAm2:16courageousisliterallystoutestofheart.ElsewhereintheOTtherootideasofthewordsgenerallyusedaretobefirm
(mts)andtobestrong(chzaq).Courage,beingaqualityofmind,hasmanifoldmanifestations,as,e.g.inthesufferersendurance,the
reformersboldness,andthesaintswrestling(Eph6:12),aswellasinthesoldiersvalour.ProfessorSorleysaysthatmoralcourageisthe
controlofthefearofsocialevils(disgraceorridiculefromthosewhodeterminetheopinionofthecommunity),whereastheordinary
applicationofcourageistothefearofphysicalevils(Baldwin,Dict.ofPhilosophy,i.239).
IntheNTtheGr.nounforcourageisfoundonlyinAc28:15.ThecorrespondingverbisrendereduniformlyintheRVbeofgood
cheerbutalaterformofthesameverboccurssixtimes,andistr.inRVbeofgoodcourage.Thecomparativerarityofthewordcourage
impliesnodisparagementofthevirtue,forexhortationstobestrong,andtofearnotarefrequent.T.H.Green,comparingGreekand
Christianidealsofvirtue(ProlegomenatoEthics,p.277ff.),showshowgreatlytheconceptionofmoralheroismhasbeenwidened.Courage
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Christianidealsofvirtue(ProlegomenatoEthics,p.277ff.),showshowgreatlytheconceptionofmoralheroismhasbeenwidened.Courage
orfortitudeisdefinedasthewilltoendureevenuntodeathforaworthyendthereforetheChristianmaybecourageousinobscurelabours
ofloveaswellasinthesplendidheroismatwhichaworldmightwonder.

J.G.Tasker.
COURSE.SeePriestsandLevites,III2(b).
COURT.SeeHouse,2JusticeTabernacleTemple.
COUSIN.ElisabethiscalledMaryscousininLk1:36,andtherelationshipisoftenunderstoodinthemodernsenseofthatword.But
cousinintheEnglishof1611meantnomorethankinsmanorkinswoman.TherelationshipbetweenMaryandElisabethisnotknown.
COVENANT.ThetermisoffrequentoccurrenceintheBible,andisusedinthegeneralsenseofacompactoragreementbetween
parties,andalsointhemoretechnicalandlegalsenseofanarrangemententeredintobyGod,andconfirmedorsealedwiththedue
formalities.TheHebrewword(berth)hasasimilarlywidesignificationwhilsttheGreek(diathk)isusedalikeintheclassicsandonthe
papyriinthefurthersenseoftestamentorwill,thoughAristophanes(Av.439)isagoodwitnessforthemeaningofmutualagreement.The
renderingtestamentisretainedbytheRVintwoplacesonly(He9:16,17cf.marginofGal3:15),andisperpetuatedinthetitlesgivento
thetwomainpartsoftheBible(seeTestament).

Asfortheformalitiesinconcludingacovenant,theprimitivewayseemstohavebeenforthetwopartiestoswalloweachadropofthe
othersblood,thusbecomingcovenantbrothers.Thisactualminglingofbloodsoonbecamedistasteful,andsubstituteswerefound,suchas
thecuttingofsacrificialanimalsintotwoparts,betweenwhichthecontractingpartiespassed(Gn15:10,17,Jer34:18f.),themeatprobably
beingeatenafterwardsinajointmeal.Thisritualappearstohavebeeninheritedfromthenomadicperiod,anditafterwardsgenerallygave
waytoasolemnoathorinvocationofGod,combiningapledgetoobservethecovenant(Gn26:31,He6:17)andtheimprecationofacurseon
nonobservance(Dt27:15ff.).Sometimesahandshaketooktheplaceoftheoath(Ezr10:19,Pr6:1,17:18,22:26,1Ch29:24marg.,1Mac
6:58),orwasaddedtoit(Ezk17:18).Inveryearlytimesanagreementbetweentwomenwassometimesconfirmedbysettingupapillarora
heapofstones(Gn31:4448),thereligioussanctionbeingadded(Gn31:49f.,53).WhenGodwasHimselfdirectlyoneoftheparties,andan
obligationwasthoughttobeassumedbyHimratherthanbyboth,atokenwassubstituted(Gn9:12)butinthesecasesthetransactiontakes
theformchieflyofapledgeorassurance,thoughtheideaofsomeobligationupontheotherpartyisoftenimplicit.Compactswouldoftenbe
madeorconfirmedatashrineandthegodwasinvokedasawitness(Gn31:49ff.,Jos24:27,2K11:4,23:3),orasacrificialmeal
accompaniedtheact(Gn26:30,31:54,2S3:20).Sprinklingofsacrificialblood(Ex24:8,Zec9:11,He9:20)wasaspeciallysolemn
indicationofGodsapprovingpresenceandoftheobligationsundertakenanditssignificancesurvivesandisdeepenedinthedeathofChrist
(He10:29,13:20)andintheEucharist(Mt26:28,Mk14:24,Lk22:20,1Co11:25).
OfthecovenantsreferredtoinScripture,therearetwoclasses.

1.Covenantsbetweenmen.These,again,areofseveralkinds,themostfrequentbeinginternationalalliances(e.g.Gn21:27,Jos9:6,Ps
83:5,Am1:9),judicialdecisionsandcodes(Sir38:33,possiblyEx24:7),agreementsbetweenarulerandthepeople(2S5:3,Dn9:27),and
civilanddomesticcompactsofeveryvariety.Thewordwasusedforalliancesoffriendship(1S18:3,Ps55:20),andofmarriage(Pr2:17,
Mal2:14).Byaneasymetaphor,acovenantinthesenseofanimposedwillmaybemadewiththeeyes(Job31:1)or,intheothersenseof
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agreement,withthestones(Job5:23),butnotwithLeviathan(Job41:4),becauseofhisgreatnessandintractability,norwiselywithdeath
eitherinscornofGod(Is28:15,18)orinyearning(Wis1:16).InDn11:22theprinceofthecovenantissometimesrenderedaprincein
leaguewithhimbutiftheothertranslationstands,covenantwillrepresentthenationasareligiouscommunity(cf.Dn11:28,30,Ps
74:20),andtheprincewillbethehighpriest,OniasIII.,whowasdeposedbyAntiochusaboutb.c.174.SimilarlyinMal3:1themessengerof
thecovenantmaybetheattendantofGod,Hisinstrumentindealingwiththenation(cf.RVm).

2.CovenantsbetweenGodandmen.TheideaofacovenantwithAdam,beyondthesimpleinjunctionofGn2:16,17,hasbeenfoundby
somewritersinSir
17:12,whichismoreeasilyinterpretedofthetransactionsonHoreb(Dt5:3).InPs25:14,asin55:20,thewordhasitsfundamentalmeaning
ofanallianceoffriendship,withaspecificallusionintheformercasetotheDeuteronomiccovenantofthetenthverse.Inothercasesthe
technicalmeaningofanagreementwithsignsandpledgesismoreconspicuous.TheNoachiancovenant(Gn6:18,9:817,Is54:9f.,Jer
33:20,25)guaranteesthestabilityofnaturallaw.ThecovenantwithAbraham(Gn15:18,17:221)wasconfirmedinitspromisetoIsaacand
Jacob(Ex2:24,Lv26:42,Ps105:9f.),andensuredablessingthroughtheirseedtoallnations,circumcisionbeingadoptedasthetoken(cf.Ac
7:8,1Mac1:15).OfstillgreatersignificancewasthecovenantatHoreborSinai(Ex19:5,34:10,27f.etal.),whichwasrenewedinthe
plainsofMoab(Dt29:1),andisfrequentlyreferredtointheOT.ItwasreallyaconstitutiongiventoIsraelbyGod,withappointedpromise
andpenalty,dulyinscribedonthetablesofthecovenant(Dt9:9,11,15),whichweredepositedintheark(Dt10:2,5,1K8:9,21,2Ch5:10,
He9:4).Elsewherethecovenantisdescribedassetforthinwords(Ex34:28,Dt29:9)andwritteninabook(Ex24:7,2K23:2).Amongst
othercovenantsofminorimportancearethatwithPhinehasestablishinganeverlastingpriesthoodinhisline(Nu25:12f.),andthatwithDavid
establishinganeverlastingkingdom(Ps89:3f.,Jer33:21cf.2S7).JoshuaandthepeoplecovenanttoserveJehovahonly(Jos24:25)so
Jehoiadaandthepeople(2K11:17).Hezekiahandthepeoplesolemnlyagreetoreformtheworship(2Ch29:10)Josiah(2K23:3)andEzra
(10:3)leadthepeopleintoacovenanttoobservetheLaw.
WhilsttheSinaiticcovenantisrightlyregardedasthecharteroftheJewishdispensation,theestablishmentbyGodofanewconstitution
wascontemplatedbyaseriesofprophets(Jer31:31,33,32:40,50:5,Is55:3,59:21,61:8,Ezk16:60,62,20:37,34:25).Someofthepledges
werenew,andnotconfinedintheirrangeto
Israel,whilsttheMessianicServantbecomesforacovenantofthepeople(Is42:6f.,49:8cf.messengerofthecovenant,Mal3:1).The
Sinaiticcovenantisthustransformed,and,whilstcontinuingasanoteofracialseparationuntiltheperiodfortheIncarnationwascome,gave
waythentoanewdispensationwithincreasedemphasisonpersonalreligionandtheprovisionofmeansadequatetoensureit(He8:613).
Yettheancientcovenant,eventhatwithAbraham,waseverlasting(Gn17:7),andstillstandsinitssupremepurpose(Lv26:44f.,Ac3:25,Ro
11:26f.)ofmakingmenthepeopleofGod,thenewelementsconsistingmainly
intheadoptionofmoreeffectiveinfluencesandinspiration.TheExileissometimesthoughtofasmarkingthedissolutionoftheOldCovenant
(Jer31:31ff.),thoughthenewonewasnotfullyintroduceduntilsomecenturieslater.TheactofmakingtheNewCovenantiscomparedwith
thetransactionsinthewilderness(Ezk20:36ff.).OnGodspartthereisforgivenesswiththequickeningoftheinnerlifeofman(Ezk36:24ff.).
AndboththeactivityandtheblessednessareassociatedwiththeMessianicexpectations(Jer33:15f.,Ezk37:2128,Lk1:20).

InthelaterOTwritingsthewordcovenant,asappearsfromthepreviouscitations,haslostmuchofitstechnicalsignification,anddoes
notalwaysdenoteevenaformalactofagreement,butbecomesalmostasynonym,andthatwithoutmuchprecision,fortheconditionsof
religion(Ps103:18).St.Paulrecognizesaseriesofcovenants(Ro9:4,Eph2:12)onanascendingscaleofadequacy(2Co3:6,Gal4:24ff.cf.
He7:22,8:6ff.)andSinaiisbutastage(Gal3:15ff.)inthecoursefromAbrahamtoChrist.
Ofspecialphrases,twoorthreemaypresentsomedifficulty.Acovenantofsalt(Nu18:19,2Ch13:5)isaperpetualcovenant,theeating
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Ofspecialphrases,twoorthreemaypresentsomedifficulty.Acovenantofsalt(Nu18:19,2Ch13:5)isaperpetualcovenant,theeating
ofsalttogetherbeingatokenoffriendshipassealedbysacredhospitality.Thesaltofthecovenant(Lv2:13)hasprobablythesameprimary
suggestion,asatnaturalaccompanimentofthesacrificialmeal,andwithitconstitutinganinviolablebond.Sometimesthetwogreatdivisions
ofScripturearecalledthebooksoftheOldandoftheNewCovenantrespectively.ThenameBookoftheCovenant(seenextarticle)is
giventoEx20:2223thatofLittleBookoftheCovenanttoEx34:1126.AdistinctionisoftendrawnbetweentheCovenantofWorks,
assumedtohavebeenmadebyGodwithAdam(Gn2:17),andthatofGraceorRedemption(2Ti1:9),wherebyChristbecomestomanthe
mediumofallspiritualblessings.

R.W.Moss.
COVENANT,BOOKOFTHE.TheoldestcodeofHebrewlawwhichhascomedowntousiscontainedinEx20:2223:33.Itreceives
itsnamefromtheexpressioninEx24:7,whileitscharacterasacovenantisdemonstratedbythepromisesattachedtothekeepingofit
(23:2033).OwingtotheconfusedforminwhichtheBookofExodushasbeentransmitted,doubthasbeenexpressedastothelimitsofthe
BookoftheCovenant.Somemaintainthatthewordsin24:7referonlytoch.23otherswouldmaketheminclude2123Driverholdswith
thegenerallyacceptedopinionthatthecodebeginswith20:22.ThecloseproximityoftheDecalogue(20:117)mightleadtotheinference
thatbothcodesweregivenatthesametime.ButtheBookoftheCovenantiscertainlynotalawthatwas
delivereditisaseriesofdecisionsgraduallygatheredtogether.IthasbeenincorporatedbythecompileratthisparticularplaceintheBook
ofExodus,withtheintentionofbringingtheancientcodestogether.

1.Contents.Thesefallintotwobroaddivisions:

(1)mishptim,orjudicialdecisions.InearlySemiticlifejusticewasadministeredaccordingtoaseriesoftrth,orjudicialandpriestly
decisions,originallytransmittedorally,butgraduallywrittendownformoreexactuseasprecedents.TheBookoftheCovenantwassucha
series,andwasprobablycommittedtowriting,inthefirstinstance,toserveasahandbookforthosewhohadtoadministerthelaw.
Hypotheticalcasesareputintheregularform,Ifthen:e.g.21:26Ifamansmitetheeyeofhisservantortheeyeofhismaidthatit
perish(then)heshalllethimgofreeforhiseyessake.Sometimestheformchangesslightlythecrimeandthepunishmentattachedtoitare
statedinthebriefestpossibleway:e.g.21:12Hethatsmitethamansothathedieshallbesurelyputtodeath.Thiscollectionofmishptim
reflectsanextremelysimplestateofsociety.Itdealswiththerightsofthemaleandfemaleslave(21:111)murderandhomicide(vv.1215)
injuriestothebody,notresultingindeath(vv.1632)injuriestocattle(vv.3336)theft(22:15)arson(v.6)breachoftrust(vv.713)
loans(vv.14,15,2527)seduction(vv.16,17).Theinjunctionsputintheshorterformcovermurder,abduction,thecursingofparents,
bestiality(21:12,15,16,17,22:19).Theprominencegiveninthiscodetotheox,ass,andsheep(21:2822:10)showsthatitwasoriginally
drawnupforasocietythatwaspredominantlyagricultural.Inseveralrespects,however,thecodeindicatesaconsiderablemeasureof
progress.Alimitationisimposedonthelextalionis,inthedrawingofadistinctionbetweenpremeditatedmurderandaccidentalhomicide.
Theserviceofaslavecannotlastbeyondsixyearsunlesswithhisownconsent,andthenhisdeterminationtoremaininslaveryissealedbya
solemnact.Apartfromretaliationthereisnopunishment,exceptapecuniarycompensation.Thethiefwhowillnotmakerestitutionisthe
onlywrongdoerwholoseshisliberty.Thepositionofwomenisthatthedaughteristhepropertyofherfather,whoreceivesmoneyforher
whenhegivesherinmarriage,andalsoexactsfromanywhoshoulddishonourherthepriceshewouldhavebroughtasabridetheinjuryis
thoughtofasbeingdonenottothedaughter,whoisonlyachattel,buttothefather.

(2) debrim,orcommands.Inform,theseareakintothecommandsoftheDecalogue,beingintroducedwithThoushalt,orThoushalt
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(2)debrim,orcommands.Inform,theseareakintothecommandsoftheDecalogue,beingintroducedwithThoushalt,orThoushalt
not.Insubstance,theyareconcernedwithreligiousobservancestoamuchgreaterextentthanthemishptim,anddonotgivethesame
prominencetoagriculturallife.20:2426dealswiththeconstructionofanaltar.(Stade,Bibl.Theol.57,thinksthatthiscommandisthe
productofaperiodofreactioninthetimeofthelatermonarchy,andthatitwasaimedatthebrazenaltarwhichSolomonhadmade,andatthe
centralizationofworshipinJerusalem.)Othermattersdealtwitharewitchcraft(22:18)thetreatmentofstrangers(v.21)therevilingofGod
(orjudges)andrulers(vv.28,29)theofferingofthefirstfruitsandfirstlings(vv.29,30)theeatingofanimalsfoundtorninthefield(v.31)
justjudgment(23:13,68)theyearofrest,andtheSabbath(vv.1012)feasts(vv.1416).Thethreefeastsmarkpointsintheagricultural
year,thebeginningandtheendofharvestandtheendofthevintage.Leavenisnottobeeateninconnexionwiththebloodofthesacrifice,
andthefatofthesacrificeistobeburnedthesamenight(23:1619)butapartfromthesetherearenomattersofsacrificialritualinsistedon.
WhoeversacrificestoanyothergodthanJehovahistobeplacedundertheban(22:20).23:2033seemstohetheworkofthecompiler.The
familiarstyleofDeut.appearsinv.23butinthissectiontherewouldappeartobevestigesofanoldertext(23:2831).

2.Date.AstothedateoftheBookoftheCovenant,thereisnoevidencesavewhatthedocumentitselfaffordsus.Butthestateofsociety
reflectedinitisprimitive.Agricultureistheindustryofthepeople.Thelawofbloodrevengeisjustbeginningtohemodifiedwomanhasas
yetnopropertyinherselfsacrificeisemergingfromitsprimitivedomesticcharacterthereisasyetnoclearconceptionofaState.Thecode
wouldthusseemtodatefromthedaysofthedesertwandering,andtoheolderthantheDecalogueitself.See,further,artt.Exodusand
Hexateuch.
R.BruceTaylor.
COVETOUSNESS.IntheBible,covetousnessisacrime.IntheTenCommandmentsitisputunderthebanalongwithmurder,adultery,
theft,andslander(Ex20:17,Dt5:21).Achanwasguiltyofthiscrime,andwasstonedtodeath(Jos7:1626).Everyoccurrenceofthewordor
thethingintheOTisconnectedwithaprohibitionoracurse(Ps10:3,119:36,Pr21:26,28:16,Is57:17,Hab2:9).IntheNTadulteryand
covetousnessareusuallyclassedtogether(1Co5:11,6:9,10,Col3:5,2P2:14).Thisconjunctionofsensualsinandloveofmoneyprobably
restsupontheauthorityofJesus(Mk7:21,22).JesusandtheApostlesdeclaredthattheworshipperofBacchusandtheworshipperofVenus
andtheworshipperofMammonbelongtooneandthesameclass.Graspingavariceisasincompatiblewiththespiritofselfsacrificetaughtin
theNTasistheselfishindulgenceindrinkorthegrosserindulgenceinvice.TheBibleputsthecovetousmaninthesamecategorywiththe
murdererandthethief.TheChristianChurchneedstostudyanewtheBibleteachingconcerningcovetousness,asfoundinJer22:17,Mic2:2,
Lk12:15,Ro7:7,Eph5:3,6,1Ti6:10,He13:5,andotherpassages.NocovetousmanhasanyinheritanceintheKingdomofGod.

D.A.Hayes.
COZBI.TheMidianitessslainbyPhinehas(Nu25:15,18).
COZEBA,1Ch4:22=Achzib,No.2.
CRACKNELS.SeeBread.
CRAFT,inthesenseoftrade,survivesinRVonlyinRev18:22nocraftsmanofwhatevercraft.InAc18:3,19:25,27tradeor
businesshasbeensubstitutedforAVcraft.Craftsmanandcraftsmen,however,areretained.SeelistunderArtsandCrafts.

CRANE.InIs38:14andJer8:7ssorssisrenderedinAVcrane,RVcorrectlySwallow[wh.see].Inthesamepassagesagris
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CRANE.InIs38:14andJer8:7ssorssisrenderedinAVcrane,RVcorrectlySwallow[wh.see].Inthesamepassagesagris
renderedinAVswallow,RVcrane.Thecrane(Gruscommunis)isthelargestbirdwhichvisits
W.Palestineitslengthisfourfeet.Theyarriveinlargeflocksinthewinter(Jer8:7).Itstrumpetingnoteisstrangelydescribed(inIs38:14
EV)aschattering,andthismakesthetranslationsomewhatdoubtful.

E.W.G.Masterman.
CRATES.AdeputyleftinchargeofthecitadelatJerusalem(Acra)whentheregulargovernor,Sostratus,wassummonedtoAntiochby
AntiochusEpiphanes,inconsequenceofadisputewiththehighpriestMenelaus(2Mac4:29).CrateswasovertheCyprians:probablyhe
wassenttoCyprusshortlyafterwards,when,inb.c.168,Antiochusobtainedpossessionoftheisland.
CREATION.OneofthemostconvincingproofsofthecompositeauthorshipofthePentateuchhasalwaysbeenfoundintheexistence
sidebysideoftwoindependentandmutuallyirreconcilableaccountsofthecreationoftheworld.Thefirst,Gn1:12:4a,formsthe
introductionofthePriestlyCode(P),whichwascompiled,asisnowgenerallyacknowledged,inthe5thcent.b.c.Thesecond,Gn2:4bff.,
openstheJahwisticdocument(J),whoselatestportionsmustbedatedatleastacenturyandahalfearlierthanthecompilationofP.Thesetwo
narratives,whileexpressingthesamefundamentalreligiousideas,differprofoundlyintheirconcreteconceptionsoftheprocessofcreation.
TheaccountofPstartswithadescription(v.2)oftheprimevalchaosadarkformlesswateryabyss,outofwhichtheworldoflightand
orderwastobeevolved.WhetherthischaoticmatteroweditsorigintoapriorcreativeactofGodisaquestiondependingonadelicatepoint
ofgrammaticalconstructionwhichcannotbeadequatelyexplainedherebut,lookingtotheanalogyoftheBabylonianCreationstory(see
below),itseemsprobablethatthechaosisconceivedaspreexistent,andthattherepresentationofthechapterfallsshortofthefulldogmatic
ideaofcreationasproductionoutofnothing,anideafirstunambiguouslyexpressedin2Mac7:28Theworkofcreationthenproceedsina
seriesofeightDivinefiats,viz.:(1)Creationoflightandseparationoflightfromtheprimevaldarkness,vv.35(2)divisionofthechaotic
watersbythefirmament,vv.68(3)separationoflandandsea,vv.9,10(4)clothingoftheearthwithvegetation,vv.1113(5)formation
oftheheavenlybodies,vv.1419(6)productionoffishesandbirds,vv.2023(7)landanimals,v.24f.and(8)thecreationofmaninthe
imageofGodwithdominionoverthecreatures,v.26ff.Themostremarkableformalfeatureoftherecordisasomewhatartificialbut
carefullyplannedandsymmetricalarrangementoftheeightworksunderaschemeofsixdays.Thecreativeprocessisthusdividedintotwo
parallelstages,eachembracingfourworksandoccupyingthreedays,thelastdayineachdivisionhavingtwoworksassignedtoit.Thereisan
obviouslydesigned,thoughnotquitecomplete,correspondencebetweenthetwoseries:(1)light||(5)luminaries(2)watersandfirmament||
(6)fishesandfowls(3)dryland||(7,8)terrestrialanimals(4)treesandgrasses,and(onthesixthday)theappointmentoftheseasthefood
ofmenandanimals.Thesignificanceofthesixdaysschemeisrevealedintheclosingverses(2:13),wheretherestingoftheCreatoronthe
seventhdayisregardedastheantitypeandsanctionoftheJewishSabbathrest.Itisnotimprobablethattheschemeofdaysisamodification
oftheoriginalcosmogony,introducedintheinterestoftheSabbathlawandthisadaptationmayaccountforsomeanomaliesofarrangement
whichseemtomartheconsistencyofthescheme.

InthenarrativeofJ(2:4bff.),theearthasoriginallymadebyJahwehwasanaridlifelesswaste,inwhichnoplantcouldgrowforlackof
moisture,andwheretherewasnomantotilltheground(vv.5,6).Theideaofmanssuperioritytotheothercreaturesishereexpressedby
placinghiscreation,notattheendasinP,butatthebeginning(v.7)followedbytheplantingofthegardeninwhichhewastodwelland
fromwhosetreeshewastoderivehisfood(vv.8,9,1517)theformingofbeastsandbirdstorelievehissolitudeandawakehiscravingfora
noblercompanionship(vv.1820)andlastlyofthewoman,inwhomherecognizesapartofhimselfandahelpmeetforhim(vv.2123).The
expressreferencetothewelfareofmanineachactofcreationmakesitdoubtfulwhetherasystematicaccountoftheoriginofthingswas
contemplatedbythewriter,orwhetherthepassageisnotrathertoberegardedasapoeticclothingofideasgeneratedbyreflexionon
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contemplatedbythewriter,orwhetherthepassageisnotrathertoberegardedasapoeticclothingofideasgeneratedbyreflexionon
fundamentalfactsofhumanlifeandsociety.Itisprobable,however,thatitcontainsfragmentsofafullercosmogonywhichhasbeenabridged
andutilizedasaprologuetothestoryofParadiseandtheFall.Oneitherview,thedivergencefromtheaccountofPissoobviousasto
precludetheattempttoharmonizethetwo,ortotreatthesecondasmerelysupplementarytothefirst.

MuchingenuityhasbeenexpendedintheefforttobringtheBiblicalrecordofcreationintoaccordwiththefactsdisclosedbythemodern
sciencesofGeologyandAstronomy.NaturallysuchconstructionsconfinetheiroperationstothesystematicandsemiscientificaccountofGn
1forithasprobablyneveroccurredtoanyonetovindicatethescientificaccuracyofthemoreimaginativenarrativeofJ.Butevenifwewere
toadmittheuniqueclaimofthefirstchaptertobearevealedcosmogony,thedifficultyofharmonizingitwiththeteachingsofscienceisseen
tobeinsurmountableassoonastherealnatureoftheproblemtobesolvedisfairlyapprehended.Itisnotsufficienttoemphasizethegeneral
ideaofgradationandupwardprogressascommontoscienceandScripture,ortopointtoisolatedcoincidences,suchasthecreationoffishes
beforemammals,orthelateappearanceofmanontheearth:thenarrativemustbetakenasawhole,anditmustbeshownthatthereisa
genuineparallelismbetweentheorderofdaysandworksinGn1andthestagesofdevelopmentrecognizedbyscienceasthosethroughwhich
theuniversehasreacheditspresentform.Thishasneverbeendoneandaftermakingeveryallowancefortheimperfectionofthegeological
record,andthegeneralinsecurityofscientifichypothesisasdistinguishedfromascertainedfact,enoughisknowntomakeitcertainthatthe
requiredcorrespondencecanneverbemadeout.Thustheformationofthesunandmoonaftertheearth,afterthealternationofdayandnight,
andevenaftertheemergenceofplantlife,isascientificimpossibility.Again,theroughpopularclassificationsofGenesis(plants,aquatic
animals,birds,landanimals,etc.)are,forscientificpurposes,hopelesslyinadequateandtheideathatthesegroupsoriginatedaswholes,and
intheorderherespecified,isentirelycontrarytothetestimonyoftherocks.But,indeed,thewholeconceptionoftheuniverseonwhichthe
cosmogonyofGenesisrestsopposesafatalbarriertoanyvalidreconciliationwithscientifictheory.Theworldwhoseoriginisheredescribed
isasolidexpanseofearth,surroundedbyandrestingonaworldocean,andsurmountedbyarigidvaultcalledthefirmament,abovewhich
thewatersofaheavenlyoceanarespread.Suchaworldisunknowntoscienceandthemannerinwhichsuchaworldwasconceivedtohave
comeintobeingcannottrulyrepresenttheprocessbywhichtheverydifferentworldofscienceandfacthasbeenevolved.Thisfactalone
wouldamplyjustifytheemphaticverdictofProfessorDriver:Readwithoutprejudiceorbias,thenarrativeofGn1createsanimpressionat
variancewiththefactsrevealedbyscience:theeffortsatreconciliationarebutdifferentmodesofobliteratingitscharacteristicfeatures,
andofreadingintoitaviewwhichitdoesnotexpress(Westm.Com.Genesis,p.26).
ToformacorrectestimateofthecharacterandreligiousvalueofthefirstchapterofGenesis,ithastobeborneinmindthatspeculative
theoriesoftheoriginoftheuniversewereanimportantelementofallthehigherreligionsofantiquity.Manyofthesecosmogonies(astheyare
called)areknowntousandamidstallthediversityofrepresentationwhichcharacterizesthem,wecannotfailtodetectcertainunderlying
affinitieswhichsuggestacommonsource,eitherinthenaturaltendenciesofearlythought,orinsomedominanttypeofcosmological
tradition.ThattheHebrewcosmogonyisinfluencedbysuchatraditionisprovedbyitsstrikinglikenesstotheBabylonianstoryofcreationas
containedincuneiformtabletsfromAshurbanipalslibrary,firstunearthedin1872.Fromthese
Assyriologistshavedecipheredahighlycolouredmythologicalepic,describingtheoriginoftheworldintheformofaconflictbetween
Marduk,godoflightandsupremedeityofthepantheonofBabylon,andthepowerofChaospersonifiedasafemalemonsternamedTimat
(Heb.Thm).WideasisthedifferencebetweenthepolytheisticassumptionsandfantasticimageryoftheBabyloniannarrativeandthesober
dignityandelevatedmonotheismofGenesis,thereareyetcoincidencesingeneraloutlineandindetailwhicharetoomarkedandtoo
numeroustobeascribedtochance.Inbothwehavetheconceptionofchaosasawateryabyss,inboththeseparationofthewatersintoan
upperandaloweroceantheformationoftheheavenlybodiesandtheirfunctioninregulatingtimearedescribedwithremarkablesimilarity
specialprominenceisgiventothecreationofmananditmaybeaddedthat,whiletheorderofcreationdiffersinthetwodocuments,yetthe
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specialprominenceisgiventothecreationofmananditmaybeaddedthat,whiletheorderofcreationdiffersinthetwodocuments,yetthe
separateworksthemselvesarepracticallyidentical.Inviewofthispervadingparallelism,itisclearthattheHebrewandBabylonian
cosmogoniesareverycloselyrelatedandtheonlyquestionopentodiscussioniswhichofthemrepresentsmorefaithfullytheprimary
traditiononwhicheachisbased.Looking,however,tothevastlyhigherantiquityoftheBabyloniannarrative,toitsconformity(evenin
pointswhichaffecttheBiblicalrecord)totheclimaticconditionsoftheEuphratesValley,andtothegeneralindebtednessofIsraeltothe
civilizationofBabylon,itcannotreasonablybedoubtedthattheHebrewnarrativeisdependentonBabylonianmodelsthoughitisofcourse
notcertainthattheparticularversionpreservedinthetabletsreferredtoistheexactoriginalbywhichtheBiblicalwriterswereinfluenced.

FromthispointofviewweareabletostatethesignificanceoftheScriptureaccountofcreationinawaywhichdoesjusticeatoncetoits
unrivalledreligiousvalueandtoitslackofscientificcorroboration.ThematerialisderivedfromsomeformoftheBabyloniancosmogony,
andsharestheimperfectionanderrorincidenttoallprescientificspeculationregardingthepasthistoryoftheworld.TheScripturewriters
makenopretensiontosupernaturalilluminationonmatterswhichitistheprovinceofphysicalinvestigationtoascertain.Theirtheology,on
theotherhand,istheproductofarevelationwhichplacedthemfarinadvanceoftheirheathencontemporaries,andimpartedtoalltheir
thinkingasanityofimaginationandasublimityofconceptionthatinstinctivelyrejectedthegrosserfeaturesofpaganism,andtransformed
whatwasretainedintoavehicleofDivinetruth.ThusthecosmogonybecameaclassicalexpressionofthemonotheisticprincipleoftheOT,
whichishereembodiedinadetaileddescriptionofthegenesisoftheuniversethatlaysholdofthemindasnoabstractstatementofthe
principlecoulddo.Inoppositiontotheheathentheogonies,theworldisaffirmedtohavebeencreated,
i.e.tohaveoriginatedinthewillofGod,whosePersonalitytranscendstheuniverseandexistsindependentlyofit.ThespiritualityoftheFirst
Causeofallthings,andHisabsolutesovereigntyoverthematerialHeemploys,arefurtheremphasizedintheideaofthewordofGodasthe
agencythroughwhichthevariousordersofexistencewereproducedandtherepeatedassertionthattheworldinallitspartswasgood,and
asawholeverygood,suggeststhatitperfectlyreflectedtheDivinethoughtwhichcalleditintobeing.Whentothesedoctrinesweaddthe
viewofman,asmadeinthelikenessofGod,andmarkedoutasthecrownandgoalofcreation,wehaveabodyofspiritualtruthwhich
distinguishesthecosmogonyofGn1fromallsimilarcompositions,andentitlesittorankamongstthemostimportantdocumentsofrevealed
religion.
JohnSkinner.

CREATURE.InAVcreatureisusedinthegeneral(andoriginal)senseofwhatiscreated.Thus2Co5:17ifanymanbeinChrist,
heisanewcreature1Ti4:4foreverycreatureofGodisgood.InRo8:19,20,21itisnotmerelylivingcreaturesinthemodernuseof
thewordthatwaitfordeliverance,butthewholecreationofGod(asAVitselfhasitinv.22).
CREDITOR.SeeDebt.
CREED(orCredo[AS.creda],takenfromthefirstwordoftheLatinconfessionoffaith=Greeksymbol[symbolon,symbolum]).An
ecclesiastical(nonBiblical)term,signifyingthefaithobjectivelyandasexplicitlydeclared,thearticlesofChristianbeliefdrawnupin
systematicandauthoritativeform.
TheCreedsdenotethethreegreathistoricalConfessionsoftheearlyChurchtheApostles,theNiceneorConstantinopolitan(325,381
a.d.),andthe
Athanasian(ofLatinorigin,6thcentury)theCreedcommonlymeanstheApostlesCreedalone.Thislastcanbetraced,initssimplestform,
tothe2ndcenturyseeLumbysHist.oftheCreeds,orSwetesApostlesCreed.Shapedintheirdevelopedformbydoctrinalcontroversyand
Conciliardefinition,theCreedsowetheirorigintothenecessitiesofworshipandtheinstinctofpublicconfessionintheChurch,feltat
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Conciliardefinition,theCreedsowetheirorigintothenecessitiesofworshipandtheinstinctofpublicconfessionintheChurch,feltat
baptismtobeginwith.Christianbelieversformedthehabit,whentheymet,ofrecitingtheircommonfaith,andthisrecitationassumedafixed
rhythmicalformsothatthecreedisakintothehymnandthedoxology.ItsbeginningsarevisibleintheNTseeMt16:16,28:19,Ro10:9,
10,1Co8:6,12:3(RV),Eph4:46,1Ti3:16,1Jn4:2andfurtherback,fortheOTandtheSynagogue,intheShemaofDt6:4.

G.G.Findlay.
CREEPINGTHINGS.IntheEVthistermisthetr.oftwodistinctwords,whichhavenoetymologicalconnexion,andinusagearenot
synonymous.TheHebrewwordsareremesandsherets.Itisunfortunatethatthelattertermistr.
creepingthing,fortherootmeanstoswarm.ItincludesbothterrestrialandaquaticanimalswhichappearingreatswarmsinGn1:20it
referstothecreaturesthatteeminthewaters,whileinotherpassagesitincludesinsects,aslocusts,crickets,andgrasshoppers(Lv11:2023),
togetherwiththesmallerquadrupedsastheweaselandmouse,aswellasreptilesproper(Lv11:2931).Theverbisusedoffrogs(Ex8:3).
Etymologicallyremessignifiesthatwhichglidesorcreeps,andforitsusagethetwocrucialpassagesareGn1:24and1K4:33.Inthelatter
theentireanimalkingdomispopularlydividedintofourclasses:beasts,birds,creepingthings,andfishes(cf.Hos2:18).InGn1:24theland
animalsareputintothreegroups:cattle,creepingthings,andbeastsoftheearth.Byeliminatingthefirstandthirdclasses,whichrespectively
includedomesticatedquadrupeds,andthewildanimals,weseethattheexpressioncreepingthingsis,roughlyspeaking,equivalenttoour
termreptiles,exclusiveofthosewhichareaquatic.Delitzschdefinesremesasthesmallercreepinganimalsthatkeepclosetotheearth
Dillmannascreatureswhichmovealongthegroundeitherwithoutfeetorwithimperceptiblefeet.Fromthisdiscussionitisevidentthatthe
twoarenotinterchangeableterms.Remeshasalsoawidersignification:inPs104:25itisusedofmarineanimals,inGn9:3(EVmoving
thing)itincludesalllivingcreatures.See,further,thecarefuldiscussionbyProfessorDriverinHastingsDBi.517f.
JamesA.Kelso.
CRESCENS.AcompanionofSt.Paulinhisfinalimprisonment,sentbyhimtoGalatia(2Ti4:10),i.e.eithertoAsiaticGalatia,or
possiblytoGaul.AlateWesterntraditiontreatshimasthefounderoftheChurchesofVienneandof
Mayence.HismemoryishonouredintheRomanMartyrologyonJune27,intheGreekMenologiononMay30,andthereheistreatedasone
oftheseventydisciples,andabishopofChalcedon.
CRESCENTS.SeeAmulets,4,andOrnaments,3.
CRETE,CRETANS.Crete,themodernCandia,isanisland60milesS.ofGreeceproper,about150mileslong,andvaryinginbreadth
from30to7miles,withmountainsashighas7000feet.ItisaboutequidistantfromEurope,Asia,andAfrica,andwasinhabitedfromthe
earliesttimesofwhichwehaveanyknowledge.TheresearchesofMr.ArthurJ.Evansandothershaverevealedtracesofaveryancient
civilization,includinganalphabethithertounknown.Inhistoricaltimesitwasfamedforitsarchers,whowerevaluedinthearmiesofEurope.
ItwasconqueredbyRomeinb.c.67,andbecame,inconjunctionwiththedistrictCyrenaicaontheN.ofAfrica,aRomansenatorialprovince,
governedbyaproconsul.Jewswereearlytobefoundthere,andwereverynumerous.SomewerepresentatPentecostintheyearofthe
crucifixion(Ac2:11).St.Paulsship,onthevoyagetoRome,sailedalongtheCretancoastclosein(Ac27:7),andcametoFairHavensnear
Lasea.TheseplaceswereontheS.coast,whichhadfewharbours.
Theepithetswhichanativeoftheisland,thepoetEpimenides(flourishedb.c.

600),flungattheCretans,arequotedinasomewhatunapostolicmannerintheEpistletoTitus(1:12).Epimenidesstyledthemalwaysliars,
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600),flungattheCretans,arequotedinasomewhatunapostolicmannerintheEpistletoTitus(1:12).Epimenidesstyledthemalwaysliars,
evilbeastsofprey,lazygluttons.Suchvituperation,thoughcountenancedbyothersalso,mustnotbetakentooseriously.Theancientswere
muchgiventoit,anditprobablyrevealsasmuchofthenaturesofthepersonswhouseditasofthosetowhomitwasapplied.Greeksin
generalarenot,andwerenotfamousfortruthfulness,forinstance.WhenandbywhomChristianitywasplantedinCretecannotbesaid.Itis
probablethatitwaswellestablishedthereinthe1stcentury.IntheEpistletoTituswefindTitusintroducedashavingbeenleftbySt.Paulin
chargeofthechurches.

A.Souter.
CRIBisthemodernmanger(Lk2:7),whichcontainedthefodderforoxen(Pr14:4),asses(Is1:3),anddoubtlessotherlivestockaswell.
CRICKET.Lv11:22(AVbeetle).SeeLocust.
CRIME.In1611thewordcrimehadnotlostitsearlymeaningofaccusation,whenceAc25:16thecrimelaidagainsthim(RV
matter,butinAc23:29thesameGr.wordistranslatedchargeinbothAVandRV).Itispossible,thatinJob31:11crimeisusedinthe
moremodernsenseelsewhereitmeanscharge.
CRIMESANDPUNISHMENTS.Thetermcrimesishereusedlooselyinthesenseofpunishableoffences,includingnotmerely
crimes(crimina)inthesenseofbreachesofthecriminallawinthemodernsense,andtorts(delicta)orbreachesofthecivillaw,butalsothose
offencesinthesphereofreligionandworshiptowhichdefinitepenaltieswereattached.Withinthelimitsofthisarticleitispossibletopresent
onlyasummaryofthemoreimportantandtypicalpunishableoffencesrecognizedinthevariousHebrewlawcodes.Thelatter,indicatedby
theusualsymbols,are:(1)BC,theoldestcode,knownastheBookoftheCovenant,Ex20:2223:33,withwhichforconveniencesakeis
joinedtheDecalogueofEx20:217(2)D,theDeuteronomicCode,Dt1228(3)H,theHolinessCode,Lv1726and(4)P,thegreat
collectionoflawsknownasthePriestsCode,andcomprisingtherestofthelegislativematerialofthePentateuch.InthecaseofPalonewill
itbenecessarytonamethebooks(Ex.,Lv.,orNu.)towhichreferenceismade.

ThepenaloffencesofthePentateuchmaybeconvenientlygroupedunderthethreeheadsofcrimesagainstJ,againstsociety(including
property),andagainsttheindividual.
1.A.CrimesagainstJ,oroffencesinthesphereofreligionandworship.Althoughitistruethatmisdemeanoursofeverykindwerein
thelastresortoffencesagainstJ,whowasregardedastheonlyfountainoflawandjustice,itwillbeconvenienttogroupunderthishead
thosebelongingtothespecialsphereofreligiousbeliefanditsoutwardexpressioninworship.Amongthesethefirstplacemustbegivento
theworshipofheathendeitiescondemnedinthestrongesttermsinBC(from20:3onwards)andDandoftheheavenlybodies,D17:3
(cf.4:19).Thepenaltyisdeathundertheban(BC22:20,D13:12ff.[seeBan]),orbystoning(D17:5).Inseparablefromthisformofapostasy
isthecrimeofidolatry,entailingthecurseofGod(D27:15).Blasphemy,orprofanationoftheDivinename,isforbiddeninallthecodesthe
penaltyisdeathbystoning(H24:13ff.).Thepracticeofmagic,wizardry,andsimilarblackarts,exposestheiradeptsandthosewhoresortto
themtothesamepenalty(H20:27).

2.ThepunishmentfordoinganyworkontheSabbathdayisdeath,butonlyinthelaterlegislation(Ex31:15[probablyH]35:2[P]cf.
theverylateHaggadicsection,Nu15:32ff.).Forneglectofordinances,touseafamiliarphrase,suchasfailingtoobservethefastoftheDay
ofAtonement(H23:29),ortokeepthePassover(Nu9:13[P],anoffenderwasliabletobecutofffromhispeopleseebelow).Thiswas
alsothepunishmentprescribedforanumberofoffencesthatmaybegroupedundertheheadofsacrilege,suchaspartakingofblood(Lv7:27
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alsothepunishmentprescribedforanumberofoffencesthatmaybegroupedundertheheadofsacrilege,suchaspartakingofblood(Lv7:27
[P]),andtheunauthorizedmanufactureanduseoftheholyanointingoil(Ex30:32f.
[P]).

3.B.CrimesagainstSociety.Asthefamily,accordingtoHebrewideas,wastheunitofsociety,thecrimesthatmarthesanctitiesof
familylifemaybetakenfirst.Suchpreeminentlywasadultery,severelycondemnedinallthecodes,thepunishmentforbothpartiesbeing
death(D22:22,H20:10).Inacaseofseductionthemanwasrequiredtomarryherwhomhehadwronged,ifherfathergaveconsent(BC
22:16f.),payingthelatteradowry,i.e.theusualpurchaseprice(seeMarriage),estimatedinD22:29at50shekelsofsilver.Ontheother
hand,thepenaltyforrape,ifthevictimwasbetrothed,wasdeath(D22:25ff.),asitwasforunnaturalcrimeslikesodomy(H18:22,20:13
thoushaltnotliewithmankindaswithwomankind)andbestiality(BC22:19,H20:15f.).ThemarriageofnearkinisforbiddeninH
18:618underseventeenheads(seeMarriage).Incestwithastepmotheroradaughterinlawwaspunishablebythedeathofbothparties(H
20:11f.),whileforamantomarryawifeandhermotherwasacrimethatcouldbeexpiatedonlybythedeathofallthree,andthat,asmany
hold(seebelow),bybeingburntalive(ib.v.14).OrdinaryprostitutioniscondemnedbyH19:29(cf.
D22:21)forapriestsdaughterthepunishmentwasevendeathbyburning(21:9)whilethewidespreadheathenpracticeofestablishing
religiousprostitutes,maleandfemale,atthelocalsanctuariesisspeciallyreprobatedinD
23:17f.,wherethemaleprostituteistoberecognizedundertheinexactterm
sodomite,andthecontemptuousdog.

4.Tocarrydisrespectforonesparentstotheextentofsmiting(BC21:15),orcursingthem(BC21:17,H20:9),orevenofshowing
persistentcontumacy(D
21:18ff.),entailedtheextremepenaltyofdeathatthehandsofthelocalauthorities.
5.EverythingthatwouldtendtoimpairtheimpartialandeffectiveadministrationofjusticeisemphaticallycondemnedintheHebrew
codes,thegivingandreceivingofbribes,inparticular,beingforbiddenevenintheoldestlegislation(BC23:8foragiftblindeththemthat
havesight).Againstthosewhowoulddefeattheendsofjusticebyperjuryandfalsewitness,thelawisrightlysevere(D19:15ff.).Tale
bearing(H19:16),andthespreadingofareportknowntobefalse(BC23:1),arecondemned,whileinthemoreheinouscaseofaman
slanderinghisnewlyweddedwife,theeldersofthecityaretoamercehiminanhundredshekels(D22:1821).

6.Propertyhadalsotobeprotectedagainsttheft(BC20:15)andburglary(22:2),withwhichmaybeclassedthecrimeofremovingthe
boundarystonesofaneighbourspropertytoincreaseonesown(D19:14),andtheuseoffalseweightsandmeasures(D25:15ff.,H
19:35ff.).Theearliestcodelikewisedealswithtrespass(BC22:5),andarson,orwilfulfireraising(ib.v.6),forwhichthepenaltyineither
casewasrestitution.

7.C.CrimesagainsttheIndividual.BC21:1526dealswithvariousformsofassault,acrimetowhichthepreMosaicjustalionis(see
below)wasspeciallyapplicable.Kidnappingafreemanwasacriminaloffenceinvolvingthedeathpenalty(BC21:16,D24:17).Murder
naturallyhasaplaceinthepenallegislationofallthecodesfromBC20:13onwards.Thelegislators,asiswellknown,werecarefulto
distinguishbetweenmurderdeliberatelyplannedandexecuted(BC21:14,D19:11ff.)andunpremeditatedhomicideormanslaughter(BC
21:13,D
19:4ff.,andesp.P,Nu35:9ff.).Theformer,withcertainexceptions(BC21:20,22:2),entailedcapitalpunishmentinaccordancewiththe
fundamentalprinciplelaiddowninGn9:6inthecaseofthemanslayerspecialprovisionwasmadeforthemitigationoftheancientrightof
bloodrevenge(seeRefuge[Citiesof]).
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bloodrevenge(seeRefuge[Citiesof]).

8.Punishments.FromtheearliestperiodofwhichwehaveanyrecordtwoformsofpunishmentprevailedamongtheHebrewsandtheir
Semitickinsfolk,viz.retaliationandrestitution.Retaliation,thejustalionisofRomanlaw,receiveditsclassicalexpressionintheoldest
Hebrewcode:thoushaltgivelifeforlife,eyeforeye,toothfortooth,handforhand,footforfoot,burningforburning,woundforwound,
stripeforstripe(BC21:23f.).Thetalio,ashasalreadybeenmentioned,wasspeciallyapplicableincasesofinjuryfromassault.Whenlife
hadbeentaken,whetherintentionallyorunintentionally,therightofenforcingthejustalionislaywiththedeadmansnextofkin(seeKin
[Nextof]).

InBCrestitutionvariesfromfivefoldforanox,andfourfoldforasheepthathasbeenstolenandthereafterkilledorsold,totwofoldifthe
animalisstillinthethiefspossession(BC22:14),andfinallytoasimpleequivalentinthecaseofwilfuldamagetoaneighboursproperty
(ib.v.5f.).Compensationbyamoneypaymentwasadmittedforlossoftimethroughbodilyinjury(BC21:19),forlossofproperty(vv.33
35),butnot,inHebrewlaw,forlossoflife,exceptinthecasesmentionedBC21:30.Thepaymentsof100shekelsand50shekelsrespectively
ordainedinD22:19,29appeartothemoderneyeasfines,butfallinrealityundertheheadofcompensationpaidtothefatherofthewomen
inquestion.

9.InthepenalcodeoftheHebrewsthereisacomparativelackofwhatmaybetermedintermediatepenalties.Imprisonment,for
example,hasnoplaceinthePentateuchcodesasanauthorizedformofpunishment,althoughfrequentcasesoccurinlatertimesand
apparentlywithlegalsanction(seeEzr7:26).TheuseofthestocksalsowasknowntotheJewish(Jer20:2f.)aswellastotheRoman
authorities(Ac16:24).Beatingwithrodsandscourgingwiththelashwerealsopractised.TheformerseemsintendedinD25:1ff.,butlater
Jewishpracticesubstitutedalashofthreethongs,thirteenstrokesofwhichwereadministered(cf.2Co11:24).Many,however,would
identifythepunishmentofthispassageofDwiththefavouriteEgyptianpunishmentofthebastinado.Mutilation,apartfromthetalio,
appearsonlyasthepenaltyforindecentassault(D25:11f.).

10.Theregularformofcapitalpunishmentwasdeathbystoning,whichisprescribedinthePentateuchasthepenaltyforeighteendifferent
crimes,includingSabbathbreaking.Foronlyonecrimemurderisitthepenaltyinallthecodes.Theexecutionofthecriminaltookplace
outsidethecity(H24:14),andaccordingtoD17:7thewitnessesinthecasecastthefirststone(cf.Jn8:7).Incertaincasesthedeadbodyof
themalefactorwasimpaleduponastakethis,itcanhardlybedoubted,isthetruerenderingofD21:22f.(AVhanghimonatree),andof
thesameexpressionelsewhere.Hangingorstrangulationismentionedonlyasamannerofsuicide(2S17:23,Mt27:5).Crucifixion,itneed
hardlybesaid,wasaRoman,notaJewish,institution.BeheadingappearsinMt14:10||,Ac12:2,Rev20:4.
11.ThemeaningoftheexpressionfrequentlyfoundinP,tobecutofffromhispeople,fromIsrael,etc.,isuncertainmostprobablyit
denotesaformofexcommunication,withtheimplicationthattheoffenderishandedovertothejudgmentofGod,whichalsoseemstobe
intendedbythebanishmentofEzr7:26(notemargin).Asimilardivisionofopinionexistsastothepenaltyofburning,whichisreservedfor
aggravatedcasesofprostitution(H21:9)andincest(20:19).Heretheprobabilityseemsinfavouroftheguiltypartiesbeingburnedalive(cf.
Gn38:24),althoughmanyscholarsholdthattheywerefirststonedtodeath.Themostextremeformofpunishmentknowntothecodes,inthat
awholecommunitywasinvolved,isthatoftotaldestructionunderthebanofthefirstdegree(seeBan)prescribedforthecrimeofapostasy
(BC22:20,morefullyD13:1517).

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A.R.S.Kennedy.

CRIMSON.Thewordtl,tr.inIs1:18crimsonandinLa4:5scarlet,isusuallytr.Worm(wh.see),exactlyastheArab.ddeh,the
commonwordforworm,istodayalsousedinPalestinefortheimportedcochinealinsect.ThePalestineinsectisthefemaleCoccusilicisof
thesame.NaturalOrderastheAmericanC.cactiitfeedsontheholmoak.

E.W.G.Masterman.
CRISPINGPINS.Is3:22AVRVsatchel(seeBag).
CRISPUS.ThechiefruleroftheJewishsynagogueatCorinth(Ac18:8).ConvincedbythereasoningsofSt.PaulthatJesuswasthe
Messiah,hebelievedwithallhishouse.TheApostlementionshim(1Co1:14)asoneofthefewpersonswhomhehimselfhadbaptized.
CRITICISM.Biblicalcriticismisdividedintotwobranches:(1)LowerCriticism,whichisconcernedwiththeoriginaltextofScripture
theHebrewoftheOTandtheGreekoftheNT,byreferenceto(a)theexternalevidenceofMSS,versions,andcitationsinancient
literature,and(b)theintrinsicevidenceoftheinherentprobabilityofonereadingascomparedwitharivalreading,judgedbysuchrulesas
thatpreferenceshouldbegiventothemoredifficultreading,theshorterreading,themostcharacteristicreading,andthereadingwhich
accountsforthealternativereadings(seeTextoftheNT)(2)HigherCriticism,whichisconcernedwiththeauthorship,dates,and
circumstancesoforigin,doctrinalcharacterandtendency,historicity,andothersuchquestionsconcerningthebooksofScripture,asfaras
thesematterscanbedeterminedbyacarefulexaminationoftheircontents,comparingthevarioussectionsofeachonewithanother,or
comparingthebooksintheirentiretywithoneanother,andbringingallpossiblelighttobearuponthemfromhistory,literature,antiquities,
monuments,etc.
Thetitleofthesecondbranchofcriticismisoftenmisunderstoodinpopularusage.TheLowerCriticismbeinglittleheardofexceptamong
experts,whiletheHigherCriticismisoftenmentionedinpublic,thetruecomparisonsuggestedisnotperceived,andthelatterphraseistaken
toindicateacertainarroganceonthepartofadvancedcritics,andcontemptfortheolderscholarship.Thenthewordcriticismisalsotaken
initspopularsenseasimplyingcaptiousnessandfaultfinding.Further,themoststartling,andthereforethemostgenerallyobserved,resultsof
criticismbeingdestructiveofpreconceivednotions,criticismitselfhasbeenregardedasanegativeprocess,andevenasanattackonthe
Bible.ItisnottobedeniedthatthereareHigherCriticswhoseargumentsmaybeconstruedinthiswaybuttheseareaminority,andthereare
alsoHigherCriticswhoarenotonlyloyaltotheDivinerevelationinScripture,butwhoseworkmaybedescribedaslargelyconstructive.
Highercriticismitselfisneutralithasnobiasitisascientificprocess.Thechampionsofacceptedviewsarecompeliedtousethisprocess
whenarguingwithscholarswhotakeuppositionswithwhichtheydisagree.But,strictlyspeaking,itisnotacontroversialweapon.Itisa
powerfulinstrumentforascertainingfactsaboutthehistoryoftheBible.Seeing,however,thatacertainamountofodiumhasbeenattachedto
thetitlehoweverunwarrantablyperhapsitwouldbebettertosubstituteaphraselessliabletomisinterpretationsuchastheexpression
Historicalmethod.Forinpointoffactitisintheapplicationofthismethod,whichhasbeenfoundsofruitfulinotherregionsofstudy,tothe
Bible,thattheactualworkoftheHigherCriticismiscarriedon.TheseveralpartsofScriptureareviewedintheirplacesinthetotal
developmentoftheliteraturetowhichtheybelong,withregardtothespiritofthetimesinwhichtheywereproduced,andasthemselves
throwinglightontheproblemoftheirownoriginandpurpose.Inplaceoftheexternalevidenceoftestimonyconjoinedtomeretradition,
attentionisnowgivenmorecarefullytotheinternalevidenceofliteraryanddoctrinalcharacteristics.

TracesoftheHigherCriticismaretobediscoveredamongtheFathers,e.g.inOrigenwithhisdiscussionoftheauthorshipofHebrews,in
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TracesoftheHigherCriticismaretobediscoveredamongtheFathers,e.g.inOrigenwithhisdiscussionoftheauthorshipofHebrews,in
DionysiusofAlexandriascriticalobjectionstotheascriptionoftheRevelationtotheauthoroftheFourthGospel,etc.Itwasrevivedatthe
RenaissancebyReuchlinandErasmus,anditwasfearlesslypursuedbyMartinLuther.Butthescientificdevelopmentofthemethodbegins
withMichaelis(1750)andSemler(1771),especiallythelatter,forMichaelisdidnotfullydevelophiscriticalviewstillheissuedthe4thed.
ofhisIntroductiontotheNT(1788).EichhornwentfurtherinraisingacriticismoftheNTCanon(1804),andwasopposedbyHug,aRoman
Catholicwriter,inaveryscholarlywork.AlittlelatercamedeWette(1826),whopursuedthenewcriticalmethodwithmoderationandgreat
precisionofscholarship.Crednerfollowedonsimilarlines(1836).MeanwhileGuericke,Olshausen,andNeanderopposedthecontemporary
trendofcriticism.AnewdeparturewastakenbyFerdinandChristianBaurin1831,whointroducedthetendencycriticism,theresultof
whichhascometobeknownastheTbingenhypothesis,accordingtowhichtherewasasharpdivisionintheearlyChurchbetweenSt.Paul
andthetwelveApostles,andwhichregardedtheseveralNTbooksasinsomecasesinspiredbythetendencyofoneorotheroftheseparties,
andasinothercaseswrittenwithaviewtoeffectareconciliationbetweenthemintheinterestofasubsequentCatholicunity.Zeller(1842)
andSchwegler(1846)followedonthesamelines.Alittlelater(1850)oneofBaursdisciples,AlbrechtRitschl,threwabombshellintothe
Tbingencampbystartingfromthesamepositionashismaster,butadvancingtoverydifferentconclusions.TheTbingenhypothesiswas
advocatedinEnglandbyS.Davidsonbutitsextremepositionshavebeengivenupbymostscholars,althoughithadalaterrepresentativein
Hilgenfeld,anditsspirithasbeencontinuedinPfleiderer.

Meanwhilenewproblemshaveemerged,representedinafreecriticalmannerbytheHoltzmanns,Weizscker,Wernle,etc.,whilethe
RitschlianschoolhasbeenbroughtdowntorecenttimesinHarnack,Jlicher,etc.Alineofnegativecriticism,firstseeninBrunoBauer
(1850),whogaveupallhistoricityintheGospels,anddeniedthegenuinenessofanyofSt.PaulsEpistles,wasrevivedduringthelatterpart
ofthe19thcent.inHolland,byLomanandSteck.SchmiedeltookupanextremenegativepositionwithregardtotheGospels,buthehassince
modifiedit,andVanManenhasarguedagainstthegenuinenessofallSt.PaulsEpistles.Inthesecondhalfofthelastcent.thehistoricityof
theGospelsandthegenuinenessofallthePaulineEpistlesweremaintainedbyLightfoot,Westcott,Hort,andothersinthefirstrankof
scholarship.Zahn,withgreatlearning,arguesforaconservativeposition,andthetendencyofthemediatingschoolrepresentedbyHarnack
andJlicheristoadmitthegenuinenessofmuchthegreaterpartoftheNT,theexceptionswiththisschoolbeingespeciallyEph.,2Thess.,the
Pastorals,1and2Peter,James.ThereisatendencytoconnecttheFourthGospelmorecloselywith
St.John,evenamongthosewhodonotattributeitimmediatelytothepenoftheApostle.

CriticismcamelaterintocontactwiththeOTbuthereithasbeenmuchmorerevolutionary,andnotonlyextremistsbutnearlyallscholars
ofeminencehavenowcometoagreementwithregardtothemainpointsofthenewposition.ItmaybesaidtohavecommencedwithLessing
andHerderintheirliterarytreatmentofScripturebutthisdidnotseriouslyaffectthehistoricalposition.Thatwasfirstattackedonmodern
criticallinesbyVatkeearlyinthe19thcent.,buthisworkmetwithuniversaldisapproval,dueinagreatmeasuretoitsdifficultHegelianism.
WecometomoreintelligiblepositionsinEwald,thefirsteditionofwhoseHistoryofIsraelappearedin184352,andcontainedcriticismof
authorities,fourofwhichhedistinguishedinthePentateuch.ThenK.H.Graf(1866),followinghintsofReuss,droppedinthelectureroom,
butneverpublishedbythatcautiousscholar,putforththehypothesiswhichbecamethebasisofthesubsequentlydevelopedtheoryofthe
earlyhistoryofIsrael,andthusgaverisetothephrasetheGrafianhypothesis,accordingtowhichthePriestlylegislationofthePentateuch
camelaterthanDeuteronomy,andwasonlyincorporatedwiththeearlierworkoftheDeuteronomistaftertheExile.MeanwhileColensowas
workingatthehistoricaldifficultiesofthePentateuch,andhewasfollowedbyKuenen,whoseReligionofIsrael(186970)drewattentionto
thegreat8thcent.prophetsasaffordingthetruebasisofthatreligion,ratherthanthePentateuchwhichislaterindate,andthereferencesof
whichtoearliertimescanbebestappreciatedafterastudyoftheprophets.Thisstudyoftheprophets,asthekeytotheOT,wasgreatly
promotedinEnglandbyRobertsonSmith,whoalsointroducedthenewerviewsoftheOTgenerallytoEnglishreaders.WellhausensHistory
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promotedinEnglandbyRobertsonSmith,whoalsointroducedthenewerviewsoftheOTgenerallytoEnglishreaders.WellhausensHistory
ofIsrael(1878)workedoutaviewoftheearlyhistory,onthebasisoftheanalysisofthedocumentsalongthelineslaiddownbyGraf,with
suchclearnessandforcethathispositionshavecometobeacceptedbymostOTscholars,especiallyastheyweresubsequentlymorefully
developed(1884).Reuss,afterkeepingsilenceonthesubjectforhalfacentury,publishedhisownviewsontheOT(1879),andthesealso
tendedtoconfirmtheGrafiantheory.EvenFranzDelitzsch,afterlongmaintainingaconservativestandpoint,movedatlastagoodway
towardstheacceptedtheory,andthusprovedhisopennessofmindandloyaltytotruth.LessradicalpositionsthanthatofKuenenand
WellhausenhavebeendefendedbyDillmann,Schrader,Nldeke,Strack,Ryssel,Kittel.Ontheotherhand,weseeinDuhm,amongthemore
recentcritics,anadvanceofdisintegratingcriticism,especiallywithregardtotheprophetsandaquiteuniqueattitudeistakenupbyCheyne.
ButEnglishscholarsaremoreinagreementwiththeviewsofDriverandG.AdamSmith,whoacceptthemainpositionsofWellhausenand
assignaprimaryplacetotheprophetsasthechiefexponentsofthehigherreligionofIsrael,inwhichtheworldpossessesagenuinerevelation
ofthemindandwillofGodofthehighestvalueforallages.

W.F.Adeney.
CROCODILE.(1)livythn,Ps74:14,Is27:1,Job41:1f.Thelastreferenceisalmostcertainlytothecrocodile,whichisadoptedin
RVm.SeeLeviathan.(2)hayyathqneh,thewildbeastofthereeds,Ps68:30RV,isthoughtbymanytobethecrocodileorthe
hippopotamusassymbolizingEgypt.(3)InJer14:6tannmisinRVmcrocodiles.SeeDragon.ForlandcrocodileseeLizard.Thecrocodile
probablystillexistsintheNahrezZerka,S.ofMountCarmel,calledbyPlinytheCrocodileRiver.Itissupposedtohavebeenbroughtthere
bysomeEgyptiansettlers.AdeadcrocodilewasbroughtfromtheretothelateRev.J.ZellerofNazareth.HerrSchumacherreportsthathe
sawonethere,andquiterecentlyanumberofcrocodileseggswerebroughtfromthisriverandsoldinJerusalem.Astuffedspecimenisinthe
PEFmuseum,London.
E.W.G.Masterman.
CROSS.ThecrossinitsliteralsenseisdealtwithunderCrucifixion,buttherearecertainspiritualusesofthewordintheNTthatcall
forseparateconsideration.

(1)Itisasymbolofselfsacrifice.AccordingtotheGospels,Jesusonatleastthreeoccasionsaffirmedthenecessityforthosewhowould
followHimoftakingupthecross(Mt10:38Mk8:34=Mt16:24=Lk9:23[Mk10:21onlyinAV]Lk14:27).Thewordsimplyaprophetic
anticipationofHisownexperienceonCalvarybutevenalthoughonChristsearliestuseofthemthisspecialapplicationwashiddenfromHis
disciples(cf.Mt16:21,20:19),thefigureofbearingonescrosswouldconveyaquiteintelligiblemeaning.InGalileemultitudeshadbeen
crucifiedaftertherebellionunderJudastheGaulonite(Jos.Ant.XVII.X.10,BJII.v.2)inJerusalem,asweseefromtheexecutionoftwo
robberssidebysidewithJesus,acrucifixionmusthavebeenanordinaryincidentoftheadministrationofRomanlaw.Andasitwasusualto
compelacruciariustocarrytotheplaceofexecutionthetransversebeam(patibulum)ofhisowncross,Christsfigurewouldhaveameaning
asplainasitwasvivid.But,unlikethewretchedcruciarius,HisdisciplesoftheirownfreewillweretotakeupthecrossandfollowHim.

(2)Itisathingofshame.TheauthorofHebrewstellsusbowJesusenduredthecross,despisingshame(12:2).BothtotheRomanand
totheJewthedeathofthecrosswasthemostshamefuldeathamancoulddietotheformerbecausereservedbyRomanusageforslaves,
foreigners,ordesperatecriminalstothelatterbecauseitcameunderthecursedenouncedbytheJewishLawuponanyonewhosedeadbody

hunguponatree(Dt21:23cf.Gal3:13).ToJewandGentilealikethiswasthegreatstumblingblockofthecross(Gal5:11,1Co1:23).
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hunguponatree(Dt21:23cf.Gal3:13).ToJewandGentilealikethiswasthegreatstumblingblockofthecross(Gal5:11,1Co1:23).
AndevenSt.PaulhimselfregardsthedeathofthecrossastheverylowestpointinChristslongpathwayofhumiliation(Ph2:8).

(3)TherearecertaintheologicalusesofthewordpeculiartothePaulinewritings.St.Paulmakesthecrossasummaryofthegospel.Thus
forthepreachingofthegospelin1Co1:17hesubstitutesinv.18thewordofthecross,andinv.23thepreachingofChristcrucified(cf.
2:2).AgaininGal6:12hespeaksofsufferingpersecutionforthecrossofChrist,wherethemeaningevidentlyisfortheconfessionoffaith
intheChristiangospel.AndwhenhegloriesinthecrossofourLordJesusChrist(v.14),thecrossisused,astheclausesfollowingshow,to
epitomizethesavingworkofJesusbothforusandinus.

(4)Further,inthePaulinetheologythecrossissetforthasthegreatinstrumentofreconciliation.Itisthroughthebloodofhiscrossthat
ChristhaseffectedareconciliationbetweenGodandman(Col1:20ff.).Hetookoutofthewaythebondwritteninordinancesthatwas
againstus,nailingittothecross(2:14).ItisthroughthecrossthatHehasreconciledtheGentileandtheJew,abolishingthat
lawofcommandmentswhichrosebetweenthemlikeamiddlewallofpartition(Eph2:1416).Andthereareglimpsesofastillwider
reconciliationaccomplishedbyJesusthroughHiscrossareconciliationofallthingsuntoGodtheFather,whethertheybethingsuponthe
earthorthingsintheheavens(Col1:20,cf.Eph1:10).

(5)Oncemore,thecrossistoSt.PaulthesymbolofamysticalunionwithChristHimself.InthegreatfigureoftheGospels(Mt10:38||)
crossbearingstandsfortheimitationofChrist.St.Paulgoesdeeper,andseesinthecrossacrucifixionwithChristfromwhichtherespringsa
possessionoftheindwellinglifeofChrist(Gal2:20).Theoldmaniscrucified(Ro6:6),thatanewmanmayrisefromthedead(cf.v.4).The
fleshiscrucified,withitspassionsandlusts(Gal5:24),thattheChristianmayliveandwalkbytheSpirit(v.25).Andyetthismysticismof
thecrossnevercausestheApostletolosesightofthecrossasthemeansofanobjectiveredemption.Onthecontrary,heregardsthetwoideas
asinseparablyconnectedand,gloryinginthecrossofourLordJesusChrist,doessobecausethroughit(a)theworldthesphereofexternal
ordinancesiscrucifieduntohimand(b)hehimselfiscrucifieduntotheworld(Gal6:14).

J.C.Lambert.
CROWoccursonceinApocr.(Bar6:54),wherethehelplessnessofidolsisillustratedbytheremarkthattheyareascrowsbetween
heavenandearth.SeealsoRaven.
CROWN
1.IntheOT.ThewordrepresentsseveralHeb.termswithdistinctmeanings.(1)zr,properlyanedgeorborder,withthesuggestionof
atwistedorwreathedappearance.ItoccursonlyinEx(25:11andfrequently).Itisalwaysofgold,andinthefurnitureoftheTabernacle
surroundstheark,thetableofshewbreadanditsborder,thealtarofincense.RVmgivesasalternativerenderingsrim,moulding.Its
purposeseemstohavebeenornamentalmerely.(2)nzer,properlymarkofseparationorconsecration(fr.nzartoseparate,consecrate
whencenzir=Nazirite).Originallyitwasnomorethanafillettoconfinehairthatwaswornlong(W.R.Smith,RS2p.483).Itisusedof
thecrownsetupontheforeheadofthehighpriest(Ex29:6etc.)aplateofpuregoldwiththeengravingHolytoJ(39:30,cf.Lv8:9),and
alsoofthecrownwornbyHeb.kings(2S1:10,2K11:12).Inbothcasesitwasthesymbolofconsecration.(3)kether,similarinmeaning
to(2)butwithouttheideaofconsecration,isusedinEst.(1:11,2:17,6:8)todenotethediademofaPersiankingorqueen.(4)atrah,the
wordthatismostfrequentandofthemostgeneralsignificance.Itisappliedtothecrownwornbykings,whetherJewish(2S12:30etc.)or
foreign(1Ch20:2,Est8:15[cf.6:8]),tothewreathwornatbanquets(Is28:1,3,Ezk23:42)butalsoinafig.sense,aswhen,e.g.avirtuous
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foreign(1Ch20:2,Est8:15[cf.6:8]),tothewreathwornatbanquets(Is28:1,3,Ezk23:42)butalsoinafig.sense,aswhen,e.g.avirtuous
womaniscalledherhusbandscrown(Pr12:4),ahoaryheadthecrownofoldage(16:31),theLordofhoststhecrownofHispeople(Is
28:5).(5)qodhqdhisthecrownortopofthehead,asintheexpressionfromthesoleofhisfootevenuntohiscrown(Job2:7)cf.Gn
49:26,Dt33:20etc.Thevb.tocrowniscomparativelyrareintheOT:tar(correspondingto(4)above)isfoundinPs8:5,65:11,103:4,
Ca3:11,Is23:8kathar(corresp.to(3))inPr14:18nzar(correspondingto(2))inNah3:17.

2.IntheNT.InAVcrownrepresentstwoGr.words:(1)stephanos(whencestephano,tocrown),(2)diadematheformerbeingthe
badgeofmeritorvictory,thelatter(foundonlyinRev12:3,13:1,19:12)themarkofroyalty.Thisdistinction,thoughnotstrictlyobservedin
LXX,isproperlymaintainedinRV,where(2)isineachcaserendereddiadem.Thestephanos(properlywreath=Lat.corona)wasthe
garlandgivenasaprizetothevictorsinthegames(1Co
9:25cf.2Ti2:5).ItisthewordappliedtoourLordscrownofthorns(Mt27:29,
Mk15:17,Jn19:2,5).Itisusedfigurativelyofthecrownofrighteousness(2Ti4:8),oflife(Ja1:12,Rev2:10),ofglory(1P5:4).St.
Paulappliesittohisconvertsasbeinghisjoyandreward(Ph4:1,1Th2:19)andinRev.itisemployedinvarioussymbolicalconnexions
(4:4,10,6:2,9:7,12:1,14:14).
J.C.Lambert.

CRUCIFIXION

1.Itsnature.Crucifixiondenotesaformofexecutioninwhichthecondemnedpersonwasaffixedinonewayoranothertoacross(Lat.
crux)andtherelefttodie.TheGr.termrenderedcrossintheEng.NTisstauros(stauro=crucify),whichhasawiderapplicationthanwe
ordinarilygivetocross,beingusedofasinglestakeorbeamaswellasofacrosscomposedoftwobeams.Thecrucifixionoflivingpersons
doesnotmeetusonOTground(unlessitbeinEzr6:11seeRV),thoughdeathbyhangingdoes(Est7:10.ThestauroofLXXhererenders
theHeb.talah=tohang)butthehangingupofadeadbody,especiallyonatree,isfamiliar(Jos10:26cf.1S31:10,2S4:12,21:12),and
issanctionedbytheLaw(Dt21:22),withtheprovisothatabodythushung,assomethingaccursed,mustberemovedandburiedbefore
nightfall(v.23).ThisenactmentexplainsJn19:31,Gal3:13,aswellasthereff.intheNTtothecrossasatree(Ac5:30,10:39,13:29,1P
2:24).

2.Itsoriginanduse.TheoriginofcrucifixionistracedtothePhnicians,fromwhomitpassedtomanyothernations,includingboth
GreeksandRomans.Amongthelatteritwasexceedinglycommon,butwasconfinedalmostexclusivelytothepunishmentofslaves,
foreigners,orcriminalsofthelowestclass,beingregardedasincompatiblewiththedignityofanyRomancitizen(cf.Cic.inVerr.i.5,v.61,
66).Thisexplainswhy,astraditionaffirms,St.Paulwasbeheaded,whileSt.PeterandotherApostles,liketheMasterHimself,wereputto
deathonthecross.

3.Formsofthecross.Theprimitiveformwasthecruxsimplexasinglepostsetuprightintheearth,towhichthevictimwasfastened
orasharpstakeonwhichhewasimpaled.TheRomancrosswasmoreelaborate,consistingoftwobeams,which,however,mightbeput
togetherindifferentways.Threeshapesaredistinguished:(1)Thecruxcommissa(T),shapedlikeacapitalT,andcommonlyknownasSt.
Anthonyscross(2)thecruximmissa(+),theformwithwhichwearemostfamiliar(3)thecruxdecussata(X),shapedliketheletterX,and
knownasSt.Andrewscross.EarlyChristiantraditionaffirmsthatitwason(2)thatJesusdied(e.g.Iren.Hr.ii.24,4Justin,Trypho,91)
andthisisconfirmedbythestatementsoftheGospelsastothetitlethatwassetaboveHishead(Mt27:37,Mk15:26,Lk23:38,Jn
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andthisisconfirmedbythestatementsoftheGospelsastothetitlethatwassetaboveHishead(Mt27:37,Mk15:26,Lk23:38,Jn
19:19f.).

4.Methodandaccompanimentsofcrucifixion.TheseareveryfullyillustratedintheGospelnarrativesofthedeathofJesus,towhich
weshallnowespeciallyrefer.Immediatelyafterbeingcondemnedtothecross,aprisonerwasbrutallyscourged.[InthecaseofJesusthe
scourgingappearstohavetakenplacebeforeHiscondemnation(Jn19:1),andtohavebeenintendedbyPilateasacompromisewiththeJews
betweenthedeathsentenceandaverdictofacquittal(Lk23:22).]Thecrossbeam(patibulum),notthewholecross,wasthenlaidonhis
shoulders,andbornebyhimtotheplaceofexecution,whilehistitulus(Jn19:19f.,Gr.titlos,Eng.title)ortabletofaccusationhungaround
hisneck,orwascarriedbeforehimbyaherald.IfitwasonlythepatibulumthatJesuscarried,theprobablefailureofHisstrengthbytheway,
leadingtotheincidentofSimontheCyrenian(Mt27:32||),mustbeattributednottotheweightofHisburden,buttosheerphysicalexhaustion
aggravatedbylossofbloodthroughscourging,aswellastotheanguishthatpresseduponHissoul.
Arrivedattheplaceofexecution,whichbothwiththeRomansandtheJewswasoutsideofthecity(seeart.Golgotha),thecondemnedwas
strippedofhisclothingbythesoldiersdetailedtocarryoutthesentence,whoimmediatelyappropriateditastheirlawfulbooty(Mt27:35||).
Hewasthenlaidontheground,thecrossbeamwasthrustbeneathhisshoulders,andhishandswerefastenedtotheextremities,sometimes
withcords,butmoreusually,asinthecaseofJesus(Jn20:25,Lk24:39f.cf.Col2:14),withnails.Thebeamwasnextraisedintoposition
andsecurelyfixedtotheuprightalreadyplantedintheground.Ontheuprightwasaprojectingpeg(sedile)astrideofwhichthevictimwas
madetosit,therebyrelievingthestrainonthepiercedhands,whichmightotherwisehavebeentornawayfromthenails.Finallythefeetwere
fastenedtothelowerpartoftheupright,eitherwithnails(Lk24:39f.)orwithcords.

ThecrosswasnotaloftyerectionmuchlowerthanitisusuallyrepresentedinChristianart(cf.Mt27:48||).Hangingthusquitenearthe
ground,Jesus,inthemidstofHislastagonies,wasallthemoreexposedtothejeersandinsultsofthebystandersandpassersby.Itwasa
custominJerusalemtoprovidesomealleviationforthephysicaltorturesandmentalsufferingsofthecrucifiedbygivinghimastupefying
draught.ThiswasofferedtoJesusbeforeHewasnailedtothecrossbutHerefusedtotakeit(Mt27:34).Hewoulddrinkeverydropofthe
cupthatHisFatherhadgivenHim,andgoontodeathwithanunclouded
consciousness.ButforthiswecouldhardlyhavehadthoseSevenWordsfromtheCrosswhichcometouslikethegloriousraysthatshoot
fromasunsinkinginawfulsplendour.

Incrucifixionthepainsofdeathwereprotractedlongsometimesfordays.Evenwhenthevictimswerenailedandnotmerelytiedtothe
cross,itwashungerandexhaustion,notlossofblood,thatwasthedirectcauseofdeath.Sometimesanendwasputtotheirsufferingsbythe
crurifragiumthebreakingoftheirlegsbyhammerstrokes.ItisnotlikelythatinordinarycircumstancestheJewswouldinduceaRoman
governortopayanyattentiontothelawofDt21:22f.But,asthedayfollowingourLordscrucifixionwasnotonlyaSabbath,butthe
SabbathofPassoverweek,PilatewaspersuadedtogiveordersthatJesusandthetworobberscrucifiedalongwithHimshouldbedespatched
bythecrurifragiumandtheirbodiesremoved(Jn19:31).Thesoldiersbrokethelegsoftherobbersfirst,butwhentheycametoJesusthey
foundthatHewasalreadydead.Oneofthem,eitherinsheerbrutalityortomakesureofHisdeath,ranaspearintoHisside.Thebloodand
waterthatgushedout(Jn19:34,cf.1Jn5:6,8)havebeenheldbysomemedicalauthoritiestojustifytheopinionthattheSaviourdiedofa
brokenheart.Hisdeathbeingcertified,JosephofArimatha,whohadbeggedthebodyfromPilate,removeditfromthecrossandlaiditin
hisownsepulchre(Mt27:57ff.||).J.C.Lambert.
CRUELTY.ThewordcrueltyhasnearlydisappearedfromourBibles.TheRVhasintroducedrigourandviolenceinitsstead.
However,manyinstancesofcrueltyremainintheOTrecords,andsomeoftheseseemtohavethesanctionofScripture.SuchpassagesasDt
20:17,Jos6:21,2S12:31nolongertroublethedevoutstudentoftheBibleastheyoncedid.HenowrecognizesthefactthatintheBiblewe130/137
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20:17,Jos6:21,2S12:31nolongertroublethedevoutstudentoftheBibleastheyoncedid.HenowrecognizesthefactthatintheBiblewe
haveafaithfulrecordoftheslowevolutionofspiritualideals,andthattherevelationoftheNTbrandsasunChristianandinhumanmany
thingsthatwerewrittenbytheancientscribesandsomethingsthatweredonebyancientsaints.ThespiritofElijahmaynotbethespiritof
Christ(Lk9:55).CrueltyisunChristiankindnessisthelawoftheChristianlife.

D.A.Hayes.
CRUSE.SeeHouse,9.
CRYSTAL.SeeJewelsandPreciousStones.
CUBinEzk30:5isalmostcertainlyacorruptionofLub(i.e.Lybia),aswasreadbyLXX.TheLibyaofAVisamistranslationofPut(see
RV).Cf.Nah3:9,whereLybiansarementionedalongwithCush(Ethiopia),Egypt,andPut,asherealso2Ch12:3,16:8.
CUBIT.SeeWeightsandMeasures.
CUCKOW(shachaph,Lv11:16,Dt14:15,RVseamew,followingLXX).AlthoughcuckoosarecommoninPalestine,andtheirvoices
maybeheardalloverthelandinthespring,yetthereisgoodreasonforrejectingthistranslation.TheHeb.rootimpliesleanness,andthe
uncleanbirdreferredtomusthavebeensomekindofgull.

E.W.G.Masterman.
CUCUMBERS.TwovarietiesofcucumberareverycommoninPalestine.TheCucumissativus(Arab.khyr),asmoothskinned,
whitishcucumberofdelicateflavour,isaprimefavouritewiththeArabs.Itiscoolandjuicy,butforcultivationrequiresabundantwater.The
second(C.chate,Arab.[inJerusalem]faqqs,[inSyria]qithth)isalongslendercucumber,lessjuicythantheformer.ThereferenceinNu
11:5isprobablytothelatter,whichisanEgyptianplant.Thelodgeinagardenofcucumbers(Is1:8)istheroughbootherectedbythe
owner,raised,asarule,highuponpoles,fromwhichhemaykeepguardoverhisripeningvegetables.Whentheharvestisover,thelodgeis
nottakendownbutisallowedtodroptopieces.Itisadrearyruinofpolesanddriedbranchesduringmorethanhalftheyear.

E.W.G.Masterman.
CUMI.SeeTalithaCumi.
CUMMIN.Theseedofanumbelliferousplant,theCuminumcyminum(syriacum),widelycultivatedinandaroundPalestine.Itisused
toflavourdishes,and,moreparticularly,breadinflavourandappearanceitresemblescarrawayithaslongbeencreditedwithmedicinal
propertiesitcertainlyisacarminative.Itisevennowbeatenoutwithrods(Is28:27).TithesofcumminwerepaidbytheJews(Mt23:23).

E.W.G.Masterman.
CUN.SeeBerothah.
CUNNING.Asasubst.cunninginAVmeanseitherskillorknowledgeasanadj.eitherskilfulorwise(wecannotsayknowing,forthat
adj.hasalsodegenerated).Itisthepres.participleoftheAngloSax.verbcunnan,whichmeantbothtoknowandtobeable.InthePreface
totheWyclifiteversionof1388wereadoftheHolySpyrit,authorofallwisdomandcunnyngeandtruth.
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totheWyclifiteversionof1388wereadoftheHolySpyrit,authorofallwisdomandcunnyngeandtruth.
CUP.1.InOTtherenderingofvariouswords,theprecisedistinctionbetweenwhich,eitherastoformoruse,isunknowntous.The
usualwordisks,theordinarydrinkingvesselofrich(Gn40:11,13,21)andpoor(2S12:3)alike,thematerialofwhichvaried,nodoubt,
withtherankandwealthoftheowner.Josephsdiviningcup(gbha,Gn44:2ff.)wasofsilver,and,wemayinfer,ofelaborateworkmanship,
sincethesamewordisusedforthebowls(AV)orcups(RV),i.e.theflowershapedornamentation,onthecandlestickoftheTabernacle.That
thegbhawaslargerthantheksisclearfromJer35:5.Theksvthof1Ch28:17weremoreprobablyflagons,asRVinEx25:29,37:16
(butNu4:7RVcups).Theaggn(Is22:24)wasratherabasin,asEx24:6,thanacup(EV).

InNTpotrionisthecorrespondingnameoftheordinarydrinkingcup(waterMt10:42etc.,wine23:25etc.).Thecupofblessing(1Co
10:16)issonamedfromthekshabberkhahoftheJewishPassover(wh.see,alsoEucharist).

2.ThewordcuphasreceivedanextendedfigurativeapplicationinbothOTandNT.(a)Asinvariousotherliteratures,cupstands,esp.
inPsalms,forthehappyfortuneorexperienceofonesearthlylot,mankindbeingthoughtofasreceivingthislotfromthehandofGod,asthe
guestreceivesthewinecupfromthehandofhishost(Ps16:5,23:5,73:10etc.).Butalso,conversely,forthebitterlotofthewicked,Ps11:6
(cf(c)below),andinparticularforthesufferingsofJesusChrist,Mt20:22,23,Mk10:38,39,14:36,Lk22:42,Jn18:11.(b)Anotherfigureis
thecupofsalvation(lit.ofdeliverances),Ps116:13.Thereferenceistothewineofthethankofferings,partoftheritualofwhichwasthe
festalmealbeforeJ(cf.vv.14a,17ff.).(c)ByastillbolderfigurethepunitivewrathoftheoffendedDeityisspokenofasacupwhichthe
guilty,Israelitesandheathenalike,mustdraintothedregs.SoJer25:15ff.(thewinecup[of]fury),Ezk23:3234,Is51:17ff.(thecupof
trembling,RVstaggering),Zec12:2(RVcupofreeling),
Ps75:8,Rev14:10,16:19,18:6,forallwhichseethecommentaries.(d)Lastly,wehavethecupofconsolationofferedtothemournersafter
thefuneralrites,Jer16:7(cf.Pr31:6).
CUPBEARER.AnofficerofconsiderableimportanceatOrientalcourts,whosedutyitwastoservethewineatthetableoftheking.
ThefirstmentionofthisofficerisinthestoryofJoseph(Gn40:115),wherethetermrenderedbutlerinEVistheHeb.wordwhichis
renderedinotherpassagescupbearer.Theholderofthisofficewasbroughtintoconfidentialrelationswiththeking,andmusthavebeen
thoroughlytrustworthy,aspartofhisdutywastoguardagainstpoisoninthekingscup.Insomecaseshewasrequiredtotastethewine
beforepresentingit.ThepositionofNehemiahascupbearertoArtaxerxesLongimanuswasevidentlyhigh.Herodotus(iii.34)speaksofthe
officeatthecourtofCambyses,kingofPersia,asanhonourofnosmallaccount,andthenarrativeofNehemiahshowsthehighesteemof
theking,whoissosolicitousforhiswelfarethatheasksthecauseofhissadness(2:2).ThecupbearersamongtheofficersofkingSolomons
household(1K10:5)impressedthequeenofSheba,andtheyarementionedamongotherindicationsofthegrandeurofhiscourt,whichwas
modelleduponcourtsofotherOrientalkings.
CUPBOARD(1Mac15:32).Asideboardusedforthedisplayofgoldandsilverplate.Thisistheearliestmeaningofcupboardcf.
Greene(1592),Hermistresssetallherplateonthecubboordeforshew.CURSE.SeeBanandExcommunication.
CURTAIN.SeeTabernacle.
CUSHinOTdesignatesEthiopia,andistheonlynameusedthereforthatregion.ItisthesameastheEgyptianKashorKesh.Broadly
speaking,itanswerstothemodernNubia.Morespecifically,theEgyptianKashextendedsouthwardsfromthefirstCataractatSyene(Ezk
29:10),andintheperiodsofwidestextensionoftheempireitembracedaportionoftheSudan.ItwasconqueredandannexedbyEgyptunder
the12thDynasty(c.b.c.2000)andremainednormallyasubjectcountry.Afterthedeclineofthe22nd(Libyan)Dynasty,theCushitesbecame
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the12thDynasty(c.b.c.2000)andremainednormallyasubjectcountry.Afterthedeclineofthe22nd(Libyan)Dynasty,theCushitesbecame
powerfulandgraduallyencroachedonnorthernEgypt,sothatatlengthanEthiopiandynastywasestablished(the25th,728663),whichwas
overthrownbytheAssyrians.WithinthisperiodfallstheattemptofTirhakah,kingofCush,todefeatSennacheribofAssyriainPalestine(2K
19:9).

InGn10:6CushisasonofHam,thoughhisdescendantsasgiveninv.7aremostlyArabian.Surprisingalsoisthestatementin2Ch
14:9ff.thatZerahtheCushiteinvadedJudahinthedaysofAsa,atatimewhentheCushiteshadnopowerinEgypt.Anattempthasbeen
madetosolvetheseandotherdifficultiesbytheassumptionofasecondCushinArabia(cf.2Ch21:16).InstructivereferencestotheCushite
countryandpeoplearefoundinAm9:7,Is18:1f.,Jer13:23.CushiteswerefrequentinPalestine,probablydescendantsofslavessee2S
18:21ff.,Jer36:14,38:7ff.Thesewere,however,possiblyArabianCushites.FortheexplanationoftheCushofGn10:8ff.,andpossiblyof
2:13,seeCossans.
J.F.McCurdy.
CUSHasapersonalnameoccursonlyinthetitleofPs7.HeisdescribedasaBenjamite,andwasprobablyafollowerofSaulwho
opposedDavid.
CUSHAN(Hab3:7)=Arabian(?)Cush(wh.see).
CUSHANRISHATHAIM.KingofMesopotamia,orAramnaharaim,firstoftheoppressorsofIsrael,fromwhomOthniel.sonof
Kenaz.deliveredthemaftereightyears(Jg3:810).IthasbeenconjecturedthathewasakingoftheMitanni,whoseterritoryoncecovered
thedistrictbetweentheEuphratesandHabor,orthatAramisamistakeforEdom,RishathaimforReshhattemani,chiefofthe
Temanites.Thenamehasnotyetreceivedanymonumentalexplanation,anditsnationalityisunknown.
C.H.W.Johns.
CUSHI,CUSHITE.ThewordCshoccurswiththearticleinNu12:1,2S18:21withoutthearticleinJer36:14,Zeph1:1.1.Withthe
articleitisprobablymerelyanexpressionofnationality,theCushite(seeCush).ItwaslookeduponasadisgracethatMosesshouldhave
marriedaCushite.2.Withoutthearticlethewordisusedmerelyasapropername.Itisborneby(1)thegreatgrandfatherofJehudi,thelatter
oneofJehoiakimscourtiers(Jer36:14)(2)thefatheroftheprophetZephaniah(Zeph1:1).
CUSHION.SeePillow.
CUSTOM(S)(Mt17:25,Ro13:7):receiptofcustom(Mt9:9,Mk2:14,Lk5:27).Thisistobecarefullydistinguishedfromtribute
(wh.see).Thecustomswerepaidonthevalueofgoods,inGalileeandPeratotheHerods,butintheRomanprovinceofJudatothe
procuratorasagentoftheRomangovernment.Thereceiptofcustomwasthecollectorsoffice.

A.Souter.
CUTH,CUTHAH.OneofthecitiesfromwhichSargonbroughtcoloniststotaketheplaceoftheIsraeliteswhomhehaddeportedfrom
Samaria,b.c.722(2K17:24,30).ThesecolonistsintermingledwiththeIsraeliteinhabitantswhowereleftbySargonandtheirdescendants,
theSamaritans,wereinconsequencetermedbytheJewsCuthans.AccordingtotheoldArabicgeographers,Cuthahwassituatednotfar
fromBabylon.ThisviewisborneoutbytheAssyrianinscriptions,fromwhichwelearnthatKuti(orKutu)wasacityofMiddleBabylonia.It
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fromBabylon.ThisviewisborneoutbytheAssyrianinscriptions,fromwhichwelearnthatKuti(orKutu)wasacityofMiddleBabylonia.It
hasnowbeenidentifiedwiththemodernTellIbrhim,N.E.ofBabylon,whereremainsofthetempleofNergal(cf.v.30)havebeen
discovered.
CUTHA(1Es5:32).HissonswereamongtheTempleservantswhoreturnedfromBabylonwithZerubbabel.
CUTTINGOFFFROMTHEPEOPLE.SeeCrimesandPunishments,
11.
CUTTINGSINTHEFLESH.ThisexpressionoccursonlyinLv19:28,21:5.Theformerpassagerunsthus:Yeshallnotmakeany
cuttingsinyourfleshforthedead.IamtheLord.Thesameprohibition,otherwiseexpressedintheoriginal,isfoundintheearlier
Deuteronomiclegislation(Dt14:1).Thereferenceistothepractice,notconfinedtotheHebrewsoreventotheirSemitickinsfolk,ofmaking
incisionsintheface,hands(Jer48:37),andotherpartsofthebodytotheeffusionofblood,aspartoftheritesofmourningforthedead(see
Marks,4),andbyanaturaltransition,towhichthewearingofsackclothformsaparallel,intimesofnationalcalamity.Thecustomis
referredtowithoutcondemnationbythepreDeuteronomicprophets,seeHos7:14(correctedtext,asRVm),andesp.Jer16:6,41:5,47:5.
Theunderlyingmotiveofthispracticeandthereasonsforitslegislativeprohibitionhavebeenvariouslystated.Itmayberegardedas
certain,however,thatthepracticehaditsrootinprimitiveanimisticconceptionsregardingthespiritsofthedeparted.Theobjectinviewmay
havebeeneithersotodisfigurethelivingthattheyshouldbeunrecognizablebythemalignantspiritsofthedead,or,moreprobably,bymeans
oftheeffusionofbloodwhichoriginally,perhaps,wasbroughtintocontactwiththecorpsetomaintainorrenewthebondofunion
betweenthelivingandthedead.

Theexplanationjustgivenisconfirmedbythealliedpractice,springingfromsimilarmotives,ofshavingoffthewhole(Ezk44:20,cf.Bar
6:31)orpartoftheheadhairorofthebeardintokenofmourning(Is15:2,22:12,Ezk7:18,Am8:10etc.).Bothpractices,theincisionsand
theshaving,arenamedtogetherinthelegislativepassagesabovecited.ThusDt14:1forbidsbaldnessbetweentheeyes,i.e.theshavingof
thefrontofthescalp,forthedeadinLv19:27itisforbiddentoroundthecornersofthehead,i.e.toshavethetemples(cf.Jer9:26,
25:23,wherecertaindeserttribesarenamedthecornersclipt,fromtheirhabitofshavingthetemples,seeHair),andtomarthecornersof
thebeard(cf.Jer48:37).Thesereferencesrecallthewidespreadheathenpracticeofhairofferings,whichgoesbacktotheantique
conceptionthatthehair,liketheblood,istheseatoflife.

Thereasonofthetwofoldprohibitionnowbecomesapparent.WiththegrowthofloftierconceptionsofJandHisworship,thesepractices,
withtheiranimisticbackgroundandheathenassociations,wereseentobeunworthyofapeoplewhoowedexclusivedevotiontotheir
covenantGod,athoughtimpliedintheconcludingwordsofLv19:28IamJahweh.Thepracticeofgashingthebodytillthebloodran,as
partoftheritualofBaalworship,isattestedby1K18:28.
ThefurtherprohibitionofLv19:28norprintanymarksuponyou,referstoanotherwidelyprevalentcustominantiquity,thatoftattooing
andevenbranding(3Mac2:29)thebodywiththenameorsymbolofonesspecialdeity,apracticetowhichthereisareferenceinIs44:5,to
berenderedasinRVm,anothershallwriteonhishand.UntotheLord,or,better,asoneword,Jahwehs.

A.R.S.Kennedy.
CYAMON,Jth7:3=Jokneam(wh.see).
CYLINDER.Ca5:14RVmforEVring.SeeRing.
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CYLINDER.Ca5:14RVmforEVring.SeeRing.
CYMBAL.SeeMusicandMusicalInstruments.
CYPRESS.(1)tirzah(Is44:14,RVholmoak)standsforsometreewithveryhardwood,themeaningoftheroot(inArabic)beingto
behard.HolmoakistherenderingoftheoldestLatintranslation.ThisistheQuercusilex,atreenowrareW.oftheJordan,butstillfoundin
GileadandBashan(2)teashshur(Is41:19RVm).BothAVandRVhaveboxtree(wh.see)(3)bersh(2S6:5RVm).BothAVandRV
havefirwood(seealsoIs55:13).InPalestinetodaycypressesareextensivelyplanted,especiallyincemeteries.

E.W.G.Masterman.
CYPRUS.An island in the N.E. corner of the Levant, within sight of the Syrian and Cilician coasts. Its greatest length is 140 miles,
breadth60miles.InconfigurationitconsistsofalongplainshutinontheN.andtheS.W.bymountainranges.

IntheOTthenameCyprusdoesnotoccur,butundoubtedlytheislandisreferredtounderthenameKittim,whichisthesameasthename
ofthePhniciantownKition,nowLarnaka.InGn10:4KittimisspokenofasasonofJavan,togetherwithTarshishandElishah.This
probablyimpliesthattheearliestpopulationofCypruswasakintothepreHellenicpopulationofGreece.InEzk27:6theislesofKittimare
spokenofassupplyingTyrewithboxwood.ButthenameKittimisusedalsooftheWestgenerally,asinDn11:30oftheRomans(cf.Nu
24:24).
TheearlyimportanceofCypruswasduetoitsforestsanditscopper.Itscopperhaslongagobeenexhausted,andowingtoneglectits
forestshaveperished.Butthroughoutthebronzeage,whichforgancountriesmayroughlybereckonedasb.c.2000tob.c.1000,its
copperwasexportednotonlytoSyriabuttoEgyptandtoEurope,and,mixedwiththetinbroughtbyPhniciansfromCornwallandthe
West,itprovidedthemetalfromwhichbothweaponsandornamentsweremade.HencethenamecopperisderivedfromCyprus.Whenthe
ironagebegan,thismetalalsowasobtainedfromCyprus.
DoubtlessthecopperwasfirstexportedbyPhnicians,whoearlyfoundedKitionandothertownsinCyprus,andintroducedtheworship
oftheSyrian
AphroditewhobecameknowntotheGreeksastheCypriangoddess.ButtheGreeksthemselveswerenotlongbehindthePhniciansinthe
island,thesettlersweredoubtlessPeloponnesiansdisturbedbytheDorianinvasions,andtheyusedwhattheGreekscalledtheArcadian
dialect.Theybroughtwiththemthegancivilization,asrelicsfoundintheislandproveconclusively.Paphoe,Soli,SalamiswereGreek
settlements,thelastbeingnamedfromtheislandoffthecoastofAttica.ButtheGreekssooncombinedwiththePhnicians.Theyadopted
whatwasprobablyinoriginaHittitealphabet,inwhicheverysyllableisrepresentedbyaseparatesign,andthislastedtillthe4thcentury.

Cyprusdidnotdevelopasanindependentpower.Beforeb.c.1450itwasmadetributarytoEgypt.Aboutb.c.1000itwassubjecttoTyre,
andwithPhniciaitpassedintothehandsofSargon,theAssyrian,aboutb.c.700.SargonleftaninscriptionatKition,andlaterAssyrian
kingsrecordtributereceivedfromCyprus.Aboutb.c.560AmasisofEgyptreducedtheisland,anditpassedwithEgypttoCambysesof
Persiainb.c.525.IttookpartintheIonianrevoltofb.c.501,butwasquicklyreduced,andsuppliedXerxeswithafleetinb.c.480.Athens
maderepeatedattemptstosecuretheisland,butthemixedpopulationpreventedanystrongHellenicmovement,anditonlypasseddefinitely
intoGreekhandsbysubmissiontoAlexandertheGreatafterthebattleofIssusinb.c.333.OnthedivisionofhisempireitfelltothePtolemys
ofEgypt,untilitwasannexedbyRomeinb.c.57.ItwasmadeaseparateprovinceafterthebattleofActiuminb.c.31,becomingatfirstan

imperialprovince,butbeingafterwardstransferredtosenatorialgovernment,sothatinAc13:7St.Lukerightlydescribesthegovernorasa
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imperialprovince,butbeingafterwardstransferredtosenatorialgovernment,sothatinAc13:7St.Lukerightlydescribesthegovernorasa
proconsul.
JewsfirstsettledinCyprusunderthePtolemys,andtheirnumberstherewereconsiderablebeforethetimeoftheApostles.Barnabasis
describedasaCypriotJew,andwhenheandSt.PaulstartedfromAntiochontheFirstMissionary
Journey,theyfirstofallpassedthroughCyprus(Ac13:412).TheylandedatSalamis,thenaGreekportflourishingwithSyriantrade,now
desertedwithitsharboursiltedupthreemilesfromFamagusta.Heretheypreachedinthesynagogue,wheretheirmessagewasprobably
notentirelynew(Ac11:19),andthenjourneyedthroughthewholeisland(RV)toNewPaphosintheW.athreeorfourdaysjourney,even
iftheypreachednowhereontheway.NewPaphos,likeOldPaphos,wastheseatoftheworshipofAphrodite(seePaphos),andwasatthis
timetheRomancapital.(Fortheincidentsconnectedwiththeproconsulandthemagus,seeartt.SergiusPaulusandBarjesus.)

BesidesBarnabaswehavementionofMnason,anoriginalconvert,ascomingfromCyprus(Ac21:16),butwehavenoknowledgeof
howtheChurchgrewintheislanduntilitincluded15bishoprics.TheJewsofCyprustookpartinthegreatrisingoftheirracewhichtook
placeina.d.117(whenTrajanwasbusywithParthia),andtheyaresaidtohavemassacred240,000oftheGentilepopulation.Therevoltwas
suppressedwithoutmercy,andallJewswereexpelledfromtheisland.
UndertheByzantineemperorsCyprussufferedmuchfromtheirmisrule,andfromtheSaracens.Seizedin1191byRichardCurdeLion,
itwassoldtotheKnightsTemplars.From1479to1570itwasheldbytheVenetians.AfterthreecenturiesofTurkishruleitpassedunder
Britishrulein1878,byaconventionwhichstillrequiresittopaytributetotheSultan.Butithasscarcelyrecoveredprosperity.Variouscauses
havelessenedtherainfall,itistroubledwithmalaria,itsmineralresourceswerelongagoworkedoutanditsforestsdestroyed.Thereareno
goodroads,andcommunicationiskeptupbybullockcartsandmules.Itsbestports(LarnakaandLimasol)areopenroadsteads.

A.E.Hillard.
CYRENE.CapitalofLibya(Tripoli)inN.Africa(Ac2:10),thehomeofnumerousJewswhowiththeLibertines(freedmenfrom
Rome?)and
AlexandrianshadasynagogueoftheirownatJerusalem(Ac6:9).ManyofthesebecameChristians,asSimonandhissons(doubtless),Mk
15:21Lucius,Ac13:1andthoseinAc11:20whopreachedtotheGreeks(v.l.Hellenists).

A.J.Maclean.
CYRENIUS.SeeQuirinius.
CYRUS.ReferredtoaskingofthePersians,2Ch36:22,Ezr1:1,Dn10:1,andoftenthePersian,Dn6:28kingofBabylon,Ezr
5:13.HeisregardedinIs4048asspeciallydestinedbyJahwehtoredeemIsraelandexecuteDivinejudgmentuponBabylon,tosetfreethe
captivesandrestoreJerusalemanditsTemple.HehadnotknownJahwehbeforehiscall,butcarriedouthismissionin
Jahwehsname,andisstyledthefriendofJahwehandJahwehsanointed.TheCyrusofwhomthesehighexpectationswereformedwas
thefounderofthe
PersianEmpire.HisgrandfatherwasalsocalledCyrus(Kurush,Bab.Kurash,Heb.Koresh).HewasanAryananddescendedfrom
Achmenes(Hakhamanish).AtfirsthewaskingofPersiaandAnshanorAnzan,anElamiteprovince,capitalatSusa(Shushan),andvassal
ofMedia.Thecontemporarycuneiforminscriptionsare(1)acylinderinscriptionofNabonidus,lastkingofBabylonia,fromSippara(2)an
annalistictabletofCyruswrittenshortlyafterhisconquestofBabylonia(3)aproclamationofCyrusofthesamedate.Nabonidusaccount 136/137
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annalistictabletofCyruswrittenshortlyafterhisconquestofBabylonia(3)aproclamationofCyrusofthesamedate.Nabonidusaccount
waswrittensoonafterCyrus,apettyvassalofAstyages(Istuvegu),kingoftheManda,withhissmallarmyhadconqueredAstyages(b.c.
549).ThisledtothewithdrawaloftheMandafromHarran,andleftNabonidusfreetorestorethetempleofSinthere.Cyrussoonmade
himselfmasterofthewholeMedianempire,butwasfacedbyanallianceofCrsus,kingofLydia,NabonidusofBabylon,andAmasisof
Egypt.OnthefallofCrsus,CyrusturnedtoBabylonia,whereNabonidushadlong

estrangedtheinhabitantsofthecapitalbyhisneglectofthesacredfeastsandworshipofMarduk.Belshazzar,hisson,defendedtheland,but
wasdefeatedatOpis,andon14thTammuz,Sipparafellwithoutfighting.Onthe16th,Gobryas
(Gubaru,Ugbaru)enteredBabylonwithoutresistance,andCyrusfollowedonthe3rdofMarcheshvan,b.c.5398,andwasreceived,
accordingtohisownaccount,byallclasses,especiallybypriestsandnobles,asaliberator.Heclaimstohaverestoredtotheirhomesthe
exilesfromBabyloniaandtheirgods,andpraysthatthesegodsmaydailyintercedeforhimwithMardukandNabu,whoseworshipperhe
professestobe.Cyrusreignedaboutnineyearsfromthistime,andinthelastyearbandedoverthesovereigntyofBabylontohisson
Cambyses.

ThecareerofCyrussoimpressedthepopularimagination,thattheclassicalwritersadornhisstorywithavarietyoflegendaryincidentsfor
whichnoconfirmationcanbeproduced.ThepolicywhichCyruspursuedtowardstheJewsisvariouslyestimated,butallaccountsagreein
statingthattherestorationoftheTemplewasstartedbyhim,andinclaiminghimasaworshipperofJahweh.

C.H.W.Johns.

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DABBESHETH.AtowninthewestwardborderofZebulun(Jos19:11),identifiedwithDabsheh,E.ofAcca.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
DABERATH.AcitysaidinJos19:12tobelongtoZebulun,butinJos21:28and1Ch6:72tobeaLeviticalcityinIssachar.Probablyitwas
ontheborderbetweenthetwotribes.IthasbeenidentifiedwithDaburiehatthefootofTabor.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
DABRIA.OneofthefivescribeswhowrotetothedictationofEzra(2Es
14:24).
DACUBI,1Es5:28=Akkub,Ezr2:42,Neh7:45.
DAGGER.SeeARMOUR,ARMS,1(c).
DAGON.AgodwhoseworshipwasgeneralamongthePhilistines(atGaza,Jg16:23,1Mac10:83,84,11:4atAshkelon,1S5:2prob.at
Bethdagon[wh.see],whichmayatonetimehavebeenunderPhilistinerule).Indeed,thenameBaaldagoninscribedinPhniciancharactersupon
acylindernowintheAshmoleanMuseum,Oxford,andthemodernplacenameBeitDajan(S.E.ofNablus),indicateanexistenceofhiscultin
PhniciaandCanaan.AnendeavourtoidentifythegodwithAtargatis(wh.see)isresponsiblefortheexplanationofthenameasadiminutive
(termofendearment)ofdag(fish),andalsofortherenderingofonlyDagonwasleft(1S5:4)asonlythefishypartwasleft.Thoughthereis
nothingtocontradictthesuppositionthatDagonwasafishgod,itismoreprobablethatoriginallyhewasanagriculturaldeity(namedfromdagan
=grain,cf.1S6:4,5),fromwhichpositionhedevelopedintoawargod(1Ch10:10)andapparentlyevenintoanationaldeity(1S5:86:18).An
identificationofthisgodwiththeBabylonianDaganisdoubtful(seeJensen,Kosmologie,449ff.andJastrow,Rel.ofBab.andAssyr.,Index).
N.KOENIG.
DAISAN,1Es5:31=Rezin,Ezr2:48,Neh7:50.Theformin1Es.isduetoconfusionofHeb.randl.
DALAN,1Es5:37=Delaiah,Ezr2:60.
DALETH.FourthletterofHeb.alphabet,andassuchusedinthe119thPsalmtodesignatethe4thpart,eachverseofwhichbeginswiththis
letter.
DALMANUTHA.HitherChristsailedafterfeedingthefourthousand(Mk8:10).InMt15:39Magadanissubstituted.Nosatisfactory
conjecturehasyetbeenofferedastotheexplanationofeithername,ortheidentificationofeitherplace.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
DALMATIA.AmountainousdistrictontheE.coastoftheAdriaticSea.Moreexactlyused,itisthesouthernhalfoftheRomanprovince
Illyricum(wh.see).ThewriteroftheSecondEpistletoTimothymakesTitusjourneythere(2Ti4:10).
A.SOUTER.
DALPHON(Est9:7).ThesecondsonofHaman,puttodeathbytheJews.
DAMARIS.AconvertatAthens(Ac17:34).AswomenoftheupperclasseswerekeptmoreinthebackgroundtherethaninMacedoniaor
AsiaMinor,shewasprobablynotofnoblebirth(cf.17:4,12).ThenameisperhapsacorruptionofDamalis,aheifer.TheBezanMSomitsit.
A.J.MACLEAN.
DAMASCUS
1. Situation,etc.ThechiefcityofN.Syria,situatedinlat.3330'N.andlong.3618'E.ItliesinaplaineastoftheAntiLebanon,
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1.Situation,etc.ThechiefcityofN.Syria,situatedinlat.3330'N.andlong.3618'E.ItliesinaplaineastoftheAntiLebanon,
famousforitsbeautyandfertility,andwateredbytheBaradaRiver,theAbanah(wh.see)oftheBible.Theluxurianceofitsgardenshaslong
beenrenowned:theEnglishtravellerW.G.Brownein1797notedthatthefruittreesweresonumerousthatthosewhichdiedandwerecutdown
weresufficienttosupplythetownwithfirewood.Itspopulationisestimatedatfrom150,000to220,000.Itderivesitsmodernimportancefrom
localmanufactures(woodwork,furniture,artisticmetalandtextilework),fromitssituationandconvenienceasamarketforthedeserttribes,
andfromitsreligioussignificanceasthestartingpointoftheannualSyrianpilgrimcaravantoMecca.RailwaysrunfromDamascustoHaifa,
Beyrout,andMezerb,andtheimportantlinetoMecca,begunin1901,isexpectedtobefinishedin1910.ThewriterofCanticles,inhis
appreciationofthesensuousbeautyofscenery,hasnotforgottenDamascus:thenoseoftheShulammiteiscomparedtothetowerofLebanon
whichlookethtowardDamascus(Ca7:4).
ThehistoryofDamascusbeginsinremoteantiquity:thetimeofitsfoundationisquiteunknownbutthatasettlementshouldhavebeenfounded
insodesirablealocalitywasinevitablefromtheverybeginningofhumanassociation.ItwasprobablyalreadyanancientcityatthetimeoftheTell
elAmarnatablets,onwhichwemeetwithitsnamemorethanonce.ItalsoappearsinthetributelistsofThothmesIII.asDemesku.
2.OTreferences.IntheBiblicalhistorywefirstmeetwiththenameof
DamascusasaterritorialindicationindefiningthelineofAbramspursuitofthefivekings(Gn14:15).InGn15:2thenameofAbramsstewardis
givenintheMTasDammesekEliezer(soRV)anameprobablycorrupt.ItisexplainedintheAram.,Targum,andSyr.asEliezerthe
Damascene,whichgivessense,thoughitpresupposesamostimprobablecorruptionintheHebrewtext.Wemustthereforepassthispassageby
withtheremarkthatitisnotunlikelythatAbramsservantwasanativeofDamascus.WehearnothingmoreofDamascustill2S8:5,6,which
describesDavidscaptureofthecityasareprisalforitsassistancegivento
Hadadezer,kingofZobahDavidgarrisoneditandreducedittoatributarycondition(cf.1Ch18:5).ThegeneralofHadadezer,however,Rezonby
name,succeededinestablishinghimselfaskinginDamascusinthetimeofSolomon,andmadehimselfcontinuouslyaverytroublesomeneighbour
(1K11:23,24).InthewarsbetweenAsaandBaasha(1K15:17ff.,2Ch16:2ff.)thekingofJudahinvokedtheaidofBenhadad,kingofSyria,
whoseroyalcitywasDamascus,againsthisIsraeliteenemy.BygiftshepersuadedhimtobreakthetrucealreadyexistingbetweenBenhadadand
Israel,andtojoinpartnershipwithJudah.AccordinglyBenhadadproceededtoharassBaashaonhisnorthernborders,andsoinducedhimtodesist
fromhisplanoferectingborderfortificationsbetweenthetwoHebrewkingdoms.HostilitiescontinuedbetweenSyriaandIsraeltillthedaysof
Ahab:AhabssparingofBenhadadafterthebattleofAphekandhismakingatrucewithhim,werethecauseofapropheticdenunciation(1K
20:42).InthereignofJehoram,theSyriangeneralNaamancametobecleansedofleprosy(2K5),andElishasdirectionsledtohisfamous
depreciatingcomparisonofthemuddyJordanwiththeclearflowingAbanahandPharpar(v.12).TheChronicler(2Ch24:23)reportsavictorious
invasionofJudahbyDamascusinthedaysofJoash.ThecityofDamascuswasretakenbyJeroboamII.(2K14:28),thoughthecircumstancesare
notrelatedbutmusthavebeenlostagainimmediately,forwefindtheSyriankingRezinthere(2K16)oppressingAhaz,sothathewasledtothe
policy,which(asIsaiahforesaw,7,10:511)provedsuicidal,ofcallingintheaidofTiglathpileser,kingofAssyria,andsubmittinghimselfasa
vassalofthatgreatking.PropheticdenunciationsofDamascus,asoftheotherenemiesoftheHebrews,arefoundinIs17,Jer49:23,Am1:35,and
Zec9:1.Damascusasacommercialcentrewasalwaysofgreatimportance,andEzekiel(27:18)alludestoitstradeinvinesandwool.Itis,of
course,includedintheimaginaryrestorationofthekingdom(Ezk47:17).
3.NTreferences.DamascusappearsonlyinconnexionwithSt.Paul.Heretookplacehismiraculousconversion(Ac9,22,26)with
thewellknownattendantcircumstances,andhisescapefromAretas(wh.see),thegovernor,bybeingloweredinabasketoverthewall(Ac
9:25,2Co11:32,33),andhitherhereturnedafterhisArabianretirement(Gal1:17).
4.Laterhistory.ThelateextraBiblicalhistoryisverycomplicated.In333
B.C.,afterthebattleofIssus,thecitywassurrenderedtoParmenio,thegeneralofAlexandertheGreat,andduringthesubsequentGrcoEgyptian
warsitfellmorethanonceintothehandsofthePtolemys.In111B.C.,onthepartitionofSyriabetweenAntiochusGrypusandA.Cyzicenus,the
latterobtainedpossessionofthecity.Hissuccessor,DemetriusEucrus,invadedPalestinein88B.C.anddefeatedAlexanderJannusatShechem.
Hisbrother,whosucceededhim,wasdrivenoutbytheArabianHaritha(Aretas).ForawhileitremainedinArabhands,then,afteratemporary
occupationbyTigranes,kingofArmenia,itwasconqueredbyMetellus,theRomangeneral.ItwasacityoftheDecapolis.Thegreattempleofthe
citywasbyoneoftheearlyChristianemperorsprobablyTheodosiustransformedintoachurch.Itisnowtheprincipalmosqueofthecity,but
waspartlydestroyedbyfirein1893.Since635DamascushasbeenaMuslimcity,thoughgovernedfromtimetotimebydifferenttribesand
dynastiesofthatfaith.ItwasconqueredbytheSeljuksin1075.TheCrusadersneversucceededinmakingastrongpositionforthemselvesinthe 2/42
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waspartlydestroyedbyfirein1893.Since635DamascushasbeenaMuslimcity,thoughgovernedfromtimetotimebydifferenttribesand
dynastiesofthatfaith.ItwasconqueredbytheSeljuksin1075.TheCrusadersneversucceededinmakingastrongpositionforthemselvesinthe
city.In1860about6000ChristiansweremassacredbytheMuslimpopulationofthecity.Fewremainsofantiquityaretobeseeninthemodern
city,whichisattractiveprincipallyforitsundilutedOrientallifeanditsextensivemarketsandbazaars.Themosquejustmentioned,amedival
castle,andpartoftheancientwalls,aretheprincipalrelics.Ofcourse,therearetheusualtraditionalsitesofhistoricalevents,butthesearenotmore
trustworthyatDamascusthananywhereelseinSyriaandPalestine.R.A.S.MACALISTER.
DAMNATION.Thewordsdamn,damnable,anddamnationhave,throughtheiruseintheliteratureoftheology,cometoexpress
condemnationtoeverlastingpunishment.ButintheEnglishBibletheymeannomorethanisnowexpressedby
condemnorcondemnation.Insomeplacesabettertranslationthan
condemnationisjudgment,asinJn5:29theresurrectionofdamnation(Gr.krisis,RVjudgment).SeeJUDGMENT.
DAN.Accordingtothepopulartradition,DanwasthefifthsonofJacob,andfullbrotherofNaphtali,byBilhah,Rachelshandmaid(Gn30:6,
8).Rachel,whohadnochildren,exclaimeddananni(Godhathjudgedme),and,therefore,hewascalledDan.Asinthecaseofsomanynames,
thisisclearlyapopularetymology.ItisprobablethatDanwasanappellative,ortitularattribute,ofsomedeitywhosenamehasnotcomedownto
usinconnexionwithit,oritmayevenbethenameofagodasGadwas(cf.theAssyr.propernamesAshurdn[Ashurisjudge],Akudna[the
moongodisjudge]oftheperiodofHammurabi).ItsfemininecounterpartisDinah(JacobsdaughterbyLeah),whichasthenameofthehalf
sisterofDanisprobablyreminiscentofsomerelatedclanthatearlylostitsidentity.
Ofthiseponymousancestorofthetribetraditionhaspreservednodetails,butsomeofthemostinterestingstoriesoftheBookofJudgestellof
theexploitsofthe
DaniteSamson,who,singlehanded,wroughtdiscomfitureintheranksofthePhilistines.Theseareheroicratherthanhistoricaltales,yetsuggestive
oftheconditionsthatprevailedwhenthetribeswereestablishingthemselves.
PmakesDanalargetribe.WithhischaracteristicloveoflargenumbershegivesthefightingstrengthofDanintheWildernesscensusas62,700,
morethanthatofanyotherexceptJudah(Nu1:33cf.26:43,Moabcensus).Alltheotherdatapointintheoppositedirection.J(Jg18:11)speaksof
itasafamilyelsewhereDanissaidtohavehadonlyoneson,HushimorShuham(Gn46:23,Nu26:42).Thetribeatfirstoccupiedthehill
countryintheS.W.ofEphraim,andthenceattemptedtospreadoutintothevalleysofAijalonandSorek.Thatiteverreachedthesea,eitherhereor
initslaternorthernhome,isunlikely,notwithstandingtheusualinterpretationofJg5:17,apassagewhichyieldsnowhollysatisfactorymeaning.
(ButseeMoore,Judges,adloc.).InthisregiontheDaniteswereseverelypressedbytheAmorites=(Canaanites).Themajorportionwere
compelledtoemigratenorthward,wheretheyfoundatthefootofMt.Hermonanisolatedcity,LaishorLeshem,situatedinafertiletractofcountry
(Jos19:47,Jg18).ThiscitywithitsunsuspectinginhabitantstheDanitesruthlesslydestroyed.Anewcitywasbuilt,towhichtheygavethenameof
Dan.Inthiscolonytherewereonly600armedmenwiththeirfamilies.OntheirwaythithertheyinducedthedomesticpriestofanEphraimite,
Micah,toaccompanythemwithhissacredparaphernalia,anephod,agravenandamoltenimage,andtheteraphim.Theseweredulyinstalledina
permanentsanctuary,inwhichthedescendantsofMosesaresaidtohaveministereduntiltheCaptivity(Jg18:30).Thattheremnantofthefamily
leftintheSouthwaseitherdestroyedbyitsenemies,or,morelikely,absorbedbytheneighbouringtribes,ismadeprobablebyJg1:35,which
ascribesthevictoryovertheirenemiestothehouseofJoseph.Gn49:17saysDanshallbeaserpentintheway,anadderinthepathandDt
33:22,Danisalionswhelp,etc.Thesecharacterizationsaremoreapplicabletoasmalltribeofguerillafighters,versedincunningstrategy,wont
tostrikeaquickblowfromambushatapassingtroop,thantheyaretothemoresustainedmeasuresofwarfareofalargeandpowerfulbody.See
alsoTRIBES.
JAMESA.CRAIG.
DAN.AcityinnorthernPalestine,oncecalledLaish(Jg18:29)orLeshem(Jos19:47),thoughtheancientrecordofthebattleoffourkings
againstfivegivesthelatername(Gn14:14).Itwasacityremotefromassistance,andthereforefellaneasypreytoabandofmaraudingDanites,
searchingforadwellingplace.ItwasinthenorthboundaryofPalestine.ThestoryoftheDanitesstealingtheshrineofMicahistoldtoaccountfor
itssanctity,whichJeroboamI.recognizedbysettinguphereoneofhiscalfshrines(1K12:29).ItwasperhapsthesameasDanjaan,oneofthe
bordersofJoabscensusdistrict(2S24:6).ItwascapturedbyBenhadad(1K15:20).ItisidentifiedwithTellelKadionaccountofthesimilarity

ofmeaningofthenames(Arabickadi=Hebrewdan=judge)averydangerousgroundforsuchspeculations.Thesite,however,wouldsuitthe3/42
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ofmeaningofthenames(Arabickadi=Hebrewdan=judge)averydangerousgroundforsuchspeculations.Thesite,however,wouldsuitthe
geographicalcontextofthenarratives.R.A.S.MACALISTER.
DANCING.SeeGAMES.
DANIEL.1.TwopassagesintheBookofEzekiel(14:1420,28:3),writtenrespectivelyaboutB.C.592and587,mentionacertainDanielas
anextraordinarilyrighteousandwiseman,belongingtothesameclassasNoahandJob,whosepietyavailedwithGodonbehalfoftheirunworthy
contemporaries.Allthreeevidentlybelongedtothefardistantpast:Ezekielsreaderswerefamiliarwiththeirhistoryandcharacter.Daniel,
occupyingthemiddleplace,cannotbeconceivedofasthelatestofthem.Hecertainlywasnotayoungermanthantheprophetwhoreferstohim,as
theherooftheBookofDanielwouldhavebeen.ForDn1:13makesthelattertohavebeencarriedintocaptivityinB.C.606,ameredecadeprior
toEzk14.2.SeeABIGAIL.3.ApriestwhoaccompaniedEzrafromBabylontoJerusalem(Ezr8:2,
Neh10:6).Hewasheadofhisfathershouse,andtracedhisdescentfromIthamar.At
1Es8:29thenameisspelledGamelusorGamael,whichprobablyrestsonacorrupt
Heb.text.Driver(Daniel,p.xviii.)notesthatamongsthiscontemporarieswereaHananiah(Neh10:23),aMishael(8:4),andanAzariah(10:2)
butthecoincidenceisprobablyaccidental.Itis,however,quiteaslikelythattheauthorofDn.borrowedthethreenamesfromNehemiah.
J.TAYLOR.
DANIEL,BOOKOF
1.AuthorshipandDate.Thefirstsixchaptersofthisbookcontainaseriesofnarrativeswhichtellof(a)thefidelityofDanielandhis
friendstotheirreligion,and(b)theincomparablesuperiorityoftheirGodtothedeitiesofBabylon.Theremainingsixchaptersrelatefourvisions
seenbyDanielandtheinterpretationofthem.Chs.16speakofDanielinthethirdpersonin712heisthespeaker(yetsee7:1,10:1).Butboth
partsarefromthesamepen,andtheprimfacieimpressionisthatofanautobiography.Porphyryarguedagainstthisinthe3rdcent.A.D.,anditis
nowgenerallyabandoned,forsuchreasonsasthefollowing:(1)IntheJewishCanonDn.standsinthethirddivision,theWritings.Haditbeenthe
productionofaprophetofthe6thcent.itwouldhavebeenputintheseconddivision,theProphets.(2)Neitherthemannorthebookismentioned
inthelistofSir4450(c.B.C.200):andSir49:15seemstohavebeenwrittenbyonewhowasnotacquaintedwiththestory.(3)Thereisnoreason
forbelievingthatacollectionofsacredwritings,includingJer.,hadbeenformedinthereignofDarius,asisimpliedinDn9:2.(4)TheHeb.ofDn.
isofalatertypethaneventhatofChronicles.TheAramaicisaWestSyriandialect,notinuseattheBab.courtinthe6thcentury.MorePersian
wordsareemployedthanaHeb.authorwouldbefamiliarwithatthecloseoftheBab.empire.InadocumentcomposedpriortotheMacedonian
conquestweshouldnothavefoundthethreeGreekwordswhicharehereused.(5)Thereareinaccuracieswhichacontemporarywouldhave
avoided.ItisdoubtfulwhetherNebuchadnezzarbesiegedJerusaleminB.C.606(1:1,2).ThenameChaldansasdesignatingthelearnedclassis
alaterusage(2:2).Belshazzarwasnottheking(5:1),norwasNeb.hisancestor(5:2,11).DariustheMedeneverreceivedthekingdom(5:31).
XerxesdidnotfollowArtaxerxes(11:2)butprecededhim.(6)TherelationsbetweenSyriaandEgypt,fromthe4thtothe2ndcents.B.C.,are
describedwithafulnessofdetailwhichdifferentiatesDn7,11fromallOTprophecy:seetheprecisionwithwhichthereignofAntiochus
Epiphanesisrelatedinch.11theeventsfrom323175occupy16versesthosefrom175164takeup25atv.34thelinesbecomelessdefinite,
becausethisisthepointatwhichthebookwaswrittenatv.40predictionbegins,andthelanguagenolongercorrespondswiththefactsofhistory.
TherecanbelittledoubtthatDn.appearedaboutB.C.166.ItsobjectwastoencouragethefaithfulJewstoadheretotheirreligion,intheassurance
thatGodwouldintervene.Theunknownwriterwasintenselysureofthetruthsinwhichhebelieved:tohimandtohisreadersthehistoricalsetting
wasbutaframework.Notthatheinventedthestories.WesawintheprecedingarticlethattheexiledJewsknewofaDaniel,famousforpietyand
wisdom.Roundhisname,inthecourseoftheages,storiesillustrativeofthesequalitieshadgathered,andtheauthorofourbookworkedupthe
materialafreshwithmuchskill.
2.Language,Unity,Theology.(1)From2:4bto7:26isinAramaic.Fourexplanationshavebeenoffered:(a)Thissectionwasoriginally
writteninAramaic,aboutB.C.300,andincorporated,withadditions,intotheworkof166.(b)ThecorrespondingportionofaHeb.originalwas
lostanditsplacefilledbyanalreadycurrentAram.translation.(c)TheauthorintroducedtheChaldeesasspeakingwhathesupposedwastheir
language,andthencontinuedtowriteitbecauseitwasmorefamiliarthanHeb.tohimselfandhisreaders.(d)Thelikeliestsuggestionisthatthe
entirebookwasAramaic,butwouldnothavefoundadmissionintotheCanonifithadnotbeenenclosed,sotospeak,inaframeofHeb.,thesacred4/42
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entirebookwasAramaic,butwouldnothavefoundadmissionintotheCanonifithadnotbeenenclosed,sotospeak,inaframeofHeb.,thesacred
language.
(2)Theunityofthebookhasbeenimpugnedbymanycritics,butitisnowgenerallyagreedthatthequestionissettledbytheharmonyofview
andconsistencyofplanwhichbindthetwohalvestogether.Thetexthassufferedmoreorlessin1:20,21,6:20,7:5,9:420,10:4,8,9,10:2011:2,
12:11f.
(3)Thetheologicalfeaturesarewhatmightbeexpectedinthe2ndcent.B.C.Eschatologyisprominent.Thevisionsandtheirinterpretationsall
culminateinthefinalestablishmentoftheKingdomofGod.AndinthisconnexionitshouldbementionedthatDn.istheearliestexampleofafully
developedApocalypse.ThedoctrineoftheResurrectionisalsodistinctlyasserted:individualsaretoriseagainnotallmen,orevenallIsraelites,
butthemartyrsandtheapostates.Atnoearlierperiodistheresuchanangelology.Watchersandholyonesdeterminethedestiniesofanarrogant
king.Twoangelshavepropernames,GabrielandMichael.Toeachnationaheavenlypatronhasbeenassigned,anditsfortunesheredependonthe
strugglewagedbyitsrepresentativeabove.
3.Text.TheearlyChurchsetasidetheLXXinfavourofthelessparaphrasticversionofTheodotion.Inbothtranslationsarefoundthe
AdditionstoDaniel.(1)67versesareinsertedafter3:22,consistingof()thePrayerofAzarias.()detailsconcerningtheheatingofthefurnace,
()theBenedicite.Theseteachtheproperframeofmindforallconfessors,anddilateonthemiraculouselementintheDivinedeliverance.(2)The
HistoryofSusanna,whichdemonstratesGodsprotectionoftheunjustlyaccusedandillustratesthesagacityinjudgmentoftheyouthwhoisrightly
namedDaniel,Elismyjudge.(3)BelandtheDragon,twotractswhichexposetheimbecilityofidolatry,andbringoutDanielsclevernessand
GodscareforHisservantinperil.Swete(Introd.toOTinGreek,p.260)rightlyremarksthatinternalevidenceappearstoshowthat(1)and(2)
originallyhadaseparatecirculation.
J.TAYLOR.
DANJAAN.JoabandhisofficersintakingthecensuscametoDanjaanandroundabouttoZidon(2S24:6).Nosuchplaceismentioned
anywhereelseinOT,anditisgenerallyassumedthatthetextiscorrupt.IthasindeedbeenproposedtolocateDanjaanataruinN.ofAchzib
whichissaidtobearthenameKhanDninbutthisidentification,althoughacceptedbyConder,hasnotmadeheadway.Thereferenceismore
probablytothecityofDanwhichappearssofrequentlyasthenorthernlimitofthekingdom.
DANNAH(Jos15:49).AtownofJudahmentionednexttoDebirandSocoh.ItwasclearlyinthemountainsS.W.ofHebron,probablythe
presentIdhnah.
DAPHNE.Aplacementionedin2Mac4:33towhichOniaswithdrewforrefuge,butfromwhichhewasdecoyedbyAndronicusand
treacherouslyslain.Itisthemod.BeitelM(HouseofWaters)about5milesfromAntioch.Daphnewasfamousforitsfountains,itstemplein
honourofApolloandDiana,itsoracle,anditsrightofasylum.(SeeGibbon,DeclineandFall,c.xxiii.)DARA(1Ch2:6).SeeDARDA.
DARDA.MentionedwithEthantheEzrahite,Heman,andCalcolasasonof
Mahol,andaproverbialtypeofwisdom,butyetsurpassedbySolomon(1K4:31).In1Ch2:6apparentlythesamefour(Daraisprobablyanerror
forDarda)arementionedwithZimriassonsofZerah,thesonofJudahbyTamar(Gn38:30).SeealsoMAHOL.
DARICSeeMONEY,3.
DARIUS.1.SonofHystaspes,kingofPersia(B.C.521485),wellknownfromtheclassicalhistorianHerodotus,and,fortheearlypartofhis
reign,fromhisowntrilingualinscriptionontherocksatBehistun.HeallowedtheJewstorebuildtheTemple.TheprophetsHaggaiandZechariah
encouragedthepeopletogoonwiththework,andwhenTattenai,thePersiangovernorofSyria,demandedtheirauthority,theyallegedadecreeof
Cyrus.OnreferencebeingmadetoDariusandthedecreebeingfound,thekingconfirmedit,andorderedfacilitiestobeaffordedforthebuilding.It
wascompletedinthe6thyearofhisreign(Ezr4,5,6,Hag1:1,2:10,Zec1:17).2.DariusthePersian(Neh12:22).PossiblyDariusCodomannus,
thelastkingofPersia(B.C.336330),1Mac1:1.3.Dariusin1Mac12:7(AV)isanerrorfortheSpartanArius(wh.see).4.DariustheMede
(Dn11:1),sonofAhasuerusoftheseedoftheMedes(9:1),issaid(5:31)tohavesucceededtothekingdomofBabylonafterBelshazzarsdeath,
andtohavebeensixtytwoyearsoldwhenhereceivedthekingdom.ThisaccountdoesnotanswertowhatweknowofanykingcalledDarius.
GobryaswashewhoactuallyreceivedthekingdomforCyrus,enteringBabylononthe16thofTammuz,fourmonthsbeforeCyrusmadehis
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GobryaswashewhoactuallyreceivedthekingdomforCyrus,enteringBabylononthe16thofTammuz,fourmonthsbeforeCyrusmadehis
triumphalentry.HetooappointedgovernorsinBabylon(cf.Dn6:1),andseemsfromtheBabylonianChronicletohavebeenintheattackwhich
resultedinBelshazzarsdeath.WhetherGobryasisintended,whetherDariuswasanothernameofhis,orwhethersomemistakehascreptintothe
text,cannotbedecidedwithoutfreshevidence.ItiscertainthatnokingofBabyloncalledDariussucceededBelshazzarorprecededCyrus.
C.H.W.JOHNS.
DARKNESS.SeeLIGHT.
DARKON.HissonswereamongthosewhoreturnedwithZerubbabel(Ezr2:56,Neh7:58)calledin1Es5:33Lozon.
DARKSAYING.SeePARABLE(inOT),1.
DARLING.Ps22:20Delivermydarlingfromthepowerofthedog35:17
rescuemysoulfromtheirdestructions,mydarlingfromthelions.TheHeb.word(yhdh)meansanonlyson.InthePsalmsitisusedpoetically
ofthepsalmistsownlife,ashisuniqueandpricelesspossession.
DART.SeeARMOUR,ARMS,1(b).
DATES.SeeCHRONOLOGY.
DATHAN.SeeKORAH.
DATHEMA(1Mac5:9).AfortressinBashan.ItmayperhapsbethemodernDmehontheS.borderoftheLejdistrict,N.ofAshteroth
karnaim.
DAUGHTER.SeeFAMILY.
DAVID(beloved).ThesecondandgreatestofthekingsofIsraeltheyoungestoftheeightsonsofJessetheBethlehemitehebelongedtothe
tribeofJudah.Thedetailsofhislifearegatheredfrom1S16:31K2:11,1Ch11:129:30(besidessomescatterednoticesintheearlierchapters
of1Ch.),thePsalmswhichbearonthisperiod,andBk.VIIoftheAntiquitiesofJosephus,thoughthislatteraddsbutlittletoourknowledge.Itis
necessarytobearinmindtwopointsofimportanceindealingwiththerecordsofthelifeofDavid:firstly,theHebrewtextis,inanumberofcases,
verycorrupt(notablyinthebooksofSamuel),andinnotafewpassagestheAlexandrian(Greek)versionistobepreferredsecondly,ourrecords
havebeengatheredtogetherfromavarietyofsources,andthereforetheydonotpresentaconnectedwholethattheyareforthisreasonsometimes
atvariancewitheachotherstandsinthenaturalorderofthings.
1.Earlyyears.Davidwasashepherdbycalling,andhecontinuedthisoccupationuntilhehadreachedfullmanhoodthecourageandstrength
sometimesrequiredfortheprotectionofflocksmakeitclearthathewasmorethanamereyouthwhenhefirstappeareduponthesceneofpublic
life(1S17:34,35).TherearealtogetherthreedifferentaccountsofDavidsentryuponthestageoflife.
(i)1S16:113.DavidishererepresentedashavingbeendesignatedbyJahwehasSaulssuccessorSamuelissenttoBethlehemtoanointhim
allthesevensonsofJessepassbeforetheprophet,buttheSpiritdoesnotmovehimtoanointanyoftheminperplexityheasksthefatherifhehas
anymorechildren,whereupontheyoungestisproduced,andSamuelanointshim.Graphicasthestoryis,itstrikesoneasincomplete.Samueldoes
notevenknowoftheexistenceofJessesyoungestsonthefuturekingofIsraelisintroducedasamerestriplingwhomnobodyseemstoknowor
careabout,andheisleftasabruptlyasheisintroduced.FromallweknowofIsraelsearlyheroes,amanwasnotraisedtobealeaderofthepeople
unlessoruntilhehadfirstprovedhimselfinsomewaytobethesuperiorofhisfellows.Itwas,ofcourse,differentwhenthemonarchyhadbeen
securelyestablishedandthehereditarysuccessionhadcomeintovoguethougheventhentherewereexceptions,e.g.inthecaseofJehu.Thiswas
clearlysointhecaseofSaul,whohadthereputationofbeingamightymanofvalour(1S9:2)andintheparallelcaseoftheanointingofoneto
bekingwhilethethronewasstilloccupied,viz.Jehu,itisnotanunknownmanwhoisanointed(see1K19:16,2K9:3ff.).Thestory,therefore,of
DavidsanointingbySamuelstrikesoneasbeinganincompletefragment.
(ii) 1S16:1423.Inthissecondaccount,theservantsofSaulrecommendthatthekingshouldsendforsomeonewhoisacunningplayeronthe6/42
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(ii)1S16:1423.Inthissecondaccount,theservantsofSaulrecommendthatthekingshouldsendforsomeonewhoisacunningplayeronthe
harp,inorderthatbymeansofmusicthementaldisorderfromwhichheissufferingmaybeallayed.ThesonofJesseisproposed,andforthwith
sentforwhenSaulisagainattackedbythemaladysaidtobeoccasionedbyanevilspiritfromtheLordDavidplaysupontheharp,andSaul
isrefreshedinspirit.InthisaccountDavidisrepresentedasagrownman,foritissaidthatSaulmadehimhisarmourbearer.
(iii)1S17.TheGreekversionomitsalargepartofthisaccount(vv.1231,5558),whichseemsitselftohavebeenputtogetherfrom
differentsources.Accordingtoit,DavidsfirstappearancewasontheeveofabattlebetweentheIsraelitesandthePhilistines.Hisfatherisinthe
habitofsendinghimtotheIsraelitecampwithprovisionsforhisthreeeldestbrothers,whoareamongthewarriorsoftheIsraelitearmyonone
suchoccasionhefindsthecampinconsternationonaccountofthedefianceofaPhilistinehero,thegiantGoliath.Thismanofferstofightinsingle
combatwithanyIsraelitewhowillcomeoutandfacehim,butinspiteofthehighrewardofferedbythekingtoanyonewhowillslayhim
namely,greatrichesandthekingsdaughterinmarriagenobodyappearstoanswerthechallenge.Davidgathersthesedetailsfromdifferent
peopleinthecamp,and,feelingsureofthehelpofJahweh,determinestofightthegiant.HecommunicateshispurposetoSaul,whoatfirst
discourageshim,butonseeinghisfirmnessandconfidencearmshimandbidshimgoforthinthenameofJahweh.David,however,findsthe
armourtoocumbersome,anddiscardsit,takinginsteadnothingbutfivesmoothstonesandasling.Aftermutualdefiance,Davidslingsoneofhis
stonesthegiantishit,andfallsdowndeadDavidrushesup,drawstheswordofthedeadwarrior,andcutsoffhishead.Thereuponpanictakes
holdofthePhilistinehost,andtheyflee,pursuedbytheIsraelites,whothusgainacompletevictory(seeELHANAN).
ItisworthyofnotethateachofthesethreeaccountswhichintroduceDavidtohistoryconnectswithhimjustthosethreecharacteristicswhich
subsequentageslovedtodwellupon.ThefirstpresentshimasthebelovedofJahweh(cf.hisname,beloved),whowasspeciallychosen,theman
afterGodsownheart,thesonof
Jessethesecondpresentshimastheharpist,whowasknowninlateragesasthesweetpsalmistofIsraelwhilethethird,whichisprobablythe
nearesttoactualhistory,presentshimasthewarriorhero,justas,indaystocome,menwouldhavepicturedhimwhosewholereignfrombeginning
toendwascharacterizedbywar.
DavidsvictoryoverGoliathhadatwofoldresultfirstly,theheroicdeedcalledforththeadmiration,whichsoonbecamelove,ofthekingsson
Jonathanacovenantoffriendshipwasmadebetweenthetwo,intokenofwhich,andinratificationofwhich,Jonathantookoffhisappareland
armourandpresentedDavidwiththem.ThisfriendshiplastedtillthedeathofJonathan,andDavidspatheticlamentationoverhim(2S1:2527)
pointstotherealityoftheirlove.Butsecondly,ithadtheeffectofarousingSaulsenvyanotwhollyunnaturalfeeling,consideringtheestimation
inwhichDavidwasheldbythepeopleinconsequenceofhisvictorytheadageassuredlyoneofthemostancientauthenticfragmentsofthe
historyofthetime
Saulhathslainhisthousands,AndDavidhistenthousands
wasnotflatteringtoonewhohad,indaysgoneby,beenIsraelsforemostwarrior.Forthepresent,however,Saulconcealshisrealfeelings(1S
18:10,11areevidentlyoutofplace),intendingtoridhimselfofDavidinsuchawaythatnoblamewouldseemtoattachitselftohim.Infulfilment
ofhispromisetotheslayerofGoliath,heexpresseshisintentionofgivinghisdaughterMichaltoDavidforhiswifebutasDavidbringsnodowry,
accordingtoHebrewcustom,Saullaysuponhimconditionsofascandalouscharacter(1S18:25,26),hopingthat,inattemptingtofulfilthem,
Davidmaylosehislife.Theschemefails,andDavidreceivesMichaltowife.AfurtherattempttoberidofDavidisfrustratedbyJonathan(19:1
7),andatlastSaulhimselftriestokillhimbythrowingajavelinathimwhilstplayingonhisharpagainhefails,forDavidnimblyavoidsthe
javelin,andescapestohisownhouse.ThitherSaulsendsmentokillhim,butwiththehelpofhiswifeheagainescapes,andfleestoRamahtoseek
counselfromSamuel.OnSamuelsadvice,apparently,hegoestoJonathanbystealthtoseeifthereisanypossibilityofareconciliationwiththe
kingJonathandoeshisbest,butinvain(20:142),andDavidrealizesthathislifewillbeindangersolongasheisanywherewithinreachofSaul
orhisemissaries.
2.Davidasanoutlaw.AsinthecaseoftheearlierperiodofDavidslife,therecordsofthissecondperiodconsistofanumberof
fragmentsfromdifferentsources,notveryskilfullyputtogether.Wecandonomoreherethanenumeratebrieflythevariouslocalitiesinwhich
DavidsoughtrefugefromSaulsvindictiveness,pointingoutatthesametimethemoreimportantepisodesofhisoutlawlife.
DavidfliesfirstofalltoNob,thepriestlycityhisstayhereis,however,ofshortduration,forheisseenbyDoeg,oneofSaulsfollowers.
Takingtheswordofhislateantagonist,Goliath,whichwaswrappedinaclothbehindtheephod,hemakesforGath,hopingtofindrefugeon
foreignsoilbutheisrecognizedbythePhilistines,andfearingthattheywouldtakevengeanceonhimforkillingtheirheroGoliath,hesimulates 7/42
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foreignsoilbutheisrecognizedbythePhilistines,andfearingthattheywouldtakevengeanceonhimforkillingtheirheroGoliath,hesimulates
madness(cf.Ps34title),adiseasewhichbytheOriental(eventodaybytheBedouin)islookeduponassomethingsacrosanct.Bythismeanshe
findsiteasyenoughtomakehisescape,andcomestothecaveofAdullam.Herehisrelationscometohim,andhegatherstogetherabandof
desperadoes,whomakehimtheircaptain.Findingthatthiskindoflifeisunfittedforhisparents,hetakesthemtoMizpehandconfidesthemtothe
careofthekingofMoab.OnhisreturnheisadvisedbytheprophetGad(doubtlessbecausehehadfoundoutthatSaulhadreceivedinformationof
Davidswhereabouts)toleavethestrongholdhethereforetakesrefugeintheforestofHereth.Whilehidinghere,newsisbroughttohimthatthe
PhilistinesarefightingagainstKeilahhehastenstosuccourtheinhabitantsbyattackingthePhilistinestheseheovercomeswithgreatslaughter,
andthereuponhetakesuphisabodeinKeilah.InthemeantimeSaulsspiesdiscoverthewhereaboutsofthefugitive,andDavid,fearingthatthe
menofKeilahwilldeliverhimuptohisenemy,escapeswithhisfollowerstothehillcountryinthewildernessofZiph.Averyvigorouspursuitis
nowundertakenbySaul,whoseemsdeterminedtocatchtheelusivefugitive,andthechaseiscarriedonamongthewildsofZiph,Maon,and
Engedi.[Someportionsofthenarrativehereseemtobetoldtwiceoverwithvaryingdetail(cf.1S23:19ff.with26:1ff.,and24:1ff.with26:4ff.).]
ItisduringthesewanderingsthatSaulfallsintothepowerofDavid,butismagnanimouslyspared.TheepisodeconnectedwithDavidsdealings
withNabal,andhistakingAbigailandAhinoamforhiswives,alsofallswithinthisperiod(1S24,25,26).Atonetimethereseemedtobesome
hopeofreconciliationbetweenSaulandDavid(26:24,25),butevidentlythiswasshortlived,forsoonafterwardsDavidescapesoncemore,and
comeswithsixhundredfollowerstothecourtofAchish,kingofGath.ThistimeAchishwelcomeshimasanallyandgiveshimthecityofZiklag.
Davidsettlesin
Ziklag,andstaysthereforayearandfourmonths(27:7),occupyingthetimebyfightingagainsttheenemiesofhiscountry,theGeshurites,
Amalekites,etc.Attheendofthistime,waragainbreaksoutbetweentheIsraelitesandthePhilistines.ThequestionariseswhetherDavidshalljoin
withtheforcesofAchishagainsttheIsraelitesDavidhimselfseemswillingtofightonthesideofthePhilistines(29:8),buttheprincesofthe
Philistines,rightlyorwrongly,suspecttreacheryonhispart,andattherequestofAchishhereturnstoZiklag.Onhisarrivalherehefindsthatthe
placehasbeensackedbytheAmalekites,andforthwithhesetsouttotakerevenge.Thisisampleandcompletepartofthespoilwhichheacquires
hesendsasapresenttotheeldersofJudahandtohisfriends(30:2631),afactwhichshowsthattherewasapartyfavourabletohiminJudahand
thiswaspossiblythereasonandjustificationofthemistrustofthePhilistineprincesjustmentioned.InthemeantimethewarbetweenIsraelandthe
Philistinesendsdisastrouslyfortheformer,andSaulandJonathanareslain.DavidreceivesnewsofthisduringhissojourninZiklag.Withthisends
theoutlawlifeofDavid,for,leavingZiklag,hecomestoHebron,wherethemenofJudahanointhimking(2S2:4).
3.Davidasking
(a)Internalaffairs.ForthefirstsevenyearsofhisreignDavidmadeHebronhiscapital.Inspiteofhisevidentdesiretomakepeacewiththe
followersofSaul(2S9),itwasbutnaturalthatavigorousattemptshouldbemadetoupholdthedynastyofthelateking,atalleventsinIsrael,as
distinctfromJudah(seeISHBOSHETH).Itisthereforejustwhatweshouldexpectwhenwereadthattherewaslongwarbetweenthehouseof
SaulandthehouseofDavid(3:1).ThefinalvictorylaywithDavid,andinduetimetheeldersofIsraelcametohiminHebronandanointedhim
theirking.AsruleroverthewholelandDavidrealizedtheneedofamorecentralcapitalhefixedonJerusalem,whichheconqueredfromthe
Jebusites,andfoundedtheroyalcityonMt.Zion,thecityofDavid(5:7).Thitherhebroughtupthearkwithgreatceremony(6:1ff.),intendingto
buildapermanenttempleforit(7:2),buttheprophetNathandeclarestohimthatthisisnotJahwehswill.Davidsdisappointmentis,however,
soothed,fortheprophetgoesontotellhimthatthoughhemaynotbuildthishouse,JahwehwillestablishthehouseofDavid(i.e.inthesenseof
lineage)forever(v.11).
DavidthenentersinbeforeJahwehandoffersuphisthanksgiving(vv.1829).
OneofthedarkertraitsofDavidscharacterisillustratedbythedetailedaccountoftheBathshebaepisode(11:2,12:25)sofarfromseekingto
curbhispassionforheronhearingthatsheismarried,hefindswaysandmeansofriddinghimselfofthehusband,afterwhosedeathBathsheba
becomeshisqueen.ThemarriagewasdestinedtoinfluencemateriallythehistoryofIsrael(seeADONIJAH).Butthemostseriouseventinthe
historyofthereignofDavid,sofarastheinternalaffairsofthekingdomwereconcerned,wastherebellionofhissonAbsalom.Ofanambitious
nature,Absalomsoughtthesuccession,evenattheexpenseofdethroninghisfather.Howhesetaboutpreparingthegroundforthefinalcoupis
graphicallydescribedin2S15:16.Afterfour[fortyintheEVshouldbereadfour]yearsofsuchlikecraftypreparation,therebellionbrokeout
afeastatHebron,theoldcapital,givenbyAbsalomtotheconspirators,wasthesignalfortheoutbreak.AtfirstAbsalomwassuccessfulhe
attackedJerusalem,fromwhichDavidbadtofleehere,followingtheadviceofAhithophel,hetookpossessionoftheroyalharem,asign(inthe
eyesofthepeopleofthosedays)oftherightofheritage.ThemostobviousthingtodonowwouldhavebeenforAbsalomtopursueDavidbefore 8/42
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eyesofthepeopleofthosedays)oftherightofheritage.ThemostobviousthingtodonowwouldhavebeenforAbsalomtopursueDavidbefore
hehadtimetogatheranarmybut,againsttheadviceofAhithophel,hefollowsthatofHushaiasecretfriendofDavidwhosucceedsin
inducingAbsalomtowastetimebylingeringinJerusalem.Ahithophel,enragedatthefailureofhisplans,andprobablyforeseeingwhatthefinal
resultmustbe,leavesAbsalomandgoestohishomeinGilohandhangshimself(2S17:23).InthemeantimeDavid,hearingwhatisgoingonin
Jerusalem,withdrawsacrosstheJordan,andhaltsatMahanaimherehegathershisforcestogetherundertheleadershipofJoab.Thedecisivebattle
followsnotlongafter,intheforestofEphraimAbsalomiscompletelydefeated,andloseshislifebybeingcaughtinatreebytheheadwhilst
fleeing.WhilstthushangingheispiercedbyJoab,inspiteofDavidsurgentcommandthatheshouldnotbeharmed.Thetouchingaccountof
Davidssorrow,onhearingofAbsalomsdeath,isgivenin2S18:2333.Asecondrebellion,ofamuchlessseriouscharacter,wasthatofSheba,
whosoughttodrawthenortherntribesfromtheirallegianceitwas,however,easilyquelledbyJoab(ch.20).Therebellion(ifsuchitcanbecalled)
ofAdonijahoccurredattheveryendofDavidsreign.Thisepisodeisdealtwithelsewhere(seeADONIJAH),andneednot,therefore,bedescribed
here.
(b)Externalaffairs.Unlikemostofhisdealingswithforeigners,Davidsfirstcontact,asking,withthoseoutsideofhiskingdom,viz.withthe
Syrians,wasofapeacefulcharacter.Hiram,kingofTyre,sent(accordingto2S5:11,1Ch14:1)artificersofdifferentkindstoassistDavidin
building.Butthiswastheexception.OneofthecharacteristicsofDavidsreignwasitslargenumberofforeignwars.Itis,however,necessaryto
bearinmindthatinthecaseofanewlyestablisheddynastythisisonlytobeexpected.Thefollowingis,verybriefly,alistofDavidsforeignwars
theyareputintheorderfoundin2Sam.,butthisorderisnotstrictlychronologicalmoreover,itseemsprobablethatinoneortwocasesduplicate,
butvarying,accountsappear:Philistines(5:1725),Moabites(8:2),Zobah(8:3,4),Syrians(8:513),Edomites(8:14),Ammonites,Syrians(10:1,
11:1,12:2631),andPhilistines(21:1522).Davidwasvictoriousoverallthesepeoples,theresultbeingagreatextensionofhiskingdom,which
reachedrightuptotheEuphrates(cf.Ex23:3133,Dt11:2325).Warsofthiskindpresupposetheexistenceofa,comparativelyspeaking,large
armythatDavidhadaconstantsupplyoftroopsmaybegatheredfromthedetailsgivenin1Ch27.
WhileitisimpossibletodenythattherleofmusicianinwhichweareaccustomedtopictureDavidislargelytheproductoflaterages,there
canbenodoubtthatthisrleassignedtohimisbasedonfact(cf.e.g.1S1:1727,2S22:251=Ps18,Am6:5),andhemustevidentlybe
regardedasoneofthemainsourcesofinspirationwhichguidedthenationsmusiciansofsucceedinggenerations(seeart.
PSALMS).
ThecharacterofDavidoffersanintenselyinterestingcomplexofgoodandbad,inwhichtheformerlargelypredominates.Asaruler,warrior,
andorganizer,hestandspreeminentamongtheheroesofIsrael.Hisimportanceinthedomainofthenationalreligionliesmainlyinhisfoundingof
thesanctuaryofZion,withallthatthatdenotes.Whilehisvirtuesofopenheartedness,generosity,andvalour,besidesthosealreadyreferredto,
standoutasclearastheday,hisfaultsaretoalargeextentduetotheageinwhichbelived,andmustbediscountedaccordingly.
W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
DAVID,CITYOF.SeeJERUSALEM.
DAY.SeeTIME.
DAYOFATONEMENT.SeeATONEMENT[DAYOF].
DAYOFTHELORD.ThedayinwhichJehovahwasexpectedtopunishsinfulHebrewsandtheenemiesofIsrael,andtoestablishatleast
therighteousremnantof
Hispeopleinpoliticalsupremacy.TheHebrewsbelievedimplicitlythattheirGodJehovahwascertaintodefeatallrivals.BeforeAmosthisview
hadnotreachedadefiniteeschatology,andprobablyinvolvedonlyageneralexpectationofthetriumphofIsraelandIsraelsGod.WithAmos,
however,theconceptionofpunishmentbecamelessethnicandmoremoral.ThesinsofIsraelitselfdeservedpunishment,andAmosdeclaredthat
theluxuryofthenation,withallitseconomicoppression,hadgrownhatefultoJehovah,andunlessabandonedwouldbringfearfulpunishment(
Am2:68,3:915,5:1013,6:48).TherighteousnessofJehovahdemandedthatthesinsofHispeopleaswellasthoseoftheheathenshouldbe
punished.AfterAmosthethoughtofanawfuldayofDivinepunishmentwasextendedfromIsraeltoaworldofsinners.AccordingtoZephaniah
(1:218,2:415),punishmentwasnowtocomeuponallwickedpersons,bothJewsandGentiles,becauseofwrong.So,too,theunknownprophet
whowroteunderthenameofMalachi.Ezekiel(30:2f.,34:12,39:8f.),however,revertedtothesamenationalthoughtofadayofbattle,inwhich 9/42
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whowroteunderthenameofMalachi.Ezekiel(30:2f.,34:12,39:8f.),however,revertedtothesamenationalthoughtofadayofbattle,inwhich
JehovahwouldconquerallIsraelsfoesandtosomeextentthissamenationalideaisrepresentedbyJoel(2:1827).Withthelaterprophetsthereis
tobeseenanelementofreconstructionaswellaspunishmentinJehovahsaction.Sinners,whetherJewsorGentiles,aretobepunished,butapious
remnantistobesaved,thebeginningsofanewIsrael.
ItisclearthatthisconceptionofagreatDayofJehovahunderliesmuchoftheMessianicexpectationofapocryphalliterature.Theestablishment
ofaremnantofapiousIsraelwasthegermofthehopeoftheMessianickingdomandtheDayofJehovahitselfbecametheDayofJudgment,
whichfiguressolargelyinbothJewishandChristianMessianism.Itfact,itisnottoomuchtosaythattheeschatologyofJudaismisreallya
developmentoftheimplicationsofthepropheticteachingastotheDayofJehovah.
SHAILERMATHEWS.
DAYSJOURNEY.Adaysjourney(Nu11:31f,1K19:4,Jon3:4,Lk2:44cf.threedaysjourney,Gn30:36,Ex3:18etc.sevendays,Gn
31:23)wasnot,likethesabbathdaysjourney(seeWEIGHTSANDMEASURES),adefinitemeasureoflength,but,likeourstonesthrow,
bowshot,etc.,apopularandsomewhatindefiniteindicationofdistance.Thiswouldnaturallyvarywiththeurgencyandimpedimentaofthe
travellerorthecaravan.LabaninhotpursuitofJacob,andtheHebrewhostinthewilderness,maybetakentorepresenttheextremesinthismatter
ofadaysjourney(reff.above),althoughitisscarcelypossibletotakeliterallythesevendaysjourneyoftheformer(Gn31:23)fromHaranto
Gilead,circa350milesin7days.From20to30milesisprobablyafairestimateofanaveragedaysjourneywithbaggageanimals.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
DAYSMAN.Adaysmanisanarbiter.Thecompoundarosefromtheuseoftheworddayinatechnicalsense,tosignifyadayfordispensing
justice.ThesameuseisfoundinGr.thus1Co4:3mansjudgmentisliterallymansday.ThewordoccursinJob9:33Neitheristhereany
daysmanbetwixtus(AVandRVmarginumpire).TindaletranslatesEx21:22,heshallpayeasthedayesmenappoyntehim(AVasthejudges
determine).
DAYSPRING.AnoldEnglishexpressiondenotingthedawn(thedayspryngeordawnyngeofthedayegyvethacerteynelyghtbeforethe
rysingeofthesonne,Eden,Decades,1555,p.264).ItoccursinJob38:12Hastthoucausedthedayspringtoknowhisplace?Wis16:28at
thedayspringprayuntothee(RVatthedawningoftheday).VirtuallythesameexpressionoccursinJg19:25and1S9:26cf.alsoGn32:24and
Ps65:8(eastandwestcalledtheoutgoingsofthemorningandevening).InLk1:78theexpressiondayspringfromonhighprobablygoesback
toaHeb.originalwhichwasawellunderstoodpersonaldesignationoftheMessiah(combiningtheideasoflightandsprout)itwouldthenbea
poeticalequivalentforMessiahfromheaven.
G.H.BOX.
DAYSTAR.SeeLUCIFER.
DEACON.TheGr.worddiakonos,aswellasthecorrespondingverbandabstractnoun,isofveryfrequentoccurrenceinthetextoftheNT,
butinEVisalwaystranslatedservantorministerexceptinPh1:1,1Ti3:813,whereitisrendereddeacon,thesebeingtheonlytwopassages
whereitisevidentlyusedinatechnicalsense.
IntheGospelsthewordhasthegeneralmeaningofservant(cf.Mt20:26||23:11,Jn2:5,9).St.Paulemploysitconstantlyofonewhois
engagedinChristianservice,theserviceofGodorChristortheChurch(e.g.2Co6:4,11:23,Col1:2325),butwithoutanytraceasyetofan
officialsignification.OnceinRomanswefindhimdistinguishingdiakonia(ministry)fromprophecyandteachingandexhortation(12:68)butit
seemsevidentthatheisspeakinghereofdifferencesinfunction,notinoffice,sothatthepassagedoesnotdomorethanforeshadowthecomingof
thediaconateasaregularorder.
InActstheworddiakonosisneveronceemployed,but6:16,wherewereadoftheappointmentoftheSeven,shedsarayoflightonitshistory,
andprobablyservestoexplainhowfromthegeneralsenseofonewhorendersChristianserviceitcametobeappliedtoaspecialofficerofthe
Church.TheSevenarenowherecalleddeacons,noristhereanyrealjustificationintheNTforthetraditionaldescriptionofthembythattitle.The
qualificationsdemandedofthem(v.8,cf.v.5)arehigherthanthoselaiddownin1TimothyfortheofficeofthedeaconandStephenandPhilip,
theonlytwooftheirnumberofwhomweknowanything,exercisefunctionsfarabovethoseofthelaterdiaconate(6:8ff.,8:513,26ff.).Butthe
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theonlytwooftheirnumberofwhomweknowanything,exercisefunctionsfarabovethoseofthelaterdiaconate(6:8ff.,8:513,26ff.).Butthe
factthatthespecialdutytowhichtheywereappointediscalledadiakoniaorministration(v.1)andthatthisministrationwasadefinitepartofthe
workoftheChurchinJerusalem,sothatthediakoniacametobeusedasaspecificterminthisreference(cf.Ac.11:29,12:25,Ro15:25,31,2Co
8:4,9:1,12,13),makesitnaturaltofindintheirappointmentthegermoftheinstitutionofthediaconateasitmeetsusatPhilippiandEphesus,in
twoEpp.thatbelongtotheclosingyearsofSt.Paulslife.
ItisintheseGreekcities,then,thatwefirstfindthedeaconasaregularofficial,calledtoofficeafterprobation(1Ti3:10),andstanding
alongsidethebishopintheministryoftheChurch(Ph1:1,1Ti3:113).Astohisfunctionsnothingissaidprecisely.Wecanonlyinferthatthe
diakoniaofthedeaconsinPhilippiandEphesus,likethediakoniaoftheSeveninJerusalem,wasinthefirstplaceaministrytothepoor.Theforms
ofthisministrywouldofcoursebedifferentinthetwocases,asthesocialconditionswere(seeart.COMMUNION),butintheGentileasinthe
Jewishworlditwouldnaturallybeaserviceofaresponsible,delicate,andoftenprivatekindaninferencethatisborneoutbywhatissaidin1
Tim.astothedeaconsqualifications.
Comparingthesequalificationswiththoseofthebishop,weobservethatthedifferenceisjustwhatwouldbesuggestedbythenamesbishopor
overseeranddeaconorservantrespectively.BishopsweretoruleandtakechargeoftheChurch(1Ti3:5)deaconsweretoservewell(v.13).
Bishopsmustbeapttoteach(v.2)deaconswereonlycalledtoholdthemysteryofthefaithinapureconscience(v.9).Thattheworkofthe
deaconandhisfellowservantthedeaconess(wh.see)wasofahousetohousekindissuggestedbythewarningsgivenagainsttalebearing(v.8)
andbackbiting(v.11).ThatithadtodowiththedistributionofChurchmoneys,andsobroughttemptationstopilfering,isfurthersuggestedbythe
demandthatthedeaconshouldnotbegreedyoffilthylucre(v.8)andthathisfemalecounterpartshouldbefaithful(i.e.trustworthy)inallthings
(v.11).
J.C.LAMBERT.
DEACONESS.TheworddoesnotoccurinEVexceptasaRVmreadinginRo16:1.InthisversePhbeisdescribedasadiakonosofthe
churchthatisat
Cenchre.AVandRVrenderservant,RVmdeaconess.Againstthelattermustbenoted:(1)Thereisnoevidenceofthedeacon(wh.see)inthe
NTtillwecometotheEp.tothePhilippians,anditismostunlikelythatwhenRomanswaswrittentherewouldbeanofficialdeaconess.(2)
CenchrewasoneoftheportsofCorinthandinSt.PaulsletterstotheCorinthianChurchthereisanotableabsenceofanysignsofadefinite
ecclesiasticalorganizationinthatcity.TheconclusionisthatthediakoniaofPhbeinCenchre,likethediakonia(ministry)ofStephanasand
hishouseholdinCorinth(1Co16:15),wasagraciousbutunofficialministrytothesaints(cf.Ro16:2b).
In1Ti3:11,however,althoughtheworddeaconessisnotused,itisalmostcertainthatfemaledeaconsarereferredto.AVmisleadsusby
makingitappearthatthewivesofdeaconsarespokenofRVcorrectsthisbyrenderingWomeninlikemannermustbegrave,notslanderers,
temperate,faithfulinallthings.Andwhenthewholepassage(vv.813)isread,itseemsevidentthatthewomenreferredtoinv.11arediakonoi
inlikemannerasthemendescribedbothbeforeandafter.WeknowfromPliny,writingearlyinthe2ndcent.,thatbythattimetherewere
deaconessesintheChristianChurchesofBithynia(Ep.X.96).Andintheancientworldtheneedmusthavebeenearlyfeltforaclassofwomen
whocouldperformsomeatleastofthedutiesofthediaconatefortheirownsexinparticular.
J.C.LAMBERT.DEAD.SeeDEATH.
DEADSEA.Aninlandlake47mileslongandfrom2to9milesinbreadth,whichreceivesthewatersoftheJordan.Itslevelis1293ft.
belowthatoftheMediterranean,beingthelowestbodyofwateronthesurfaceoftheearth.Ithasnooutlet,andthewaterreceivedbyitisall
carriedoffbyevaporation.Inconsequence,thewatersoftheLakeareimpregnatedwithmineralsubstancestoaremarkabledegreetheyyield25
percent.ofsalt,whereastheoceanyieldsbut4to6percent.
Themodernnameisoflateorigin(firstusedapparentlybyPausanias)andreferstothetotalabsenceoflifeinitswaters.IthasnoScripture
warrantHebrewwritersspeakofitastheSaltSea(Gn14:8,Nu34:3,Jos15:5etc.),theseaoftheArabah(Dt3:17,4:49),theeastoreastern
sea(Ezk47:18,JL2:20).InArabicitisknownas
BahrLut, the sea of Lot, a name which, however, is more probably due to the direct influence of the history as related in the Koran than to a
survivaloflocaltradition.SomewhereneartheseawereSodomandGomorrah,butwhethernorthorsouthofitisnotsettledtheonecertainfact
abouttheirsitesisthatthepopularbeliefthattheyarecoveredbythewatersoftheLakeisquiteinadmissible.
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abouttheirsitesisthatthepopularbeliefthattheyarecoveredbythewatersoftheLakeisquiteinadmissible.
TheDeadSeaowesitsorigintoafaultorfractureproducedinthesurfaceoftheregionbytheearthmovementswherebythelandwashere
raisedabovethesealevel.ThisfaulttookplacetowardstheendoftheEoceneperioditextendsalongthewholeJordanvalleyfromtheGulfof
AkabahtoHermonanditmaybetakenasfairlycertainthatthegeneralappearanceoftheLakehasnotradicallyalteredduringthewholetimethat
thehumanracehasexistedintheworld.
RoundtheborderoftheLakearenumeroussmallsprings,someburstingactuallyunderitswaters,othersforminglagoonsofcomparatively
brackishwater(asatAinFeshkhahonthewesternside).Intheselagoonsvariousspecimensofsmallfisharetobefoundbutinthemainbodyof
thewateritselflifeofanykindisimpossible.
RecentobservationstendtoshowthatthesurfaceoftheLakeisslowlyrising.AnislandthatwasaconspicuousfeatureattheN.end
disappearedunderthesurfacein1892,andhasneverbeenseensince.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
DEAFNESS.SeeMEDICINE.
DEAL.Adealisapartorshare.Itisstillinuseinthephraseagreatdealoragooddeal.InAVoccurstenthdeal(RVtenthpart),the
Heb.issrnbeingameasureusedinmealofferings.SeeWEIGHTSANDMEASURES,II.
DEATH
I.INTHEOT.1.TheHeb.termmwethandourcorrespondingworddeathalikespringfromprimitiverootsbelongingtothevery
beginningsofspeech.Oneofmansfirstneedswasawordtodenotethatstarkfactofexperiencethefinalcessationoflifetowhichheandthe
wholeanimatedcreation,andtheverytreesandplants,wereallsubject.Itis,ofcourse,inthisordinarysenseofthetermasdenotingaphysicalfact
thattheexpressionsdeathanddiearemostlyusedintheScriptures.
2.TheScriptureshavenothingdirectlytosayastotheplaceofdeathintheeconomyofnature.St.PaulswordsinRo5:12ff.astothe
connexionbetweensinanddeathmustbeexplainedinharmonywiththisfactand,forthatmatter,inharmonyalsowithhisownwordsinRo6:23,
wheredeath,thewagesofsin,cannotbesimplyphysicaldeath.TheCreationnarrativesaresilentonthispoint,yetinGn2:17manisexpectedto
knowwhatitistodie.Wearenottolookforexactinformationonmatterssuchasthisfromwritingsofthiskind.Ifthebeliefenshrinedinthestory
oftheFallinGn3regardeddeathintheordinarysenseasthepenaltyofAdamandEvestransgression,theyatanyratedidnotdieinthedayof
theirtransgressionv.22suggeststhateventhen,couldhebutalsoeatofthetreeoflife,manmightescapemortality.Allwecansayisthatinthe
dawnofhumanhistorymanappearsasonealreadyfamiliarwiththecorrelativemysteriesoflifeanddeath.
3.Fromthecontemplationoftheactofdyingitisaneasysteptothethoughtofdeathasastateorcondition.Thisisadistinctstagetowards
believinginexistenceofsomekindbeyondthegrave.Andtothevastmassofmankindtosayheisdeadhasnevermeantheisnonexistent.
4.DivergentbeliefsastowhatthestateofdeathisshowthemselvesintheOT.(a)Innumerousinstancesdeathisrepresentedasacondition
ofconsiderableactivityandconsciousness.Thedeadareregardedasknowingones,abletoimpartinformationandcounseltotheliving.Note,the
termtranslatedwizardsinEVinLv19:3120:6,Is8:19,19:3reallydenotesdepartedspiritswhoaresoughtuntoorinquiredofonbehalfofthe
living.AvividinstanceofthisbeliefisfurnishedinthestoryoftheWitchofEndor(1S28).SoalsoinIs14:9,10,wherewehaveagraphic
descriptionofthecommotioncausedinSheolbythearrivalofthekingofBabylon,adescriptionwithwhichwemaycomparethedreamoffalse
ClarenceinShakespearesRich.III.,i.4.Thereferencetothedeadunderthetermgods
(elhim),asin1S28:13,isnoticeable.Whetherinallthiswehavearelicofancient
Semiticancestorworship(ase.g.CharlesmaintainsinhisJowettLecturesonEschatology)orno,itseemstorepresentveryprimitivebeliefswhich
survivedinoneformandanother,evenafterthesternJahwisticprohibitionofnecromancywaspromulgated.Theymayalsohaveaffectedthe
treatmentofthedead,justasevenyetthereareusagesinexistenceamongstusinregardtobehaviourtowardsthedeadwhichareprobably
traceabletoveryprimitivepreChristianideasandbeliefs.
(b)Jahwismmightwellforbidresorttonecromancerswiththeirweirdappealstothedeadforguidanceandinformation,forinitsviewthestate
ofdeathwasoneofunconsciousness,forgetfulness,andsilence(seePs88:12,94:17,115:17etc.).Thepresentworldisemphaticallythelandof
theliving(Ps27:13,116:9etc.).ThosethatareinSheolhavenocommunionwithJahwehseetheSongofHezekiahinIs38,andelsewhere.Sheol
appearsinvitingtoasoulindistressbecauseitisarealmofunconsciousrest(Job3:17ff.)andthereisnothingtobeknownortobedonethere(Ec12/42
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appearsinvitingtoasoulindistressbecauseitisarealmofunconsciousrest(Job3:17ff.)andthereisnothingtobeknownortobedonethere(Ec
9:10).Itistruethathereandthereglimpsesofadifferentprospectfortheindividualsoulshowthemselves(e.g.Job19:25ff.andprobablyPs
16:10f.)buttheforegoingwasevidentlytheprevalentviewinaperiodwhentheindividualwasaltogethersubservienttothenation,andthe
religiousconcernsofthelatterwererigorouslylimitedtothepresentlife.
(c)Otherideasofdeathasnotterminatingmansexistenceandinterestswere,however,reachedinlaterpropheticteaching,mainlythroughthe
thoughtoftheworthoftheindividual,thesignificanceofhisconsciousunionwithGod,andofthecovenantrelationsestablishedbyGodwithHis
people(Jer31cf.Ezk18).Thouwiltnotleaveusinthedust.
5.Deathasstandinginpenalrelationtomanssinandunrighteousnessisfrequentlyinsistedon.Thatthisissomethingmorethannaturaldeath
isclearfromsuchanantithesisaswehaveinDt30:15,19(lifeandgood:deathandevil),andthissetinstrictrelationtoconduct.Cf.theburden
ofEzk18,thesoulthatsinnethitshalldie,withthecorrelativepromiseoflife:similarlyPr15:10.Allthispointstosomeexperienceintheman
himselfandtoconditionsoutlastingthepresentlife.Ontheotherhand,thethoughtofdyingthedeathoftherighteous(Nu23:10)asadesirable
thinglooksinthesamedirection.Andwhyhastherighteoushopeinhisdeath(Pr14:32)?
6.Asminormatters,OTpoeticalusesofreferencestodeathmaybemerelypointedout.Chambersofdeath,Pr7:27gates,Ps9:13(=
state)bitternessofdeath,1S15:32,Ec7:26terrors,Ps55:4sorrows,Ps116:3(=mansnaturaldread)shadowofdeath,Job,Ps.,the
Prophets,passim(=anyexperienceofhorrorandgloom,aswellaswithreferencetodeathitself)thesleepofdeath,Ps13:3(tobedistinguished
fromlaterChristianusage)snaresofdeath,Prov.passim,etc.(=thingsleadingtodestruction)thephrasetodeath,asvexeduntodeath,Jg
13:7sick,2K20:1(=toanextremedegree).
II.INTHEAPOCRYPHA.ThevalueoftheApocryphainconnexionwiththestudyofScripturalteachingandusagehereisnottobe
overlooked.Noticee.g.Wisdomchs.15,withitstreatmentoftheattitudeoftheungodlytowardsdeath(Letuseatanddrink,fortomorrow
wedie),oftheproblemoftheearly,untimelydeathofthegood,andofimmortalityinrelationtotheungodlyandtherighteousSirach,in
whichnoclearconceptionofimmortalityappears,thebestthatcanbesaid,toalleviatesorrowforthedead,beingthatthedeadisatrest
(38:23):inwhichalsothefearofdeathisspokenofasbesettingallranksofmen(40),andwearetoldwhotheyaretowhomdeathcomesasa
dreadfoe,andagainwhomaywelcomedeathasafriend(41).
III.INTHENT
1.TheteachingofJesus.
(a).ItisnoticeablethatourLordhasnothingtosaydirectlyconcerningdeathasaphysicalphenomenon.Heoffersnoexplanationtouching
thosemattersintheexperienceofdeathwhichhavealwaysexcitedthecuriosityofmen,andinthisrespectHisattitudeisinstrongcontrastwith
thatfoundinRabbinicalwritings.Hemakesnouseoftheconceptionoftheangelofdeath,socharacteristicofthelatter,andtraceableperhapsin
languagesuchasthatof1Co15:26,He2:14,andRev20:13,14.
(b)Nostressislaidondeathasanevilinitself.InthefewstorieswhichwehaveintheGospelsofHisraisingthedeadtolife,theraisingis
neverrepresentedasadeliveranceandagoodforthepersonbroughtback.Compassionforthesorrowsofthosebereavedistheprimemotive:in
thecaseofLazarus,itisexpresslyaddedthattherestorationwasforthegloryofGod(Jn11:4,40).Still,thoseaspectsofdeathwhichmakethe
livingandactiveshrinkfromitareincidentallyrecognized.JesusinRabbinicphrasespeaksoftastingdeath(Mk9:1||)andofseeingdeath(Jn8:51,
52):andthefeelingunderlyingsuchexpressionsistheveryantithesisofthatattachingtoseeinglifeandseeingmanydays.Deathistocommon
humanfeelinganunwelcome,thoughinevitable,draught.ThisgivespointalsotoourLordspromisethatthebelievershallneverdie(Jn11:26).At
thesametime,thereisnoreferenceinHisteachingtonaturaldeathasthesolemnendoflifesexperiencesandopportunities,unlessanexception
befoundinthesayingaboutworkingwhileitisday(Jn9:4):butcontrastwiththisastotoneapassagelikeEc9:10.
(c)Jesusspeaksofdeathasasleep(Mk5:39,Jn11:1113)butthesameeuphemisticuseisfoundinOTandinextraBiblicalwriters.Itdidnot
ofitselfnecessarilylessentheterrorsofdeath(seePs13:3)butweoweittoChristandtheChristianfaithmainlythatsucharepresentationof
deathhascometomitigateitsbitterness,suchauseasisalsofoundelsewhereinNT(e.g.1Th4:13ff.).Thisconceptionofdeathis,ofcourse,to
belimitedtoitsrelationtotheactivitiesandinterestsofthisworld.Itisafallingasleepafterlifesdayandwesleeptowake:butthereis
nothingheretoshedlightonsuchquestionsastowhetherthatsleepisaprolongedperiodofunconsciousnessorno.
(d)Naturaldeathislostsightofinthemuchlargerandmoresolemnconceptionoftheconditionofmanresultingfromsin,whichintheFourth
Gospelisparticularlydescribedasdeath(seeJn5:24,6:50,8:21,24).TheexemptionanddeliverancepromisedinJn11:25f.relatetothisspiritual
death,andbythatdeliverancenaturaldeathisshornofitsrealterrors.Thiscondition,resultingfromsinandseparationfromGod,mayheregarded13/42
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death,andbythatdeliverancenaturaldeathisshornofitsrealterrors.Thiscondition,resultingfromsinandseparationfromGod,mayheregarded
asincipienthereandtendingtoamanifestconsummationhereafter,withphysicaldeathinterveningasamomentoftransitionandderivinga
solemnsignificancefromitsassociationwiththecourseandstateofsin(seeBeyschlag,NTTheol.,Eng.tr.ii.p.56f.).Thecorresponding
languageof1Ep.ofJohnisnottobeoverlooked(3:14)asexemplifyingJohanninephraseology.Theconception,however,isnotfoundexclusively
intheJohanninewritings.NotethesayinginLk9:60asbearingonthispoint.InMt7:13f.destructionistheantithesisoflife(andcf.Mt5:29f.,
18:11,Mk8:35,Jn3:16etc.)buttheconceptionofperishingcoversthedeepexperienceofspiritualdeath,thelossofallthatreallymakesthe
man.
(ThephrasediethedeathinEV,inMk7:10andparallel,maybenoticedasbeingnotaliteraltranslationoftheGreek,butamidEnglish
emphaticexpression,nowarchaic.)
2.TherestoftheNT.Wemaynoticethefollowingpoints:(a)ThePaulinedoctrinethatnaturaldeathistheprimitiveconsequenceofsin,
alreadyreferredto,istobeexplainedasthecommonJewishinterpretationoftheOTaccountoftheFall,andfindsnodirectsupportintheGospels.
Thefeelingthatthestingofdeathissinis,however,widelyexistentinNT.(b)Theuseofthetermdeathasdenotingacertainspiritualstatein
whichmenmayliveandhestilldestituteofallthatisworthcallinglife,isquitecommon(Eph2:1,5,5:14,Col2:13,1Ti5:6,Ja1:15,Jude12,
Rev3:1).(c)Amysticalandfigurativeuseofthenotionofdeathasdenotingthechangefromasinfultoanewlifeisnoticeable.Thebeliever,the
manspirituallyalive,isalsodeadtosin(Ro6:2,1P2:24),isdeadwithChrist(Ro6:8,Col2:20etc.).(d)Theexpressioneternaldeathis
foundnowhereinNT,commonasitsuseisinreligiousandtheologicallanguage.Itisthecorrelative,easilysuggestedbytheexpressioneternal
lifewhichissoconspicuousatopicofNTteaching,anditserveslooselyasanequivalentfortheantithesestolifeoreternallifethatactually
occur,suchasdestruction(Mt7:13),theeternalfire(Mt18:8),eternalpunishment(Mt25:46).Cf.alsotheseconddeathinRev21:8.Ifwe
substituteforeternalsomeotherrenderingsuchasoftheagesoronian,itbutservestoremindusoftheprofounddifficultiesattachingtothe
predicationofeternityinrelationtothesubjectofmansdestinyordoom.
J.S.CLEMENS.
DEBATE.Thiswordhadformerlythemeaningofstrife,asintheGenevatr.
ofGn13:7,therewasdebatebetweentheheardmenofAbramscattell,andtheheardmenofLotscattell.
DEBIR.ThekingofEglon,whoacc.toJos10:3joinedotherfourkingsagainstJoshua,butwasdefeatedandputtodeathalongwithhisallies
atMakkedah.
DEBIR.1.AtownfirstknownasKiriathsepher(Jos15:15,Jg1:11)intheneighbourhoodofHebron,andinhabitedbyAnakim(Jos11:21),
conqueredbyJoshua(10:38,11:21,12:13),ormorespecificallybyOthniel(15:15),assignedasaLeviticalcity(21:15,1Ch6:58)inthetribeof
Judah(Jos15:49).AnalternativenameKiriathsannah,oncerecorded(15:49),isprobablyacorruptionofKiriathsepher,dueprimarilytothe
similarityofpandnintheoldHebrewalphabet.IthasbeendoubtfullyidentifiedwithedhDhaheriyehnearHebrontillthesitecanbeidentified
andexamined,theattractivespeculationsbasedontheapparentmeaningoftheoldername(CityofBooksorScribes)mustbeleftintheregion
oftheory.
2.AplacenamedinthenorthernboundaryofJudah,nearthevalleyofAchor(Jos15:7).Thenamestillsurvivesastheappellationofaplace
inthisneighbourhood.
3.Aplace,notidentified,intheborderofthetransJordanicterritoryofGad(Jos13:26).AnalternativereadingisLidebir(cf.LODEBAR).
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
DEBORAH(bee).1.Rebekahsnurse,whoaccompaniedhermistresstohernewhomeonhermarryingIsaac(Gn24:59).Shewasevidently
heldingreatreverence,asthenameofthesiteofhergraveinBethelshows,Allonbacuth,theterehinthofweeping(Gn35:8).
2.Thefourthoftheleaders,orJudges,ofIsraelcalledalsoaprophetess,i.e.aninspiredwomanoneofthefourmentionedintheOTof
thetribeofIssachar(Jg5:15),wifeofLappidoth(4:4).HerhomewasbetweenBethelandRamahinthehillcountryofEphraimheretheIsraelites
cametoherforjudgmentandguidance.ShewastherealdelivereroftheIsraelites,whohadsunkintoastateoffeeblenessandimpotence,through
theoppressionofJabin,kingofHazor(seeBARAK).Apersonalityofgreatpowerandoutstandingcharacter,shewaslookeduptoasamotherin
Israel(5:7),andwasinstantbothinwordandindeedinfulfillinghercallingofJudge.Herrleisthemoreremarkableinthatthegeneral
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Israel(5:7),andwasinstantbothinwordandindeedinfulfillinghercallingofJudge.Herrleisthemoreremarkableinthatthegeneral
positionofwomeninthosedayswasofadistinctlysubordinatecharacter.
DeborahsSong(Jg5:231)isoneofthemostancientandmagnificentremainsofearlyHebrewliterature.Itisasongofvictory,sungin
memoryofIsraelstriumph(undertheleadershipofDeborahandBarak)overSiseraandthekingsofCanaan.Thevividpictureswhichthepoem
bringsupbeforethemindseyemakeitcertainthatthewriter(whetherDeborahoranother)livedatthetimeoftheeventsdescribed.Theparallel,
andsomewhatlater,account(inprose)ofthesamebattle(Jg4:424)agreesinthemainwiththepoem,thoughtherearemanydifferencesinthe
details.TheSongisdividedintofourdistinctsections:
PraisetoJahweh,andtheterrorofHisapproach,vv.25.
ConditionofIsraelpriortoDeborahsactivity,vv.611.
GatheringofthetribesofIsrael,vv.1218.
VictoryofIsraelanddeathofSisera,vv.1923.
ThechiefimportanceoftheSongliesinthehistoricaldataitcontains,andinthelightitthrowsonsomeofearlyIsraelsconceptionsofJahweh.
Oftheformer,themainpointsarethatatthistimetheIsraeliteshadsecurelysettledthemselvesinthemountainousdistricts,buthadnotasyet
obtainedanyholdonthefertilelandsofthePlainthatunityhadnotyetbeenestablishedamongthetribesofIsraelandthatthetwelvetribesof
latertimeshadnotyetallcomeintoexistence.
Ofthelatter,themainpointsare:thatJahwehhasHiadwellingplaceonthemountainsintheSouththat,therefore,Hehasnotyetcometo
dwellamongHispeople,thoughHeisregardedasspecificallytheGodofIsraelthatHecomesforthfromHisdwellingplacetoleadHispeopleto
battleandthatHismightandstrengtharesogreatthattheveryelementsareshakenatHisapproach.
TheHebrewtextisinsomeplaces(notablyinvv.8,1015)verycorruptbutthegeneralsenseisclear.
3.ThemotherofTobitsfathersheseemstohavetaughthergrandchildthedutyofalmsgiving(To1:8).
W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
DEBT
1.InOT.LoansintheOTperiodwerenotofacommercialnature.Theywerenotgrantedtoenableamantostartorextendhisbusiness,but
tomeetthepressureofpoverty.Totheborrowertheywereamisfortune(Dt28:12,44)tothelenderaformofcharity.Hencethetoneoflegislation
onthesubject.
Usuryisforbiddeninallthreecodes(Ex22:25[JE],Dt23:19,Lv25:36[H])itwasmakingaprofitoutofabrothersdistress.InDt.itmaybe
takenfromaforeigner.Pledgeswereallowed,butunderstrictlimitations(Dt24:10,Job24:3).InDt15isaremarkablelawprovidingforthe
lettingdropofloanseveryseventhyear(seeDriver,adloc.).ItsrelationtothelawoftheSabbaticalyearinEx23:10(JE),Lv25:1(H)isnot
clear,butthecessationofagriculturewouldobviouslyleadtoseriousfinancialdifficulties,anddebtorsmightreasonablylookforsomerelief.This
considerationmakesforthemodernview,thatthepassageimpliesonlythesuspensionforayearofthecreditorsrighttodemandpayment.Itmust
beadmitted,however,thatapartfromaprioriconsiderationstheobviousinterpretationisatotalremissionofdebts(sotheolder,andJewish
commentators).Foreignersdonotcomeunderthelaw.Theothercodeshavenoparallel,exceptwherethedebtmayhaveledtothebondageofthe
debtorsperson.
Historicallythelegislationseemstohavebeenlargelyignored.In2K4:17asmalldebtinvolvesthebondageofawidowstwosons(cf.Is
50:1,Mt18:23),andElishahelpshernotbyinvokingthelaw,butbyamiracle.InNeh5mortgagedlandsandinterestarerestoredunderthe
pressureofaneconomiccrisis.Nehemiahhimselfhasbeenacreditorandtakenusury.ThereisanapparentreferencetoDt15inNeh10:31.Inlater
timesthestrictnessofthelawwasevadedbyvariouslegalfictions:Hillelintroducedasystemofcontractingout.Thatloansplayedalargepartin
sociallifeisshownbyfrequentreferencesintheProphets,Psalms,andProverbs(Is24:2,Ps15:5,37:21,Pr19:17,28:8).Jer15:10showsthatthe
relationbetweendebtorandcreditorwasproverbiallyanunpleasantone.InPs37:21itispartofthemisfortuneofthewickedthatheshallbe
unabletopayhisdebtsthereisnoreferencetodishonesty.Pr.22:7,Sir18:33warnagainstborrowing,andSir29hassomedelightful
commonsenseadviceonthewholesubject.
2. InNT.LoansareassumedbyourLordasanormalfactorinsociallife(Mt25:27,Lk16:5,19:23).Lk6:34,35suggeststhattheChristian15/42
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2.InNT.LoansareassumedbyourLordasanormalfactorinsociallife(Mt25:27,Lk16:5,19:23).Lk6:34,35suggeststhattheChristian
willnotalwaysstandonhisrightsinthisrespect.DebtisusedasasynonymforsininMt6:12(cf.thetwoparablesMt18:23,Lk7:41andCol
2:14).Thecontextofthesepassagesisasufficientwarningagainsttheexternalandlegalisticviewofsinwhichmightbesuggestedbytheword
itself.Christdoesnotimplythatitisadebtwhichcanbepaidbyanyamountofgooddeedsorretributivesuffering.Thewordischosento
emphasizeourdutyofforgiveness,andithasawidemeaning,includingallweowetoGod.Themetaphorofthemoneypaymenthasceasedtobe
prominent,exceptwhereitisimpliedbythecontext.
C.W.EMMET.
DECALOGUE.SeeTENCOMMANDMENTS.
DECAPOLIS.Originallyaleagueoftencities,Greekinpopulationandconstitution,formutualdefenceagainsttheSemitictribesaround
them.ItmusthavecomeintoexistenceaboutthebeginningoftheChristianera.Theoriginaltencities,asenumeratedbyPliny,wereScythopolis,
Pella,Dion,Gerasa,Philadelphia,Gadara,Raphana,Kanatha,Hippos,andDamascus.Othercitiesjoinedtheleaguefromtimetotime.Theregion
ofDecapolis(Mt4:25,Mk5:20,7:31)wastheterritoryinwhichthesecitiesweresituatedthatis(excludingDamascus),roughlyspeaking,the
countryS.E.oftheSeaofGalilee.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
DECEASE.TheGr.wordexodos(exodus,outgoing)istranslateddeceaseinLk9:31and2P1:15,themeaningbeingdepartureoutof
theworld.InthissensetheGr.wordisusedalsoinWis3:2,7:6,Sir38:23.Theopposite,eisodos,isusedofthecomingofChrist.Theonlyother
occurrenceoftheGr.exodosinNTisinHe11:22,oftheExodusfromEgypt(AVandRVdeparture).
DECENTLY.1Co14:40,Letallthingsbedonedecentlyandinorder,thatis,inacomely,handsomemannerforthatistheoldmeaningof
decent,anditisthemeaningoftheGr.wordused.
DECISION.DulyconstitutedandrecognizedauthoritieshavethepowerofdecisiongrantedtotheminallquestionsofrightintheBible.
Moses(Ex18:13),thejudges(1S7:16),andthekings(1K3:16ff.)exercisethispoweruponoccasion.QuestionsofrightbetweenChristian
brethrenaretobedecidedbyChurchcourtsandnotbycivilauthorities(Mt18:17,1Co6:18).TheonlymethodofdecisionsanctionedintheNT
istheexerciseofgodlyjudgmentonthepartoftheindividualtowhomauthorityhasbeengranted.Thecastingoflotsbyheathensoldiers(Mk
15:24)andthesortilegeofAc1:2126cannotbecitedasexamplesfortheChristianChurch.Noinstanceofthecastingoflotscanbefoundafter
Pentecost.TheSpiritofasoundmindnowdecideswhatisrightandwhatistrue.
D.A.HAYES.
DECISION,VALLEYOF.ThephraseisfoundonlyinJL3:14Multitudes,multitudesinthevalleyofdecisionforthedayofJehovahis
nearinthevalleyofdecision.ThisvalleyisevidentlythevalleyofJehoshaphatmentionedintheprecedingcontext(vv.2,12).Thedecisionisthat
ofJehovahHimself,Hisfinaljudgmentupontheheathenassembled.ThesceneofthisjudgmenthasbeenfixedbyJews,RomanCatholics,and
MohammedansintheValleyoftheKidron.Thevalleyof
JehoshaphathasbeenidentifiedwiththeValleyoftheKidronsincethetimeof
Eusebius.Orelli,Michaelis,Robinson,andothersthinkthevalleyofthisprophecyispurelyasymbolicone,thevalleyofJehovahsjudgment,as
theHeb.nameJehoshaphat(Jehovahhathjudged)suggests.
D.A.HAYES.
DECREE.WhattheologiansspeakofasthedecreesofGod,anddescribeasone,immutable,eternal,allembracing,free,etc.,donotreceive
thisdesignationinScripture.TheequivalentsaretobesoughtforundersuchheadingsasELECTION,PREDESTINATION,PROVIDENCE,
REPROBATE.IntheEVthetermis
frequentlyusedinEsther,Ezra,Daniel,withdifferentHeb.andAram.words,forroyaldecrees(inDn6RVinterdictin2:9RVlaw,elsewhere
decree).IntheNTalsotheGr.worddogmataisemployedofdecreesofCsar(Lk2:1,Ac17:7)inAc16:4itisusedofdecreesoftheChurch
elsewhere(Eph2:15,Col.2:20)itistr.ordinances.Thenearestapproachtothetheologicalsenseofthetermis,inOT,intheHeb.wordhk,
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elsewhere(Eph2:15,Col.2:20)itistr.ordinances.Thenearestapproachtothetheologicalsenseofthetermis,inOT,intheHeb.wordhk,
ordinarilytr.statute,whichisusedinvariousplacesofGodssovereignappointmentsinnatureandprovidence(Job28:26,Ps148:6,Pr8:29,Jer
5:22,Zeph2:2).TheHebrewshadnotthemodernconceptionoflawsofnature,buttheyhadagoodequivalentintheideaoftheworldasordered
andfoundedbyGodsdecreesasregulatedbyHisordinances(cf.Ps104:5,9,119:8891,Jer10:12ff.).ThesamewordisusedinPs2:7ofGods
decreeregardingHiskinginDn4:17,24
(Aram.)wehavedecreeofthewatchersandthemostHigh.
JAMESORR.
DEDAN.AnorthArabianpeople,accordingtoGn10:7descendedfromCush,andaccordingto25:3fromAbrahamthroughKeturah.The
combinationisnotdifficulttounderstandwhenweremembertheArabianaffiliationsoftheCushites(cf.Is21:13).InEzk25:13Dedanisplaced
almostwithintheEdomiteterritory,whichitmusthaveborderedonthesoutheast(cf.Jer25:23,49:8).TheDedaniteswereamongtheArabian
peopleswhosenttheirnativewarestothemarketsofTyre(Ezk27:20).In
Ezk27:15readRodan(Rhodians)forDedan.
J.F.MCCURDY.
DEDICATION.SeeHOUSE,3.
DEDICATION,FEASTOFTHE.AfterthedesecrationoftheTempleandaltarbyAntiochusEpiphanes,JudasMaccabusreconsecrated
theminB.C.165onthe25thdayofChislev(December)cf.1Mac4:5259,2Mac10:6.Thiseventwashenceforwardcelebratedbyafeastall
overthecountry(Jn10:22).Itlasted8days.Therewasnosuspensionofbusinessorlabour,andbutfewadditionsweremadetotheordinary
synagogueservices.Thespecialfeatureofthefestivalwastheilluminationofprivatehouses,whencecameitsalternativenametheFeastof
Lights.(Thereweredivergentrulesfortheseilluminationsinthevariousschoolsoftraditionalists.)Itwasanoccasionforfeastingandjollity:the
peopleassembledatthesynagogues,carryingbranchesofpalmsandothertreestheserviceswerejubilant,nofastormourningcouldbeginduring
theperiod,andtheHallel(Pss113118)waschanted.TheresemblancesofthiscelebrationtotheFeastofTabernacleswereperhapsintentional.
A.W.F.BLUNT.
DEEP.SeeABYSS.
DEER.SeeFALLOWDEER,HART.
DEFENCED.InAVdefencedmeansprovidedwithfences,protected,
fortified.ItisusedinAVoffortifiedcities,andonce(Zec11:2marg.)ofaforest.
DEFILEMENT.SeeCLEANANDUNCLEAN.
DEGREES,SONGSOF.SeePsalms.
DEHAITES(AVDehavites,Ezr4:9).TheDehaiteswereamongthepeoplessettledinSamariabyOsnappar,i.e.probablytheAssyr.king
Ashurbanipal.ThenamehasbeenconnectedwiththatofanomadicPersiantribe,theDaoi,mentionedinHerod.i.125,orwiththenameofthecity
Dua,mentionedonAssyr.contracttabletsbuttheseidentificationsareverydoubtful.
DELAIAH.1.OneofthesonsofElioenai(1Ch3:24,AVDalaiah).2.Apriestandleaderofthe23rdcourseofpriests(1Ch24:18).3.The
sonofShemaiah(Jer36:12,25).4.ThesonofMehetabel,andfatherofShemaiah(Neh6:10).5.Theheadofafamilythatreturnedwith
Zerubbabel(Ezr2:60=Neh7:62).Thenamein1Es5:37isDalan.
DELILAH.ThePhilistinewomanwhobetrayedSamsonintothehandsofthePhilistines.SeeSAMSON.

DELOS.AsmallrockyislandintheganSea,whichhasplayedanextraordinarypartinhistory.Itwastheseatofawidespreadworshipof
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DELOS.AsmallrockyislandintheganSea,whichhasplayedanextraordinarypartinhistory.Itwastheseatofawidespreadworshipof
Apollo,who,withhissisterArtemis,wassaidtohavebeenbornthere.InB.C.478itwaschosenasthemeetingplaceoftheconfederacyofGreek
StatesunitedagainsttheircommonenemythePersians,andbecamearivalofAthens.Inthe2ndand1stcents.B.C.itbecameagreatharbour,and
wasunderRomanprotectionfromB.C.197to167.ItwaslateraportionoftheRomanprovinceAchaia.Itismentionedinthefamousletterofthe
RomansinfavouroftheJews(B.C.139138,1Mac15:1623).Itwasagreatexchange,whereslavesandotherproductsoftheE.werenoughtfor
theItalianmarket.ItwasthesceneinB.C.87ofahorriblemassacrecarriedoutbyMithradates,kingofPontus,whoslaughtered80,000Italians
thereandinneighbouringislands.Itneverfullyrecovered,andintheEmpirebecameinsignificant.
A.SOUTER.
DELUGE
1.TheBiblicalstory,Gn6:59:17[6:14isprobablyaseparatetradition,unconnectedwiththeDeluge(seeDriver,Genesis,p.82)].Thetwo
narrativesofJandPhavebeencombinedtheversesareassignedbyDriverasfollows:J6:58,7:15,
710,12,16b,17b,22,23,8:2b3a,612,13b,2022P6:922,7:6,11,1316a,17a,1821,24,8:1,2a,3b5,13a,1419,9:117.Jalonerelates
thesendingoutofthebirds,andthesacrificewithwhichJissopleasedthatHedeterminesneveragaintocursetheground.Palonegivesthe
directionswithregardtothesizeandconstructionoftheark,theblessingofNoah,thecommandsagainstmurderandtheeatingofblood,andthe
covenantwiththesignoftherainbow.Intheportionsinwhichthetwonarrativesoverlap,theyareatvarianceinthefollowingpoints.(a)InPone
pairofeverykindofanimal(6:1820)inJonepairoftheuncleanandsevenoftheclean(7:2,3),aretobetakenintotheark.(In7:9aredactorhas
addedthewordstwoandtwotomakeJsrepresentationconformtothatofP.)Thereasonforthedifferenceisthat,accordingtoP,animalswere
noteatenatalltillaftertheDeluge(9:3),sothattherewasnodistinctionrequiredbetweencleanandunclean.(b)InPthecauseoftheDelugeisnot
onlyrain,butalsotheburstingforthofthesubterraneanabyss(6:11)Jmentionsrainonly(v.12).(c)InPthewaterbeginstoabateafter150days
(8:3),themountaintopsarevisibleafter8monthsand13days(7:11,8:5),andtheearthisdryafterayearand10days(8:14)inJtheFloodlasts
only40days(7:12,8:6),andthewaterhadbeguntoabatebeforethat.
2.TheHistoricityofthestory.Themodernstudyofgeologyandcomparativemythologyhasmadeitimpossibletoseeinthestoryofthe
Delugetheliteralrecordofanhistoricalevent.(Thefactthatmarinefossilsarefoundonthetopsofhillscannotbeusedasanargument,for(i.)the
sameargumentcouldbeusedandisactuallyusedbynativetribestoproveotherfloodstoriesinvariouspartsoftheglobeand(ii.)thoughit
provesthatsomespotswhicharenowatthetopsofhillswereatonetimesubmerged,thatisnotequivalenttoassertingthatafloodeveroccurred
whichcoveredthewholeplanetapartfromtheextremeimprobabilitythatthesubmergenceofmountainswaswithintheperiodofmans
existence.)Thedifficultiesinthestoryasitstandsareimmense.(a)Allthewaterintheworld,togetherwithallthevapourifreducedtowater,
wouldnotcoverthewholeearthtotheheightofMt.Ararat.Andifithad,itisimpossibletoimaginehowitcouldhavedriedupinayearand10
days(nottospeakof40days),orwhitheritcouldhaveflowedaway.(b)Ifonlyasinglefamilysurvived,itisimpossibletoaccountforthewide
varietyofracesandlanguages.(c)Themeansofsafetyisnotaship,butsimplyahugechest,whichwouldinstantlycapsizeinastorm.Itis
popularlyassumedthatithadahull,shapedlikethatofashipbutofthisnothingissaidintheHeb.narrative.(d)ThecollectionbyNoahofapair
ofeverykindofanimal,bird,andcreepingthing,whichwouldincludespeciespeculiartodifferentcountriesfromthearcticregionstothetropics,
isinconceivable.Andnolesssothehousingofthemallinasinglechest,thefeeding
andcareofthembyeightpersons,thearrangementstopreventtheirdevouringoneanother,andtheprovisionofthewidelydiverseconditionsof
lifenecessaryforcreaturesfromdifferentcountriesandclimates.Fromeverypointofviewitisclearthatthestoryislegendary,andsimilarin
charactertothelegendswhicharefoundinthefolkloreofallpeoples.
3.TheCauseoftheDeluge.Thisisstatedtoberain(7:11b,12),andtheburstingforthofthesubterraneanabyss.Itmustbestudiedin
connexionwithotherfloodstories.SuchstoriesarefoundprincipallyinAmerica,butalsoinIndia,Cashmir,Tibet,China,Kamschatka,Australia,
someofthePolynesianIslands,Lithuania,andGreece.Inthegreatmajorityofcasesthefloodiscausedbysomestartlingnaturalphenomenon,
whichoftenhasaspecialconnexionwiththelocalitytowhichitbelongse.g.themeltingoftheiceorsnow,intheextremeN.ofAmerica
earthquakes,ontheAmericancoastlandswheretheyfrequentlyoccurthesubmergenceoremergenceofislands,indistrictsliabletovolcanic
eruptionsamonginlandpeoplesthecauseisfrequentlytheburstingofthebanksofriverswhichhavebeenswollenbyrains.Sometimesthestories
havegrownuptoaccountforvariousfactsofobservatione.g.thedispersionofpeoples,anddifferencesoflanguagetheredcolour,orthepale
colour,ofcertaintribesthediscoveryofmarinefossilsinland,andsoon.InsomecasesthesestorieshavebeencolouredbytheBiblestory,owing
totheteachingofChristianmissionariesinmoderntimes,andoftenmixedupwithotherBiblestories,andreproducedwithgrotesquedetailsby 18/42
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totheteachingofChristianmissionariesinmoderntimes,andoftenmixedupwithotherBiblestories,andreproducedwithgrotesquedetailsby
localadaptation.ButthereareverymanywhicharequiteunconnectedwiththestoryofNoah.(Foramuchfullerdiscussionofthevariousflood
storiesseethevaluableart.FloodinHastingsDBii.)Itisreasonable,therefore,totreattheHebrewstoryasoneoftheseoldworldlegends,and
tolookforthecauseofitinthenaturalfeaturesofthelandwhichgaveitbirth.Andwearefortunateinthepossessionofanearlierformofthe
legend,whichbelongstoBabylonia,andmakesitprobablethatitsoriginistobeascribedtotheinundationofthelargeBabylonianplainbythe
burstingforthofoneoftheriversbywhichitisintersected,andperhapsalso,assomethink,totheincursionofatidalwaveduetoanearthquake
somewhereintheSouth.This,amongapeoplewhoseworldwasboundedbyverynarrowlimits,wouldeasilybemagnifiedinoraltraditionintoa
universalDeluge.
4.TheBabylonianstory.(a)OneformofthestoryhaslongbeenknownfromthefragmentsofBerosus,anEgyptianpriestofthe3rdcent.
B.C.Itdiffersincertaindetailsfromtheotherformknowntouse.g.whenthebirdsreturnthesecondtime,clayisseentobeattachingtotheirlegs
(apointwhichfindsparallelsinsomeN.Americanfloodlegends)andnotonlytheheroofthestory,Xisuthros,andhiswife,butalsohisdaughter
andthepilotoftheshiparecarriedawaybythegods.
(b)TheotherandmoreimportantformiscontainedinAkkadiancuneiformtabletsmtheBritishMuseum,firstdecipheredin1872.Itispartof
anepicin12parts,eachconnectedwithasignoftheZodiactheFloodstoryisthe11th,andisconnectedwithAquarius,thewaterbearer.
GilgameshofUruk(Erech,Gn10:10),theherooftheepic,contrivedtovisithisancestorUtnapishtim,whohadreceivedthegiftofimmortality.
ThelatterisinonepassagecalledAdrahasis,whichbeinginvertedasHasisadraappearsinGreekasXisuthros.HerelatestoGilgameshhow,for
hispiety,hehadbeenpreservedfromagreatflood.WhenBelandthreeothergodsdeterminedtodestroyShurippak,acitylyingontheEuphrates,
Eawarnedhimtobuildaship.Hebuiltit120cubitsinheightandbreadth,withsixdecks,dividedinto7storeys,eachwith9compartmentsithad
amast,andwassmearedwithbitumen.Hetookonboardallhispossessions,theseedoflifeofeverykindthatIpossessed,cattleandbeastsofthe
field,hisfamily,servants,andcraftsmen.Heenteredtheshipandshutthedoor.ThenRammanthestormgodthundered,andthespiritsofheaven
broughtlightningsthegodswereterrifiedtheyfledtoheaven,andcoweredinaheaplikeadoginhiskennel.Onthe7thdaytherainceased,and
allmankindwereturnedtoclay.TheshipgroundedonMt.Nisir,E.oftheTigris,whereitremained6days.ThenUtnapishtimsentforthadove,a
swallow,andaraven,andthelastdidnotreturn.Hethensenttheanimalstothefourwinds,andofferedsacrificeonanaltaratthetopofthe
mountain.Thegodssmelledthesavourandgatheredlikeflies.ThegreatgoddessIshtarlighteduptherainbow.ShereproachedBelfordestroying
allmankindinsteadofonecityonly.Bel,ontheotherhand,wasangryattheescapeofUtnapishtim,andrefusedtocometothesacrifice.Buthe
waspacifiedbyEa,andatlengthenteredtheship,andmadeacovenantwithUtnapishtim,andtranslatedhimandhiswifetothemouthofthe
rivers,andmadethemimmortal.
ThesimilaritiestotheHeb.story,andthedifferencesfromit,arealikeobvious.ItdatesfromatleastB.C.3000,anditwouldpassthroughalong
courseoforalrepetitionbeforeitreachedtheHebrewform.Andhereinisseenthereligiousvalueofthelatter.ThegeniusoftheHebrewraceunder
Divineinspirationgraduallystrippeditofallitscrudepolytheism,andmadeitthevehicleofspiritualtruth.Itteachestheunityandomnipotenceof
JHishatredofsinandHispunishmentofsinnersbutatthesametimeHismercifulkindnesstothemthatobeyHim,whichisshowninrescuing
themfromdestruction,andinenteringintoacovenantwiththem.
5.Itisstrangethat,apartfromGn9:28,10:1,32,11:10,thereareonlytwoallusionsintheOTtotheFlood,Is54:9andPs29:10(thelatter
uncertainseecommentaries).IntheApocr.:2Es3:9f.,Wis10:4,Sir44:17f.(40:10inLXX,butnotinHeb.).IntheNT:Mt24:38f.,Lk17:27,He
11:7,1P3:20,2P2:5.
A.H.MNEILE.
DEMAS(=Demetrius?).AcompanionofSt.PaulinhisfirstRomanimprisonment(Col4:14,Philem24).Thereissomeindication(cf.Ph
2:20f.)thateventhenDemaswasnotaltogethertrustedandlaterheforsooktheApostle,havinglovedthispresentworld(2Ti4:10).Hewas
apparentlyanativeofThessalonica.
A.J.MACLEAN.
DEMETRIUS.1.Soter,thesonofSeleucusPhilopator.Inhisboyhoodhewassent(B.C.175)toRomeasahostage,butmadehisescape
afterthedeathofhisuncie,AntiochusEpiphanes.LandingatTripolis,hewasjoinedbylargebodiesofthepeople,andevenbythebodyguardof
hiscousin,AntiochusEupator.Eupatorwassoondefeatedandputtodeath,andinB.C.162,Demetriuswasproclaimedking(1Mac7:14,2Mac 19/42
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hiscousin,AntiochusEupator.Eupatorwassoondefeatedandputtodeath,andinB.C.162,Demetriuswasproclaimedking(1Mac7:14,2Mac
14:1,2Jos.Ant.XII.x.1).Aftersevenyears,AlexanderBalas
(wh.see)wassetupasaclaimanttothecrownofSyria(B.C.153)andheand
DemetriuscompetedforthesupportofJonathan(1Mac10:121Jos.Ant.XIII.ii.1
3).Balasprevailedinspiteoftheattemptsofhisrivaltooutbidhim(1Mac10:2545).InB.C.150adecisiveengagementtookplace,inwhich
Demetriuswasdefeatedandslain(1Mac10:4850Jos.Ant.XIII.ii.4).
2.Nikator,sentbyhisfather,D.Soter,forsafetytoChidusafterthesuccessofBalasseemedprobable.Afterseveralyearsofexilehelanded
(B.C.147)withanarmyofCretanmercenariesontheCiliciancoast,andfinallyinflictedafataldefeatuponBalas(B.C.145)onthebanksofthe
noparas,fromwhicheventDemetriusderivedhissurname(1Mac11:1419Jos.Ant.XIII.iv.8).HeboughtofftheoppositionofJonathanby
theadditionofthreeSamaritanprovincestoJuda,andtheexemptionfromtributeofthecountrythusenlarged(1Mac11:2037Jos.Ant.XIII.iv.
9).AftervaryingfortunesinthewarwithTryphon(wh.see),DemetriusinvadedthedominionsofthekingofParthia,bywhom,inB.C.138,he
wastakenprisoner(1Mac14:13).Uponregaininghislibertyattheendoftenyears,heundertookawaragainstPtolemyPhyskonofEgypt.
HavingbeendefeatedbyZabinasatDamascus,hefledtoPtolemais,andthencetoTyre,whereinB.C.125hewasmurdered(Jos.Ant.XIII.ix.3),
possiblyattheinstigationofhiswifeCleopatra(App.Syr.68Liv.Epit.lx.).
3.Eukairos,grandsonofD.Nikator.OnthedeathofhisfatherheestablishedhimselfinCleSyria,withDamascusashiscapital(Jos.Ant.
XIII.xiii.4).WhencivilwarbrokeoutbetweenAlexanderJannusandhisPhariseesubjects,thelatterinvitedtheassistanceofDemetrius(Jos.
Ant.XIII.xiii.5,BJI.iv.4),whodefeatedJannusinapitchedbattlenearShecbem(Jos.Ant.XIII.xiv.1,BJI.iv.5).Afterachequeredcareer,
DemetriusfellintothehandsoftheParthians,bywhomhewasdetainedincaptivityuntilhisdeath(Jos.Ant.XIII.xiv.3).
4,5.TwopersonsofthenamearementionedinNTtheringleaderintheriotatEphesus(Ac19:24),andadisciplecommendedbySt.John(3
Jn12).ProbablythesamenameoccursinacontractedformasDemas.
DEMON.TheworddoesnotoccurinAV.InRVitissubstitutedfordevilinthemarginofmanypassages,andtheAmericanCommitteewas
infavourofitsadoptioninthetext.Twiceitstandsinthetext(Dt32:17,Ps106:37),representingarootfoundinbothAssyr.andArab.,and
denotingaspeciesofgenliordemigods,whowereconceivedasinvestedwithpowerforgoodorevil,andtowhomevenhumansacrificeswere
offered.SoinBar4:7andinthesamesenseprobablydevilsisusedin1Co10:20andRev9:20.Fortheconceptionofdemonasaninfluenceor
spirit,exclusivelyevil,seeDEVILandforthephenomena,seePOSSESSIONandEXORCISM.
R.W.MOSS.
DEMOPHON(2Mac12:2).ASyriancommandantinPalestineunderAntiochusEupator.
DEN.ThefiveHeb.wordsrepresentedbydensignifyrespectivelyhollowplace(Is32:14),thicket(Ps10:9),placeofambush(Job
37:8),dwelling(Job38:40),lightholeoreyeball(Is11:8)butthelastpassage,maybecorrupt.
J.TAYLOR.
DENARIUS.SeeMONEY,6,7.
DEPUTY.1.AVofEst8:9,9:3(RVgovernor)astr.ofpechh.SeeGOVERNOR.2.AVofAc13:7,8,12,18:12,19:38(RVproconsul)as
tr.ofGr.anthupatos.SeePROCONSUL.3.RVofJer51:23,28(AVruler),Dn3:2,3,6:7(AVgovernor)astr.ofsgnoritsAram.equivalent.
ThetermdenotesinthesepassagesasuperiorofficialorprefectoftheBabylonianEmpire.Itisappliedelsewhere(Ezr9:2,Neh2:16,4:14,19etc.)
topettyofficialsinJudah(EVrulers,RVmdeputies).4.AVandRVof1K22:47astr.ofnizzb(lit.onesetuporappointed),usedofthe
vassalkingofEdom.
DERBE.AcityintheethnicdistrictLycaonia,andintheregionLycaoniaGalaticaoftheRomanprovinceGalatia,onthemainroadfrom
Iconium(orLystra)S.E.toLaranda.ThemodernvillagesLostaandGudelissinarebuiltontheruinsofthecityoritsterritory.Amyntas,kingof
Galatia,hadconqueredit,andinB.C.25itpassedwiththerestofhisterritoryintothehandsoftheRomans.FromA.D.41to72itwasthefrontier
cityoftheprovince,andwashonouredwiththeprefixClaudio.ItwasinthisperiodthatSt.Paulvisitedit(Ac14:6),andthenretracedhisstepsto
Lystra,etc.Onhissecondjourney,comingfromCilicia,hereacheditfirstandthenwentontoLystra,ashedidalsoonthethirdjourney.Gaiusof 20/42
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Lystra,etc.Onhissecondjourney,comingfromCilicia,hereacheditfirstandthenwentontoLystra,ashedidalsoonthethirdjourney.Gaiusof
DerbewasoneoftherepresentativesofGalatiainthedeputationwhichcarriedthecollectionforthepoorChristiansinJerusalem(Ac20:4).Derbe
wasonthewholeoneoftheleastimportantplacesvisitedbySt.Paul,andappearslittleinhistory.
A.SOUTER.
DESCENTINTOHADES.Thegeneralmeaningofthewordhell(Hades)intheOTistheunseen,hiddenplace.Itistheshadowydwelling
placeofthespiritsofthedead.Atfirsttherewasnoideaofadistinctionbetweengoodandbad.Butsuchanideagrewup,andintheNTourLord
sanctionedthebelief.IntheparableofDivesandLazarus(Lk16:1931),whilethesoulofDiveswassaidtobeintormentthesoulofLazaruswas
takentothesocietyofAbraham.Thepromisetothepenitentrobber(Lk23:43)TodayshaltthoubewithmeinParadise,pointsinthesame
direction.
TheApostlesseemtohavetaughtfromthefirstthatthesoulofChristHimselfpassedintoHadesatHisdeath.Thisappearsinthefirstsermon
ofSt.Peter(Ac2:2431),whenhequotesPs16:10,ThouwiltnotleavemysoulinHades,asaprophecyoftheResurrection.St.Paulalso,
adaptingsomewordsfromDt30:13,wrotetotheRomans(10:7)thatitisnotnecessarytosearchthedepth,sinceChristisrisenfromthedead.His
referencetothelowerpartsoftheearthinEph4:9hasbeeninterpretedtomeancamedowntoearthintheIncarnation:Nowthis,heascended,
whatisitbutthathealsodescendedfirstintothelowerpartsoftheearth?ButthephrasehadbeenusedinPs63:9withreferencetoHades,andhas
probablythatmeaninginthispassagealso.Throughobedienceevenuntodeath,ChristbecameLordoftheunderworldalso,andinHisdescent
assertedHisLordship(Ph2:10).
Thuswefindthewaypreparedforexplanationofthedifficultpassage1P3:1820:BecauseChristalsosufferedforsinsonce,therighteous
fortheunrighteous,thathemightbringustoGodbeingputtodeathintheflesh,butquickenedinthespiritinwhichalsohewentandpreached
untothespiritsinprison,whichaforetimeweredisobedient,whenthelongsufferingofGodwaitedinthedaysofNoah,whilethearkwasa
preparingcf.4:6Foruntothisendwasthegospelpreachedeventothedead,thattheymightbejudgedaccordingtomenintheflesh,butlive
accordingtoGodinthespirit.
UntilthetimeofSt.AugustinethispassagewasinterpretedtomeanthatChristpreachedtothespiritsofmenandwomenwhoweredrownedin
theFlood.TheApostlebidshisreaderstakecouragefromthefactthatChristsdeathwasfollowedbyaquickeninginthespirit.Ifpersecution
shouldbringthemtodeathalso,similarincreaseofspiritualenergywouldfollow.ThereisareferencetotheAscensioninv.22,whichmarksthe
timethatChristpreachedandexcludestheideathatChristinNoahpreachedtothemenofNoahstime,whichwasfirstsuggestedbySt.
Augustine.Thisview,however,thoughsupportedinmoderntimesbythegreatnamesofHammond,Pearson,andBarrow,isgenerallyregardedas
impossible.
Thereisoneotherinterpretation,whichmustbementionedasapossiblealternative.Somecriticssuggestthatthepreachingwastothefallen
angelsmentionedin2P2:4,Jude6,eitherafterChristsdeathorbeforetheIncarnation.ThewordspiritsisusedofangelsintheNT(Ac23:8),
butisusedalsoofspiritsofthedead(He12:23,cf.Lk24:3739),and1P4:6seemstoprovethatthisisthesensehere.
WemaypassbyfancifultheoriessuchasthatthepassagereferstothepreachingofEnochregardedasanincarnationoftheMessiah.The
apocryphalBookofEnochrecordspreachingofpunishmenttofallenangels,butsaysnothingofapreachingofsalvationtothesoulsofmen.And
thewordpreachedin1P3:19impliespreachedthegospel.
Ifitisaskedwhyshouldonlyonesetofsinnersbementioned,wemayreplythattheyweretypicalsinners,whosefate,asDr.Biggshows
(Com.,adloc.),wasmuchquestionedatthetimewhenSt.Peterwrote.ThereissomeevidencethatabeliefwascurrentintheJewishschoolstothe
effectthatatimeofrepentancewouldbeallowedtothesinnerswhoperishedintheFloodbeforethefinaljudgment.Wemayhopeforfreshlighton
thepointfromfurtherresearch,andforthepresentmayrestcontentwiththeinterpretationwhichenablesustoquotethesepassagesin1P.as
provingthatmoraldistinctionsexistinHades,andthatmoralchangeispossibleformoralbeingsthereashere,unlesstheysinagainstlight.
A.E.BURN.
DESERT.SeeWILDERNESS.
DESTROY(utterly).SeeBAN.

DEUEL.FatherofEliasaph,princeofGad(Nu1:14,7:42,47,10:20)=Reuel,Nu2:14(perhapstheoriginalname).
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DEUEL.FatherofEliasaph,princeofGad(Nu1:14,7:42,47,10:20)=Reuel,Nu2:14(perhapstheoriginalname).
DEUTERONOMY
1.Structure,Origin,Influence.Thebookconsistsofthreespeeches(1:64:40,526,28,29:230:20)andtwopoems(chs.32,33),allof
whicharerepresentedashavingbeenutteredbyMosesontheplainsofMoabbeforethecrossingofJordan.
Theslightnarrative(chs.27,31,34)isconcernedmainlywiththelastdaysofMoses.
Chapters13,however,containanhistoricalsketchcastintotheformofaspeech.
Chs.526,28:146areaunitywithaformalopening(4:4449)andclose(29:1)andthissection,apartfromsomelateradditions,is
homogeneous.Thuschs.511elaboratethoseprinciplesconcerningJahwehandHisrelationtoHispeoplewhichgiveapeculiarcharactertothe
Hebrewpolitychs.1226developtheseintoacodeoflaw28:146pronouncesblessingsonobedience,cursesondisobedience.Thissection,itis
nowagreed,wastheLawbookfoundintheTempleinthe18thyearofJosiah(B.C.622621),whichformedthebasisofthereformdescribedin2
K22f.ThusJosiahabolishedthehighplacesinJudahandJerusalem(22:8,13),andconfinedlegitimateworshiptothesanctuaryatJerusalemand
thiscentralizationofthecultisthedominatingideaofDt526.Again,JosiahpurifiedtheJahwehworshipfrombaserelements,destroyingthe
Asherah(2K23:6,cf.Dt16:21f.)andthehousesofsodomy(2K23:7,cf.Dt23:17f.).Hisoppositiontoidolatrywasdirectedagainstthesame
formsasthosedenouncedinDeut.(cf.thesunworship,2K23:5,11,Dt17:3andtheworshipofMilcom,23:10,13,Dt12:31).ThePassover,
celebratedinhisdayatJerusalem,isstatedtohavebeenunique(2K23:21ff.)andDeut.forbidsthecelebrationofthePassoverelsewherethanin
Jerusalem(16:5f.).ThekingabolishedthesuperstitiousmeansoflearningtheDivinewill(2K23:24),whichDeut.forbids
(18:10ff.).ThedemandsoftheLawbookandtheperformanceofthekingareparallel.
Itis,however,amoredifficultquestionhowfarthereformswhichJosiahinstitutedinobediencetoDeut.werenew,andhowfartheywerea
returntoolderpracticesfromwhichthenationhaddegeneratedduringtheearlymonarchy.Threeothercodescanbedistinguishedinthe
Pentateuch,andacomparisonofthesewithDeut.helpstodetermineitsplaceinthedevelopmentofIsraelsreligion.Anexaminationofthesocial
legislationinDeut.leadstotheconclusionthatitislaterthantheBookoftheCovenant(Ex2023:33).ThoughwearenotjustifiedincallingDeut.
adeliberateexpansionofthislegislation,itcertainlyrepresentsamoredevelopedstateofsociety,asisseen,e.g.,initsnumerouslawsabout
contracts.AndinoneparticularitcontrolsthecultatacardinalpointwhichExod.leftvague:theeveryplacewhereJahwehrecordshisname(Ex
20:24)hasbecometheplacewhichJahwehshallchoosetoputhisnamethere(Deut.passim).WhenDeut.iscomparedwiththeLawofHoliness
(Lv1726),thecodesareseentobeframedfordifferentpurposesLeviticusasahandbookforpriests,Deut.asalaymansmanual.Buttheir
legislationisparallel.ComparedwithP,Deut.isearlier,forquestionsleftuncertaininDeut.aredecidedinP.Seefurther,art.HEXATEUCH.
ThefewreferencesinDeut.toeventsinIsraelshistorybearouttheconclusionthusreached,fortheyaredependentonJE,butshowno
acquaintancewithPshistory.Itisdifficult,e.g.,toexplaintheabsenceofKorahinDt11:6,iftheauthorreadNu16initspresentform,where
KorahfromPhasbeenwovenintotheearlystory.Whenchs.13(seebelow)areincludedinthisscrutiny,theysupporttheinferencethatDeut.was
anindependentbook,beforePwasincorporatedwithJE.
Therearefurtherindicationsofthedateatwhichthiscodewasintroduced.ThusDeut.insiststhroughoutononesanctuary,atwhichlegitimate
worshipcanbeofferedtoJahweh.
Theextenttowhichthisdominatesthecodeisnottobemeasuredmerelybythenumberoftimesthecommandisrepeated.Oldercustomsare
recastinconsequenceofthischange.ThePassoveraltersitscharacterfromafamilytoanationalfestival
(16:5f.).Acentraltribunalissetuptoreplacethedecisionsatthelocalshrines(17:8f.).Asylumsforthemanslayerareneeded(19:1ff.),sincethe
villagealtarswhereheoncefoundsafety(Ex21:14)areabolished,etc.
NowthiswasaninnovationinIsrael.Elijah,farfromcondemningthehighplaces,isindignantatthesacrilegewhichhasthrowndownthealtars
ofJahweh(1K19:10).WhenheleavesthepollutedlandtoseekJahweh,hemakeshiswaynottoJerusalem,buttoHoreb(contrastIs2:2f.).Hosea
andAmosfindmuchtocondemnintheworshipwhichwaspractisedatBethelandDan,butneversuggestthatanyworshipofferedattheseshrines
wasipsofactoillegitimate.Yetthesewerethereligiousteachersofthenation.Deut.,again,forbidstheerectionofpillarsbesideJahwehsaltars
(12:3f.)itisdifficulttounderstandhowIsaiah(19:19)couldhaveassociatedapillarwithJahwehworship,hadthislawbeenacceptedinhisday.
TheworshipofthehostofheavenoneofthefewformsofidolatryspecifiedinDeut.isnotmentionedtillitreceivessevereblamefromthe
prophetsofthe7thcent.(Jer8:2,19:13,32:29,Zeph1:3).ButthisAssyriancultbecamearealdangertoIsraelsreligion,whenManassehcame 22/42
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prophetsofthe7thcent.(Jer8:2,19:13,32:29,Zeph1:3).ButthisAssyriancultbecamearealdangertoIsraelsreligion,whenManassehcame
underEasterninfluences.
Hezekiahisthefirstkingofwhomwelearnthatheattemptedtoremovethehighplaces(2K18:14).Evidently,however,thiswasanunpopular
step,fortheRabshakehwasabletoappealtotheconservativeinstinctsofthenationagainstakingwhopractisedsuchquestionableinnovations
(18:22).WhatimpelledHezekiahwasareligious,notapolitical,motive.ThesplendidmonotheisticteachingofIsaiahcarriedwithittheInference
OneGod,onesanctuary.Besides,theabuseswhichwereassociatedwiththelocalshrinescompelledthereligiousleadersofthenation,whohad
beeninfluencedbytheteachingofHoseaandAmos,togototherootandabolishsuchworshipaltogether.Theonemeansofpurifyingtheir
worshipwastoseveritfromthehighplaceswiththeirCanaaniteassociations.Politicaleventshelpedthem.ThefallofN.Israel(B.C.722)carried
withitthecondemnationoftheworshipwhichwaspractisedthere,andsweptawaytheworshipperswhowereattachedtoit.Thedeliveranceof
JerusalemfromSennacheribthrewagloryroundthesanctuaryofwhichJahwehhadsosignallyvindicatedtheinviolability.Probablyabodyof
reformersframedtheircodeinHezekiahslateryears.Theydidnotcreateanewlegislation,theyrecastandputanewspiritintoanoldercode.It
wouldhavebeenimpossibletosecuretheacceptanceofabrandnewcodefromawholepeople.
EffortshavebeenmadetobreakupDt526intoseveralsections,andtotracetheirorigin.Thesehavenotbeenveryconvincing:theyhave
reliedtoomuchonaproofofdifferenceoforiginderivedfromtheuseofthesingularorthepluralnumberinformsofaddresstothepeople.But
theyhaveprovedthatolderelementsandvariedelementshavebeenfusedtogetherintothisLawbook.
UnderManassehtherefollowedastrongreaction,whichresortedeventopersecution.ThereformersLawbookwasforgotten,thereformers
themselvesmayhavebeenmartyred.ButthecodeitselfsurvivedtobediscoveredunderJosiah,andtobecomethebasisofapregnantreform.
Opinionisdividedastowhetherchs.13arebythehandwhichwrotethemainwork.Thefactthatin11:2ff.Mosesisrepresentedasspeaking
tomenwhohadwitnessedtheExodus,whilein2:14ff.thatgenerationisrepresentedasdead,seemsdecisivethattheyarenot.Thechaptersmay
havebeenaddedasanhistoricalintroductiontoaseparateeditionofthecode.ThefactthattheirhistoryisbasedonJEprovesthatthismusthave
beenearly.
Chapters4:140,29f.belongtogether,andarealateradditioninviewofnewcircumstances,viz.,theprospectortherealityofexile.
TheSong(32:143),withitsdoubleintroduction(31:1622,30)andclose(32:44),isadidacticpoem,givinganinterpretationofIsraelsentire
history,andbearing
tracesofinfluencefromtheWisdomliterature.Itmaydatefromthe7thcent.ortheExile.
TheBlessing(ch.33)datesfromatimewhenN.Israelintheflushofitsvigourcouldanticipatefurtherconquests(v.17),sinceEasternIsrael
hadregainedpartofitslostterritory(v.20).ItmaybelongtothereignofJeroboamII.(B.C.78243),bywhomtheSyriansofDamascuswere
defeated.
Ch.27isdifficulttoassign.Itevidentlybreakstheconnexionof26and28,andasevidentlyiscomposite.TheLevitesinv.14ff.carryoutwhat
inv.12ff.thetribesarecommissionedtodo,andtherearenoblessingsutteredatall.Theremaybeearlyelementsinv.4ff.,butitisbesttoconfess
thatthechapterisstillacrux.
2.Mainprinciples.(a)Thefundamentalprincipleofthebookistheunityof
Jahweh,whoisGodofthewholeearth(10:14),andwhoismorethantheGodof
Israel,sinceHehasrelationstoothernationsapartfromtheirrelationstoIsrael(9:5,
12:31).Thiscarrieswithittheconsequencethatidolatryisthesupremesin(6:14,17:2ff.etc.).Toavoideventhepossibilityofsuchacrime,
intercoursewithothernationsisseverelyrestrained(7:1ff.etc.),andoldercustomsofworshipareforbidden(16:21etc.).(b)AsHeisGodofthe
wholeearth,Jahwehswillisthemorallaw,andinconnexionwithitsrequirementsHerewardsandpunishes(cf.theteachingofAmos).AsGodof
Israel,thefundamentalprinciplesofHisrelationtoHispeoplearealsoethical.(c)YetJahwehisnotmerelyalifelessmoralprincipleorglorified
code.HislovetoHispeoplewasshown,beforetheycouldproveanydesert(9:4f.etc.).Hegavethemtheirlandagifttheymustnotimagine
themselvestohavemerited(8:7ff.).HenceloveisthesupremereturnforHislove(6:4f.etc.,andcf.Hosea).Hencealsothereisroomforworship
andforprayer.Theircult,anexpressionoftheirlovinggratitude,istobejoyousincharacter,notlikethedarkersuperstitionstowhichnational
disasterandforeignritesweremakingthemincline(12:18etc.).(d)Areligion,theheartofwhichislovinggratitude,naturallyexpressesitselfin23/42
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disasterandforeignritesweremakingthemincline(12:18etc.).(d)Areligion,theheartofwhichislovinggratitude,naturallyexpressesitselfin
humanitytowardsallwithwhommenlive,andeventowardstheloweranimals(22:1f.etc.6f.etc.).Areligionalsowithsostrongasenseofthe
Divinepersonalitybringswithitrespectforhumanpersonality(24:10f.).(e)Aspersonalandloving,JahwehcananddoesrevealHimself.
ThroughHisselfrevelationHeisthehistoricGodofIsrael.Thisisemphasizedincontrastwiththebaalim,who,asgodsofCanaan,hadnohistoric
connexionwithIsrael.JahwehhasmadeknownHimselfandHiswillbythedeedsHehaswroughtforandamongHispeople.(Henceitwasaright
instinctwhichledtotheadditionofchs.13withtheirrecordofJahwehspastguidance.)(f)Thiselemententersnowintothecult.Itgivesfresh
historicassociationstothenationalfestivalsandwedsthemtothegreateventsoftheirpast.Seeespeciallych.26,whereallIsraelspastismadeto
enterintotheworshipoftheindividualIsraelite,andwherealsoemphasisislaidonthetruththatthefruitsofthelandarenotfromthebaalim,but
fromJahwehsbounty(cf.Hos2:8).(g)Suchareligion,withitsstrongsenseofthehistoricunityofGodsdealingswithHisnation,andits
convictionofthereasonablenessofGodsdemands,canandoughttobetaught.Childrenaretohaveitexplainedtothem(6:6f.,11:19)andmeans
aretobeusedtobringittomensthoughtsdaily(6:9,11:20).Mostoftheoutwardobservancesarethusbroughtintoconnexionwithgreatvivifying
principles,sothatthiscodebecomesthefinestillustrationofaneffortmadetobringreligiousprincipleshometoanationinitsentireworkandlife.
A.C.WELCH.
DEVIL.ThewordcameintoEnglishfromGreekeitherdirectlyorthroughitsLatintransliteration.Usedwiththedefinitearticle,itsoriginal
meaningwasthatoftheaccuserortraducerofmen(seeSATAN),whenceitsooncametodenotethesupremespiritofevil,thepersonaltempterof
manandenemyofGod.Withtheindefinitearticleitstandsforamalignantbeingofsuperhumannatureandpowers,andrepresentstheconception
expressedbytheGreeksintheoriginalofourtermdemon.Atfirsttheideaofmalignancywasnotnecessarilyassociatedwiththesebeings,some
beingregardedasharmlessandothersaswieldingevenbenigninfluencebutgraduallytheywereconsideredasoperatingexclusivelyinthesphere
ofmischief,andasneedingtobeguardedagainstbymagicritesorreligiousobservances.
1.Earlierconceptions.JewishdemonologymustbetracedbacktoprimitiveandpreMosaictimes,whenbothaformofanimismwas
presentinabeliefintheilldisposedactivityofthespiritsofthedead,andavarietyofplacesandobjectsweresupposedtoberenderedsacredbythe
occupation,permanentortemporary,ofsomesuperhumanpower.OftheseviewsonlytracesaretobefoundintheearliestpartsofScripture,and
theriperdevelopmentoflateragesmayfairlybeascribedtoforeign,andespeciallyBab.andGreek,influences.Thatcertainanimalswerebelieved
tobeendowedwithdemonicpowerappearsfromGn3:115,thoughheretheserpentitselfisrepresentedasdemonic,andnotyetaspossessedby
anevilspirit(Wis2:24,Ro16:20).Sowiththehegoatsorsatyrs(Lv17:7,2Ch11:15,Is13:21,34:14),whichwereevidentlyregardedasakind
ofdemon,thoughwithouttherichaccompanimentsoftheGreekconception.Theirhomewastheopenfieldorwilderness,whereAzazelwas
supposedtodwell(Lv16:8f.),andwhitheroneofthebirdsusedincleansingcasesofleprosywasletgotocarrybackthedisease(Lv14:7,53).On
thecontrary,theroesandthehindsofthefield(Ca2:7,3:5)seemtohavebeenthoughtofasfaunlikespirits,forwhoseaidalovermighthopefully
plead.UnderBab.influencethespiritwasconceivedasabstractedfromanyvisibleform,andasstillcapableofinflictinginjuryhencetheneedof
protectionagainstthedestroyerofEx12:23.In
Greekthoughttheretookplaceadevelopmentpartlyparallel.ThewordusedbyHesiodfortheblessedsoulofaherobecomeswithPlatoan
abstractinfluencesometimesbeneficentandhelpful,butemergesintheoratorsandtragediansasdescriptiveofbalefulgenii,whobringmisfortune
andevenrevelincruelty.
2.LaterJudaism.UnderthesevariousinfluencesthedemonologyoflaterJudaismbecamesomewhatelaborate.Theconceptionofdemonor
devilwasusedtoembracethreespeciesofexistences.(1)Itincludedthenationaldeities,conceivedasfallen,butnotalwaysasstrippedofall
power(Ex12:12,Is19:1,24:21,cf.14:12).(2)ItcoveredsuchoftheangelsaswerethoughttohavebeenonceattendantsuponthetrueGod,butto
havefallen(2P2:4,Jude6,Ethiop.Enochchs.6,7).ForavarietyofpersonalspiritswereinterposedbetweenGodasmediatingagencies
accordingtoBab.andPersianviews,or,accordingtothestrictJewishview,asministersofHiswill.(3)Tothesewereaddedasurvivalwith
modificationoftheprimitiveanimismthespiritsofthewickeddead(Josephus,Ant.VIII.ii.5,BJVII.vi.3),whoweresupposedtohauntthe
tombs,oratleasttocausethementheypossessedtodoso(Mt8:28).ThedevilsoflaterJudaismaccordinglyarethoughtofasinvisiblespirits,to
whomeveryill,physicalormoral,wasattributed.TheirrelationtoGodwasoneofquasiindependence.AttimestheydoHisbiddingandarethe
ministersofHiswrath,butinthissensearenotclassedinScriptureasdevilse.g.,thedemonofpestilenceisthedestroyingangeloreventheangel
oftheLord(2S24:16,2K19:35,Is37:36,Ps78:49).Yettheywerethoughttoresideinthelowerworldinanorganizedkingdomoftheirown
(Job18:14cf.Rev9:11,Ethiop.Enoch54:6,Mt12:2427)thoughthekingdomisnotentirelyoutsidethesovereignruleofJehovah,whoisthe
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(Job18:14cf.Rev9:11,Ethiop.Enoch54:6,Mt12:2427)thoughthekingdomisnotentirelyoutsidethesovereignruleofJehovah,whoisthe
Lordofallspiritsandoftheabyssinwhichtheydwell(Enoch40,Dt32:22,Job11:8,Ps139:8,Lk16:24).
3.IntheNT.IntheperiodoftheNTthebeliefindevilsasspirits,evilandinnumerable,wasgeneralamongstthenations,whetherJewishor
GentilebutinJesusandHisdisciplesthecruderfeaturesofthebelief,suchasthegrotesquenessofthefunctionsassignedtothesespiritsinthe
literatureofthesecondcentury,donotappear.ThewritersoftheGospelswereinthisrespectnotmuchinadvanceoftheircontemporaries,andfor
JesusHimselfnotheoryofaccommodationtocurrentbeliefscanbesustained.TheFourthGospeliscomparativelyfreefromthedemonicelement.
Possessionisthricealludedto(7:20,8:40,10:28)asasuggestedexplanationofChristsworkandinfluencebutevilgenerallyistracedbackrather
totheactivityofthedevil(6:70,whereadevilisnotademon,butthewordisusedmetaphoricallymuchasSataninMt16:23,Jn13:2,27),
whosesubordinatesfallintothebackground.TheSynoptics,especiallyLk.,aboundinreferencestodemons,whoareconceived,notasevil
influencesrestinguponorworkingwithinaman,butaspersonalspiritsbesettingorevenpossessinghim.Thedemonwassaidtoenterintoaman
(Lk8:30)orcertainanimals(Mt8:32),andtopassout(Mt17:18,Lk11:14)orbecastout(Mt9:34).Thisdemoniacalpossessionisreferredtoas
thecauseofvariousdiseases,thecasesbeingpreponderantlysuchasexhibitsymptomsofpsychicaldiseaseinassociationwithphysical(see
POSSESSION).St.PaulandtheotherwritersintheNTevidentlysharedtheviewsunderlyingtheSynoptics.Possessionsocalledisafamiliar
phenomenontothem,asitcontinuedtobeintheearlyyearsoftheChurch,thoughthereisamarkeddispositiontowardstheJohannineviewofa
centralsourceofevil.St.Paulspeaksofdoctrinesemanatingfromdevils(1Ti4:1,wherethewordshouldnotbetakenmetaphorically).Thedevils
of1Co10:20weredemigodsordeposedidols.St.Jamesrecognizestheexistenceofanumberofdevils(2:19),whoseindependencefitGodisnot
complete.TheApocalypse(9:20,16:14,18:2)similarlyspeaksofadiverseandmanifoldactivity,thoughagainitsderivationfromacommon
sourceisfrequent.Inallthesebookstheconceptionofdevilsseemstobegivingwaytothatofthedeviltheformergraduallyloseanypowerof
initiativeorfreeaction,andbecometheagentsofagreatspiritofevilbehindthem.
IntheOTthisprocesshasadvancedsofarthatthepersonalnameSatan(wh.see)isusedinthelaterbookswithsomefreedom,Asmodus
occurringinthesamesenseinTo3:8,17.ButintheNTtheprocessiscomplete,andineverypartthedevilappearsasapersonalandalmost
sovereignspiritofevil,capableofsuchactionsascannotbeexplainedawaybytheapplicationofanytheoryofpoeticordramaticpersonification.
ItishewhotemptedChrist(Mt4:1ff.,Lk4:2ff.),andintheparablessowedthetares(Mt13:39)orsnatchedupthegoodseed(Lk8:12cf.theevil
oneofMt13:19)andforhimandhisangelsanappropriatedestinyisprepared(Mt25:41).AccordingtoJn.,thedevilpromptedthetreasonof
Judas(13:2),andisviciousinhislusts,aliarandamurderer(8:44),asinnerinbothnatureandact(1Jn3:8,10).Heprolongsthetribulationofthe
faithfulwhodonotyieldtohim(Rev2:18)afterhisgreatfall(12:9)heisgoadedbydefeatintomorevenomousactivity(v.12),buteventually
meetshisdoom(20:10).Jude9preservesthetraditionofapersonalencounterwithMichaelandSt.Peterrepresentsthedevilasprowlingaboutin
searchofprey(1P5:8),thestandingadversaryofman,baffledbyJesus(Ac10:38).ToSt.James(4:7)thedevilisanantagonistwhoupon
resistancetakestoflight.Ifsonofthedevil(Ac13:10)ismetaphorical,St.Paulconsidershissnare(1Ti3:7,2Ti2:26)andhiswiles(Eph6:11)
realenough.Togiveopportunitytothedevil(Eph4:27)mayleadtoashareinhiscondemnation(1Ti3:6).Deathishisrealm(He2:14,Wis2:24),
andnotapartoftheoriginalDivineorderthoughnotinflictedathispleasure,hemakesitsubservienttohispurposes,andinitsspiritualsenseit
becomesthefateofthosewhoaccepthisrule.Suchlanguage,commontoallthewriters,andpervadingthewholeNT,allowsnootherconclusion
thanthattheforcesandspiritsofevilwereconceivedasgatheredupintoapersonalbeadandcentre,whoseauthoritytheyrecognizedandatwhose
biddingtheymoved.
ThisopinionisconfirmedbytherepresentationofthedevilsrelationtomenandtoGod,andbymanyphrasesinwhichheisreferredtounder
othernames.Heisthemoraladversaryofman(Mt13:39,Lk10:19,Eph4:27,1P5:8),acting,accordingtotheOT,withthepermissionofGod(cf.
Job1:912),thoughwithanassiduitythatshowsthefunctiontobecongenialbutintheNTwithapoweroforiginationthatisrecognized,if
watchedandrestrained.Henceheiscalledthetempter(Mt4:3,1Th.3:5),andtheaccuserofthosewholistentohissolicitation(Rev12:10).In
hinderingandharmingmenhestandsinantithesistoChrist(2Co6:15),andhenceisfittinglytermedtheevilandinjuriousone(Mt6:13,13:18,Jn
17:15,Eph6:16,2Th3:3,1Jn2:13f.,3:12,5:18f.butinsomeofthesepassagesitisopentocontendthatthewordisnotpersonal).Bentupon
maintainingandspreadingevil,hebeginswiththeseductionofEve(2Co11:3)andtheluringofmentodoom(Jn8:44).Deathbeingthusbrought
byhimintotheworld(Ro5:12,Wis2:24),bythefearofithekeepsmeninbondage(He2:14).Heenticesmentosin(1Co7:5),asheenticed
Jesus,thoughwithbettersuccess,placeseverywofulobstacleinthewayoftheirtrustinChrist(2Co4:4),andthusseekstomultiplythesonsof
disobedience(Eph2:2),whomaybe
rightlycalledhischildren(1Jn3:10).Inthefinalapostasyhismethodsareunchanged,andhishostilitytoeverythinggoodinmanbecomes
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rightlycalledhischildren(1Jn3:10).Inthefinalapostasyhismethodsareunchanged,andhishostilitytoeverythinggoodinmanbecomes
embitteredandInsatiable(2Th2:9f.,Rev20:7f.).
InregardtothedevilsrelationtoGod,thedegreeofindependenceandpersonalinitiativeislessintheOTthanintheNT,butnowhereisthere
anythingliketheexactcoordinationofthetwo.Therepresentationisnotthatofadualism,butoftherevoltofasubordinatethoughsuperhuman
power,patientlypermittedforatimeforwisepurposesandthenperemptorilyputdown.InJob1:6thedevilassociateshimselfwiththesonsof
God,andyetisrepresentedasnotstrictlyclassedwiththemhehastherightofaccesstoheaven,buthisactivityissubjecttoDivineconsent.
Anotherstageismarkedin1Ch21:1,wherethestatementof2S24:1ismodifiedasthoughthedevilworkedincompleteandunshackled
oppositiontoGod.IntheBookofEnochheistherulerofakingdomofevil,overwhichkingdom,however,theDivinesovereignty,oratleast
suzerainty,stands.TheNTpreservestheconceptioninmostofitsparts.Godandthedevilareplacedinantithesis(Ja4:7)sothepowerof
darknessandthekingdomoftheSonofhislove(Col1:13),asthoughthetwowereentirelydistinct.Thedevilistheprinceandpersonalheadof
thedemons(Mk3:22).AccordingtoJn.,heistheprinceofthisworld(12:31),andJesusiscontrastedwithhim(8:42,44,18:36),andoutsidethe
sphereofhisinfluence(14:30).St.Paulexpressessimilarviewsthedevilisthegodofthisworldorage(2Co4:4),theprinceofthepowerof
theair(Eph2:2),rulingovertheevilspiritswhoarelocatedintheskyorair(Lk10:18,Rev12:9cf.heavenlyplaces,Eph6:12),andwhoare
gradedinordersandcommunitiesmuchlikethespiritsofgood(Eph1:21).ThedualismissoimperfectthatChristhasbuttospeakandthedemons
recognizeHissuperiorauthority.Heisthestronger(Lk11:22),andcanevennow,underthelimitationsofthemoralprobationofmen,frustratethe
devilsdesigns(Lk22:32),anddestroyhisworks(1Jn3:8),andwilleventuallybringhimtonought(He2:14).Alreadythetriumphisassuredand
partiallyachieved(Jn16:11,1Jn4:4),andChristiansshareinit(Ro16:20).ItbecomescompleteandfinalattheParousia(1Co15:26,Ps110:1).
ThepersonalityofthedevilmustconsequentlyberegardedastaughtbyScripture.Heisnotconceivedastheoriginaloronlysourceofevil,but
asitssupremepersonalrepresentative.Hisexistence,likethatofevilitself,maybeascribedtothepermissivewillofGod,withanalogous
limitationsineachcase.Thepsychicalresearchesofrecentyearshavetendedtoconfirmthebeliefinspiritualexistences,goodandbad,and
therebytoreduceafundamentaldifficulty,whichwouldotherwiseattachalsoinadegreetothebeliefintheHolySpirit.Andthetraditionofa
revoltandfallofangelshasthisinitsfavour,thatitfitsinwiththebeliefindevilsandthedevil,andprovidesapartiallyintelligibleaccountof
circumstancesunderwhichsuchabeliefmighttakeshape.Itsuppliestheprecedingchaptersinthehistory,andenablesthecareertobetracedfrom
thefirststageofmoralchoicethroughtheprocessofhardeningofpurposeandincreasingseparationfromGodtotheappropriateabyssattheclose.
Thedevilthusbecomesatypeofeveryconfirmedevildoer:andthepatienceandtherighteousnessofGodarealikeexemplified.
R.W.MOSS.
DEVOTED.SeeBAN.
DEW.TheprocesswherebydewisformedisenhancedinEasterncountrieslikePalestine,wherethesurfaceofthegroundandtheairin
contacttherewitharehighlyheatedduringthedaytime,butwhereatnight,andparticularlyunderacloudlesssky,theheatofthegroundisradiated
intospaceandtheairbecomesrapidlycooleddown.Theexcessofmoistureintheairthengentlyfallsasdewonthetenderherb,andsometimes
socopiouslyastosustainthelifeofmanyplantswhichwouldotherwiseperishduringtherainlessseasonoreven,asinthecaseofGideon,to
saturateafleeceofwool(Jg6:38).Deprivationofdew,aswellasofrain,becomesaterriblecalamityintheEast.Onthisaccountdewandrainare
associatedintheimprecationcalleddownbyDavidonthemountainsofGilboa(2S1:21)andinthecursepronouncedonAhabandhiskingdom
byElijah(1K17:1),asalsobytheprophetHaggaiontheJewsaftertheRestoration(Hag1:10)owingtotheirunwillingnesstorebuildtheTemple.
IntheBookofJobtheformationofdewispointedtoasoneofthemysteriesofnatureinsolublebyman(Job38:28)butinPr.itisascribedtothe
omniscienceandpoweroftheLord(Pr3:20).DewisafavouriteembleminScripture:(a)richnessandfertility(Gn27:28,Dt33:13)(b)refreshing
andvivifyingeffects(Dt32:2,Is18:4)(c)stealth(2S17:12)(d)inconstancy(Hos6:4,13:3)(e)theyoungwarriorsoftheMessianicking(Ps
110:3).
DIADEM.SeeCROWN,andDRESS,5.
DIAL(2K20:11,Is38:8).TheHeb.wordcommonlydenotessteps(seeEx

20:26,1K10:20),andissorenderedelsewhereinthisnarrative(2K20:911,Is38:8AVdegrees).Thestepsreferredtodoubtlessformedpart26/42
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20:26,1K10:20),andissorenderedelsewhereinthisnarrative(2K20:911,Is38:8AVdegrees).Thestepsreferredtodoubtlessformedpart
ofsomekindofsunclock.AccordingtoHerod,ii.109,theBabyloniansweretheinventorsofthepolosorconcavedial,thegnomon,andthe
divisionofthedayinto12hours.TheintroductionbyAhazofadeviceformeasuringthetimemayberegardedasaresultofhisintercoursewith
theAssyrians(2K16:10ff.),butitisuncertainwhatkindofclockisintended.Seealsoart.TIME.
DIAMOND.SeeADAMANT,andJEWELSANDPRECIOUSSTONES.
DIANAOFTHEEPHESIANS.Thisnameisreallyerroneous,anditis
unfortunatethatithasbecomepopularizedbeyondpossibilityofcorrection.ThegoddessmeantisArtemis.ThereweretwoconceptionsofArtemis
inancienttimes:
(1)theGreekmaidenhuntress,sisterofApollotothisconceptioncorrespondstheItalianDiana(2)themothergoddess,theemblemoffertility,the
fountainofnourishment,anAnatoliandivinity,whowasGrecizedunderthenameofArtemis:thisisthegoddessreferredtoinActs,andshehas
nothingtodowithDiana,representinginfactacontraryidea.WhileArtemis(Diana)wasrepresentedinartattiredasahuntress,withthebowand
arrows,theAnatolianArtemiswasrepresentedwithmanybreasts(multimammia),andsometimesincompanywithtwostags.Inthisformshewas
worshippedoverthewholeofLydia,beforeGreekseversettledthere,andthesamedivinepowerofreproductionwasworshippedunderother
namesovermostofthepeninsulaofAsiaMinor.TherudeidolpreservedinherchieftempleatEphesuswassaidtohavefallenfromheaven(thisis
therealmeaningofAc19:35),anotuncommonideainancienttimes,whichsuggeststhatsuchimagesweresometimesmeteoricstones.Thechief
priest,whoboreaPersiantitle,hadunderhimalargecompanyofpriestesses.Therewasalsoalargebodyofpriests,eachappointedforayear,who
seemtohavebeencityofficialsatthesametime,andotherbodiesofministers.Theritualwasoftheabominablecharacterwhichitmightbe
expectedtohave.Theepithetgreat(Ac19:34)isprovedbyinscriptionstohavebeencharacteristicallyappliedtothegoddess,andthe
exclamationinActsmayhavebeenreallyaninvocation.Thesilvershrines(Ac19:24)weresmallrepresentationsofthegoddesswithinhershrine
purchasedbytherich.Thepoorboughttheminterracottaormarble.Bothclassesdedicatedthemasofferingstothegoddess,inwhosetemplethey
wouldbehungup.Whentheaccumulationbecametoogreat,thepriestsclearedthemaway,throwingtheterracottaormarbleonesontotherubbish
heap,orintoahole,butsecuringtheothersforthemeltingpot.Allthosewhichsurvivearenaturallyinterracottaormarble.Thegoddesshadso
manyworshippers(Ac19:27)thatthemanufactureofsuchsilvershrineswasveryprofitable.
A.SOUTER.
DIASPORA.SeeDISPERSION.
DIBLAH.AnunknownplacementionedbyEzekiel(6:14).Avariant(prob.
correct)readingisRiblah(wh.see).
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
DIBLAIM.ThefatherofGomer,Hoseaswife(Hos1:3).SeeHOSEA.
DIBON.1.AcityeastoftheDeadSeaandnorthoftheArnon,inthelandwhich,beforethecomingoftheIsraelites,Sihon,kingofthe
Amorites,hadtakenfromaformerkingofMoab(Nu21:26,30).TheIsraelitesdispossessedSihon,andtheterritorywasassignedtoReuben(Jos
13:9,17),butthecityDibonismentionedamongthosebuilt(orrebuilt)byGad(Nu32:3,34),hencethenameDibongabbywhichitisonce
called(Nu33:45).ThechildrenofIsraelwerenotabletoretainpossessionoftheland,andinthetimeofIsaiahDibonisreckonedamongthecities
ofMoab(Is15).InIs15:9DimonissupposedtoheamodifiedformofDibon,adoptedinordertoresemblemorecloselytheHeb.wordforblood
(dam),andsupporttheplayonwordsinthatverse.ThemodernnameofthetownisDhiban,abouthalfanhourN.ofArair,whichisontheedge
oftheArnonValley.Itisadrearyandfeaturelessruinontwoadjacentknolls,buthasacquirednotorietyinconsequenceofthediscoverythereof
theMoabiteStone.
2.AtowninJudahinhabitedinNehemiahstimebysomeofthechildrenofJudah(Neh11:25).PerhapsitisthesameasDimonah(Jos15:22)
amongthesouthernmostcitiesofJudah.
DIBRI.ADanite,grandfatheroftheblasphemerwhowasstonedtodeath(Lv
24:11).
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24:11).
DICTIONARIES
1.OftheBible.FrancisRoberts,ClavisBibliorum(1675)Kitto,CyclopdiaofBiblicalLiterature3(3vols.1862)Fairhairn,ImperialBible
Dictionary(186466newed.1888)Smith,Dict.ofBible(3vols.,186063),2nded.ofvol.i.only(1899),alsoConciseBibleDict.andSmaller
BibleDict.R.Hunter,ConciseBibleDict.(Cassell,1894)M.G.Easton,BibleDict.(Nelson,1894)J.Eadie,Biblical
Cyclopdia(newed.bySayce,1901)C.R.Barnes,PeoplesBibleEncyc.(New
YorkandLond.1900)J.D.Davis,Dict.oftheBible(Philad.1898)Schaff,ReligiousEncyclopdia,orDictionaryofBiblicalHistory,etc.,based
onHerzogsPRE(3vols.,T.&T.Clark,1883)MClintockStrong,CyclopdiaofBiblical,Theological,andEccles.Literature(10vols.and2
vols.suppl.,NewYork,18711887)Herzog,Realencyklopdief.protest.Theol.undKirche(18vols.,187788newed.byHauck,1896ff.)
Zeller,Bibl.Handwrterbuchillustriert(1893)Riehm,Handwrterbuchdesbibl.Altertums2(2vols.,1893)Vigorous,Dict.delaBible(1895ff.)
Hamburger,Realencyklopdief.BibelundTalmud(2vols.and3supplements,1875,1892)
Guthe,KurzesBibelwrterbuch(1903)JewishEncyclopedia(12vols.,190106)Cheyne&Black,EncyclopdiaBiblica(4vols.,18991903)
Hastings,DictionaryoftheBible(4vols.withextravol.andindexes,T.&T.Clark,18981904),alsoDictionaryofChristandtheGospels(2vols.,
190608).
2.Hebrew,Aramaic,Syriac.(a)Gesenius,ThesaurusPhilologicusCriticus
LinguHeb.etChald.Vet.Test.(182942),alsoLexiconManuale,tr.byE.Robinson
(1836)andsubsequently,withadditionsandcorrectionsfromtheauthorsThesaurusandotherworks,byS.P.Tregelles(Bagster),Gesenius
Handwrterbuch,inVerbindungmitA.SocinundH.Zimmern,bearbeitetvonF.Buhl,13thed.1899B.Davidson,AnalyticalHeb.Lexicon(do.)
Fuerst,Heb.andChald.Lex.totheOT,tr.byS.Davidson(Williams&Norgate)SiegfriedStade,Heb.WrterbuchzumAT(Leipzig,1893)
BrownDriverBriggs,Heb.Lex.toOT(Oxford,1906).(b)Levy,
Neuheb.undChald.WrterbuchberdieTalmudimundMidraschim(4vols.,1875
89)G.Dalman,Aram.Neuheb.Wrterbuchzu,Targum,TalmudundMidrasch
(1901).(c)Roediger,ChrestomathiaSyriaca(1868)R.PayneSmith,ThesaurusSyriacus(continuedbyMargoliouth,18791901)alsoA
CompendiousSyriacDict.,byJ.PayneSmith[Mrs.Margoliouth](Oxf.1903)C.Brockelmann,Lex.Syriacum(T.&T.Clark,1895).
3.Greek(esp.NT).LiddellScott,GreekEnglishLexiconRobinson,GreekandEnglishLexiconoftheNTCremer,BiblicoTheologicalLex.
ofNTGreek2(T.&T.
Clark),3rdGerm.ed.18811883AnalyticalGr.Lex.toNT(Bagster)GrimmThayer,GreekEnglishLex.oftheNT,beingGrimmWilkesClavis
NTrevisedandenlargedbyThayer(T.&T.Clark,1888).DeissmannhasaLex.inhand.
OftheDictionariesnamedabove,thefoli.aremostaccurateanduptodate(a)BIBLE:CheyneandBlack,Encyc.BiblicaHastings,Dict.of
theBible,Dict.ofChristandtheGospels,andthepresentwork.(b)HEBREW,etc.:BrownDriverBriggs,Heb.Lex.Dalman,Aram.Neuheb.
WrterbuchMargoliouth,Compend.Syr.Dict.,orBrockelmann,Lex.Syr.(c)GREEK:Cremer,BiblicoTheologicalLex.ofNT.Thayer,Greek
Eng.Lex.ofNT.
W.F.ADENEYandJ.S.BANKS.

DIDRACHMA,Mt17:24inmarg.ofEVAVhastributemoney,RVcorrectlyhalfshekel.SeeMONEY,7.
DIDYMUS.SeeTHOMAS.
DIET.InAV,apartfromSir30:25,whereitsignifiesfood,thiswordoccursonlyinJer52:34,whereRVhasthemorecorrectallowance,
i.e.offood,asAVintheparallelpassage2K25:30.InJer40:5thesamewordisrenderedvictuals,but
RVmallowance.
DIKLAH.ThenameofasonofJoktan(Gn10:27,1Ch1:21),probablyrepresentinganationorcommunity.Thenamesimmediately
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DIKLAH.ThenameofasonofJoktan(Gn10:27,1Ch1:21),probablyrepresentinganationorcommunity.Thenamesimmediately
precedingandfollowingDiklahgivenocluetoitsidentification.
DILAN(Jos15:38).AtownofJudah,inthesamegroupwithLachishandEglon.Thesiteisunknown.
DILL.SeeANISE.
DIMNAH.ALeviticalcityinZebulun(Jos21:35).ThenameispossiblyacopyistserrorforRimmon(cf.1Ch6:22,Jos19:13).
DIMON,DIMONAH.SeeDIBON.
DINAH.ThedaughterofJacobbyLeah,andsisterofSimeonandLevi,accordingtoGn30:21.
ThisverseappearstohavebeeninsertedbyalateredactorperhapstheonewhoaddedthesectionGn46:827(cf.v.15).Nothingissaidin
29:3130:24,35:16ff.,wherethebirthstoriesofJacobschildrenaregiven,ofotherdaughtersofJacobbut37:35(J)and46:7(P)speakofallhis
daughters.P,moreover,clearlydistinguishesbetweenhisdaughtersandhisdaughtersinlaw.
InGn34wehaveacompositenarrativeoftheseizureofDinahbytheHiviteprince,Shechem,thesonofHamor.TheprobableremnantsofJs
storymakeitappearthatthetale,asitwasfirsttold,wasaverysimpleone.ShechemtookDinahtohishouseandcohabitedwithher,andherfather
andbrothersresentedthedefilement.Shechem,actingonhisownbehalf,proposedmarriage,promisingtoacceptanyconditionsofdowerher
fatherandbrothersmightimpose.Themarriagetookplace,andafterwardsherfullbrothers,SimeonandLevi,slewShechemandtookDinahoutof
hishouse.Jacobrebukedthemforthis,becauseofthevengeanceitwasliabletobringuponhishouse.Jacobthinksonlyofconsequenceshere.If,
asisgenerallysupposed,Gn49:5ff.referstothisact,thereprimandadministeredwasbasedbyhimnotuponthedreadofconsequences,butupon
theturpitudeofacruelrevenge.
Theremainingversesofch.34makeHamorspokesmanforhisson.HenotonlyofferedgenerouslytomakehonourableamendsforShechems
misconduct,butalsoproposedamutualcovenantofgeneralintercourse,includingtheconnubium.Jacobandhissonsseetheiropportunityfor
revenge,andrefuse,exceptupontheoneconditionthatallthemalesofthecitybecircumcised.When,asaresult,thelatterwereunabletodefend
themselves,allthesonsofJacobfelluponthemwiththesword,sparingonlythewomenandchildren,whomtheytookcaptivewiththespoilofthe
city.ThewordstwoofandSimeonandLevi,Dinahsbrethreninv.25areinterpolated(cf.v.13).Thisstoryisclearlyanelaborationofthe
earlierform,despiteitsoneortwomoreantiquetouches,andsuggests,moreover,thespiritatworkinEzrasmarriagereforms.
Thestory,likemanyothers,introducedasepisodesinthefamilyhistoryofJacob,shouldprobablyreceiveatribalinterpretation.Simeonand
Leviaretribes.DinahwasperhapsasmallIsraeliteclan,accordingtothetraditionscloselyrelatedtoSimeonandLeviaccordingtothename,
possiblymorecloselytoDan.Schechem,theprince,istheeponymousheroofthecityofthatname.HamoristhenameoftheHiviteclanin
possessionofthecity.TheweakIsraeliteclan,havingbecomedetachedfromtherelatedtribes,wasoverpoweredbytheCanaaniteinhabitantsof
Shechemandincorporated.SimeonandLevi,byawililyplottedandunexpectedattack,hopedtoeffectitsdeliverance.Theyweremomentarily
successful,andinflictedasevereblowupontheShechemitesbuttheirtemeritycostthemtheirtribalexistence.AcounterattackoftheCanaanites
resultedimmediatelyinthedecimationofthetribe,andfinallyintheabsorptionoftheirremnantsintotheneighbouringtribes.TheDinahclan
disappearedatthesametime.
JAMESA.CRAIG.
DINAITES(Ezr4:9).ApeoplesettledinSamariabyOsnappar(i.e.probablyAshurbanipal).TheyhavebeenvariouslyidentifiedwiththeDa
jani,atribeofwesternArmenia,mentionedininscriptionsofTiglathpileserI.andwiththeinhabitantsofDeinaver,aMediancity,orofDin
SharrunearSusa.Thelastviewseemsthemostprobable.
DINHABAH.ThecapitalcityofkingBelainEdom(Gn36:32=1Ch1:43).Thereissomedoubtastoitsidentification.Possiblyitis
Thenib,E.N.E.fromHeshbon.
DINNER.SeeMEALS,2.
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DINNER.SeeMEALS,2.
DIONYSIA.AfeastinhonourofDionysus,anothernameofthegodBacchus(2Mac6:7).Hewasthegodoftreelife,butespeciallyofthe
lifeofthevineanditsproduce.Thefestivalcelebratedtherevivalofthedrinkgivingvineafterthedeadnessofwinter.Itwasaccompaniedby
orgiasticexcesses,themselvesatonceemblematicof,andcausedby,therenewedfertilityofthesoil.ThemostfamousfestivalsofDionysus,four
inall,wereheldinAtticaatvariousperiodsoftheyear,correspondingtothestagesinthelifeofthevine,theAnthesteria,theLena,theLesser
andtheGreaterDionysia.TheLesserDionysiawasavintagefestivalheldinthecountryinDecembertheGreaterDionysiawasheldinthecity,
anditwasinconnexionwiththisthatthetragediesandcomedieswereproducedinthetheatreofDionysus.Attendanceattheseplayswasanactof
worship.In2Mac6:7wearetoldthatAntiochuscompelledtheJewstoattendafestivalofDionysus,wearingwreathsofivy,aplantsacredtothe
god.
A.SOUTER.
DIONYSIUSTHEAREOPAGITE.AmemberoftheUniversityCourtofthe
AreopagusatAthens(Ac17:34),convertedbySt.Paul.ThewritingsascribedtoDionysiusareofamuchlaterdate.Heisbysomeidentifiedwith
St.DenysofFrance.A.J.MACLEAN.
DIONYSUS.OneofthevariousnamesappliedtothegodwhoismostcommonlycalledBacchus.Itisprobablethat,tobeginwith,hewasa
godofvegetationingeneral,butastimewentonhebecameidentifiedwiththevineexclusively.Itissupposedthatthisspecializationoriginatedin
Thrace.Laterstill,theworship,underAssyrianandBabylonianinfluence,tooktheformofmysteries,likethatofDemeter,thegoddessofbread.
MythologyspeaksofatriumphaljourneytakenbythegodinIndia.HisworshipwaswidelydisseminatedoverGreeklands,anditwasassumed
thattheJewswouldhavenoobjectiontoit(2Mac6:7,14:33).PtolemyPhilopatoralsoattemptedtoforcetheworshipofDionysus,thegodofhis
family,upontheJews(3Mac2:29).
A.SOUTER.
DIOSCORINTHIUS.SeeTIME.
DIOSCURI(RVm),orTheTwinBrothers(RV),orCastorandPollux(AV).ThesignorfigureheadoftheAlexandrianshipinwhichSt.
PaulsailedfromMalta
(Ac28:11),perhapsoneofthoseemployedtobringcorntoRome.TheTwins(Gemini)weretheprotectorsofsailorsinmythologytheyweresons
ofZeusandLeda,andwereplacedintheskyasaconstellationfortheirbrotherlylove.
A.J.MACLEAN.
DIOTREPHES.Aperson,otherwiseunknown,whoisintroducedin3John(vv.9,10)asambitious,resistingthewritersauthority,and
standinginthewayofthehospitablereceptionofbrethrenwhovisitedtheChurch.
DIPHATHoccursinRVandAVmof1Ch1:6,butitispracticallycertainthatAVRiphath(wh.see)isthecorrectreading.
DISALLOW.1P2:4,alivingstone,disallowedindeedofmen,butchosenofGod2:7,thestonewhichthebuildersdisallowed.TheEng.
wordmeansemphaticallydisowned,asintheAVheadingto1S29,David,marchingwiththePhilistines,isdisallowedbytheirprinces.RVgives
rejected,asthesameGr.verbisrenderedinMt21:42,Mk8:31,Lk17:25.ButinNu30:5,8,11disallowmeansnomorethandisapprove,asin
BarlowesDialogue,p.83,yecannotfyndethattheybedysalowedofGod,butratherapproved.
DISCIPLES.Intheancientworldeveryteacherhadhiscompanyofdisciplesorlearners.TheGreekphilosophersandtheJewishRabbishad
theirs,andJohntheBaptisthadhis(Mk2:18thedisciplesofJohnandthedisciplesofthePhariseescf.Jn1:35,Mt14:12).InlikemannerJesus
hadHisdisciples.Thetermhadtwoapplications,awiderandanarrower.Itdenoted(1)allwhobelievedinHim,thoughtheyremainedwhereHe
hadfoundthem,pursuingtheirformeravocations,yetrenderingnosmallservicetoHiscausebyconfessingtheirallegianceandtestifyingtoHis
grace(cf.Lk6:13,19:37,Jn4:1,6:60,66,67).(2)TheinnercircleoftheTwelve,whomHecalledApostles,andwhomHerequiredtoforsake 30/42
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grace(cf.Lk6:13,19:37,Jn4:1,6:60,66,67).(2)TheinnercircleoftheTwelve,whomHecalledApostles,andwhomHerequiredtoforsake
theiroldlivesandfollowHimwhithersoeverHewent,notmerelythattheymightstrengthenHimbytheirsympathy(cf.Lk22:28),butthatthey
mightaidHiminHisministry(Mt9:37,10:1,5),and,aboveall,thattheymightbetrainedbydallyintercourseanddisciplinetocarryforwardthe
workafterHewasgone.Thesewerethedisciplesparexcellence(Mt10:1,12:1,49,15:23,32,Mk8:27,Lk8:9,Jn11:7,12:4,16:17,29).
SeealsoAPOSTLES.
DAVIDSMITH.
DISCOVER.InAVdiscoverisusedinsomeobsoletemeanings.1.Touncover,maketobeseen,asKnox,Hist.p.250,whorashly
discoveringhimselfintheTrenches,wasshotinthehead.SoPs29:9,ThevoiceoftheLorddiscovereththeforests,andotherpassages.2.To
disclose,asShakespeare,MerryWives,II.ii.190,Ishalldiscoverathingtoyou.SoPr25:9,discovernotasecrettoanother,etc.3.Todescry,
getsightof,asAc21:3,WhenwehaddiscoveredCyprus,weleftitonthelefthand27:39theydiscoveredacertaincreek.
DISCUS.SeeGAMES.
DISEASE.SeeMEDICINE.
DISH.SeeCHARGERHOUSE,9MEALS,5andTABERNACLE,5
(a).
DISHAN.AsonofSeir,Gn36:21,28,30=1Ch1:38,42.
DISHON.1.AsonofSeir(Gn36:21=1Ch1:38).2.AsonofAnahandgrandsonofSeir(Gn36:25,cf.v.30=1Ch1:41Dishonshould
alsobereadforMTDishaninGn36:26).DishanandDishonare,ofcourse,notindividualnames,buttheeponymsofHoriteclans.Theirexact
locationisamatterofuncertainty.
DISPERSION.Thename(Gr.Diaspora)giventotheJewishcommunitiesoutsidePalestine(2Mac1:27,Jn7:35,Ja1:1,1P1:1).Itis
uncertainwhentheestablishmentofthesenonPalestiniancommunitiesbegan.Itappearsfrom1K20:34thatanIsraelltishcolonywasestablished
inDamascusinthereignofAhab.PossiblythesimilaralliancesofDavidandSolomonwithPhniciahadestablishedsimilarcoloniesthere.Inthe
8thcent.TiglathpileserIII.carriedmanyIsraelitescaptivetoAssyria(2K15:29),andSargontransportedfromSamaria27,290Hebrews(cf.KIB
ii.55),andsettledtheminMesopotamiaandMedia(2K17:6).AstheDeuteronomiclawhadnotatthisdatedifferentiatedthereligionofIsrael
sharplyfromotherSemiticreligions(cf.ISRAEL),itisdoubtfulwhetherthesecommunitiesmaintainedtheiridentity.Probablytheywereabsorbed
andthuslosttoIsrael.
TherealDispersionbeganwiththeBabylonianExile.NebuchadnezzartransplantedtoBabyloniathechoicestoftheJudanpopulation(2K
24:1216,25:11,Jer52:15).Probably50,000weretransported,andJewishcommunitieswereformedinBabyloniaatmanypoints,asatTelabib
(Ezk3:15)andCasiphia(Ezr8:17).HeretheJewishreligionwasmaintainedprophetslikeEzekielandpriestslikeEzrasprangup,theoldlaws
werestudiedandworkedover,thePentateuchelaborated,andfromthiscentreJewsradiatedtomanypartsoftheEast(Neh1:1ff.,To1:922,Is
11:11).ThustheJewsreachedMedia,Persia,Cappadocia,Armenia,andtheBlack
Sea.OnlyafewoftheseBabylonianJewsreturnedtoPalestine.TheymaintainedtheJewishcommunitiesinBabyloniatillaboutA.D.1000.Here,
afterthebeginningoftheChristianera,theBabylonianTalmudwascompiled.
InB.C.608,NechotookkingJehoahazandprobablyotherstoEgypt.InthisgeneralperiodcoloniesofJewswerelivingatMemphis,Migdol,
Tahpanhes,andPathrosinEgypt(Jer44:1).PapyrirecentlydiscoveredprovetheexistenceofalargeJewishcolonyandaJewishtempleattheFirst
Cataract,inthe5thcent.B.C.OtherJewsseemtohavefollowedAlexandertheGreattoEgypt(Jos.BJII.xviii.8c.Apion.ii.4).Manyothers
migratedtoEgyptunderthePtolemys(Ant.XII.1.1,ii.1ff.).PhiloestimatedthenumberofJewsinEgyptinthereignofCaligula(A.D.3841)at
amillion.
JosephusstatesthatSeleucusI.(312280)gavetheJewsrightsinallthecitiesfoundedbyhiminSyriaandAsia(Ant.XII.iii.1).Thishasbeen
doubtedbysome,whosupposethatthespreadofJewsoverSyriaoccurredaftertheMaccabanuprising(168143).Atalleventsbythe1stcent.
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B.C.Jewswereinallthisregion,aswellasinGreeceandRome,inthemostimportantcentresabouttheMediterranean,andhadalsopenetratedto
Arabia(Ac2:11).
AtLeontopolisinEgypt,OniasIII.,thelegitimateAaronichighpriest,whohadleftPalestinebecausehehatedAntiochusIV.,founded,about
B.C.170,atemplewhichwasforacenturyamildrivaloftheTempleinJerusalem.WithfewexceptionstheDispersionwereloyaltothereligion
ofthehomeland.FarremovedfromtheTemple,theydevelopedinthesynagogueaspiritualreligionwithoutsacrifice,which,afterthedestruction
ofJerusaleminA.D.70,keptJudaismalive.AllJewspaidtheannualhalfshekeltaxforthesupportoftheTempleworship,andatthegreatfeasts
madepilgrimagestoJerusalemfromallpartsoftheworld(Ac2:10,11).TheysoonlosttheuseofHebrew,andhadtheGreektranslationthe
Septuagintmadefortheiruse.ContactwiththeworldgavethemabroaderoutlookandawiderthoughtthanthePalestinianJews,andthey
conceivedtheideaofconvertingtheworldtoJudaism.ForuseinthispropagandatheSibyllineOraclesandotherformsofliteraturelikelyto
interestGrcoRomanreaderswereproduced.
GEORGEA.BARTON.
DISTAFF.SeeSPINNINGANDWEAVING.
DIVES.SeeLAZARUS,2.
DIVINATION.SeeMAGIC,DIVINATION,ANDSORCERY.
DIVORCE.SeeMARRIAGE.
DIZAHAB.ThewriterofDt.1:1thoughtofthisasatownonthefurthersideoftheJordan,intheArabah,ontheborderofMoab,over
againstSuph,andasbelongingtoagroupofplaceswhichhenames.Unfortunatelythementionofthemdoesnotmakethematterclear.Thesiteof
Suphisunknown.SoisthatofParan.TheproposedidentificationofTophelwithetTafile,S.S.E.oftheDeadSea,failsonphoneticgrounds.If
AinelHuderah,betweenJebelMusaandAkabah,representsaHazeroth,andifLaban=Libnah(Nu33:20),notfarfromAinelHuderah,these
areattoogreatadistancefromtheArabah.ThesameistobesaidofBurckhardtssuggestionthatMinaedDhahab,betweentheRasMuhammad
andAkabah,istheplaceofwhichweareinsearch.Mostprobablythetextiscorrupt.AtNu21:14wefindSuphah(Dt1:1Suph)inconjunction
withVaheb(seeRV)andVaheb,intheoriginal,isalmostthesameasZahab,which,indeed,theLXXreads.Thereseemstobesomerelationship
betweenthetwopassages,butneitherofthemhassofarbeensatisfactorilyexplained.AtGn36:39wehaveMezahab(=watersofgold):this
givesabettersensethanDizahab,andmaybetheproperformofthename.
TheVersionsdonothelpus.TheLXXhasKatachrysea(=richingold).TheVulg.(ubiauriestplurimum)takesthewordasdescriptiveofthe
district,whereisgoldinabundance.TheTargumsseeinitanallusiontothegoldencalf.AndwemayaddthatIbnEzrathoughtitwasanunusual
designationofaplacewhichcommonlywentbyanothername.
J.TAYLOR.
DOCTOR.InLk2:46itissaidthattheboyJesuswasfoundintheTemple,sittinginthemidstofthedoctors.ThedoctorswereJewish
Rabbis.TheEng.word,liketheGreek(didaskalos),meanssimplyteacher.SoLk5:17andAc5:34,wheretheGr.fordoctorofthelawisone
word(nomodidaskalos).BaconcallsSt.PaultheDoctoroftheGentiles.
DOCTRINE.TheonlywordintheOTthatRVaswellasAVrendersdoctrineisleqah=instruction,lit.whatisreceived(Dt32:2,Job
11:4,Pr4:2,Is29:24).IntheNTdoctrinestandsonceforlogos(He6:1AVbutcf.RV),otherwisefordidachanddidaskalia,ofwhichthe
formerdenotesesp.theactofteaching,thelatterthethingthatistaught.FordidaskaliaRVhasusuallyretaineddoctrineofAV,butinthecaseof
didachhasalmostinvariablysubstitutedteaching.ItisnoteworthythatdidaskaliaisneverusedoftheteachingofJesus,alwaysdidachalso
thatdidaskaliaisfoundchieflyinthePastoralEpp.,andoutsideofthese,withtwoexceptions(Ro12:7,15:4),isusedinadisparagingsense(Mt
15:9,Mk7:7,Eph4:14,Col2:22).Thisisinkeepingwiththedistinctionbetweendidachasteachinganddidaskaliaasdoctrine.Itremindsus
thatatfirsttherewerenoformulationsofChristianbelief.TheimmediatedisciplesofJesushadtheLivingWordHimselftheearliestgenerationof
Christians,theinspiredutterancesofApostlesandotherSpiritfilledmen.
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J.C.LAMBERT.
DODANIM.NamedintheMTofGn10:4amongthedescendantsofJavan,orIonians.TheLXXandSam.versionsandtheparallelpassage1
Ch1:7readRodanim,i.e.Rhodians.Cf.thetruereadingofEzk27:15underDEDAN.
J.F.MCCURDY.
DODAVAHU (beloved of J, AV Dodavah).Father of Eliezer of Mareshah, the prophet who censured Jehoshaphat for entering into
alliancewithAhaziah(2Ch20:37).
DODO(sotheQer,KethibhDodai).1.ThefatherofEleazar,thesecondofthethreecaptainswhowereoverthethirty(2S23:9).Inthe
parallellist(1Ch11:12)thenameisgivenasDodoandalsotheAhohitefortheerroneoussonofAhohi.Inthethirdlist(1Ch27:4)Dodaiis
describedasgeneraloftheseconddivisionofthearmy,butthewordsEleazarthesonofappeartohavebeenaccidentallyomitted.Thetraditional
spelling(Dodo)ismostprobablyright:thenameDuduhasbeenfoundontheTellelAmarnatablets,apparentlyasthatofanAmoriteofficialatthe
Egyp.court.2.ABethlehemite,fatherofElhanan,oneofthethirty(2S23:24,1Ch11:26).3.AmanofIssachar,theforefatherofTolathejudge
(Jg10:1).
DOE.RV(Pr5:19),AVroe,isinHeb.yaalh,thefemaleibex.SeeWildgoat,s.v.GOAT.
DOEG.AnEdomite,andchiefoftheherdmen[orbetter,runners,readinghrtsmforhrm]ofkingSaul.WhenDavidfledtoNobto
Ahimelech(orAhijah)thepriest,DoegwastheredetainedbeforetheLord.UponhisreportSaulorderedAhimelechandhiscompanionstobe
slain.TheorderwascarriedoutbyDoeg,whentherestofthekingsguardshrankfromobeyingit(1S21:7,22:919).Doegismentionedinthe
titleofPs.52.
DOG.AlltheBiblereferencestodogsbreathethemodernOrientalfeelingwithregardtothemtheyrefertothecommonpariahdogs.These
creaturesareinalltheirwaysrepulsive,andinthemajorityofcasestheyhavenotevenoutwardattractiveness.Theyliveinandaroundthestreets,
andactasscavengers.IntheenvironsofJerusalem,e.g.theValleyofHinnom,wherecarcasesarecastout,theymaybeseenprowlingaroundand
consuminghorrible,putridbodies,orlyingstretchedneartheremainsoftheirmeal,satiatedwiththeirloathsomerepast.Wholecompaniesofdogs
consumetheoffaloftheslaughterhouse.Thereisnottheslightestdoubtthattheywouldconsumehumanbodiestodayhadtheytheopportunity
indeed,casesdooccurfromtimetotime(cf.1K14:11,16:4,21:19,23,22:38,2K9:10,36,Jer15:3,Ps68:23).Allnighttheyparadethestreets
(Ps59:6,1415),eachcompanyjealouslyguardingthatdistrictwhichtheyhaveannexed,andfightingwithnoisyonslaughtanycaninestranger
whoventurestoinvadetheirterritory.Suchaquarrelmaystartallthedogsinthecityintoahideouschorusoffuriousbarks.Inmanypartsthese
creaturesarearealdanger,andthewisemanleavesthemalone(Pr
26:17).Whentheyattachthemselves,quiteuninvited,tocertainhousesorencampments,theydefendthemfromallintruders(Is56:10).Tocalla
manadogisadireinsult,butbynomeansanuncommononefromanarrogantsuperiortoonemuchbelowhim,andtoapplysuchanepithetto
himselfonthepartofaninferiorisanexpressionofhumility(2K8:13etc.).Adeaddogisanevenlowerstageitisanalltoocommonobject,an
uncleananimalinaconditionofputridityleftunconsumedevenbyhiscompanions(1S24:14etc.).Thefeelingagainstcastingbreadtoadogisa
strongonebreadissacred,andtocastittodogsiseventodaystronglycondemnedinPalestine(Mk7:27).
Theshepherddog(Job30:1)is,asarule,averysuperioranimalmanyofthesearehandsomebeastsofaKurdishbreed,andhavetheintelligent
waysandhabitsofourbestshepherdsdogsathome.
GreyhoundsarestillbredbysomeBedouininS.Palestine,andareusedforhuntingthegazelletheyaretreatedverydifferentlyfromthepariah
dogs.Pr30:31isaverydoubtfulreferencetothegreyhoundRVmhaswarhorse,LXXcock.
Thepriceofadog(Dt23:18)evidentlyhasreferencetodegradedpracticesoftheqedshm(maleprostitutes)connectedwiththeworshipat
Baaltemples.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.

DOK.AfortressnearJericho,whereSimontheMaccabee,alongwithtwoofhissons,wasmurderedbyhissoninlawPtolemy,1Mac16:15.33/42
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DOK.AfortressnearJericho,whereSimontheMaccabee,alongwithtwoofhissons,wasmurderedbyhissoninlawPtolemy,1Mac16:15.
ThenamesurvivesinthemodernAinDk,4milesN.W.ofJericho.
DOLEFULCREATURE.SeeJACKAL.
DOMINION.Lordship,orthepossessionandexerciseofthepowertorule.InCol1:16thewordisusedintheplural,alongwiththrones,
principalities,andpowers,todenotesupernaturalbeingspossessedofthepoweroflordship,andrankingassomanykings,princes,andpotentates
oftheheavenlyregions.Thesamewordinthesingular,andinessentiallythesamemeaning,appearsinEph1:21,whereallusionismadetothe
exaltationofChristfaraboveallrule,andauthority,andpower,anddominion,andeverynamethatisnamed,notonlyinthisworld,butalsoin
thatwhichistocome.Thereisnonecessaryreferenceineitherofthesetextstoevilangels,butacomparisonofwhatiswritteninEph2:2,6:12
showsthatthespiritualhostsofwickednessintheheavenlyplacesneednotbeexcluded.Similarindefinitenessisapparentintheothertwo
passages,2P2:10,Jude8,wherethesamewordisfound.Itisunderstoodbysometoreferheretothelordshipofcivilrulers,ortoanyconcrete
representativeofsuchlordship.Othersbelievethatthereferenceistoangels,eithergoodorevil,asrepresentingsomeformofsupernaturalpower
anddominion,andthereferenceinthecontexttoMichael,thearchangel,notbringingarailingjudgmentevenagainstthedevil,maybethoughtto
favourthisview.Athirdexplanationisalsopossible,andisfavouredbythementioninJude4ofouronlyMasterandLord,JesusChrist.Those
ungodlymen,whodenytheLordJesus,wouldnothesitatetodespise,setatnought,andrailatallmannerofgloriouslordshipsanddignities.See
AUTHORITY,POWER.
M.S.TERRY.
DOOR,DOORKEEPER,DOORPOST.SeeHOUSE,6.FordoorkeeperintheTemple,seePRIESTSANDLEVITES.
DOPHKAH.AstationintheitineraryofthechildrenofIsrael(Nu33:12f.).Thisstationandthenextone,Alush,whichliebetweenthe
encampmentbytheseaandRephidim,havenotbeenidentified,andtheyarenotalludedtoinExodus.ItispossiblethatDophkahisanerroneous
transcriptionofMafkah,thenameofanEgyp.districtneartheWadyMaghara.
DOR.OneofthecitieswhichjoinedJabinagainstJoshua(Jos11:2),andwhosekingwaskilled(12:23).Itlayapparentlyonorneartheborder
betweenManassehandAsher,sothatitspossessionwasambiguous(17:11).Theaborigineswerenotdrivenout(Jg1:27).Itwasadministeredby
BenabinadabforSolomon(1K4:11).ThoughJosephusreferstoitasontheseacoast,anditistraditionallyequatedtoTantura,northofCsarea,
thereferencetotheheightsofDorrathersuggeststhatitwasinsomehillydistrictsuchastheslopeoftherangeofCarmel.Thenameseemsquite
forgotten.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
DORCAS(Gr.formofAram.Tabitha,lit.gazelle,Ac9:36ff.).ThenameofaChristianwomanatJoppa,fullofgoodworksand
almsdeeds,who,havingdied,wasraisedbySt.PetersprayerandthewordsTabitha,arise.ThedescriptionrecallstheTalithacumi,scenein
Jairushouse(Mk5:41).
A.J.MACLEAN.
DORYMENES.ThefatherofPtolemyMacron,whowasatrustedfriendofAntiochusEpiphanes(2Mac4:45),andwaschosenbyLysiasto
commandtheSyrianarmyinPal.inconjunctionwithNicanorandGorgias(1Mac3:38).
DOSITHEUS.1.Thepriestwho,accordingtoanoteinoneoftheGreekrecensionsofEsther,broughtthebooktoAlexandriainthe4thyear
ofPtolemyPhilometor(?)andCleopatra,c.B.C.178(Ad.Est11:1).2.AsoldierofJudasMaccabus,whomadeavainattempttotakeGorgias
prisoner(2Mac12:35).3.ArenegadeJewwhofrustratedtheplotofTheodotustoassassinatekingPtolemyPhilopator(3Mac1:3).4.Anofficerof
JudasMaccabus(2Mac12:19,24).
DOTA(Jth3:9).AnotherformofDothan(wh.see).AVhasincorrectlyJuda.
DOTHAN(Gn37:17,2K6:1318Dota,Jth3:9Dothaim,Jth4:6etc.).Today,TellDothan,aremarkableisolatedhillattheS.E.cornerof
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DOTHAN(Gn37:17,2K6:1318Dota,Jth3:9Dothaim,Jth4:6etc.).Today,TellDothan,aremarkableisolatedhillattheS.E.cornerof
agreatplainSahlArrbehsurroundedonthreesidesbyhills(2K6:17).Clearlyaplacesuitablefordefence,itmusthavebeenofimportance
whentheneighbouringhighroad,stillmuchused,wasamainthoroughfarefromDamascustoEgypt.Thesituationis,too,achoiceoneonaccount
ofitsabundantfountain,nowusedtoworkamillandirrigatefruitgardenstwoancientwellsandanumberofemptycisterns(Gn37:24)arealso
foundnearthefootofthetell.Greatherdsofcattle,sheep,andgoatsfromtheneighbouringabundantpastures,mayalwaysbefoundgatheredthere
intheafternoondrinkingfromthewaterandbrowsingintheshade.Althoughtherearenoancientremainsonthesurface,tracesofwallsmaybe
seenallaroundthehilltop.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
DOUBT(fromLat.dubitare,toholdtwo(opinions),hesitate).1.InAVdoubt(vb.andnoun)sixtimesrendersaGr.vb.meaningtobeat
alossorquiteatalossinalltheseinstancesexceptJn13:22RVsubstitutesperplexity,followingtheAVrenderingofLk9:7,24:4,2Co4:8.
Inthissensedoubtisnownearlyobsoleteasitisinthemeaningriddle,knottyquestion,whichitbearsinDn5:12,16.Notdissimilarisitsusein
theAVofJn10:24(makeustodoubt),whereRV,moreliterally,readsholdusinsuspense.Quitearchaicalsoistheuseofdoubtforsuspect,
instancedinSir6:13(AV).2.Elsewheredoubthasareligioussignification,standinginexpressortacitantithesistofaith(wh.see).(a)InMt
21:21,Mk11:23,Ac10:20,11:12,Ro14:23,Ja1:6(RV),Jude22(RV),itstandsforavb.signifyingtobedividedinmind(judgment)thesame
Gr.wordisrenderedstaggeredinAV,waveredinRV,ofRo4:20(b)inMt14:31,28:17tobeoftwoopinions,towaver,istheforceofthe
original:thevb.aboveindicates(1)moresubjectively,(2)moreobjectively,astateofqualifiedfaith,offaithmixedwithmisgiving,something
betweenwholeheartedfaithanddecidedunbelief.Thuswavering,faithisrobbedofitspowerhencesuchhesitation,inregardtoChristandthe
promisesandcommandsofGod,isstronglydeprecatedandreproved.Intheaboveexamplesthedoubt,affectingthemindofabeliever,arisesfrom
contradictorycircumstancesorconscientiousscruplesunlessthisbethecaseinMt28:17(cf.Lk24:38,noticedbelow),ithasnoneofthequalityof
rationalisticdoubtorscepticism.(c)AkintotheaboveistheexpressionofLk12:29,whereofdoubtfulmind(AV,RV)istherenderingofan
obscureGr.wordthatseemstomeanbeingliftedintotheair,andsoagitated,heldinsuspenseordrivenbygusts(cf.Eph4:14,Ja1:46).(d)
Anothergroupofexpressionsremains:Ro14:1doubtfuldisputations(AV),
decisionsofdoubts(RVm)1Ti2:8disputing(RV)ordoubting(AV)=reasoning(Lk24:38RV)disputings(Ph2:14).Inthesepassages
arguing,questioningisintended,and(inRo.)matterofargument,debatablequestions.Thisusageliesontheborderbetween1and2forthe
questionsreferredto,exceptinLk24:38,didnotdirectlybelongtofaith,buttheiragitationdisturbedandtendedtoweakenit.
G.G.FINDLAY.
DOVE.Thewordstranslateddoveapplyequallytodovesandpigeons.InPalestinesevenvarietiesoftheColumbarefound.Themost
noticeableare:thewoodpigeonsorringdoves(Columbapalumbus),whichflyingreatflocksalloverthelandtheturtledove(Turturcommunis),
aharbingerofspring,arrivinginthelandinApril(Jer8:7,Ca2:12)andthepalmturtledove(Turtursenegalensis),whichiscommoninasemi
domesticatedstateinthestreetsandcourtsofJerusalem.Doveisafavouritenameofaffection(Ca1:15,4:1,5:2,12,6:9),andtodayitisoneof
thecommonestnamesgiventogirlsbyEasternJewishparents.Itistypicalofharmlessness(Mt10:16),helplessness(Ps74:19),andinnocence.The
lastqualitydoubtlessmakesittypicaloftheHolySpirit(Mt3:16etc.).Doveswereusedinsacrifice(Lv5:7,12:6etc.),andhavebeenkeptaspets
forlongages.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
DOVESDUNG.AfourthpartofacabofthismaterialwassoldatahighpriceinSamariaduringthesiege(2K6:25).Thewordshar
ynm,astheystand,areplain,andnosuggestedalternativehasclearedupthedifficulty.Itisanexampleoftheactualextremityofthesiege
comparablewiththethreatsoftheapproachingsiegeof2K18:27.Whether,asJosephussuggests,thedungwasasourceofsalt,orwasusedas
medicineorasfood,itisimpossibletosay.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
DOWRY.SeeMARRIAGE.

DRACHM.SeeDRAMMONEY,4,7.
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DRACHM.SeeDRAMMONEY,4,7.
DRAGON.(1)tannm(pl.),AVdragons,butRVjackals,Is13:22,34:13,
35:7,Job30:29,Ps44:19,Jer10:22,49:33.(2)tannth,AVdragons,butRVjackals,Mal1:3.SeeJACKAL.(3)tannm(sing.),dragon,Ezk
29:3,32:2,referstoEgypt,andprobablymeansspeciallythecrocodile(wh.see).(4)tannn(pl.tannnim),tr.inRVofGn1:21andJob7:12sea
monster(s)(AVwhale(s))Aaronsrodbecameatannn(Ex7:912,EVserpent[wh.see,11]).Thesameterm,tannn,isalsoapplied
metaphoricallytoPharaoh(Ps74:13,Is51:9andthusperhapsreferstothecrocodile),andtoNebuchadnezzar(Jer51:34).Doubtlessmany
referenceshereandelsewherearetingedbycurrentmythologicaltalesofdragons,suchasthatpreservedintheAssyriancreationepicofthe
contestbetweenMardukandTiamat.ThereferenceinRev12:3ff.iscertainlyofthisnature.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
DRAM,fromtheGr.drachma,isusedinAVtorendertwowordswhichRV,withquestionableaccuracy,hasrendereddarics(seemorefully
underMONEY,4).ThetenpiecesofsilverofLk15:8f.,however,wererealdrachmas,asmarg.ofAVandRV,forwhichseeMONEY,7.
DRAUGHT(Mt15:17,Mk7:19)andDRAUGHTHOUSE(Amer.RVdraughthouse,2K10:27)bothsignifyaprivyorcloset,whichinthe
Mishnaiswaterhouse.Jehu,accordingtothelastcitedpassage,turnedthetempleofBaalinSamariaintopubliclatrines.
DREAMS.Sleepimpressedprimitivesavagesasagreatmysteryandtheyconsequentlyattributedapeculiarsignificancetothedreamsof
sleepers,asphenomenawhichtheycouldnotcontrolbytheirwillorexplainbytheirreason.Intheloweststageofculturealldreamswereregarded
asobjectivelyrealexperiencesthegodorspiritactuallyvisitedthedreamer,theeventsdreamedactuallyoccurred.Henceanyonewhowassubject
tofrequentdreamingwaslookedonasaspecialmediumofDivineenergy,andmanysoughttoproducethestatebyartificialmeans,
e.g.fastingortheuseofdrugs.InprocessoftimedreamscametobetreatedratherasDivinewarningsthanasactualoccurrences.Such
admonitionscouldbedeliberatelysought,e.g.bysleepinginasacredspot,suchasthetemplesofAsklepiosorSerapisorthegrottoofTrophonius
ortheycouldcomeunsought,whenthegodswishedeithertorevealortodeceive.(Plato,however,whileallowingthatthegodsmaysenddreams,
deniesthattheycanwishtodeceivemen).Thus,forinstance,amongtheBabylonians,theAssyrians,theArabs,theEgyptians,aprofound
importancewasattachedtodreamstherewereprofessionalinterpretersofthem(cf.Gn40:5,8,41:1,
Dn2:5),andmanualswerecompiledtoaidtheworkofelucidation(cf.theOneirocriticaofArtemidorusofEphesus).Wisertheoristsmight
discriminatebetweendreams,butpopularsuperstitiontendedtoregardthemallasomens,tobeexplained,asfaraspossible,inaccordancewith
definiterules.
1.AmongtheJews.InbothTestamentswefindsignificanceattachedtodreams(Gn37:6,9,41:25,Jg7:13,Dn2:28,7:1ff.,Mt1:20,2:13,20,
Ac23:11,27:23),andinOTtimesitseemsthatagreatdealofvulgarsuperstitionexistedwithregardtosuchphenomenasimilarlynecromancy
andsorcery,thoughdiscouragedbythehigherthoughtofthenation(cf.Dt18:10,11),wereundoubtedlypractised.Wefindhardlyanytraces,
however,ofdreamsbeingregularlysought1S28:15maybeoneandinGn28:1219and1K3:5itispossibletosupposeareferencetothe
practiceofsleepinginasacredlocalityinordertoreceiveaDivinecommunication.Onthewhole,thegeneraltrendofOTteachingisasfollows:
DreamsmayinsomecasesbegenuinecommunicationsfromGod(Job33:15,Jer23:28),andassucharereverenced(Gn20:3,31:10ff.),thoughNu
12:68treatsthemasaninferiormediumbuttherearefalsedreamsandlyingdreamers,againstwhomprecautionsarenecessaryandtheideathat
habitualdreamingisacertainsignofDivineinspirationisstoutlycombated(cf.Jer23:25,32,27:9,29:8,Zec10:2,Ec5:7),anditisdefinitely
recognizedthattheinterpretationofdreamsbelongstoGod,andisnotamatterofhumancodification(cf.
Gn40:8).
2.General.Theconsiderationofdreamsispartlyasubjectforthescienceswhichtreatofthegeneralrelationsbetweenbodyandspirit,and
partlyamatterofcommonsense.Itseemsclearthatdreamsareconnectedwithphysicalstates,andthattheirpsychologicaloriginliesmainlyinthe
regionbeneaththethresholdofconsciousness.Butalldreamsandallwakingstatesarestatesofconsciousness,whetheritbepartialorcomplete,
andassucharesubjecttolawifanyaretoberegardedassupernatural,itmustbeowingnottotheirmethodsbuttotheirmessages.Somedreams
conveynomessage,andcanbeexplainedasvaluableonlybyaresorttosuperstition.Othersmayberealrevelations,andassuchDivinein
abnormalcasesthepowerofspiritualperceptionmaybeintensifiedandheightenedinthedreamstate,andthusaninsightintoDivinetruthmaybe
obtainedwhichhadbeendeniedtothewakingconsciousness.SimilarlyCondorcetissaidtohavesolvedinadreamamathematicalproblemwhich36/42
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obtainedwhichhadbeendeniedtothewakingconsciousness.SimilarlyCondorcetissaidtohavesolvedinadreamamathematicalproblemwhich
hadbaffledhiswakingpowers,andColeridgetohavedreamtthepoemofKublaKhan.Butunderanycircumstancestheinterpretationofadream
belongstoGodthequestionwhetheritsmessageisaDivinecommunicationornotmustultimatelybeansweredbyanappealtothereligious
consciousness,orinotherwordstothehigherreason.Theawakenedintelligencemustbecalledintocriticiseandappraisethedeliverances
receivedindreams,anditsverdictmustdecidewhatmeasureofattentionistobepaidtothem.Dreams,inshort,maybethesourceofsuggestions,
butscarcelyofauthoritativedirections.
A.W.F.BLUNT.
DRESS.ThenumeroussynonymsfordresstobefoundinourEVapparel,attire,clothes,raiment,garments,etc.fairlyreflecta
similarwealthofterminologyintheoriginalHebrewandGreek,moreespeciallytheformer.Asregardstheparticulararticlesofdress,the
identificationoftheseisinmanycasesrenderedalmostimpossiblefortheEnglishreaderbythecuriouslackofconsistencyintherenderingsofthe
translators,illustrationsofwhichwillbemetwithagainandagaininthisarticle.Forthisandotherreasonsitwillbenecessarytohaverecourseto
transliterationastheonlycertainmeansofdistinguishingthevariousgarmentstobediscussed.
1.Materials.Scriptureandanthropologyareinagreementastothegreatantiquityoftheskinsofanimals,wildanddomesticated,asdress
material(Gn3:21coatsofskincf.forlatertimes,He11:37).ThefavouritematerialsinPalestine,however,werewoolandflax(Pr31:13).The
finestqualityoflinenwasprobablyanimportationfromEgypt(seeLINEN).Goatshairandcamelshairsuppliedthematerialsforcoarser
fabrics.ThefirstcertainmentionofsilkisinRev18:12,forthemeaningofthewordsorenderedinEzk16:10,13isdoubtful,andthesilkofPr
31:22(AV)isreallyfinelinenasinRV.
2.UnderGarments.(a)Theoldestandmostwidelydistributedofallthearticlesofhumanapparelistheloincloth(Heb.zr),originallya
stripofskinorclothwrappedroundtheloinsandfastenedwithaknot.AmongtheHebrewsinhistoricaltimesithadbeendisplacedinordinarylife
bytheshirtortunic(seebelow).Theloinclothorwaistcloth,however,isfoundinanumberofinterestingsurvivalsinOT,whereitisunfortunately
hiddenfromtheEnglishreaderbythetranslationgirdle,atermwhichshouldbereservedforanentirelydifferentarticleofdress(see3).The
universalsignofmourning,forexample,wasthegirdingofthewaistwithanzrofhaircloth(EVsackcloth).Certainoftheprophets,again,
asexponentsofthesimplelife,worethewaistclothastheironlyundergarment,suchasElijah,whowasgirtaboutwithaloincloth(EVgirdle)
ofleather(2K1:8),andJohntheBaptist(Mt3:4,Mk1:6).Isaiahononeoccasionworeanzrofhaircloth(Is20:2),andJeremiahonanother
occasiononeoflinen(Jer13:1ff.).
Thenounandthecognateverbarefrequentlyusedinfigurativesenses,thepointofwhichislostunlessitisrememberedthatthewaistclothwas
alwayswornnexttheskin,ase.g.Jer13:11,Is11:5,thefigureinthelattercasesignifyingthatrighteousnessandfaithfulnessareessentialand
inseparableelementsinthecharacteroftheMessianicShoot.
(b)TheapronsofAc19:12weretheRomansemicinctium,ashortwaistclothwornspeciallybyslavesandworkmen(seeillust.inRich,Dict.
ofRom.andGr.
Antiq.,s.v.).
(c)Inearlytimesthepriestsworeawaistclothoflinen,whichborethespecialnameoftheephod(1S2:18),andwhichtheincidentrecordedin
2S6:14ff.David,aspriest,dancingbeforethearkshowstohavebeenofthenatureofashortkilt.BythePriestsCode,however,thepriests
wererequiredtoweartheundergarmentdescribedunderBREECHES.See,further,HOSEN.
(d)InOT,ashasbeensaid,theeverydayundergarmentofallclassessaveforcertainindividualsoronspecialoccasionsistheshirtortunic
(kuttoneth,atermwhichreappearsinGreekaschitn,andprobablyinLatinastunica).TheuniformrenderingofEViscoat,onlyJn19:23RVm
tunicAfamiliarAssyriansculpture,representingthesiegeandcaptureofLachishbySennacherib,showstheJewishcaptives,maleandfemale
alike,dressedinamoderatelytightgarmentfittingclosetotheneck(cf.Job30:18)andreachingalmosttotheankles,whichmustrepresentthe
kuttonethoftheperiodaswornintowns.Thatofthepeasantryandofmostworkmenwasprobablybothlooserandshorter,resemblinginthese
respectsitsmodernrepresentative,thekamees(Lat.camisia,ourchemise)oftheSyrianfellahin.
Asregardssleeves,whicharenotexpresslymentionedinOTbutseeRVmatGn37:3(Joseph)and2S13:18(Tamar)threemodesare
found.AnearlyEgyptianrepresentationofagroupofSemitictraders(c.B.C.2000)showsacolouredsleevelesstunic,whichfastensontheleft
shoulder,leavingtherightshoulderbare.TheLachishtunics,abovementioned,haveshortsleevesreachinghalfwaytotheelbows.Thisprobably
representstheprevailingtypeoftunicamongtheHebrewsoftheearlierperiodatleast,sinceathirdvariety,fittedwithlongandwidesleevesand
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representstheprevailingtypeoftunicamongtheHebrewsoftheearlierperiodatleast,sinceathirdvariety,fittedwithlongandwidesleevesand
reachingtotheground,wasevidentlyrestrictedtotheupperandwealthierclasses.Thisisthetunicof(i.e.reachingto)palmsandsoleswornby
JosephandtheroyalprincessTamar(seeabove),morefamiliarasthecoatofmany(ordiverse)colours,arenderingwhichrepresentsanow
generallyabandonedtradition.InJosephusdaythelongwhitelinentunic,whichwasthechiefgarmentoftheordinarypriesthood,hadsleeves
whichforpracticalreasonsweretiedtothearms(Jos.Ant.III.vii.2).Bythistime,also,ithadbecomeusualevenamongthelowerranksofthe
peopletowearanundertunicorrealshirt(ib.XVII.v.7Mishna,passim,wherethisgarmentisnamedchlk).Inthiscasetheuppertunic,the
kuttonethproper,wouldbetakenoffatnight(Ca5:3).
Theordinarytunicwasmadeinatleastthreeways.(1)Itmightconsistoftwosimilarpiecesofwoollenorlinenclothcutfromalargerweb,
whichweresewedtogetheralongthesidesandtop.(2)Thematerialforasingletunicmightbewovenontheloom,andafterwardsputtogether
withoutcutting,inthemanneroftheEgyptiantunicsdescribedandfiguredinSmithsDict.ofGr.andRom.Antiq.3s.v.Tunica(ii.904).(3)As
weknowfromthedescriptionofthechitnwornbyourLordatthetimeofHisPassion(Jn19:23),andfromothersources,athirdvarietywas
wovenwithoutseamonaspecialloom(seeSPINNINGANDWEAVING)andrequirednofurtheradjustment.
ThegarmentintendedbythecoatsofDn3:21,27(AV)isuncertain.Mostrecentauthoritiesfavourmantles(soAVmRVhashosen,wh.
see).ForthecoatofmailseeARMOUR,2(c).
3.TheGirdle.Almostasindispensableasthetunicwasthegirdle,whichvariedinmaterialandworkmanshipfromasimplerope(Is3:24
RV)totherichandelaboratewaistbeltofthepriests,andthegoldengirdlesofRev1:13,15:6.Usuallyitconsistedofalongstripofcloth,folded
severaltimesandwoundroundthewaistabovethetunic,withorwithouttheendshangingdowninfront.Whenworkorajourneywasin
contemplation,thegirdlewasputon,andpartofthetunicdrawnuptillithungoverinfolds.Hencethisoperationofgirdingtheloinsbecamea
figureforenergeticaction.Thegirdleservedalsoasaswordbelt(2S20:8)throughitwasstuckthewritersinkhorn(Ezk9:3,11),whileitsfolds
servedasapurse(Mt10:9RVm).Thespecialpriestsgirdle,termedabnt(Ex28:4andoft.),wasarichlyembroideredsashwoundseveraltimes
roundthewaist,accordingtoJosephus,andtiedinfront,theendsfallingtotheankles.
4.UpperGarments.Whilethekuttonethortunicwasthegarmentinwhichtheworkofthedaywasdone(seeMt24:18RV,Mk13:16RV),
menandwomenalikepossessedasecondgarment,whichservedasaprotectionagainstinclementweatherbydayandasacoveringbynight(Ex
22:26f.).ThetwoaresharplydistinguishedinthefamiliarsayingofJesus:Ifanymansuetheeatthelawandtakeawaythycoat(chitn),lethim
havethycloke(himation)also(Mt5:40).
(a)ThecommonestnameforthisuppergarmentinOTissimlahorsalmah.Thesimlahwasalmostcertainlyalargerectangularpieceofcloth,in
mostcasesofwool,inmorespecialcasesoflinen.ItwasthustheexactcounterpartofthehimationoftheGreeks,whichwehaveseentobeitsNT
name,andthepalliumoftheRomans.Likethem,itbelongednottotheclassofendumataorgarmentsputon,asthetunic,buttotheperiblemata
orgarmentswrappedroundthebody.
Sincethisviewisatvariancewiththatofacknowledgedauthoritiesonthesubject(Nowack,Benzinger,Mackieinart.DressinHastingsDBi.
625),whoidentifythesimlahwiththemodernaba,thecoarselooseovercoatofthemodernSyrianpeasantry,thegroundsonwhichitisbasedmay
beherebrieflysetforth.(1)Iftheparallelpassages,Ex22:26f.andDt24:13,17ontheonehand,andNu15:38andDt22:12ontheother,are
comparedintheoriginal,itwillbefoundthatthreetermsareusedindiscriminatelyfortheordinaryuppergarmentoftheHebrews,and,further,that
thisgarmenthadfourcorners,toeachofwhichatasselhadtobeattached(seemorefullyFRINGES)adetailwhichsuggestsaplainfour
corneredplaidlikethehimation,notamadeupgarmentlikethechitnortheaba.(2)TheincidentofthesickwomaninMt9:20ff.andparallel
passages,whoreachedforwardinthecrowdtotouchthetasselofJesushimationfrombehind,showsthattheJewishuppergarmentwasstillworn
bybeingwrappedroundthebody,overthebackfromlefttoright,withonecorneranditstasselfallingovertheleftshoulder.(3)Theshapeofthe
simpleoblongtallithorprayershawlofthemodernJews,withitsfourtassels,whichisthedirectdescendantofthesimlahandthemorerecent
tallithoftheMishna,isinfavouroftheformerhavingtheshapenowadvocated.(4)ThecleardistinctioninNTalreadyreferredto,betweenthe
twoprincipalgarmentsoftheJews,confirmstheconclusionthatthetypicalJewishuppergarmentcloselyresembled,ifitwasnotidenticalwith,the
garmentknownasthehimationthroughouttheGreekspeakingworld.
InourEVthesimlahisconcealedfromtheEnglishreaderunderavarietyofrenderings.Thus,togivebutafewillustrations,itisthegarment
withwhichNoahsnakednesswascoveredinGn9:23,andtheclothesinwhichtheHebrewsbounduptheirkneadingtroughs(Ex12:34)itisthe
garmentofGideoninJg8:25,andtheraimentofRuth(3:3)justasthehimationofNTisnotonlytheclokeofMt5:40,buttheclothesof 38/42
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garmentofGideoninJg8:25,andtheraimentofRuth(3:3)justasthehimationofNTisnotonlytheclokeofMt5:40,buttheclothesof
Mt24:18(butRVcloke)thegarmentofMk13:16,andsoon.
(b)Anothervarietyofuppergarment,knownasthemel,ismentionedonlyinconnexionwithmenofhighsocialpositionorofthepriestly
order.ItistherobeofSaultheskirt(lit.corner)ofwhichwascutoffbyDavid(1S24:4f.)ofJonathan(18:4),andofEzra(Ezr9:3,5),the
littlecoatoftheboypriestSamuel(1S2:19),andhismantleatalaterstage(15:27).RVhasrobeformelthroughout.Whereindidthemel
differfromthesimlah?Fromitsconstantassociationwithmenofrank,weshouldexpectittobeofamoreelaborateandornatedescription.The
violetrobeoftheephodprescribedforthehighpriest(Ex28:31ff.,39:22ff.)hadaholefortheheadinthemidstthereof,asitweretheboleofa
coatofmail,andwastrimmedwithanelaborateballandbellfringe.NowontheblackobeliskofShalmaneser,thebearersofJehustribute,
noblesofSamariadoubtless,arerepresentedwearingovertheirtunicsasimilarfringedandsleevelessgarment,openatthesides,andresembling,if
notidenticalwith,theuppergarmentofAssyriankingsanddignitariesofstate,whichmaywithsomeconfidencebeidentifiedwiththemel.The
latter,then,seemstohavebeenapieceofclothofsuperiormaterialandworkmanship,intheshapeofamagnifiedchestprotector,wornoverthe
tuniclikeapriestschasuble,andreachingalmosttotheankles.ItprobablycametotheHebrewsfromBabyloniathroughthemediumofthe
Canaanites,andsurvivestodayinthelittletallithorarbakanphothoftheJews(seeFRINGES).BythetimeofJosephus,thehighpriestsmel
hadbecomeasleevelessandseamlessuppertunic(Jos.Ant.III.vii.4).
(c)Athirdvarietyofuppergarment,theaddereth,appearstohavebeenthedistinctivegarmentoftheprophets(seeZec13:4RVhairy
mantle).Elijahsmantle,inparticular,isalwayssonamed.Thelatter,accordingtotheGr.versionofKings,wasmadeofsheepskin,withthewool
outside(cf.2K1:8RVmandGn25:25hairygarment).Itmay,however,havebeenofgoatsorcamelshair,asinthecaseofJohntheBaptist(Mt
3:4,Mk1:6).
(d)Amongtheproductsofthedomesticloomwasafourthgarment,thesdn(Pr31:24).FromtheMishnawelearnthatitwasaplainsheetof
finelinenwithtassels,whichcouldbeusedasalightuppergarment,asacurtain,andasashroud.InthislastrespectitresembledtheNTsindn,
thelinenclothofMt27:59,Mk15:46RV.Itisprobablyasanuppergarmentoffinewhitelinenforgalause(cf.Ec9:8)thatthesdnis
introducedinJg14:12f.(AVsheets,RVlinengarments)andIs3:23.
(e)Mentionmustalsobemadeofthescarletrobe(chlamys)inwhichJesuswasarrayedbytheRomansoldiers(Mt27:28,31).Itisthe
paludamentumormilitarycloakwornovertheirarmourbythesuperiorofficersoftheRomanarmy.Theclokefinally,whichSt.PaulleftatTroas
(2Ti4:13)wastheRomanpnula,acirculartravellingcape.Forthebroochorbucklebywhichanuppergarmentwassometimesfastened,see
ORNAMENTS,5.
5.Headdress.(a)TheHebrewsappearatfirsttohavehadnocoveringforthehead,exceptonspecialoccasions,suchaswar,whenaleather
helmetwasworn(seeARMOUR,2(b)).Atmostaropeorcordservedasafillet,asmaybeinferredfrom1
K20:31f.,andasmaybeseenintherepresentationsofSyriansonthemonumentsofEgypt.Incasesofprolongedexposuretothesun,itismost
probablethatrecoursewouldbehadtoacoveringinthestyleofthemodernkeffiyeh,whichprotectsnotonlytheheadbutalsotheneckand
shoulders.Jehustributecarriers,abovementioned,aredepictedinaheadgearresemblingthefamiliarPhrygiancap.Thebestattestedcovering,
howeveratleastfortheupperranksofbothsexesisthetsnph(fromarootsignifyingtowindround)orturban.ItistheroyaldiademofIs
62:3,theladieshoodofIs3:23(RVturban),andthemitreofZec3:5(RVmturbanordiadem).Akindredwordisusedforthehighpriests
turban,themitreofEx28:4,etc.,forwhichseeMITRE.AturbanisalsoimpliedinEzekielsdescriptionofaladysheaddress:Ihavebound
theewithatireoffinelinen(Ezk16:10RVm).TheeggshapedturbanoftheordinarypriestshasbeendiscussedunderBONNET(RVhead
tires).ThehatsofDn3:21wereprobablyavarietyoftheconicalBabylonianheaddress,althoughRVgivesmantles.AntiochusEpiphanes,itis
recorded,compelledtheyoungJewishnoblestowearthepetasus,thelow,broadbrimmedhatassociatedwithHermes(2Mac4:12,RVtheGreek
cap).
InNTtimes,asmaybelearnedfromtheMishna,manyformsofheaddresswereinuse.Onewasnamedthesdr,fromtheLat.sudarium(a
clothforwipingoffperspiration,sudor),whichisthenapkinofJn11:44,20:7,althoughthereitappearsasakerchieforheadcoveringforthedead
(cf.below,8).
(b)Asregardstheheaddressofthefemalesex,wehaveseenthatbothsexesofthewealthierclassesworethetsnphorturban.Thefemale
captivesfromLachishwearovertheirtunicsanuppergarment,whichcoverstheforeheadandhairandfallsdownovertheshouldersasfarasthe
ankles.WhetherthisisthegarmentintendedbyanyofthewordsrenderedvailinAV,asthatofRuth,forexample(3:15,RVmantle),orbythe
kerchiefsfortheheadofEzk13:18RV,itisimpossibletosay.Theveil,however,withwhichRebekahandTamarcoveredthemselves(Gn24:65,39/42
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kerchiefsfortheheadofEzk13:18RV,itisimpossibletosay.Theveil,however,withwhichRebekahandTamarcoveredthemselves(Gn24:65,
38:14),wasmoreprobablyalargemantleinwhichthewholebodycouldbewrapped,likethesdnof4(d)above.Indeed,itisimpossibletodraw
acleardistinctioninOTbetweenthemantleandtheveil.TheonlyexpressmentionofafaceveilisinthecaseofMoses(Ex34:33).
6.Shoesandsandals.WithindoorstheHebrewswentbarefoot.Outofdoorsitwascustomarytoweareithersandalsorshoes,mostlythe
former.Thesimplestformofsandalconsistedofaplainsoleofleather,boundtothefeetbyaleatherthong,theshoelatchetofGn14:23andthe
latchetofMk1:7etc.TheAssyrianspreferredasandalfittedwithaheelcap,bywhichtheyaredistinguishedfromJehusattendantsonthe
obeliskofShalmaneser,whowearshoescompletelycoveringthefeet.InEzekielsdayladiesworeshoesofsealskin(Ezk16:10RVbutsee
BADGERSSKINS).ThelacedbootofthesoldiermaybereferredtoinIs9:5(seeRVm).Thesandalswereremovednotonlyincasesof
mourning(2S15:30)andofavisittoafriend,butalsoonenteringasacredprecinct(Ex3:5,Jos5:15)theJewishpriests,accordingly,performed
alltheirofficesintheTemplebarefoot.
7.ItneedhardlybesaidthatthetasteforpurpleandfinelinenwasnotpeculiartothedaysofDives,asmaybeseenfromtheremarkable
dresslistinIs3:18ff.RichlyembroideredgarmentsarementionedasearlyasthetimeoftheJudges(Jg5:30RV).KingJosiahhadanofficialwho
borethetitleofthekeeperofthewardrobe(2K22:14).Thechangeofraiment,however,severaltimesmentionedinOT,werenotsomany
completeoutfits,butspecialgalarobes,forwhichonesordinarygarmentswerechanged.IntheEast,suchrobeshavecontinuedafavouriteform
ofgiftandexpressionofesteemfromsovereignsandotherpersonsofhighranktothepresentday.
Forwhatmaybetermedaccessoriesofdress,seeORNAMENTS,SEAL,STAFF.
8.AspecialinterestmustalwaysattachtothequestionoftheoutwardappearanceoftheManofNazareth,sofarasitisassociatedwiththe
dressHewore.Thismusthaveconsistedofatleastsixseparatearticles,notfive,asEdersheimstates(LifeandTimesofJesus,i.625).Bythe1st
cent.ithadbecomeusualtowearalinenshirt(chlk)beneaththetunic(see2(d)above).InourLordscasethisseemsrequiredbythementionof
theuppergarments(himatia,i.e.mantleandtunic)whichHelaidasidebeforewashingthedisciplesfeet(Jn13:4).Thetunicproper,weknow,was
wovenwithoutseamthroughout,andthereforefittedcloselyattheneck,withtheusualshortsleevesasabovedescribed.Whitelinenwasthe
favouritematerialforbothshirtandtunic.Abovethetunicwasthelinengirdlewoundseveraltimesroundthewaist.OnHisfeetwereleather
sandals(Mt3:11).Hisuppergarment,ashasbeenshown,wasofthecustomaryoblongshapeprobablyofwhitewoollencloth,asissuggestedby
thedetailsoftheTransfigurationnarrativeinMk9:3withthefourprescribedtasselsatthecorners(seeabove,4(a)).TotheformofHis
headdresswehavenoclue,butitmayberegardedascertainthetraditionalartisticconventionnotwithstandingthatnoJewishteacherofthat
periodwouldappearinpublicwithheaduncovered.Probablyawhitelinennapkin(sudarium)wastiedroundtheheadasasimpleturban,the
endsfallingdownovertheneck.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.

DRINK.SeeMEALS,6,WINEANDSTRONGDRINK.
DRINKOFFERING.SeeSACRIFICEANDOFFERING.
DROMEDARY.SeeCAMEL.
DROPSY.SeeMEDICINE.
DRUNKENNESS.SeeWINEANDSTRONGDRINK.
DRUSILLA.ThethirdwifeoftheprocuratorFelix(Ac24:24).ShewastheyoungestdaughterofHerodAgrippaI.,andissaidtohavebeen
persuadedbyoneSimon(?SimonMagus)todesertherfirsthusband,AzizuskingofEmesa,forFelix.Shecannothavebeenmorethan16yearsof
agewhenshelistenedtoSt.Paulreasoningonrighteousnessandtemperanceandthejudgmenttocome(Ac24:25).
DUALISM.The belief in, or doctrine of, two ultimate conflicting principles, powers, or tendencies in the universe. Haeckel describes as
dualismthedistinctionbetweenGodandtheworld,andbetweenmatterandmind,andopposestoithismonism,whichidentifiesboth(Riddleofthe
Universe,ch.1,p.8).InthissenseofthewordtheBibleteachesdualism.ItdoesdistinguishGodasCreatorfromtheworldascreated(Gn1:1,Is
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Universe,ch.1,p.8).InthissenseofthewordtheBibleteachesdualism.ItdoesdistinguishGodasCreatorfromtheworldascreated(Gn1:1,Is
40:26,Jn1:3),anddescribesGodasSpiritincontrastwithmatter(Jn4:24).Inmanitdistinguishesthebodytakenfromthedust,andthespirit
givenbyGod(Gn2:7,Ec12:7).Thisconclusionneednotbeprovedfurther,asthisviewisimpliedinalltheteachingoftheBibleaboutGod,
world, man. But, setting aside this new sense of the term, we must consider whether the Bible gives evidence of dualism in the older sense, as
opposingtoGodanyantagonistorhindranceinHiscreating,preserving,andrulingtheworld.Itisheldthatdualisminthreeformscanbetracedin
theBible(1)themythical,(2)themetaphysical,(3)theethical.Eachmustbeseparatelyexamined.
1.Mythicaldualism.IntheBabyloniancosmology,Marduk,thechampionoftheupperdeities,wageswaragainstTiamat,wholeadsthe
lowerdeitiesatlastheslaysher,dividesherbody,andmakespartacoveringfortheheavenstoholdbacktheupperwaters.Thereislittledoubt
thattheaccountoftheCreationinGn1reproducessomeofthefeaturesofthismyth,butitistransformedbythemonotheismoftheauthor(see
BennettsGenesis,pp.6772).TiamatappearsunderthenameRahabinseveralpassages(Job9:13[RV]26:12,13[seeDavidsonsJob,p.54],Is
51:9,cf.27:1leviathantheswiftserpent,leviathanthecrookedserpent,thedragonthatisinthesea).SeeCheynesnotesonthesepassagesin
thePropheciesof
Isaiah,i.158,ii.31.InillustrationofIs51:9hequotestheaddresstoRaintheEgyptianBookoftheDead:Hail!thouwhohastcutinpiecesthe
ScornerandstrangledtheApophis[i.e.theevilserpent,Ps89:10,cf.Ps74:13,14thedragons,leviathan].Thisnameisusedasasymbolic
nameofEgypt(Ps87:4,Is30:7),probablyonaccountofitspositionontheNile,anditshostilitytothepeopleofGod.Theseaisregardedas
Godsfoe(Dn7:3fourgreatbeastscameupfromtheseaRev13:1abeastcomingupoutofthesea,21:1theseaisnomore,thatis,thepower
hostiletoGodhasceased),aconceptioninwhichthemythsurvives.Theinfluenceofthemythisseenonlyinthepoeticallanguage,butnotinthe
religiousbeliefsoftheHolyScriptures.
2.Metaphysicaldualism.Greekthoughtwasdualistic.Anaxagorasassumedhyl,matter,aswellasnous,mind,astheultimate
principles.Platodoesnotharmonizetheworldofideasandtheworldofsense.Aristotlebeginswithmatterandform.NeoPlatonismseekstofill
upthegulfbetweenGodandtheworldbyaseriesofemanations.InGnosticismtheplrmaandthelogosmediatebetweentheessentialandthe
phenomenalexistence.St.John(1:1,14)meetsthisGreekthoughtofhisenvironmentbyassertingthatChrististheWordwhoiswithGodandis
God,andwhohasbecomeflesh.AgainstGnostichereticsSt.PaulinColossians(1:19,2:9)assertsthattheplrma,thefulnessoftheGodhead,
dwellsbodilyinChristtothisdualismisopposedtheunionofCreatorandcreation,reasonandmatterinChrist.
FromthismetaphysicalthereresultedapracticaldualisminGreekthought,betweensenseandreason.WhileAristotlethoughtthatreasonmight
usesenseasanartisthismaterial,NeoPlatonismtaughtthatonlybyanasceticdisciplinecouldreasonbeemancipatedfromthebondageofsense
andStoicismtreatedsenseasausurperinmansnature,tobecrushedandcastoutbyreason.Holstenhastriedtoshowthatthisdualismisinvolved
inSt.Paulsdoctrineoftheflesh,andPfleidereralsoholdsthisposition.ItisheldthatSt.Paul,startingfromthecommonHebraicnotionofflesh
(sarx),accordingtowhichitsignifiesmaterialsubstance,whichisvoidindeedofthespirit,butnotcontrarytoit,whichiscertainlyweakand
perishable,andsofarunclean,butnotpositivelyevil,advancestotheconceptionofthefleshasanagencyopposedtothespirit,havinganactive
tendencytowardsdeath.Fromtheoppositionofphysicallydifferentsubstancesresultsthedualismofantagonisticmoralprinciples(Pfleiderers
Paulinism,i.52ff.).Thisconclusionis,however,generallychallengedwithgoodreason,andcannotberegardedasproved.Thequestionwillbe
morefullydiscussedinart.FLESH.
3.Ethicaldualism.InPersianthoughtthereareopposedtooneanother,asinconflictwithoneanother,OrmuzdandAhriman,thepersonal
principlesofgoodandevil.WhiletheOTrecognizesthepowerofsinintheworld,yetGodsultimatecausalityandsolesupremacyareaffirmed.In
postexilicJudaism,however,therewasatwofoldtendencysotoassertthetranscendenceofGodthatangelsmustberecognizedasmediating
betweenHimandtheworld,andtopreserveHismoralperfectionbyassigningtheevilintheworldtotheagencyofevilspiritsundertheleadership
ofSatan,theadversary.WhilethesetendenciesmayberegardedasinherentinthedevelopmentofHebrewmonotheism,bothweredoubtless
stimulatedbytheinfluenceofPersianthoughtwithitselaborateangelologyanddemonology.IntheApocalypticliteraturethepresentworldis
representedasunderSatansdominion,andaswrestedfromhimonlybyasupernaturalmanifestationofGodspowertoestablishHisKingdom.
ThisdualismpervadestheApocalypse.IntheNTgenerallythedoctrineofthedevilcurrentinJudaismistakenover,buttheDivinesupremacyis
neverdenied,andtheDivinevictoryoverallevilisalwaysconfidentlyanticipated.
(Seeartt.APOCALYPTICLITERATURE,DEVIL,ESCHATOLOGY.)

WhileintheBibletherearethesetracesofthethreefolddualism,itisneverdevelopedandmonotheismisthroughoutmaintained,Godssole
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WhileintheBibletherearethesetracesofthethreefolddualism,itisneverdevelopedandmonotheismisthroughoutmaintained,Godssole
eternity,ultimatecausality,andfinalvictorybeingasserted,whileGodisdistinguishedfromtheworld,andintheworldadistinctionbetween
matterandmindisrecognized.
ALFREDE.GARVIE.
DUKE.ThetitleofdukeintheAVhasaverygeneralmeaning.ItisaninheritancefromtheEng.ofearlierversions,inwhich(afterVulg.
dux)dukemeantanyleaderorchief.LatimercallsGideonaduke,andWyclifusesthistitleofChrist,asinhisWorks(iii.137),JesusChrist,duke
ofourebatel.ThetitleofdukeisconfinedinAVtothechiefsofEdom,withtheexceptionofJos13:21dukesofSihon,and1Mac10:65
(appliedtoJonathanMaccabus).
DULCIMER.Thisterm,whichdenotesastringedinstrument(?themedivalpsalteryseeMUSIC,4(1)(b)),isgivenincorrectlybyEV
inDn3:5,15astr.ofsumpnya(Gr.loanword),whichprob.=bagpipeseeMUSIC,4(2)(d).
DUMAH.1.CitedinGn25:14(1Ch1:30)asamongthetwelvetribesof
Ishmael.Theregionthusindicatedissupposedtobetheoasisformerlycalledbythe
ArabsDmatelJendelandnowknownaselJf,aboutthreefourthsofthewayfrom
DamascustoMedina.ThesameplacemaybereferredtointheobscureoracleIs21:11,buttheLXXhasIduma,anditispossiblethatEdomis
meant.2.ThenameofatowninthehighlandsofJudah(Jos15:52).Thereadingisnotcertain.TheLXXandVulg.indicateRumah,andnotall
editionsoftheHebrewagree.Ifthereceivedtextiscorrect,anidentificationmaybeplausiblymadewithedDaumeh10milesS.W.ofHebron.
J.F.MCCURDY.
DUMBNESS.SeeMEDICINE.
DUNG.1.UsedintheEastasmanure(Lk13:8)andforfuelespeciallythatofcattle,wherewoodandcharcoalarescarceorunattainable.
DirectionsforpersonalcleanlinessaregiveninDt23:1014andinthecaseofsacrificesthedungoftheanimalswasburntoutsidethecamp(Ex
29:14,Lv4:11,12,8:17,Nu19:5).2.Thewordisused(a)toexpresscontemptandabhorrence,asinthecaseofthecarcaseofJezebel(2K9:37)
andinthatoftheJews(Jer9:22,Zeph1:17).(b)Tospreaddunguponthefacewasasignofhumiliation(Mal2:3).(c)Asrepresenting
worthlessness,PaulcountedallthingsbutdungthathemightwinChrist(Ph3:8).
DURA,PLAINOF.Thepreciselocalityisuncertain,butitmusthavebeeninthevicinityofBabylon.Perhapsthenameisderivedfromthe
Bab.duru=wall,whichisfrequentlyusedasatownname.Oppert(Expd.enMsop.I.238)foundasmallriversonamed,fallingintothe
Euphrates6or7milesS.E.ofBabylon,theneighbouringmoundsbeingalsonamedTolulDura.AcuriousTalmudiclegendmakesthisplainthe
sceneofEzekielsvision(37:114),whichitregardsasanactualevent(Sanh.92b).
J.TAYLOR.
DWARFistherenderinginAVandRVofdaq,aword(Lv21:20)denotingoneofthephysicaldisqualificationsbywhichapriestwasunfitted
forservice.Thewordmeansthin,lean,small.Theconjecturethatitheremeansadwarfisplausible.Butothersregarditasmeaninganunnaturally
thinmanaconsumptive,perhaps.
DYEING.SeeARTSANDCRAFTS,6COLOURS,6.
DYSENTERY.SeeMEDICINE.

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EAGLE.(1)nesher,Dt32:11etc.,Lv11:13RVmgreatvulture.(2)rchm,Lv11:18,AVgiereagle,RVvulture.(3)aetos,Mt24:28||
Lk17:37(RVmvultures),Rev4:7,12:14.TheHeb.nesheristheequivalentoftheArab.nisr,whichincludeseagles,vultures,andospreys.Itis
clearfromMic1:16enlargethybaldnessastheeagle,thatthevultureisreferredto.Thereareeightvarietiesofeaglesandfourofvulturesknown
inPalestine.Thereferencestonesherarespeciallyappropriateasappliedtothegriffonvulture(Gypsfulvus),amagnificentbird,themoststriking
ornithologicalfeatureofPalestine(Tristram),foundespeciallyaroundtheprecipitousgorgesleadingtovariouspartsoftheJordanValley.Job
39:27,30andJer49:16welldescribeitshabitsanditspowerfulandrapidflightisreferredtoinIs40:31,Dt28:49,Hab1:8.Rchmcorresponds
totheArab.rakhm,theEgyptianvulture,aubiquitousscavengerwhichvisitsPalestinefromthesoutheverysummer.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
EAR.BothinOTandNTthespiritualdispositiontoattend,whichissuesinobedience,isthusdesignated(e.g.Is6:10,Mt11:15,Rev2:7).
Hencetouncovertheear(RVm,1S9:15etc.)=torevealtheuncircumcisedear(Jer6:10)=theearwhichremainsunpurifiedandcloggedand
thereforeunabletoperceive:hencemineearshastthouopened(Ps40:6)=Thouhastenabledmetounderstand.Theperforatedearwasasignof
slaveryordependence,indicatingtheobligationtoattend(Ex21:6,Dt15:16f.).Thetipofthepriestsrightearwastouchedwithbloodintokenthat
thesenseofhearingwasconsecratedtoGodsservice(Ex29:20,Lv8:23).
J.TAYLOR.
EARING.Gn45:6,Thereshallbeneitherearingnorharvest.Earingistheoldexpressionforploughing.Theverbtoear(connected
withLat.arare)alsooccurs,asDt21:4aroughvalley,whichisneitherearednorsown.
EARNEST.In2Co1:22,5:5,Eph1:14St.PauldescribestheHolySpiritasthebelieversearnest.Thewordmeanspartpayment,the
depositbeingthesameinkindaswhatistofollow.Cf.Tindales(1533)useofearnestpenny:thatassuredsavinghealthandearnestpennyof
everlastinglife.RabbiGreenstone(JEv.26)quotesKid.3atotheeffectthatthepaymentofaperutah,thesmallestcoinofPalestiniancurrency,on
accountofthepurchase,wassufficienttobindthebargain.TheGr.wordwasprobablyintroducedbythePhnicians.Deissmann(BibleStudies,p.
108f.)showsthatin2Co1:21theverbstablishethconnotesalegalideaandstandsinanessentialrelationtoearnestinv.22.St.Paul
representstherelationof
Godtobelieversundertheimageofalegallyguaranteedsecurity.
J.G.TASKER.
EARRING.SeeAMULETS,2ORNAMENT,2.
EARTHinOTusuallystandsforoneorotheroftheHeb.wordseretzandadmh.InAVthesearerenderedindiscriminatelyearthand
ground,butRVdistinguishesthembyusing,tosomeextent,earthfortheformer,andgroundforthelatter.Bothwordshaveawiderangeof
meanings,someofwhichtheypossessincommon,whileothersarepeculiartoeach.Thuseretzdenotes:(a)earthasopposedtoheaven(Gn1:1),
and(b)drylandasopposedtosea.(1:20).admhisspeciallyused:(a)forearthasaspecificsubstance(Gn2:7,2K5:17)and(b)forthesurface
oftheground,insuchphrasesasfaceoftheearth.Bothwordsareemployedtodescribe:(a)thesoilfromwhichplantsgrow,admhbeingthe
morecommonterminthissense(b)thewholeearthwithitsinhabitants,forwhich,however,admhisbutrarelyusedand(c)alandorcountry,
thisalsobeingusuallyexpressedbyeretz.Inoneortwocasesitisdoubtfulinwhichofthetwolastsenseseretzistobetaken,e.g.Jer22:29(EV
earth,RVmland).
InNTtheGr.wordsforeartharegandoikoumen,theformerhavingpracticallyallthevarietyofmeaningsmentionedabove,whilethelatter
denotesspeciallythewholeinhabitedearth,andisonceused(Heb2:5)inastillwidersensefortheuniverseofthefuture.See,further,art.
WORLD.
JAMESPATRICK.

EARTHQUAKE.ThewholeformationofthecountryrunninginastraightlinefromtheTaurusrangetothegulfofAkabah,whichtherefore 1/85
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EARTHQUAKE.ThewholeformationofthecountryrunninginastraightlinefromtheTaurusrangetothegulfofAkabah,whichtherefore
includesCentralJuda,revealsavolcaniccharacterofastrikingkind.Thatthislargetractwas,indaysgoneby,thesceneoffrequentandterrible
earthquakes,admitsofnodoubt.ApartfromtheactualoccurrencesofearthquakesrecordedintheBibleandelsewhere(e.g.atthetimeofthebattle
ofActium,intheseventhyearofthereignofHerodtheGreat,Jos.Ant.XV.v.2),theoftenusedimageryoftheearthquakebearseloquent
testimonytoafearfulexperience.
ItisnecessarytodistinguishbetweenactualearthquakesandthosewhichbelongtothedescriptiveaccountsoftheophaniesorDivine
manifestationsofwrath,etc.OftheformeronlyoneismentionedintheOT,thatwhichoccurredinthereignofUzziah(Am1:1,Zec14:5)among
thelattermustbeincludedsuchreferencesasEx19:18,1K19:11,Nu16:31,Ps18:7,68:8,77:18,104:4,Is29:6etc.IntheNTitisrecordedthat
anearthquakeoccurredattheCrucifixion(Mt27:51,54),attheResurrection(Mt28:2),andonthenightofSt.PaulsimprisonmentinPhilippi(Ac
16:26)further,itisforetoldthatthereshallbeearthquakesatChristssecondcoming(Mt24:7,Mk13:8,Lk21:11)theirmentioninRev.Is
characteristicofapocalypticliterature.
W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
EAST,CHILDRENOFTHE.Acommondesignationoftheinhabitantsofthe
Syriandesert,whowerepartlyAramanandpartlyArabian(Jg6:3,8:10,Ezk25:4,10,Is11:14,Jer49:28,Job1:3).Certainofthemhadobtained
greatrenownforwisdom(1K5:10).
J.F.MCCURDY.
EASTSEA,EASTERNSEA.SeeDEADSEA.
EASTER(AV of Ac 12:4 RV the Passover).The anachronism of AV was inherited from older VSS which avoided, as far as possible,
expressionswhichcouldnotbeunderstoodbythepeople.
EBAL.1.NameofasonofJoktan(1Ch1:22,inGn10:28Obal),probablyrepresentingaplaceortribeinArabia.2.AsonofShobalsonofSeir
(Gn36:23,1Ch
1:40).
EBAL.NowJebeleshShemali,amountainnorthofNablus(Shechem),1207ft.abovethevalley,3077ft.abovethesea.Ruinsofafortress
andofabuildingcalledalittlechurchexistonitssummit,aswellasaMohammedanshrinesaidtocontaintheskullofJohntheBaptist.The
mountaincommandsanextensiveviewoveralmostthewholeofGalilee,whichincludespointsfromHermontoJerusalemandfromtheseatothe
Hauran.OnthismountainJoshuabuiltanaltaranderectedamonumentbearingthelawofMoses(Jos8:30)andthecursesforbreachesofthe
morallawwerehereproclaimedtotheassembledIsraelitesontheirformallytakingpossessionofthePromisedLand(Dt11:29,27:4,13,Jos8:33).
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
EBED.1.ThefatherofGaal(Jg9:2635).2.OneofthosewhoreturnedfromBabylonwithEzra(Ezr8:6)calledin1Es8:32Obeth.
EBEDMELECH.AnEthiop.ennuch,bywhomJeremiahwasreleasedfrom
thepitprison(Jer38:7ff.,39:15ff.).ItispossiblethatthenameEbedmelech,whichmeansservantof[the]king.mayhavebeenanofficialtitle.
EBENEZER(thestoneofhelp(LXXofthehelper]).1.Thesceneofadisastrousbattleinwhichthearkwaslost(1S4:1,5:1).2.The
nameofthestoneerectedtocommemorateanequallygloriousvictory(7:12).Theprecisesituationisuncertain,butifShen(7:12),i.e.Yeshana
(accordingtoLXXandSyriac)isthemodernAinSemijealittleN.ofBethel,thelocalityisapproximatelydefined.Samuelsexplanatorywords
shouldbereadthus:ThisisawitnessthatJahwehhathhelpedus.
J.TAYLOR.

EBER.1.TheeponymousancestoroftheHebrews(thefirstletterinbothwordsbeingthesameintheHeb.),thegreatgrandsonofShem,and2/85
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EBER.1.TheeponymousancestoroftheHebrews(thefirstletterinbothwordsbeingthesameintheHeb.),thegreatgrandsonofShem,and
fatherofPelegandJoktan(Gn10:21,25,11:14ff.).Thewordbersignifiestheotherside,acrossandibri.Hebrew,whichisinforma
gentilenamedenotingtheinhabitantofacountryormemberofatribe.isusuallyexplainedasdenotingthosewhohavecomefromberhannhr
(seeJos24:2,3),ortheothersideoftheRiver(theEuphrates),i.e.fromHaran(Gn11:31),inAramnaharaimthehomeofAbrahamandNahor
(Gn24:4,7,10).AccordingtoSayce,however(Exp.T.xviii.[1907]p.233).thewordisofBab.origin,anddenotedoriginallythetraderswho
wenttoandfroacrosstheEuphrates.InthegenealogiesinGn10,11thedistrictfromwhichtheHebrewscameistransformedintoanimaginary
eponymousancestor.WhyEberisnottheimmediate,butthesixthancestorofAbraham,andwhymanyothertribesbesidestheHebrewsare
reckonedashisdescendants,isperhapstobeexplained(Knig)bythefactthat,thoughtheIsraeliteswereinaspecialsenseHebrews,itwas
rememberedthattheirancestorshadlongmadetheregionacrosstheEuphratestheirrestingplace,andmanyothertribes(Peleg,Joktan,etc.)had
migratedfromit.WhatEbermeansinNu24:24isuncertain:mostprobablyperhaps,thecountryacrosstheEuphrates(||withAsshur,i.e.Assyria).
2AGadite(1Ch5:12).3.4.TwoBenjamites(1Ch8:12,22)5Headofapriestlyfamily(Neh12:20).
S.R.DRIVER.
EBEZ.AcityofIssachar(Jos19:20).PossiblytheruinelBeidhah,eastofCarmel.
EBIASAPH.SeeABIASAPH.
EBONY(hobnm,Ezk27:15)istheblackheartwoodofthedateplum,Diospyrosebenum,importedfromS.IndiaandCeylon.Itwas
extensivelyimportedbyPhnicians,Babylonians,andEgyptiansforthemanufactureofvaluablevesselsandofidols.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
EBRON(Jos19:28).AtownintheterritoryofAsher,elsewherecalledAbdon(wh.see,5),whichisprobablythecorrectform.Itwasa
Leviticalcity(Jos21:30,1Ch6:74).Thesitehasnotbeenidentified.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
ECBATANA.SeeACHMETHA.
ECCLESIASTES
1.TitleandCanonicity.ThetitlehascometousthroughJeromefromtheLXX,inwhichitwasanattempttoexpresstheHeb.nomde
plumeKheleth,i.e.onewhospeaksinanassembly(khl)theassemblybeingallwhogivetheirheartstotheacquisitionofwisdom.The
bookisoneofthethirdgroupintheHeb.BibletheKethbhmorWritingswhichwerethelatesttoreceiverecognitionascanonicalScripture.
ItappearstohavebeenacceptedasScripturebyc.B.C.100.AtthesynodofJamnia(c.A.D.100)thecanonicityofEc.,theSongofSongs,and
Estherwasbroughtupfordiscussion,andwasconfirmed.
2.AuthorandDate.ThebookcontainstheoutpouringsofthemindofarichJew,atthebeginningofthe2ndcent.B.C.Wemayperhaps
gatherthathewasinahighstationoflife,forotherwisehisveryunorthodoxreflexionscouldhardlyhaveescapedoblivion.Hecouldprovide
himselfwitheveryluxury(2:410).Buthehadprivatesorrowsanddisappointments7:2628seemstoimplythathislifehadbeensaddenedbya
womanwhowasunworthyofhim.Hewasapparentlyanoldman,becausehisattemptstofindthesummumbonumoflifeinpleasureandin
wisdom,whichcouldhardlyhavebeenabandonedinafewyears,werenowbygonememories(1:122:11).AndhelivedinornearJerusalem,for
hewasaneyewitnessofeventswhichoccurredattheholyplace(8:10).Thatisallthatherevealsabouthimself.Buthepaintsaluridpictureof
thestateofhiscountry.Thekingwasachildmuchtooyoungforhisresponsiblepositionandhiscourtiersspenttheirdaysindrunkenrevelry
(10:16)hewascapriciousinhisfavouritism(vv.57),violentintemper(v.4),anddespotic(8:2a,4).Theresultwasthatwickednessusurpedthe
placeofjustice(3:16),andtheupperclassescrushedthepoorwithanoppressionfromwhichtherewasnoescape(4:1)thecountrygroanedunder
anirresponsibleofficialism,eachofficialbeingunabletomoveafingerinthecauseofjustice.becausehewasunderthethumbofahigherone,and
thehighestwasacreatureofthetyrannousking(5:7):andinsuchastateofsocialrottennessespionagewasrife(10:20).Theonlypassagewhich

distinctlyalludestocontemporaryhistoryis4:1316,butnoperiodhasbeenfoundwhichsuitsallthefacts.In8:10anhistoricalallusionis
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distinctlyalludestocontemporaryhistoryis4:1316,butnoperiodhasbeenfoundwhichsuitsallthefacts.In8:10anhistoricalallusionis
improbable,and9:1315istoovaguetoaffordanyindicationofdate.
Thebookor,moreprobably,12:11only,iswrittenundertheguiseofSolomon.In2:12(accordingtothemostprobableinterpretationofthe
verse)thewriterappearstothrowofftheimpersonation.Butthelanguageandgrammaticalpeculiaritiesofthewritingmakeitimpossibletoascribe
ittoSolomon.TheHeb.languagewhichhadbeenpureenoughforsometimeafterthereturnfromBabylon,begantodecayfromthetimeof
Nehemiah.TherearesignsofthechangeinEzr.,Neh.,andMal.,anditisstillmoreevidentinChron.,Est.,andEccl.,thelatterhavingthemost
strikingMishnicIdioms.Itmustthereforebelater(probablymuchlater)thanEsther(c.B.C.300),butbeforebenSira,whoalludestoseveral
passagesinit(c.B.C.180).Itmaythusbedatedc.B.C.200.
3.Composition.Oneofthemoststrikingfeaturesofthebookisthefrequencywithwhichadespairingsadnessalternateswithacalmpious
assurance.Manyhaveseeninthisthestrugglesofareligiouslymindedmanhaltingbetweendoubtandfaithe.g.Plumptrecomparesthismental
conflictwithTennysonsTwoVoices.Butthemorethebookisread,themorethereaderfeelsthatthisisnotso.Thecontrastsaresosuddenthe
scepticismissodespairing,andthepietysocalmandassured,thattheycanbeexplainedonlyontheassumptionofinterpolationsbyotherhands.
Moreover,inthemidstofthedespairandthefaiththerearescatteredproverbs,somewhatfrigidanddidactic,oftenwithnorelevancetothecontext.
Theliteraryhistoryofthewritingappearstobeasfollows:(a)ThegnomiccharacterofsomeofKohelethsremarks,andtheascriptiontoSolomon,
attractedoneofthethinkersofthedaywhosemindsweredominatedbytheideaofWisdomsuchawriterasthosewhoseobservationsare
collectedintheBookofProverbs.Heenrichedtheoriginalwritingwithproverbsculledfromvarioussources.(b)Butthatwhichattractsalso
repels.TheimpressionwhichthebookmadeupontheorthodoxJewmaybeseenintheBookofWisdom,inwhich(2:19)thewritercollectssome
ofKohelethsdespairingreflexionsand,placingtheminthemouthoftheungodly,raiseshisprotestagainstthem.Therewerelivingatthetimenot
onlygnomicmoralizers,butalsomenofintense,ifnarrow,pietymenofthetemperafterwardsseenintheMaccabees.Oneoftheseinterpolated
observationson(i.)thefearofGod.(ii.)thejudgmentofGod.Ineverycaseexcept5:17[Heb.4:175:6]hisremarksexplicitlycorrectsome
complaintofKohelethtowhichheobjected.12:11,12isapostscriptbythewiseman,andvv.13,14bythepiousman.Theadditionswhich
appeartobeduetotheformerare4:5,912,6:7,9,7:1a,412,19,8:1,9:17f.,10:13,814a,15,18f.,12:11f.,andtothelatter2:26,3:14b,17,
5:17,7:18b,26b,29,8:2b,3a,5,6a,1113,11:9b,12:1a,13f.
4.Kohelethsreflexions
(a)Hisviewoflife.Aftertheexordium(12:11),inwhich,undertheguiseofSolomon,heexplainsthathemadeeverypossibleattemptto
discoverthemeaningandaimoflife,therestofhiswritingconsistsofamiscellaneousseriesofpictures,illustratinghisrecurrentthoughtthatall
isavapour,andastrivingafterwind.Andtheconclusionatwhichhearrivesisthatmancanaimatnothing,guidehimselfbynothing.Hisonly
courseistofallbackuponpresentenjoymentandindustry.ItisfarfrombeingasummumbonumitisnotanEpicureantheoryoflifeitisamere
modusvivendi,wherebyheshallnottakemuchaccountofthedaysofhislife(5:19).Andtothisconclusionheincessantlyreturns,wheneverhe
findslifesmysteriesinsoluble:
2:24f.,3:12f.,22,5:1719,8:15,9:710,11:110(exc.9b)12:1b7.
(b)Hisreligiousideas.ItisimprobablethathecameintoimmediatecontactwithanyoftheGreekschoolsofthought.Ithasoftenbeen
maintainedthatheshowsdistinctsignsofhavingbeeninfluencedbybothStoicandEpicureanphilosophy.Ofthelatteritisdifficulttodiscernthe
slightesttracebutfortheformerthereismoretobesaid.ButthereisnothingatwhichathinkingJew,ofaphilosophicaltemperofmind,couldnot
havearrivedindependently.AnditmustnotbeforgottenthatevenStoicismwasnotapurelyGreekproductitsfounderZenowasofPhnician
descent,andhisfollowerscamefromSyria,CiliciaCarthage,andotherHellenistic(asdistinctfromHellenic)quarters.Kohelethoccupies(what
maybecalled)debatablegroundbetweenSemiticandGreekthought.HehaslostthevitalityofbeliefinapersonalGod,whichinspiredtheearlier
prophets,andtakeshisstanduponasomewhatcolourlessmonotheism.HeneverusesthepersonalnameJahweh.butalwaysthedescriptivetitle
Elohim(4times)ortheElohim(16times),thedeitywhomanifestsHimselfintheinscrutableandirresistibleforcesofNature.Atthesame
timehenevercommitshimselftoanydefinitelypantheisticstatements.HehasnotquitelosthisSemiticbeliefthatGodismorethanNature,for
Hisactionshowsevidenceofdesign(3:11,18,22,6:12b,7:14,8:17,11:5).Moreover,GodsworkthecourseofNatureappearsintheformof
anendlesscycle.Eventsandphenomenaarebroughtuponthestageoflife,andbanishedintothepast,onlytoberecalledandbanishedagain(1:4
11,3:15).Andthis,forKoheleth,paralyzesallrealeffortfornoamountoflabourcanproduceanythingneworofrealprofitnoonecanaddto,or
subtractfrom,theunswervingchainoffacts(1:15,3:19,14a,7:13)noonecancontendwithHimthatismightierthanhe(6:10).Andhegainsno
relieffromtheexpectationofMessianicpeaceandperfection,whichanimatedtheorthodoxJew.Therearelefthimonlytheshredsofthereligious 4/85
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relieffromtheexpectationofMessianicpeaceandperfection,whichanimatedtheorthodoxJew.Therearelefthimonlytheshredsofthereligious
convictionsofhisfathers,withaspeciesofnaturalreligionwhichhasfatalismandaltruismamongisingredients.
5.Thevalueofthebookforuslieslargelyinitsverydeficiencies.Theuntroubledorthodoxyofthepiousmanwhocorrectedwhathethought
waswrong,themoralaphorismsofthewiseman,andtheWeltschmerzofKohelethwithhislongingforlight,wereeachexamplesofthestateof
thoughtofthetime.Theycorrespondedtothethreeclassesofmenin1Co1:20thescribe(whoclungfaithfullytohisacceptedtraditions),the
wiseman,andthesearcherofthisworld.Eachpossessedelementsoflastingtruth,buteachneededtobeanswered,andraisedtoahigherplane
ofthought,bytherevelationofGodintheincarnation.
A.H.MNEILE.
ECCLESIASTICUSSeeAPOCRYPHA,13.
ECLIPSE.SeeSUN.
ED.IntheHebrew(andalsointheGreek)textofJos22:34thenamegivenbythetwoandahalftribestothealtarerectedbythemontheeast
bankoftheJordanhasdroppedout.OurEnglishtranslatorshavefilledthegapbyinsertingEdasthenameofthealtarinquestion.Forthisthey
havetheauthorityofafewMSS.
ThelocationofthisaltarontheeastbankoftheJordanisrequiredbythewholetenorofthenarrative.Thewestbankissuggestedbyv.10inits
presentform,andmaintainedalsobyRVinv.11,byatranslationofdoubtfuladmissibility,intheforefrontofthelandofCanaan,onthesidethat
pertainethtothechildrenofIsrael.
EDDINUS.OneoftheholysingersatJosiahspassover(1Es1:15).Intheparallelpassage2Ch35:15thecorrespondingnameisJeduthun,
whichisreadalso,contrarytoMSauthority,byAVin1Esdras.Thetextofthelatterisprobablycorrupt.
EDEN.2Ch29:12,31:15,aLevite,orpossiblytwo.ItisnotcertainthatEdenisthetrueformofthename:LXXhasJodaninthefirst,Odom
inthesecondpassage.
WhenittransliteratesEdenelsewhereitisusuallyintheformEdem.
J.TAYLOR.
EDEN,CHILDRENOF.ThepeopleoccupyingBitAdini(2K19:12,Is37:12:forEzk27:23seeCANNEH).SeeEDEN[HOUSEOF].
Telassar(2K19:12)mayperhapsbeTilBashiroftheinscriptions.
J.TAYLOR.
EDEN,GARDENOF.Gn2f.relateshowGodplantedagardenintheEast,inEden.Ariverroseinthatland,flowedthroughthegarden,and
thendividedintofourstreams.Withintheenclosureweremanytreesusefulforfoodalsothetreeoflife,whosefruitconferredimmortality,andthe
treeofknowledge,whichgavepowertodiscriminatebetweenthingsprofitableandthingshurtful,or,betweenrightandwrong.Theanimal
denizenswereinnocuoustomanandtoeachother.Whenthefirstmanandwomanyieldedtothetempterandateofthetreeofknowledge,they
wereexpelled,andprecludedfromreenteringthegarden.
InthisaccountGn2:1014,3:22,24seemtobeinterpolations.Butthetopographicaldatain2:1014areofespecialimportance,becausethey
havesuppliedthematerialforcountlessattemptstolocatethegarden.Ithasbeenalmostuniversallyagreedthatoneofthefourriversisthe
EuphratesandanothertheTigris.Heretheagreementends,andnousefulpurposewouldbeservedbyanattempttoenumeratetheconflicting
theories.Threewhichhavefoundfavouroflate,maybebrieflymentioned.OneisthattheGihonistheNile,andthePishonthePersianand
ArabianGulfs,conceivedofasagreatriver,withitssourceandthatoftheNilenotfarfromthoseoftheEuphratesandtheTigris.Anotherregards
EdenasanislandnotfarfromtheheadofthePersianGulf.nearthemouthsoftheEuphrates,theTigris.theKerkha.andtheKarun.Thethirdputs
EdennearErldu(oncetheseaportofChaldaonthePersianGulf),andtakesthePishontobethecanalafterwardscalledPallakottas,andtheGihon
tobetheKhoaspes(nowKerkha).InsupportofthelastnamedviewacuneiformtabletisquotedwhichspeaksofatreeorshrubplantednearEridu
bythegods.ThesungodandthepeerlessmotherofTammuzdwellthere:nomanentersintothemidstofit.Butthecorrespondenceswiththe
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bythegods.ThesungodandthepeerlessmotherofTammuzdwellthere:nomanentersintothemidstofit.Butthecorrespondenceswiththe
BiblicalEdenarenotsufficientlystrikingtocompelconviction.AtthesametimeitcanhardlybedoubtedthattheBiblicalwriterutilizedtraditional
matterwhichcameoriginallyfromBabylonia.TheverynameEden,whichtohimmeantdelight,isalmostcertainlytheBab.dinnu=plain.
TheBab.authorwouldconceiveofthegardenaslyinginadistrictnearhisownland,hardbythesupposedcommonsourceofthegreatrivers.
Andthis,totheHebrews,isintheEast.
Eden,orthegardenofEden,becamethesymbolofaveryfertileland(Gn13:10,Is51:3,Ezk31:9,16,18,Jl2:3).Thedirgeoverthekingof
Tyre(Ezk28:13ff.)isfoundedonaParadiselegendwhichresemblesthatinGn.,buthasastrongermythologicalcolouring:thegardenofGod(v.
13)isapparentlyidentifiedwiththewellknownmythicalmountainofthegods(v.14)thecherubandthekingofTyreareassimilatedtoeach
otherthestonesoffiremaybecomparedwiththeflameofasword(Gn3:24:seealsoEnoch24.16).Inlaterliteraturewefindmuchexpansionand
embellishmentofthetheme:seeJubilees3:9,4:26,Enoch24f.,32,60,61,2Es8:52,Assump.Mos.ixff.,Ev.Nic.xix.etc.NTthoughtand
imageryhavebeenaffectedbythedescriptionofEdengiveninGn2f.:seeLk23:43,2Co12:4,Rev2:7.TheKoranhasmanyreferencestothe
gardenofParadiseLost,andthegardensoftheParadisetocome(ix,xiii,xlvii,lv,lxviii,etc.).
J.TAYLOR.
EDEN,HOUSEOF.AplaceordistrictconnectedpoliticallywithDamascus
(Am1:5RVmBetheden).OfthefivesuggestionsforlocalitythelikeliestisEdenorEhden,20milesN.W.ofBaalbek,ontheN.W.slopeof
Lebanon.Itsmostformidablecompetitor,BitAdini,adistrictoneitherbankoftheMiddleEuphrates,frequentlymentionedinthecuneiform
inscriptions,istoofar200milesfromDamascus,andinthedaysofAmoshadlongbeensubjecttoAssyria.
J.TAYLOR.
EDER.1.Gn35:21AndIsraeljourneyed,andspreadhistentbeyondthetowerofEder.EdermeansaflockandthephraseMidgaleder
(flocktower,cf.Mic4:8)wouldhavebeentheappellationgiventoatoweroccupiedbyshepherdsfortheprotectionoftheirflocksagainst
robbers(cf.2K18:8,2Ch26:10).ThetowerherementionedlaybetweenBethlehemandHebron(cf.vv.19,27).JeromementionsaJewish
traditionthatthisEderwasthesiteoftheTemple,buthimselfpreferstothinkthatitwasthespotonwhichtheshepherdsreceivedtheangels
message.2.Jos15:21.ThenameofoneofthetownsofJudahinthesouth,closetotheEdomitefrontierperhapsKh.elAdr,5milesS.ofGaza.
3.1Ch23:23,24:30.ThenameofaMerariteLeviteinthedaysofDavid.4.ABenjamite(1Ch.8:15).
EDNA.WifeofRaguelofEcbatana,andmotherofSarah,whobecamewifeofTobias(To7:3ff.,10:12,11:1).SeeAPOCRYPHA,8.
EDOM,EDOMITES.TheEdomiteswereatribeorgroupoftribesresidinginearlyBiblicaltimesinMountSeir(Gn32:3,Jg5:4),but
coveringterritoryonbothsidesofit.AttimestheirterritoryseemstohaveincludedtheregiontotheRedSeaandSinai(1K9:26,Jg5:4).Edomor
Esauwastheirreputedancestor.TheIsraeliteswereconsciousthattheEdomitesweretheirnearkinsmen,hencethetraditionthatEsauandJacob
weretwinbrothers(Gn25:24).ThattheEdomiteswereanoldernationtheyshowedbymakingEsauthefirstborntwin.ThetraditionthatJacob
trickedEsauoutofhisbirthright(Gn27),andthatenmityarosebetweenthebrothers,isanactualreflexionofthehostilerelationsoftheEdomites
andIsraelitesforwhichtheIsraelitesweretoaconsiderabledegreeresponsible.
BeforetheconquestofCanaan,EdomissaidtohaverefusedtoletIsraelpassthroughhisterritory(Nu20:18,21).Probablyduringtheperiodof
theJudges,EdomitesinvadedsouthernJudah(cf.Paton,SyriaandPalestine,161ff.).PossiblyEdomitessettledhereandwereincorporatedin
Judah,forKenazissaidinGn36:11tobeasonofEsau,whileinJg3:9heiscountedaJudahite.
DuringthemonarchySaulissaidtohavefoughttheEdomites(1S14:47)DavidconqueredEdomandputgarrisonsinthecountry(2S8:13,
14)EdomregaineditsindependenceunderSolomon(1K11:1422)JehoshaphatacenturylaterreconqueredEdom(cf.1K22:47,48),and
EdomiteshelpedhiminhiswarwithMoab(2K3)inthereignofJoram,hissuccessor,theEdomitesregainedtheirindependenceafterabloody
revolution(8:20,21)atthebeginningofthenextcenturyAmaziahreconqueredthemforashorttime,capturingSela,andslaughteringalarge
numberofthem(2K14:7).AlittlelaterAmos(Am1:11ff.)accusesEdomofpursuinghisbrotherwiththesword.DuringthenextcenturyEdom
wasindependentofIsrael,butpaidtributetoTiglathpileserIII.,Sennacherib,Esarhaddon,andAshurbanipal,kingsofAssyria(cf.KIBii.21,91,
149,239).
InconnexionwiththewarsofNebuchadnezzar,whichresultedinthedestructionofJerusalemin586,manyJewsmigratedtoEdombutthe
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InconnexionwiththewarsofNebuchadnezzar,whichresultedinthedestructionofJerusalemin586,manyJewsmigratedtoEdombutthe
EdomitesrejoicedintheoverthrowoftheJews.Thisdeepenedtheoldtimeenmity,andcalledforthbitterdenunciationsandpredictionsof
vengeancefromIsraelsprophets(cf.Ezk25:1214,Ob1ff.,Is63:17).AlittlelatergreatsufferingwasinflictedontheEdomitesbythe
Nabatans,whooverranthecountryandcrowdedtheEdomitesupintosouthernJudah.ThisinvasionofNabatansisprobablyreferredtoinMal
1:4ff.,forby312theywereinthisregion,andAntigonusandDemetriuscamein,contactwiththem(cf.
DiodorusSiculus,x.95,96,100).
TheEdomites,becauseofthis,occupiedtheterritoryofJudahasfarasthetownofBethzur,tothenorthofHebron,whichbecametheIduma
(wh.see)oftheNTperiod.HereJudasMaccabusfoughtwiththeEdomites(1Mac5:3,65),andJohnHyrcanusshortlybeforetheendofthe2nd
cent.B.C.conqueredthem,andcompelledthemtobecircumcisedandtoaccepttheJewishreligion(cf.Jos.Ant.XIII.ix.1,XIV.i.3,andXV.vii.
9).ThiswastheendoftheEdomitesasanation,buttheyobtainedakindofrevengeontheJewsbyfurnishingtheHerodiandynastytothem.
GEORGEA.BARTON.
EDOS,1Es9:35=Iddo,Ezr10:43.
EDREI.1.AroyalcityofOg,kingofBashan(Dt1:4,3:10,Jos12:4,13:12),thesceneofthebattleatwhichOgwasdefeated(Nu21:33,Dt
3:1)assignedtotheeasterndivisionofManasseh(Jos13:31).ItseemstobethemodernedDera,whereareseveralimportantremainsof
antiquity,includingagreatsubterraneancatacomb.2.
AtowninNaphtali(Jos19:37),notidentified.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
EDUCATION.Intheimportancewhichtheyattachedtotheeducationoftheyoung,itmayfairlybeclaimedthattheHebrewswerefacile
princepsamongthenationsofantiquity.Indeed,iftheultimateaimofeducationbetheformationofcharacter,theHebrewidealsandmethodswill
bearcomparisonwiththebestevenofmoderntimes.IncharacterHebreweducationwaspredominantly,onemightalmostsayexclusively,religious
andethical.Itsfundamentalprinciplemaybeexpressedinthefamiliarwords:ThefearoftheLordisthebeginningofknowledge(Pr1:7).Yetit
recognizedthatconductwasthetruetestofcharacterinthewordsofSimeon,thesonofGamaliel,thatnotlearningbutdoingisthechiefthing.
AstotheeducationalattainmentsoftheHebrewsbeforetheconquestofCanaan,itisuselesstospeculate.OntheirsettlementinCanaan,
however,theywerebroughtintocontactwithacivilizationwhichfortwothousandyearsormorehadbeenundertheinfluenceofBabyloniaandin
alessdegreeofEgypt.ThelanguageofBabylonia,withitscomplicatedsystemofwedgewriting,hadforlongbeenthemediumofcommunication
notonlybetweentherulersofthepettystatesofCanaanandthegreatpowersoutsideitsborders,buteven,aswenowknowfromSellins
discoveriesatTaanach,betweentheserulersthemselves.Thisimpliestheexistenceofsomeprovisionforinstructioninreadingandwritingthe
difficultBabylonianscript.Althoughinthisearlyperiodsuchaccomplishmentswereprobablyconfinedtoalimitednumberofhighofficialsand
professionalscribes,theincidentinGideonsexperience,Jg8:14(wherewemustrenderwithRVmwrotedown),warnsusagainstunduly
restrictingthenumberofthoseabletoreadandwriteinthesomewhatlaterperiodoftheJudges.Themorestablepoliticalconditionsunderthe
monarchy,andinparticularthedevelopmentoftheadministrationandthegrowthofcommerceunderSolomon,mustundoubtedlyhavefurthered
thespreadofeducationamongallclasses.
Ofschoolsandschoolmasters,however,thereisnoevidencetillaftertheExile,fortheexpressionschoolsoftheprophetshasnoScripture
warrant.Onlyonce,indeed,isthewordschooltobefoundeveninNT(Ac19:9),andthenonlyofthelectureroomofaGreekteacherinEphesus.
TheexplanationofthissilenceisfoundinthefactthattheHebrewchildreceivedhiseducationinthehome,withhisparentsashisonlyinstructors.
Althoughhegrewupignorantofmuchthateveryschoolboyknowstoday,hemustnotonthataccountbesetdownasuneducated.Hehadbeen
instructed,firstofall,inthetruthsofhisancestralreligion(seeDt6:2025andelsewhere)andintheritualoftherecurringfestivalstherewas
providedforhimobjectlessonsinhistoryandreligion(Ex12:26f.,13:8,14).Inthetraditionsofhisfamilyandracesomeofwhicharestill
preservedintheolderpartsofOThehadauniquestorehouseofthehighestidealsoffaithandconduct,andtheseafterallarethethingsthat
matter.
Descendingthestreamofhistory,wereachanepochmakingeventinthehistoryofeducation,notlessthanofreligion,amongtheJews,inthe
assemblyconvenedbyEzraandNehemiah(Neh8:1ff.),atwhichthepeoplepledgedthemselvestoacceptthebookofthelawofMosesasthe
normoftheirlifeinallitsrelations.
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normoftheirlifeinallitsrelations.
HenceforwardtheJewswerepreeminently,inMohammedsphrase,thepeopleoftheBook.ButiftheJewishcommunitywashenceforthto
regulateitswholelife,notaccordingtothelivingwordofpriestandprophet,butaccordingtotherequirementsofawrittenlaw,itwas
indispensablethatprovisionshouldbemadefortheinstructionofallclassesinthislaw.Tothispracticalnecessityisduetheoriginofthe
synagogue(wh.see),which,fromtheJewishpointofview,wasessentiallyameetingplaceforreligiousinstruction,and,indeed,isexpresslyso
namedbyPhilo.InNTalsothepreacherorexpounderinthesynagogueisinvariablysaidtoteach(Mt4:23,Mk1:21,andpassim),andthe
educationofyouthcontinuestothelasttobeassociatedwiththesynagogue(seebelow).ThesituationcreatedbythisnewzealfortheLawhas
beenadmirablydescribedbyWellhausen:TheBiblebecamethespellingbook,thecommunityaschool.Pietyandeducationwereinseparable
whoevercouldnotreadwasnotrueJew.Wemaysaythatinthiswaywerecreatedthebeginningsofpopulareducation.
ThisneweducationalmovementwasundertheguidanceofabodyofstudentsandteachersoftheLawknownastheSpherim(lit.bookmen)
orscribes,ofwhomEzraisthetypicalexample(Ezr7:6).Alongsidethese,ifnotidenticalwiththem,asmanyhold,wefindaninfluentialclassof
religiousandmoralteachers,knownasthe
SagesortheWise,whoseactivityculminatesinthecenturyprecedingthefallofthePersianempire(B.C.430330).Theargumentsfortheidentity
inallimportantrespectsoftheearlyscribesandthesagesaregivenbythepresentwriterinHastingsDBi.648butevenifthetwoclasseswere
originallydistinct,therecanbenodoubtthatbythetimeofJesushenSira,theauthorofEcclesiasticus(cir.B.C.180170),himselfascribeand
thelastofthesages,theyhadbecomemergedinone.
Toappreciatethereligiousandethicalteachingofthesages,wehaveonlytoopentheBookofProverbs.Herelifeispicturedasadiscipline,the
Hebrewwordforwhichisfoundthirtytimesinthisbook.Thewholeoflife,ithasbeensaid,ishereconsideredfromtheviewpointofa
pdagogicinstitution.Godeducatesmen,andmeneducateeachother(O.Holtzmann).
WiththecomingoftheGreeksaneweducationalforceintheshapeofHellenisticcultureenteredPalestineaforcewhichmadeitselffeltin
manydirectionsinthepreMaccabeanage.FromareferenceinJosephus(Ant.XII.iv.6)itmaybeinferredthatschoolsontheGreekmodelhad
beenestablishedinJerusalemitselfbeforeB.C.220.Itwassomewhereinthisperiod,too,thatthepreachercouldsay:Ofmakingmanybooks
thereisnoendandmuchstudyisawearinessoftheflesh(Ec12:12)reflexionswhichnecessarilypresupposeawidespreadinterestin
intellectualpursuits.TheedictofAntiochusEpiphanesatalaterdate(1Mac1:57)equallyimpliesaconsiderablecirculationoftheTorahamong
thepeople,withtheabilitytoprofitbyitsstudy.
Passingnow,asthisbriefsketchrequires,totheperiodofJewishhistorythatliesbetweenthetriumphoftheMaccabeesandtheendofthe
JewishStateinA.D.70,wefindatraditionthereisnovalidreasonforrejectingitasuntrustworthywhichillustratestheextenttowhich
elementaryeducation,atleast,wasfosteredunderthelaterMaccabeanprinces.Afamousscribeoftheperiod(cir.B.C.75),SimonbenShetach,
brotherofQueenAlexandra,issaidtohavegotalawpassedordainingthatthechildrenshallattendtheelementaryschool.Thisweunderstandon
variousgroundstomean,notthattheseschoolswerefirstinstituted,butthatattendanceatthemwashenceforthtobecompulsory.Theelementary
school,termedthehouseoftheBook(i.e.Scripture),inoppositiontothehouseofstudyorcollegeofthescribes(seebelow),wasalways
closelyassociatedwiththesynagogue.Inthesmallerplaces,indeed,thesamebuildingservedforboth.
Theelementaryteachers,aswemaycallthem,formedthelowestrankinthepowerfulguildofthescribes.Theyarethedoctors(lit.teachers)
ofthelaw,who,inourLordsday,weretobefoundineveryvillageofGalileeandJuda(Lk5:17RV),andwhofiguresofrequentlyinthe
Gospels.Attendanceattheelementaryschoolbeganattheageofsix.AlreadytheboyhadlearnedtorepeattheShema(Hear,OIsrael,etc.,Dt
6:4),selectedproverbsandversesfromthePsalms.Henowbegantolearntoread.HisonlytextbooksweretherollsofthesacredScriptures,
especiallytherolloftheLaw,theopeningchaptersofLeviticusbeingusuallythefirsttobetakeninhand.Afterthelettersweremastered,the
teachercopiedaversewhichthechildhadalreadylearnedbyheart,andtaughthimtoidentifytheindividualwords.Thechieffeatureofthe
teachingwaslearningbyrote,andthataudibly,fortheJewishteacherswerethoroughbelieversintheLatinmaxim,repetitiomaterstudiorum.The
pupilssatonthefloorattheteachersfeet,asdidSaulatthefeetofGamaliel(Ac22:3).
ThesubjectstaughtwerethethreeRsreading,writing,andarithmetic,thelastinaveryelementaryform.Thechildsfirstattemptsat
writingwereprobablydone,asintheGreekschoolsoftheperiod,onsherdsofpotteryfromthesehewouldbepromotedtoawaxtablet(Lk1:63
RV),onwhichhewrotewithapointedstyleormetalinstrument,verymuchasifonewroteonthicklybutteredbreadwithasmallstiletto.Only
afterconsiderableprogresshadbeenmadewouldhefinallyreachthedignityofpapyrus.
ForthemassofyoungJewsofthemalesex,forwhomalonepublicprovisionwasmade,thegirlsbeingstillrestrictedtothetuitionofthehome,8/85
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ForthemassofyoungJewsofthemalesex,forwhomalonepublicprovisionwasmade,thegirlsbeingstillrestrictedtothetuitionofthehome,
theteachingoftheprimaryschoolsufficed.Those,however,whowishedtobethemselvesteachers,orotherwisetodevotethemselvestothe
professionalstudyoftheLaw,passedontothehigherschoolsorcollegesabovementioned.Atthebeginningofourerathetwomostimportantof
thesecollegesweretaughtbythefamousdoctorsofthelaw,HillelandShammai.Itwasagrandsonoftheformer,GamalielI.,who,thirtyyears
later,numberedSaulofTarsusamonghisstudents(Ac22:3).IntheBethhammidrash(houseofstudy)theexclusivesubjectsofstudywerethe
interpretationoftheOT,andtheartofapplyingtheregulationsoftheTorah,bymeansofcertainexegeticalcanons,totheminutestdetailsofthelife
ofthetime.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
EGG.SeeFOOD,7.
EGLAH(heifer).OneofthewivesofDavid,andmotherofIthream(2S3:5,1Ch3:3).
EGLAIM(Is15:8).AtownofMoab.Thenamehasnotbeenrecovered.
EGLATHSHELISHIYAHoccursinanancientoracleagainstMoab,whichisquotedinIs15:5andJer48:34.InboththesepassagesRVtakes
thewordtobeapropername,givinginmarginthealternativetr.[as]anheiferofthreeyearsold,whichisAVinJer48:34andAVminIs15:5.In
thelatterpassage,AVtextomits[as].Itisstillsomewhatuncertainwhetherthewordisanappellativeorapropername,althoughthelatterview
hascommendeditselftothemajorityofmodernscholars.
EGLON.KingofMoab,underwhoseleadershiptheAmmonitesand
AmalekitesjoinedwiththeMoabitesinfightinganddefeatingtheIsraelites.Thelatter
served,i.e.paidtributeto,Eglonforeighteenyears.TowardstheendofthisperiodEhudassassinatedEglon,andbroughttoanendtheMoabite
ascendencyoverIsrael(Jg3:12ff.).
W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
EGLON.AtownnearLachish,mentionedonlyinconnexionwiththecampaignofJoshua.Itsking,Debir,joinedthecoalitionagainstthe
Gibeonites(Jos10:3),andafterthereductionofLachishJoshuacapturedanddestroyedit(10:34f.).ThesiteisprobablyTellNejileh,nearTellel
Hesy(Lachish)theneighbouringKhurbehAjlanbetterpreservesthename,butthesiteisofnogreatantiquity.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
EGYPT.HabitableandcultivableEgyptconsistspracticallyofthebroadfanshapedDeltaopeningontotheMediterranean,andthenarrow
valleyoftheNileborderedbydesertsasfarastheFirstCataract(beyondwhichisNubia,i.e.Ethiopia),withafewoaseswestwardofthevalley.
AmongstthelattermaybecountedtheFayyum,which,however,isseparatedfromtheriveronlybyanarrowridge,andisconnectedtherewithbya
canalornaturalchannelconveyingthewatersoftherivertotheoasis.TheGreeknameAigyptosmayperhapsbeconnectedwithHakeptah,aname
invogueduringtheNewKingdomforMemphis,thenortherncapital.EgyptwasdividedancientlyintoUpperandLower,thelattercomprisingthe
DeltaandaportionofthevalleyreachingaboveMemphis,whileUpperEgypt(thenorthernportionofwhichisoftenspokenofasMiddleEgypt)
terminatedattheFirstCataract(Aswan).Eachofthesemaindivisionswassubdividedintonomes,orcounties,varyingtosomeextentatdifferent
times,22beingastandardnumberfortheUpperCountryand20fortheLower.Eachnomehaditscapitalcitythegodofwhichwasimportant
throughoutthenomeandwasgenerallygovernedbyanomarch.ThealluviallandofEgyptisveryfertileandeasytocultivate.Itsfertilityis
independentofrainfall,thatbeingquiteinsignificantexceptalongtheMediterraneancoastitdependsontheannualriseoftheNile,which
commencesinJuneandcontinuestillOctober.Iftheriseisadequate,itsecuresthemaincropsthroughoutthecountry.Inancienttimestheremay
havebeenextensivegrovesofacaciatreesonthebordersofthealluviumkeptmoistbysoakagefromtheNilebutatmostseasonsoftheyearthere
waspracticallynonaturalpastureorotherspontaneousgrowthexceptinmarshydistricts.

InthisbriefsketchitisimpossibletobestowmorethanaglanceuponthevariousaspectsofEgyptiancivilization.TheancientEgyptianswere
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InthisbriefsketchitisimpossibletobestowmorethanaglanceuponthevariousaspectsofEgyptiancivilization.TheancientEgyptianswere
essentiallynotnegroes,thoughsomeaffirmthattheirskullsrevealanegroadmixture.TheirlanguageshowsaremoteaffinitywiththeSemitic
groupinstructure,butverylittleinvocabularythewritingformonumentalanddecorativepurposeswasinpictorialhieroglyphicsigns,modified
forordinarypurposesintocursivehieraticandinlatetimesfurthertodemotic:thelastformpreservesnotracesofthepictorialorigins
recognizablebyanyonebutastudent.TheEgyptian,liketheoldHebrewwriting,cannotrecordvowels,butonlytheconsonantalskeletonsof
words.
TheEgyptianartistathisbestcouldrisetogreatbeautyandsublimity,butthebulkofhisworkisdeadwithconventionality,andhenever
attainedtotheideaofperspectiveindrawing.TheEgyptianengineerscouldaccuratelyplacethelargestmonoliths,without,however,learningany
suchmechanicalcontrivancesasthepulleyorthescrew.ThewisdomoftheEgyptianswasneitherfaradvancednorprofound,thoughmanyideas
werefamiliartothemthathadneverenteredtheheadsofthenomadsandinferiorracesaboutthem.Theirmathematicsandastronomywereofthe
simplestkindyettheEgyptiancalendarwasinfinitelysuperiortoallitscontemporaries,andisscarcelysurpassedbyourown.Thespecial
importanceattachedbytheEgyptianstothedisposalandfurnishingofthebodyafterdeathmayhavebeeninspiredbythepreservativeclimate.
Fromanearlytimetheelaborationofdoctrinesregardingtheafterlifewenton,involvingendlesscontradictions.Wemaywelladmiretheearly
connexionofreligionwithmorality,shownespeciallyintheNegativeConfessionandthejudgmentsceneoftheweighingofthesoulbefore
Osiris,datingnotlaterthanthe18thDynastyyetinpracticetheEgyptianreligion,sofaraswecanjudge,wasmainlyacompellingofthegodsby
magicformul.Thepriesthoodwaswealthyandpowerful,andthepeopledevout.Theworshipofanimalswasprobablyrestrictedtoafewsacred
individualsinearlyEgypt,butadegreeofsanctitywasafterwardsextendedtothewholeofaspecies,andtoalmosteveryspecies.
1.TheHistoryofEgyptwasdividedbyManetho(whowroteforPtolemyI.orII.)into31dynastiesfromMenestoAlexander.Thechronology
isveryuncertainfortheearlytimes:mostauthoritiesinGermanyplacethe1stDyn.aboutB.C.3300,andthe12thDyn.atB.C.20001800.These
dates,whichdependlargelyontheinterpretationofrecordsofastronomicalphenomena,mayperhapsbetakenastheminimum.Theallowanceof
time(200years)forthedarkperiodbetweenthe12thandthe18thDyns.seemsinsufficient:somewouldplacethe12thDyn.atB.C.2500
2300,orevenawholeSothicperiodof1460yearsearlierthantheminimumandthe1stDynastywouldthenbepushedbackatleastinequal
measure.Fromthe18thDyn.onwardsthereiscloseagreement.
Thehistoricperiodmusthavebeenprecededbyalongprehistoricage,evidencedinUpperEgyptbyextensivecemeteriesofgravescontaining
finepottery,instrumentsinflintexquisitelyworked,andinboneandcopper,andshapelyvesselsinhardstone.Traditionpointstoseparate
kingdomsofUpperandLowerEgypttowardsthecloseofthisperiod.Menes,thefounderofthe1stDyn.,unitedthetwolands.Hecameprobably
fromThis,nearAbydos,whereroyaltombsofthefirstthreeDyns.havebeenfoundbuthebuiltMemphisashiscapitalnearthedividingline
betweenthetwohalvesofhiskingdom.Theearliestpyramiddatesfromtheendofthe3rddynasty.ThestupendousPyramidsatGizehareof
Cheops,Chephren,andMycerinusofthe4thDyn.,fromwhichtimewehavealsoverybeautifulstatuesinwood,limestone,anddiorite.Inthe5th
Dyn.thereliefsculptureontombsreacheditshighestexcellence.The6thDyn.isnotableforlonginscriptions,bothreligioustextsinthepyramids
andbiographicalinscriptionsinthelessertombs.ThefirsteightDyns.,ofwhichthe7thand8thareutterlyobscure,constitutetheOldKingdom.
AfterthefirsttwoDyns.,bestrepresentedatAbydos,itsmonumentsareconcentratedatMemphis,butimportantrecordsofthe6thDyn.arewidely
spreadasfarsouthastheFirstCataract,parallelwiththegrowingpowerandcultureofthenomarchs.Expeditionsweremadeevenunderthe1st
Dyn.tothecopperandturquoiseminesinthepeninsulaofSinai,andcedarwoodwasprobablythenalreadyobtainedfromLebanonbysea.Under
the6thDyn.NubiafurnishedtroopstotheEgyptianarmiesfromthedistantsouthasfarperhapsasKhartum.Butattheendofittherewasa
collapse,probablythroughinsufficientcontrolofthelocalprincesofthattimebythenomarch.
Inthenextperiod,theMiddleKingdom(Dyns.917),weseetheriseofThebesbutthe9thand10thDyns.werefromHeracleopolis,partly
contemporarywiththe11thDyn.,whicheventuallysuppressedtherivalhouse.Themonumentsofthe11th
Dyn.arealmostconfinedtotheneighbourhoodofThebes.UndertheAmenemhsandSenwosrisofthe12thDyn.,Egyptwasasgreatasitwasin
the4thDyn.,butitspowerwasnotconcentratedasthen.ThebreakupoftheoldKingdomhadgivenanopportunitytoanumberofpowerful
familiestogrowupandestablishthemselvesinlocalprincedoms:thefamilythattriumphedovertherestbyarmsordiplomacycouldcontrolbut
couldnotignorethem,andfeudalismwastheresult,eachgreatprincehavingacourtandanarmyresemblingthoseoftheking,butonasmaller
scale.ThemostnotableachievementoftheseDyns.wastheregulationofthelakeofMrisbyAmenemhIII.,withmuchotherimportantworkfor
irrigationandimprovementofagriculture.Literaturealsoflourishedatthisperiod.ThetraditionalexploitsoftheworldconquerorSesostrisseemto
havebeendevelopedinlatetimesoutofthepettyexpeditionsofSenwosriIII.intoNubia,Libya,andPalestine.The13thand14thDyns.are
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havebeendevelopedinlatetimesoutofthepettyexpeditionsofSenwosriIII.intoNubia,Libya,andPalestine.The13thand14thDyns.are
representedbyacrowdof150royalnames:theyareveryobscure,andsomescholarswouldmakethemcontemporarywitheachotherandwiththe
following.The15thand16thDyns.wereofthelittleknownHyksosorShepherdkings,apparentlyinvadersfromtheEast,whoforatimeruled
allEgypt(c.B.C.1650).Exceptingscarabsengravedwiththenamesofthekings,monumentsoftheHyksosareextremelyrare.Theirnamesbetray
aSemiticlanguage:theywereprobablybarbarian,butintheendtookonthecultureofEgypt,anditisastrangefactthatinscribedrelicsofoneof
them,Khyan,havebeenfoundinplacesasfarapartasatCnossusinCreteandBaghdadnootherEgyptianking,notevenThetmosiIII.,hasquite
sowidearangeasthatmysteriousHyksos.Theforeignrulersaresaidtohaveoppressedthenativesandtohaveforbiddentheworshipofthe
Egyptiandeities.TheprincesofThebes,becomingmoreorlessindependent,formedthe17thDyn.,andsucceededinoustingthehatedHyksos,
nowprobablydiminishedinnumbersandweakenedbyluxury,fromUpperEgypt.Thefirstkingofthe18thDyn.,Ahmosi,drovethemacrossthe
N.E.frontierandpursuedthemintoPalestine(c.B.C.1580).The18thDyn.ushersinthemostgloriousperiodinEgyptianhistory,theNew
Kingdom,or,asithasbeencalledonaccountofitsfarreachingsway,theEmpire,lastingtotheendofthe20thDynasty.Theprolongedeffortto
castouttheHyksoshadweldedtogetheranationinarmsundertheleadershipoftheThebankings,leavingnotraceoftheoldfeudalismthehatred
oftheoppressorpursuedthepestfarintoSyriainsuccessivecampaigns,untilThetmosiI.,thesecondsuccessorofAhmosi,reachedthe
Euphrates.ThetmosiII.andaqueen,Hatshepsut(c.1500),ruledforatimewithlessvigoroushands,andthelattercultivatedonlytheartsofpeace.
MeanwhiletheprincesofSyriastrengthenedthemselvesandunitedtoofferaformidableoppositiontoThetmosiIII.whenheendeavouredto
recoverthelostground.ThisPharaoh,however,wasagreatstrategist,aswellasavaliantsoldier:astheresultofmanyannualcampaigns,henot
onlyplacedhistabletonthebankoftheEuphrates,bythesideofthatofThetmosiI.,butalsoconsolidatedtheruleofEgyptoverthewholeofSyria
andPhnicia.ThewealthoftheconqueredcountriespouredintoEgypt,andthetempleoftheThebanAmmon,thegodunderwhosebannerthe
armiesofthePharaohsoftwodynastieshadwontheirvictories,wasevergrowinginwealthofslaves,lands,andspoil.AmenhotpIII.enjoyedthe
fruitsofhispredecessorsconquests,andwasamightybuilder.HisarethecolossiatThebesnamedMemnonbytheGreeks.Theempirehadthen
reacheditszenith.UnderAmenhotpIV.(c.1370),insomewaysthemoststrikingfigureinEgyptianhistory[thelatestdiscoveriestendtoshowthat
thekingwasnotmorethan14yearsoldwhenthegreatinnovationtookplace.Hemaythushavebeenratheratoolinthehandsofareformer],it
rapidlydeclined:theHittiteswerepressingintoSyriafromthenorth,andallthewhilethePharaohwasadreamerabsorbedinestablishinga
monotheisticworshipofAton(thesun)againstthepolytheismofEgypt,andmoreespeciallyagainsttheThebanandnationalworshipofAmmon.
HechangedhisownnametoAkhenaton,builtanewcapital,theHorizonofAton,inplaceofThebes,anderasedthenameandfigureofAmmon
wherevertheywereseen.Art,too,foundinhimalavishpatron,andstruckoutnewtypes,oftenbizarreratherthanbeautiful.Butfortheempire
Pharaohhadnothoughtorleisure.ThecuneiformlettersfoundintheruinsofhisnewfangledcapitalatelAmarnashowushisdistractedagentsand
vassalsinSyriaappealingtohiminvainforsupportagainsttheintriguesandonslaughtsofrebelsandInvaders.HisfatherAmenhotpIII.had
carriedonanactivecorrespondencewiththedistantkingsofBabylonia,Assyria,andMitanniinMesopotamiabutafterafewyearsAkhenaton
musthavelostallinfluencewiththem.ShortlyafterAkhenatonsdeaththeneworderofthings,forwhichhehadstrivensolongandsacrificedso
much,wasabolished,itstriumphhavinglastedforbut10or15years.Ammonworshipwasthenrestored,andretaliatedonthenameandfigureof
theheretickingandofhisgod.
Althoughthe18thDyn.wassopowerfulandactive,andhadbuilttemplesinNubiaaswellasinSyria,theDeltawasneglected.Onlyonthe
roadtoAsia,atHeliopolisandBubastis,haverelicsbeenfoundofthesekings.UntilAkhenatonsheresy,theirreligiouszealwasdevotedto
honouringAmmon.The19thDyn.,ontheotherhand,wasasactiveintheDeltaasinotherpartsofEgypt,andalthoughAmmonremainedthe
principalgodoftheState,PtahofMemphisandRthesungodofHeliopolisweregivenplacesofhonourathisside.Thereisafamousseriesof
reliefsatKarnakoftheSyrianwarofSetiI.(c.1300)buthissonRamessesII.(c.12901220)wasthegreatestfigureintheDynasty:hewasnot
indeedabletodrivebacktheHittites,buthefoughtsovalorouslyinSyriathattheycouldmakenoadvancesouthward.Theywerecompelledto
makeatreatywithPharaohandleavehimmasterofSyriaasfarasKadeshontheOrontes.RamessesII.wasthegreatestbuilderofallthePharaohs,
coveringthelandwithtemplesandmonumentsofstone,theinscriptionsandscenesupontheminmanycasesextollinghisexploitagainstthe
HittitesatthebattleofKadesh,whenhispersonalprowesssavedtheEgyptiancampandarmyfromoverwhelmingdisaster.Towardstheendofhis
longreignof67yearsdisordersmultiplied,andhissonandsuccessorMineptahhadtofaceencroachmentsoftheLibyansonhisownsoilandrevolt
inhisfrontierpossessionsinPalestine.Mineptah,too,wasold,butbythefifthyearofhisreignhewasabletoboastofpeaceandsecurityrestored
tohiscountry.The19thDyn.ended,however,inutterconfusion,aSyrianfinallyusurpingthethrone.Inthe20thDyn.theassaultsonEgyptwere
renewedwithgreaterviolencethaneverbyLibyansfromthewestandbysearoversfromtheislandsandcoastsoftheeasternMediterranean.But 11/85
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renewedwithgreaterviolencethaneverbyLibyansfromthewestandbysearoversfromtheislandsandcoastsoftheeasternMediterranean.But
SetnekhtandhissonandsuccessorRamessesIII.(c.12001165)wereequaltotheoccasion.Thelatterwasvictoriouseverywhere,onseaandon
land,andagreatincursionfromthenorth,aftermaimingtheHittitepower,washurledbackbytheEgyptianking,whothenestablishedhisrulein
SyriaandPhniciaoverawiderareathanhiscelebratednamesakehadcontrolled.RamessesXII.wasfollowedbysonsandothersofhisownname
downtoRamessesXII.,butallwithingloriousreigns.Underthemtheempireflickeredout,fromsheerfeeblenessandinternaldecay.
Egyptnow(c.1100)entersuponanewperiodofhistory,thatoftheDeltaic
Dynasties.Thebeswasnolongerthemetropolis.Thegrowthofcommerceinthe
Levanttransferredthecentreofgravitynorthward.AfterthefalloftheNew
Kingdom,allthenativedynastiesoriginatedinvariouscitiesofLower,withperhapsMiddle,Egypt.ThelaterRamessideshaddependedfortheir
fightingmenonLibyanmercenaries,andthetendencyoftheLibyanstosettleontherichlandsofEgyptwasthushastenedandencouraged.The
militarychiefsestablishedtheirfamiliesinthelargertowns,andspeedilybecamewealthyaswellaspowerfulitwasfromsuchfamiliesofLibyan
originthatthelaternativedynastiesarose.Dyn.21wasfromTanis(Zoan)parallelwithandapparentlysubjecttoitwasadynastyofpriestkings
atThebes.ThepitifulreportofacertainUnamun,sentfromThebestoobtainwoodfromLebanon,showshowcompletelyEgyptsinfluencein
SyriaandtheLevanthadpassedawayatthebeginningofthisdynasty.The22ndDyn.(c.950750)aroseinBubastis,orperhapsatHeracleopolis
inMiddleEgypt.Itsfounder,SheshonkI.,theBiblicalShishak,wasenergeticandoverranPalestine,buthissuccessorsquicklydegenerated.The
23rdDyn.,saidtobeTanite,wasperhapsalsoBubastite.Therewerenowagainalltheelementsoffeudalisminthecountryexceptthecentral
control,andEgyptthuslayaneasypreytoaresoluteinvader.Wefindattheendofthe23rdEgyptianDyn.Pankhi,kingofEthiopia,alreadyinfull
possessionoftheThebaid(c.730).Tefnakht,princeofSais,wasthenendeavouringtoestablishhisswayovertheotherpettyprincesoftheDelta
andMiddleEgypt.Pankhiacceptedtheimpliedchallenge,overthrewTefnakht,andcompelledhimtodohomage.TefnakhtssonBocchorisalone
formsthe24thDynasty.HewassweptawaybyanotherinvasionledbyShabako(c.715),whoheadstheEthiopianor25thDynasty.Shabakowas
followedbyhissonShabitkuandbyTahrak.Thekingsofthisdynasty,unitingtheforcesofEgyptandEthiopia,endeavouredtoextendtheir
influenceoverSyriainoppositiontotheAssyrians.Tahrak(Tirhakah)wasparticularlyactiveinthisendeavour,butassoonasEsarhaddonwasfree
toinvadeEgypttheAssyriankinghadnodifficultyintakingMemphis,capturingmostoftheroyalfamily,anddrivingTahraksouthward(c.670).
ThenativeprinceswerenodoubthostileathearttotheEthiopiandomination:onhisdeparture,Esarhaddonleftthese,tothenumberof20,with
Assyriangarrisons,inchargeofdifferentpartsofthecountryanAssyriangovernor,however,wasappointedtoPelusium,whichwasthekeyof
Egypt.NonethelesstheEthiopianreturnedassoonastheAssyrianhosthadwithdrawn,andannihilatedthearmyofoccupation.Esarhaddon
thereuponpreparedasecondexpedition,butdiedontheway.Ashurbanipalsucceeding,reinstatedthegovernors,andhisarmyreachedThebes.On
hiswithdrawaltherewastroubleagain.TheAssyriangovernorofPelusiumwasaccusedoftreacherywithNiku(Neko),princeof
SaisandMemphis,andPekrrofPisapt(Goshen),andtheircorrespondencewithTahrakwasintercepted.Theywereallbroughtinchainsto
Nineveh,butNikuwassentbacktoEgyptwithhonour,andhissonwasappointedgovernorofAthribis.SoonafterthisfailureTahrakdied:his
nephewTandamanerecoveredMemphis,butwasspeedilyexpelledbyAshurbanipal,whoadvanceduptherivertoThebesandplunderedit.
MeanwhilethefamilyofNekoatSaiswassecuringitspositionintheDelta,takingadvantageoftheprotectionaffordedbytheAssyriansandthe
weakeningofthe
Ethiopianpower.Nekohimselfwaskilled,perhapsbyTandamane,buthissonPsammetichustookhisplace,foundingthe26thDynasty.Counting
hisreignfromthedeathofTahrak(c.664),PsammetichussoonruledbothUpperandLowerEgypt,whileintheabsenceoffreshexpeditionsall
traceofthebriefAssyriandominationdisappeared.The26thDyn.marksagreatrevivalEgyptquicklyregaineditsprosperityaftertheterrible
ravagesofcivilwarsandEthiopianandAssyrianinvasions.PsammetichusI.,inhislongreignof54years,reorganizedthecountry,safeguardedit
againstattackfromEthiopia,andcarriedhisarmsintoS.W.Palestine.HissonNeko,profitingbythelongweaknessofAssyria,sweptthroughSyria
asfarasCarchemishontheEuphrates,andputthelandtotribute,untiltheBabylonianarmycommandedbyNebuchadrezzarhurledhimback(B.C.
605).Hissuccessors,PsammetichusII.andApries(Hophra),attemptedtoregaininfluenceinSyria,butwithoutsuccess.AprieswithhisGreek
mercenariesbecameunpopularwiththenativesoldiery,andhewasdethronedbyAhmasi(Amasis).Thisking,althoughhemadeallianceswith
CrsusofLydia,PolycratesofSamos,andBattusofCyreneduringareignof46years,devotedhimselftopromotingtheinternalprosperityof
Egypt.Itwasagoldenagewhileitlasted,butitdidnotpreventthenewPersianmastersoftheEastfrompreparingtoaddEgypttotheirdominions.
Cyruslackedopportunity,butCambyseseasilyaccomplishedtheconquestofEgyptinB.C.527,sixmonthsafterthedeathofAmasis.
ThePersianDynastyiscountedasthe27th.ThememoryofitsfounderwashatefultotheEgyptiansandtheGreeksalikeprobablythestoriesof
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ThePersianDynastyiscountedasthe27th.ThememoryofitsfounderwashatefultotheEgyptiansandtheGreeksalikeprobablythestoriesof
hismadcruelty,thoughexaggerated,haveasolidbasis.Darius,ontheotherhand(521486),wasagoodandconsiderateruler,underwhomEgypt
prosperedagainyetafterthebattleofMarathonitrevolted.Xerxes,whoquelledtherevolt,andArtaxerxeswerebothdetested.InarostheLibyan
headedanotherrebellion,whichwasbackedbyanAthenianarmyandfleetbutaftersomebrilliantsuccesseshisattemptwascrushed.Itwasnot
tillaboutB.C.405thatEgyptrevoltedsuccessfullythereafter,inspiteofseveralattemptstobringitagainunderthePersianyoke,itcontinued
independentforsome60years,throughDyns.2830.Atlength,in345,Ochusreconqueredtheprovince,anditremainedsubjecttoPersiauntil
AlexandertheGreatentereditalmostwithoutbloodshedin332afterthebattleofIssus.
ThroughouttheHellenistic(PtolemaicandRoman)periodthecapitalofEgyptwasAlexandria,theintellectualheadoftheworld.Underthe
Ptolemys,Egyptonthewholeprosperedfortwocenturies,thoughoftentornbywaranddissension.[InthereignofPhilometor(c.B.C.170)a
templewasbuiltbythehighpriestOniasfortheJewsinEgyptafterthemodeloftheTempleatJerusalem(Josephus,BJVII.x.3).Theruinshave
beenrecognizedbyFlindersPetrieatTellelYahudieh.]FromB.C.70thereisaconspicuousabsenceofnativedocuments,untilAugustusinB.C.
30inauguratedtheRomanrule.Egyptgraduallyrecoveredunderitsnewmasters,andinthesecondcent.oftheirrulewasexceedinglyprosperous
asarichandwellmanagedcornfieldforthefreesupplyofRome.
2.EgyptintheBibleisEgyptundertheDeltaicDynasties,or,atearliest,ofthe
NewKingdom.Thisappliesnotonlytotheprofessedlylatereferencesin1and2
Kings,butalsothroughout.AbrahamandJosephmaybelongchronologicallytotheMiddleKingdom,buttheEgyptiannamesinthestoryofJoseph
aresuchaswereprevalentonlyinthetimeoftheDeltaicDynasties.Therewerewidedifferencesinmannersandcustomsandintheconditionof
thecountryandpeopleatdifferentperiodsofthehistoryofEgypt.IntheBiblicalaccounts,unfortunately,therearenotmanycriteriaforaclose
fixingofthedatesofcomposition.ItmayberemarkedthatthereweresettlementsofJewsinPathros(UpperEgypt)asearlyasthedaysof
Jeremiah,andpapyriindicatetheexistenceofanimportantJewishcolonyatSyeneandElephantine,ontheS.borderofEgypt,atanequallyearly
date.TheOTwritersnaturallyshowthemselvesmuchbetteracquaintedwiththeeasternDelta,andespeciallythetownsontheroadtoMemphis,
thanwithanyotherpartofEgypt.Forinstance,Sais,theroyalcityofthe26thDyn.ontheW.sideoftheDelta,isnotoncementioned,andthe
situationofThebes(NoAmon)isquitemisunderstoodbyNahum.
OflocalitiesinUpperEgyptonlySyeneandThebes(No)arementionedinMiddle
Egypt,HaneswhileontheeasternborderandtheroutetoMemphis(Noph)are
Shihor,Shur,Sin,Migdol,Tahpanhes,Pibeseth,Onandbythesouthernroute,Goshen,Pithom,Succoth,Rameses,besideslesserplacesinthe
Exodus.Zoanwasnotontheborderroutes,butwasitselfanimportantcentreintheEastoftheDelta,asbeingaroyalcity.Therearebutfew
instancesinwhichtheborrowingofEgyptiancustomsorevenwordsbytheHebrewscanbetracedbutthelatterwerenonethelesswell
acquaintedwithEgyptianways.TheEgyptianmourningof70daysforJacobischaracteristic(Gn50:3),soalsomaybethebakershabitof
carryingonthehead(40:16,17).TheassertionthattoeatbreadwiththeHebrewswasanabominationtotheEgyptians(43:32)hasnotyetbeen
satisfactorilyexplained.TheHebrews,nodoubt,liketheGreeksinHerodotus,slewandateanimals,e.g.thesheepandthecow,whichEgyptiansin
thelaterdayswereforbiddentoslaybytheirreligiousscruples.CircumcisionwasfrequentinEgypt,buthowfaritwasageneralcustom(cf.Jos
5:9)isnotclear.PropheciesofaMessianictypewerecurrentinEgypt,andonecanbetracedbacktoaboutthetimeoftheHyksosdomination.It
hasbeensuggestedthatinthisandinthecustomofcircumcisionaretobeseenthemostnotableinfluencesofEgyptonthepeopleofIsrael.
3.Religion.ThepietyoftheEgyptianswasthecharacteristicthatstrucktheGreeksmostforcibly,andtheirstupendousmonumentsandthe
bulkoftheliteraturethathascomedowntousareeitherreligiousorfunerary.Anhistoricalexaminationofallthephenomenawouldshowthat
pietywasinherentinthenatureofthepeople,andthattheirreligiousobservancesgrewandmultipliedwiththeages,untiltheMoslemconquest.
TheattemptwillnowbemadetosketchsomeoutlinesoftheEgyptianreligionanditspractices,astheyappearespeciallyinthelastmillennium
B.C.ThepietyoftheEgyptiansthenmanifesteditselfespeciallyintheextraordinarycarebestowedonthedead,andalsointhenumberofobjects,
whetherlivingorinanimate,thatwerelookeduponasdivine.
Thepriests(Egyp.thepureonesorthedivinefathers)wereaspecialclasswithsemihereditaryprivilegesandduties.Manyofthemwere
pluralists.Theyreceivedstipendsinkindfromthetemplestowhichtheywereattached,andineachtempleweredividedintofourphylortribes,
whichservedinsuccessionforalunarmonthatatime.ThechiefofficeswerefilledbyselectpriestsentitledprophetsbytheGreeks(Egyp.
servantsofthegodPotiphera(Gn41:45)wasprophet[ofR]inOn),ofwhichtherewastheoreticallyoneforeachgodinatemple.Belowthe
priestsinthetemplewerethepastophori(Egyp.openers,i.e.ofshrines),andofthesamerankasthesewerethechoachytes(Egyp.water
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priestsinthetemplewerethepastophori(Egyp.openers,i.e.ofshrines),andofthesamerankasthesewerethechoachytes(Egyp.water
pourers)inthenecropolis.Thesetworanksprobablymadeofferingsofincenseandlibationsbeforethefigureofthegodorofthedeceased.The
priestlyclasswereveryattentivetocleanliness,wearingwhitelinenraiment,shavingtheirheads,andwashingfrequently.Theyabstainedespecially
fromfishandbeans,andwereprobablyallcircumcised.Therevenuesofthetemplescamefromendowmentsofland,fromofferingsandfromfees.
Thedailyritualofofferingtothedeitywasstrictlyregulated,formula)withmagicpowerbeingaddressedtotheshrine,itsdoor,itslock,etc.,asit
wasbeingopened,aswellastothedeitywithinhymnsweresungandsistrumsrattled,animalsslaughtered,andthealtarpiledwithofferings.On
festaloccasionsthegodwouldbecarriedaboutinprocession,sometimestovisitaneighbouringdeity.Burntofferings,beyondtheburningof
incense,wereunknowninearlytimes,butprobablybecameusualaftertheNew
Kingdom.Offeringsofallkindsweretheperquisiteofthepriestswhenthegod(imageoranimal)hadbadhisenjoymentofthem.Oracleswere
giveninthetemples,notbyaninspiredpriest,butbynodsorothersignsmadebythegodsometimes,forinstance,thedecisionofagodwas
soughtinalegalmatterbylayingbeforehimapapyrusinwhichthecasewasstated.Inothercasestheenquirersleptinthetemple,andthe
revelationcameinadream.TheoraclesoftheThebanAmmonand(later)ofButowerepoliticalforces:thatofAmmonintheOasisofSiwaplayed
apartinGreekhistory.ThemoststrikinghymnsdatefromtheNewKingdom,andareaddressedespeciallytothesolarformofAmmon(ortothe
AtonduringAkhenatonsheresy)thefervouroftheworshipperrendersthemhenothelstic,pantheistic,oreventheisticintone.Prayersalsooccur
butthetendencywasoverwhelminglygreatertomagic,compellingtheactionofthegods,orinotherwaysproducingthedesiredeffect.
Preservativeamulets,overwhichtheformulhadbeenspokenoronwhichsuchwereengraved,aboundonthemummiesofthelaterdynasties,and
nodoubtwerewornbylivingpersons.TheendlesstextsinscribedinthepyramidsoftheendoftheOldKingdom,oncoffinsoftheMiddle
Kingdom,andintheBookoftheDead,arealmostwhollymagicalformulforthepreservationofthematerialmummy,forthedivinizationofthe
deceased,fortakinghimsafelythroughtheperilsoftheunderworld,andgivinghimallthathewouldwishtoenjoyinthefuturelife.Apapyrusis
knownofspellsfortheuseofamothernursingherchildspellsaccompaniedtheemploymentofdrugsinmedicineandtoinjureanenemyimages
weremadeinwaxandtransformedbyspellsintopersecutingdemons.
Egyptiantheologywasverycomplexandselfcontradictorysoalsowereitsviewsaboutthelifeafterdeath.Theseweretheresultofthe
amalgamationofdoctrinesoriginallybelongingtodifferentlocalitiesthepriestsandpeoplewerealwayswillingtoacceptorabsorbnewideas
withoutdisplacingtheold,andtodeveloptheoldonesbyimaginationindifferentdirections.Nooneattemptedtoreachauniformsystem,or,ifany
haddoneso,nonewouldabidelongbyanysystem.Deathevidentlyseparatedtheelementsofwhichthelivingmanwascomposedthecorpse
mightberejoinedfromtimetotimebythehawkwingedsoul,whileatothertimesthelatterwouldbeintheheavensassociatingwithgods.Tothe
ka(lifeoractivityorgenius)offeringsweremadeatthetombwehearalsooftheshadeandpower.ThedeadmanwasjudgedbeforeOsiris,the
kingofthedead,andifcondemned,wasdevouredbyademon,butifjustified,fieldsofmorethanearthlyfruitfulnesswereawardedtohiminthe
underworldorhewasreceivedintothebarkofthesuntotraversetheheavensgloriouslyor,accordingtoanotherview,hepassedagloomyand
feebleexistenceintheshadowsoftheunderworld,cheeredonlyforanhourasthesuntravellednightlybetweentwoofthehourgatesofthe
infernalregions.NohintofthePythagoreandoctrineofmetempsychosis,attributedbyHerodotustotheEgyptians,hasyetbeenfoundintheir
writingsbutspellsweregiventothedeadmanbywhichhecouldvoluntarilyassumetheformofalotus,ofanibisoraheronoraserpent,orofthe
godPtah,oranythingthathewished.Suppliesforthedeadweredepositedwithhiminthegrave,orsecuredtohimbymagicformulofferings
mightbebroughtbyhisfamilyonappropriateoccasions,ormightbemademorepermanentbyendowmentbutsuchwouldnotbekeptupfor
manygenerations.
Astothedeities,thekingwasentitledthegoodgod,wasamediatorbetweengodandmanasthereligiousheadoftheStateandchiefofthe
priesthood,andhisimagemighthetreatedasdivineevenduringhislifetime.AdeadmandulyburiedwasdivineandidentifiedwithOsiris,butin
fewcasesdidmenpreservingtheirpersonalitybecomeacknowledgedgodssuchwasthecase,however,conspicuouslywithtwogreatscribesand
learnedmenImhotep,architectofkingZoserofthe3rddynasty,andAmenhotp,sonofHap,ofthetimeofAmenhotpIII.(18thdynasty),who
eventuallybecamedivinepatronsofscienceandwriting:theformerwasconsideredtobeasonofPtah,thegodofMemphis,andwasthe
equivalentofAsklepiosasgodofhealing.Personsdrownedordevouredbycrocodileswereaccountedspeciallydivine,andOsirisfromcertain
incidentsinhismythwassometimesnamedtheDrowned.Thedivinitiesproperwere(1)godsofportionsoftheuniverse:thesungodRwasthe
mostimportantoftheseothersweretheearthgodGeb,theskygodShoon,andthegoddessNut,withstellardeities,etc.(2)Godsofparticular
qualitiesorfunctions:asThoththegodofwisdom,Meigoddessofjusticeandtruth,Montthegodofwar,Ptahtheartificergod.(3)Godsof
particularlocalities:theseincludedmanyofclasses(1)and(2).Someofthemhadawidevoguefrompolitical,mythological,orotherreasons:thus,
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particularlocalities:theseincludedmanyofclasses(1)and(2).Someofthemhadawidevoguefrompolitical,mythological,orotherreasons:thus,
throughtheriseofThebes,Ammon,itslocalgod,becametheKingoftheGods,andthegodofthewholeStateintheNewEmpireandOsiris,god
ofBusirisintheDelta,becametheuniversalKingoftheDead,probablybecausehismyth,showninPassionPlaysatfestivals,madeastrong
appealtohumanity.Aroundtheprincipalgodofatempleweregroupedanumberofotherdeities,subordinatetohimthereandforminghiscourt,
althoughtheymightseverallybehissuperiorsinotherlocalitiesninewasthetypicalnumberinthedivinecourt,andthusthecotemplardeities
werecalledtheEnneadoftheprincipalgod,thoughthenumbervariedconsiderably.Eachprincipalgodorgoddess,too,hadaconsortandtheir
child,formingatriadthesetriadshadbeengraduallydevelopedbyanalogyfromonegrouptoanother,asfromthatofOsiris,Isis,andHorus
describedbelow.
Someofthedeitieswereofhumanform,asPtah,Osiris,Etom,Muth,Neith,besidesthosewhichwereofhumanorigin.Bes,thegodofjoyand
ofchildren,wasagrotesquedwarfdancer.Otherswereintheformofanimalsoranimalheadedcanine,asAnubisandOphoisfeline,asMihos
(Minsis)andthegoddessesSakhmisandBubastis.ThothwasibisheadedHorus,R,andMonthadtheheadsoffalcons.Besidesthesacredanimal
whoseheadisseenintherepresentationsofthegod,therewereotherswhichdidnotaffecthisnormalform,althoughtheywereconsideredas
incarnationsofhim.ThusthebullApiswassacredtoPtah,MnevistoEtom,BacistoMontandinadditiontotheibis,theapewas,inamore
completesensethanthese,anembodimentofThoth.Inthelateagesmostmammals,birds,reptiles,fishes,andseveralinsectswerelookeduponas
sacred,someonlyinparticularlocalities,othersuniversally,suchasthecowsacredtoHathor,Isis,etc.,andthecatsacredtoBubastisafterdeath,
thesacredanimalsweremummified,fullyorinpart,separatelyorinbatches,accordingtotheirsizeandsanctity.
R,thesungod,wastherulerofheavenandthearchetypeofthelivingkingotherrulinggods,suchasAmmon,Suchosthecrocodilegod,
Montthewargod,wereidentifiedwithR,whosenamewasthengenerallyaddedtotheirs.ThepopularOsirislegendwasthesupremefactorinthe
Egyptianreligion,however,fromthe26thDynastyandonwards.OsiriswasthebeneficentkingofEgypt,slainandcutinpiecesbyhiswicked
brotherSeth,soughtforbyhissisterwifeIsis,andrestoredbyhermagictolifeIsisborehimHorus,whoavengedhisfatherbyovercomingSeth.
ThedeadOsiriswasanemblemofthedeadkingandofthesuninthenight,Horusofthesucceedingorreigningkingandofthenextdayssun
thusthetragedyandthetriumphwereeverrenewed.Notonlydeadkings,butalsoalltheblesseddead,wereassimilatedtoOsiris,andtriumphed
throughHorusandhishelpers.WiththeOsirislegendareconnectedthebestfeaturesintheBookoftheDead,theremarkablejudgmentscene,and
thenegativeconfession,implyingthatfelicityafterdeathdependedonameritoriouslife.Seth,oncegodofseverallocalitiesandatypeofpower,as
anelementofthemyth,wasthetypeofdarknessandwickednessandinlatetimeshe,togetherwithhisanimalstheassandthehippopotamus,and
Suchosthecrocodilegod,wereexecrated,andhisworshiphardlytoleratedeveninhisowncities.PtahthegodofMemphishadanuninteresting
personalitytheinhabitantsofthatpopulouscapitalreservedtheiremotionsfortheoccasionswhenApisdiedandanewApiswasfound,
assimilatingtheformertoOsirisandprobablythelattertoHorus.
ThedeadApis,whichwasburiedwithsuchpompandexpenditure,wascalledtheOsirisApisOsirapisorSerapis.Withsomemodification,this
Serapis,wellknownandpopularamongstnativesandforeignsettlersalike,waschosenbyPtolemySotertobethepresidingdeityofhiskingdom,
fortheEgyptians,andmoreespeciallyfortheGreeksatAlexandria.HewasworshippedasaformofOsiris,aninfernalZeus,associatedwithIsis.
HisacceptancebytheGreekworld,andstillmore
enthusiasticallybytheRomansandthewesternhalfoftheRomanworld,spreadtheOsirisPassionotherwisetheIsiacmysteriesfarandwide.
ThisIsiacworshippossessedmanyfeaturesincommonwithChristianity:ontheonehand,itpreparedtheworldforthelatter,andinfluencedits
symbolswhile,ontheother,itprovedperhapsthemostpowerfulandstubbornadversaryoftheChristiandogmainitscontestwithpaganism.
F.LL.GRIFFITH.
EGYPT,RIVER(RVbrook,betterwady)OF.TheS.W.boundaryof
Palestine(Nu34:5,Is27:12etc.cf.river(nahar)ofEgypt,Gn15:18,andsimplythewady,Ezk47:19,48:28).ItistheWadyelArish,stillthe
boundaryofEgypt,inthedeserthalfwaybetweenPeusiumandGaza.Waterisalwaystobefoundbydigginginthebedofthewady,andafter
heavyrainthelatterisfilledwitharushingstream.ElArish,wherethewadyreachestheMediterranean,wasanEgyptianfrontierposttowhich
malefactorswerebanishedafterhavingtheirnosescutoffhenceitsGreeknameRhinocorura.SeealsoSHIHOR,SHUR.
F.LL.GRIFFITH.

EGYPTIAN,THE.AnunnamedleaderoftheAssassinsorSicariiforwhomClaudiusLysiastookSt.Paul(Ac21:38).Thismanisalso
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EGYPTIAN,THE.AnunnamedleaderoftheAssassinsorSicariiforwhomClaudiusLysiastookSt.Paul(Ac21:38).Thismanisalso
mentionedbyJosephusasaleaderdefeatedbyFelix,butnotasconnectedwiththeAssassins(Ant.XX.viii.6).TheEgyptianescaped,andLysias
thoughtthathehadsecuredhiminSt.Paulsperson.ThediscrepanciesbetweenJosephusandSt.Lukeheremakemutualborrowingimprobable.
SeeTHEUDAS.
A.J.MACLEAN.
EGYPTIANVERSIONS.SeeTEXTOFNT,2729.
EHI.SeeAHIRAM.
EHUD.1.ThedelivererofIsraelfromEglon,kingofMoab(Jg3:1230).ThestoryofhowEhudslewEglonbearsuponitthestampof
genuinenessaccordingtoit,EhudwasthebearerofapresentfromthechildrenofIsraeltotheirconqueror,thekingofMoab.Onbeingleftalone
withtheking,EhudplungeshisswordintothebodyofEglon,andmakesgoodhisescapeintothehillcountryofEphraim.Israelisthusdelivered
fromtheMoabitesupremacy.2.SonofBilhan,aBenjamite(1Ch7:10,cf.8:6).
W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
EKER.AJerahmeelite(1Ch2:27).
EKREBEL(Jth7:18).ApparentlythetownofAkrabeh,E.ofShechem,thecapitalofAkrabattine.
EKRON.AcityinthePhilistinePentapolis,notconqueredbyJoshua(Jos13:3),buttheoreticallyabordercityofJudah(15:11)andDan
(19:43)said,inapassagewhichisprobablyaninterpolation,tohavebeensmittenbyJudah(Jg1:18).Hitherthecapturedarkwasbroughtfrom
Ashdod(1S5:10),andonitsrestorationthePhilistinelordswhohadfollowedittoBethshemeshreturnedtoEkron(1S6:16).Ekronwasthe
bordertownofaterritorythatpassedinthedaysofSamuelfromthePhilistinestoIsrael(1S7:14),anditwasthelimitofthepursuitofthe
PhilistinesaftertheslayingofGoliathbyDavid(17:52).ItslocalnumenwasBaalzebub,whoseoracleAhaziahconsultedafterhisaccident(2K
1:2).LiketheotherPhilistinecities,itismadethesubjectofdenunciationbyJeremiah,Amos,Zephaniah,andtheanonymousprophetwhose
writingoccupiesZec911.ThiscityiscommonlyidentifiedwithAkir,avillageonthePhilistineplainbetweenGezerandthesea,wherethereis
nowaJewishcolony.Fortheidentificationthereisnobasis,exceptthecoincidenceofnametherearenoremainsofantiquitywhateveratAkir.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
EL.SeeGOD.
ELA.1.1Es9:27=Elam,Ezr10:26.2.1K4:18,fatherofSolomonscommissariatofficerinBenjamin.
ELAH.1.AdukeofEdom(Gn36:41,1Ch1:52).2.SonofBaasha,kingofIsrael.Hehadnominalpossessionofthethronetwoyearsor
fractionsofyears(1K16:814).Hegavehimselftodrunkendissipation,untilZimri,oneofhisgenerals,revoltedandkilledhim.Theusual
extirpationofthedefeateddynastyfollowed.3.FatherofHoshea(2K15:30,17:1,18:1,9).4.SecondsonofCaleb(1Ch4:15).5.ABenjamite(1
Ch9:8).
H.P.SMITH.
ELAH(terebinth).AvalleyintheShephlah,thesceneofthebattlebetweenDavidandGoliath(1S17,21:9).Itismostlikelythemodern
WadyesSunt,which,risinginthemountainsaboutJeba,about11milesdueS.W.ofJerusalem,runswestward,undervariousnames,tillitopenson
theMaritimePlainatTellesSafi.Inthemiddleofthevalleyisawatercoursewhichrunsinwinteronlythebottomisfullofsmallstonessuchas
Davidmighthaveselectedforhissling.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.

ELAM.1.AsonofShem(Gn10:22=1Ch1:17),theeponymousancestoroftheElamites(seefollowingarticle).2.AKorabite(1Ch26:3).16/85
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ELAM.1.AsonofShem(Gn10:22=1Ch1:17),theeponymousancestoroftheElamites(seefollowingarticle).2.AKorabite(1Ch26:3).
3.ABenjamite(1Ch8:24).4.Theeponymofafamilyofwhich1254returnedwithZerub.(Ezr2:7,Neh7:12,1Es5:12)and71withEzra(Ezr
8:7,1Es8:33).ItwasoneoftheBenElamthaturgedEzratotakeactionagainstmixedmarriages(Ezr10:2),andsixofthesamefamilyare
reportedtohaveputawaytheirforeignwives(Ezr10:26).Elamacc.toNeh10:14sealedthecovenant.5.IntheparallellistsEzr2:31,Neh7:34
theotherElamhasalso1254descendantswhoreturnwithZerubbabel.6.Apriestwhotookpartinthededicationofthewalls(Neh12:42).
ELAM.AnimportantcountryofWesternAsia,calledElamtubytheBabyloniansandElymaisbytheGreeks(alsoSusiana,fromShushanor
Susathecapital).ItcorrespondsnearlytothemodernChuzistan,lyingtotheeastofthelowerTigris,butincludingalsothemountainsthatskirtthe
plain.TheportionsouthofSusawasknownasAnshan(Anzan).InGn10:22(1Ch1:17)ElamiscalledasonofShem,fromthemistakenideathat
thepeoplewereoftheSemiticrace.Theybelongedtothegreatfamilyofbarbarousorsemibarbaroustribeswhichoccupiedthehighlandstothe
eastandnorthoftheSemitesbeforetheinfluxoftheAryans.
HistoricallyElamsmostimportantplaceintheBibleisfoundinGn14:1ff.,whereitismentionedasthesuzerainofBabyloniaandtherewithof
thewholewesterncountryincludingPalestine.TheperiodtherealludedtowasthatofElamsgreatestpower,alittlelaterthanB.C.2300.Formany
centuriesprevious,ElamhaduponthewholebeensubordinatetotherulingpowerofBabylonia,nomatterwhichofthegreatcitieswestofthe
Tigrishappenedtobesupreme.Notmanyyearslater,HammurabiofBabylon(perhapstheAmraphelofGn14)threwofftheyokeofElam,which
henceforthheldaninferiorplace.Warsbetweenthetwocountrieswere,however,verycommon,andElamfrequentlyhadtheadvantage.The
splendidlydefensiblepositionofthecapitalcontributedgreatlytoitsindependenceandrecuperativepower,andthusSusabecamearepositoryof
muchvaluablespoilsecuredfromtheBabyloniancities.ThisexplainshowitcameaboutthattheCodeofHammurabi,themostimportantsingle
monumentofOrientalantiquity,wasfoundintheruinsofSusa.AchangeinrelationsgraduallytookplaceafterAssyriabegantocontrolBabylonia
andthusencroachuponElam,whichwasthenceforth,asarule,inleaguewiththepatrioticBabylonians,especiallywiththeChaldansfromthe
southland.InterestingandtragicisthestoryofthecombinedeffortsoftheChaldansandElamitestorepeltheinvaders.Thelastsceneofthe
dramawasthecaptureandsackofSusa(c.B.C.645).TheconquerorAshurbanipal(Bibl.Osnappar)completedthesubjugationofElamby
deportingmanyofitsinhabitants,amongtheexilesbeingadetachmentsenttotheprovinceofSamaria(Ezr4:9).Shortlythereafter,whenAssyria
itselfdeclinedandfell,ElamwasoccupiedbytherisingAryantribes,theMedesfromthenorthandthePersiansfromthesouth.CyrusthePersian
(bornaboutB.C.590)wasthefourthhereditaryprinceofAnshan.
Elamhasasomewhatprominentplaceinthepropheticwritings,inwhichMedia+Elam=Persianempire.Seeesp.Is21:2ff.,Jer49:34ff.,and
cf.Is22:6,Jer25:25,Ezk
32:24.ParticularinterestattachedtotheparttakenbytheElamitesintheoverthrowof
Babylonia.AneffectofthisparticipationiscuriouslyshowninthefactthataftertheExile,ElamwasafairlycommonnameamongtheJews
themselves(Ezr2:7,31,Neh7:12,1Ch8:24etal.).
J.F.MCCURDY.
ELASA(1Mac9:5).ThesceneofthedefeatanddeathofJudasMaccabus.ThesitemaybeattheruinIlasa,nearBethhoron.
ELASAH(Godhathmade).1.Oneofthosewhohadmarriedaforeignwife(Ezr10:22).2.ThesonofShaphau,who,alongwithGemariah
thesonofHilkiah,carriedamessagefromkingZedekiahtoBabylon(Jer29:3).
ELATH(calledalsoEloth,thegreattrees).AnimportantEdomitetownontheN.E.armoftheRedSea,nearEziongeber.Itismentionedas
oneoftheplacespassedbytheIsraelitesduringtheirwanderings(Dt2:8).ClosetoitkingSolomonsnavywasconstructed(1K9:26).
Subsequentlythetownmusthavebeendestroyed,aswereadin2K14:22ofitsbeingbuiltbyAzariah.LateronitwasconqueredbytheEdomites
(soRVm).
W.O.E.OESTERLEY.ELBERITH.SeeBAALBERITH.
ELBETHEL.ThenamewhichJacobissaidtohavegiventothesceneofhisvisiononhiswaybackfromPaddauaram,Gn35:7(P?).
ELDAAH.AsonofMidian(Gn25:4,1Ch1:33).
ELDAD.OneoftheseventyeldersappointedtoassistMosesinthegovernmentofthepeople.OnoneoccasionheandanothernamedMedad17/85
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ELDAD.OneoftheseventyeldersappointedtoassistMosesinthegovernmentofthepeople.OnoneoccasionheandanothernamedMedad
werenotpresentwithMosesandtherestoftheeldersatthedooroftheTabernacletohearGodsmessageandreceiveHisspirit.Butthespiritof
theLordcameuponthemwheretheywere,andtheyprophesiedinthecamp.Joshuaregardedthisasanirregularity,butMosesdeclinedtointerfere
(Nu11:2629).
ELDER(inOT).TherudimentaryformofgovernmentwhichprevailedamongsttheHebrewsinprimitivetimesgrewoutoffamilylife.As
thefatherisheadofthehousehold,sothechiefsoftheprincipalfamiliesruledtheclanandthetribe,theirauthoritybeingilldefined,and,likethat
ofanArabsheik,dependingontheconsentofthegoverned.InourearliestdocumentstheeldersofIsraelarethemenofpositionandinfluence,
whorepresentthecommunityinbothreligiousandcivilaffairs(Ex3:16,18,12:11,17:5f.,18:12,19:7,Nu11:16,Dt5:23,27:1,31:28):theelders
ofEx24:1arethenoblesofv.11.JosephussumsupcorrectlywhenhemakesMosesdeclare:Aristocracyisthebestconstitution(Ant.VI.
viii.17).ThesystemexistedinotherSemiticraces(Nu22:4,Jos9:11,Ezk27:9,Ps105:22).AfterthesettlementinCanaantheeldersstill
possessedmuchweight(1S4:3,8:4,15:30,2S3:17,5:3,17:14f.,1K8:1).Andnowwefindeldersofthecitythegoverningbodyofthetown
(Ru4:2,9,1S11:3,1K21:8,11,2K10:1,5)thelittletownofSuccothboastednofewerthanseventyseven(Jg8:14).Deuteronomybringsinto
prominencetheirjudicialfunctions(Dt16:18,19:12,21:2ff.,22:15ff.,25:7ff.),whichweredoubtlessinfringeduponbythepositionofthekingas
supremejudge(1S8:20,2S15:4,1K3:9,2K15:5,Is11:5,Am2:3),butcouldnotbeabolished(1K20:7ff.,2K
10:1ff.,23:1).DuringtheExiletheeldersarethecentreofthepeopleslife(Jer29:1,Ezk8:1,14:1,20:1,Ezr5:9ff.,6:7ff.cf.Sus5),andafter
theReturntheycontinueactive(Ezr10:8,14,Ps107:32,Pr31:23,Jl1:14,2:16).ItisnotimprobablethatthelaterSanhedrinisadevelopmentof
thisinstitution.
J.TAYLOR.
ELDER(inNT).SeeBISHOPCHURCHGOVERNMENT,6(2).
ELEAD.AnEphraimite(1Ch7:21).
ELEADAH.AnEphraimite(1Ch7:20).
ELEALEH(Nu32:3,37,Is15:4,16:9,Jer48:34).AtownoftheMoabiteplateau,conqueredbyGadandReuben,andrebuiltbythelatter
tribe.ItisnowtheruinedmoundofelAl,aboutamileN.ofHeshbon.
ELEASAH.1.AJudahite(1Ch2:39,40).2.AdescendantofSaul(1Ch8:37,
9:43).
ELEAZAR(Godhathhelped).1.AsonofAaron.Itwasnaturalthatpriestlytraditionsshouldhavemuchtosayabouthim.Butinearlier
writingshisnameappearsonlytwice,bothprobablyfromE:Dt10:6(hissuccessiontothepriestlyofficeatAaronsdeath),Jos24:33(hisdeath
andburial).InPheisthethirdsonofAaronbyElisheba,hisbrothersbeingNadab,Abihu,andIthamar(Ex6:23,Nu3:2).Withthemhewas
consecratedpriest(Ex28:1),andwaschiefovertheLevites(Nu3:32).NadabandAbihuhavingdied(Lv10:1f.),hesucceededAaronaschief
priest(Nu20:2528).HetookpartinthecensusinMoab(Nu26:1,63),andafterwardsplayedaprominentpartinthehistoryofthesettlement
underJoshua(Jos14:1,17:4,19:51,21:1).HemarriedadaughterofPutiel,andsheborehimPhinehas(Ex6:25).WhentheZadokitepriests
returnedfromBabylon,theytracedtheirdescenttoAaronthroughEleazar,ignoringthehouseofEli(1Ch6:38)insomecases,however,the
claimwasmadethroughIthamar(1Ch24:5f.).2.SonofAbinadab(1S7:1).3.OneofDavidsthreeheroes(2S23:9,1Ch11:12f.).4.ALevite(1
Ch23:21,24:28).5.1Es8:43=
Eliezer,Ezr10:18.6.Apriest(Ezr8:33,Neh12:42,1Es8:63).7.1Es9:19=Eliezer,Ezr10:18.8.OnewhotookanonIsraelitewife(Ezr10:25,
1Es9:26).9.AbrotherofJudasMaccabus(1Mac2:5,6:4346,2Mac8:23).10.AmartyrunderAntiochusEpiphanes(2Mac6:1831).11.
FatherofJason(1Mac8:17).12.SirachEleazar(Sir50:27).13.AnancestorofJesus(Mt1:15).
A.H.MNEILE.

ELECTION.Theideaofelection,asexpressiveofGodsmethodofaccomplishingHispurposefortheworldinbothprovidenceandgrace,
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ELECTION.Theideaofelection,asexpressiveofGodsmethodofaccomplishingHispurposefortheworldinbothprovidenceandgrace,
though(asbefitsthecharacteroftheBibleaspeculiarlythehistoryofredemption)especiallyingrace,goestotheheartofScriptureteaching.The
wordelectionitselfoccursbutafewtimes(Ac9:15vesselofelection,Ro9:11,11:5,7,28,1Th1:4,2P1:10)
electinNTmuchoftener(seebelow)butequivalentwordsinOTandNT,as
choose,chosen,foreknow(insenseofforedesignate),etc.,considerablyextendtherangeofusage.IntheOT,aswillbeseen,thespecial
objectoftheDivineelectionisIsrael(e.g.Dt4:37,7:7etc.)butwithinIsraelarespecialelections,asofthetribeofLevi,thehouseofAaron,
Judah,Davidandhishouse,etc.while,inabroadersense,theidea,ifnottheexpression,ispresentwhereverindividualsareraisedup,or
separated,forspecialservice(thusofCyrus,Is44:28,45:16).IntheNTthetermelectisfrequentlyused,bothbyChristandbytheApostles,for
thosewhoareheirsofsalvation(e.g.Mt24:22,24,31||,Lk18:7,Ro8:33,Col3:12,2Ti2:10,Tit1:1,1P1:2),andtheChurch,asthenewIsrael,is
describedasanelectrace(1P2:9).JesusHimselfiscalled,withreferencetoIs42:1,GodschosenorelectOne(Mt12:18,Lk9:35RV,
23:35)andmentionisoncemadeofelectangels(1Ti5:21).InSt.PaulsEpistlestheideahasgreatprominence(Ro9,Eph1:4etc.).Itisnow
necessarytoinvestigatetheimplicationsofthisideamorecarefully.
Election,etymologically,isthechoiceofone,orofsome,outofmany.Intheusageweareinvestigating,electionisalways,andonly,ofGod.It
isthemethodbywhich,intheexerciseofHisholyfreedom,HecarriesoutHispurpose(thepurposeofGodaccordingtoelection,Ro9:11).The
callwhichbringstheelectiontolight,asinthecallofAbraham,Israel,believers,isintime,butthecallrestsonGodsprior,eternaldetermination
(Ro8:28,29).IsraelwaschosenofGodsfreelove(Dt7:6ff.)believersaredeclaredtobeblessedinChrist,evenashechosetheminhimthe
Oneinwhomisthegroundofallsalvationbeforethefoundationoftheworld(Eph1:4).Itisstronglyinsistedon,therefore,thatthereasonof
electionisnotanythingintheobjectitself(Ro9:11,16)thegroundoftheelectionofbelieversisnotintheirholinessorgoodworks,orevenin
fidesprvisa,butsolelyinGodsfreegraceandmercy(Eph1:14holinessaresult,notacause).Theyaremadeaheritage,havingbeen
foreordainedaccordingtothepurposeofhimwhoworkethallthingsafterthecounselofhiswill(Eph1:11)or,asinanearlierverse,accordingto
thegoodpleasureofhiswill,tothepraiseofthegloryofhisgrace(v.6).Yet,asitisaxiomaticthatthereisnounrighteousnesswithGod(Ro
9:14)thatHislovingwillembracesthewholeworld(Jn3:16,1Ti2:4)thatHecannever,ineventheslightestdegree,actpartiallyorcapriciously
(Ac10:34,2Ti2:13)andthat,assalvationinthecaseofnoneiscompulsory,butisalwaysinaccordancewiththesavedpersonsownfreechoice,
sononeperishesbutbyhisownfaultorunbeliefitisobviousthatdifficultproblemsariseonthissubjectwhichcanbesolved,sofarassolutionis
possible,onlybycloseattentiontoallScriptureindications.
1.IntheOT.Valuablehelpisafforded,first,byobservinghowthisideashapesitself,andisdeveloped,intheOT.Fromthefirst,then,we
seethatGodspurposeadvancesbyamethodofelection,butobservealsothat,whilesovereignandfree,thiselectionisneveranendinitself,but
issubordinatedasameanstoawiderend.Itisobviousalsothatitwasonlybyanelectionthatis,bybeginningwithsomeindividualorpeople,at
sometime,insomeplacethatsuchendsasGodhadinviewinHisKingdomcouldberealized.Abraham,accordingly,ischosen,andGodcalls
him,andmakesHiscovenantwithhim,andwithhisseednot,however,asaprivate,personaltransaction,butthatinhimandinhisseedall
familiesoftheearthshouldbeblessed(Gn12:2,3etc.).FurtherelectionsnarrowdownthislineofpromiseIsaac,notIshmaelJacob,notEsau
(cf.Ro9:713)tillIsraelisgrown,andpreparedforthenationalcovenantatSinai.Israel,again,ischosenfromamongthefamiliesoftheearth
(Ex19:36,Dt4:34,Am3:2)not,however,foritsownsake,butthatitmaybeameansofblessingtotheGentiles.Thisistheidealcallingof
IsraelwhichpeculiarlycomesoutinthepropheciesoftheServantofJehovah(Is4149)acallingofwhichthenationasawholesofatallyfell
short(Is42:19,20).SofarasthesepropheciesoftheServantpointtoChristtheElectOneinthesupremesense,asbothAugustineandCalvin
emphasizeHismissionalsowasoneofsalvationtotheworld.
Here,however,itwillnaturallybeaskedIstherenot,afterall,areasonfortheseandsimilarelectionsinthegreatercongruityoftheobject
withthepurposeforwhichitwasdesigned?IfGodchoseAbraham,wasitnotbecauseAbrahamwasthebestfittedamongexistingmenforsucha
vocation?WasIsaacnotbetterfittedthanIshmael,andJacobthanEsau,tobethetransmittersofthepromise?Thisleadstoaremarkwhichcarries
usmuchdeeperintothenatureofelection.WeerrgrievouslyifwethinkofGodsrelationtotheobjectsofHischoiceasthatofaworkmantoaset
oftoolsprovidedforhim,fromwhichheselectsthatmostsuitedtohisend.ItisashallowviewoftheDivineelectionwhichregardsitassimply
availingitselfofhappyvarietiesofcharacterspontaneouslypresentingthemselvesinthecourseofnaturaldevelopment.Electiongoesdeeperthan
graceevenintothesphereofnature.Itpresides,touseahappyphraseofLanges,atthemakingofitsobject(Abraham,Moses,David,Paul,
etc.),aswellasusesitwhenmade.Thequestionisnotsimplyhow,amanofthegiftsandqualificationsofAbraham,orMoses,orPaul,being
given,GodshouldusehiminthewayHedid,butratherhowamanofthisspiritualbuild,andthesegiftsandqualifications,cameatthatprecise
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given,GodshouldusehiminthewayHedid,butratherhowamanofthisspiritualbuild,andthesegiftsandqualifications,cameatthatprecise
juncturetobethereatall.TheanswertothatquestioncanbefoundonlyintheDivineorderingelectionworkinginthenaturalspherepriortoits
beingrevealedinthespiritual,GoddoesnotsimplyfindHisinstrumentsHecreatesthem:Hehashadthem,inatruesense,inview,andhasbeen
preparingthemfromthefoundationofthings.HenceSt.Paulssayingofhimselfthathewasseparatedfromhismotherswomb(Gal1:15cf.of
Jeremiah,Jer1:5ofCyrus,Is45:5etc.).
Herecomesinanotherconsideration.Israelwastheelectnation,butasanationitmiserablyfailedinitsvocation(sosometimeswiththe
outwardChurch).Itwouldseem,then,asif,ontheexternalside,electionhadfailedofitsresultbutitdidnotdosoreally.Thisisthenextstepin
theOTdevelopmenttherealizationofanelectionwithintheelection,ofatrueandspiritualIsraelwithinthenatural,ofindividualelectionas
distinctfromnational.Thisideaisseenshapingitselfinthegreaterprophetsinthedoctrineoftheremnant(cf.Is1:9,6:138:1618etc.)inthe
ideaofagodlykernelinIsraelindistinctionfromtheunbelievingmass(involvedinpropheciesoftheServant)andislaidholdof,andeffectively
used,bySt.PaulinhisrebuttingofthesuppositionthatthewordofGodhadfailed(Ro9:6fortheyarenotallIsraelthatareofIsrael,11:5,7
etc.).ThisyieldsusthenaturaltransitiontotheNTconception.
2.IntheNT.ThedifferenceintheNTstandpointinregardtoelectionmayperhapsnowbethusdefined.(1)WhereastheelectionintheOT
isprimarilynational,andonlygraduallyworksroundtotheideaofaninner,spiritualelection,theoppositeisthecaseintheNTelectionisthere
atfirstpersonalandindividual,andtheChurchasanelectbodyisviewedasmadeupoftheseindividualbelieversandallothersprofessingfaithin
Christ(adistinctionthusagainarisingbetweeninwardandoutward).(2)WhereasthepersonalaspectofelectionintheOTisthroughout
subordinatetotheideaofservice,intheNT,ontheotherhand,stressislaidonthepersonalelectiontoeternalsalvationandtheaspectofelection
asameanstoanendbeyonditselffallsintothebackground,without,however,beingatallintendedtobelostsightof.Thebeliever,accordingto
NTteaching,iscalledtonothingsomuchastoactiveserviceheistobealightoftheworld(Mt5:1316),aworkertogetherwithGod(1Co3:9),
alivingepistle,knownandreadofallmen(2Co3:2,3)thelighthasshinedinhisheartthatheshouldgiveitforthtoothers(2Co4:6)heis
electedtotheendthathemayshowforththeexcellenciesofHimwhocalledhim(1P2:9),etc.St.Paulisavesselofelectiontothedefiniteend
thatheshouldbearChristsnametotheGentiles(Ac9:15).BelieversareakindoffirstfruitsuntoGod(Ro16:5,1Co16:15,Ja1:18,Rev14:4)
thereisafulnesstobebroughtin(Ro11:25).
Ascarryingus,perhaps,mostdeeplyintothecomprehensionoftheNTdoctrineofelection,itislastlytobeobservedthat,apartfromthe
inheritanceofideasfromtheOT,thereisanexperientialbasisforthisdoctrine,fromwhich,inthelivingconsciousnessoffaith,itcanneverbe
divorced.IngeneralitistoberememberedhowGodsprovidenceiseverywhereinScripturerepresentedasextendingoverallpersonsandevents
nothingescapingHisnotice,orfallingoutsideofHiscounsel(noteventhegreatcrimeoftheCrucifixion,Ac4:28)andhowuniformly
everythinggoodandgraciousisascribedtoHisSpiritasitsauthor(e.g.Ac11:18,Eph2:8,Ph2:13,He13:20,21).Itcannot,therefore,bethatinso
greatamatterasasoulsregeneration(seeREGENERATION),andthetranslatingofitoutofthedarknessofsinintothelightandblessingof
ChristsKingdom(Ac26:18,Col1:12,13,1P2:9,10),thechangeshouldnotbeviewedasasupremetriumphofthegraceofGodinthatsoul,and
shouldnotbereferredtoaneternalactofGod,choosingtheindividual,andinHislovecallinghiminHisowngoodtimeintothisfelicity.Thus
also,intheexperienceofsalvation,thesoul,consciousofthepartofGodinbringingittoHimself,andhourlyrealizingitsentiredependenceon
Himforeverythinggood,willdesiretoregarditandwillregarditandwillfeelthatinthisthoughtofGodseverlastingchoiceofitliesitstrue
groundofsecurityandcomfort(Ro8:28,33,38,39).ItisnotthesoulthathaschosenGod,butGodthathaschosenit(cf.Jn15:16),andallthe
comfortingandassuringpromiseswhichChristgivestothosewhomHedescribesasgivenHimbytheFather(Jn6:37,39etc.)asHissheep
(Jn10:35etc.)arehumblyappropriatedbyitforitsconsolationandencouragement(cf.Jn6:39,10:2729etc.).
OnthisexperientialbasisCalvinistandArminianmaybetrustedtoagree,thoughitleavesthespeculativequestionstillunsolvedofhow
preciselyGodsgraceandhumanfreedomworktogetherintheproductionofthisgreatchange.ThatisaquestionwhichmeetsuswhereverGods
purposeandmansfreewilltouch,andprobablywillbefoundtoembraceunsolvedelementtilltheend.StartfromtheDivineside,andtheworkof
salvationisallofgracestartfromthehumanside,thereisresponsibilityandchoice.Theelect,onanyshowing,mustalwaysbethoseinwhom
graceisregardedaseffectingitsresultthewill,ontheotherhand,mustbefreelywonbutthiswinningofthewillmaybeviewedasitselfthelast
triumphofgraceGodworkinginustowillandtodoofHisgoodpleasure(Ph2:13,He13:20,21).Fromthishighestpointofviewtheantinomy
disappearsthebelieverisreadytoacknowledgethatitisnotanythinginself,nothiswillingandrunning,thathasbroughthimintotheKingdom
(Ro9:16),butonlyGodseternalmercy.See,further,PREDESTINATION,REGENERATION,REPROBATE.
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JAMESORR.
ELECTLADY.SeeJOHN[EPISTLESOF,II.].
ELELOHEISRAEL.Upontheparcelofgroundwhichhehadboughtat
Shechem,JacobbuiltanaltarandcalleditEleloheIsrael,El,thegodofIsrael,Gn33:20(E).Thisappearsastrangenameforanaltar,anditis
justpossiblethatweshouldemendthetext,soastoreadwiththeLXX,hecalledupontheGodofIsrael.ELELYON.SeeGOD,andMOST
HIGH.
ELEMENT.Acomponentorconstituentpartofacomplexbody.Theancientphilosophersinquiredaftertheessentialconstituentelements,
principles,orsubstancesofthephysicaluniverseandmanysupposedthemtoconsistofearth,air,fire,andwater.AsusedintheNTtheword
alwaysappearsintheplural.
1.In2P3:10,12thephysicalelementsoftheheavensandtheeartharereferredtoasdestinedtodestructionatthesuddencomingoftheDay
oftheLord,byreasonofwhichtheheavensbeingonfireshallbedissolved,andtheelementsshallmeltwithferventheat.Inthesamesensethe
apocryphalBookofWisdom(7:17)employstheword,andspeaksoftheconstitutionoftheworldandtheoperationoftheelements.Itshouldbe
observedalsothatthelaterJewishangelologyconceivedthesedifferentelementsandalltheheavenlybodiesasanimatedbylivingspirits,sothat
therewereangelsofthewaters,thewinds,theclouds,thehail,thefrost,andthevariousseasonsoftheyear.ThuswereadintheNTApocalypseof
thefourangelsofthefourwinds,theangelthathaspoweroverfire,theangelofthewaters,andanangelstandinginthesun.Andsoeveryelement
andeverystarhaditscontrollingspiritorangel,andthisconceptoftheanimismofnaturehasbeenwidespreadamongthenations(seeANGEL).
2.TheexactmeaningofthephraseelementsoftheworldinthefourtextsofGal4:3,9andCol2:8,20hasbeenfounddifficulttodetermine.
(a)Notafewinterpreters,bothancientandmodern,understandtheelementsmentionedinthesepassagestorefertothephysicalelements
possessedandpresidedoverbyangelsordemons.ItisarguedthatthecontextinboththeseEpistlesfavoursthisopinion,andtheexpressstatement
thattheGalatianswereinbondagetothemthatbynaturearenogods,andtheadmonitioninColossiansagainstphilosophy,vaindeceit,and
worshippingoftheangels,showthattheApostlehadinmindacurrentsuperstitiousbeliefincosmicspiritualbeings,andaworshippingofthemas
princesofthepowersoftheairandworldrulersofdarkness.Suchalowandsuperstitiousbondagemightwellbepronouncedbothweakand
beggarly.(b)ButprobablythemajorityofinterpretersunderstandbytheseelementsoftheworldtheordinancesandcustomsofJewishlegalism,
whichtiedtheworshipperdowntotheritualismofaworldlysanctuary(cf.He9:1).Suchabondagetotheletterhadsomeadaptationtobabes,
whomightneedthedisciplineofsignsandsymbolswhileunderthecareofatutor,butitwasaweakandbeggarlythingincomparisonwith
consciouslivingfellowshipwiththeLordChrist.ForthesonsofGodthroughfaithinJesusChristarenottoremainlittlechildren,orinastateof
dependencenothingdifferentfromthatofabondservant,buttheyreceivethefulnessoftheHolySpiritintheirhearts,andcryAbba,Father.
Sucharenolongerheldinbondageundertherudimentsoftheworld,forChristsetsthemfreefromdependenceuponrites,ordinances,vows,
sacrifices,observanceoftimesandseasons,whichallbelongtotheelementarystagesandphasesofthelowerreligiouscultsoftheworld.Itshould
benoticedthatboththeseinterpretationsofthetextsinGal.andCol.claimsupportintheimmediatecontext,andbothwillprobablylongcontinue
tofindfavouramongpainstakingandcriticalexpositors.Butthelastmentionedinterpretationseemstocommandwidestacceptance,andtoaccord
bestwiththegospelandteachingofSt.Paul.
3.ThewordisfoundalsowithyetanothermeaninginHe5:12,wherethepersonsaddressedaresaidtoneedinstructionintherudimentsof
thefirstprinciplesoftheoraclesofGod.Herethetermrudiments,orelements,isobviouslyusedinanethicalsense.Bytheseelementsofthe
beginningoftheoraclesofGodthewritermeanstheprimaryandsimplesttruthsofGodsrevelationofHimselfintheprophetsandinChrist.
ThesearetheABCoftheChristianreligion.
M.S.TERRY.
ELEPH(Jos18:28only).AtownofBenjamin,probablythepresentvillageLifta,W.ofJerusalem.
ELEPHANT.Job40:16AVm,butRVmcorrectlyhippopotamus(seeBEHEMOTH).Theuseofelephantsinwarfareisfrequentlynoticed
intheBooksofMaccabees(e.g.1Mac3:34,6:30,8:6,11:56,2Mac11:4,13:15).SeealsoIVORY.

ELEUTHERUS(1Mac11:7,12:30).AriverwhichseparatedSyriaandPhnicia,andappearstobethemod.NahrelKebrorGreatRiver,21/85
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ELEUTHERUS(1Mac11:7,12:30).AriverwhichseparatedSyriaandPhnicia,andappearstobethemod.NahrelKebrorGreatRiver,
whichdividestheLebanonintwonorthofTripoli.
ELHANAN(Godisgracious).1.ThesonofJairaccordingto1Ch20:5,of
Jaareoregimaccordingto2S21:19intheformertextheisrepresentedasslayingLahmithebrotherofGoliath,inthelatterasslayingGoliath
himself.AcomparisonoftheHebrewofthesetwotextsisinstructive,becausetheyofferoneoftheclearestandsimplestexamplesofhoweasyitis
forcorruptionstocreepintotheOTtext.Itisdifficult,withoutusingHebrewletters,toshowbowthisisthecaseherebutthefollowingpointsmay
benoticed.Oregimmeansweavers,awordwhichoccursinthelatterhalfoftheverseineachcase,andmayeasilyhavegotdisplacedinthe2
Sam.passageinboththetextsthewordwhichshouldbetheequivalentofJairiswronglywrittenthewordstheBethlehemite(2Sam.)and
Lahmithebrotherof(1Chr.)lookalmostidenticalwhenwritteninHebrew.Theoriginaltext,ofwhicheachofthesetwoversesisacorruption,
probablyran:AndElhananthesonofJair,theBethlehemite,slewGoliaththeGittite,thestaffofwhosespearwaslikeaweaversbeam.Butif
thisisso,howarewetoreconcileitwithwhatwereadofDavidskillingGoliath?Judgingfromwhatweknowofthenaturaltendencythereisto
ascribeheroicdeedstogreatnationalwarriors,realizingtheverycorruptstateoftheHebrewtextoftheBooksofSamuel,andrememberingthe
conflictingaccountsgivenofDavidsfirstintroductiontopubliclife(seeDAVID,1),theprobabilityisthatElhananslewGoliath,andthatthis
heroicdeedwasinlatertimesascribedtoDavid.
2.In2S23:24and1Ch11:26ElhananthesonofDodoofBethlehemisnumberedamongDavidsmightymen.Rememberingthattheword
Jairaboveiswronglywrittenineachcase,andthatitthusshowssignsofcorruption,itisquitepossiblethatthisElhananandtheonejustreferred
toareoneandthesame.
W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
ELI(possiblyanabbreviatedformofEliel,Godishigh).ThepredecessorofSamuelasjudge,andhighpriestinthesanctuaryatShiloh.
Exceptinginthefinalsceneofhislife,everytimehecomesbeforeusitisinconnexionwithotherswhooccupythepositionofgreaterinterest.
ThusinhisinterviewswithHannah,inthefirstoneitissheinwhomthechiefinterestcentres(1S1:12ff.)intheseconditisthechildSamuel(v.
24ff.).ThenexttimeheismentioneditisonlyasthefatherofHophniandPhinehas,thewholepassagebeingoccupiedwithanaccountoftheirevil
doings(2:12ff.).Again,in2:27ff.,EliismentionedonlyasthelistenertoamanofGodwhouttershisprophecyofevil.Andlastly,inhisdealings
withtheboySamuelthewholeaccount(ch.3)isreallyconcernedwithSamuel,whileEliplaysquiteasubsidiarypart.Allthisseemstoillustrate
thepersonalityofEliasthatofahumbleminded,goodmanofweakcharacterhislackofinfluenceoverhissonsonlyservestoemphasizethis
estimate.
W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
ELI,ELI,LAMASABACHTHANI.SeeELOI,ELOI,etc.
ELIAB(Godisfather).1.Therepresentative,orprince,ofthetribeofZebulun,whoassistedMosesandAaroninnumberingthechildren
ofIsraelinthewildernessofSinai(Nu1:1ff.).2.ThefatherofDathanandAbiram(Nu16:1).3.TheeldestbrotherofDavid,andthoughtby
SamueltohavebeendestinedforkingshipinIsraelonaccountofhisbeautyandstature(1S16:6,7).Heismentionedasbeingawarriorinthe
IsraelitecampontheoccasionofGoliathschallengetoanddefianceofthearmiesofIsraelherebukeshisyoungerbrotherDavidforhis
presumptioninmixinghimselfupwiththeaffairsofthearmyhisattitudetowardsDavid,afterthevictoryofthelatteroverGoliath,isnot
mentioned.4.OneofthemusicianswhowereappointedbytheLevites,atDavidscommand,toaccompanytheprocessionwhichwasformedon
theoccasionofbringingthearkfromthehouseofObededomuptoJerusalem(1Ch15:18).5.OneoftheGaditeswhojoinedDavid,duringhis
outlawlife,intheholdinthewilderness(1Ch12:9).6.AnancestorofSamuel(1Ch6:27seeELIHUNo.1).7.OneofJudithsancestors(Jth
8:1).
W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
ELIADA.1.AsonofDavid(2S5:16)calledBeeliadain1Ch14:7.2.FatherofRezon,anadversaryofSolomon(1K11:23).3.Awarrior
ofBenjamin(2Ch
17:17).
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17:17).
ELIADAS(1Es9:28)=Ezr10:27Elioeani.
ELIAHBA.OneofDavidsThirty(2S23:32,1Ch11:33).
ELIAKIM(Godwillestablish).1.ThesonofHilkiah,hewhowasoverthehouseholdofkingHezekiah,andoneofthethreewho
representedthekingduringtheinterviewwithSennacheribsemissaries(2K18:18,Is36:3).InIs22:2024(v.25seemstobeoutofplace)heis
contrastedfavourablywithhispredecessorShebnah(whoisstillinoffice),andtheprophetprophesiesthatEliakimshallbeafatherintheland.2.
ThenameofkingJosiahsson,whoreignedafterhimPharaohnechochangedhisnametoJehoiakim(2K23:34).3.InNeh12:41apriestofthis
nameismentionedasoneamongthosewhoassistedattheceremonyofthededicationofthewall.4.ThesonofAbind(Mt1:13).5.Thesonof
Melea(Lk3:30).ThelasttwooccurinthegenealogiesofourLord.
W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
ELIALI(1Es9:34).ThenameeithercorrespondstoBinnuiinEzr10:38orisunrepresentedthere.
ELIAM.1.FatherofBathsheba,whosefirsthusbandwasaHittite,1S11:3(=1
Ch3:5,whereEliamiscalledAmmiel).2.SonofAhithopheltheGilonite,andoneofDavidsheroes(2S23:34).Itisnotimpossiblethatthis
Eliamisthesameasthepreceding.
ELIAONIAS(1Es8:31).AdescendantofPhaathmoab,whoreturnedfromBabylonwithEsdras.InEzr8:4Eliehoenai.
ELIAS.SeeELIJAH.
ELIASAPH.1.SonofDeuel,andprinceofGadatthefirstcensus(Nu1:14,2:14,7:42,47,10:20P).2.SonofLael,andprinceofthe
Gershonites(Nu3:24P).
ELIASHIB.1.ThehighpriestwhowascontemporarywithNehemiah.HewassonofJoiakim,grandsonofJeshuathesonofJozadak,the
contemporaryof
Zerubbabel(Neh12:10,Ezr3:1),andfatherofJoiada(Neh12:10,13:28).HeassistedintherebuildingofthewallsofJerus,duringNehemiahs
governorship(Neh3:1).HecanhavehadnosympathywiththeexclusivepolicyofEzraandNehemiah,forbothhehimselfandmembersofhis
familyalliedthemselveswiththeleadingforeignopponentsofNehemiah.SeeJOIADA,No.2,TOBIAH,andSANBALLAT.2.Asingerofthe
timeofEzra,whohadmarriedaforeignwife(Ezr10:24)calledin1Es
9:24Eliasibus.3.AnIsraeliteofthefamilyofZattu(Ezr10:27in1Es9:28
Eliasimus)and4.anotherofthefamilyofBani(Ezr10:36calledin1Es9:34Enasibus),whohadmarriedforeignwives.5.AsonofElioenai(1
Ch3:24).6.Thenameofapriestlyhouse(1Ch24:12).7.FatherofJehohanan,towhosechamberintheTempleEzraresorted(Ezr10:6)possibly
identicalwithNo.1.
ELIASIB(1Es9:1).AhighpriestinthetimeofNeh.inEzr10:6Eliashib.
ELIASIBUS(AVEleazurus,1Es9:24).Oneoftheholysingers,whoputawayhisstrangewife.InEzr10:24Elaishib.
ELIASIMUS,1Es9:28=Ezr10:27Eliashib.
ELIASIS(1Es9:34).ThisnameandEnasibusmaybeduplicateformsansweringtoEliashibinEzr10:36.
ELIATHAH.AHemanite,whosefamilyformedthetwentiethdivisionoftheTempleservice(1Ch25:4,27).
ELIDAD.SonofChislon,andBenjaminsrepresentativefordividingtheland,Nu34:21P(perh.=Eldad,oneoftheelders,Nu11:26f.E).
ELIEHOENAI.1.AKorahite(1Ch26:3).2.Theheadofafamilyofexilesthatreturned(Ezr8:4)calledin1Es8:31Eliaonias.
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ELIEHOENAI.1.AKorahite(1Ch26:3).2.Theheadofafamilyofexilesthatreturned(Ezr8:4)calledin1Es8:31Eliaonias.
ELIEL.1.AKorahite(1Ch6:34),prob.=Eliabofv.27andElihuof1S1:1.2.3.4.MightymenintheserviceofDavid(1Ch11:46,47,
12:11).5.AchiefofeasternManasseh(1Ch5:24).6.7.TwoBenjamitechiefs(1Ch8:20,22),8.aLevitementionedinconnexionwiththe
removalofthearkfromthehouseofObededom(1Ch15:9,11).9.ALeviteintimeofHezekiah(2Ch31:13).
ELIENAI.ABenjamite(1Ch8:20).
ELIEZER(cf.ELEAZAR).1.Abrahamschiefservant,aDamascene(Gn15:2AV,RVm.Theconstructionhereisdifficult,butthewordscan
hardlyberenderedasadoublepropernameasRV,DammesekEliezer.Whatevertheexactconstruction,thewords,unlessthereisacorruptionin
thetext,mustbeintendedtosuggestthatEliezerwasinsomewayconnectedwithDamascus).ThissameEliezerisprob.theservantreferredtoin
Gn.24.2.AsonofMosesbyZipporahsonamedtocommemoratethedeliveranceofMosesfromPharaoh(Ex18:4,1Ch23:15,17).3.Thesonof
Becher,aBenjamite(1Ch7:8).4.ThesonofZichri,captainofthetribeofReubeninDavidsreign(1Ch27:16).5.ThesonofDodavahuof
Mareshah,whoprophesiedthedestructionofthefleetofshipswhichJehoshaphatbuiltincooperationwithAhaziah(2Ch20:37).6.Oneofthe
chiefmenwhomEzrasenttoCasiphiatofindLevitesandNethinimtojointheexpeditiontoJerusalem(Ezr8:16f.[=1Es8:43Eleazar]).7.8.9.
Apriest,aLevite,andasonofHarim,whohadmarriedstrangewomen(Ezr10:18.[=1Es9:19Eleazar]23,31[=1Es9:32Elionas]).10.One
ofthepriestsappointedtoblowwiththetrumpetsbeforethearkofGodwhenDavidbroughtitfromthehouseofObededomtoJerus.(1Ch
15:24).11.ALevite(1Ch26:25).12.AnancestorofourLord(Lk3:29).
ELIHOREPH.OneofSolomonsscribes(1K4:3).
ELIHU.1.AnancestorofSamuel(1S1:1)calledin1Ch6:34Eliel,andin1Ch6:27Eliab.2.Avariationin1Ch27:18forEliab,Davids
eldestson(1S16:6).3.AManassitewhojoinedDavidatZiklag(1Ch12:20).4.AKorahiteporter(1Ch26:7).5.SeeJOB[BOOKOF].6.An
ancestorofJudith(Jth8:1).
ELIJAH.1.Elijah,theweirdestfigureamongtheprophetsofIsrael,stepsacrossthethresholdofhistorywhenAhabisonthethrone(c.B.C.
876854),andislastseeninthereignofAhaziah(854853),althoughaposthumousactivityisattributedtohimin2Ch21:12ff.AnativeofThis
beinGilead(1K17:1),heappearsonthesceneunheraldednotasinglehintisgivenastohisbirthandparentage.AruggedBedouininhishairy
mantle(2K1:8),ElijahappearsasarepresentativeofthenomadicstageofHebrewcivilization.Heisaveritableincarnationoftheausteremorals
andthepurerreligionofanearlierperiod.Hisname(JahisGod)mayberegardedasthemottoofhislife,andexpressestheaimofhismissionas
aprophet.AhabhadbroughtonareligiouscrisisinIsraelbymarryingJezebel,adaughteroftheTyriankingEthbaal,who,priortohisassuming
royalpurple,hadbeenapriestofMelkart,theTyrianBaal,andinordertoascendthethronehadstainedhishandwithhismastersblood.Trueto
herearlytrainingandenvironment,JezebelnotonlypersuadedherhusbandtobuildatempletoBaalinSamaria(1K16:32),butbecameazealous
propagandist,anddevelopedintoacruelpersecutoroftheprophetsandfollowersofJehovah.Theforeigndeity,thussupportedbythethrone,
threatenedtocrushallallegiancetoIsraelsnationalGodintheheartsofthepeople.
Suchwasthesituation,whenElijahsuddenlyappearsbeforeAhabasthechampionofJehovah.Theheartsoftheapostatekingandpeopleareto
bechastenedbyadrought(17:3).ItlaststhreeyearsaccordingtoastatementofMenanderquotedbyJosephus(Ant.VIII.xiii.2),inthereignof
Ithobal,theBiblicalEthbaal,Phniciasufferedfromaterribledrought,whichlastedoneyear.Providencefirstguidesthesternprophettothebrook
Cherith(WadyKeltinthevicinityofJericho),wheretheravenssupplyhimwithfood.Soonthestreambecomesabedofstones,andElijahfleesto
ZarephathintheterritoryofZidon.Astheguestofapoorwidow,hebringsblessingstothehousehold(cf.Lk4:25,Ja5:17).Thebarrelofmealdid
notwaste,andthecruseofoildidnotfail.LiketheGreatProphetoftheNT,hebringsgladnesstotheheartofabereavedmotherbyrestoringher
sontolife(1K17:8ff.,cf.Lk7:11ff.).
Theheavenshavebeenlikebrassformonthsuponmonths,andvegetationhasdisappeared.TheheartsofAhabssubjectshavebeenmellowed,
andmanyarereadytoreturntotheiroldallegiance.Thetimeisripeforaction,andElijahthrowsdownthegauntlettoBaalandhisfollowers.Ahab
andhischiefsteward,Obadiah,adevotedfollowerofthetrueGod,aretraversingthelandindifferentdirectionsinsearchofgrassfortheroyal
stables,whenthelatterencountersthestrangefigureofJehovahsrelentlesschampion.Obadiah,afterconsiderablehesitationandreluctance,is
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stables,whenthelatterencountersthestrangefigureofJehovahsrelentlesschampion.Obadiah,afterconsiderablehesitationandreluctance,is
persuadedbytheprophettoannouncehimtotheking(1K18:715).Asthetwomeet,wehavethefirstskirmishofthebattle.Artthouhethat
troublethIsrael?isthemonarchsgreetingbuttheprophetsreplyputsthematterinatruelight:IhavenottroubledIsrael,butthouandthy
fathershouse.AtElijahssuggestiontheprophetsofBaalaresummonedtoCarmeltoatrialbyfire.ThepriestsoftheTyriandeity,termed
prophetsbecausetheypractisedthemanticart,selectabullockandlayituponanaltarwithoutkindlingthewood.Frommorntillnoon,andfrom
noontilldewyeve,theycrytoBaalforfire,butallinvain.Elijahcutsthemtothequickwithhisbitingsarcasm:Cryaloudforheisagod:either
heismusing,orheisgoneaside,orheisonajourney,orperadventurehesleepethandmustbeawaked.Towardseveningadismantledaltarof
Jehovahisrepaired,andatrenchisdugroundit.Afterthesacrificialanimalhasbeenprepared,andlaiduponthewood,waterispouredoverit,
untileverythingaboutthealtaristhoroughlysoakedandthetrenchisfull.AttheprayerofElijah,firefallsfromheaven,devouringthewood,
stone,andwateraswellasthevictim.Thepeopleareconvinced,andshout,Jehovah,heisGodJehovah,heisGod.Thatevening,Kishonsflood,
asofold(Jg5:21),isredwiththebloodofJehovahsenemies.Theguiltofthelandhasbeenatonedfor,andthelonghopedforrainarrives.Elijah,
inspiteofhisdignifiedposition,runsbeforethechariotofAhab,indicatingthatheiswillingtoservethekingaswellasleadJehovahspeople(1K
18:4146).ThefanaticalandimplacableJezebelnowthreatensthelifeoftheprophetwhohasdaredtoputherminionstodeath.Jehovahs
successfulchampionlosesheart,andfleestoBeershebaontheextremesouthofJudah.Leavinghisservant,heplungesaloneintothedesertadays
journey.Nowcomesthereaction,sonaturalafteranachievementlikethatonCarmel,andElijahpraysthathemaybepermittedtodie.Insteadof
grantinghisrequest,Godsendsanangelwhoministerstotheprophetsphysicalneeds.Onthestrengthofthatfoodhejourneysfortydaysuntilhe
reachesHoreb,wherehereceivesanewrevelationofJehovah(1K19:18).Elijahtakesrefugeinacave,perhapsthesameinwhichMoseshid(Ex
33:22),andhearsthevoiceofJehovah,Whatdoestthouhere,Elijah?Theprophetreplies,IhavebeenveryjealousforJehovah,GodofHosts
forthechildrenofIsraelhaveforsakenthycovenantthrowndownthinealtars,andslainthyprophetswiththeswordandI,evenIonly,amleftand
theyseekmylife,totakeitaway.ThenJehovahrevealsHisomnipotenceinagreatwind,earthquake,andfirebutwereadthatJehovahwasnotin
these.Thenfollowedastillsmallvoice(Heb.lit.asoundofgentlestillness),inwhichGodmadeknownHistruenatureandHisrealpurpose(1K
19:914).Afterhearinghiscomplaint,JehovahgivesHisfaithfulservantathreefoldcommission:HazaelistobeanointedkingofSyria,Jehuof
IsraelandElishaistobehissuccessorinthepropheticorder.Elijahisfurtherencouragedwithinformationthattherearestill7000inIsraelwho
havenotbowedthekneetoBaal(1K19:15,18).Asfarasweknow,onlythelastofthesethreecommissionswasexecutedbytheprophethimself,
who,afterthissublimeincident,madehisheadquartersinthewildernessofDamascus(v.15)theothertwowerecarriedouteitherbyElishaorby
membersofthepropheticguilds(2K8:7ff.,9:2).
ElijahisalsothechampionofthatcivicrighteousnesswhichJehovahlovedandenjoinedonHispeople.Nabothownsavineyardinthevicinity
ofJezreel.InthespiritoftheIsraelitishlaw(Lv25:23,Nu36:8)herefusestosellhispropertytotheking.ButJezehelisequaltotheoccasionat
hersuggestionfalsewitnessesarebribedtoswearthatNabothhascursedGodandtheking.Thecitizens,thusdeceived,stonetheirfellow
townsmantodeath.Abah,onhiswaytotakepossessionofhisillgottenestate,meetshisoldantagonist,whopronouncesthejudgmentofGod
uponhim:IntheplacewheredogslickedthebloodofNabothshalldogslickthyblood,eventhine,istheprophetsgreeting.ForAhabssins,
everymalechildofhishousewillbesweptoffbyanawfulfate(1K21:19,21,24).BytherampartsofJezreelitself,thedogswilldevourthebody
ofJezebel(v.23).Thesepredictions,althoughdelayedfor
atimeonaccountoftherepentanceofAhab,wereallfulfilled(1K22:38,2K9:25f.,
30f.,10:7ff.).
AhaziahisatruesonofAhabandJezebel.Meetingwithaseriousaccident,afterhisfallhesendsamessengertoEkrontoinquireofBaalzebub,
theflygod,concerninghisrecovery.Elijahinterceptstheemissariesoftheking,hiddingthemreturntotheirmasterwiththiswordfromJehovah:
IsitbecausethereisnoGodinIsrael,thatyegotoinquireofBaalzebubthegodofEkron?Thoushaltnotcomedownfromthebedwhitherthou
artgoneup,butshaltsurelydie.Ahaziahrecognizestheauthorofthismessage,andsendsthreecaptainsoffiftiestocapturetheprophet,whocalls
downfirefromheavenonthefirsttwo.Thethirdapproacheshiminahumblespirit,andatGodsbiddingElijahaccompaniesthesoldiertothe
palaceandreiteratesthemessageofdoom(2K1).
Likeallthegreateventsofhislife,thedeathofthisgreatmanofGodwasdramatic.AccompaniedbyhisfaithfulfollowerElisha,hepasses
fromBetheltoJericho,andfromthencetheycrosstheJordan,afterElijahhaspartedthewatersbystrikingthemwithhismantle.Astheygoon

theirway,buriedinconversation,theresuddenlyappearsachariotoffirewithhorsesoffire,whichpartsthemasunderandElijahgoesupbya
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theirway,buriedinconversation,theresuddenlyappearsachariotoffirewithhorsesoffire,whichpartsthemasunderandElijahgoesupbya
whirlwindtoheaven(cf.ELISHA).
InthehistoryofprophecyElijahholdsaprominentposition.Prophetismhadtwoimportantdutiestoperform:(1)toextirpatetheworshipof
heathendeitiesinIsrael,(2)toraisethereligionofJehovahtoethicalpurity.TotheformerofthesetwotasksElijahaddressedhimselfwithzealthe
latterwaslefttohissuccessorsintheeighthcentury.InhisbattleagainstBaal,hestruggledforthemoralrightsandfreedomofman,andintroduced
thecategoricalimperativeintoprophecy.HestartedamovementwhichfinallydrovethePhnicianBaalfromIsraelsconfines.
ElijahfigureslargelyinlaterScripturesheistheharbingeroftheDayoftheLord(Mal4:5)intheNTheislookeduponasatypeoftheherald
ofGod,andthepredictionofhiscomingintheMessianicAgeisfulfilledintheadventofJohntheBaptist(Mt11:10ff.).OntheMountof
TransfigurationheappearsastherepresentativeofOTprophecy(Mt17:3,Mk9:4,Lk9:36).Theprophetwhosewordburnedlikeatorch(Sir
48:1)wasafavouritewiththelaterJewsahostofRabbinicallegendsgrewuparoundhisname.AccordingtotheRabbis,Elijahwastoprecedethe
Messiah,torestorefamiliestopurity,tosettlecontroversiesandlegaldisputes,andperformsevenmiracles(cf.JE,s.v.Lightfoot,Hor.Heb.onMt
17:10Schoettgen,Hor.Heb.ii.533ff.).Origenmentionsanapocryphalwork,TheApocalypseofElijah,andmaintainsthat1Co2:9isaquotation
fromit.ElijahisfoundalsointheKoran
(vi.85,xxxvii.123130),andmanylegendsconcerninghimarecurrentinArabicliterature.
2.ABenjamitechief(1Ch8:27).3.4.Apriestandalaymanwhohadmarriedforeignwives(Ezr10:21,26).
JAMESA.KELSO.
ELIKA.OneofDavidsThirty(2S23:25).
ELIM.OneofthestationsinthewanderingsofthechildrenofIsrael(Ex15:27,Nu33:9)apparentlythefourthstationafterthepassageof
theRedSea,andthefirstplacewheretheIsraelitesmetwithfreshwater.Itwasalsomarkedbyanabundantgrowthofpalmtrees(cf.Ex15:27,
twelvewellsandseventypalms).IfthetraditionalsiteofMt.Sinaibecorrect,thelikeliestplaceforElimistheWadyGharandel,wherethereisa
gooddealofvegetation,especiallystuntedpalms,andanumberofwaterholesinthesandbutsometravellershavepushedthesiteofElimfarther
on,andplaceditalmostadaysjourneynearertoSinai,intheWadyTayibeh,wherethereareagainpalmtreesandascantysupplyofbrackish
water.
ELIMELECH.ThehusbandofNaomiandfatherofMahlonandChilion,EphrathitesofBethlehemJudah(cf.1S17:12).Heisspokenofas
ifheweretheheadofaclaninthetribeofJudah(cf.Ru2:1,3).ThiswouldbetheHezronites(1Ch2:9,cf.Gn46:12).
ELIOENAI.1.ASimeonitechief(1Ch4:36).2.ABenjamite(1Ch7:8).3.AdescendantofDavidwholivedaftertheExile(1Ch3:23,24).
4.AsonofPashhurwhohadmarriedaforeignwife(Ezr10:22)calledin1Es9:22Elionas.5.AsonofZattuwhohadcommittedthesame
offence(Ezr10:27)calledin1Es9:28Eliadas.
6.Apriest(Neh12:41).
ELIONAS.1.Es9:22=Ezr10:22Elioenai.2.1Es9:32=Ezr10:31Eliezer.
ELIPHAL.OneofDavidsmightymen(1Ch11:35),calledin2S23:34
Eliphelet.
ELIPHALAT.1.1Es8:39=Ezr8:13Eliphelet.2.1Es9:33=Ezr10:33
Eliphelet.
ELIPHAZ.1.EliphazappearsintheEdomitegenealogyofGn36(andhence1Ch1:35f.)assonofEsaubyAdah(vv.4,10),andfatherof
AmalekbyhisHoriteconcubineTimnah(vv.12,22).2.SeeJOB[BOOKOF].
ELIPHELEHU.Adoorkeeper(1Ch15:18,21).
ELIPHELET.1.OneofDavidssons(2S5:16,1Ch14:7(AVEliphalet),1Ch3:6,8=Elpeletof1Ch14:5).Thedoubleoccurrenceofthe26/85
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ELIPHELET.1.OneofDavidssons(2S5:16,1Ch14:7(AVEliphalet),1Ch3:6,8=Elpeletof1Ch14:5).Thedoubleoccurrenceofthe
nameinChronicles,asifDavidhadhadtwosonsnamedEliphelet,isprobablyduetoascribalerror.2.OneofDavidsmightymen(2S23:34=
Eliphalof1Ch11:35).3.Adescendantof
Jonathan(1Ch8:39).4.OneofthesonsofAdonikamwhoreturnedfromexile(Ezr8:13=Eliphalatof1Es8:39).5.AsonofHashumwhohad
marriedaforeignwife(Ezr10:33=Eliphalatof1Es9:33).
ELISABETH.ThewifeofZachariasandmotherofJohntheBaptist(Lk1:5ff.).TheHebrewformofthenameisElisheba(Ex6:23).
Elisabethwasofapriestlyfamily,thekinswomanofMary(Lk1:36),whomshegreetedasthemotheroftheMessiah(v.43).
J.G.TASKER.
ELISEUS.TheAVformofElisha(wh.see)inNT.
ELISHA.ElishawasanativeofAbelmeholah,whichwassituatedintheJordanvalley10RomanmilesfromScythopolis,probablyonthe
siteofthemodernAinHelweh.Hisfatherwasawelltodofarmer,andsoElishaisarepresentativeofthenewerformofHebrewsociety.Onhis
returnfromHoreb,Elijahcasthismantleupontheyouth,ashewasdirectinghisfathersservantsattheirploughing.Theyoungmanatonce
recognizedthecallfromGod,and,afterahastilydevisedfarewellfeast,helefttheparentalabode(1K19:16,19),andeverafterhewasknownas
themanwhopouredwateronthehandsofElijah(2K3:11).Hisdevotionto,andhisadmirationfor,hisgreatmasterareapparentintheclosing
scenesofthelatterslife.AdoubleportionofElijahsspirit(cf.therightofthefirstborntoadoubleportionofthepatrimony)isthesummum
bonumwhichhecraved.InordertoreceivethisboonhemustbeawitnessofthetranslationofthemightyheroofJehovahandasElijahiswhirled
awayinthechariotoffire,hismantlefallsuponhisdisciple,whoimmediatelymakesuseofitinpartingthewatersoftheJordan.AfterElishahas
recrossedtheriver,heisgreetedbythesonsoftheprophetsastheirleader(2K2:15).
AfterthiseventitisimpossibletoreducetheincidentsofElishaslifetoanychronologicalsequence.Hisministrycoveredhalfacentury(B.C.
855798),andduringthisperiodfourmonarchs,Jehoram,Jehu,Jehoahaz,andJoash,satonthethroneofIsrael(2K3:1ff.,cf.13:14ff.).Thestory
ofElishawasborrowedbytheauthoroftheBookofKingsfromsomepropheticworkoftheNorthernKingdomand,withoutanyregardfor
sequenceintime,hehasarrangedhismaterialaccordingtosubjectmatter.InourcanonicalBookofKings,thelargerpartofElishasactivitiesis
placedwithinthereignofJehoram(2K3:1ff.,cf.9:1ff.).Hemayhavereachedthezenithofhiscareerinthesetwelveyears,butalltherecorded
eventsofhislifecannotbecrowdedintothisshortperiod.
Hisname,Elisha(=Godissalvation),likethatofhismaster,terselydescribeshischaracterandexpresseshismission.Elijahswasaflintlike
nature,whichcrusheditsopponentsandwonitsvictoriesbyhardblows.Elishaisagentlerandmoregraciousman,andgainshisendsby
diplomacy.Helovesthehauntsofmen,andresidesincitieslikeDothanandSamaria.Hismiraclesaredeedsofmercy,and,likethatoftheProphet
ofNazareth,hisministrybreathesaspiritofgracious,soothing,holybeneficence.Wefindhimattheheadquartersofthesonsoftheprophets,
makinghisbenignpresencefelt.HesweetensaspringofbrackishwateratJericho(2K2:19ff.)atatimeofdroughtherendersapoisonousmess
ofpottageharmlessforthemembersofthepropheticguild(4:38ff.)hemultipliestheoilfortheprophetswidow,whofindsherselfindire
extremity(4:1ff).Attheprophetscommand,asatthebiddingofagreaterthanElisha,theloavesaremultiplied(4:42).Hissympathygoesoutina
practicalwayforthemanwhohaslosthisaxe(6:1ff.).OneofthemostbeautifulstoriesinthewholerangeofScriptureisthatoftheentertainment
ofElishainthehomeoftheShunammite.Herhospitalityandthepracticalmanifestationofgratitudeonthepartoftheprophetformacharming
picture.Intherestorationofhersontolife,Elishaperformsoneofhisgreatestmiracles(4:8ff.,8:1ff.).InhistreatmentoftheSyriantroopswhich
hadbeendespatchedtocapturehim,heanticipatedthespiritoftheSaviour(2K6:14ff.).Thefamiliarincidentofthehealingoftheleprosyof
NaamannotonlygivesanideaoftheinfluenceandpowerofthemanofGod,butthestoryissuggestiveoftheprofoundestspiritualtruths(2K
5:617).
Thecontrastbetweenthespiritofmasteranddisciplemaybeoveremphasized.
ElishacouldbeassternasElijah:atBethelhetreatsthemockingyouthinthespiritofSinai(2:23),andnotouchofpitycanbedetectedinthe
sentencethatfallsonGehazi(5:27).TheestimateofSirach(48:12)isaccordingtoallthefactsoftheOTnarrative:
Elijahitwaswhowaswrappedinatempest:
AndElishawasfilledwithhisspirit:
Andinallhisdayshewasnotmovedbythefearofanyruler,
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Andinallhisdayshewasnotmovedbythefearofanyruler,
Andnoonebroughthimintosubjection.
Thisseverersideoftheprophetscharacterappearsinhispublicratherthaninhisprivatelife.IntheMoabitishcampaign,thealliedkingsseekhis
counsel.HisaddresstoJehoramofIsrael.WhathaveItodowiththee?Gettheetotheprophetsofthyfatherandtheprophetsofthymother,
indicatesthatElishahadnotforgottenthepastandtheconflictsofhismaster(3:13ff.).Later,therelationsbetweenthereigningmonarchandthe
prophetseemmorecordial,forthemanofGodrevealstheplansoftheSyrianstoIsraelsking(6:8ff.).Thischangeofattitudeonthepartofthe
prophetmaybeduetothefactthatJehoramattemptedtodoawaywithBaalworship(3:2)butElishahasnotforgottenthedoompronouncedupon
thehouseofAhabbyElijah.WhileJehuiscommandingtheforcesbesiegingRamothgilead,Elishasendsoneofthesonsoftheprophetstoanoint
thegeneralasking,andthusheexecutesthecommissionwhichElijahreceivedfromJehovahatHoreb(1K19:16).
ElishasrelationswiththeSyriansareexceedinglyinteresting.OnoneoccasionheappearstobeasmuchathomeinDamascusasinSamaria.
Benhadad,sufferingfromasevereailment,hearsofhispresenceinhiscapital,andsendsHazaeltothemanofGodtoinquireconcerningtheissue.
Theprophetreadstheheartofthemessenger,andpredictsboththekingsrecoveryandhisassassinationbyHazael(2K8:7ff.).Nothingissaidofa
formalanointing,butinthisconnexionElishaseemstohavecarriedoutthecommissionofElijah(1K19:17).TheblockadeofSamaria(2K6:24
7:20)probablyfallsinthereignofJehoahaz.Thattheprophetisheldbykingandstatesmenresponsibleforthestraitstowhichthecityhasbeen
reduced,isaneloquenttributetohispoliticalinfluence.InthisconnexionElishaspredictionofdeliveranceisspeedilyfulfilled.UnderJoash,Israel
washardpressed,andhermighthaddwindledtoinsignificance(13:7),butElishawasstillthesaviourofhiscountry.Joashweepsoverhimashe
liesonhisdeathbed:Myfather,myfather,thechariotsofIsraelandthehorsementhereof.Directingthemonarchtoperformasymbolicalact,the
prophetgiveshimassuranceofvictory(13:15ff.).Evenafterhisburialhisboneshadthepowertoperformabeneficentmiracle(13:20,21).
AnincidentinthelifeofElishathrowslightonthepropheticstate.Beforedeclaringthefinalresultofthecampaigntothethreekings,heasks
foraminstrel.Themusicinducestheecstaticstate,andthenheprophesies(3:15).Thesupernaturalaboundsinhislifeinmanyinstanceshe
manifeststhepowerofprediction(4:16,5:26,6:8ff.,7:1ff.,8:10,12ff.,9:6f.,13:15ff.).Butsomeofhisdeedsarenotmiraclesinthemodernsense
(2:19ff.,4:38ff.,6:6ff.).
JAMESA.KELSO.
ELISHAH.TheeldestsonofJavan(Gn10:4),whencetheTyriansobtainedthepurpledye(Ezk27:7).Thelatterfavoursidentificationwith
S.ItalyandSicily,orCarthageandN.Africancoast,bothdistrictsfamousforthepurpledye.Elissa,or
Dido,thetraditionalfoundressofCarthage,mayindicateElissaasanearlynameof
Carthage,andSyncellusgivestheglossElissa,whencetheSikeloi.TheTargumonEzk.givestheprovinceofItaly.TheTellelAmarnatablets
includeletterstothekingofEgyptfromthekingofAlashia,EgyptianAlsa,whichhasbeenidentifiedwithCyprusknowntoSargon,kingof
Assyria,asthelandoftheIonians,Javan.Therearedifficultiesinalltheseidentifications,possiblybecausethenameitselfdenoteddifferent
districtsatdifferentepochs,andnocertaintycanyetbeattained.
C.H.W.JOHNS.
ELISHAMA.1.AprinceofthetribeofEphraimatthecensusinthewilderness,sonofAmmihudandgrandfatherofJoshua(Nu1:10,2:18,1
Ch7:26).2.OneofDavidssons,borninJerusalem(2S5:16,1Ch3:8,14:7).3.In1Ch3:6bymistakeforElishuaof2S5:15,1Ch14:5.4.A
descendantofJudah,sonofJekamiah(1Ch2:41).5.ThefatherofNethaniah,andgrandfatherofIshmael,oftheseedroyal,whokilledGedaliah
atthetimeoftheExile(2K25:25,Jer41:1).Jerome,followingJewishtraditionidentifieshimwithNo.4.6.AscribeorsecretarytoJehoiakim(
Jer
36:12,20,21).7.ApriestsentbyJehoshaphattoteachtheLawinthecitiesofJudah(2Ch17:8).
ELISHAPHAT.OneofthecaptainswhohelpedJehoiadatoinstallkingJoash(2Ch23:1).
ELISHEBA.DaughterofAmminadabandwifeofAaron(Ex6:23).
ELISHUA.AsonofDavid(2S5:15,1Ch14:5also1Ch3:6[correctedtextseeELISHAMA,3]).
ELIUD.AnancestorofJesus(Mt1:15).
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ELIUD.AnancestorofJesus(Mt1:15).
ELIZAPHAN.1.PrinceoftheKohathites(Nu3:30,1Ch15:8,2Ch29:13)=Elzaphan(Ex6:22,Lv10:4P).2.Zebulunsrepresentative
fordividingtheland(Nu34:25P).
ELIZUR(Godisarock,cf.Zuriel).PrinceofReubenatthefirstcensus(Nu1:5,2:10,7:30,35,10:18P).
ELKANAH(Godhathacquired).1.AsonofKorah(Ex6:24).2.AnEphraimite,husbandofPeninnahandHannahbytheformerhehad
severalchildren,butHannahwasformanyyearschildless.HerrivalmockedherforthisastheywentupyearbyyearwithElkanahtosacrificein
Shiloh.ElkanahlovedHannahmorethanPeninnah,andsought,invain,tocomfortherinherdistress.AtlengthHannahconceived,andboreason,
Samuel.Afterwardsthreesonsandtwodaughterswereborntothem(seeHANNAH,andSAMUEL).3.ThesonofAssir(1Ch6:23).4.Thefather
ofZophai(Zuph),adescendantof3(1Ch6:26,35).5.ALevitewhodweltinavillageoftheNetophathites(1Ch9:16).6.Oneofthemightymen
whocametoDavidtoZiklag(1Ch12:6).7.Adoorkeeperfortheark(1Ch15:23).8.Ahighofficial,nexttotheking,atthecourtofAhaz(2Ch
28:6,7).
W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
ELKIAH.AnancestorofJudith(Jth8:1).
ELKOSHITE.SeeNAHUM.
ELLASAR.AriochkingofEllasarwasalliedwithChedorlaomerinthecampaignagainstthekingsoftheplain(Gn14:1).Hehasbeen
identifiedwithRimsin,kingofLarsa,andconsequentlyEllasaristhoughttobeforalLarsa,thecityofLarsa.Larsa,modernSenkerehinLower
Babyloniaontheeastbankofthe
Euphrates,wascelebratedforitstempleandworshipofthesungodShamash.
C.H.W.JOHNS.
ELM.Hos4:13AV,butRVterebinth.SeealsoPINE.
ELMADAM.AnancestorofJesus(Lk3:28).
ELNAAM.ThefatheroftwoofDavidsmightymen(1Ch11:46).
ELNATHAN.1.ThefatherofNehushta,themotherofJehoiachin(2K24:8).2.ThesonofAchbor,thechiefofthosesenttoEgypttofetch
Uriah,whohadoffendedJehoiakimbyhisprophecy(Jer26:22ff.)andoneofthosewhohadentreatedthekingnottoburntheroll(36:25).Itis
possiblethatheisidenticalwithNo.1.3.ThenameoccursnofewerthanthreetimesinthelistofthosesentforbyEzrawhenheencampednear
Ahava(Ezr8:16).In1Es8:44thereareonlytwocorrespondingnames,thesecondofwhichisEnnatan.
ELOHIM.SeeGOD.
ELOHIST.SeeHEXATEUCH.
ELOI,ELOI,LAMASABACHTHANI.TheseAram.wordsoccurinMk.
15:34,beinganEng.transliterationfromtheGreek.TheunderlyingAram.wouldbeElahi,Elahi,lemashabaqtani.TheinEloiisprobablyalocal
pronunciationofasawor,asinsomeSyriacdialects.Dalman,however,maintainsthatourLordspokethefirsttwowordsinHebrewandthe
othertwoinAramaic.InthiscaseEloirepresentstheHeb.Elohai=myGod.ForsabachthanitheCodexSinaiticusreadssabaktani,whichmaybe
theoriginalreading.Itismorecorrectbutonthatveryaccountitmaybeagloss.LamaforAram.lema=forwhat?why?hasmanyvariantsin
Gr.MSS,aslema,lamma,lima.
IntheparallelpassageinMt27:46wefindEli,Eli(thoughCod.Sin.readsEloiandBEloei).EliisaHeb.word,here,aselsewhere,borrowedin
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IntheparallelpassageinMt27:46wefindEli,Eli(thoughCod.Sin.readsEloiandBEloei).EliisaHeb.word,here,aselsewhere,borrowedin
Aramaic.TheAram.wordforforsakeisshebaqforwhichtheHeb.equivalentisazabh.InHeb.hastthouforsakenme?wouldbeazabhtani.
ThisexplainsthereadingofCodexD,zaphthanei,whichsomeofficiousliteraryscribesubstitutedforsabachthani,bothinMt.andMk.
J.T.MARSHALL.
ELON.(terebinth.)1.OfthetribeofZebulun,oneoftheminorjudges(Jg12:11,12).AllthatistoldofhimissimplythathejudgedIsrael
fortenyears,thathedied,andwasburiedinEloninZebulun.2.AsonofZebulun(Gn46:14,Nu26:26,wherethegentilicnameElonitesoccurs).
3.AHittite,thefatherinlawofEsau(Gn26:34,36:2).
ELON.1.AtownintheterritoryofDan,nowunknown(Jos19:43).ItisperhapsthesameasElonbethhanan(1K4:9).2.Anunknown
localityinZebulun(Jg12:12).
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
ELONBETHHANAN.Seeprecedingarticle.
ELOTH.SeeELATH.
ELPAAL.ABenjamitefamily(1Ch8:11,12,18).
ELPARAN(Gn14:6).SeePARAN.
ELPELET(1Ch14:5,AVElpalet).OneofDavidssons=ElipheletNo.1.
ELSHADDAI.SeeGOD.
ELTEKE(H).AtowninDanassociatedwithEkronandGibbethon(Jos19:44,21:23),probablytheAltaqmentionedbySennacheribasthe
localityofhisdefeatofthePhilistinesandEgyptiansinthetimeofHezekiahjustbeforehiscaptureofEkron.
ItwasaLeviticalcity.Itsmodernsiteisuncertain.
C.H.W.JOHNS.
ELTEKON(Jos15:59).AtownofJudah,noticedwithMaarathandBethanoth.Siteunknown.
ELTOLAD(Jos15:30).AtownintheextremeS.ofJudah,giventoSimeon(19:4):probably=Tolad(1Ch4:29).Thesiteisunknown.
ELUL(Neh6:15,1Mac14:27).SeeTIME.
ELUZAI.OneofthemightymenwhojoinedDavidatZiklag(1Ch12:5).
ELYMAIS.Thisname,whichrepresentstheOTElam,wasgiventoadistrictof
Persia,lyingalongthesouthernspursofMt.Zagros,S.ofMediaandN.ofSusiana.In1Mac6:1,accordingtothecommonreading,whichis
adoptedbytheAV,ElymaisisnamedasarichcityinPersia.Nosuchcity,however,ismentionedelsewhere,exceptbyJosephus,whoissimply
following1Mac.Therecanbenodoubt,therefore,thatweshouldcorrectthetextandreadwithRV,inElymaisinPersiatherewasacity.
ELYMAS.SeeBARJESUS.
ELZABAD.1.AGaditechiefwhojoinedDavid(1Ch12:12).2.AKorahitedoorkeeper(1Ch26:7).
ELZAPHAN.SeeELIZAPHAN.

EMADABUN(1Es5:58).OneoftheLeviteswhosuperintendedtherestorationoftheTemple.ThenamedoesnotoccurintheparallelEzr
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EMADABUN(1Es5:58).OneoftheLeviteswhosuperintendedtherestorationoftheTemple.ThenamedoesnotoccurintheparallelEzr
3:9:itisprobablyduetoarepetitionofthenamewhichfollows,lliadun.
EMATHEIS(1Es9:29)=Athlai,Ezr10:28.
EMBALMING.ThisspecificallyEgyptian(nonIsraelitish)methodoftreatingdeadbodiesismentionedinScriptureonlyinthecasesof
JacobandJoseph(Gn50:2f.,26).
EMBROIDERYANDNEEDLEWORK.Embroideryistheartofworking
patternsorfiguresontextilefabricswithwoollen,linen,silk,orgoldthreadbymeansofaneedle.Theprocesswasexactlydescribedbythe
Romansaspaintingwithaneedle(acupingere).
TheHebrewwordforembroidery(riqmah)isrenderedbyAVinJg5:30andPs45:14byneedlework,forwhichRVsubstitutes
embroidery,intheformerpassage,however,renderapieceofembroideryortwoforembroideryonbothsides,andinEzk16:10,13,18,
27:7,16,24bybroideredworkorbroideredgarments,whichRVretains.SimilarlyinconnexionwithcertainfabricsoftheTabernacleandthe
highpriestsgirdle,forwroughtwithneedleworkRVhasthemoreliteralrenderingtheworkoftheembroiderer(Ex26:36,27:16,28:39etc.),
whomAValsointroducesin35:35,38:23.
Anentirelydifferentword,therealsignificanceofwhichisuncertain,isalsorenderedinAVbyembroider.thoushaltembroiderthecoatof
finelinen(Ex28:39),forwhichRVhas:thoushaltweavethecoatinchequerwork(forwhichseeSPINNINGANDWEAVING).Sofora
broideredcoat(Ex28:4)RVhasacoatofchequerwork.
TheartofembroiderywasaninventionoftheBabylonians,fromwhomitpassed,throughthemediumofthePhrygians,totheGreeksandthe
othernationsoftheWest.MummyclothsarestillpreservedshowingthattheartwasalsopractisedinEgypt.NoactualspecimensofBabylonian
embroideryhavesurvived,butthesculpturesofAssyrianpalaces,notablyasculpturedfigureofAshurnazirpal.showtheroyalrobesornamented
withbordersofthemostelaborateembroidery.Thevariousdesignsarediscussed,withillustrations,byPerrotandChipiez,Hist.ofArtinChalda
andAssyria,ii.363ff.
If,asisgenerallybelieved,thePriestsCodewascompiledinBabylonia,wemaytracetheinfluenceofthelatterintheembroideriesintroduced
intotheTabernaclescreensandelsewhere(reff.above).Inthepassagesinquestiontheworkoftheembroiderer(rqm)isdistinguishedfrom,
andmentionedafter,theworkofthecunningworkman(chshb,lit.designer,inPhnicianweaver),whoappearstohavewovenhisdesigns
intothefabricafterthemanneroftapestry(seeSPINNINGANDWEAVING).Thematerialsusedbybothartistswerethesame,linenthreaddyed
blue,purple,andscarlet,andfinegoldthread,thepreparationofwhichisminutelydescribed,Ex39:3.
AnillustrationincoloursofthesailswhichTyreimportedfromEgypt,offinelinenwithbroideredwork(Ezk27:7),maybeseeninthe
frontispiecetoWilkinsonsAncientEgyptians,vol.ii.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
EMEKKEZIZ(Jos18:21,AVValleyofKeziz,mentionedamongthetownsofBenjamin).AplaceapparentlyintheJordanValleynear
Jericho.Thesiteisunknown.
EMERALD.SeeJEWELSANDPRECIOUSSTONES.
EMERODS.SeeMEDICINE.
EMIM.PrimitiveinhabitantsofMoab,agiganticpeopleofHebrewtradition(Rephaim,Dt2:10f.,cf.Gn14:5).
J.F.MCCURDY.EMMANUEL.SeeIMMANUEL.
EMMAUS.1.AvillagesixtyfurlongsfromJerusalem,wheretherisenChristmadeHimselfknowntotwodisciples(Lk24:13).Thereisno
cluetothepositionofthisplace,andithasbeensoughtinKubeibeh,N.W.ofthecityinKuloniyeh,W.ofitinKhamasahtotheS.W.andin
UrtastotheS.ThetraditionalsiteisEmmausNicopolis(Amwas),W.ofJerusalem,which,however,ismuchtoofar20milesfromthecity.
2.EmmausNicopolis,nowAmwas,onthemainJerusalemJaffaroad,thesceneofthedefeatofGorgiasbyJudas(1Mac3:40,57,4:327),
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2.EmmausNicopolis,nowAmwas,onthemainJerusalemJaffaroad,thesceneofthedefeatofGorgiasbyJudas(1Mac3:40,57,4:327),
heldandfortifiedbyBacchides(1Mac9:50).
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
EMMER(1Es9:21)=Ezr10:20Immer.
EMMERUTH(1Es5:24).AcorruptionofImmerinEzr2:37.
ENAIM.AJudantownintheShephlah(Jos15:34.EnamGn38:14,AVinanopenplace,RVinthegateofEnaimv.21,AV
openly,RVatEnaim).FromthenarrativeinGn38wegatherthatitlaybetweenAdullamandTimnah.Thesiteisnotidentified.Conder
suggestsKhirbetWdyAlin,nearBethshemeshandEngannim.
W.EWING.
ENAN.PrinceofNaphtallatthefirstcensus(Nu1:15,2:29,7:78,83,10:27P).
ENASIBUS(1Es9:34)=Ezr10:36Eliashib.TheformisprobablyduetoreadingAIasN.
ENCAMPMENTBYTHESEA.OneofthestationsintheitineraryofthechildrenofIsrael,wheretheyencampedafterleavingElim,Nu
33:10.IfthepositionofElimbeintheWadyGharandel,thenthecampbytheseaisontheshoreoftheGulfofSuez,somewheresouthofthepoint
wheretheWadyTayibehopenstothecoast.Thecuriousreturnofthelineofmarchtotheseashoreisaphenomenonthathasalwaysarrestedthe
attentionoftravellerstoMt.Sinai:andifMt.SinaibereallyinthesocalledSinaiticpeninsula,thecampcanbelocatedwithinahalfmile.
ENCHANTMENT.SeeMAGICDIVINATIONANDSORCERY.
ENDOR.AtownofManassehintheterritoryofIssachar(Jos17:11)thehomeofawomanwithafamiliarspiritconsultedbySaulonthe
eveofthebattleofGilboa(1S28)and,accordingtoapsalmist(83:10),thesceneoftheroutofJabinand
Sisera.ItisidentifiedwithEndr,southofTahor,whereareseveralancientcaves.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
ENEGLAIM.AlocalityontheDeadSea,mentionedalongwithEngedi(Ezk47:10).Ithasnotbeenidentified,butisnotimprobablyAin
Feshkah(Robinson,BRPii.489).Tristram(BiblePlaces,93)wouldmakeitAinHajlah(Bethhoglah).Inanycase,itprobablylaytotheN.
towardsthemouthoftheJordan.
ENEMESSAR.NameofakingofAssyriainGr.MSSofTo1:2,wheretheSyriacandLat.giveShalmaneser,whoisprobablymeant.The
corruptionisbestaccountedforbythelossofShandlandthetranspositionofmandnbutnaturallymanyexplanationsmaybeofferedwithout
conviction.
C.H.W.JOHNS.
ENENEUS(1Es5:8).OneofthetwelveleadersofthereturnfromBabylonunderZerubbabel.ThenameisomittedintheparallellistinEzr
2,whichgivesonlyelevenleadersbutanswerstoNahamani,Neh7:7.
ENGANNIM.1.Jos15:34.AtownofJudahnoticedwithZanoahandEshtaolperhapstheruinUmmJinainthevalleynearZanoah.2.Jos
19:21,21:29(in1Ch6:58Anem).AtownofIssachargiventotheLevitesnowJenn,atownontheS.borderofEsdraelon,withafinespring,
gardens,andpalms.ItmarkedtheS.limitofGalilee,andappearstohavebeenalwaysaflourishingtown.
ENGEDI(springofthekid).AplaceinthewildernessinthetribeofJudah(Jos15:62),whereDavidforatimewasinhiding(1S23:29,
24:1).HeretheMoabitesandAmmonitescameagainstJehoshaphat(2Ch20:2).TheShulammitecomparesherbelovedtohennaflowersinEn
gedi(Ca1:14)andinEzekielsidealisticvisionofthehealingoftheDeadSeawaters,apictureisdrawnoffishersherespreadingtheirnets(Ezk 32/85
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gedi(Ca1:14)andinEzekielsidealisticvisionofthehealingoftheDeadSeawaters,apictureisdrawnoffishersherespreadingtheirnets(Ezk
47:10).AnalternativenameisHazazontamar,foundinGn14:7and2Ch20:2.ThereisnodoubtoftheidentificationofEngediwithAinJidy,a
springofwarmwaterthatbreaksout330ft.abovetheleveloftheDeadSea,aboutthemiddleofitsW.side.Itoncewascultivated,butisnow
givenovertoawildsemitropicalvegetation.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
ENGINE.SeeFORTIFICATION,etc.,6.
ENGLISHVERSIONS.1.ThehistoryoftheEnglishBiblebeginsearlyinthehistoryoftheEnglishpeople,thoughnotquiteatthe
beginningofit,andonlyslowlyattainstoanymagnitude.TheBiblewhichwasbroughtintothecountrybythefirstmissionaries,byAidaninthe
northandAugustineinthesouth,wastheLatinBibleandforsomeconsiderabletimeafterthefirstpreachingofChristianitytotheEnglishno
vernacularversionwouldberequired.NoristhereanytraceofavernacularBibleintheCelticChurch,whichstillexistedinWalesandIreland.The
literarylanguageoftheeducatedminoritywasLatinandtheinstructionofthenewlyconvertedEnglishtribeswascarriedonbyoralteachingand
preaching.Astimewenton,however,andmonasterieswerefounded,manyofwhoseinmateswereimperfectlyacquaintedeitherwithEnglishor
withLatin,ademandaroseforEnglishtranslationsoftheScriptures.Thistooktwoforms.Ontheonehand,therewasacallforwordforword
translationsoftheLatin,whichmightassistreaderstoacomprehensionoftheLatinBibleand,ontheother,forcontinuousversionsorparaphrases,
whichmightbereadto,orby,thosewhoseskillinreadingLatinwassmall.
2.Theearliestform,sofarasisknown,inwhichthisdemandwasmetwasthepoemofCaedmon,theworkofamonkofWhitbyinthethird
quarterofthe7thcent.,whichgivesametricalparaphraseofpartsofbothTestaments.TheonlyextantMSofthepoem(intheBodleian)belongsto
theendofthe10thcent.,anditisdoubtfulhowmuchofitreallygoesbacktothetimeofCaedmon.Inanycase,thepoemasitappearsheredoes
notappeartobelaterthanthe8thcentury.Atradition,originatingwithBale,attributedanEnglishversionofthePsalmstoAldhelm,bishopof
Sherborne(d.707),butitappearstobequitebaseless(seeA.S.Cook,Bibl.Quot.in
OldEng.ProseWriters,1878,pp.xivxviii).AnAngloSaxonPsalterinan11thcent.MSatParis(partlyinproseandpartlyinverse)hasbeen
identified,withoutanyevidence,withthisimaginarywork.ThewellknownstoryofthedeathofBede(in735)showshimengagedonanEnglish
translationofSt.JohnsGospel[oneearlyMS(atSt.Gall)representsthisasextendingonlytoJn6:9butsoabruptaconclusionseemsinconsistent
withthecourseofthenarrative],butofthisalltraceshavedisappeared.ThescholarshipofthemonasteriesofWearmouthandJarrow,whichhadan
importantinfluenceonthetextualhistoryoftheLatinVulgate,didnotconcernitselfwithvernaculartranslationsandnofurthertraceofanEnglish
Bibleappearsuntilthe9thcentury.TothatperiodisassignedawordforwordtranslationofthePsalter,writtenbetweenthelinesofaLatinMS
(CottonMSVespasianA.I.,intheBritishMuseum),whichwastheprogenitorofseveralsimilarglossesbetweenthatdateandthe12thcent.andto
itcertainlybelongstheattemptofAlfredtoeducatehispeoplebyEnglishtranslationsoftheworkswhichhethoughtmostneedfultothem.Heis
saidtohaveundertakenaversionofthePsalms,ofwhichnoportionsurvives,unlesstheproseportion(Ps150)oftheabovementionedParisMS
isarelicofitbutwestillhavethetranslationoftheDecalogue,thesummaryoftheMosaiclaw,andtheletteroftheCouncilofJerusalem(Ac
15:2329),whichheprefixedtohiscodeoflaws.Tothe10thcent.belongsprobablytheverseportionoftheParisMS,andtheinterlinear
translationoftheGospelsinNorthumbriandialectinsertedbythepriestAldredintheLindisfarneGospels(BritishMuseum),whichisrepeatedin
theRushworthGospels(Bodleian)ofthesamecentury,withthedifferencethattheversionofMt.isthereintheMerciandialect.Thisistheearliest
extanttranslationoftheGospelsintoEnglish.
3.TheearliestindependentversionofanyofthebooksoftheBiblehaslikewisegenerallybeenassignedtothe10thcent.,butifthisclaimcan
bemadegoodatall,itcanapplyonlytothelastyearsofthatcentury.TheversioninquestionisatranslationoftheGospelsinthedialectof
Wessex,ofwhichsixMSS(withafragmentofaseventh)arenowextant.ItwaseditedbyW.Skeat,TheHolyGospelsinAngloSaxon(1871
1877)twoMSSareintheBritishMuseum,twoatCambridge,andtwo(withafragmentofanother)atOxford.Fromthenumberofcopieswhich
stillsurvive,itmustbepresumedtohavehadacertaincirculation,atanyrateinWessex,anditcontinuedtobecopiedforatleastacentury.The
earliestMSSareassignedtothebeginningofthe11thcent.butitisobservablethatlfrictheGrammarian,abbotofEynsham,writingabout990,
saysthattheEnglishatthattimehadnottheevangelicaldoctrinesamongtheirwritings,thosebooksexceptedwhichKingAlfredwiselyturned
fromLatinintoEnglish[prefacetolfricsHomilies,editedbyB.Thorpe,London,184346].Inasubsequenttreatise(Treatiseconcerningthe
OldandNewTestament,ed.W.
Lisle,London,1623)also(thedateofwhichissaidtobeabout1010,seeDietrich,
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Lisle,London,1623)also(thedateofwhichissaidtobeabout1010,seeDietrich,
Zeitsch.f.hist.Theol.1856,quotedbyCook,op.cit.,p.lxiv.)hespeaksasifnoEnglishversionoftheGospelswereinexistence,andrefershis
readerstohisownhomiliesontheGospels.SincelfrichadbeenamonkatWinchesterandabbotofCerne,inDorset,itisdifficulttounderstand
howhecouldhavefailedtoknowoftheWessexversionoftheGospels,ifithadbeenproducedandcirculatedmuchbefore1000anditseems
probablethatitonlycameintoexistenceearlyinthe11thcentury.Inthiscaseitwascontemporaneouswithanotherworkoftranslation,dueto
lfrichimself.lfric,attherequestofthelweard.sonofhispatronthelmr,ealdormanofDevonshireandfounderofEynshamAbbey,
producedaparaphraseoftheHeptateuch,homiliescontainingepitomesoftheBooksofKingsandJob,andbriefversionsofEsther,Judith,and
Maccabees.ThesehavetheinterestofbeingtheearliestextantEnglishversionofthenarrativebooksoftheOT.[TheHeptateuchandJobwere
printedbyE.Thwaites(Oxford,1698).Fortherest,seeCook,op.cit.]
4.TheNormanConquestcheckedforatimeallthevernacularliteratureofEngland,includingthetranslationsoftheBible.Oneofthefirst
signsofitsrevivalwastheproductionoftheOrmulum,apoemwhichembodiesmetricalversionsoftheGospelsandActs,writtenabouttheendof
the12thcentury.ThemainBiblicalliteratureofthisperiod,however,wasFrench.ForthebenefitoftheNormansettlersinEngland,translationsof
thegreaterpartofbothOTandNTwereproducedduringthe12thand13thcenturies.Especiallynotableamongthesewastheversionofthe
Apocalypse,becauseitwasfrequentlyaccompaniedbyaseriesofillustrations,thebestexamplesofwhicharethefinest(andalsothemostquaint)
artisticproductionsoftheperiodinthesphereofbookillustration.Nearly90MSSofthisversionareknown,rangingfromthefirsthalfofthe12th
cent.tothefirsthalfofthe15th[seeP.Berger,LaBibleFranaiseaumoyenge,p.78ff.L.DelisleandP.Meyer,LApocalypseenFranais
(Paris,1901)andNewPalographicalSociety,part2,plates38.39],somehavingbeenproducedinEngland,andothersinFranceandinthe
14thcent.itreappearsinanEnglishdress,havingbeentranslatedapparentlyaboutthattime.ThisEnglishversion(whichatonetimewasattributed
toWyclif)isknowninnolessthan16MSS,whichfallintoatleasttwoclasses[seeMissA.C.Paues,AFourteenthCenturyEnglishBiblical
Version(Cambridge,1902),pp.2430]anditisnoteworthythatfromthesecondofthesewasderivedtheversionwhichappearsintherevised
WyclifiteBible,tobementionedpresently.
5.The14thcent.,whichsawthepracticalextinctionofthegeneraluseoftheFrenchlanguageinEngland,andtheriseofarealnative
literature,sawalsoagreatrevivalofvernacularBiblicalliterature,beginningapparentlywiththeBookofPsalms.TwoEnglishversionsofthe
Psalterwereproducedatthisperiod,oneofwhichenjoyedgreatpopularity.ThiswastheworkofRichardRolle,hermitofHampole,inYorkshire
(d.1349).ItcontainstheLatintextofthePsalter,followedversebyversebyanEnglishtranslationandcommentary.Originallywritteninthe
northerndialect,itsoonspreadoverallEngland,andmanyMSSofitstillexistinwhichthedialecthasbeenalteredtosuitsoutherntastes.Towards
theendofthecenturyRollesworksufferedfurtherchange,thecommentarybeingrewrittenfromastronglyLollardpointofview,andinthis
shapeitcontinuedtocirculatefarintothe
16thcentury.AnotherversionofthePsalterwasproducedcontemporaneouslywithRolles,somewhereintheWestMidlands.Theauthorshipofit
wasformerlyattributedtoWilliamofShoreham,vicarofChartSutton,inKent,butfornootherreasonthanthatinoneofthetwoMSSinwhichit
ispreserved(Brit.Mus.Add.MS17376,theotherbeingatTrinityCollege,Dublin)itisnowboundupwithhisreligiouspoems.Thedialect,
however,provesthatthisauthorshipisimpossible,andtheversionmustbeputdownasanonymous.AsinthecaseofRollestranslation,theLatin
andEnglishtextsareintermixed,versebyversebutthereisnocommentary.
[SeeK.S.Blbring,TheEarliestCompleteEnglishProsePsalter(EarlyEnglishTextSociety),1891.]
6.ThePsalterwasnottheonlypartoftheBibleofwhichversionscameintoexistenceinthecourseofthe14thcentury.AtMagdaleneCollege,
Cambridge(PepysMS2498),isanEnglishnarrativeoftheLifeofChrist,compiledoutofarearrangementoftheGospelsforSundaysandholy
daysthroughouttheyear.Quiterecently,too,agroupofMSS,which(sofarastheywereknownatall)hadbeenregardedasbelongingtothe
WyclifiteBible,hasbeenshownbyMissAnnaC.Paues[AFourteenthCenturyEnglishBiblicalVersion(Cambridge,1902)]tocontainan
independenttranslationoftheNT.Itisnotcomplete,theGospelsbeingrepresentedonlybyMt1:16:8,andtheApocalypsebeingaltogether
omitted.Theoriginalnucleusseems,indeed,tohaveconsistedofthefourlargerCatholicEpistlesandtheEpistlesofSt.Paul,towhichwere
subsequentlyadded2and3John,Jude,Acts,and
Mt1:16:8.FourMSSofthisversionareatpresentknown,theoldestbeingoneatSelwynCollege,Cambridge,whichwaswrittenabout1400.The
prologuenarratesthatthetranslationwasmadeattherequestofamonkandanunbytheirsuperior,whodeferstotheirearnestdesire,although,as

hesays,itisattheriskofhislife.Thisphraseseemstoshowthattheworkwasproducedaftertheriseofthegreatpartycontroversywhichis
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hesays,itisattheriskofhislife.Thisphraseseemstoshowthattheworkwasproducedaftertheriseofthegreatpartycontroversywhichis
associatedwiththenameofWyclif.
7.WithWyclif(13201384),wereachalandmarkinthehistoryoftheEnglishBible,intheproductionofthefirstcompleteversionofboth
OTandNT.ItbelongstothelastperiodofWyclifslife,thatinwhichhewasengagedinopenwarwiththePapacyandwithmostoftheofficial
chiefsoftheEnglishChurch.Itwasconnectedwithhisinstitutionofpoorpriests,ormissionpreachers,andformedpartofhisschemeof
appealingtothepopulaceingeneralagainstthedoctrinesandsupremacyof
Rome.TheNTseemstohavebeencompletedabout1380,theOTbetween1382and1384.ExactlyhowmuchofitwasdonebyWyclifsownhand
isuncertain.ThegreaterpartoftheOT(asfarasBaruch3:20)isassignedinanOxfordMStoNicholasHereford,oneofWyclifsprincipal
supportersatthatuniversityanditiscertainthatthispartofthetranslationisinadifferentstyle(morestiffandpedantic)fromtherest.
TheNTisgenerallyattributedtoWyclifhimself,andhemayalsohavecompletedtheOT,whichHerefordapparentlyhadtoabandonabruptly,
perhapswhenhewassummonedtoLondonandexcommunicatedin1382.Thispartoftheworkisfreeandvigorousinstyle,thoughits
interpretationoftheoriginalisoftenstrange,andmanysentencesinitcanhaveconveyedverylittleideaoftheirmeaningtoitsreaders.Suchasit
washowever,itwasacompleteEnglishBible,addressedtothewholeEnglishpeople,highandlow,richandpoor.Thatthisisthecaseisprovedby
thecharacterofthecopieswhichhavesurvived(about30innumber).Somearelargefoliovolumes,handsomelywrittenandilluminatedinthe
best,ornearlythebest,styleoftheperiodsuchisthefinecopy,intwovolumes(nowBrit.Mus.EgertonMSS617,618),whichoncebelongedto
Thomas,DukeofGloucester,uncleofRichardII.Othersareplaincopiesofordinarysize,intendedforprivatepersonsormonasticlibrariesforitis
clearthat,inspiteofofficialdisfavourandeventualprohibition,thereweremanyplacesinEnglandwhereWyclifandhisBiblewerewelcomed.
Wyclif,indeed,enjoyedadvantagesfrompersonalreputeandinfluentialsupportsuchashadbeenenjoyedbynoEnglishtranslatorsinceAlfred.An
Oxfordscholar,atonetimeMasterofBalliol,holderoflivingssuccessivelyfromhiscollegeandtheCrown,employedofficiallyonbehalfofhis
countryincontroversywiththePope,thefriendandprotgofJohnofGauntandotherprominentnobles,andenjoyingasarulethestrenuous
supportoftheUniversityofOxford,Wyclifwasinallrespectsapersonofweightandinfluenceintherealm,whocouldnotbesilencedorisolated
bytheoppositionofbishopssuchasArundel.Theworkthathehaddonehadstruckitsrootstoodeeptobedestroyed,andthoughitwasidentified
withLollardismbyitsadversaries,itsrangewasmuchwiderthanthatofanyonesectorparty.
8.Wyclifstranslation,however,thoughtoostrongtobeoverthrownbyitsopponents,wascapableofimprovementbyitsfriends.The
differenceofstylebetweenHerefordandhiscontinuatororcontinuators,thestiffandunpopularcharacteroftheworkoftheformer,andthe
imperfectionsinevitableinafirstattemptonsolargeascale,calledaloudforrevisionandasecondWyclifiteBible,theresultofaverycomplete
revisionofitspredecessor,sawthelightnotmanyyearsaftertheReformersdeath.Theauthorshipofthesecondversionisdoubtful.Itwas
assignedbyForshallandMadden,theeditorsoftheWyclifiteBible,toJohnPurvey,oneofWyclifsmostintimatefollowersbuttheevidenceis
purelycircumstantial,andrestsmainlyonverbalresemblancesbetweenthetranslatorsprefaceandknownworksofPurvey,togetherwiththefact
thatacopyofthisprefaceisfoundattachedtoacopyoftheearlierversionwhichwasoncePurveysproperty.Whatiscertainisthatthesecond
versionisbaseduponthefirst,andthatthetranslatorsprefaceispermeatedwithWyclifiteopinions.Thisversionspeedilysupersededtheother,
andinspiteofadecreepassed,atArundelsinstigation,bytheCouncilofBlackfriarsin1408,itmusthavecirculatedinlargenumbers.Over140
copiesarestillinexistence,manyofthemsmallpocketvolumessuchasmusthavebeenthepersonalpropertyofprivateindividualsfortheirown
study.Othersbelongedtothegreatestpersonagesintheland,andcopiesarestillinexistencewhichformerlyhadforownersHenryVI.,HenryVII.,
EdwardVI.,andElizabeth.
9.AtthispointitseemsnecessarytosaysomethingofthetheorywhichhasbeenpropoundedbythewellknownRomanCatholichistorian,
AbbotGasquet,totheeffectthattheversionswhichpassunderthenameofWyclifitewerenotproducedbyWycliforhisfollowersatall,but
weretranslationsauthorizedandcirculatedbytheheadsoftheChurchofEngland,Wyclifsparticularenemies.[TheOldEnglishBible,1897,pp.
102178.]Thestrongestargumentadducedinsupportofthisviewisthepossessionofcopiesoftheversionsinquestionbothbykingsandprinces
ofEngland,andbyreligioushousesandpersonsofunquestionedorthodoxy.Thisdoes,indeed,provethatthepersecutionoftheEnglishBibleand
itspossessorsbytheauthoritiesoftheCatholicChurchwasnotsouniversalorcontinuousasitissometimesrepresentedtohavebeen,butitdoes
notgofartowardsdisprovingtheWyclifiteauthorshipofversionswhichcanbedemonstrativelyconnected,astheseare,withthenamesofleading
supportersofWyclif,suchasHerefordandPurveythemoresosincetheevidenceoforthodoxownershipofmanyofthecopiesinquestiondates
fromtimeslongafterthecessationoftheLollardpersecution.Dr.GasquetalsodeniesthatthereisanyrealevidenceconnectingWyclifwiththe
productionofanEnglishBibleatallbutmordertomakegoodthisassertionhehastoignoreseveralpassagesinWyclifsownwritingsinwhich 35/85
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fromtimeslongafterthecessationoftheLollardpersecution.Dr.GasquetalsodeniesthatthereisanyrealevidenceconnectingWyclifwiththe
productionofanEnglishBibleatallbutmordertomakegoodthisassertionhehastoignoreseveralpassagesinWyclifsownwritingsinwhich
hereferstotheimportanceofavernacularversion(totheexistenceofhisownversionhecouldnotrefer,sincethatwasproducedonlyattheendof
hislife),andtodoviolencealiketothepropertranslationandtothenaturalinterpretationofpassageswrittenbyWyclifsopponents(Arundel,
Knyghton,andtheCouncilofOxfordin1408)inwhichWyclifsworkismentionedandcondemned.Further,Dr.GasquetdeniesthattheLollards
madeaspecialpointofthecirculationoftheScripturesinthevernacular,orwerechargedwithsodoingbytheecclesiasticalauthoritieswho
prosecutedthemandinparticularhedrawsadistinctionbetweentheversionsnowextantandtheBibleonaccountofthehereticalnatureofwhich
(amongothercharges)oneRichardHunwascondemnedbytheBishopofLondonin1514.Ithas,however,beenshownconclusivelythatthe
depositionsofthewitnessesagainsttheLollards(whichcannotberegardedaswhollyirrelevanttothechargesbroughtagainstthem)constantly
makementionofthepossessionofvernacularBiblesandthatthechangesagainstRichardHun,basedupontheprologuetotheBibleinhis
possession,aretakenverbatimfromtheprologuetotheversionwhichwenowknowasPurveys.ItistruethatDr.Gasquetmakestheexplicit
statementthatweshalllookinvainintheeditionofWyclifiteScripturespublishedbyForshallandMaddenforanytraceoftheseerrors(i.e.the
errorsfoundbyHunsprosecutorsintheprologuetohisBible)butawriterintheChurchQuarterlyReview(Jan.1901,p.292ff.)hasprintedin
parallelcolumnsthechargesagainstHunandthecorrespondingpassagesinPurveysprologue,whichleavenopossibilityofdoubtthatHunwas
condemnedforpossessingacopyoftheversionwhichiscommonlyknownasPurveys,orasthelaterWyclifiteversion.ThearticleintheChurch
QuarterlyReviewmustbereadbyeveryonewhowishestoinvestigateDr.Gasquetstheoryfullytheevidencethereadducedisdecisiveastothe
unsoundnessofDr.Gasquetshistoricalposition.ItisimpossibletoattributetotheofficialheadsoftheEnglishChurchatranslationtheprologueto
which(toquotebuttwophrases)speaksofthepardounsofthebisschopisofRome,thatbenopinleesingis,anddeclaresthattoeschewepride
andspekeonourofGodandofhislawe,andrepreuesynnebiweieofcharite,ismatirandcausenowwhiprelatisandsummelordissclaundren
men,andclepenhemlollardis,eretikis,andriserisofdebateandoftresonagenstheking.Inthefaceofthisevidenceitwillbeimpossibleinfuture
todenythattheWyclifiteBibleisidenticalwiththatwhichwenowpossess,andthatitwasattimesthecauseofthepersecutionofitsownersby
theauthoritiesoftheChurch.Thatthispersecutionwaspartialandtemporaryislikelyenough.Muchofitwasduetotheactivityofindividual
bishops,suchasArundelbutnotallthebishopssharedArundelsviews.Wyclifhadpowerfulsupporters,notablyJohnofGauntandtheUniversity
ofOxford,andundertheirprotectioncopiesofthevernacularBiblecouldbeproducedandcirculated.Itis,moreover,likely,nottosaycertain,that
astimewentontheWyclifiteoriginoftheversionwouldoftenbeforgotten.ApartfromtheprefacetoPurveysedition,whichappearsonlyrarely
intheextantMSS,thereisnothinginthetranslationitselfwhichwouldbetrayitsLollardoriginanditisquiteprobablethatmanypersonsinthe
15thandearly16thcent.useditwithoutanysuspicionofitsconnexionwithWyclif.SirThomasMore,whosegoodfaiththereisnoreasonto
question,appearstohavedonesootherwiseitcanonlybesupposedthattheorthodoxEnglishBiblesofwhichhespeaks,andwhichheexpressly
distinguishesfromtheBiblewhichcausedthecondemnationofRichardHun,havewhollydisappeared,whichishardlylikely.Ifthisbeadmitted,
therestofMoresevidencefallstotheground.ThehistoryoftheWyclifiteBible,andofitsreceptioninEngland,wouldinsomepointsbear
restatementbuttheingenious,andatfirstsightplausible,theoryofAbbotGasquethasfailedtostandexamination,anditistobehopedthatitmay
beallowedtolapse.
10.WiththeproductionofthesecondWyclifiteversionthehistoryofthemanuscriptEnglishBiblecomestoanend.Purveysworkwasonthe
levelofthebestscholarshipandtextualknowledgeoftheage,anditsatisfiedtherequirementsofthosewhoneededavernacularBible.Thatitdid
notreachmodernstandardsintheserespectsgoeswithoutsaying.Inthefirstplace,itwastranslatedfromtheLatinVulgate,notfromtheoriginal
HebrewandGreek,withwhichthereisnoreasontosupposethatWycliforhisassistantswerefamiliar.Secondly,itsexegesisisoftendeficient,and
somepassagesinitmusthavebeenwhollyunintelligibletoitsreaders.This,however,maybesaidevenofsomepartsoftheAV,sothatitissmall
reproachtoWyclifandPurveyandonthewholeitisastraightforwardandintelligibleversionoftheScriptures.Afewexamplesofthis,thefirst
completeEnglishBible,andthefirstversioninwhichtheEnglishapproachessufficientlyneartoitsmodernformtobegenerallyintelligible,may
begivenhere.
Jn14:17.Benotyoureherteaffraied,nedredeit.Yebileueningod,andbileueyeinme.Inthehousofmyfadirbenmanydwellyogis:ifony
thinglasseIhaddeseidtoyou,forIgotomakereditoyouaplace.AndifIgoandmakereditoyouaplace,eftsoneIcomeandIschaltakeyouto
mysilf,thatwhereIam,yebe.AndwhidirIgoyewiten:andyewitenthewey.Thomasseithtohim,Lord,wewitennotwhidirthougoist,andhou
mounwewitetheweie.Ihesusseithtohim,Iamweyetrutheandliif:
nomancomethtothefadir,butbime.Ifyehaddenknoweme,sothliyehaddenknowealsomyfadir:andaftirwardeyeschulnknowehim,andye 36/85
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nomancomethtothefadir,butbime.Ifyehaddenknoweme,sothliyehaddenknowealsomyfadir:andaftirwardeyeschulnknowehim,andye
hanseenhym.
2Co1:1720.ButwhanneIwoldethisthing,whetherIusideunstidfastnesse?etherthothingisthatIthenke,Ithenkeaftirthefleische,thatat
mebeitisanditisnot.Butgodistrewe,forourewordthatwasatyou,isandisnot,isnotthereinne,butisinit.Forwhiihesuscristthesoneof
god,whichisprechidamongyoubius,bimeandsiluanandtymothe,therwasnotinhymisandisnot,butiswasinhym.Forwhihoumanyeuer
benbiheestisofgod,inthilkeisbenfulfillid.AndtherforandbihimweseienAmentogod,tooureglorie.
Eph3:1421.ForgraceofthisthingIbowemykneestothefadirofourelordihesuscrist,ofwhomechefadirheedinheuenesandinertheis
named,thathegeuetoyouaftirtherichessisofhisglorie,vertutobestrengthidbihisspiritintheyonermanthatcristedwellebifeitninyoure
hertisthatyerootidandgroundidincharite,mouncomprehendewithalleseyntiswnicheisthebreedeandthelengtheandthehighistandthe
depnessealsotowitethechariteofcristmoreexcellentthannescience,thatyehefillidinalltheplenteofgod.Andtohymthatismyghtitodoalle
thingismorepleuteuouslithanneweaxen,orundirstandebithsvertuthatworchithinus,tohymbeglorieinthechircheandincristihesusintoalle
thegeneraciounsoftheworldis.Amen.
11.TheEnglishmanuscriptBiblewasnowcomplete,andnofurthertranslationwasissuedinthisform.TheLollardcontroversydieddownamid
thestrainoftheFrenchwarsandthepassionsofthewarsoftheRosesandwhen,inthe16thcentury,religiousquestionsoncemorecametothe
front,thesituationhadbeenfundamentallychangedthroughtheinventionofprinting.ThefirstbookthatissuedfromthepresswastheLatinBible
(popularlyknownastheMazarinBible),publishedbyFustandGutenbergin1456.FortheLatinBible(theforminwhichtheScriptureshad
hithertobeenmainlyknowninWesternEurope)therewasindeedsogreatademand,thatnolessthan124editionsofitaresaidtohavebeenissued
beforetheendofthe15thcenturybutitwasonlyslowlythatscholarsrealizedtheimportanceofutilizingtheprintingpressforthecirculationof
theScriptures,eitherintheiroriginaltongues,orinthevernacularsofEurope.TheHebrewPsalterwasprintedin1477,thecompleteOTin1488.
TheGreekBible,bothOTandNT,wasincludedinthegreat
ComplutensianPolyglotofCardinalXimenes,printedin151417,butnotpublishedtill1522.TheGreekNT(editedbyErasmus)wasfirst
publishedbyFrobenin1516,theOTbytheAldinepressin1518.Inthewayofvernacularversions,aFrenchBiblewasprintedatLyonsabout
1478,andanotherabout1487aSpanishPentateuchwasprinted(byJews)in1497aGermanBiblewasprintedatStrassburgbyMentelinin1466,
andwasfollowedbyeighteenothers(besidesmanyPsaltersandotherseparatebooks)betweenthatdateand1522,whenthefirstportionof
Lutherstranslationappeared.InEngland,CaxtoninsertedthemainpartoftheOTnarrativeinhistranslationoftheGoldenLegend(whichinits
originalformalreadycontainedtheGospelstory),publishedin1483butnoregularEnglishversionoftheBiblewasprinteduntil1525,withwhich
dateanewchapterinthehistoryoftheEnglishBiblebegins.
12.Itwasnotthefaultofthetranslatorthatitdidnotappearatleastasearlyas
Luthers.WilliamTindale(c.14901536)devotedhimselfearlytoScripturestudies,andbythetimehehadreachedtheageofabout30hehad
takenfortheworkofhislifethetranslationoftheBibleintoEnglish.HewasborninGloucestershire,wherehisfamilyseemstohaveusedthe
nameofHutchinsorHychins,aswellasthatofTindale,sothatheishimselfsometimesdescribedbybothnames)andhebecameamemberof
MagdalenHall(adependencyofMagdalenCollege)atOxford,wherehedefinitelyassociatedhimselfwiththeProtestantpartyandbecameknown
asoneoftheirleaders.HetookhisdegreeasB.A.in1512,asM.A.in1515,andatsomeuncertaindateheissaid(byFoxe)tohavegoneto
Cambridge.Ifthiswasbetween1511and1515,hewouldhavefoundErasmustherebutinthatcaseitcouldhavebeenonlyaninterludeinthe
middleofhisOxfordcourse,andperhapsitismoreprobablethathisvisitbelongstosomepartoftheyears1515to1520,astowhichthereisno
definiteinformation.About1520hebecameresidenttutorinthehouseofSirJohnWalsh,atLittleSodburyinGloucestershire,towhichperiod
belongshisfamoussaying,incontroversywithanopponent:IfGodsparemylife,eremanyyearsIwillcauseaboythatdriveththeploughshall
knowmoreoftheScripturethanthoudoest.WiththisobjecthecameuptoLondonin1523,andsoughtaplaceintheserviceofTunstall,bishopof
London,ascholarandpatronofscholars,ofwhomErasmushadspokenfavourablybutherehereceivednoencouragement.Hewas,however,
takeninbyAldermanHumphreyMonmouth,inwhosehousehelivedaschaplainandstudiedforsixmonthsattheendofwhichtimehewas
forcedtotheconclusionnotonlythattherewasnoroominmylordofLondonspalacetotranslatetheNewTestament,butalsothattherewasno
placetodoitinallEngland.

13. AboutMay1524,therefore,TindaleleftEnglandandsettledinthefreecityofHamburg,andinthecourseofthenext12monthsthefirst
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13.AboutMay1524,therefore,TindaleleftEnglandandsettledinthefreecityofHamburg,andinthecourseofthenext12monthsthefirst
stageofhisgreatworkwascompleted.WhetherduringthistimehevisitedLutheratWittenbergisquiteuncertainwhatiscertain,andmore
important,isthathewasacquaintedwithLutherswritings.In1525,thetranslationoftheNTbeingfinished,hewenttoColognetohaveitprinted
atthepressofPeterQuentel.Threethousandcopiesofthefirsttensheetsofit,inquarto,hadbeenprintedoffwhenrumoursoftheworkcameto
theearsofJohnCochlus,abitterenemyoftheReformation.Toobtaininformationheapproachedtheprinters(whowerealsoengageduponwork
forhim),andhavingloosenedtheirtongueswithwinehelearntthefulldetailsofTindalesenterprise,andsentwarningforthwithtoEngland.
MeanwhileTindaleescapedwiththeprintedsheetstoWorms,intheLutherandispositionofwhichplacehewassecurefrominterference,and
proceededwithhisworkatthepressofPeterSchoeffer.Since,however,adescriptionoftheCologneeditionhadbeensenttoEngland,achange
wasmadeintheformat.Thetextwassetupagaininoctavo,andwithoutthemarginalnotesofthequartoeditionandinthisformthefirstprinted
EnglishNTwasgiventotheworldearlyin1526.Aboutthesametimeaneditioninsmallquarto,withmarginalnotes,wasalsoissued,anditis
probable(thoughfullproofiswanting)thatthiswasthecompletionoftheinterruptedCologneedition.Threethousandcopiesofeacheditionwere
struckoffbutsoactiveweretheenemiesoftheReformationintheirdestruction,thattheyhavenearlydisappearedoffthefaceoftheearth.One
copyoftheoctavoedition,completebutforthelossofitstitlepage,isattheBaptistCollegeatBristol,whitheritfounditswayfromtheHarley
Library,towhichitoncebelongedandanimperfectcopyisinthelibraryofSt.PaulsCathedral.Ofthequarto,allthatsurvivesisafragment
consistingofeightsheets(Mt1:122:12)intheGrenvilleLibraryintheBritishMuseum.
14.ThehostilityoftheauthoritiesinChurchandStateinEnglandwasindeedundisguised.SirT.Moreattackedthetranslationasfalseand
heretical,andasdisregardingecclesiasticalterminology.Wolseyandthebishops,withHenrysassent,decreedthatitshouldbeburntandburntit
wasatPaulsCross,afterasermonfromBishopTunstall.NeverthelessfreshsuppliescontinuedtopourintoEngland,themoneyexpendedin
buyingupcopiesfordestructionservingtopayfortheproductionoffresheditions.Sixeditionsaresaidtohavebeenissuedbetween1526and
1530andthezealoftheauthoritiesforitsdestructionwasfairlymatchedbythezealofthereformingpartyforitscirculation.Itwas,infact,
evidentthattheappetiteforanEnglishBible,oncefairlyexcited,couldnotbewhollybalked.In1530anassemblyconvokedbyArchbishop
Warham,whilemaintainingthepreviouscondemnationofTindale,andassertingthatitwasnotexpedientatthattimetodivulgetheScriptureinthe
Englishtongue,announcedthatthekingwouldhavetheNTfaithfullytranslatedbylearnedmen,andpublishedassoonashemightseetheir
mannersandbehaviourmeet,apt,andconvenienttoreceivethesame.
15.TindalesfirstNTwasepochmakinginmanyways.ItwasthefirstEnglishprintedNTitlaidthefoundations,andmuchmorethanthe
foundations,oftheAVof1611itsetonfootthemovementwhichwentforwardwithoutabreakuntilitculminatedintheproductionofthatAV
anditwasthefirstEnglishBiblethatwastranslateddirectlyfromtheoriginallanguage.AlltheEnglishmanuscriptBiblesweretranslationsfrom
theVulgatebutTindalesNTwastakenfromtheGreek,whichheknewfromtheeditionsbyErasmus,publishedin1516,1519,and1522.As
subsidiaryaidsheemployedtheLatinversionattachedbyErasmustohisGreektext,LuthersGermantranslationof1522,andtheVulgatebutit
hasbeenmadeabundantlyclearthatheexercisedindependentjudgmentinhisuseofthesematerials,andwasbynomeansaslavishcopierof
Luther.InthemarginalnotesattachedtothequartoeditionhisdebttoLutherwasgreaterfor(sofarascanbegatheredfromtheextantfragment)
morethanhalfthenotesweretakendirectfromtheGermanBible,therestbeingindependent.ItisinthisconnexionwithLuther,ratherthanin
anythingtobefoundintheworkitself,thatthesecretoftheofficialhostilitytoTindalesversionistobefound.Thatthetranslationitselfwasnot
seriouslytoblameisshownbytheextenttowhichitwasincorporatedintheAV,thoughnodoubttopersonswhoknewtheScripturesonlyinthe
LatinVulgateitsdivergencefromaccuracymayhaveappearedgreaterthanwasinfactthecase.Theoctavoeditionhadnoextraneousmatter
exceptashortpreface,andthereforecouldnotbeobnoxiousoncontroversialgroundsandthecommentsinthequartoeditionaregenerally
exegetical,andnotpolemical.Still,therecouldbenodoubtthattheyweretheworkofanadherentoftheReformation,andassuchthewhole
translationfellunderthebanoftheopponentsoftheReformation.
16.TindalesworkdidnotceasewiththeproductionofhisNT.Earlyin1530atranslationofthePentateuchwasprintedforhimbyHansLuft,
atMarburginHesse.ThecolophontoGenesisisdatedJan.17,1530.InEngland,wheretheyearbeganon
March25,thiswouldhavemeant1531accordingtoourmodernreckoningbutinGermanytheyeargenerallybeganonJan.1,oratChristmas.The
onlyperfectcopyofthiseditionisintheBritishMuseum.Thedifferentbooksmusthavebeensetupseparately,sinceGn.andNu.areprintedin
blackletter,Ex.,Lev.,andDt.inRomanbutthereisnoevidencethattheywereissuedseparately.Thetranslationwasmade(forthefirsttime)
fromtheHebrew,withwhichlanguagethereisexpressevidencethatTindalewasacquainted.Thebookwasprovidedwithaprologueandwith
marginalnotes,thelatterbeingoftencontroversial.In1531hepublishedatranslationoftheBookofJonah,ofwhichasinglecopy(nowinthe
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marginalnotes,thelatterbeingoftencontroversial.In1531hepublishedatranslationoftheBookofJonah,ofwhichasinglecopy(nowinthe
BritishMuseum)cametolightin1861.AfterthisheseemstohaverevertedtotheNT,ofwhichheissuedarevisededitionin1534.Theimmediate
occasionofthiswastheappearanceofanunauthorizedrevisionofthetranslationof1525,byoneGeorgeJoye,inwhichmanyalterationswere
madeofwhichTindaledisapproved.TindalesneweditionwasprintedbyMartinEmpereurofAntwerp,andpublishedinNov.1534.Onecopyofit
wasprintedonvellum,illuminated,andpresentedtoAnneBoleyn,whohadshownfavourtooneoftheagentsemployedindistributingTindales
earlierwork.Itbearshernameontheforeedge,andisnowintheBritishMuseum.Thevolumeisasmalloctavo,andembodiesacarefulrevision
ofhispreviouswork.Sinceitwasintendedforliturgicaluse,thechurchlectionsweremarkedinit,andinanappendixwereadded,TheEpistles
takenoutoftheOldTestament,whicharereadinthechurchaftertheuseofSalisburyuponcertaindaysoftheyear.Theseconsistof42short
passagesfromtheOT(8beingtakenfromtheApocrypha),andconstituteanadditiontoTindalesworkasatranslatoroftheOT.ThetextoftheNT
isaccompaniedthroughoutbymarginalnotes,differing(sofarasweareinapositiontocomparethem)fromthoseinthequartoof1525,andvery
rarelypolemical.Nearlyallthebooksareprecededbyprologues,whichareforthemostpartderivedfromLuther(exceptthattoHeb.,inwhich
TindaleexpresslycombatsLuthersrejectionofitsApostolicauthority).
17.Theeditionof1534didnotfinallysatisfyTindale,andinthefollowingyearheputforthanothereditionyetonceagaincorrected.[The
volumebearstwodates,1535and1534,buttheformer,whichstandsonthefirsttitlepage,mustbetakentobethatofthecompletionofthework.]
Itbearsthemonogramofthepublisher,GodfriedvanderHaghen,andissometimesknownastheGHedition.Ithasnomarginalnotes.Another
edition,whichisstatedonitstitlepagetohavebeenfinishedin1535,containspracticallythesametext,butisnotableforitsspelling,which
appearstobeduetoaFlemishcompositor,workingbyearandnotbysight.Theseeditionsof1535,whichembodyseveralsmallchangesfromthe
textof1534,representTindalesworkinitsfinalform.Severaleditionswereissuedin1536,butTindalewasnottheninapositiontosupervise
them.InMay1535,throughthetreacheryofonePhillips,hewasseizedbysomeofficersoftheemperor,andcarriedofffromAntwerp(wherehe
hadlivedforayearpast)tothecastleofVilvorde.Aftersomemonthsimprisonmenthewasbroughttotrial,condemned,andfinallystrangledand
burntatthestakeonOct.6,1536,cryingwithafervent,great,andaloudvoice,Lord,opentheKingofEnglandseyes.
ThechiefauthorityforthelifeofTindaleisthebiographybytheRev.R.Demaus(2nded.,revisedbyR.Lovett,1886).Thefragmentaryquarto
of1525ispublishedinphotographicfacsimilebyE.Arber(TheFirstPrintedEnglishNT,1871),withanimportantintroduction.Theoctavoof
1525isreproducedinfacsimilebyF.Fry(1862),asalsoistheJonahof1531(1863).ThePentateuchisreprintedbyMombert(Bagster,1884),and
theNTof1534inBagstersEnglishHexapla.Seealsothegeneralbibliographyattheendofthisarticle.
18.CoverdalesBible(1535).TindaleneverhadthesatisfactionofcompletinghisgiftofanEnglishBibletohiscountrybutduringhis
imprisonmenthemayhavelearntthatacompletetranslation,basedlargelyuponhisown,hadactuallybeenproduced.Thecreditforthis
achievement,thefirstcompleteprintedEnglishBible,isduetoMilesCoverdale(14881569),afterwardsbishopofExeter(15511553).The
detailsofitsproductionareobscure.CoverdalemetTindaleabroadin1529,andissaidtohaveassistedhiminthetranslationofthePentateuch.His
ownworkwasdoneunderthepatronageofCromwell,whowasanxiousforthepublicationofanEnglish
BibleanditwasnodoubtforwardedbytheactionofConvocation,which,underCranmersleading,hadpetitionedin1534fortheundertakingof
suchawork.ItwasprobablyprintedbyFroschoveratZurichbutthishasneverbeenabsolutelydemonstrated.Itwaspublishedattheendof1535,
withadedicationtoHenryVIII.BythistimetheconditionsweremorefavourabletoaProtestantBiblethantheyhadbeenin1525.Henryhad
finallybrokenwiththePope,andhadcommittedhimselftotheprincipleofanEnglishBible.Coverdalesworkwasaccordinglytoleratedby
authority,andwhenthesecondeditionofitappearedin1537(printedbyanEnglishprinter,NycolsonofSouthwark),itboreonitstitlepagethe
words,SetforthwiththeKingesmoostgraciouslicence.InthuslicensingCoverdalestranslation,Henryprobablydidnotknowhowfarhewas
sanctioningtheworkofTindale,whichhehadpreviouslycondemned.IntheNT,inparticular,TindalesversionisthebasisofCoverdales,andtoa
somewhatlessextentthisisalsothecaseinthePentateuchand
JonahbutCoverdalerevisedtheworkofhispredecessorwiththehelpoftheZurich
GermanBibleofZwingliandothers(15241529),aLatinversionbyPagninus,theVulgate,andLuther.Inhisprefaceheexplicitlydisclaims
originalityasatranslator,andthereisnosignthathemadeanynoticeableuseoftheGreekandHebrewbutheusedtheavailableLatin,German,
andEnglishversionswithjudgment.InthepartsoftheOTwhichTindalehadnotpublishedheappearstohavetranslatedmainlyfromthe
ZurichBible.[CoverdalesBibleof1535wasreprintedbyBagster(1838).]
19.InonerespectCoverdalesBiblewasepochmaking,namely,inthearrangementoftheBooksoftheOT.IntheVulgate,asiswellknown, 39/85
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19.InonerespectCoverdalesBiblewasepochmaking,namely,inthearrangementoftheBooksoftheOT.IntheVulgate,asiswellknown,
thebookswhicharenowclassedasApocryphaareintermingledwiththeotherbooksoftheOT.
ThiswasalsothecasewiththeLXX,andingeneralitmaybesaidthattheChristian
ChurchhadadoptedthisviewoftheCanon.ItistruethatmanyofthegreatestChristianFathershadprotestedagainstit,andhadpreferredthe
HebrewCanon,whichrejectsthesebooks.TheCanonofAthanasiusplacestheApocryphainaclassaparttheSyrianBibleomittedthemEusebius
andGregoryNazianzenappeartohaveheldsimilarviewsandJeromerefusedtotranslatethemforhisLatinBible.NeverthelesstheChurchat
large,bothEastandWest,retainedthemintheirBibles,andtheprovincialCouncilofCarthage(A.D.397),undertheinfluenceofAugustine,
expresslyincludedthemintheCanon.InspiteofJerome,theVulgate,asitcirculatedinWesternEurope,regularlyincludedthedisputedbooksand
WyclifsBible,beingatranslationfromtheVulgate,naturallyhasthemtoo.Ontheotherhand,Luther,thoughrecognizingthesebooksasprofitable
andgoodforreading,placedtheminaclassapart,asApocrypha,andinthesamewayhesegregatedHeb.,Ja.,Jude,andApoc.attheendofthe
NT,asoflessvalueandauthoritythantherest.ThisarrangementappearsinthetableofcontentsofTindalesNTin1525,andwasadoptedby
Coverdale,Matthew,andTaverner.ItistoTindalesexample,nodoubt,thattheactionofCoverdaleisdue.HisBibleisdividedintosixparts(1)
Pentateuch(2)Jos.Est.(3)JobSolomonsBalettes(i.e.Cant.)(4)Prophets(5)Apocripha,thebokesandtreatiseswhichamongethefathersof
oldearenotrekenedtobeoflikeauthoritewiththeotherbokesofthebyble,netheraretheyfoundeintheCanonoftheHebrue(6)NT.This
representstheviewgenerallytakenbythe
Reformers,bothinGermanyandinEngland,andsofarasconcernstheEnglishBible,
Coverdalesexamplewasdecisive.Ontheotherhand,theRomanChurch,attheCouncilofTrent(1546),adoptedbyamajoritytheopinionthatall
thebooksofthelargerCanonshouldbereceivedasofequalauthority,andforthefirsttimemadethisadogmaoftheChurch,enforcedbyan
anathema.In1538,CoverdalepublishedaNTwithLatin(Vulgate)andEnglishinparallelcolumns,revisinghisEnglishtobringitintoconformity
withtheLatinbutthis(whichwentthroughthreeeditionswithvariouschanges)maybepassedover,asithadnoinfluenceonthegeneralhistory
oftheEnglishBible.
20.MatthewsBible(1537).InthesameyearasthesecondeditionofCoverdalesBibleanotherEnglishBibleappeared,whichlikewisebore
uponitstitlepagethestatementthatitwassetforthwiththeKingesmostgracyouslycence.ItwascompletednotlaterthanAug.4,1537,on
whichdayCranmersentacopyofittoCromwell,commendingthetranslation,andbeggingCromwelltoobtainforitthekingslicenceinwhich,
asthetitlepageprominentlyshows,hewassuccessful.Theoriginofthisversionisslightlyobscure,andcertainlywasnotrealizedbyHenrywhen
hesanctionedit.ThePentateuchandNTaretakendirectfromTindalewithlittlevariation(thelatterfromthefinalGHrevisionof1535).The
booksoftheOTfromEzratoMal.(includingJonah)aretakenfromCoverdale,asalsoistheApocrypha.ButthehistoricalbooksoftheOT(Jos.2
Chron.)areanewtranslation,astotheoriginofwhichnostatementismade.Itis,however,fairlycertain,fromacombinationofevidence,thatit
wasTindales(seeWestcott3,pp.169179).ThestyleagreeswiththatofTindalesotherworkthepassageswhichTindalepublishedasEpistles
fromtheOTinhisNTof1534agreeinthemainwiththepresentversioninthesebooks,butnotinthosetakenfromCoverdaleanditisexpressly
statedinHalisChronicle(completedandpublishedbyGrafton,oneofthepublishersofMatthews
Bible)thatTindale,inadditiontotheNT,translatedalsothevbookesofMoses,
Josua,Judicum,Ruth,thebookesoftheKyngesandthebookesofParalipomenon,
NehemiasorthefyrstofEsdras,theprophetJonas,andnomoreofyeholyscripture.IfwesupposetheversionofEzraNehemiahtohavebeen
incomplete,orforsomereasonunavailable,thisstatementharmonizesperfectlywiththedataoftheproblem.Tindalemayhaveexecutedthe
translationduringhisimprisonment,atwhichtimeweknowthatheappliedfortheuseofhisHebrewbooks.Thebookwasprintedabroad,atthe
expenseofR.GraftonandE.Whitchurch,twocitizensofLondon,whoissueditinLondon.Onthetitlepageisthestatementthatthetranslatorwas
ThomasMatthew,andthesamenamestandsatthefootofthededicationtoHenryVIII.Nothingisknownofanysuchperson,buttradition
identifieshimwithJohnRogers(whointheregisterofhisarrestin1555isdescribedasJohnRogersaliasMatthew),afriendandcompanionof
Tindale.ItisthereforegenerallybelievedthatthisBibleisduetotheeditorialworkofJohnRogers,whohadcomeintopossessionofTindales
unpublishedtranslationofthehistoricalbooksoftheOT,andpublishedthemwiththerestofhisfriendswork,completingtheBiblewiththehelp
ofCoverdale.ItmaybeaddedthattheinitialsI.R.(Rogers),W.T.(Tindale),R.G.andE.W.(GraftonandWhitchurch),andH.R.(unidentified,?
HenricusRex)areprintedinlargelettersonvariousblankspacesthroughouttheOT.Thearrangementofthebookisinfoursections:(1)Gen.
Cant.,(2)Prophets,(3)Apocrypha(includingforthefirsttimethePrayerofManasses,translatedfromtheFrenchofOlivetan),(4)NT.Thereare
copiousannotations,ofadecidedlyProtestanttendency,andTindalesoutspokenProloguetotheRomansisincludedinit.Thewholework,
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copiousannotations,ofadecidedlyProtestanttendency,andTindalesoutspokenProloguetotheRomansisincludedinit.Thewholework,
therefore,waseminentlycalculatedtoextendtheimpulsegivenbyTindale,andtoperpetuatehiswork.
21.TavernersBible(1539).MatthewsBibleformedthebasisforyetanotherversion,whichdeservesbriefmention,thoughithadnoinfluence
onthegeneraldevelopmentoftheEnglishBible.RichardTaverner,formerlyastudentofCardinalCollege[ChristChurch],Oxford,wasinvitedby
someLondonprinters(JohnByddellforThomasBarthlet)toprepareatshortnoticearevisionoftheexistingBible.IntheOThisalterationsare
verbal,andaimattheimprovementofthestyleofthetranslationintheNT,beingagoodGreekscholar,hewasabletoreviseitwithreferenceto
theoriginalGreek.TheNTwasissuedseparatelyintwoeditions,inthesameyear(1539)asthecompleteBiblebutthesuccessoftheofficial
versionnexttobementionedspeedilyextinguishedsuchapersonalventureasthis.TavernersBibleissometimessaidtohavebeenthefirst
EnglishBiblecompletelyprintedinEnglandbutthishonourappearstobelongrathertoCoverdalessecondedition.
22.TheGreatBible(15391541).ThefactthatTavernerwasinvitedtoreviseMatthewsBiblealmostimmediatelyafteritspublicationshows
thatitwasnotuniversallyregardedassuccessfulbuttherewereinadditionotherreasonswhythosewhohadpromotedthecirculationand
authorizationofMatthewsBibleshouldbeanxioustoseeitsuperseded.Asstatedabove,itwashighlycontroversialincharacter,andboreplentiful
evidenceofitsoriginfromTindale.CromwellandCranmerhad,nodoubt,beencarefulnottocallHenrysattentiontothesecircumstancesbut
theymightatanytimebebroughttohisnotice,whentheirownpositionwouldbecomehighlyprecarious.Itis,indeed,strangethattheyever
embarkedonsoriskyanenterprise.Howeverthatmaybe,theylostlittletimeininvitingCoverdaletoundertakeacompleterevisionofthewhole,
whichwasreadyforthepressearlyin1538.TheprintingwasbegunbyRegnaultofParis,wheremoresumptuoustypographywaspossiblethanin
England.Inspite,however,oftheassentoftheFrenchkinghavingbeenobtained,theInquisitionintervened,stoppedtheprinting,andseizedthe
sheets.Someofthesheets,however,hadpreviouslybeengotawaytoEnglandotherswererepurchasedfromatradesmantowhomtheyhadbeen
soldandultimately,underCromwellsdirection,printersandpressesweretransportedfromParistoLondon,andtheworkcompletedthereby
GraftonandWhitchurch,whoseimprintstandsonthemagnificenttitlepage(traditionallyascribedtoHolbein)depictingthedisseminationofthe
ScripturesfromthehandsofHenry,throughtheinstrumentalityofCromwellandCranmer,tothegeneralmassoftheloyalandrejoicingpopulace.
[Aspecialcopyonvellum,withilluminations,waspreparedfor
Cromwellhimself,andisnowinthelibraryofSt.JohnsCollege,Cambridge.]
23.ThefirsteditionoftheGreatBibleappearedinApril1539,andaninjunctionwasissuedbyCromwellthatacopyofitshouldbesetupin
everyparishchurch.Itwasconsequentlythefirst(andonly)EnglishBibleformallyauthorizedforpublicuseandcontemporaryevidenceproves
thatitwaswelcomedandreadwithavidity.Nodoubt,asatanearlierday(Ph2:15),somereadthegospelofenvyandstrife,andsomealsoof
goodwillbutinonewayoranother,foredificationorforcontroversy,thereadingoftheBibletookafirmholdonthepeopleofEngland,ahold
whichhasneversincebeenrelaxed,andwhichhadmuchtodowiththestablefoundationoftheProtestantChurchinthiscountry.Norwasthe
translation,thoughstillfallingshortoftheperfectionreachedthreequartersofacenturylater,unworthyofitsposition.Ithadmanypositivemerits,
andmarkedadistinctadvanceuponallitspredecessors.
Coverdale,thoughwithouttheforceandoriginality,oreventhescholarship,ofTindale,hadsomeofthemorevaluablegiftsofatranslator,andwas
wellqualifiedtomakethebestuseofthelaboursofhispredecessors.Hehadscholarshipenoughtochooseandfollowthebestauthorities,hehada
happygiftofsmoothandeffectivephraseology,andhiswholeheartwasinhiswork.AsthebasisofhisrevisionhehadTindalesworkandhisown
previousversionandtheseherevisedwithreferencetotheHebrew,Greek,andLatin,withspecialassistanceintheOTfromtheLatintranslation
bySebastianMnsterpublishedin153435(aworkdecidedlysuperiortotheZurichBible,whichhadbeenhisprincipalguidein1534),whilein
theNThemadeconsiderableuseofErasmus.Withregardtotheuseofecclesiasticalterms,hefollowedhisownpreviousexample,againstTindale,
inretainingthefamiliarLatinphrasesandheintroducedaconsiderablenumberofwordsandsentencesfromtheVulgate,whichdonotappearin
theHebreworGreek.Thetextisdividedintofivesections(1)Pent.,(2)Jos.Job,(3)PsalmsMal.,(4)Apocrypha,hereentitledHagiographa,
thoughquitedifferentfromthebookstowhichthattermisappliedintheHebrewBible,(5)NT,inwhichthetraditionalorderofthebooksis
restoredinplaceofLuthers.Coverdaleintendedtoaddacommentaryattheend,andwiththisviewinsertedvariousmarksinthemargins,the
purposeofwhichheexplainsintheProloguebuthewasunabletoobtainthesanctionofthePrivyCouncilforthese,andafterstandinginthe
marginforthreeeditionsthesignpostmarkswerewithdrawn.
24.Thefirsteditionwasexhaustedwithintwelvemonths,andinApril1540asecondeditionappeared,thistimewithaprologuebyCranmer
(fromwhichfacttheGreatBibleissometimesknownasCranmersBible,thoughhehadnopartinthetranslation).Twomoreeditionsfollowedin
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JulyandNovember,thelatter(Cromwellhavingnowbeenoverthrownandexecuted)appearingunderthenominalpatronageofBishopsTunstall
andHeath.In1541threeeditionswereissued.Noneoftheseeditionswasasimplereprint.TheProphets,inparticular,werecarefullyrevisedwith
thehelpofMnsterforthesecondedition.Thefourthedition(Nov.1540)anditssuccessorsrevertinparttothefirst.Theseseveneditionsspread
theknowledgeoftheBibleinasound,thoughnotperfect,versionbroadcastthroughthelandandoneportionofithasneverlostitsplaceinour
liturgy.InthefirstPrayerBookofEdward
VI.thePsalter(liketheotherScripturepassages)wastakenfromtheGreatBible.In1662,whentheotherpassagesweretakenfromtheversionof
1611,aspecialexceptionwasmadeofthePsalter,onaccountofthefamiliaritywhichithadachieved,andconsequentlyCoverdalesversionhas
helditsplaceintheBookofCommonPrayertothisday,anditisinhiswordsthatthePsalmshavebecomethefamiliarhouseholdtreasuresofthe
Englishpeople.
25.WiththeappearanceoftheGreatBiblecomesthefirstpauseintherapidsequenceofvernacularversionssetonfootbyTindale.TheEnglish
Biblewasnowfullyauthorized,andaccessibletoeveryEnglishmaninhisparishchurchandthetranslation,bothinstyleandinscholarship,was
fairlyabreastoftheattainmentsandrequirementsoftheage.Wehearnomore,therefore,atpresentoffurtherrevisionsofit.Anothercircumstance
whichmayhavecontributedtothesameresultwasthereactionofHenryinhislatteryearsagainstProtestantism.Therewastalkin
Convocationaboutatranslationtobemadebythebishops,whichanticipatedtheplanoftheBibleof1568andCranmerpromptedHenryto
transfertheworktotheuniversities,whichanticipatedavitalpartoftheplanoftheBibleof1611butnothingcameofeitherproject.Theonly
practicalstepstakenwereinthedirectionofthedestructionoftheearlierversions.In1543aproclamationwasissuedagainstTindalesversions,
andrequiringtheobliterationofallnotesin1546CoverdalesNTwaslikewiseprohibited.TheantiProtestantreaction,however,wassoon
terminatedbyHenrysdeath(Jan.1547)andduringthereignofEdwardVI.,thoughnonewtranslation(exceptasmallpartoftheGospelsbySirJ.
Cheke)wasattempted,manyneweditionsofTindale,Coverdale,Matthew,andtheGreatBibleissuedfromthepress.TheaccessionofMary
naturallyputastoptotheprintingandcirculationofvernacularBiblesinEnglandand,duringtheattempttoputtheclockbackbyforce,Rogers
andCranmerfollowedTindaletothestake,whileCoverdalewasimprisoned,butwasreleased,andtookrefugeatGeneva.
26.TheGenevaBible(15571560).Genevawastheplaceatwhichthenextlinkinthechainwastobeforged.Alreadyfamous,throughthe
workofBeza,asacentreofBiblicalscholarship,itbecametherallyingplaceofthemoreadvancedmembersoftheProtestantpartyinexile,and
underthestrongruleofCalvinitwasidentifiedwithPuritanisminitsmostrigidform.Puritanism,infact,washereconsolidatedintoalivingand
activeprinciple,anddemonstrateditsstrengthasamotivepowerinthereligiousandsociallifeofEurope.ItwasbyarelativeofCalvin,andunder
hisownpatronage,thattheworkofimprovingtheEnglishtranslationoftheBiblewasoncemoretakeninhand.ThiswasW.Whittingham,a
FellowofAllSoulsCollege,Oxford,andsubsequentlydeanofDurham,whoin1557publishedtheNTatGenevainasmalloctavovolume,the
handiestforminwhichtheEnglishScriptureshadyetbeengiventotheworld.Intwootherrespectsalsothismarkedanepochinthehistoryofthe
EnglishBible.ItwasthefirstversiontobeprintedinRomantype,andthefirstinwhichthedivisionofthetextintonumberedverses(originally
madebyR.StephanusforhisGrcoLatinBibleof1551)wasintroduced.AprefacewascontributedbyCalvinhimself.Thetranslatorclaimsto
havemadeconstantuseoftheoriginalGreekandoftranslationsinothertongues,andheaddedafullmarginalcommentary.Ifthematterhadended
there,astheworkofasinglescholarononepartoftheBible,itwouldprobablyhaveleftlittlemarkbutitwasatoncemadethebasisofarevised
versionofbothTestamentsbyagroupofPuritanscholars.Thedetailsoftheworkarenotrecorded,buttheprincipalworkers,apartfrom
Whittinghamhimself,appeartohavebeenThomasSampson,formerlydeanofChichester,andafterwardsdeanofChristChurch,andA.Gilby,of
ChristsCollege,Cambridge.Aversionofthe
Psalterwasissuedin1559[theonlytwoextantcopiesofitbelongtotheEarlofEllesmereandMr.AldisWright],andin1560thecompleteBible
wasgiventotheworld,withtheimprintofRowlandHall,atGeneva.ThePsalterinthiswasthesameasthatof1559buttheNThadbeenlargely
revisedsince1557.Thebookwasamoderatesizedquarto,andcontainedadedicationtoElizabeth,anaddresstothebrethrenathome,thebooksof
theOT(includingApocrypha)andNTinthesameorderasintheGreatBibleandourmodernBibles,copiousmarginalnotes(thosetotheNT
takenfromWhittinghamwithsomeadditions),andanapparatusofmapsandwoodcuts.Intypeandversedivisionitfollowedtheexampleof
WhittinghamsNT.27.TheGenevanreviserstooktheGreatBibleastheirbasisintheOT,and
MatthewsBible(i.e.Tindale)intheNT.FortheformertheyhadtheassistanceoftheLatinBibleofLeoJuda(1544),inadditiontoPagninus
(1527),andtheywereinconsultationwiththescholars(includingCalvinandBeza)whowerethenengagedatGenevainasimilarworkofrevision
oftheFrenchBible.IntheNTtheirprincipalguidewasBeza,whosereputationstoodhighestamongalltheBiblicalscholarsoftheage.Theresult
wasaversionwhichcompletelydistanceditspredecessorsinscholarship,whileinstyleandvocabularyitworthilycarriedonthegreattradition
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wasaversionwhichcompletelydistanceditspredecessorsinscholarship,whileinstyleandvocabularyitworthilycarriedonthegreattradition
establishedbyTindale.Itssuccesswasasdecisiveasitwaswelldeservedandinonerespectitmetawantwhichnoneofitspredecessors(except
perhapsTindales)hadattemptedtomeet.Coverdales,Matthews,andtheGreatBiblewerealllargefolios,suitableforuseinchurch,butunsuited
bothinsizeandinpriceforprivatepossessionanddomesticstudy.TheGenevaBible,onthecontrary,wasmoderateinbothrespects,andachieved
instantandlongenduringpopularityastheBibleforpersonaluse.ForafullcenturyitcontinuedtobetheBibleofthepeople,anditwasuponthis
version,andnotuponthatofKingJames,thattheBibleknowledgeofthePuritansoftheCivilWarwasbuiltup.Itsnotesfurnishedthemwithafull
commentaryonthesacredtext,predominantlyhortatoryormonitoryincharacter,butCalvinisticingeneraltone,andoccasionallydefinitely
polemical.Over160editionsofitaresaidtohavebeenissued,buttheonlyonewhichrequiresseparatenoticeisarevisionoftheNTbyLaurence
Tomsonin1576,whichcarriedstillfurthertheprincipleofdeferencetoBezathisrevisedNTwassuccessful,andwasfrequentlyboundupwiththe
GenevanOTinplaceoftheeditionof1560.[TheGenevaBibleisfrequentlycalled(inbooksellerscataloguesandelsewhere)theBreechesBible,
onaccountofthiswordbeingusedinthetranslationofGn3:7.]
28.TheBishopsBible(1568).MeanwhiletherewasonequarterinwhichtheGenevaBiblecouldhardlybeexpectedtofindfavour,namely,
amongtheleadersoftheChurchinEngland.ElizabethherselfwasnottoowelldisposedtowardsthePuritans,andthebishopsingeneralbelonged
tothelessextremepartyintheChurch.Ontheotherhand,thesuperiorityoftheGenevantotheGreatBiblecouldnotbecontested.Underthese
circumstancestheoldprojectofatranslationtobeproducedbythebishopswasrevived.ThearchbishopofCanterbury,MatthewParker,was
himselfascholar,andtookupthetaskwithinterest.ThebasisofthenewversionwastobetheauthorizedGreatBible.Portionsofthetextwere
assignedtovariousrevisers,themajorityofwhomwerebishops.Thearchbishopexercisedageneralsupervisionoverthework,buttheredoesnot
appeartohavebeenanyorganizedsystemofcollaborationorrevision,andtheresultswerenaturallyunequal.IntheOTthealterationsaremainly
verbal,anddonotshowmuchoriginalityorgenius.IntheNTthescholarshipshownisonamuchhigherlevel,andthereismuchmore
independenceinstyleandjudgment.Inboth,useismadeoftheGenevaBible,aswellasofotherversions.Thevolumewasequippedwithnotes,
shorterthanthoseoftheGenevaBible,andgenerallyexegetical.Itappearedin1568,fromthepressofR.
Jugge,inalargefoliovolume,slightlyexceedingeventhedimensionsoftheGreatBible.ParkerappliedthroughCecilfortheroyalsanction,butit
doesnotappearthatheeverobtaineditbutConvocationin1571requiredacopytobekeptineveryarchbishopsandbishopshouseandinevery
cathedral,and,asfarascouldconvenientlybedone,inallchurches.TheBishopsBible,infact,supersededtheGreatBibleastheofficialversion,
anditspredecessorceasedhenceforthtobereprintedbutitneverattainedthepopularityandinfluenceoftheGenevaBible.Asecondeditionwas
issuedin1569,inwhichaconsiderablenumberofalterationsweremade,partly,itappears,astheresultofthecriticismsofGilesLaurence,
professorofGreekatOxford.In1572athirdeditionappeared,ofimportancechieflyintheNT,andinsomecasesrevertingtothefirsteditionof
1568.InthisformtheBishopsBiblecontinuedinofficialuseuntilitssupersessionbytheversionof1611,ofwhichitformedtheimmediatebasis.
29.TheRheimsandDouaiBible(15821609).TheEnglishexilesforreligiouscauseswerenotallofonekindorofonefaith.Therewere
RomanCatholicrefugeesontheContinentaswellasPuritan,andfromtheone,asfromtheother,thereproceededanEnglishversionoftheBible.
ThecentreoftheEnglishRomanCatholicswastheEnglishCollegeatDouai,thefoundation(in1568)ofWilliamAllen,formerlyofQueens
College,Oxford,andsubsequentlycardinalanditwasfromthiscollegethatanewversionoftheBibleemanatedwhichwasintendedtoserveasa
counterblasttotheProtestantversions,withwhichEnglandwasnowflooded.Thefirstinstalmentofitappearedin1582,duringatemporary
migrationofthecollegetoRheims.ThiswastheNT,theworkmainlyofGregoryMartin,formerlyFellowofSt.JohnsCollege,Oxford,withthe
assistanceofasmallbandofscholarsfromthesameuniversity.TheOTisstatedtohavebeenreadyatthesametime,butforwantoffundsitcould
notbeprinteduntil1609,afterthecollegehadreturnedtoDouai,whenitappearedjustintimetobeofsomeusetothepreparersofKingJames
version.Aswasnatural,theRomanscholarsdidnotconcernthemselveswiththeHebrewandGreekoriginals,whichtheydefinitelyrejectedas
inferior,buttranslatedfromtheLatinVulgate,followingitwithaclosefidelitywhichisnotinfrequentlyfatal,notmerelytothestyle,butevento
thesenseinEnglish.Thefollowingshortpassage(Eph3:612),takenalmostatrandom,isafairexampleoftheLatinizationoftheirstyle.The
GentilstobecoheiresandconcorporatandcomparticipantofhispromisinChristJesusbytheGospel:whereofIammadeaministeraccordingto
thegiftofthegraceofGod,whichisgivenmeaccordingtotheoperationofispower.Tometheleastofalthesainctesisgiventhisgrace,among
theGentilstoevangelizetheunsearchablerichesofChrist,andtoilluminatealmenwhatisthedispensationofthesacramenthiddenfromworldes
inGod,whocreatedalthingsthatthemanifoldwisedomofGodmaybenotifiedtothePrincesandPotestatsinthecelestialsbytheChurch,

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accordingtotheprefinitionofworldes,whichhemadeinChristJesusourLord.Inwhomwehaveaffianceandaccesseinconfidence,bythefaith
ofhim.
Thetranslation,beingpreparedwithadefinitepolemicalpurpose,wasnaturallyequippedwithnotesofacontroversialcharacter,andwitha
prefaceinwhichtheobjectandmethodoftheworkwereexplained.Ithad,however,asawhole,littlesuccess.TheOTwasreprintedonlyoncein
thecourseofacentury,andtheNTnotmuchoftener.InEnglandthegreaterpartofitscirculationwasduetotheactionofavehementadversary,W.
Fulke,who,inordertoexposeitserrors,printedtheRheimsNTinparallelcolumnswiththeBishopsversionof1572,andtheRheimsannotations
withhisownrefutationsofthemandthisworkhadaconsiderablevogue.Regardedfromthepointofviewofscholarship,theRheimsandDouai
Bibleisofnoimportance,markingretrogressionratherthanadvancebutitneedsmentioninahistoryoftheEnglishBible,becauseitisoneofthe
versionsofwhichKingJamestranslatorsmadeuse.TheAVisindeeddistinguishedbythestronglyEnglish(asdistinctfromLatin)characterofits
vocabularybutoftheLatinwordsused(andusedeffectively),manywerederivedfromtheBibleofRheimsandDouai.
30.TheAuthorizedVersion(1611).Theversionwhichwasdestinedtoputthecrownonnearlyacenturyoflabour,and,afterextinguishingby
itsexcellenceallrivals,toprintanindeliblemarkonEnglishreligionandEnglishliterature,cameintobeingalmostbyaccident.Itaroseoutofthe
HamptonCourtConference,heldbyJamesI.in1604,withtheobjectofarrivingatasettlementbetweenthePuritanandAnglicanelementsinthe
Churchbutitwasnotoneoftheprimeororiginalsubjectsoftheconference.Inthecourseofdiscussion,Dr.Reynolds,presidentofCorpusChristi
College,Oxford,theleaderofthemoderatePuritanparty,referredtotheimperfectionsanddisagreementsoftheexistingtranslationsandthe
suggestionofanewversion,tobepreparedbythebestscholarsinthecountry,waswarmlytakenupbytheking.Theconference,asawhole,wasa
failurebutJamesdidnotallowtheideaoftherevisiontodrop.Hetookanactivepartinthepreparationofinstructionsforthework,andtohim
appearstobeduethecreditoftwofeatureswhichwentfartosecureitssuccess.Hesuggestedthatthetranslationshouldbecommittedinthefirst
instancetotheuniversities(subjecttosubsequentreviewbythebishopsandthePrivyCouncil,whichpracticallycametonothing),andthereby
securedtheservicesofthebestscholarsinthecountry,workingincooperationand(onthesuggestionofthebishopofLondon)helaiddownthat
nomarginalnotesshouldbeadded,whichpreservedthenewversionfrombeingtheorganofanyonepartyintheChurch.
31.Ultimatelyitwasarrangedthatsixcompaniesoftranslatorsshouldbeformed,twoatWestminster,twoatOxford,andtwoatCambridge.
Thecompaniesvariedinstrengthfrom7to10members,thetotal(thoughthereissomelittledoubtwithregardtoafewnames)being47.The
WestminstercompaniesundertookGn.2Kingsandthe
Epistles,theOxfordcompaniestheProphetsandtheGospels,Ac.,andApoc.,andtheCambridgecompanies1Chron.Eccles.andtheApocrypha.
Aseriesofruleswasdrawnupfortheirguidance.TheBishopsBiblewastobetakenasthebasis.Theoldecclesiasticaltermsweretobekept.No
marginalnotesweretobeaffixed,exceptfortheexplanationofHebreworGreekwords.Marginalreferences,onthecontrary,weretobesupplied.
Aseachcompanyfinishedabook,itwastosendittotheothercompaniesfortheirconsideration.Suggestionsweretobeinvitedfromtheclergy
generally,andopinionsrequestedonpassagesofspecialdifficultyfromanylearnedmanintheland.Thesetranslationstobeusedwhentheyagree
betterwiththetextthantheBishopsBible,namely,Tindales,Matthews,Coverdales,Whitchurchs[i.e.theGreatBible],Geneva.The
translatorsclaimfurthertohaveconsultedalltheavailableversionsandcommentariesinotherlanguages,andtohaverepeatedlyrevisedtheirown
work,withoutgrudgingthetimewhichitrequired.Thetimeoccupiedbythewholeworkisstatedbythemselvesastwoyearsandthreequarters.
Theseveralcompaniesappeartohavebeguntheirlaboursabouttheendof1607,andtohavetakentwoyearsincompletingtheirseveralshares.A
finalrevision,occupyingninemonths,wasthenmadebyasmallerbody,consistingoftworepresentativesfromeachcompany,afterwhichitwas
seenthroughthepressbyDr.MilesSmithandBishopBilsonandin1611thenewversion,printedbyR.Barker,thekingsprinter,wasgiventothe
worldinalargefoliovolume(thelargestofalltheseriesofEnglishBibles)ofblacklettertype.Thedetailsofitsissueareobscure.Therewereat
leasttwoissuesin1611,setupindependently,knownrespectivelyastheHeandSheBibles,fromtheirdivergenceinthetranslationofthelast
wordsofRuth3:15andbibliographershavedifferedastotheirpriority,thoughthegeneralopinionisinfavouroftheformer.Somecopieshavea
woodblock,othersanengravedtitlepage,withdifferentdesigns.ThetitlepagewasfollowedbythededicationtoKingJames,whichstillstandsin
ourordinarycopiesoftheAV,andthisbythetranslatorspreface(believedtohavebeenwrittenbyDr.MilesSmith),whichishabituallyomitted.
[ItisprintedinthepresentKingsPrintersVariorumBible,andisinterestingandvaluablebothasanexampleofthelearningoftheageandforits
descriptionofthetranslatorslabours.]Fortherest,thecontentsandarrangementoftheAVaretoowellknowntoeveryreadertoneeddescription.
32.Norisitnecessarytodwellatlengthonthecharacteristicsofthetranslation.Notonlywasitsuperiortoallitspredecessors,butits
excellencewassomarkedthatnofurtherrevisionwasattemptedforover250years.Itssuccessmustbeattributedtothefactwhichdifferentiatedit
fromitspredecessors,namely,thatitwasnottheworkofasinglescholar(likeTindales,Coverdales,andMatthewsBibles),orofasmallgroup 44/85
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excellencewassomarkedthatnofurtherrevisionwasattemptedforover250years.Itssuccessmustbeattributedtothefactwhichdifferentiatedit
fromitspredecessors,namely,thatitwasnottheworkofasinglescholar(likeTindales,Coverdales,andMatthewsBibles),orofasmallgroup
(liketheGenevaandDouaiBibles),orofalargernumberofmenworkingindependentlywithlittlesupervision(liketheBishopsBible),butwas
producedbythecollaborationofacarefullyselectedbandofscholars,workingwithampletimeandwithfullandrepeatedrevision.Nevertheless,it
wasnotanewtranslation.Itowedmuchtoitspredecessors.Thetranslatorsthemselvessay,intheirpreface:Weneverthoughtfromthebeginning
thatweshouldneedtomakeanewtranslation,noryettomakeofabadoneagoodone,buttomakeagoodonebetter,oroutofmanygood
onesoneprincipalgoodone,notjustlytobeexceptedagainstthathathbeenourendeavour,thatourmark.Thedescriptionisveryjust.The
foundationsoftheAVwerelaidbyTindale,andagreatpartofhisworkcontinuedthrougheveryrevision.Eachsucceedingversionadded
somethingtotheoriginalstock,Coverdale(inhisownandtheGreatBible)andtheGenevanscholarscontributingthelargestshareandthecrown
wassetuponthewholebytheskilledlabouroftheJacobeandivines,makingfreeuseofthematerialsaccumulatedbyothers,andhappilyinspired
bythegiftofstylewhichwasthenoblestliteraryachievementoftheageinwhichtheylived.Asenseofthesolemnityoftheirsubjectsavedthem
fromtheextravagancesandconceitswhichsometimesmarthatstyleand,asaresult,theyproducedaworkwhich,fromthemerelyliterarypointof
view,isthefinestexampleofJacobeanprose,andhasinfluencedincalculablythewholesubsequentcourseofEnglishliterature.Onthecharacter
andspiritualhistoryofthenationithasleftanevendeepermark,towhichmanywritershaveborneeleoquenttestimonyandifEnglandhasbeen,
andis,aBiblereadingandBiblelovingcountry,itisinnosmallmeasureduetoherpossessionofaversionsonoblyexecutedastheAV.
33.ThehistoryoftheAVafter1611canbebrieflysketched.Inspiteofthenamebywhichitiscommonlyknown,andinspiteofthestatement
onbothtitlepagesof1611thatitwasappointedtobereadinchurches,thereisnoevidencethatitwaseverofficiallyauthorizedeitherbythe
CrownorbyConvocation.Itsauthorizationseemstohavebeentacitandgradual.TheBishopsBible,hithertotheofficialversion,ceasedtobe
reprinted,andtheAVnodoubtgraduallyreplaceditinchurchesasoccasionarose.Indomesticuseitsfortuneswereforatimemoredoubtful,and
fortwogenerationsitexistedconcurrentlywiththeGenevaBiblebutbeforethecenturywasoutitspredominancewasassured.Thefirst4toand
8voeditionswereissuedin1612andthenceforwardeditionsweresonumerousthatitisuselesstorefertoanyexceptafewofthem.Theearly
editionswerenotverycorrectlyprinted.In1638anattempttosecureacorrecttextwasmadebyasmallgroupofCambridgescholars.In1633the
firsteditionprintedinScotlandwaspublished.In1701BishopLloydsuperintendedtheprintingofaneditionatOxford,inwhichArchbishop
UsshersdatesforScripturechronologywereprintedinthemargin,wheretheythenceforthremained.In1717afineedition,printedbyBaskettat
Oxford,earnedbibliographicalnotorietyasTheVinegarBiblefromamisprintintheheadlineoverLk20.In1762acarefullyrevisededitionwas
publishedatCambridgeundertheeditorshipofDr.T.Paris,andasimilaredition,superintendedbyDr.B.Blayney,appearedatOxfordin1769.
Thesetwoeditions,inwhichthetextwascarefullyrevised,thespellingmodernized,thepunctuationcorrected,andconsiderablealterationmadein
themarginalnotes,formedthestandardforsubsequentreprintsoftheAV,whichdifferinanumberofdetails,smallinimportancebutfairly
numerousintheaggregate,fromtheoriginaltextof1611.Oneotherdetailremainstobementioned.In1666appearedthefirsteditionoftheAV
fromwhichtheApocryphawasomitted.IthadpreviouslybeenomittedfromsomeeditionsoftheGenevaBible,from1599onwards.The
Nonconformiststookmuchobjectiontoit,andin1664theLongParliamentforbadethereadingoflessonsfromitinpublicbutthelectionaryof
theEnglishChurchalwaysincludedlessonsfromit.Theexampleofomissionwasfollowedinmanyeditionssubsequently.Thefirsteditionprinted
inAmerica(apartfromasurreptitiouseditionof1752),in1782,iswithoutit.In1826theBritishandForeignBibleSociety,whichhasbeenoneof
theprincipalagentsinthecirculationoftheScripturesthroughouttheworld,decidedneverinfuturetoprintorcirculatecopiescontainingthe
Apocryphaandthisdecisionhasbeencarriedintoeffecteversince.
34.SofarasconcernedthetranslationoftheHebrewandGreektextswhichlaybeforethem,theworkoftheauthorsoftheAV,ashasbeen
shownabove,wasdonenotmerelywellbutexcellently.Therewere,nodoubt,occasionalerrorsofinterpretationandinregardtotheOTin
particulartheHebrewscholarshipoftheagewasnotalwaysequaltothedemandsmadeuponit.Butsucherrorsasweremadewerenotofsuch
magnitudeorquantityastohavemadeanyextensiverevisionnecessaryordesirableevennow,afteralapseofnearlythreehundredyears.There
was,however,anotherdefect,lessimportant(andindeednecessarilyinvisibleatthetime),whichthelapseofyearsultimatelyforcedinto
prominence,namely,inthetext(andespeciallytheGreektext)whichtheytranslated.Ashasbeenshownelsewhere(TEXTOFTHENT),criticism
oftheGreektextoftheNThadnotyetbegun.Scholarswerecontenttotakethetextasitfirstcametohand,fromthelateMSSwhichweremost
readilyaccessibletothem.TheNTofErasmus,whichfirstmadetheGreektextgenerallyavailableinWesternEurope,wasbaseduponasmall
groupofrelativelylateMSS,whichhappenedtobewithinhisreachatBasle.TheeditionofStephanusin1550,whichpracticallyestablishedthe
ReceivedTextwhichhasheldthefieldtillourownday,resteduponasomewhatsuperficialexaminationof15MSS,mostlyatParis,ofwhich
onlytwowereuncials,andthesewerebutslightlyused.NoneofthegreatMSSwhichnowstandattheheadofourlistofauthoritieswasknownto45/85
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onlytwowereuncials,andthesewerebutslightlyused.NoneofthegreatMSSwhichnowstandattheheadofourlistofauthoritieswasknownto
thescholarsof1611.NoneoftheancientversionshadbeencriticallyeditedandsofarasKingJamestranslatorsmadeuseofthem(asweknow
theydid),itwasasaidstointerpretation,andnotasevidenceforthetext,thattheyemployedthem.Insayingthisthereisnoimputationofblame.
Thematerialsforacriticalstudyandrestorationofthetextwerenotthenextantandmenwereconcernedonlytotranslatethetextwhichlaybefore
theminthecurrentHebrew,Greek,andLatinBibles.Neverthelessitwasinthisinevitabledefectivenessoftextthattheweaknesslaywhich
ultimatelyunderminedtheauthorityoftheAV.
35.TheRevisedVersion(18811895).Thetextualarticleabovereferredtodescribestheprocessofaccumulationofmaterialswhichbegan
withthecomingoftheCodexAlexandrinustoLondonin1625,andcontinuestothepresentday,andthecriticalusemadeofthesematerialsinthe
19thcenturyandthestoryneednotberepeatedhere.ItwasnotuntiltheprogressofcriticismhadrevealedthedefectivestateofthereceivedGreek
textoftheNTthatanymovementarosefortherevisionoftheAV.Abouttheyear1855thequestionbegantobemootedinmagazinearticlesand
motionsinConvocation,andbywayofbringingittoaheadasmallgroupofscholars[Dr.Ellicott,afterwardsbishopofGloucester,Dr.Moberly,
headmasterof
WinchesterandafterwardsbishopofSalisbury,Dr.Barron,principalofSt.EdmundsHall,Oxford,theRev.H.Alford,afterwardsdeanof
Canterbury,andtheRev.W.G.HumphreywiththeRev.E.Hawkins,secretaryoftheS.P.G.,andafterwardscanonofWestminster,astheir
secretary]undertookarevisionoftheAVofJn.,whichwaspublishedin1857.SixoftheEpistlesfollowedin1861and1863,bywhichtimethe
objectofthework,incallingattentiontotheneedandthepossibilityofarevision,hadbeenaccomplished.Meanwhileagreatstimulustothe
interestintextualcriticismhadbeengivenbythediscoveryoftheCodexSinaiticus,andbytheworkofTischendorfandTregelles.InFeb.1870a
motionforacommitteetoconsiderthedesirablenessofarevisionwasadoptedbybothHousesoftheConvocationofCanterburyanddefinite
motionsinfavourofsucharevisionwerepassedinthefollowingMay.TheConvocationofYorkdidnotconcur,andthenceforwardtheSouthern
Housesproceededalone.AcommitteeofbothHousesdrewupthelistsofrevisers,andframedtherulesfortheirguidance.TheOTcompany
consistedof25(afterwards27)members,theNTof26.TherulesprescribedtheintroductionofasfewalterationsintheAVaspossibleconsistently
withfaithfulnessthetexttobeadoptedforwhichtheevidenceisdecidedlypreponderating,andwhenitdiffersfromthatfromwhichtheAVwas
made,thealterationtobeindicatedinthemargin(thisrulewasfoundimpracticable)alterationstobemadeonthefirstrevisionbysimple
majorities,buttoberetainedonlyifpassedbyatwothirdsmajorityonthesecondrevision.BothcompaniescommencedworkatWestminsteron
June22,1870.TheNTcompanymeton407daysinthecourseofelevenyears,theOTcompanyon792daysinfifteenyears.Earlyintheworkthe
cooperationofAmericanscholarswasinvited,andinconsequencetwocompaniesof15and16membersrespectivelywereformed,whichbegan
workin1872,consideringtheresultsoftheEnglishrevisionaseachsectionofitwasforwardedtothem.ThecollaborationoftheEnglishand
AmericancompanieswasperfectlyharmoniousandbyagreementthoserecommendationsoftheAmericanReviserswhichwerenotadoptedbythe
Englishcompanies,buttowhichtheproposersneverthelesswishedtoadhere,wereprintedinanappendixtothepublishedBible.Publicationtook
place,inthecaseoftheNT,onMay17,1881,andinthecaseofthecanonicalbooksoftheOTalmostexactlyfouryearslater.Therevisionofthe
ApocryphawasdividedbetweenthetwoEnglishcompanies,andwastakenupbyeachcompanyonthecompletionofitsmainwork.TheNT
companydistributedSirach,Tob.,Jud.,Wisd.,1and2Mac.amongthreegroupsofitsmembers,andtheOTcompanyappointedasmallcommittee
todealwiththeremainingbooks.Theworkdraggedonovermanyyears,involvingsomeinequalitiesinrevision,andultimatelytheApocryphawas
publishedin1895.
36.IndealingwiththeOTtheReviserswerenotgreatlyconcernedwithquestionsoftext.TheMassoreticHebrewtextavailablein1870was
substantiallythesameasthatwhichKingJamestranslatorshadbeforethemandthecriticismoftheLXXversionwasnotsufficientlyadvancedto
enablethemsafelytomakemuchuseofitexceptinmarginalnotes.Theirworkconsistedmainlyinthecorrectionofmistranslationswhich
imperfectHebrewscholarshiphadleftintheAV.Theirchangesasaruleareslight,buttendverymarkedlytoremoveobscuritiesandtoimprovethe
intelligibilityofthetranslation.Thegainisgreatestinthepoeticalandpropheticalbooks(poeticalpassagesarethroughoutprintedassuch,whichin
itselfisagreatimprovement),andtherecannotbemuchdoubtthatiftherevisionoftheOThadstoodbyitselfitwouldhavebeengenerally
acceptedwithoutmuchopposition.WiththenewversionoftheNTthecasewasdifferent.Thechangeswerenecessarilymorenumerousthaninthe
OT,andthegreaterfamiliaritywiththeNTpossessedbyreadersingeneralmadethealterationsmoreconspicuous.TheNTRevisershad,ineffect,
toformanewGreektextbeforetheycouldproceedtotranslateit.InthispartoftheirworktheywerelargelyinfluencedbythepresenceofDrs.
WestcottandHort,who,aswillbeshownelsewhere(TEXTOFTHENT),werekeenandconvincedchampionsoftheclassoftextofwhichthe
bestrepresentativeistheCodexVaticanus.AtthesametimeDr.Scrivener,whotookalessadvancedviewofthenecessityofchangesinthe
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bestrepresentativeistheCodexVaticanus.AtthesametimeDr.Scrivener,whotookalessadvancedviewofthenecessityofchangesinthe
ReceivedText,wasalsoaprominentmemberofthecompany,anditisprobablytruethatnotmanynewreadingswereadoptedwhichhadnotthe
supportofTischendorfandTregelles,andwhichwouldnotberegardedbynearlyallscholarsacquaintedwithtextualcriticismaspreferableto
thoseoftheAV.ToWestcottandHortmaybeassignedalargepartofthecreditforleadingtheRevisersdefinitelyalongthepathofcriticalscience
buttheRevisersdidnotfollowtheirleadersthewholeway,andtheirtext(editedbyArchdeaconPalmerfortheOxfordPressin1881)representsa
moreconservativeattitudethanthatofthetwogreatCambridgescholars.Neverthelesstheamountoftextualchangewasconsiderable,andtothis
wasaddedaverylargeamountofverbalchange,sometimes(especiallyintheEpistles)tosecuregreaterintelligibility,butoftener(andthisismore
noticeableintheGospels)tosecureuniformityinthetranslationofGreekwordswhichtheAVdeliberatelyrendereddifferentlyindifferentplaces
(eveninparallelnarrativesofthesameevent),andprecisionintherepresentationofmoodsandtenses.Itwastothegreatnumberofchangesofthis
kind,whichbythemselvesappearedneedlessandpedantic,thatmostofthecriticismbestowedupontheRVwasduebutitmustberemembered
thatwherethewordsandphrasesofabookareoftenstrainedtotheuttermostinpopularapplication,itisofgreatimportancethatthosewordsand
phrasesshouldbeasaccuratelyrenderedaspossible.Onthewhole,itiscertainthattheRVmarksagreatadvanceontheAVinrespectofaccuracy,
andthemaincriticismstowhichitisjustlyopenarethattheprinciplesofclassicalGreekwereappliedtoorigidlytoGreekwhichisnotclassical,
andthattheRevisers,intheircarefulattentiontotheGreek,werelesshappilyinspiredthantheirpredecessorswiththegeniusoftheEnglish
language.ThesedefectshavenodoubtmilitatedagainstthegeneralacceptanceoftheRVbutwhethertheycontinuetodosoornot(anditistobe
rememberedthatwehavenotyetpassedthroughnearlysolongaperiodasthatduringwhichtheAVcompetedwiththeGenevaBibleorJeromes
VulgatewiththeOldLatin),itiscertainthatnostudentoftheBiblecanaffordtoneglecttheassistancegivenbytheRVtowardsthetrue
understandingoftheScriptures.Insousingit,itshouldberememberedthatrenderingswhichappearinthemarginnotinfrequentlyrepresentthe
viewsofmorethanhalftheRevisers,thoughtheyfailedtoobtainthenecessarytwothirdsmajority.ThisisperhapsespeciallythecaseintheOT,
wheretheRVshowsagreateradherencetotheAVthanintheNT.
37.Itonlyremainstoaddthat,afterthelapseofthe14yearsduringwhichitwasagreedthatnoseparateAmericaneditionshouldbebrought
out,whiletheAmericanappendixcontinuedtoappearintheEnglishRV,theAmericanrevisersissuedafreshrecension(NTin1900,OTin1901,
withouttheApocrypha),embodyingnotonlythereadingswhichappearedintheirappendixtotheEnglishRV,butalsoothersonwhichtheyhad
sinceagreed.ItisunfortunatethattheactionoriginallytakenbytheEnglishreviserswithaviewtosecuringthatthetwoEnglishspeakingnations
shouldcontinuetohaveacommonBibleshouldhavebroughtabouttheoppositeresultandthoughthealterationsintroducedbytheAmerican
reviserseminentlydeserveconsiderationontheirmerits,itmaybedoubtedwhetherthenetresultisimportantenoughtojustifytheexistenceofa
separateversion.WhatinfluenceitmayhaveuponthehistoryoftheEnglishBibleinthefutureitisforthefuturetodecide.
Literature.NodetailedhistoryofthemanuscriptEnglishversionsisinexistence.AgoodsummaryofthepreWyclifiteversionsisgiveninthe
introductiontoA.S.CooksBiblicalQuotationsinOldEnglishProseWriters,part1(1898)andtheprincipalseparatepublicationshavebeen
mentionedabove.FortheWyclifiteversionsthemainauthorityisthecompleteeditionbyJ.ForshallandF.Madden(4vols.,1850)theNTinthe
laterversionwasseparatelyprintedbySkeat(1879).AgoodshortconspectusofthesubjectisgivenintheintroductiontotheofficialGuidetothe
WycliffeExhibitionintheBritishMuseum(1884).TheprintedBiblehasbeenmuchmorefullyinvestigated.ThebestsingleauthorityisBishop
WestcottsHistoryoftheEnglishBible(3rded.,revisedbyW.AldisWright,1905)seealsotheart.byJ.H.LuptoninHastingsDB(ExtraVol.,
1904)W.F.Moulton,HistoryoftheEnglish
Bible(2nded.,1884)andH.W.Hoare,TheEvolutionoftheEnglishBible(2nded.,1902).ThePrintedEnglishBible,byR.Lovett(R.T.S.Present
DayPrimers,1894)isagoodshorthistory,andthesamemaybesaidofG.MilligansTheEnglishBible(ChurchofScotlandGuildTextBooks,
newed.,1907).ForabibliographyofprintedBibles,seethesectionBibleintheBritishMuseumCatalogue(publishedseparately),andthe
HistoricalCatalogueofthePrintedEditionsofHolyScriptureintheLibraryoftheBritishandForeignBibleSociety,vol.i.,byT.H.Darlowand
H.F.Moule(1903).Forspecialandminutestudiesofcertainpartsofthesubject,theworksofF.Fry(TheBiblebyCoverdale,1867,Descriptionof
theGreatBible,1865,BibliographicalDescriptionoftheEditionsoftheNT,TyndalesVersion,1878)and
E.Arber(TheFirstPrintedEnglishNT,1871)areinvaluable.BagstersEnglishHexapla(whichcanoftenbeobtainedsecondhand)gives
inparallelcolumns,beneaththeGreektextasprintedbyScholz,theNTaccordingto(1)thesecondWyclifiteversion(2)Tindale,fromthe
editionof1534(3)theGreatBibleof1539(4)theGenevaNTof1557(5)theRheimsNTof1582and(6)theAVof1611.Thisgivesthe
studentabetterideaoftheevolutionoftheEnglishBiblethananydescription.F.H.A.ScrivenersAuthorisedEditionoftheEnglishBible
(1884)givesacarefulandauthoritativeaccountofthevariouseditionsoftheAV.ForthehistoryoftheRV,seetheRevisersprefacesand
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studentabetterideaoftheevolutionoftheEnglishBiblethananydescription.F.H.A.ScrivenersAuthorisedEditionoftheEnglishBible
(1884)givesacarefulandauthoritativeaccountofthevariouseditionsoftheAV.ForthehistoryoftheRV,seetheRevisersprefacesand
BishopEllicottsRevisedVersionofHolyScripture(S.P.C.K.1901).AmoreextensivebibliographyisgiveninDr.Luptonearticlein
HastingsDB.
F.C.KENYON.
ENHADDAH(Jos19:21).AcityofIssacharnoticedwithEngannimandRemethperhapsthepresentvillageKefrAdhnontheedgeofthe
Dothanplain,W.ofEngannim.
ENHAKKORE(springofthepartridgecf.1S26:20,Jer17:11).ThenameofafountainatLehi(Jg15:19).Thenarrator(J(?))ofthe
storycharacteristicallyconnectshakkrwiththewordyikr(hecalled)ofv.18,andevidentlyinterpretsEnhakkrasthespringofhimthat
called.Thewholenarrativeisratherobscure,andthetr.insomeinstancesdoubtful.ThesituationofEnhakkrisalsoquiteuncertain.
ENHAZOR(springofHazor,Jos19:37).AtownofNaphtali,perhapsthemod.Hazreh,ontheW.slopesofthemountainsofUpper
Galilee,W.ofKedesh.
ENMISHPAT(springofjudgment,ordecision(byoracle),Gn14:7).AnameforKadeshprobablyKadeshbarnea.SeeKADESH.
ENNATAN(AVEunatan),1Es8:44.SeeELNATHAN.
ENOCH(Heb.Chnk)istheseventhfromAdam(Jude14)intheSethitegenealogyofGn5(seevv.1824).IntheCainitegenealogyof
4:17ff.heisthesonofCain,andthereforethethirdfromAdam.Theresemblancesbetweenthetwolistsseemtoshowthattheyrestonacommon
tradition,preservedindifferentformsbyJ(ch.4)andP(ch.5).,thoughitisnotpossibletosaywhichversionisthemoreoriginal.Thenotice
whichinveststhefigureofEnochwithitspeculiarsignificanceisfoundin5:24EnochwalkedwithGodandhewasnot,forGodtookhim.The
ideaheresuggestedthatbecauseofhisperfectfellowshipwithGodthispatriarchwastranslatedtoheavenwithouttastingdeath(cf.Sir44:16,
49:14,He11:5)appearstohaveexertedacertaininfluenceontheOTdoctrineofimmortality(seePs
49:15,73:24).AmuchfullertraditionispresupposedbytheremarkabledevelopmentoftheEnochlegendintheApocalypticliterature,where
Enochappearsasapreacherofrepentance,aprophetoffutureevents,andtherecipientofsupernaturalknowledgeofthesecretsofheavenand
earth,etc.TheoriginofthistraditionhasprobablybeendiscoveredinastrikingBabylonianparallel.Theseventhnameinthelistoften
antediluviankingsgivenbyBerosusisEvedoranchus,which(itseemscertain)isacorruptionofEnmeduranki,akingofSipparwhowasreceived
intothefellowshipofShamash(thesungod)andRamman,wasinitiatedintothemysteriesofheavenandearth,andbecamethefounderofaguild
ofpriestlydiviners.WhenorhowthismythbecameknowntotheJewswecannottell.Atraceofanoriginalconnexionwiththesungodhasbeen
suspectedinthe365yearsofEnochslife(thenumberofdaysinthesolaryear).AtalleventsitishighlyprobablethattheBabylonianlegend
containsthegermofthelaterconceptionofEnochasembodiedintheapocalypticBookofEnoch(c.B.C.10564),andthelaterBookofthe
SecretsofEnoch,onwhichseeHastingsDBi.705ff.AcitationfromtheBookofEnochoccursinJude14f.(=En1:9,5:4,27:2).
J.SKINNER.
ENOSH(Gn4:26J,5:611P),ENOS(Lk3:38).Thenameispoetical,denotingmanthesonofSeth,andgrandsonofAdam.Asthetimeof
Cainwasmarkedbysinandviolence,sothatofSethwasmarkedbypiety.InthedaysofEnoshmenbegantocallwiththenameofJ,i.e.touse
Hisnameininvocations.ThenameJhavingbeenknownpracticallyfromthebeginningofhumanlife,thewriter(J)alwaysemploysitin
preferencetothetitleElohim.InE(Ex3:14)andP(6:2f.)itwasnotrevealedtilllongafterwards.
A.H.MNEILE.
ENRIMMON(springof[the]pomegranate).OneofthesettlementsoftheJudahitesafterthereturnfromtheExile(Neh11:29).InJos
15:32amongstthetownsassignedtoJudahwefindAinandRimmon,andin19:7(cf.1Ch4:32)amongstthoseassignedtoSimeonareAin,
Rimmon.InalltheseinstancestherecanbelittlsdoubtthatweoughttoreadEnrimmon.Enrimmonisprobablytobeidentifiedwiththemodern
UmmerRummin,about9milesN.ofBeersheba.
ENROGEL(springofthefuller).IntheborderoftheterritoryofJudah(Jos15:7)andBenjamin(18:16).ItwasoutsideJerusalemand
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ENROGEL(springofthefuller).IntheborderoftheterritoryofJudah(Jos15:7)andBenjamin(18:16).ItwasoutsideJerusalemand
Davidsspies,JonathanandAhimaaz,wereherestationedinquestofnewsoftherevoltofAbsalom(2S17:17).HereAdonijahmadeafeastby
thestoneofZohsleth,whenheendeavouredtoseizethekingdom(1K1:9).Theidentificationofthisspringliesbetweentwoplaces,theVirgins
FountainandJobsWell,bothintheKidronValley.ThestrongestargumentfortheformersiteisitsproximitytoaclifffacecalledZahweileh,in
whichanattempthasbeenmadetorecognizeZoheleth.This,however,isuncertain,asZahweilehisacliff,notanisolatedstone.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
ENSAMPLE.Ensampleandexample(bothfromLat.exemplum)arebothusedinAV.Tindalehasensampleonly,andsoalltheEng.
versionsuntiltheRhemishappeared.ThatversionusedexampleprobablyasbeingnearertheVulg.wordexemplum.TheAVfrequentlyreveals
theinfluenceoftheRhemishversion.
ENSHEMESH(sunspring,Jos15:7,18:17).AspringE.ofEnrogel,onthewaytoJericho.ItisbelievedtobethespringontheJericho
roadE.ofOlivet,generallyknownastheApostlesfountain(AinHd).
ENSIGN.SeeBANNER.
ENSUE.Theverbensueisusedintransitively,meaningtofollow,inJth9:4andtransitively,withthefullforceofpursue,in1P3:11.
ENTAPPUAH.AplaceontheboundaryofManasseh(Jos17:7).GenerallyidentifiedwithaspringnearYsf,inavalleytotheS.of
Mukhna,whichdrainsintoWadyKanah.TheplaceisprobablytheTappuah(wh.see)ofJos16:8,17:8.
ENVY.Envyleadstostrife,anddivision,andrailing,andhatred,andsometimestomurder.TheBibleclassesitwiththesethings(Ro1:29,
13:13,1Co3:3,2Co12:20,Gal5:21,1Ti6:4,Tit3:3,Ja3:14,16).ItistheantipodeofChristianlove.Envylovethnot,andloveenviethnot(1Co
13:4).BaconcloseshisessayonEnvywiththissentence:Envyisthevilestaffectionandthemostdepravedforwhichcauseitistheproper
attributeoftheDevil,whoiscalled,Theenviousman,thatsowethtaresamongstthewheatbynightasitalwayscomethtopass,thatEnvyworketh
subtillyandinthedark,andtotheprejudiceofgoodthings,suchasisthewheat.Chrysostomsaid:Asamothgnawsagarment,sodothenvy
consumeaman,tobealivinganatomy,askeleton,tobealeanandpalecarcass,quickenedwithafiend.TheseareScripturalestimates.Envyis
devilish,andabsolutelyinconsistentwiththehighestlife.ExamplesaboundintheBible,suchasaresuggestedbytherelationsbetweenCainand
Abel,JacobandEsau,RachelandLeah,Josephandhisbrothers,SaulandDavid,HamanandMordecai,theelderbrotherandtheprodigalson,the
RomanevangelistsofPh1:15andtheApostlePaul,andmanyothers.
D.A.HAYES.
EPNETUS.AbelovedfriendofSt.PaulatRome,greetedinRo16:5hewasthefirstfruitsofAsia(RV)untoChrist,i.e.oneofthefirst
convertsofthatprovince.
HewasprobablyanativeofEphesus.
A.J.MACLEAN.
EPAPHRAS.MentionedbySt.PaulinCol1:7,4:12,Philem23anddescribedbyhimashisfellowservant,andalsoasaservantand
faithfulministerofChrist.HewasanativeorinhabitantofColoss(Col4:12),andasSt.Paulsrepresentative
(1:7)foundedtheChurchthere(1:7).ThefactofhisprayerfulzealforLaodiceaandHierapolissuggestshishavingbroughtthefaithtothesecities
also(4:13).HebroughtnewsoftheColossianChurchtotheApostleduringhisfirstRomanimprisonment,perhapsundertakingthejourneyto
obtainSt.Paulsadviceastotheheresiesthatwerethereprevalent.HeisspokenofasSt.Paulsfellowprisoner(Philem23),atitleprobably
meaningthathiscareoftheApostleentailedthepracticalsharingofhiscaptivity.TheEpistletotheColossianswasaresultofthisvisit,and
Epaphrasbroughtitbackwithhimtohisflock.EpaphrasisashortenedformofEpaphroditus(Ph2:25),but,asthenamewasincommonuse,itis
notprobablethatthetwoaretobeidentified.
CHARLEST.P.GRIERSON.
EPAPHRODITUS.MentionedbySt.PaulinPh2:2530,4:18,anddescribedbyhimashisbrother,fellowworker,andfellowsoldier
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EPAPHRODITUS.MentionedbySt.PaulinPh2:2530,4:18,anddescribedbyhimashisbrother,fellowworker,andfellowsoldier
(2:25).HewasthemessengerbywhomthePhilippianssenttheofferingswhichfullysuppliedthenecessitiesofSt.PaulduringhisfirstRoman
imprisonment(2:25,4:18).InRomehelabouredsozealouslyfortheChurchandfortheApostleastohazardhislife(2:30)indeed,hecame
nighuntodeath,butGodhadmercyonhim,andtheApostlewassparedthissorrowuponsorrow(v.27).NewsofhisillnessreachedPhilippi,
andthedistressthuscausedhisfriendsmadehimlongtoreturn(v.26).St.Paulthereforesenthimthemorediligently,thusrelievingtheirminds,
andatthesametimelesseninghisownsorrowsbyhisknowledgeoftheirjoyatreceivinghimbackinhealth.
ApparentlytheEpistletothePhilippianswassentbyhim.
CHARLEST.P.GRIERSON.
EPHAH.1.AsonofMidian,descendedfromAbrahamandKeturah(Gn25:4=1Ch1:33),theeponymousancestorofanArabiantribe
whoseidentityisuncertain.ThistribeappearsinIs60:6asengagedinthetransportofgoldandfrankincensefromSheba.2.AconcubineofCaleb
(1Ch2:46).3.AJudahite(1Ch2:47).
EPHAH.SeeWEIGHTSANDMEASURES.
EPHAI.DescribedinJer40(Gr47):8astheNetophathite,whosesonswereamongstthecaptainsoftheforceswhojoinedGedaliahat
Mizpah,andweremurderedalongwithhimbyIshmael(Jer41:3).
EPHER.1.ThenameofthesecondofthesonsofMidianmentionedinGn25:4,
1Ch1:33,andrecordedasoneofthedescendantsofAbrahambyhiswifeKeturah(Gn25:1).2.ThenameofoneofthesonsofEzrah(1Ch4:17).
3.ThefirstofagroupoffiveheadsoffathershousesbelongingtothehalftribeofManasseh(1Ch5:24).
EPHESDAMMIM.TheplaceinJudahwherethePhilistineswereencampedatthetimewhenDavidslewGoliath(1S17:1).Thesamename
appearsin1Ch11:13asPasDammim.
EPHESIANS,EPISTLETO.ThisEpistlebelongstothegroupofEpistlesoftheCaptivity,andwasalmostcertainly,ifgenuine,writtenfrom
Rome,andsentbyTychicusatthesametimeastheEpistlestotheColossiansandtoPhilemon(seeCOLOSSIANS).
1.Destination.Towhomwasitaddressed?ThatitwasspecificallywrittentotheEphesianChurchisimprobable,fortworeasons(1)The
wordsatEphesusin1:1areabsentfromtwooftheearliestMSS,andapparentlyfromtheEpistleasknowntoMarcion(A.D.140),whorefersto
itasaddressedtotheLaodiceans.OrigenalsohadaccesstoacopyoftheEpistlefromwhichtheywereabsent.(2)TheEpistleisalmostentirely
devoidofthepersonaltouchesreferencestoSt.PaulslongstayatEphesus,greetingstofriends,etc.thatweshouldexpecttofindinanEpistle
toa
ChurchwithwhichtheApostlesrelationshadbeenascloseastheyhadbeenwiththe
EphesianChurch.Ontheotherhand,earlytradition,asshowninthetitle,associatedtheEpistlewithEphesus,and,exceptMarcion,noearlywriter
associateditwithanyotherChurch.Moreover,personaltouchesarenotwhollyabsent.St.Paulhasheardofthefaithandloveofthosetowhomhe
writes(1:15)theyhadbeensaddenedbynewsofhisimprisonment(3:13)theyapparentlyknowTychicus(6:21,22).Perhapsthebestexplanation
ofallthefactsistobefoundinthesuggestionmadebyUssher,andadoptedbyLightfoot(BiblicalEssays),thattheEpistleisreallyacircularletter
totheChurchesofAsia(cf.theFirstEpistleofSt.Peter).PossiblythespacewhereatEphesusnowappearswasleftblankforTychicustofillinas
heleftcopiesoftheletteratthevariouschurchesonhislineofroute.Ifthissolutionisthetrueone,thisEpistleismostprobablytheletterreferred
toinCol4:16.
2.Purpose.ThisEpistle,unlikemostofSt.Pauls,doesnotappeartohavebeenwrittenwithaviewtoanyparticularcontroversyorproblem
ofChurchlife.OfallthePaulineEpistlesithasmostofthecharacterofatreatiseorhomily.ItskeynoteistheunionoftheChristianbody,Jewish
andGentile,inChrist,inwhomallthingsarebeingfulfilled.ItmayberegardedascarryingonthedoctrinalteachingoftheEpistletotheRomans
fromthepointreachedinthatEpistleand,indeed,maynotimprobablyhavebeensointendedbySt.Paul.

3. Authenticity.TheauthenticityoftheEpistleiswellattestedbyexternaltestimony,buthasbeendisputedduringthelastcenturyon
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3.Authenticity.TheauthenticityoftheEpistleiswellattestedbyexternaltestimony,buthasbeendisputedduringthelastcenturyon
internalgrounds.Thechiefoftheseare(1)DifferenceofstylefromtheearlierEpistles.Thisisverymarked,but(a)thestyleislikethatofthe
EpistletotheColossians,andresemblesalsotheEpistletothePhilippians(b)therearemanydefinitelyPaulinephrasesandturnsofexpression(c)
argumentsfromstylearealwaysunreliable(seeCOLOSSIANS).(2)Doctrinaldifferences.Thechiefoftheseare:(a)theprominencegiventothe
CatholicideaoftheChurch(b)thedoctrineofthepreexistentChristastheagentofcreation(c)thesubstitutionoftheideaofthegradual
fulfilmentoftheDivinepurposefortheearlierideaofanimminentreturn(Parousia)ofChrist.Intheseandotherdirectionsthereiscertainlya
development,butisitnotsuchadevelopmentasmighteasilytakeplaceinthemindofSt.Paul,especiallywhenthreeyearsofimprisonmenthad
givenhimopportunitiesforquietthought,andhadbroughthimintocontactwithRomanimperialismatitscentre?(3)Thereferencestoapostles
andprophetsin3:5,4:11,whichseemtosuggestthatthewriterislookingbackontheApostolicagefromthestandpointofthenextgeneration.
Butin1Co12:28apostlesandprophetsstandfirstintheorderofspiritualgifts,andboththereandherethewordapostleoughtprobablytobe
takeninawidersensethanasincludingonlytheTwelveandSt.Paul.Apostlesandprophetswerethetwokindsofteachersexercisinggeneral,as
distinguishedfromlocalized,authorityintheearlyChurch.
ThosewhodenythegenuinenessoftheEpistlehavegenerallyregardeditastheworkofadiscipleofSt.Paulearlyinthe2ndcentury.Some
criticsadmitthegenuinenessofColossians,andregardthisEpistleasarevisedversiondrawnupatalaterdate.Buttheabsenceofanyreferenceto
thespecialtheologicalcontroversiesofthe2ndcentury,andofanyobviousmotiveforthecompositionoftheEpistleatalatertime,makethis
theorydifficulttoaccept.NorisiteasytoseehowanEpistlepurportingtobebySt.Paul,thathadnotbeenincirculationduringhislifetime,could
havesecuredaplaceinthecollectionofhisEpistlesthatbegantobemadeverysoonafterhisdeath(2P3:16).Theredoesnot,then,seemtobeany
adequategroundfordenyingthePaulineauthorshipofthisEpistle.
4.Characteristics.ThefollowingareamongthedistinctivelinesofthoughtoftheEpistle.(1)ThestresslaidontheideaoftheChurchasthe
fulfilmentoftheeternalpurposeofGodthebodyofwhichChrististhehead(1:23,2:16,3:6,4:12,16),thebuildingofwhichChrististhecorner
stone(2:2022),thebride(5:2327).(2)ThecosmicsignificanceoftheAtonement(1:10,14,2:7,3:10).(3)Theprominencegiventotheworkof
theHolySpirit(1:13,17,2:18,3:16,4:3,30,5:9).InthistheEpistlediffersfromColossians,andresembles1Corinthians.(4)Repeated
exhortationstounity,andthegracesthatmakeforunity(4:17,13,2532,5:2etc.).(5)TheconceptionoftheChristianhousehold(5:226:9)and
oftheChristianwarrior(6:1018).
5.Relationtootherbooks.TheEpistlehaslinesofthoughtrecalling1Cor.See,e.g.,in1Cor.theideaoftheriches(1:5)andthemystery
(2:710)ofthegospel,theworkoftheSpirit(2:10,11,12:4ff.),thebuilding(3:911,16),theonebody(10:17,12:46,1216),allthingssubdued
untoChrist(15:2428).TherelationtoColossiansisveryclose.Theoneisthegeneralandsystematicexpositionofthesametruthswhichappear
inaspecialbearingintheother(Lightfoot).Cf.therelationofGalatiansandRomans.EphesiansandPhilippianshavemanythoughtsincommon.
See,e.g.,theChristiancitizenship(Eph2:12,19,Ph1:27,3:20),theexaltationof
Christ(Eph1:20,Ph2:9),thetruecircumcision(Eph2:11,Ph3:3),unityandstability
(Eph2:18ff.,4:3,6:13,Ph1:27).Cf.alsoEph6:18withPh4:6,andEph5:2withPh4:18.InregardtoRomansandEphesians,theunityatwhich
theformerEpistleseemstoarrivebyslowandpainfulstepsisassumedinthelatterasastartingpoint,withavistaofwondrouspossibilities
beyond(Hort).
ThereisacloseconnexionbetweenthisEpistleand1Peter,notsomuchindetailsasinidentitiesofthoughtandsimilarityinthestructureof
thetwoEpistlesaswholes(Hort).Ifthereisanydirectrelation,itisprobablethattheauthorof1PeterusedthisEpistle,ashecertainlyused
Romans.InsomerespectsthisEpistleshowsanapproximationofPaulinethoughttotheteachingoftheFourthGospel.See,e.g.,theteachingof
bothongrace,onthecontrastoflightanddarkness,ontheworkofthepreincarnateLogosandcompareJn17withthewholeEpistle.Cf.alsoRev
21:10,14withEph2:20,21,Rev19:7withEph5:2527,andRev13:8withEph3:11.
J.H.B.MASTERMAN.
EPHESUS.ThecapitaloftheRomanprovinceAsiaalargeandancientcityatthemouthoftheriverCayster,andabout3milesfromthe
opensea.Theoriginofthename,whichisnativeandnotGreek,isunknown.Itstoodattheentrancetooneofthefourcleftsinthesurrounding
hills.ItisalongthesevalleysthattheroadsthroughthecentralplateauofAsiaMinorpass.ThechiefofthesewastherouteuptheManderasfar
astheLycus,itstributary,thenalongtheLycustowardsApamea.ItwasthemostimportantavenueofcivilizationinAsiaMinorundertheRoman
Empire.MiletushadbeeninearliertimesamoreimportantharbourthanEphesus,butthetrackacrossfromthismainroadtoEphesuswasmuch
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Empire.MiletushadbeeninearliertimesamoreimportantharbourthanEphesus,butthetrackacrossfromthismainroadtoEphesuswasmuch
shorterthantheroadtoMiletus,andwasoverapassonly600ft.high.ConsequentlyEphesusreplacedMiletusbeforeandduringtheRoman
Empire,especiallyastheManderhadsiltedupsomuchastospoiltheharbouratthelatterplace.ItbecamethegreatemporiumforallthetradeN.
ofMt.Taurus.
EphesuswasonthemainroutefromRometotheEast,andmanysideroadsandsearoutesconvergedatit(Ac19:21,20:1,17,1Ti1:3,2Ti
4:12).ThegovernorsoftheprovincesinAsiaMinorhadalwaystolandatEphesus.ItwasanobviouscentrefortheworkofSt.Paul,asinfluences
fromtherespreadoverthewholeprovince(Ac19:10).CorinthwasthenextgreatstationonthewaytoRome,andcommunicationbetweenthetwo
placeswasconstant.TheshipinAc18:19,boundfromCorinthfortheSyriancoast,touchedfirstatEphesus.
BesidesPaul,Tychicus(Eph6:21f.)andTimothy(accordingto1Ti1:3,2Ti4:9),JohnMark(Col4:10,1P5:13),andthewriterofthe
Apocalypse(1:11,2:1)wereacquaintedwithAsiaorEphesus.
TheharbourofEphesuswaskeptlargeenoughanddeepenoughonlybyconstantattention.Thealluvialdepositswere(andare)sogreatthat,
whenoncetheRomanEmpirehadceasedtoholdsway,theharbourbecamegraduallysmallerandsmaller,sothatnowEphesusisfarawayfrom
thesea.EveninSt.Paulstimethereappeartohavebeendifficultiesaboutnavigatingthechannel,andshipsavoidedEphesusexceptwhenloading
orunloadingwasnecessary(cf.Ac20:16).Theroutebythehighlands,fromEphesustotheEast,wassuitableforfootpassengersandlighttraffic,
andwasusedbySt.Paul(Ac19:1probablyalso16:6).ThealternativewasthemainroadthroughColossandLaodiceaneitherofwhichSt.Paul
evervisited(Col2:1).
Intheopenplain,about5milesfromthesea,S.oftheriver,standsalittlehillwhichhasalwaysbeenareligiouscentre.BelowitsS.W.slope
wasthetemplesacredtoArtemis(seeDIANAOFTHEEPHESIANS).TheGreekcityEphesuswasbuiltatadistanceof12milesS.W.ofthis
hill.ThehistoryofthetownturnsverymuchontheoppositionbetweenthefreeGreekspiritofprogressandtheslavishsubmissionoftheOriental
populationtothegoddess.CrsustheLydianrepresentedthepredominanceofthelatterovertheformer,butLysimachus(B.C.295)revivedthe
Greekinfluence.Ephesus,however,wasalwaysproudofthepositionofWardenoftheTempleofArtemis(Ac19:35).Thefestivalswere
throngedbycrowdsfromthewholeoftheprovinceofAsia.St.Paul,whoseresidenceinEphesuslasted2yearsand3months(Ac19:8,10),or
roughlyexpressed,3years(Ac20:31).atfirstincurrednooppositionfromthedevoteesofthegoddess,becausenewforeignreligionsdidnotlessen
theinfluenceofthenativegoddessbutwhenhisteachingprovedprejudicialtothemoneyinterestsofthepeoplewhomadealivingoutofthe
worship,hewasatoncebitterlyattacked.Priortothisoccurrence,hisinfluencehadcausedmanyofthefamousmagiciansoftheplacetoburntheir
books(Ac19:1319).Theriotof19:32wasnomerepassingfuryofasectionofthepopulace.ThereferencestoEphesusintheEpistlesshowthat
theoppositiontoChristianitytherewasaslongcontinuedasitwasvirulent(1Co15:32,16:9,2Co1:8,10).
ThesceneinAc19:23ff.derivessomeIllustrationfromanaccountofthetopographyandthegovernmentofthecity.Theruinsofthetheatreare
large,andithasbeencalculatedthatitcouldhold24,000people.ItwasonthewesternslopeofMt.Pion,andoverlookedtheharbour.TheAsiarchs
(seeASIARCH),whowerefriendlytoSt.Paul,mayhavebeenpresentinEphesusatthattimeonaccountofameetingoftheirbody(Ac19:31).
Thetownclerkorsecretaryofthecityappearsasapersonofimportance,andthisisexactlyinaccordancewithwhatisknownofmunicipalaffairs
insuchcities.TheEmpirebroughtdecayoftheinfluenceofpopularassemblies,whichtendedmoreandmoretocomeintothehandsofthe
officials,thoughtheassemblyatEphesuswasreallythehighestmunicipalauthority(Ac19:39),andtheRomancourtsandtheproconsuls(Ac
19:38)werethefinaljudicialauthorityinprocessesagainstindividuals.ThemeetingoftheassemblydescribedinActswasnotalegalmeeting.
LegalmeetingscouldbesummonedonlybytheRomanofficials,whohadthepowertocalltogetherthepeoplewhentheypleased.Thesecretary
triedtoactasintermediarybetweenthepeopleandtheseofficials,andsavethepeoplefromtroubleattheirhands.ThetempleofArtemiswhich
existedinSt.Paulsdaywasofenormoussize.Apartfromreligiouspurposes,itwasusedasatreasurehouse:astotheprecisearrangementsforthe
chargeofthistreasureweareinignorance.
ThereisevidenceoutsidetheNTalsoforthepresenceofJewsinEphesus.ThetwelvewhohadbeenbaptizedwiththebaptismofJohn(Ac
19:3)mayhavebeenpersonswhohademigratedtoEphesusbeforethemissionofJesusbegan.WhenSt.PaulturnedfromtheJewstothe
populationingeneral,heappeared,asearlierinAthens,asalecturerinphilosophy,andoccupiedtheschoolofTyrannusoutofschoolhours.The
earlierpartoftheday,beginningbeforedawn,hespentinmanuallabour.TheactualfoundationofChristianityinEphesusmayhavebeendueto
PriscillaandAquila(Ac18:19).

EphesianoccursasavariantreadingintheWesterntextofAc20:4forthewordsofAsia,asappliedtoTychicusandTrophimus.
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EphesianoccursasavariantreadingintheWesterntextofAc20:4forthewordsofAsia,asappliedtoTychicusandTrophimus.
TrophimuswasaninhabitantofEphesus(Ac21:29),capitalofAsiabutTychicuswasprobablymerelyanInhabitantoftheprovinceAsiahence
theyarecoupledundertheonlyadjectiveapplicabletoboth.ItishardlysafetoinferfromthefactthatTychicusborethelettertotheColossiansthat
hebelongedtoColoss(provinceAsia)butitispossiblethathedid.
A.SOUTER.
EPHLAL.AdescendantofJudah(1Ch2:37).
EPHOD.1.FatherofHanniel(Nu34:23P).2.SeeDRESS,2(c),andPRIESTSANDLEVITES.3.TheephodofJg8:27,17:5,
18:14,17,18,20isprobablyanimage.
EPHPHATHA.Mk7:34,whereJesussaystoamanwhowasdeafandhadanimpedimentinhisspeech,Ephphatha,thatis,Beopened.
ThewordisreallyAramaic,andifwetransliterateitasitstandsweobtaineppattachoreppethach.Boththeseformsarecontracted:theformerfor
ithpattach,thelatterforithpethach,whicharerespectivelysecondsing,imperativeIthpaalandIthpealoftheverbpethach,toopen.SomeGr.MSS
presentephphetha,whichiscertainlyIthpeal,whereasephphathamaybeIthpaal.Jeromealsoreadsephphetha.
ItisnotcertainwhomorwhatJesusaddressedwhenHesaidBeopened.ItmaybethemouthofthemanasinLk1:64(soWeiss,Morison,
etc.)ortheear,asinTarg.ofIs50:5(soBruce,Swete,etc.)oritmaybethedeafmanhimself.Onegateofknowledgebeingclosed,themanis
conceivedofasaboltedroom,andJesussaidtohim.Bethouopened.
J.T.MARSHALL.
EPHRAIM.AgrandsonofJacob,andthebrotherofManasseh,thefirstbornof
JosephbyAsenath,thedaughterofPotiphera,priestofOn(Gn41:50f.[E],cf.v.45[J]).ThepopularetymologyofEconnectsthenamewiththe
verbprh,tobefruitful,andmakesitrefertoJosephssons.IntheBlessingofJacob(Gn49:22)theremaybeaplayuponthenamewhen
Joseph,whothererepresentsbothEphraimandManasseh,iscalledafruitfulbough.Thewordisprobablydescriptive,meaningfertileregion
whetheritsrootbeprh,orpher,earth(?).
Gn48:14ff.(J)tellsaninterestingstoryofhowJacobadoptedhisEgyptiangrandsons,EphraimandManasseh,intohisownfamily,andatthe
sametime,againsttheremonstrancesofJoseph,conferredtheblessingofthefirstbornuponEphraimhenceEphraimspredestinedsuperiorityin
laterhistory.
PsSinaicensusgives40,500menofwar(Nu1:33),butthisisreducedatthePlainsofMoabto32,500(26:37),whichislessthananyofthe
tribesexceptSimeon,whichhardlyexistedexceptinname(Sayce,Hist.ofHeb.p.77).Contrarytowhatweshouldhaveexpectedfromthe
BlessingofJacob,Ephraim,accordingtoP,lostinthemeantime20percent.whileManassehgained40percent.
TheappearanceofJosephintheBlessingofJacob,withnomentionofhissons,whoaccordingtoJhadbeenadoptedasJacobsown,andwere
thereforeentitledonthisimportantoccasiontolikeconsiderationwiththeothers,pointstoatraditionalechooftheearlydaysinthelandwhen
EphraimandManassehwerestillunited.IntheSongofDeborah(Jg5)itisthefamilyMachir,thefirstborn(Jos17:1),theonly(Gn50:23)sonof
Manasseh,thatismentioned,notaManassehtribe.From2S19:20(cf.art.BENJAMIN)itisplainthatShimeistillregardedhimselfasofthe
houseofJosephand,despitethetraditionalindicationsofalateformationofBenjamin(wh.see),thecompletepoliticalseparationofManasseh
fromEphraimappearstohavebeenstilllater.Atallevents,JeroboamtheEphraimite,whoafterwardsbecamethefirstkingofIsrael(c.B.C.930),
wasappointedbySolomonsuperintendentoftheforcedlabourofthehouseofJoseph,notofEphraimalone.Ephraim,Machir,andBenjamin
wereapparentlycloselyrelated,andinearlytimesformedagroupofclansknownasJoseph.Therearenodecisivedetailsdeterminingthetime
whentheybecamedefinitelyseparated.NorarethereanyreliablememoriesofthewayinwhichEphraimcameintopossessionofthebestand
centralportionoftheland.
ThetraditionsintheBookofJoshuaarenotablyuninforming.Canaanitesremainedintheterritoryuntilalatedate,asisseenfromJg1:29and
thehistoryofShechem(ch.8f.).Ephraimwasthestrongestofthetribesandforemostinleadership,butwascompelledtoyieldthehegemonyto
David.Fromthattimeonwardsthehistoryisnolongertribalbutnationalhistory.Eli,priestofShilohandjudgeofIsrael,Samuel,andJeroboamI.
wereamongitsgreatmen.Shechem,Tirzah,andSamaria,thecapitalsoftheNorth,werewithinitsboundariesanditwasatShilohthatJoshuais 53/85
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wereamongitsgreatmen.Shechem,Tirzah,andSamaria,thecapitalsoftheNorth,werewithinitsboundariesanditwasatShilohthatJoshuais
saidtohavedividedthelandbylot.SeealsoTRIBESOFISRAEL.
JAMESA.CRAIO.
EPHRAIM.1.AplacenearBaalhazor(2S13:23)ItmaybeidenticalwiththeEphraimwhichtheOnomasticonplaces20RomanmilesN.of
Jerusalem,somewhereintheneighbourhoodofSinjilandelLubbn.IfBaalhazorberepresented,asseemsprobable,byTellAsr,thecityby
relationtowhichsuchaprominentfeatureofthelandscapewasindicatedmusthavebeenofsomeimportance.Itprobablygaveitsnameinlater
timestothedistrictofSamariacalledAphrema(1Mac11:34,Jos.Ant.XIII.iv.9).Thesiteisatpresentunknown.2.Acitynearthe
wilderness,towhichJesusretiredaftertheraisingofLazarus(Jn11:54).ThewildernessisinArab.elbarryeh,i.e.,theuncultivatedland,much
ofitaffordingexcellentpasture,ontheuplandstotheN.W.ofJerusalem.TheOnomasticonmentionsanEfralm5RomanmilesE.ofBethel.This
maybethemodernetTaiyibeh,about4milesN.E.ofBeitn,withancientcisternsandrockhewntombswhichbetokenaplaceofimportanceinold
times.SeealsoEPHRON,4.
TheForestofEphraim(Heb.yaarEphram.)wasprobablynotaforestinoursenseoftheterm,butastretchofroughcountrysuchasthe
Arabsstillcallwar,aboundinginrocksandthicketsofbrushwood.Thedistrictisnotidentified,butitmusthavebeenE.oftheJordan,inthe
neighbourhoodofMahanaim.ItwasthesceneofAbsalomsdefeatanddeath(2S18:6ff).Theoriginofthenamecannotnowbediscovered.
MountEphraim,Heb,harEphram,isthenamegiventothatpartofthecentralrangeofWesternPalestineoccupiedbyEphraim,correspondingin
parttothemodernJebelNblusthedistrictunderthegovernorofNblus.HavingregardtoOrientalusage,itseemsamistaketotr.withRVthe
hillcountryofEphraim.JebelelQudsdoesnotmeanthehillcountryofJerusalem,butthatpartofthemountainwhichissubjecttothecity.We
prefertoretain,withAV,MountEphraim.
W.EWING.
EPHRATH,EPHRATHAH.SeeBETHLEHEM,andCALEBEPHRATHAH.
EPHRATHITE.1.AnativeofBethlehem(Ru1:2).2.AnEphraimite(Jg12:4,1S1:1,1K11:26).
EPHRON.1.TheHittitefromwhomAbrahampurchasedthefieldorplotofgroundinwhichwasthecaveofMachpelah(Gn23).The
purchaseisdescribedwithgreatparticularityandthetransactionsbetweenEphronandAbrahamareconductedwithanelaboratecourtesy
characteristicofOrientalproceedings.Ephronreceived400shekelsweightofsilver(23:15):coinedmoneyapparentlydidnotexistatthattime.If
wecomparethesaleofthesitewithotherinstances(Gn33:19,1K16:24),Ephronseemstohavemadeagoodbargain.2.Amountaindistrict,
containingcities,ontheborderofJudah,betweenNephtoahandKiriathjearim(Jos15:9).TheridgeW.ofBethlehemseemsintended.3.Astrong
fortressintheW.partofBashanbetweenAshterothkarnaimandBethshean(1Mac5:46ff.,2Mac12:27).Thesiteisunknown.4.In2Ch13:19
RVreadsEphronforAVEphrain.TheplacereferredtoisprobablytheEphraimofJn11:54.SeeEPHRAIM(city),No.2.
EPICUREANS.St.PaulsvisittoAthens(Ac17:1534)ledtoanencounterwithcertainoftheEpicureanandStoicphilosophers,
representativesofthetwoleadingschoolsofphilosophyofthattime.
EpicureanismtookitsnamefromitsfounderEpicurus,whowasbornintheislandofSamosintheyearB.C.341.InB.C.307hesettledin
Athens,wherehediedinB.C.270.Amanofblamelesslifeandofamostamiablecharacter,Epicurusgatheredaroundhim,inthegardenwhichhe
hadpurchasedatAthens,abrotherhoodofattachedfollowers,whocametobeknownasEpicureans,orthephilosophersoftheGarden.Hisaim
wasapracticalone.Heregardedpleasureastheabsolutegood.Epicurus,however,didnotrestrictpleasure,astheearlierCyrenaicschoolhaddone,
toimmediatebodilypleasures.Whatevermayhavebeenthepracticaloutcomeofthesystem,Epicurusandhismoreworthyfollowersmustbe
acquittedofthechargeofsensuality.WhatEpicurusadvocatedandaimedatwasthehappinessofatranquillifeasfreefrompainaspossible,
undisturbedbysocialconventionsorpoliticalexcitementorsuperstitiousfears.
Todelivermenfromthefearofthegodswasthechiefendeavourand,accordingtohisfamousfollowertheRomanpoetLucretius,the
crowningserviceofEpicurus.Thusitmaybesaidthat,atonepointatleast,thepathsoftheChristianApostleandtheEpicureanphilosopher
touchedeachother.Epicurussoughttoachievehisendbyshowingthatinthephysicalorganizationoftheworldthereisnoroomforthe
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interferenceofsuchbeingsasthegodsofthepopulartheology.Thereisnothingwhichisnotmaterial,andtheprimalconditionofmatteristhatof
atomswhich,fallinginemptyspacewithaninherenttendencytoswerveslightlyfromtheperpendicular,comeintocontactwitheachother,and
formtheworldasitappearstothesenses.Allismaterialandmechanical.ThegodsandEpicurusdoesnotdenytheexistenceofgodshaveno
partorlotintheaffairsofmen.Theyarerelegatedtoarealmoftheirowninthespacesbetweentheworlds.Further,sincethetestoflifeisfeeling,
death,inwhichthereisnofeeling,cannotmeananythingatall,andisnotathingtobefearedeitherinprospectorinfact.
ThetotaleffectofEpicureanismisnegative.Itswidespreadandpowerfulinfluencemustbeaccountedforbythepersonalcharmofitsfounder,
andbytheconditionsoftheageinwhichitappearedandflourished.Ittakesitsplaceasoneofthenegativebutwideninginfluences,leadingupto
thefulnessoftimewhichsawthebirthofChristianity.
W.M.MACDONALD.
EPILEPSY.SeeMEDICINE.
EPIPHI(2Mac6:38).SeeTIME.
ER.1.TheeldestsonofJudahbyhisCanaanitishwife,thedaughterofShua.
Forwickedness,thenatureofwhichisnotdescribed,Jslewhim(Gn38:37,Nu26:19).2.AsonofShelahthesonofJudah(1Ch4:21).3.An
ancestorofJesus(Lk
3:28).
ERAN.GrandsonofEphraim(Nu26:36P).Patronymic,Eranites,ib.
ERASTUS.ThenameoccursthriceinNTamongthePaulinecompany.AnErastussendsgreetingsinRo16:23,andiscalledthetreasurer
(AVchamberlain)ofthecity(Corinth).TheErastuswhowassentbySt.PaulfromEphesustoMacedonia(Ac19:22),andwholaterremainedin
Corinth(2Ti4:20),isperhapsthesame.
A.J.MACLEAN.
ERECH.NamedsecondinthelistofNimrodscities(Gn10:10).theveryancientBabyloniancityofArku,orUruk,regardedasexceptionally
sacredandbeautiful.ItsruinsatWarkaliehalfwaybetweenHillahandKorna,ontheleftbankoftheEuphrates,andW.oftheNileCanal.The
peopleofErecharecalledArchevitesinEzr4:9.
C.H.W.JOHNS.
ERI.SonofGad,Gn46:16(Nu26:16,P).PatronymicElites,ib.
ESAIAS.ThefamiliarAVspellingofIsaiahinApocr.andNTitisretainedbyRVonlyin2Es2:18.
ESARHADDON,sonandsuccessorofSennacherib(2K19:37,Is37:38),reignedoverAssyriaB.C.682669.Hepracticallyrefounded
Babylon,whichSennacheribhaddestroyed,andwasagreatrestoreroftemples.Hewasalsoagreatconqueror,makingthreeexpeditionstoEgypt,
andfinallyconqueredthewholeNorth,garrisoningthechiefcitiesandappointingvassalkings.HesubduedallSyria,andreceivedtributefrom
Manasseh,andEzr4:2mentionshiscolonizationofSamaria.HeruledoverBabyloniaaswellasAssyria,whichexplainsthestatementof2Ch33:1
thatManassehwascarriedcaptivethere.
C.H.W.JOHNS.
ESAU.1.Thenameisbestexplainedasmeaningtawnyorshaggy(Gn25:25)Edomorruddywassometimessubstitutedforit(v.30),
andEsauisrepresentedastheprogenitoroftheEdomites(36:9,43,Jer49:8ff.,Ob8).HedisplacedtheHoritesfromthehillylandofSeir,and
settledtherewithhisfollowers(Gn32:3,36:8,Dt2:12).Hiscareerissketchedbrieflybutfinelybyweavingincidentscollectedfromtwosources(J
andEintheearlypart,chieflytheformer),whilstthePriestlywriterissupposedtohavecontributedafewparticulars(Gn26:34f.,28:9,36).The
standingfeatureofEsaushistoryisrivalrywithJacob,whichisrepresentedasevenprecedingthebirthofthetwins(Gn25:22,Hos12:3).The
factsmaybecollectedintofourgroups.Thesaleofthebirthright(Gn25:29ff.)carriedwithitthelossofprecedenceafterthefathersdeath(27:29),
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factsmaybecollectedintofourgroups.Thesaleofthebirthright(Gn25:29ff.)carriedwithitthelossofprecedenceafterthefathersdeath(27:29),
andprobablylossofthedomesticpriesthood(Nu3:12,13),andofthedoubleportionofthepatrimony(Dt21:17).ForthisacttheNTcallsEsau
profane(He12:16),thusrevealingthesecretofhischaractertheword(Gr.beblos)suggeststhequalityofamantowhomnothingissacred,
whoseheartandthoughtrangeoveronlywhatismaterialandsensiblypresent.Topropitiatehisparents,Esausoughtawifeofhisownkin(Gn
28:8,9),thoughalreadymarriedtotwoHittitewomen(26:34,35).HisfathersproposedblessingwasdivertedbyJacobsartificeand,doomedto
livebywarandthechase(27:40),Esauresolvedtorecoverhislosthonoursbykillinghisbrother.Twentyyearslaterthebrotherswerereconciled
(33:4)afterwhichEsaumadeSeirhisprincipalabode,andonthedeathofIsaacsettledtherepermanently(35:29,36:6,Dt2:4,5,Jos24:4).
ByafewwritersEsauhasbeenregardedasamythicalpersonage,thepersonificationoftheroughnessofIduma.Itisatleastaslikelythata
manofEsauscharacterandhabitswouldhimselfchoosetoliveinacountryofsuchakind(Mal1:3)andmerelegendsaboutthebrothers,asthe
earlyTargumsareawitness,wouldnothavemadeEsauthemoreattractiveman,andtheveneratedJacob,incomparison,timid,tricky,andfullof
deceits.Againstthehistoricityoftherecordthereisreallynosubstantialevidence.
2.TheheadofoneofthefamiliesofNethinim,orTempleservants,whoaccompaniedNehemiahtoJerusalem(1Es5:29)seeZIHA.
R.W.MOSS.
ESCHATOLOGYisthatdepartmentoftheologywhichisconcernedwiththelastthings,thatis,withthestateofindividualsafterdeath,and
withthecourseofhumanhistorywhenthepresentorderofthingshasbeenbroughttoaclose.Itincludessuchmattersastheconsummationofthe
age,thedayofjudgment,thesecondcomingofChrist,theresurrection,themillennium,andthefixingoftheconditionsofeternity.
1.EschatologyoftheOT.IntheOTthefuturelifeisnotgreatlyemphasized.Infact,sosilentistheHebrewliteratureonthesubject,that
somehaveheldthatpersonalimmortalitywasnotincludedamongthebeliefsoftheHebrews.Suchanopinion,however,ishardlybasedonallthe
factsatourdisposal.Itistruethatfuturerewardsandpunishmentsafterdeathdonotplayanyparticularrleineitherthecodesortheprophetic
thought.Punishmentwasgenerallyconsideredasbeingmetedoutinthepresentageintheshapeoflossormisfortuneorsickness,while
righteousnesswasexpectedtobringthecorrespondingtemporalblessings.Atthesametime,however,itistobeborneinmindthattheHebrews,
togetherwithotherSemiticpeople,hadabeliefintheexistenceofsoulsafterdeath.Suchbeliefswereunquestionablythesurvivalsofthatprimitive
Animismwhichwasthefirstrepresentativeofbothpsychologyandadevelopedbeliefinpersonalimmortality.ManwastotheHebrewa
dichotomycomposedofbodyandsoul,oratrichotomyofbody,soul,andspirit.Ineithercasethebodyperishedatdeath,andtheotherelement,
whethersoulorspirit,wenttotheabodeofdisembodiedpersonalities.Thepreciserelationofthesoultothespiritwasnotsetforthbythe
Hebrewwriters,butitislikelythat,astheirempiricalpsychologydeveloped,thespiritratherthanthesoulwasregardedassurvivingdeath.Inany
case,thedisembodieddeadwerenotbelievedtobeimmaterial,butofthenatureofghostsorshades(rephaim).
Theuniversewassoconstructedthattheearthlaybetweenheavenabove,whereJehovahwas,andthegreatpitorcavernbeneath,Sheol,to
whichtheshadesofthedeaddeparted.TheHebrewScripturesdonotgiveusanyconsiderablematerialforelaboratingatheoryastolifeinSheol,
butfromthewarningsagainstnecromancers,aswellasfromthestoryofSaulandthewitchofEndor(1S28:318),itisclearthat,alongsideofthe
JehovisticreligionasfoundintheliteratureoftheHebrews,therewasapopularbeliefincontinuedexistenceandconsciouslifeofthespiritsof
menafterdeath,aswellasinthepossibilityofrecallingsuchspiritsfromSheolbysomeformofincantation.Thelegislationagainstnecromancyis
afurthertestimonytothesamefact(Dt18:11).EarlyHebrewthoughtalsodealtbutindistinctlywiththeoccupationsandconditionsofthedeadin
Sheol.Apparentlytheywereregardedasinastateresemblingsleep.
ThereisnothoughtofresurrectionofthebodyintheOT,theclauseinJob19:26generallyusedtoprovesuchapointbeingmoreproperly
translatedapartfrommyflesh.Theresurrectionexpectedwasnotindividual,butnational.Thenation,oratleastitspiousremnant,wastobe
restored.Thiswasthegreatevangeloftheprophets.Inthemidstofthispropheticthoughttherewasoccasionallyareferencetoindividual
immortality,butsuchabeliefwasnotutilizedforthepurposeofinculcatingrightconduct.Yetthenewandhigherconceptionoftheworthofthe
individualandhisrelationwithJehovahpavedthewaytoaclearerestimateofhisimmortality.
ThelaterbooksoftheCanon(Pss49,73:1825)refermorefrequentlytoimmortality,bothofgoodandofevilmen,butcontinuetodeny
activitytothedeadin

Sheol(Job14:21,26:6,Ps88:12,94:17,115:17,Ec9:10),andlessdistinctly(Is26:19)refertoaresurrection,althoughwithjustwhatcontentitis56/85
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Sheol(Job14:21,26:6,Ps88:12,94:17,115:17,Ec9:10),andlessdistinctly(Is26:19)refertoaresurrection,althoughwithjustwhatcontentitis
notpossibletostate.ItcanhardlyhavebeenmuchmorethantheemergenceofshadesfromSheolintothelightandlifeoftheupperheavens.It
wouldbeunwarrantedtosaythatthisnewlifeincludedanythinglikethereconstructionofthebody,whichwasconceivedofashavingreturnedto
dust.Inthesepassagestherearepossiblyreferencestopostmortemretributionandrewards,butifsotheyareexceptional.OTethicswasnot
concernedwithimmortality.
IntheHebrewperiod,however,therewereelementswhichweresubsequentlytobeutilizedinthedevelopmentoftheeschatologyofthe
PhariseesandofChristianity.ChiefamongthesewastheDayofJehovah.AtthefirstthiswasconceivedofasthedayinwhichJehovahshould
punishtheenemiesofHisnationIsrael.Inthecourseoftime,however,andwiththeenlargedmoralhorizonofprophecy,theimportofthisdaywith
itspunishmentswasextendedtotheHebrewsaswell.AtitscomingtheHebrewnationwastobegivenallsortsofpoliticalandsocialblessingsby
Jehovah,butcertainofitsmembersweretoshareinthepunishmentreservedfortheenemiesofJehovah.Suchanexpectationasthiswasthe
naturaloutcomeofthemonarchicalconceptofreligion.JehovahasagreatkinghadgivenHislawstoHischosenpeople,andwouldestablisha
greatassizeatwhichallmen,includingtheHebrews,wouldbejudged.ExceptintheHagiographa,however,thepunishmentsandrewardsofthis
greatjudgmentarenotelaborated,andeveninDanielthetreatmentisbutrudimentary.
AsecondelementofimportancewasthebeliefintherehabilitationoftheHebrewnation,i.e.inanationalresurrection.Thiscarriedwithinit
thegermsofmanyoftheeschatologicalexpectationsoflaterdays.Infact,withoutthepropheticinsistenceuponthedistinctionbetweentheperiod
ofnationalsufferingandthatofnationalglory,itishardtoseehowthelaterdoctrineofthetwoages,mentionedbelow,couldhavegainedits
importance.
2.EschatologyofJudaism.AnewperiodistobeseenintheOTApocryphaandthepseudepigraphicapocalypsesofJudaism.Doubtless
muchofthisnewphaseinthedevelopmentofthethoughtwasduetotheinfluenceoftheCaptivity.TheJewscameundertheinfluenceofthegreat
Babylonianmythcycles,inwhichthestrugglebetweenrightandwrongwasexpressedasonebetweenGodandvarioussupernaturalenemiessuch
asdragonsandgiants.TothisperiodmustbeattributedalsothedevelopmentoftheideaofSheol,untilitincludedplacesforthepunishmentofevil
spiritsandevilmen.
Thisdevelopmentwasacceleratedbytheriseofthenewtypeofliterature,theapocalypse,thebeginningsofwhicharealreadytobeseenin
IsaiahandZechariah.Thevariousinfluenceswhichhelpedtodevelopthistypeofliterature,withitsemphasisuponeschatology,arehardtolocate.
TheinfluenceoftheBabylonianmythcycleswasgreat,butthereisalsotobeseentheinfluenceoftheGreekimpulsetopictorialexpression.No
nationevercameintoclosecontactwithGreekthoughtandlifewithoutsharingintheirincentivetostheticexpression.InthecaseoftheHebrews
thiswaslimitedbyreligion.TheHebrewcouldnotmakegravenimages,buthecouldutilizeartinliterarypictures.Themethodparticularlysuited
thepresentationoftheDayofJehovah,withitspunishmentofIsraelsenemies.Asaresultwehavetheveryextensiveapocalypticliteraturewhich,
beginningwiththeBookofDaniel,wastheprevailingmodeofexpressionofasortofbastardprophecyduringthetwocenturiesprecedingandthe
centuryfollowingChrist.Here,however,thecentralmotifoftheDayofJehovahisgreatlyexpanded.Rewardsandpunishmentsbecomelargely
transcendental,orshowatendencytowardstranscendentalrepresentation.InthisrepresentationweseetheDayofJudgment,theJewishequivalent
oftheDayofJehovah,closingoneeraandopeninganother.Thefirstwasthepresentage,whichisfullofwickednessandunderthecontrolof
Satan,andthesecondisthecomingage,whenGodsKingdomistobesupremeandallenemiesoftheLawaretobepunished.Itwasthese
elementsthatwereembodiedintheMessianicprogrammeofJudaism,andpassedoverintoChristianity(seeMESSIAH).
Theideaofindividualimmortalityisalsohighlydevelopedintheapocalypses.Theconditionofmenafterdeathismadeamotiveforright
conductinthepresentage,thoughthisethicaluseofthedoctrineislessprominentthantheunsystematizedportrayalofthevariousstatesofgood
andevilmen.ThePhariseesbelievedinimmortalityandtheentranceofthesoulsoftherighteousintonewbodies(Jos.Ant.XVIII.i.3),aview
thatappearsinthelaterapocalypsesaswell(Eth.Enoch3760,cf.2Mac7:11,14:46).Thisbodywasnotnecessarilytobephysical,butlikethe
angels(Apoc.ofBaruchand2Esdras,thoughthesewritingsundoubtedlyshowtheinfluenceofChristianthought).Thereisalsoatendencyto
regardtheresurrectionaswhollyofthespirit(Eth.Enoch91:18,92:3,103:3f.).Sheolissometimestreatedasanintermediateabodefromwhichthe
righteousgotoheaven.Thereisnoclearexpectationofeithertheresurrectionortheannihilationofthewicked.Resurrectionwaslimitedtothe
righteous,orsometimestoIsrael.AtthesametimethereisastronglymarkedtendencytoregardtheexpectedMessianickingdomwhichbegins
withtheDayofJudgmentassupermundaneandtemporary,andpersonalimmortalityinheavenbecomesthehighestgood.Itshouldbe

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remembered,however,thateachwriterhashisownpeculiarbeliefs,andthattherewasnoauthoritativeeschatologicaldogmaamongtheJews.The
Sadduceesdisbelievedinanyimmortalitywhatsoever.
3.EschatologyoftheNT.ThisisthedevelopmentoftheeschatologyofJudaism,modifiedbythefactofJesusresurrection.
(a)IntheteachingofJesuswefindeschatologyprominentlyrepresented.TheKingdomofGod,asHeconceivedofit,isformallyeschatological.
ItsmemberswerebeinggatheredbyJesus,butitwastocomesuddenlywiththereturnoftheChrist,andwouldbeusheredinbyageneral
judgment.Jesus,however,doesnotelaboratetheideaoftheKingdominitself,butrathermakesitapointofcontactwiththeJewsforHis
expositionofeternallife,thatistosay,thelifethatcharacterizesthecomingageandmaybebeguninthepresentevilage.Thesupremegoodin
JesusteachingisthiseternallifewhichcharacterizesmembershipintheKingdom.Nothingbutahighlysubjectivecriticismcaneliminatefrom
Histeachingthiseschatologicalelement,whichappearsasstronglyintheFourthGospelasintheSynopticwritings,andfurnishesmaterialforthe
appealofHisApostles.Itshouldbeadded,however,thattheeschatologyofJesus,onceitisviewedfromHisownpointofview,carrieswithitno
crudetheoryofrewardsandpunishments,butratherservesasavehicleforexpressingHisfundamentalmoralandreligiousconcepts.Toallintents
andpurposesitisinformandvocabularylikethatofcurrentJudaism.Itincludesthetwoages,thenonphysicalresurrectionofthedead,the
Judgmentwithitssentences,andtheestablishmentofeternalstates.
(b)IntheteachingofprimitiveChristianseschatologyisarulingconcept,andisthoroughlyembeddedintheMessianicevangel.Ourlackof
literarysources,however,forbidsanydetailedpresentationofthecontentoftheirexpectationbeyondareferencetothecentralpositiongiventothe
comingdayoftheChristsJudgment.
(c)EschatologywasalsoacontrollingelementintheteachingofSt.Paul.UnderitsinfluencetheApostleheldhimselfalooffromsocialreform
andrevolution.InhisopinionChristianswerelivinginthelastdaysofthepresentevilage.TheChristwassoontoappeartoestablishHis
Judgment,andtousherinthenewperiodwhenthewickedweretosufferandtherighteousweretoshareinthejoysoftheresurrectionandthe
MessianicKingdom.EschatologyaloneformstheproperpointofapproachtothePaulinedoctrinesofjustificationandsalvation,aswellashis
teachingsastotheresurrection.Buthereagaineschatology,thoughacontrollingfactorintheApostlesthought,was,asinthecaseofJesus,a
mediumfortheexpositionofagenuinespirituallife,whichdidnotriseandfallwithanyparticularforecastastothefuture.Theelementsofthe
PaulineeschatologyarethoseofJudaism,butcorrectedandtoaconsiderableextentgivendistinctivenessbyhisknowledgeoftheresurrectionof
Jesus.Hegivesnoapocalypticdescriptionofthecomingagebeyondhisteachingastothebodyoftheresurrection,whichisdoubtlessbasedupon
hisbeliefastothatoftherisenJesus.HisdescriptionoftheJudgmentiscouchedintheconventionallanguageofPharisaiceschatologybut,hasing
histeachinguponthewordoftheLord(1Th4:15),hedevelopsthedoctrinethattheJudgmentextendsbothovertheliving,whoaretobecaught
upintotheair,andalsooverthedead.Histeachingislackinginthespecificelementsoftheapocalypses,andthereisnoreferencetothe
establishmentofamillennium.OpinionsdifferastowhetherSt.PaulheldthatthebelieverreceivedtheresurrectionbodyatdeathorattheParousia
ofChrist.OnthewholetheformerviewseemspossiblymoreinaccordwithhisgeneralpositionastotheworkoftheSpiritinthebeliever.The
appearance(Parousia)oftheChristtoinauguratetheneweraSt.Paulbelievedtobecloseathand(1Th4:15,17),butthatitwouldbeprecededby
theappearanceofanAntichrist(2Th2:1f.).ThedoctrineoftheAntichrist,however,doesnotplayanylargerleinPaulinism.WhileSt.Pauls
pointofviewiseschatological,hisfundamentalthoughtisreallythenewlifeofthebeliever,throughtheSpirit,whichismadepossiblebythe
acceptanceofJesusastheChrist.WithSt.Paul,aswithJesus,thisnewlifewithitsGodlikeloveanditscertaintyofstilllargerselfrealization
throughtheresurrectionisthesupremegood.(d)Thetendenciesoflatercanonicalthoughtareobviouslyeschatological.TheJohannineApocalypse
disclosesacompleteeschatologicalprogramme.InthelatterworkweseealltheelementsofJewishapocalypticeschatologyutilizedintheinterest
ofChristianfaith.Thetwoages,theJudgmentandtheResurrection,andthefinalconquestofGodaredistinctivelydescribed,andtheprogramme
ofthefutureiselaboratedbytheadditionofthepromiseofafirstresurrectionofthesaintsbyamillennium(probablyderivedfromJudaismcf.
Slav.Enoch32,33)inwhichSatanisboundbyagreatperiodofconflictinwhichSatanandhishostsarefinallydefeatedandcastintothelakeof
fireandbyageneralresurrectionincludingthewickedforthepurposeofjudgment.Itisnotclearthatinthisgeneralresurrectionthereisintended
anythingmorethanthesummoningofsoulsfromSheol,foradistinctionshouldprobablybemadebetweentheresurrectionandthegivingofthe
bodyoftheresurrection.ThisresurrectionofthewickedseemsinconsistentwiththegeneraldoctrineofthePaulineliterature(cf.1Co15),but
appearsinSt.PaulsaddressbeforeFelix(Ac24:15),andinasingleJohannineformula(Jn5:29).Thedoctrineofthesleepofthedeadfindsno
justificationintheApocalypseortheNTasawhole.

4.EschatologyandModernTheology.ThehistoryofChristiantheologyuntilwithinthelastfewyearshasbeendominatedbyeschatological
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4.EschatologyandModernTheology.ThehistoryofChristiantheologyuntilwithinthelastfewyearshasbeendominatedbyeschatological
concepts,and,thoughnotinthesenseallegedbyitsdetractors,hasbeenotherworldly.Therewardsandpunishmentsofimmortalityhavebeen
utilizedasmotivesformorality.Thistendencyhasalwaysmetwithseverecriticismatthehandsofphilosophy,andoflateyearshastoa
considerableextentbeenminimizedorneglectedbytheologians.Thedoctrineoftheeternityofpunishmenthasbeendeniedintheinterestofso
calledsecondorcontinuedprobation,restorationism,andconditionalimmortality.Thetendency,however,hasresultedinadispositiontoreduce
Christiantheologytogeneralmoralitybaseduponreligion,andhasbeentoalargeextentbuttressedbythatscepticismoragnosticismregarding
individualimmortalitywhichmarksmodernthought.SuchasituationhasprovedinjurioustothespreadofChristianityasmorethanageneral
ethicalorreligioussystem,anditistobehopedthatthenewinterestwhichisnowfeltinthehistoricalstudyoftheNTwillreinstateeschatologyin
itstrueplace.
Suchareinstatementwillincludetwofundamentaldoctrines:(1)thatofindividualimmortalityasanewphaseinthegreatprocessof
developmentoftheIndividualwhichistobeobservedinlifeandguaranteedbytheresurrectionofJesus.
DistinctionscaneasilybedrawnbetweenthefigurativemediaofNTthoughtandthegreatrealityofeternallifetaughtandexemplifiedbyJesus.
(2)ThedoctrineofaKingdomofGod.Thisexpectation,sinceitinvolvestheelementsofalovingpersonalitylikethatofaGodoflove,involves
abeliefinanewhumanitythatwillliveagenuinelysociallifeontheearth,althoughtheconditionsofsuchalifemustbeleftundefined.Inaword,
therefore,themodernequivalentofJewisheschatologyforpracticalpurposesisthatofpersonal(thoughtrulysocial)immortalityandacompletion
ofthedevelopmentofsociety.UtterlytoignoretheessentialelementsofNTeschatologyisinsofartoreestablishthenonChristianconceptof
materialgoodsasasuprememotive,andtodestroyallconfidenceintheultimatetriumphofsocialrighteousness.
SHAILERMATHEWS.
ESCHEW.IntheolderEng.versionsoftheBibleeschewiscommon.InAVitoccursonlyinJob1:1,8,2:3ofJobhimself,as1:1onethat
fearedGod,andeschewedevil,andin1P3:11Lethimeschewevil,anddogood.Themeaningisturnawayfrom(asRVat1P3:11andAmer.
RVeverywhere).
ESDRAELON.TheGreeknameforMerjIbnAmr,thegreatplainnorthoftherangeofCarmel.Itistriangularinshape,theanglesbeing
definedbyTellelKassisintheN.W.,JeninintheS.E.,andTaborintheN.E.Thedimensionsoftheareaareabout20milesN.W.toS.E.,14miles
N.E.toS.W.ItaffordsapassageintothemountainousinteriorofPalestine,fromtheseacoastattheharboursoftheBayofAcca.Itisdrainedby
theKishon,andis,overnearlyallitsarea,remarkablyfertile.ItwasallottedtothetribeofIssachar.
EsdraelonhasbeenthegreatbattlefieldofPalestine.HereDeborahandBarakroutedthehostsofJabinandSisera(Jg4),andhereGideon
defeatedtheMidianites(7).SaulherefoughthislastbattlewiththePhilistines(1S2831).JosiahhereattackedPharaohnechoonhiswayto
Mesopotamiaandwasslain(2K23:30).ItisthesceneoftheencampmentofHolofernes(Jth7:3),inconnexionwithwhichappearsthenameby
whichthevalleyisgenerallyknown:itisaGreekcorruptionofJazreel.HereSaladinencampedin1186and,finally,hereNapoleonencountered
anddefeatedanarmyofArabsin1799.ItischosenbytheApocalypticwriter(Rev16:1416)asthefittingsceneforthefinalbattlebetweenthe
goodandevilforcesoftheworld.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
ESDRAS.SeeAPOCRYPHA,andAPOC.LITERATURE.
ESDRIS.Mentionedonly2Mac12:36.Thetextisprobablycorrupt.AVhasGorgias,andthisislikelyenoughtobecorrect.
ESEK(contention,Gn26:20).AwelldugbyIsaacintheregionnearRehobothandGerar.Thesiteisunknown.
ESEREBIAS(AVEsebrias),1Es8:54.SeeSHEREBIAH.
ESHAN(Jos15:52).AtownofJudahintheHebronmountains,noticedwithArabandDumah.Thesiteisdoubtful.
ESHBAAL.SeeISHBOSHETH.

ESHBAN.AnEdomitechief(Gn36:26,1Ch1:41).
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ESHBAN.AnEdomitechief(Gn36:26,1Ch1:41).
ESHCOL.1.ThebrotherofMamreandAner,theAmoriteconfederatesofAbraham,whoassistedthepatriarchinhispursuitanddefeatof
Chedorlaomersforces(Gn14:13,24).HelivedintheneighbourhoodofHebron(Gn13:18)andpossiblygavehisnametothevalleyofEshcol,
whichlayalittletotheN.ofHebron(Nu13:23).2.Awady,withvineyardsandpomegranates,apparentlynearHebron(Nu13:23,24,32:9,Dt
1:24).Eshcolisusuallyrenderedbunchofgrapes.Thenamehasnotbeenrecovered.
ESHEK.AdescendantofSaul(1Ch8:39).
ESHTAOL.AlowlandcityofJudah(Jos15:33)onthebordersofDan(19:41),nearwhichSamsonbegantofeelthespiritoftheLord(Jg
13:25),andwasburied(16:31)thehomeofsomeoftheDaniteswhoattackedLaish(18:2,11).ItissupposedtobethesameasEshua,nearAin
eshShems(Bethshemesh).TheEshtaolitesareenumeratedamongtheCalebites(1Ch2:53).
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
ESHTEMOA.InthetribeofJudah(Jos15:50herecalledEshtemoh),aLeviticalcityinthedistrictofHebron(21:14),towhichDavidsent
ashareofthespoilofthePhilistines(1S30:28).ThenameasesSemuasurvivesabout8milesS.
ofHebronextensiveremainsofantiquityareheretobeseen.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
ESHTON.AJudahite(1Ch4:11,12).
ESLI.AnancestorofJesus(Lk3:25).
ESSENES.TothestudentofNTtimestheEssenespresentaproblemofextremedifficulty.Theveryexistenceofamonasticorderwithinthe
paleofJudaismisanextraordinaryphenomenon.InIndiasuchthingswouldhavebeenamatterofcourse.Butthedeepracialconsciousnessandthe
tenaciousnationalwilloftheJewsmakeithardtoaccountfor.When,approachingthesubjectinthismood,thestudentstraightwayfindsas
featuresoftheorderthehabitofworshippingtowardsthesunandtherefusaltoshareinthepublicservicesoftheTemple,heistemptedtoexplain
Essenismbyforeigninfluences.YettheEsseneswereJewsingoodstanding.Theywereinside,notoutside,thepaleofstrictestJudaism.Hence
theygivethestudentaproblemasinterestingasitisdifficult.
Nosmallpartofthedifficultyisduetothecharacterofourwitnesses.Essenismwasthefirstformoforganizedmonasticisminthe
Mediterraneanworld.TheGreekswhofollowedAlexandertoIndiamarvelledattheAsceticsorGymnosophists.ButnotuntilEssenismtookshape
didthemenoftheMediterraneanworldseemonasticismatclosequarters.Wondermentandthechildrenofwondermentfancyandlegendsoon
settoworkonthefacts,colouringanddistortingthem.Oneofoursources,Pliny(Nat.Hist.v.17),isinparttheproductoftheimagination.
Another,Philo(Quodomnisprobusliber,12f.,andinEuseb.Prp.Ev.VIII.ii.1),writesinthemoodofthepreachertowhomfactshavenovalue
exceptastextsforsermons.AndevenJosephus(Ant.XIII.v.9,XV.x.4,5,XVIII.i.2,5,Vita,c.2,BJII.viii.213),ourbestsource,isattimes
undersuspicion.Butaroughoutlineofthemainfactsisdiscernible.ThefoundationsofEssenismwerelaidinthehalfcenturyprecedingthe
MaccabanWar.Thehighpriesthoodwasdisintegrating.InpartthiswasduetothefactthattheloosejointedPersianEmpirehadbeensucceeded
bythemorecoherentkingdomoftheSeleucid.Withthiscloserpoliticalorder,whichmadeJewishautonomymoredifficultofattainment,went
theappealingandcompellingforcesofHellenism,bothasamodeoflifeandasareasonedviewoftheworld.Thecombinedpressureofthe
political,thesocial,andtheintellectualelementsoftheGreekoverlordshipwentfartowardsdisorganizinganddemoralizingtherulingclassin
Jerusalem.
Butadeepercausewasatwork,thegeniusofJudaismitself(seePHARISEES).WhentheHebrewmonarchyfell,thepoliticalprinciplelost
control.Topopularizemonotheism,tobuilduptheOTCanon,organizeandholdtogetherthewidelyseparatedpartsoftheJewishracethiswork
calledforanewformofsocialorderwhichmixedtheecclesiasticalwiththepolitical.Themanwhomthetimesrequiredinordertocarrythiswork
throughwasnotthepriest,buttheBiblescholar.Andhewasnecessarilyanintenseseparatist.TakingEzraswords,Separateyourselvesfromthe
peopleoftheland(Ezr10:11)asthekeynoteoflife,hisaimwastofreeGodspeoplefromalltaintofheathenism.Inthecriticalperiodoffifty
yearsprecedingtheWarthisclassofmenwascomingmoreandmoreintoprominence.TheystoodontheTorahastheirplatformtheLawof
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yearsprecedingtheWarthisclassofmenwascomingmoreandmoreintoprominence.TheystoodontheTorahastheirplatformtheLawof
Moseswasboththeirpatrimonyandtheirobligation.InthemthegeniusofJudaismwasbeginningtosoundtherallyagainstboththegoodandthe
evilofHellenism,againstitsilluminingcultureaswellasagainstthecorrodingGrcoSyrianmorality.ThepriestlyaristocracyofPalestinebeing
inclosetouchwithHellenism,itnaturallyresultedthatthehighpriesthood,andtheTemplewhichwasinseparablefromthehighpriesthood,
sufferedafallinsacramentalvalue.IntothissituationcamethelifeanddeathstruggleagainsttheattemptofAntiochustoHellenizeJudaism.Inthe
lifeofamodernnationagreatwarhaslargeresults.FargreaterweretheeffectsoftheMaccabanWaruponasmallnation.Itwasasupremepoint
ofprecipitationwhereinthegeniusofJudaismreachedclearselfknowledgeanddefinition.TheEssenesappearasapartyshortlyafterthewar.Itis
notnecessarytosupposethatattheoutsettheywereamonasticorder.Itismorelikelythattheyatfirsttookformassmallgroupsorbrotherhoods
ofmenintentonholiness,accordingtotheJewishmodel.ThismeantakindofholinessthatputanimmenseemphasisonLeviticalprecision.To
keeptheTorahinitssmallestdetailswaspartandparceloftheveryessenceofmorality.Thegroupsofmenwhodevotedthemselvestothe
realizationofthatidealstartedwithabiasagainsttheTempleasaplacemadeuncleanbytheheathenismofthepriests.Thisbiaswasstrengthened
throughtheassumptionofthehighpriesthoodbytheHasmonanhouse,aneventwhichstillfurtherdiscountedthesacramentalvalueofthe
Templeservices.Sothesemen,knitintocloselycoherentgroups,mainlyinJuda,foundthesatisfactionsoflifeindeepeningfellowship,andan
evermoreintensedevotiontotheidealofLeviticalperfection.Incourseoftime,asthelogicoflifecarriedthemforwardintopositionsofwhich
theyhadnotatfirstdreamed,thegroupsbecamemoreandmorecloselyknit,andatthesametimemorefundamentallyseparatisticregardingthe
commonlifeoftheJews.Sowefind,possiblylateinthe1stcent.B.C.,themaingroupofEssenescolonizingneartheDeadSea,andconstitutinga
truemonasticorder.
ThestricterEssenesabjuredprivatepropertyandmarriageinordertosecureentireattentiontotheTorah.TheLeviticallawsofholinesswere
observedwithgreatzeal.AnEsseneofthehigherclassbecameuncleanifafellowEsseneoflowerdegreesomuchastouchedhisgarment.They
heldthenameofMosesnextinhonourtothenameofGod.AndtheirSabbatarianismwenttosuchlengthsthatthebowelsmustnotperformtheir
wontedfunctionsontheSeventhDay.
Atthesametime,therearereasonsforthinkingthatforeigninfluenceshadahandintheirconstitution.Theyworshippedtowardsthesun,not
towards the Temple. This may have been due to the influence of Parsism. Their doctrine of immortality was Hellenic, not Pharisaic. Foreign
influencesinthisperiodarequitepossible,foritwasnotuntilthewarswithRomeimposedonJudaismahardandfastformthatthedoorswere
locked and bolted. Yet, when all is said, the foreign influence gave nothing more than small change to Essenism. Its innermost nature and its
deepestmotivewerethoroughlyJewish.
ItisprobablethatJohntheBaptistwasaffectedbyEssenism.ItispossiblethatourLordandtheApostolicChurchmayhavebeeninfluencedto
acertainextent.Butinfluenceofaprimarysortisoutofthequestion.TheimpassionedyetsanemoralenthusiasmofearlyChristianitywastoo
stronginitsownkindtobedeeplytouchedbyaspiritsounlikeitsown.
HENRYS.NASH.
ESTATE.StateandestateoccurinAValmostanequalnumberoftimes,andwiththesamemeaning.Cf.Col4:7Allmystateshall
Tychicusdeclareuntoyou,withthenextverse,thathemightknowyourestate.InAc22:5alltheestateoftheelders(Gr.allthepresbytery)
meansallthemembersoftheSanhedrin.Thepl.occursinthePref.toAV,andinEzk36:11Iwillsettleyouafteryouroldestates,i.e.accordingto
yourformerpositioninlife,TheheadingofPs37isDavidpersuadethtopatienceandconfidenceinGod,bythedifferentestateofthegodlyand
thewicked.
ESTHER(star).TheJewishname,ofwhichthisisthePersian(orBabylonian)form,isHadassah(cf.Est2:7),whichmeansmyrtle.She
wasthedaughterofAbihail,ofthetribeofBenjamin,andwasbroughtup,anorphan,inthehouseofhercousinMordecai,inShushan.Owingto
herbeautyshebecameaninmateofthekingspalace,andonVashtithequeenbeingdisgraced,EstherwaschosenbyXerxes,thePersianking,to
succeedher.ThecombinedwisdomofMordecaiandcourageofEstherbecamethemeansofdoingagreatservicetotheverylargenumberofJews
livingunderPersianrulefor,owingtothecraftandhatredofHaman,thechiefcourtfavourite,theJewswereindangerofbeingmassacreden
blocbutEsther,instigatedbyMordecai,revealedherJewishnationalitytotheking,whorealizedtherebythatshewasindangeroflosingherlife,
owingtotheroyaldecree,obtainedbyHaman,totheeffectthatallthoseofJewishnationalityinthekingsdominionsweretobeputtodeath.
Esthersactionbroughtaboutanentirereversalofthedecree.Hamanwasputtodeath,andMordecaiwashonouredbytheking,whileEsthers
positionwasstillfurtherstrengthenedtheJewswerepermittedtotakerevengeonthosewhohadsoughttheirdestruction.MordecaiandEstherput61/85
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positionwasstillfurtherstrengthenedtheJewswerepermittedtotakerevengeonthosewhohadsoughttheirdestruction.MordecaiandEstherput
forthtwodecrees:first,thatthe14thand15thdaysofthemonthAdarweretobekeptannuallyasdaysoffeastingandgladness,andofsending
portionsonetoanother,andgiftstothepoor(Est9:22)and,second,thatadayofmourningandfastingshouldbeobservedinmemoryofthe
sorrowwhichthekingsfirstdecreehadoccasionedtotheJewishpeople(9:2932,cf.
4:13).
TheattempttoidentifyEstherwithAmestris,who,accordingtoHerodotus,wasoneofthewivesofXerxes,hasbeenmademorethanoncein
thepastbutitisnowuniversallyrecognizedthatthisidentificationwillnotbearexamination.AllthatisknownofAmestrisherheathen
practices,andthefactthatherfather,aPersiangeneralnamedOtanes,isspecificallymentionedbyHerodotusprovesthatshecannotpossibly
havebeenaJewessbesideswhich,thetwonamesarefundamentallydistinct.AstowhetherEstherwasreallyahistoricalpersonage,seethenext
article.
W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
ESTHER,BOOKOF
1.PlaceintheCanon.TheBookofEstherbelongstothesecondgroupofthethirddivisionoftheHebrewCanontheKethubim,or
WritingsagroupwhichcomprisestheMegilloth,orRolls,ofwhichtherearefive,SongofSongs,Ruth,Lam.,Eccles.,Esther.Itwasnot
withoutmuchdiscussionthatEstherwasadmittedintotheCanon,foritsrighttobetherewasdisputedbothbytheJewishauthoritiesandbythe
earlyChristianChurch.Aslateasthe2ndcent.A.D.thegreatestJewishteacherofhisday,RabbiJehudah,said,TheBookofEstherdefilethnot
thehands[theexpressiontodefilethehandsisthetechnicalJewishwayofsayingthatabookiscanonicalitmeansthattheholinessofthe
sacredobjectreferredtoproducesbycontactwithitastateofLeviticalimpurity].InsomeoftheearlierlistsoftheBiblicalbooksintheChristian
ChurchthatofEstherisomittedAthanasius(d.373)regardeditasuncanonical,sotooGregoryNazianzen(d.391)JacobofEdessa(c.700)
reckonsitamongtheapocryphalbooks.ItisclearthatEstherwasnotuniversallyacceptedasabookoftheBibleuntilalatedate.
2.Dateandauthorship.ThelanguageofEstherpointsunmistakablytoalatedateitshowssigns,amongotherthings,ofanattemptto
assimilateitselftoclassicalHebrewtheartificialityhereinbetrayedstampsthewriterasonewhowasmorefamiliarwithAramaicthanwith
Hebrew.Further,thePersianempireisspokenofasbelongingtoaperiodofhistorylongsincepast(cf.inthosedays,1:2)thewords,Thereisa
certainpeoplescatteredabroadanddispersedamongthepeoplesinalltheprovincesofthykingdom(3:8),showthattheDispersionhadalready
forlongbeenanaccomplishedfact.Moreover,thespiritofthebookpointstothetimewhengreatbitternessandhatredhadbeenengendered
betweenJewandGentile.Theprobability,therefore,isthatEstherbelongstotheearlierhalfofthe2ndcent.B.C.Ofitsauthorshipweknow
nothingfurtherthanthatthewriterwasaJewwhomusthavebeeninsomewayconnectedwithPersiathebookshowshimtohavebeenonewhose
racialprejudicewasmuchstrongerthanhisreligiousfervouritisextraordinarythatabookoftheBibleshouldneveroncementionthesacredname
ofGodthesecularspiritwhichissocharacteristicofthebookmusthavebeenthemainreasonofthedisinclinationtoincorporateitintothe
Scriptures,whichhasbeenalreadyreferredto.3.Contents.ThebookpurportstogivethehistoryofhowtheJewishfeastofPurim(Lots)first
originated.Xerxes,kingoftheMedesandPersians,givesagreatfeasttothenoblesandprincesofthe127provincesoverwhichherulesthe
descriptionofthedecorationsinthepalacegardenonthisoccasionrecallsthelanguageoftheArabianNights.Vashti,thequeen,alsogivesafeast
toherwomen.OntheseventhdayofthefeastthekingcommandsVashtitoappearbeforetheprincesinorderthattheymayseeherbeauty.Upon
herrefusingtoobey,thekingisadvisedtodivorceher.Inherplace,Esther,oneofVashtismaidens,becomesqueen.Estheristheadopteddaughter
ofaJewnamedMordecai,whohadbeenthemeansofsavingthekingfromthehandsofassassins.ButMordecaifallsoutwiththecourtfavourite,
Haman,onaccountofhisrefusingtobowdownanddoreverencetothelatter.Hamanresolvestoavengehimselfforthisinsulthehaslotscastin
ordertofindoutwhichisthemostsuitabledayforpresentingapetitiontothekingthedaybeingappointed,thepetitionispresentedandgranted,
thepromisedpaymentoftenthousandtalentsofsilverintotheroyaltreasury(Est3:9)nodoubtcontributingtowardsthis.Thepetitionwasthata
royaldecreeshouldbeputforthtotheeffectthatallJewsweretobekilled,andtheirbelongingstreatedasspoil.Onthisbecomingknown,thereis
greatgriefamongtheJews.Esther,instructedbyMordecai,undertakestointerposeforherpeoplebeforetheking.Sheinvitesboththekingand
Hamantoabanquet,andrepeatstheinvitationforthenextday.Haman,believinghimselftobeinfavourwiththeroyalcouple,determinesto
gratifyhishatredforMordecaiinaspecialway,andpreparesagallowsonwhichtohanghim(5:14).Inthenightafterthefirstbanquet,Ahasuerus,
beingunabletosleep,commandsthatthebookofrecordsofthechroniclesbebroughtinthesehefindstheaccountofMordecaisformerservice,
whichhasneverbeenrewarded.Hamanissentfor,andthekingaskshimwhatshouldbedonetothemanwhomthekingdelightstohonour
Hamanthinkingthatitishehimselfwhoisuppermostinthekingsmind,describeshowsuchamanshouldbehonoured.Thekingthereupon
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Hamanthinkingthatitishehimselfwhoisuppermostinthekingsmind,describeshowsuchamanshouldbehonoured.Thekingthereupon
directsthatallthatHamanhassaidistobedonetoMordecai.Hamanreturnsingrieftohishouse.Whiletakingcounseltherewithhisfriends,the
kingschamberlainscometoescorthimtothequeenssecondbanquet(6:1ff.).DuringthisEsthermakesherpetitiontothekingonbehalfofher
people,aswellasforherownlife,whichisthreatened,fortheroyaldecreeisdirectedagainstallJewsandJewesseswithinhisdomainsshealso
disclosesHamansplotagainstMordecai.Theking,astheresultofthis,ordersHamantobehangedonthegallowswhichhehadpreparedfor
Mordecai,thelatterreceivingthehonourswhichhadbeforebelongedtoHaman(ch.7).Estherthenhasletterssentinalldirectionsinordertoavert
thethreateneddestructionofherpeoplebuttheattemptisyetmadebytheenemiesoftheJewstocarryoutHamansintentions.TheJewsdefend
themselveswithsuccess,andagreatfeastisheldonthe14thofAdar,onwhichtheJewsrested,andmadeitadayoffeastingandgladness.
Moreover,twodaysoffeastingareappointedtobeobservedforalltimetheyarecalledPurim,becauseofthelot(pr)whichHamancastforthe
destructionoftheJews(chs.8,9).ThebookconcludeswithafurtherreferencetothepowerofAhasuerusandthegreatnessofhisfavourite,
Mordecai(ch.10).
4.Historicityofthebook.Thereareveryfewmodernscholarswhoareabletoregardthisbookascontaininghistoryatthemostitmaybe
saidthatitisahistoricalromance,i.e.thatafewhistoricaldatahavebeenutilizedforconstructingthetale.Themainreasonsforthisconclusion
are,thatthebookisfullofimprobabilitiesthatitissotransparentlywrittenforspecificpurposes,namely,theglorificationoftheJewishnation,
andasameansofexpressingJewishhatredofandcontemptforGentiles(seealso5)thatastrictlyhistoricalinterpretationofthenarrativeis
besetwithdifficultiesthatthefactsitpurportstorecordreceivenosubstantiationfromsuchbooksasChron.,Ezr.,Neh.,Dan.,Sirach,orPhilo(cf.
HastingsDBs.v.).Besidesthis,thereistheartificialwayinwhichthebookisputtogether:themethodofpresentingthevariousscenesinthe
dramaisinthestyleofthewriteroffiction,notinthatofthehistorian.
5.Purim.Themainpurposeforwhichthebookwaswrittenwasostensiblytoexplaintheoriginof,aswellastogivetheauthorityfor,the
continuedobservanceoftheFeastofPurimthoughitmustbeconfessedthatthebookdoesnotreallythrowanylightontheoriginofthisfeast.
SomescholarsareinfavourofaPersianorigin,others,withperhapsgreaterjustification,aBabylonian.Thenamesofthechiefcharactersinthe
bookseemcertainlytobecorruptedformsofBabylonianandElamitedeities,namely,Haman=Hamman,Mordecai=Marduk,Esther=Ishtar
whileVashtiisthenameofanElamitegodorgoddess(soJensen).ThusweshouldhavetheBabylonianMardukandIshtarontheonehand,the
ElamiteHamanandVashti,ontheother.Purimmay,inthiscase,havebeen,asJensensuggests,afeastcommemoratingthevictoryofBabylonian
overElamitegodswhichwastakenoverandadaptedbytheJews.InthiscasetheoriginofthenamePurimwouldbesoughtintheBabylonian
wordpuru,whichmeansasmallroundstone,i.e.alot.Buttheconnexionbetweenthefeastanditsnameisnotclearindeed,itmustbeconfessed
thatthemysteryattachingtothenamePurimhasnotyetbeenunravelled.
W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
ESYELUS.1Es1:8=Jehiel(2Ch35:8).
ETAM.Analtogetherobscureplacename,appliedtoarockinacleftofwhichSamsontookrefuge(Jg15:8),whencehewasdislodgedbythe
Judahites(v.11),andthereforepresumablyinJudahiteterritory(cf.1Ch4:3).AlsoappliedtoavillageinthetribeofSimeon(1Ch4:32),anda
townfortifiedbyRehoboam(2Ch11:6).Whethertherearehereoneortwoorthreeplaces,andwhereitortheywere,areunansweredquestions.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
ETHAM.Ex13:20,Nu33:6thenextstationtoSuccothintheExodus.ThenameisnotknowninEgyptian.Itlayintheedgeofthe
wilderness,evidentlyattheE.endoftheWadyTumilat,andprobablynorthwardoftheRedSea,whetherthatmeanstheBitterLakesortheGulf
ofSuez.
F.LL.GRIFFITH.
ETHAN.1.TheEzrahiteof1K4:31andPs89(title).Inthefirstofthesepassagesheismentionedalongwithothercontemporaries(?)of
Solomon,whowereallsurpassedinwisdombytheJewishmonarch.In1Ch2:6heissaidtohavebeenaJudanofthefamilyofZerah,whichis
prob.anotherformofEzrah(hencethepatronymicEzrahite).InsteadoftheEzrahiteithasbeenproposedtorenderezrhof1K4:31the

native,i.e.theIsraelite,inoppositiontosomeoftheotherwisemennamed,whowereforeigners.2.AnancestorofAsaph(1Ch6:42),inv.21he63/85
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native,i.e.theIsraelite,inoppositiontosomeoftheotherwisemennamed,whowereforeigners.2.AnancestorofAsaph(1Ch6:42),inv.21he
iscalledJoah.3.TheeponymousancestorofaguildofTemplesingers(1Ch6:44,15:17,19etc.).
ETHANIM(1K8:2).SeeTIME.
ETHANUS.OneoftheswiftscribeswhowrotetothedictationofEzra(2Es
14:24).
ETHBAAL(withBaal,i.e.enjoyinghisfavourandprotection).KingoftheSidonians,andfatherofJezebel,wifeofAhabkingofIsrael(1
K16:31).
ETHER(Jos15:42,19:7).AtownofJudahnoticedwithLibnah,apparentlyneartheplainofPhilistia,giventoSimeon,andnearRimmon.
Thesiteisunknown.
ETHICS.ThepresentarticlewillbeconfinedtoBiblicalEthics.Asthereisnosystematicpresentationofthesubject,allthatcanbedoneisto
gatherfromtheJewishandChristianwritingsthemoralconceptionsthatwereformedbyhistorians,prophets,poets,apostles.Theoldhistory
culminatesinthestoryoftheperfectOne,theLordJesusChrist,fromwhomthereissuedalifeofhigherorderandamplerrange.
I.OTEthics.Asthedatesofmanyofthebooksareuncertain,specialdifficultyattendsanyendeavourtotracewithprecisionthestagesof
moraldevelopmentamongsttheHebrews.Theexistenceofamoralorderoftheworldisassumedhumanbeingsarecreditedwiththefreedom,the
intelligence,etc.,whichmakemoralitypossible.ThetermconsciencedoesnotappeartillNTtimes,andperhapsitwasthenborrowedfromthe
StoicsbutthethingitselfisconspicuousenoughintherecordsofGodsancientpeople.InGn3:5wehavethetwocategoriesgoodandevilthe
formerseemstosignifyin1:31answeringtodesignandin2:18conducivetowellbeing.Thesetermsappliedsometimestoends,sometimesto
meansprobablydenoteultimatesofconsciousness,andso,likepainandpleasure,arenottobedefined.Moralphenomenapresentthemselves,of
course,inthestoryofthepatriarchsmenaredescribedasmeanorchivalrous,truthfulorfalse,meritoriousorblameworthy,longbeforelegislation
Mosaicorothertakesshape.
1.InHebrewliteraturethereligiousaspectsoflifeareofvitalmoment,andthereforemoralsandworshipareinextricablyentangled.Godis
seen:thereisdesiretopleaseHimthereisashrinkingfromaughtthatwouldarouseHisanger(Gn20:6,39:9).Hencetheimmoralissinful.
Allegianceisduenottoanimpersonallaw,buttoaHolyPerson,anddutytomanisdutyalsotoGod.MoralityisunderDivineprotection:arenot
thetablesoftheLawintheArkthatoccupiesthemostsacredplaceinJehovahsshrine(Ex40:20,Dt10:5,1K8:9,He9:4)?Thecommandments,
insteadofbeingarbitrary,aretheoutflowingsofthecharacterofGod.Hewhoenjoinsrighteousnessandmercycallsmentopossessattributes
whichHeHimselfprizesasHisownpeculiarglory(Ex33:18,19,34:6,7).HosearepresentstheDivineloveaslongingfortheresponseofhuman
love,andAmosdemandsrighteousnessinthenameoftheRighteousOne.MansgoodnessisthesameinkindasthegoodnessofGod,sothatboth
maybecharacterizedbythesametermsasappearsfromacomparisonofPss111and112.
2.TheOToutlookisnationalratherthanindividual.Theelementsofthecommunitycountforlittle,unlesstheycontributetothecommon
good.Amanisonlyafractionalpartofanorganism,andhemaybeslainwiththegrouptowhichhebelongs,ifgrievoussincanbebroughthome
toanypartofthatgroup(Jos7:1926).ItisIsraelthepeopleasawholethatiscalledGodsson.Prayers,sacrifices,festivals,fasts,arenational
affairs.ThehighestformofexcellenceiswillingnesstoperishifonlyIsraelmaybesaved(Ex32:31,32,Jg5:1518).Frequentlythelawsare,such
asonlyajudgemayadminister:thustheclaimofaneyeforaneye,andatoothforatooth(Dt19:21),beingamaximoffairnesstobeobserved
byamagistratewhohastodecidebetweencontendingparties,istooharshforguidanceoutsideacourtoflaw(Mt5:38,39).WhenIsraelsinned,it
waspunishedwhenitobeyedGod,itprospered.ItwasnottillHebrewnationallifewasdestroyedthatindividualexperiencesexcitedquestionsas
totheequityofProvidence(Job,Pss37,73)andinregardtopersonalimmortality.Inthelaterprophets,evenwhenthesoulofeachmanisdeemed
tobeofimmenseinterest(Ezk18),nationalidealshavetheascendencyinthought.Itisthenationthatistohavearesurrection(Is25:8,Ezk37:1
14,Hos13:14,Zec8:18).Thisardentdevotiontocorporatewellbeinganobleprotestagainstabsorptioninindividualinterestsisthegolden
threadonwhichthefinestpearlsofHebrewhistoryarestrung.
3.TheCovenantisalwaysregardedasthestandardbywhichconductistobejudged.DeferencetotheCovenantisdeferencetoGod(Hos6:7,
8:1,Am3:13).AsGodisalwaysfaithful,Hispeopleprospersolongastheyobservetheconditionstowhichtheirfathersgavesolemnassent(Ex
24:8,7).TheDecalogue,whichisanoutlineofthedemandsmadebytheCovenantonIsrael,requiresinitsearlyclausesfaith,reverence,and
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24:8,7).TheDecalogue,whichisanoutlineofthedemandsmadebytheCovenantonIsrael,requiresinitsearlyclausesfaith,reverence,and
servicethen(Ex20,Commandments5to9)thedutyofmantomanissetforthaspartofmansdutytoJehovah,forMosesandalltheprophets
declarethatGodispleasedordispleasedbyourbehaviourtooneanother.TheTenthCommandment,penetratingasitdoestotheinwardlife,
shouldbetakenasareminderthatallcommandmentsaretobereadinthespiritandnotintheletteralone(Lv19:17,18,Dt6:5,6,Ps139,Ro
7:14).HumanobligationsdetailsofwhicharesometimesmassedtogetherasinEx2023,Pss15and24includebothmoralandceremonial
requirements.Nothingismorecommonintheprophetsthancomplaintsofadispositiontoneglecttheformer(Is1:11f.,Jer6:20,7:21f.,Hos6:6,
Am5:21f.).Therequirementsembraceagreatnumberofparticulars,andeverydepartmentofexperienceisrecognized.Stressislaiduponkindness
tothephysicallydefective(Lv19:14),andtothepoorandtostrangers(Dt10:18,19,15:711,24:17ff.,Job31:16ff.,32,Ps41:1,Is58:6ff.,Jer
7:5ff.,22:3,Zec7:9f.).Parentsandagedpersonsaretobereverenced(Ex20:12,Dt5:16,Lv19:32).Theeducationofchildrenisenjoined(Ex
12:26f.,13:8,14,Dt4:9,6:7,2025,11:19,31:12,13,32:46,Ps78:5,6).InProverbsemphasisislaiduponindustry(6:611),purity(7:6etc.),
kindnesstotheneedy(14:21),truthfulness(17:7etc.),forethought(24:27).Theclaimsofanimalsarenotomitted(Ex23:11,Lv25:7,Dt22:4,6,
25:4,Ps104:11,12,148:10,Pr12:10,Jon4:11).Occasionallytherearecharmingpicturesofspecialcharacters(thehousewife,Pr31theking,2S
23:34thepriest,Mal2:5,6,7).GodsruleovermanisparallelwithHisruleovertheuniverse,andmenshouldfeelthatGodembracesall
interestsinHisthought,forHeissogreatthatHecanattendequallytothestarsandtohumansorrows(Ps19,33,147:36).
4.Thesanctionsofconductarechieflytemporal(harvests,droughts,victoriesoverenemies,etc.),yet,astheyarenational,selfregardisnot
obtrusive.Moreover,itwouldbeamistaketosupposethatnoHebrewmindsfelttheintrinsicvalueofmorality.Thelegalspiritwasnotuniversal.
TheprophetsweregladtothinkthatGodwasnotlimitingHimselftotheletteroftheCovenant,theveryexistenceofwhichimpliedthatJehovah,
inthegreatnessofHislove,hadchosenIsraeltobeHispeculiartreasure.BygraceandnotbybarejusticeDivineactionwasguided.Godwasthe
compassionateRedeemer(Dt7:8,Hos11:1,14:4).EventhepeoplesdisregardoftheLawdidnotextinguishHisforgivinglove(Ps25:6ff.,
103:8ff.,Is63:9,Jer3:12,31:3,
33:7f.,Mic7:18f.).Inresponsetothismanifestedgenerosity,anunmercenaryspiritwasbegotteninIsrael,sothatGodwaslovedforHisownsake,
andHissmilewasregardedaswealthandlightwhenpovertyanddarknesshadtobeendured.WhomhaveIinheavenbutthee?Oh,howIlove
thylaw!areexpressionsthelikeofwhichaboundinthedevotionalliteratureofIsrael,andtheyevinceadisinteresteddevotiontoGodHimselfand
agenuinedelightinduty.TothesamepurportistheremarkableappreciationofthebeautyandsplendourofwisdomrecordedinPr8.
II.NTEthics.Whileadmittingmanynovelelements(Mt11:11,13:17,35,52,Mk2:21,22,Jn13:34,Eph2:15,He10:20,Rev2:17,3:12,
5:9),ChristianityreaffirmedthebestportionsofOTteaching(Mt5:17,Ro3:31).Whatsoeverthingswerevaluable,Christconserved,unified,and
developed.Theolddoctrineacquiredwings,andsanga,nobler,sweetersong(Jn1:17).ButthegladandnoblelifewhichJesuscametoproduce
couldcomeonlyfromcloseattentiontomansactualcondition.
1.Accordingly,ChristianEthicstakesfullaccountofsin.Theguiltystateofhumannature,togetherwiththepresenceoftemptationsfrom
within,without,andbeneath,presentsaproblemfardifferentfromanythatcanbeseenwhenitisassumedthatmenaregoodoronlyunmoral.Is
ourneedmetbylessonsintheartofadvancingfromgoodtobetter?Isnotthehumanwilldefectiveandrebellious?Themoralravagesinthe
individualandinsocietycallforDivineredemptiveactivitiesandforhumanpenitenceandfaith.Thoughthesenseofsinhasbeenmost
conspicuoussinceChristdweltamongmen,theHebrewconsciousnesshaditsmoralanguish.Thevocabularyoftheancientrevelationcalls
attentiontomanyoftheaspectsofmoraldisorder.Sinisaravenousbeast,crouchingreadytospring(Gn4:7)acauseofwidespreadingmisery(Gn
3:1519,9:25,20:9,Ex20:5)isuniversal(Gn6:5,8:21,1K8:46,Ps130:3,143:2)isfolly(Prov.passim)amissingofthemark,violence,
transgression,rebellion,pollution(Ps51).ThisgraveviewissharedbytheNT.TheLordandHisApostleslabourtoproducecontrition.Itisoneof
thefunctionsoftheHolySpirittoconvicttheworldofsin(Jn16:8).Itisnotsupposedthatagoodlifecanbelivedunlessmoralevilisrenounced
byapenitentheart.Thefountainsofconductareconsideredtohaveneedofcleansing.Itisalwaysassumedthatgreatdifficultiesbesetthesoulin
itsupwardmovements,becauseofitspastcorruptstateanditsexposuretofierceandsubtletemptations.
2.Inharmonywiththedoctrineofdepravityisthedistinctnesswithwhichindividualityisrecognized.Sinispossibleonlytoaperson.Ability
tosinisamarkofthathighrankinnaturedenotedbypersonality.Christianityhasrespecttoamansseparateness.Itseesanatureringedround
withbarriersthatotherbeingscannotpass,capacitiesforgreatandvariedwickednessesandexcellences,aworldamongotherworlds,andnota
merewaveuponthesea.Ahumanbeingisinhimselfanend,andGodlovesusonebyone.Jesusassertedtheimmensevalueoftheindividual.The
Shepherdcaresfortheonelostsheep(Lk15:47),andhasnamesforallthemembersoftheflock(Jn10:14).ThePhysician,who(itisconceivable)
couldhavehealedcrowdsbysomegeneralword,laysHisbeneficenthandsuponeachsufferer(Lk4:40).RemovefromtheGospelsandtheActs 65/85
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couldhavehealedcrowdsbysomegeneralword,laysHisbeneficenthandsuponeachsufferer(Lk4:40).RemovefromtheGospelsandtheActs
thestoriesofprivateministrations,andwhatgapsaremade(Jn1:35ff.,3,4,Ac8:2539,16,etc.).Takingtheindividualastheunit,andworking
fromhimasacentre,theNTEthicdeclinestoconsiderhisdeedsalone(Mt6,Ro2:28,29).Actionsarelookedatontheirinnerside(Mt5:21,22,
27,28,6:1,4,6,18,12:34,35,23:5,27,Mk7:28,1823,Lk16:15,18:1014,Jn4:23f.).Thisisaprolongationofideaspresenttothebestminds
priortotheAdvent(1S16:7,Ps7:9,24:3,4,51:17,139:2,3,23,Jer17:10,31:33).
3.Thesocialaspectsofexperiencearenotoverlooked.Everyoneistobearhisownburden(Ro14:4,Gal6:5),andmustanswerforhimselfto
theJudgeofallmen(2Co5:10)butheisnotisolated.Regardforothersisimperativeforanunforgivingtempercannotfindforgiveness(Mt6:14,
15,18:2335),worshipwithoutbrotherlinessisrejected(Mt5:23,24),andChristianloveisasignofregeneration(1Jn5:1).Themereabsenceof
malevolentdeedscannotshieldonefromcondemnationpositivehelpfulnessisrequired(Mt25:4145,Lk10:2537,16:1931,Eph4:28,29).This
helpfulnessisthenewritualism(He13:16,Ja1:27).Thefamilywithitsparents,children,andservants(Eph5:226:9,Col3:184:1)theChurch
withitsvariousordersofcharacterandgifts(Ro14,15,Gal6:1,2,1Co13,14,15)theStatewithitsmonarchandmagistrates(Mk12:1417,Ro
13:17,1Ti2:1,2),providethesphereswhereintheservantofChrististomanifesthisdevotiontotheMostHigh.
Obedience,patience,benevolence,purity,humility,alienationfromtheworldandtheflesh,arethechiefnovelorstrikingfeatureswhichthe
Christian ideal of practice suggests (Sidgwick), and they involve the conception that Christian Ethics is based on the recognition of sin, of
individuality,ofsocialdemands,andoftheneedofheavenlyassistance.
4.TheChristianstandardisthecharacteroftheLordJesusChrist,wholivedperfectlyforGodandman.Heovercameevil(Mt4:111,Jn
16:33),completedHislifestask(Jn17:4),andsinnednot(Jn8:46,2Co5:21,He4:15,1P2:22,1Jn3:5).Hisisthepatternlife,inasmuchasitis
completely(1)filial,and(2)fraternal.Asto(1),wemarktheupwardlook,HisreadinesstolettheheatofHisloveburstintotheflameofpraise
andprayer,Hisdutifulnessandsubmissiveness:HelivedinthebosomoftheFather,andwishedtodoonlythatwhichGoddesired.Asto(2),His
pityformenwasunbounded,Hissacrificeforhumangoodknewnolimits.ThoushaltloveGodthoushaltloveman.Betweenthesetwopoles
theperfectliferevolved.HeandHisteachingsareone.ItisbecausethemorallawisaliveinHimthatHemustneedsclaimlordshipovermans
thoughts,feelings,actions.HeispreachedasLord(2Co4:5),andthehomagewhichneitherman(Ac10:25,26)norangel(Rev22:8,9)can
receiveHedeemsitpropertoaccept(Jn13:13).Coulditbeotherwise?Themorallawmustbesupreme,andHeisit.HencealienationfromHim
hasthefatalplacewhichidolatryhadundertheOldCovenant,andforasimilarreason,seeingthatidolatrywasarenunciationofHimwhoisthe
righteousandgraciousOne.SinceJesusbyvirtueofHisfilialandfraternalperfectnessisLord,tostandapartfromHimisruinous(Lk10:1316,Jn
3:18,8:24,15:2224,16:8,9,He2:3,6:48,10:26).Wifeorchildorlifeitselfmustnotbepreferredtotheclaimsoftruthandrighteousness,and
thereforemustnotbepreferredtoChrist,whoistruthandrighteousnessinpersonalform(Mt10:3739,Lk9:59,60,14:26,27).Tocalloneselfthe
bondservantofJesusChrist(Ro1:1,Ja1:1,2P1:1)wastoassertatoncethestrongestaffectionforthewiseandgraciousOne,andtheutmost
loyaltytoGodsholywillasembodiedinHisSon.ThewillofGodbecomesonesownbyaffectionatedeferencetoJesusChrist,tosufferfor
whommaybecomeaveritablebliss(Mt5:1012,Ac5:41,2Co4:11,Ph1:29,1Th2:14,He10:3234).
5.ChristianEthicsismarkedquiteasmuchbypromisesofassistanceasbyloftinessofstandard.ThekindlinessofGod,fullyillustratedinthe
giftandsacrificeofHisSon,isagreatincentivetoholiness.MencomeintothesunshineofDivinefavour.Heavenlysympathyiswiththemintheir
struggles.Thevirtuestobeacquired(Mt5:116,Gal5:22,23,Col3:1217,2P1:5,6,7,Tit2:12)andthevicestobeshunned(Mk7:21,22,Gal.
5:19,20,21,Col3:59)areviewedinconnexionwiththeassuranceofefficientaid.Thereisawonderfulloveuponwhichtheaspirantmaydepend
(Jn3:16,Ro5:7,8,2Co5:19f.).Theheartyacceptanceofthatloveisfaith,rankedasavirtueandastheparentofvirtues(2P1:5,Ro5:1,2,1Co
13,He11).Faith,hope,love,transfigureandsupplementtheancientvirtues,temperance,courage,wisdom,justice,whilearoundthemgrow
manygentleexcellencesnotrecognizedbeforeChristgavethemtheirtruerankandyetitisnotbyitswealthofmoralteachingsomuchasbyits
assuranceofabilitytoresisttemptationandtoattainspiritualmanhoodthatChristianityhasgainedpreeminence.Christsmiraclesareillustrations
ofHisgospelofpardon,regeneration,andaddedfaculties(Mt9:5,6).ThelifesetbeforemanwaslivedbyJesus,whoregeneratesmenbyHis
Spirit,andtakesthemintounionwithHimself(Jn3:3,6,8:36,15:110,Ro8:2,9,29,1Co1:30,2Co5:17,Gal5:22,23,Ph2:5,12,13,Col3:1
4,Ja1:18,1P2:21,1Jn2:6).TheconnexionbetweentheLordandthediscipleispermanent(Mt28:20,Jn14:3,19,17:24,He2:1118,1Jn3:1
3),andhencetheaspirationtobecomesober,righteous,godly(relationtoself,man,andGod,Tit2:1214)receivesamplesupport.Sanctityisnot
onlywithinthereachofpersonsatonetimedespisedasmoralincapables(Mk2:16,17,Lk7:47,15,19:8,9,23:42,48,1Co6:11,Eph2:17),but
everyChristianissupposedtobecapable,soonerorlater,ofthemostpreciousformsofgoodness(Mt5:110),forthereisnocaste(Col1:28).
Immortalityispromisedtothesoul,andwithitperpetualcommunionwiththeSaviour,whoseimageistoberepeatedineverymanHesaves(Ro
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Immortalityispromisedtothesoul,andwithitperpetualcommunionwiththeSaviour,whoseimageistoberepeatedineverymanHesaves(Ro
8:37,38,39,1Co15:4958,2Co5:8,Ph3:814,1Th4:17,1Jn3:2,3,Rev22:4).
TheobjectionswhichhavebeenmadetoBiblicalEthicscannotbeignored,thoughthesubjectcanbemerelytouchedinthisarticle.Some
passagesintheOThavebeenstigmatizedasimmoralsomeintheNTaresaidtocontainimpracticableprecepts,andcertainimportantspheresof
dutyaredeclaredtoreceiveveryinadequatetreatment.
(i.)AstotheOT,itistobeobservedthatweneednotfeelguiltyofdisrespecttoinspirationwhenourmoralsenseisoffendedfortheLordJesus
authorizesthebeliefthattheMosaiclegislationwasimperfect(Mt5:21ff.,Mk10:29),andbothJeremiahandEzekielcommentadverselyon
doctrineswhichhadbeenacceptedonwhatseemedtobeDivineauthority(cf.Ex20:5withJer31:29,30andEzk18:2,3,19,20).Itisreasonable
toadmitthatifmenweretobeimprovedatalltheremusthavebeensomeaccommodationtocircumstancesandstatesofmindveryunlikeourown
yetsomeofthelawsareshocking.Whilesuchinstitutionsaspolygamyandslavery,whichcouldnotbeatonceabolished,wererestrictedintheir
rangeandstrippedofsomeoftheirworstevils(Ex21:2ff.,Lv25:4249,1Ch2:35,Pr17:2),thereremainmanyenactmentsandtransactionswhich
musthavebeenalwaysabhorrenttoGodthoughHissanctionisclaimedforthem(Ex22:1820,31:14,15,35:2,3,Lv20:27,Nu15:3236,31,Dt
13:5,16,17:15,18:2021:1014,2S21:19).Hadmenalwaysrememberedtheseillustrationsofthefactthatpassionsandopinionsutterly
immoralmayseemtobeinharmonywithGodswill,thecrueltiesinflictedonhereticsinthenameofGodwouldnothavedisgracedtheChurchs
historyand,indeed,thesefrightfulmistakesofOTdaysmayhavebeenrecordedtoteachustobecautious,lestwhiledoingwrongweimaginethat
Godisserved(Jn16:2).Thelimitedareaoftheunworthyteachingwouldbenoticedifcareweretakentoobservethat(1)someofthewicked
incidentsarebarelyrecorded,(2)somearereprobatedinthecontext,(3)someareevidentlyleftwithoutcommentbecausethehistorianassumes
thattheywillbeimmediatelycondemnedbythereader.Inregardtotherest,itiscertainthattheDivinesealhasbeenusedcontrarytotheDivine
will.Itmustbeaddedthattheverydisapprovaloftheenormitieshasbeenmadepossiblebythebookwhichcontainstheobjectionablepassages,
andthatitisgrosslyunfairtooverlookthehightonemanifestedgenerallythroughoutagreatandnobleliterature,andthejustice,mercy,andtruth
commendedbyIsraelspoets,historians,andprophets,generationaftergeneration.
(ii.)AstotheNT,itisallegedthat,eveniftheSermonontheMountcouldbeobeyed,obediencewouldberuinous.This,however,isdirectlyin
theteethofChristsowncomment(Mt7:2427),andisdueinparttoasuppositionthateverylawisforeveryman.Thedisciples,havingaspecial
task,mightbeunderspecialorders,justastheLordHimselfgaveupallHiswealth(2Co8:9)andcarriedoutliterallymostofthepreceptsincluded
inHisdiscourse.Theparadoxicalformsemployedshouldbeasufficientguardagainstabaldconstructionofmanyofthesayings,andshould
compelustomeditateuponprinciplesthatoughttoguidealllives.Itisthevoiceoflovethatwehear,notthevoiceoflegality.TheChristianEtnic
issupposedtobecarelessofsocialinstitutions,andChristianityisblamedfornotpreachingatonceagainstslavery,etc.Probablymoreharmthan
goodwouldhaveresultedfrompoliticalandeconomicdiscoursesdeliveredbymenwhowereostracized.ButitisimprobablethattheChristian
mindwassufficientlyinstructedtoadvanceanynewdoctrinefortheState.Moreover,thesuppositionthattheworldwasnearitsclosemusthave
divertedattentionfromsocialschemes.Thealienationfromtheworldwasanalienationfromwickedness,notindifferencetohumanpainand
sorrow.Thepovertyofbelievers,thescornfeltforthembythegreat,theimpossibilityofattendingpublicfunctionswithoutcountenancingidolatry,
thelackoftolerationbytheState,alltendedtokeeptheChristiandistinctfromhisfellows.MobandStateandculturedclass,bytheirhatredor
contempt,compelledChristianitytomoveonitsownlines.Atfirstitwassavedfromcontaminationbyvariouskindsofpersecution,andthe
isolationhasprovedtobeablessingtomankindforthenewlifewasabletogatheritsforcesandtoacquireknowledgeofitsownpowersand
mission.Thenewidealwasprotectedbyitsveryunpopularity.MeanwhiletherewastheattempttolivealifeoflovetoGodandman,andto
treasureGospelsandEpistlesthatkeptsecurelyforamorepromisingseasonmanysacredseedsdestinedtogrowintotreesbearingmanykindsof
fruit.ThedoctrineoftheDivineFatherhoodimplicitlycondemnseverysocialandpoliticalwrong,whileitbegetsendeavoursdirectedtothe
promotionofpeaceamongnations,andtotheupliftingofthepoorandignorantanddepravedofeverylandintorealmsofmaterial,intellectual,and
moralblessing.Thereisnokindofgoodwhichisabsentfromtheprayers:ThykingdomcomeThywillbedoneonearthasitisinheaven.W.J.
HENDERSON.
ETHIOPIAistr.oftheHeb.Cush,whichisderivedfromKosh,theEgyp.nameofNubia(beginningattheFirstCataract).Thecultivableland
inthisregionisverymeagre.Thescantyandbarbarouspopulationofthevalleyandthedesertsoneithersidewasdividedinearlytimesamong
differenttribes,whichwerecompletelyatthemercyoftheEgyptians.Individually,however,theSudaneseweresturdywarriors,andwere
constantlyemployedbythePharaohsasmercenarysoldiersandpolice.InthetimeoftheNewKingdom,CushsouthwardtoNapatawasaprovince67/85
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constantlyemployedbythePharaohsasmercenarysoldiersandpolice.InthetimeoftheNewKingdom,CushsouthwardtoNapatawasaprovince
ofEgypt,dottedwithEgyptiantemplesandgovernedbyaviceroy.WiththeweakeningoftheEgyptianpowerCushgrewintoaseparatekingdom,
withNapataasitscapital.ItsrulerswereprobablyofEgyptiandescenttheyarerepresentedasbeingentirelysubservienttoAmmon,i.e.tohis
priests,electedbyhim,actingonlyuponhisoracles,andreadytoabdicateoreventocommitsuicideathiscommand.Wefirsthearofakingof
EthiopiaaboutB.C.730,whenacertainPankhi,reigningatNapataandalreadyinpossessionoftheEgyptianThebaid,addedmostofMiddleEgypt
tohisdominionsandexactedhomagefromtheprincesoftheDelta.AlittlelateranEthiopiandynasty(theXXVth)satonthethroneofthe
Pharaohsfornearlyfiftyyears(B.C.715664).Thelastofthese,Tahraku(Tirhakah[wh.see]),intriguedwiththekingletsofSyriaandPhnicia
againsttheAssyrians,butonlytotheruinofhimselfandhisdynasty.TahrakuandhissuccessorTandamaneweredrivenintoEthiopiabythe
Assyrianinvasions,andEgyptbecameindependentunderthepowerfulXXVIthDynasty.ForthePersianperioditisknownthatEthiopia,orpartof
it,wasincludedinonesatrapywithEgyptunderDarius.Inthe3rdcent.B.C.kingErgamenesfreedhimselffromthepowerofthepriestsof
Ammonbyagreatslaughterofthem.FromaboutthistimeforwardMero,thesouthernresidence,wasthecapitalofEthiopia.Theworshipof
Ammon,however,asthenationalgodofNegroland,asEthiopiawasthencalled,stillcontinued.InB.C.24theRomansinvadedEthiopiain
answertoanattackonEgyptbyqueenCandace,anddestroyedNapata,butthekingdomcontinuedtobeindependent.TheEgyptiancultureof
Ethiopiahadbythattimefallenintoaverybarbarousstate.Inscriptionsexistwritteninapeculiarcharacterandinthenativelanguage,asyet
undecipheredothersareinadebasedformofEgyptianhieroglyphic.
The name of Cush was familiar to the Hebrews through the part that its kings played in Egypt and Syria from B.C. 730664, and recently
discoveredpapyriprovethatJewsweresettledontheEthiopianborderatSyeneinthe6thcent.B.C.SeealsoCUSH.
F.LL.GRIFFITH.
ETHIOPIANEUNUCH.AccordingtoAc8:27,anEthiopianeunuch,ministerofCandace,queenoftheEthiopians,whowasoverallher
treasure,wasmetshortlyafterthemartyrdomofStephenbythedeaconPhilipwhenreturningfromareligiousjourneytoJerusalem,andconverted
toChristianity.Theconfessionoffaithputintohismouthinv.37(AV)isnowuniversallyadmittedtobeanearlyinterpolation.Assumingthe
LukanauthorshipoftheActs,thesourceoftheabovenarrativemayhavebeenpersonalinformationreceivedfromPhilip(cf.Ac21:8).Likethe
baptismofCorneliusbySt.Peter,thecaseoftheEthiopianeunuchmarkedanimportantstageinthequestionoftheadmissionoftheGentilestothe
ChristianChurch.
ETHIOPIANWOMAN.AccordingtoNu12:1(JE),whenthechildrenofIsraelwereatHazeroth,MiriamandAaronspakeagainstMoses
onaccountofhismarriagewithanEthiopian(RVCushite)woman.AstheEthiopianwomanismentionednowhereelse,andthedeathof
MoseswifeZipporahisnotrecorded,someoftheearlyinterpretersthoughtthetwomustbeidenticalandthisviewisfavouredbytheJewish
expositors.Butitismorelikelythatablackslavegirlismeant,andthatthefaultfoundbyMiriamandAaronwaswiththeindignityofsucha
union.Itmayperhapsbeinferredfromthecontextthatthemarriagewasofrecentoccurrence.
ETHKAZIN.AtownontheE.frontierofZebulnn,whosesitehasnotbeenidentified(Jos19:13).
ETHNAN.AJudahite(1Ch4:7).
ETHNARCHisaGreekwordtranslatedbygovernorin2Co11:32.ItisusedalsoofSimonthehighpriest(1Mac14:47,15:1,2).Itsexact
meaningisuncertain,butitappearstoindicatetherulerofanationortribewhichisitselflivingwithseparatelaws,etc.,amidstanalienrace.
A.SOUTER.
ETHNI.AnancestorofAsaph(1Ch6:41,calledinv.21Jeatherai).
EUBULUS.AleadingmemberoftheChristiancommunityatRome,whosendsgreetingtoTimothythroughSt.Paulatthetimeofthesecond
imprisonment(2Ti4:21).HisnameisGreek,butnothingfurtherisknownofhim.

EUCHARIST.ThisistheearliesttitleforthesacramentofthebodyandbloodofChrist.ItisfoundinIgnatiusandtheDidache,andisbased68/85
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EUCHARIST.ThisistheearliesttitleforthesacramentofthebodyandbloodofChrist.ItisfoundinIgnatiusandtheDidache,andisbased
upontheeucharistiaorgivingofthankswithwhichourLordsetapartthebreadandwineattheLastSupperasmemorialsofHimself(Mt26:27,
Lk22:17,19,1Co11:24).ThenameLordsSupper,thoughlegitimatelyderivedfrom1Co11:20,isnotthereappliedtothesacramentitself,but
totheLovefeastorAgape,amealcommemoratingtheLastSupper,andnotyetseparatedfromtheEucharistwhenSt.Paulwrote.The
irregularitiesrebukedbytheApostle(11:21,29)aresuchascouldonlyhaveaccompaniedthewidercelebration,anddoubtlesscontributedtothe
speedyseparationoftheessentialritefromtheunnecessaryaccessories.ThetitleCommunioncomesfrom1Co10:16,where,however,theword
isapredicatenotusedtechnically.Thebreakingof(the)bread(Ac2:42,46)probablyreferstotheEucharist(cf.20:7,Lk24:35?),butuntilmodern
timesdoesnotseemtohavebeenadoptedasatitle.
1.TheinstitutionisrecordedbyeachoftheSynopticGospels,butnotbySt.John.
Afourthaccountappearsin1Corinthians.
Mk14:2225.Mt26:2629.
22Astheywereeating,hetookbread,26Astheywereeating,Jesustookandwhenhehadblessed,hebrakeit,bread,andblessed,andbrake
itandheandgavetothem,andsaid.Takeye:gavetothedisciples,andsaid,Take,thisismybody.23Andhetookacup,eat:this
ismybody.27Andhetookaandwhenhehadgiventhanks,hegavecup,andgavethanks,andgavetothem,tothem:andtheyalldrankof
it.24Andsaying,Drinkyeallofit28forthisishesaiduntothem,Thisismybloodofmybloodofthecovenant,whichisthecovenant,
whichisshedformany.shedformanyuntoremissionofsins.2925VerilyIsayuntoyou,IwillnomoreButIsayuntoyou,Iwillnot
drinkdrinkofthefruitofthevine,untilthathenceforthofthisfruitofthevine,until
daywhenIdrinkitnewinthekingdomthatdaywhenIdrinkitnewwithyouofGod.inmyFatherskingdom.
Lk22:1420.1Co11:2325.
14Whenthehourwascome,hesat23IreceivedoftheLordthatwhichalso
down,andtheapostleswithhim.15Idelivereduntoyou,howthattheLordAndhesaiduntothem,WithdesireIJesusinthenight
inwhichhewashavedesiredtoeatthispassoverwithbetrayedtookbread24andwhenheyoubeforeIsuffer:16forIsayuntohad
giventhanks,hebrakeit,andsaid.you,Iwillnoteatit,untilitbefulfilledThisismybody,whichisforyou:thisinthekingdomofGod.17
Andhedoinremembranceofme.25Inlikereceivedacup,andwhenhehadgivenmanneralsothecup,aftersupper,thanks,hesaid,
Takethis,anddivideitsaying,Thiscupisthenewcovenantinamongyourselves:18forIsayuntomyblood:thisdo,asoftasyedrink
it,you,Iwillnotdrinkfromhenceforthofinremembranceofme.thefruitofthevine,untilthekingdomofGodshallcome.19Andhetook
bread,andwhenhehadgiventhanks,hebrakeit,andgavetothem,saying,Thisismybody[whichisgivenforyou:thisdoinremembrance
ofme.20Andthecupinlikemanneraftersupper,saying.Thiscupisthenewcovenantinmyblood,eventhatwhichispouredoutforyou].

AcomparisonshowsvariationsofminorimportancebetweenMarkandMatthew.ButthemostremarkabledifferencesarethoseofLuke,which
mentionswhatisapparentlyasecondcup.Itseemsscarcelycrediblethatatasuprememoment,likethatinwhichasacredritewasbeing
established,ourLordshouldhavecreatedthepossibilityofconfusionbysolemnlydeliveringtwoofthePaschalcups,dividingbetweenthemthe
wordswhich,accordingtotheotherSynoptics,belong,asitwouldseemappropriately,toone.Nor,ifHewereabouttoballowasucceedingcupas
Eucharistic,isitlikelythatHewouldhavespokenofthefulfilmentofthePaschalwineinrelationtoanother(v.17).Inspite,therefore,ofthefact
thatthemajorityofMSSandVersionsfavouritsinclusion,WestcottandHortareprobablyrightinregardingthepassageinclosedinbracketsabove
asaninterpolation.Withthisomitted,thenarrativeisassimilatedtotheotherSynoptics.Theinversionofbreadandcup,whichnowbecomes
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asaninterpolation.Withthisomitted,thenarrativeisassimilatedtotheotherSynoptics.Theinversionofbreadandcup,whichnowbecomes
apparentandwhichprobablybelongsnottoLukebuttohissource,isperhapsduetothefactthatthewriter,dwellingontheLordsintentionthat
thePassovershouldbefulfilledinaMessianicrite,recordsattheopeningofhisnarrativeadeclarationsimilartothatwhichMatthewandMark
assigntoalaterstage,thedeliveryofthecup(Mt26:29,Mk14:25).Thesewords,thoughreferringmoreparticularlytotheEucharisticbread,yet,
asextendingtothewholemeal(thispassover),requirenomentionoftheactionthatwouldaccompanythemwhereasthecompanionstatement
concerningthefruitofthevine(Lk22:18)necessitatesthementionofthecup(v.17).Thefirsthalfofv.19(theconsecrationofthebread),which,
iftheaccountweresymmetrical,wouldappear(asarrangedinRushbrookesSynopticon)beforev.15,isthenaddedtocompletetheinstitution.A
copyist,assumingapartofthenarrativetobewanting,wouldthenintroduce,probablyfromacontemporaryliturgicalformula,thesecondhalfofv.
19andv.20,whichbearastrikingresemblancetothePaulineaccount,ofwhichLukeisotherwiseindependent.
AsimilarinversionisfoundinthesubApostolicTeachingoftheApostles.
2.FromtheSynopticrecordthefollowinginferencesmaybedrawn:(1)Thewordsofinstitutioncannotthemselvesdeterminethemeaningof
therite.Luke(unlessv.20begenuine)omitsThisismybloodofthecovenant.[Noticealsothattheothertraditionalformvariesthephrasethe
newcovenantinmyblood(1Co11:25).]ThismaybeduetothefactthatLukeintroducesthecupprimarilyinrelationtoourLordsutterance
concerningthefruitofthevine.ButthesentencemaybeaninterpretationofChristsaction,basedonitscorrespondencewiththehallowingofthe
bread.Matthewfurtheramplifiesbyaddingthewords,untoremissionofsins(Mt26:28).Itisclearthat,althoughformulaswereprobably
alreadyinuse,thelanguagewasnotyetstereotyped.Wecannot,therefore,becertainofthepreciseformofwordsthatourLordadopted.
(2)Therite,likethegospelofwhichitisanordinance,isApostolic.ThewholeTwelve,butnoneother,arepresentwithJesus(Mk14:17||).
Judashadnotyetgoneout(Lk22:21).ThesignificantrelationoftheApostlestothecongregationofthespiritualIsrael,prominentinMarkfrom
thefirst(3:14),isnotonlyemphasizedbytheirseclusionwithJesusinthissupremehour,butexplicitlystatedbyLuke(22:2434).Though,
therefore,thereisnothingbeyondtheformoftherecorditselftoindicatethepermanentandmonumentalcharacteroftheinstitution,yettheplace
whichfromthefirsttheriteassumedasthebondofChristianfellowship,andforwhichChristianslikeIgnatiusinthesubApostolicageclaimed
theauthorityoftheApostles,accordswithandinterpretstheSynopticnarrative.TogobehindtheApostolicEucharistisnomorepossiblefor
historicChristianitythantoseparatetheactualChristfromtheApostolicwitness.
(3)TheEucharistisPaschalinoriginandidea.ItisunnecessarytodeterminewhethertheLastSupperwasinfactthePassover,accordingto
theimpressionoftheSynoptists,or,asSt.Johnseemstoimply,anticipatedbytwelvehourstheJewishFeast.(SeeSanday,inHastingsDB,art.
JesusChrist,11.E.ii.)Nomentionismadeofthelamb,andthesignificantidentificationoftheelementsaccessorytothefeast,whethertypically
oreffectually,withthesacrificeofChrist,suggeststhatitschieffeaturewasabsent.Andthiswouldseemtobindtheritethusinstitutedmore
closelythanevertothatsufferingbeforewhichHeearnestlydesiredtocelebrateit(Lk22:15),andwhereinSt.Johncontemplatedthefulfilmentof
thePaschaltype(Jn19:36cf.Ex.12:46).Thebreadandwine,aseateninfellowshipbyChristandHisdisciplesonthenightofthebetrayal,and
distributed,asoftenastheriteisrenewed,tothosewhobelieveonJesusthroughtheApostolicword,istheChristianPassovercelebratedbeneath
theCross,wheretheveryPaschalLambisofferedforthelifeoftheworld.Itsinterpretationmust,therefore,beginfromthegreatHebrewfestival,
inwhichitfindsitsorigin,andwhichwasregardedasacorporatecommunionoftheCovenantPeoplebeneaththeshelterofthesprinkledblood,an
extensionofthatfirstsacredmealeatenwhenthedestroyingangelwaspassingoverandworkingredemptionforIsrael(seeSchultz,OTTheol.,
Eng.tr.vol.i.pp.196,197,363366).
3.St.Paulsaccountoftheinstitution(seeabove)waswrittennotlaterthanA.D.58,andisthereforeolderthantheSynoptics.Heclaimsto
havereceiveditaspartoftheinviolabledepositofthegospel(1Co11:23),whichhemusthandonunimpairedtothosetowhomheministersthe
word.ThephrasefromtheLordcanhardlyimply,assomehavemaintained,thatadirectrevelationwasgiventohimself,extendingtotheformof
wordsbutonlythattherecordispartofthatoriginalmessageofwhichtheApostlesweretheguardiansratherthantheinterpreters(1Co15:3,Gal
1:69.).TheformoftraditionherereproducedbringsoutexplicitlythefactthattheEucharistwasregardedintheApostolicChurchasanordinance
tobeobservedinChristiancongregationstilltheLordsComing(asoftasyedrink,withcommentv.26).ItisSt.Paulonlythatintroducesthe
command,Thisdoinremembranceofme(v.24),anexpressionfruitfulincontroversy.Ithasbeenurgedthatthewordrendereddomeans
offer,andthattheEucharistis,therefore,byitstermssacrificial.NotonlyisthisanuncommonuseoftheGreek,unsuspectedbytheGreek
commentatorsthemselves,butthewordthis(Gr.neuter)whichfollowscanonlybethisaction,notthisbread,whichwouldrequirethe
masculineformoftheGr.pronoun.Clearly,however,thephrasereferstothewholeEucharisticaction,nottotheparticularactsofeatingand
drinking,thelatterofwhichisdifferentiatedfromitinv.26.Itisfurtherarguedthatthewordusedforremembrance(anamnsis,vv.24,25)
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drinking,thelatterofwhichisdifferentiatedfromitinv.26.Itisfurtherarguedthatthewordusedforremembrance(anamnsis,vv.24,25)
impliesaritualmemorialbeforeGod.Theword,however,almostinvariablyusedintheLXXwiththissignificationisdifferent(mnmosynon,Lv
2:2,9,16,5:12,Nu5:26anam.isfoundinLv24:7andNu10:10).And,thoughtheformofwordsinwhich,accordingtothetraditionalritual,the
housefatherrecalledtheredemptionfromEgyptisprobablypresenttotheApostlesmind,itisuncertainwhetherthisrecitalofDivinedeliverance
wasdirectedtowardsGod.AsnowuseditwouldseemtobeintendedtocarryouttheinjunctionoftheLawgiveninEx12:26,27(seeHaggadah
forPassover).ThesameuncertaintyattachestoSt.PaulsexplanatorystatementyeproclaimtheLordsdeaththoughthenaturalinterpretation
oftheGreekisinfavouroftheideasuggestedbytheRV,viz.announcementtomenratherthancommemorationbeforeGod(cf.1Co9:14).The
evidentialvalue,notthemysticalsignificance,oftheriteishereasserted.
4.ThesacrificialcharacteroftheEucharistisinvolvedinthedeclarationthatthebreadbrokenisacommunionofthebody,thecupofblessing
acommunionoftheblood,ofChrist(1Co10:16).ThetableoftheLordiscontrastedwiththetableofdemons(v.21)throughthemediumofthe
sacrificialsystemoftheOT,ofwhichitisafundamentalprinciplethattoeatoftheofferingsistohavecommunionwiththealtar(v.18).Thewords
LordstableandaltararefoundassynonymsinMalachi(1:7,12).TheLeviticalcodeincludesmanyformsofoblationinwhichfeedingonthe
sacrifice,ifiteverexisted,hasdisappearedbutprovisionismadeforitinthecaseofthepeaceofferings(Lv7:1521).AcloserstudyoftheOT
bringsintogreaterprominencetheconnexionbetweensacrificeandfeasting(Ex32:6ff.,Dt12:5,12,26:10,11,1S1:3ff.,16:2,11seeSchultz,
OTTheol.,Eng.tr.i.c.xii.).TheendofsacrificeinIsrael,asamongothernations,istheunionoftheworshipperwiththeobjectofworship,
throughthecoveringwhichthepriestsupplies(W.R.Smith,RS2Lect.xi.).ThisisespeciallyevidentinthePassover,whichisasacrifice(Ex
12:27,34:25,Nu9:7,13),and,asincludingarepast,shouldrankamongthepeaceofferings.
TheEucharist,therefore,isasacrifice,notasthecommemorationofthedeathofChrist,butasthemeansofparticipationinthePaschalLambslain
forus(1Co5:7),intheofferingofthebodyofChristoncemadeontheCross(He10:10cf.Jn19:36,1Co10:17).ThecrucifixionofChrists
naturalbodyresultsintheinstitutionofthatinstrumentofunion,thesacramentalbody,inrespectofwhichtheunworthypartakerisguilty(1Co
11:27,butseebelow),andthroughwhichthefaithfulhavefellowshipwithChristinHismysticalbody(10:16,17).Thetransitionfromone
applicationofthewordbodytotheothersonebread,onebodyisverysubtle,andtheyarenodoubtsovitallyconnectedinthemindofSt.
Paulashardlytobecapableofexactdistinction.Butitisunlikelythatinapassagewheretheargumentwouldhavebeensatisfiedbytheuseofone
wordbodyontheanalogyofthecommonpaganidentificationofthegodwiththesacrifice,heshouldhaveusedthelongerphrase
communionofthebodyifhehadnotfeltthatthesinglewordwouldhavefailedtogivetheexactmeaning.Thesenseofthewholepassage
dependsupontherealityofthegiftconveyedthroughthefeastinwhichitissymbolicallypresented.St.Paulholdsthatthereisarealcommunionin
thesacrificialfeastsoftheheathen,thoughinthiscasewithdemons(v.20),whosepresenceisincompatiblewiththatofChrist(v.
21).
5.Thecrucialwordsofthesecondpassage(11:1734)areifhediscernnotthebody.LordsisaninterpolationoftheTR,whichtheRV
properlyrejects(v.29).
TheRValsobringsoutthefactthattheverbtr.discern(v.29)isagainusedinv.
31ifwediscernedourselvesthusshowingthattheworddoesnotmean
perceivebutdiscriminate.Bodyisleftundefined,including,asitapparentlydoes,themysticalbodywhichtheunworthydespiseintheChurch
ofGod,thesacramentalelementswhichtheydishonourbyprofaneuse,andthesacrificeofChristwithwhichtheyrejectcommunion,thereby
becomingguiltyinrespectofeach(vv.
21,22,26,27).
6.Bothpassagesexpresswhatisimplicitinthedivisionofthesacramentintotwokinds.Itisthebodyandbloodasseparatedindeaththrough
whichcommunionisattained.In1Co10:16,byplacingthecupfirst,asinSt.Lukesaccountoftheinstitution,St.Paulemphasizesthesacrificial
deathofChristasanecessaryelementintheEucharisticfeast.TheEpistletotheHebrewsshowsthataccesstotheHolyPlaceisgainedthroughthe
offeredbodyandsprinkledblood(He10:1922)St.John,thatunionwithChristisfoundinthatLivingBreadwhichimpliesdeathbecauseitis
fleshandblood(Jn6:5258).Commentingontheuniquephrasedrinkhisblood,WestcottsaysthattoJewishearstheideaconveyedisthe
appropriationoflifesacrificed(seenoteon6:63inGospelacc.toSt.John).Thereisnothingtowarrantthemedivalinferencethatthephrase
fleshandbloodisequivalenttopersonality,andthatthereforethewholeChristissacramentallypresentintheEucharisticelements.Butit

doesimplyvitalunionwithHimwhobecamedeadandisaliveforevermore(Rev1:18),aLambasthoughithadbeenslain(5:6),aPriestupon
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doesimplyvitalunionwithHimwhobecamedeadandisaliveforevermore(Rev1:18),aLambasthoughithadbeenslain(5:6),aPriestupon
Histhrone(Zec6:13cf.He8:1),whothroughtheoneofferingofHimselfhasperfectedforever(10:14)thosethatcometoGodthroughHim.
7.Inconclusion,however,itmustbefranklyadmittedthat,whileoneviewofthesacramentmayseemonthewholetoexpressmorefullythan
othersthegeneraltenorofNTteachingonthesubject,noneoftheexplanationswhichhavedividedChristendomsincethe16thcent.,noteventhe
theoryoftransubstantiationwhenpreciselydefined,canberegardedaswhollyinconsistentwiththelanguageofScripture.
J.G.SIMPSON.
EUERGETES(Prol.toSirach).SeeBENEFACTOR.
EUMENESII.ThekingofPergamus,towhomRomegavealargesliceoftheterritoryofAntiochusIII.,kingofSyria(B.C.190),including,
notIndia(1Mac8:68),butthegreaterpartofAsianorthoftheTaurus(Liv.xxxvii.44).
J.TAYLOR.
EUNICE.TheJewishmotherofTimothy(2Ti1:5,Ac16:1),marriedtoaGentilehusband,anddwellingatLystra.Shehadgivenhersona
carefulreligioustraining,buthadnotcircumcisedhim.
A.J.MACLEAN.
EUNUCH.Inthepropersenseofthewordaeunuchisanemasculatedhumanbeing(Dt23:1),butitisnotabsolutelycertainthattheHeb.
srsalwayshasthissignification,andtheuncertaintyisreflectedinourEng.tr.,whereofficerandchamberlainarefrequentlyfound.Itis
interestingtonotethatthegroupofscholarswhorenderedJeremiahfortheAVadheredtoeunuchthroughout:unhappilytheRevisershave
spoiledthesymmetrybyconformingJer52:25to2K25:19.Thefollowingreasons,noneofwhichisdecisive,havebeenadvancedinfavourof
somesuchrenderingofsrsasofficerorchamberlain.1.ThatPotiphar(Gn37:36)wasmarried.Butactualeunuchswerenotprecludedfrom
this(seeTer.Eun.4,3,24Juv.vi.366Sir20:4,30:20etc.).AndthewordsinGn39:1whichidentifyJosephsfirstmasterwiththehusbandofhis
temptressareanInterpolation.2.Thatin2K25:19etc.eunuchsholdmilitarycommands,whereastheyaregenerallyunwarlike(imbelles,Juv.
l.c.).Buttherehavebeencompetentcommandersamongstthem.3.ThatthestrictmeaningcannotbeinsistedonatGn40:2,7.Yetevenhereitis
admissible.
ThekingsofIsraelandJudahimitatedtheirpowerfulneighboursinemployingeunuchs(1)asguardiansoftheharem(2K9:32,Jer41:16)Est
1:12,4:4areinstancesofPersianusage(2)inmilitaryandotherimportantposts(1S8:15,1K22:9,2K8:6,23:11,24:12,15,25:19,1Ch28:1,2
Ch18:8,Jer29:2,34:19,38:7cf.Gn37:36,40:2,7,Ac8:27,Dn1:3doesnotofnecessityimplythatthecaptivesweremadeeunuchs).Forthe
servicesrenderedatcourtbypersonsofthisclassandthepowerwhichtheyoftenacquired,seeJos.Ant.XVI.viii.1.Buttheiracquisitionscould
notremovethesenseofdegradationandloss(2K20:18,Is39:7).Dt23:1excludedthemfrompublicworship,partlybecauseselfmutilationwas
oftenperformedinhonourofaheathendeity,andpartlybecauseamaimedcreaturewasjudgedunfitfortheserviceofJahweh(Lv21:20,22:24).
Thatbanis,however,removedbyIs56:4,5.Euseb.(HEvi.8)relateshowOrigenmisunderstoodthefigurativelanguageofMt19:12Origens
owncommentonthepassageshowsthatheafterwardsregrettedhavingtakenitliterallyandactedonit.SeealsoETHIOPIAN
EUNUCH.
J.TAYLOR.
EUODIA.Thisisclearlythecorrectformofthename,notEuodiasasAV(Ph4:2f.),forawomanisintended.St.Paulbeseechesherand
SyntychetobereconciledperhapstheyweredeaconessesatPhilippi.
A.J.MACLEAN.
EUPATOR.SeeANTIOCHUSV.
EUPHRATES,oneoftheriversofEden(Gn2:14),derivesitsnamefromtheAssyr.Purat,whichisitselftakenfromtheSumerianPura,
water,orPuranun,thegreatwater.PuratbecameUfrtuinPersian,wheretheprostheticvowelwassupposedbytheGreekstobethewordu,
good.IntheOTtheEuphratesisgenerallyknownastheriver.ItrisesintheArmenianmountainsfromtwosources,thenorthernbranchbeing 72/85
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good.IntheOTtheEuphratesisgenerallyknownastheriver.ItrisesintheArmenianmountainsfromtwosources,thenorthernbranchbeing
calledtheFratorKarasu,andthesouthernandlargerbranchtheMuradsu(theArsaniasofancientgeography).Thepresentlengthoftheriveris
1780miles,butinancienttimesitfellintotheseamanymilestothenorthofitsexistingoutlet,andthroughaseparatemouthfromthatofthe
Tigris.ThesaltmarshesthroughwhichitpassedbeforeenteringtheseawerecalledMarratu(MerathaiminJer50:21),wheretheAramanKalda
orChaldanslived.ThealluvialplainbetweentheEuphratesandtheTigrisconstitutedBabylonia,thewateroftheannualinundation(whichtook
placeinMay,andwascausedbythemeltingofthesnowsinArmenia)beingregulatedbymeansofcanalsandbarrages.TheHittitecityof
CarchemishstoodatthepointwheretheEuphratestouchedNorthernSyria,andcommandedoneofthechieffordsovertheriversouthofitcame
theBelikhandKhabur,thelastaffluentsoftheEuphrates.ThepromisemadetotheIsraelitesthattheirterritoryshouldextendtothegreatriver
(Gn15:18etc.)wasfulfilledthroughtheconquestsofDavid(2S8:3,10:1619,1K4:24).
A.H.SAYCE.
EURAQUILO(Ac27:14RV).Thereissomedoubtastothereading.The
GreekMSSwhichareesteemedtobethebestreadEuraklyonsodotheBohairicVersion,whichwasmadeinEgyptinthe6thor7thcent.froma
MSverylikethese,andtheSahidicVersionmadeinthe3rdcent.theVulgateLatinrevision,madetowardsthecloseofthe4thcent.,reads
Euroaquilo,whichpointstoaGreekoriginalreadingEuroakylon.Ourlaterauthorities,alongwiththePesh.andHark.Syriac,readEuroclydon(so
AV).NodoubtEur(o).akylonisthecorrectname,andtheotherisanattempttogetaformcapableofderivation.Thewordis,then,asailorsword,
andexpressesanE.N.E.wind,bycompoundingtwowords,aGreekword(euros)meaningE.wind,andaLatinword(aquilo)meaningN.E.wind.
ThisisexactlythekindofwindwhichfrequentlyarisesinCretanwatersatthepresentday,swoopingdownfromthemountainsinstronggustsand
squalls.TheeuraquilowhichdroveSt.
Paulsshipbeforeitwasthecauseoftheshipwreck.
A.SOUTER.
EUTYCHUS.AyoungmanwhofelldownfromathirdstoreywhilesleepingduringSt.PaulssermonatTroas,andwastakenupdead(Ac
20:9).St.Paulfellonhimand,embracinghim,declaredlifetobeinhim.ItisnotactuallysaidthatEutychuswasdead,butthatseemsatleastto
havebeenthegeneralbelief.TheincidentisdescribedinparalleltermswiththeraisingofDorcasandofJairusdaughter.
A.J.MACLEAN.
EVANGELIST(onewhoproclaimsgoodtidings[evangel,gospel]).Thewordoccurs3timesinNT(Ac21:8,Eph4:11,2Ti4:5),andin
eachcasewithreferencetotheproclamationoftheChristiangospel.
Ac21:8giveswhatappearstobetheprimaryChristianuseoftheword.Philip,oneoftheSeven(cf.Ac6:16),istherecalledtheevangelist.
AndhowheobtainedthistitleissuggestedwhenwefindthatimmediatelyafterStephensmartyrdomhewentforthfromJerusalemandpreached
thegospel(literallyevangelized)inSamaria,inthedesert,andinallthecitiesofthecoastlandbetweenAzotusandCsarea(Ac8:45,12,25,35,
40).Inthefirstplace,then,theevangelistwasatravellingChristianmissionary,onewhopreachedthegoodnewsofChristtothosewhohadnever
hearditbefore.
InEph4:11Apostles,prophets,evangelists,pastors,andteachersareallnamedasgiftsbestowedontheChurchbytheascendedChrist.Itis
impossibletodistinguishthese5termsasreferringtosomanyfixedecclesiasticaloffices.Thereisnoground,
e.g.,forthinkingthattherewasanorderofpastorsandanotherofteachersintheearlyChurch.St.Paul,again,whiledischargingtheexceptional
functionsoftheApostolate,washimselftheprinceofevangelistsandthegreatestofChristianteachers.Weconclude,therefore,thattheevangelist
assuchwasnotanofficial,butonewho,withouthavingthehigherpowersofApostleshiporprophecy,oranyspecialtalentforteachingorpastoral
work,hadagiftforproclaimingthegospelasamessageofsavingloveagiftwhichwaschieflyexercised,nodoubt,bymovingasPhiliphad
donefromplacetoplace.
Thatevangelistdenotesfunctionandnotspecialofficeisconfirmedby2Ti4:5.Timothyisexhortedtodotheworkofanevangelist,butalso
toengageintasksofmoralsupervisionandpatientdoctrinalinstruction(vv.2,3)whichsuggestthesettledpastorandstatedteacherratherthanthe
travellingmissionary.Inhisearlierlife,Timothy,asStPaulstravelcompanion(Ac16:1ff.,19:22,20:4,Ro16:21etc.),hadbeenanevangelistof
thejourneyingtype.Butthispassageseemstoshowthatthereisroomfortheevangelistathomeaswellasabroad,andthatthefaithfulministerof73/85
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thejourneyingtype.Butthispassageseemstoshowthatthereisroomfortheevangelistathomeaswellasabroad,andthatthefaithfulministerof
Christ,inordertomakefullproofofhisministry,willnotonlywatchoverthemoralsofhisflockandattendtotheirupbuildinginsounddoctrine,
butseektowinoutsiderstoChristbyproclaimingthegospelofHisgrace.
ThespecialuseofevangelistinthesenseofanauthorofawrittenGospelornarrativeofChristslife,andspecificallytheauthorofoneof
thefourcanonicalGospels,ismuchlaterthantheNT,noinstancebeingfoundtillthe3rdcentury.
J.C.LAMBERT.
EVE(Heb.Chawwhthenameprobablydenoteslife:otherproposedexplanationsarelifegiving,living,kinship,andsomewould
connectitwithanArah.wordforserpent).1.Eveislittlemore,inGenesis,thanapersonificationofhumanlifewhichisperpetuatedbywoman.
SeeADAM.2.IntheNTEveismentionedin2Co11:3,1Ti2:1315.Theformerisareferencetoherdeceptionbytheserpent.Thelatterteaches
thatsinceAdamwasfirstformed,thenEve,womenmustliveinquietsubordinationtotheirhusbands.Andasecondreasonseemstobeadded,
i.e.thatAdamwasnotdeceived,inthefundamentalmannerthatEvewas,forthewomanbeingcompletelydeceivedhascomeinto[astateof]
transgression.HereSt.PauldistinctlytakesEvetobeapersonificationofallwomen.Thepersonificationcontinuesinv.15,whichisobscure,and
mustbestudiedinthecommentaries.
A.H.MNEILE.
EVENING.SeeTIME.
EVI.OneofthefivekingsofMidianslain(Nu31:8,Jos13:21).
EVIDENTLY.Ac10:3HesawinavisionevidentlyabouttheninthhourofthedayGal3:1beforewhoseeyesJesusChristhathbeen
evidentlysetforth.Themeaningisclearly,oropenlyasinRV.Cf.Rob.Crusoe(Gold.Treas.ed.p.250),HesawevidentlywhatStockofCorn
andRiceIhadlaidup.
EVILisanolderformofthewordillused,bothassubstantiveandadjective,totr.varioussynonymsandranginginmeaningfromphysical
unfitnesstomoralwickedness.Theformerisarchaic,butoccursinGn28:8(AVm),Ex21:8(AVm),Jer24:3(AV),andMt7:18,thoughthetwolast
passagesarenotwithoutanethicaltinge.Butthewordalmostinvariablyconnoteswhatiseithermorallycorrupt(seeSIN)orinjurioustolifeand
happiness.
1.IntheOTthetwomeaningsareatfirstscarcelydifferentiated.Whatevercomestomanfromwithoutis,tobeginwith,attributedsimplyto
God(Am3:6,La3:38,Ezk14:9,Is45:7).DestructioniswroughtbyHisangels(Ex12:23,2S24:16,Ps78:49).MoraltemptationscomefromHim
(2S24:1,1K22:23),thoughthereisatendencytoembodytheminbeingswhich,thoughbelongingtothehostofheaven,arespokenofasevilor
lyingspirits(1S16:14,Jg9:23,1K22:22).TheserpentoftheFallnarrativecannotbepressedtomeanmorethanasymboloftemptation,though
theformwhichthetemptationtakessuggestshostilitytothewillofGodexternaltothespiritofthewoman(2Co11:3,cf.Gn3:13).Thenlaterwe
havethefigureofthe
AdversaryorSatan,who,thoughstilldependentonthewillofGod,isneverthelesssoidentifiedwithevilthatheisrepresentedastakingthe
initiativeinseduction(Zec3:1,
1Ch21:1,butcf.2S24:1).ThismarksthegrowthofthesenseofGodsholiness(Dt32:4etc.),thepuritywhichcannotbeholdevil(Hab1:13)
andcorrespondinglysharpenstheproblem.HeathengodsarenowidentifiedwithdemonsopposedtotheGodofIsrael(Dt32:17,Ps106:37cf.1
Co10:20).Thistendency,increasedperhapsbyPersianinfluence,becomesdominantinapocryphalliterature(2P2:4andJude6arebasedonthe
BookofEnoch),wherethefallenangelsareakingdomatwarwiththeKingdomofGod.
2.IntheNTmoralevilisneverascribedtoGod(Ja1:13),beingessentiallyhostiletoHismindandwill(Ro1:1821,5:10,1Jn1:57,2:16,29,
3:4,9)buttotheEvilOne(Mt6:13,13:19,1Jn5:19),anactiveandpersonalbeingidenticalwiththeDevil(Mt13:39,Jn8:44)orSatan(Mt4:10,
Mk4:15,Lk22:31,Jn13:27),whowithhisangels(Mt25:41)iscastdownfromheaven(Rev12:9,cf.Lk10:18),goestoandfrointheearthasthe
universaladversary(1P5:8,Eph4:27,6:11,Ja4:7),andwillbefinallyimprisonedwithhisministeringspirits(Rev20:2,10,cf.Mt25:41).Pain
andsufferingareascribedsometimestoGod(Rev3:19,1Th3:3,He12:511),inasmuchasallthingsworktogetherforgoodtothosethatlove

Him(Ro8:28)sometimestoSatan(Lk13:16,2Co12:7)andthedemons(Mt8:28etc.),whoaresufferedtohurttheearthforaseason(Rev9:1 74/85
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Him(Ro8:28)sometimestoSatan(Lk13:16,2Co12:7)andthedemons(Mt8:28etc.),whoaresufferedtohurttheearthforaseason(Rev9:1
11,12:12).
ThespeculativequestionoftheoriginofevilisnotresolvedinHolyScripture,beingoneofthosethingsofwhichwearenotcompetentjudges
(seeButlersAnalogy,i.7,cf.1Co13:12).Painisjustifiedbytheredemptionofthebody(Ro8:1825,1P4:13),punishmentbythepeaceable
fruitsofrighteousness(He12:711),andthepermissionofmoralevilbythevictoryoftheCross(Jn12:31,Ro8:3739,Col2:15,1Co15:24
28).AcceptthefactsandlooktotheendistheteachingoftheBibleasaguidetopracticalreligion(Ja5:11).Beyondthisweentertheregionofthat
hightheologywhichcomprehensivethinkerslikeAquinasorCalvinhavenotshrunkfromformulating,butwhich,sofarasitisdealtwithinthe
NT,appearsratherasabyproductofevangelicalthought,thanasthedirectpurposeofrevelation(as,e.g.,inRo9,whereGodselectivechoiceis
statedonlyasthelogicalpresuppositionofgrace).St.PauliscontenttothrowtheresponsibilityforthemoralfactsoftheuniverseuponGod(Ro
9:1924cf.Job33:12,Ec5:2,Is29:16),who,however,isnotdefinedascapriciousandarbitrarypower,butrevealedastheFather,wholovesthe
creaturesofHishand,andhasforeordainedallthingstoaperfectconsummationinChristtheBeloved(Eph1:314etc.).
J.G.SIMPSON.
EVILMERODACH,theAmelMardukoftheBabylonians,sonandsuccessorof
NebuchadrezzaronthethroneofBabylon(2K25:2730),promotedJehoiachininthe37thyearofhiscaptivity.HereignedB.C.562560.Berosus
describeshimasreigninglawlesslyandwithoutrestraint,andhewasputtodeathbyhisbrotherinlawNeriglissar,whosucceededhim.
C.H.W.JOHNS.
EVILSPEAKINGintheBiblecoverssinsofuntruthfulnessaswellasofmalice.Itincludesabuse,thoughtlesstalebearing,imputingofbad
motives,slander,anddeliberatefalsewitness.WarningsagainstitarefrequentitisforbiddeninthelegislationoftheOT(NinthCommandmentDt
19:1619)andoftheNT(Mt5:22,12:32,15:19).Christiansmustexpectthisformofpersecution(Mt5:11),butmustbecarefultogivenohandle
toit(Ro14:16,Tit2:8,1P2:12,3:16).
C.W.EMMET.
EVILSPIRITS.Asanaturalsynonymfordemonsordevils,thisphraseisusedintheNTonlybySt.Luke(7:21,8:2,Ac19:12,13,15,16),
andpresentsnodifficulty.ButintheOT,especiallythehistoricalbooks,referenceismadetoanevilspiritascomingfromorsentbyGodandthe
contextinveststhisspiritwithpersonality.ThetreacheryofthemenofShechemissoexplained(Jg9:23),thoughinthiscasethespiritmaynotbe
personalbutmerelyatemperorpurposeofillwill.Elsewherethereisnotthesamegroundfordoubt:anevilspiritfromtheLordisthealleged
causeofSaulsmoodiness(1S16:14,wherenoticetheantitheticalthespiritoftheLord),andofhisravingagainstDavid(1S18:10,19:9).
SimilarlyMicaiahspeaksofalyingspiritfromGod(1K22:2123,2Ch18:2023).Ithasbeensuggestedthatinallthesecasesthereferenceisto
GodHimselfasexertingpower,andeffectinggoodorevilinmenaccordingtothecharacterofeach.ThenearestapproachtothisisperhapsinEx
12:13,23,whereJehovahandthedestroyerareapparentlyidentified,thoughthelanguageadmitsequallyoftheviewthatthedestroyeristheagent
ofJehovahswill(cf.2S24:16).Butthetheoryisinconsistentwithwhatisknowntohavebeenthecurrentdemonologyoftheday(seeDEVIL),as
wellaswiththenaturalsuggestionofthephrases.ThesespiritsarenotrepresentedasconstitutingthepersonalenergyofGod,butasunderHis
control,whichwasdirectandactiveaccordingtosomeofthewriters,butonlypermissiveaccordingtoothers.ThefactofGodscontrolis
acknowledgedbyall,andisevenapostulateofScriptureandinusingorpermittingtheactivityofthesespiritsGodisassumedorassertedtobe
punishingpeoplefortheirsins.InthissenseHehasabandofangelsofevil(Ps78:49),whomayyethecalledangelsoftheLord(2K19:35,Is
37:36),ascarryingoutHispurposes.MicaiahevidentlyconsideredZedekiahasusedbyGodinordertoenticeAhabtohismeriteddoom.Ezekiel
propoundsasimilarview(14:9),thataprophetmaybedeceivedbyGod,andsomadethemeansofhisowndestructionandofthatofhisdupes,
muchasDavidwasmovedtonumberIsraelthroughtheangeroftheLordagainstthepeople(2S24:1).AstheconceptionofGoddevelopedand
waspurified,thepermittedactionofsomeevilspiritissubstitutedfortheDivineactivity,whetherdirectorthroughtheagencyofmessengers,
consideredasthemselvesethicallygoodbutcapableofemploymentonanykindofservice.AccordinglytheChroniclerrepresentsSatanasthe
instigatorofDavid(1Ch21:1).Jeremiahdeniestheinspirationoflyingprophets,andmakesthementirelyresponsiblefortheirownwordsand

influence(23:16,21,25f.)theyarenotusedbyGod,andwillbecalledtoaccount.Theyspeakoutoftheirownheart,andaresofarfromexecuting
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influence(23:16,21,25f.)theyarenotusedbyGod,andwillbecalledtoaccount.Theyspeakoutoftheirownheart,andaresofarfromexecuting
GodsjusticeorangeruponthewickedthatHeinterposestocheckthem,andtoprotectmenfrombeingmisled.
Anevilspirit,therefore,whereverthephraseoccursinapersonalsenseintheearlierhistoricalbooksoftheOT,mustbethoughtofsimplyasan
angelormessengerofGod,sentforthepunishmentofevil(cf.1S19:9RVm).HiscomingtoamanwasasignthatGodspatiencewithhimwas
approachingexhaustion,andapreludeofdoom.Graduallythephrasewasdivertedfromthisusetodenoteapersonalspirit,thedemonoftheNT
margin,essentiallyevilandworkingagainstGod,thoughpowerlesstowithdrawentirelyfromHisrule.
R.W.MOSS.
EXCELLENCY,EXCELLENT.TheseEnglishwordsareusedforagreatvarietyofHeb.andGr.expressions,acompletelistofwhichwill
befoundinDriversDaniel(Camb.Bible).Thewords(fromLat.excello,toriseupoutof,surpass)formerlyhadthemeaningofpreeminence
andpreeminent,andwerethusgoodequivalentsfortheHeb.andGr.expressions.Butsince1611theyhavebecomegreatlyweakenedand,as
Driversays,itistoberegrettedthattheyhavebeenretainedinRVinpassagesinwhichtherealmeaningissomethingsoverydifferent.Theforce
ofexcellencymaybeclearlyseeninthemarginofAVatGn4:7,wherehavetheexcellencyissuggestedforheacceptedinthetextorthe
marg.atEc.2:13,whereinsteadofwisdomexcellethfollyissuggestedthereisanexcellencyinwisdommorethaninfolly.InDn1:20itissaid
thatinallmattersofwisdomandunderstanding,thatthekinginquiredofthem,hefoundthemtentimesbetterthanallthemagiciansand
astrologersthatwereinallhisrealmandthisissummedupintheheadingofthechapterinthewords,theirexcellencyinwisdom.Theforceof
excellent,again,maybeseenfromthetableinHamiltonsCatechism,OfthepreeminentandexcellentdignitieofthePaternosterorfromSir
JohnMandeville,Travels,p.1,theHolyLand,passingallotherlands,isthemostworthyland,mostexcellent,andladyandsovereignofall
otherlands.
EXCHANGER.SeeMONEYCHANGER.
EXCOMMUNICATION.IntheOTthesentenceagainstthosewhorefusedtopartwiththeirstrangewives(Ezr10:8)hissubstanceshall
beconfiscatedandhehimselfseparatedistheearliestinstanceofecclesiasticalexcommunication.ThiswasamilderformoftheancientHeb.
chrem,curseorban,whichinthecaseofmaninvolveddeath(Lv27:29),anddevotionordestructioninthecaseofproperty.Thehorrorofthis
curseorchremhangsovertheOT(Mal4:6,Zec14:11).Anathema,theLXXequivalentofchrem(e.g.inDt7:26,Jos6:17,Nu21:3),appearsin1
Co16:22IfanylovenottheLord,lethimbeanathema(whichrefers,asdoesalsoGal1:8,toapermanentexclusionfromtheChurchand
doubtlessfromheaven),andin1Co12:3NoonespeakingintheSpiritofGodsays,Jesusisanathema,i.e.achremorcursedthingundertheban
ofGod.HeretheremaybeareferencetoaJewishbrocardwhichafterwardsgaverisetotheJewishtraditionthatJesuswasexcommunicatedbythe
Jews.TheformssaidtobeinvogueinHisdaywere:(1)niddi,ashortsentenceofthirtydays(2)chrem,whichinvolvedlossofallreligious
privilegesforaconsiderabletime(3)shammatt,completeexpulsionoraquaeetignisinterdictio.
Thislastform,however,lacksattestation.
ReferencesintheNTtosomeformofJewishprocedureare:Jn9:22,12:42,16:2,Lk6:22,Mt18:1517maybeareferencetosomeJewish
procedurethatwastakenoverbytheChurch.Itmentionsadmonition:(1)inprivate,(2)inthepresenceoftwoorthreewitnesses,(3)inthe
presenceoftheChurch.Thesentencelethimbetotheeastheheathenandthepublicaninvolvedlossofsocialandspiritualprivileges(cf.Tit
3:10).1Co5:4showsaformalassemblymetinthenameofourLordJesusChristtodeliveroneguiltyofincestuntoSatan,forthedestructionof
theflesh.Thepurposeofthepunishment,thatthespiritmaybesavedinthedayoftheLord(v.5)isremedial,andshowsthatthesentenceisnot
alifeone,asanathemaseemstobe(cf.1Ti1:20,whereHymenusandAlexanderaredeliveredtoSatan,thattheymaybetaughtnotto
blaspheme).TheGr.wordexarate,remove,usedin1Co5:13,
suggestsara,whichmeansbothcurseandprayer.Inthiscase,atallevents,thecursewasintendedtoleadtopenitenceandprayer.2Co2:611
seemstorefertoadifferentcase.HerethecensureorpunishmentwasgivenbythemajoritywithoutPaulsintervention,asin1Co5:4the
purposeofhiswritinghereisthatyour(v.l.our)careforus(v.l.you)mightbemademanifestinthesightofGodbuttherehewritesforthe
manssakeherethesinnerisdiscussedwithleniency,therethecaseisstatedwithdueseverity.Ifthecasebeanewone,itshowsagrowing
independenceoftheChristiancommunities,andalsothattheCorinthianshadreceivedasalutarylesson.Thephraselestanadvantageshouldhe
gainedoverusbySatan(2Co2:11)referstothetermofexcommunicationwhichSt.Paulwishedtoend,lestthepunishmentshoulddefeatitsend
andleadtoruininsteadofrecovery,andsoSatanshouldholdwhatwasonly,metaphoricallyspeaking,lenttohimtohurt.In2Th3:14,15the 76/85
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andleadtoruininsteadofrecovery,andsoSatanshouldholdwhatwasonly,metaphoricallyspeaking,lenttohimtohurt.In2Th3:14,15the
Apostleordersaninformalandlesssevereexcommunicationofthosewhoobeynothisword.Itspurpose,too,isremedial:thathemaybe
ashamed.St.John(2Jn10)ordersasimilarform,and3Jn9,10describesthemannerinwhichDiotrephesreceivesneitherhimnorthebrethren,
doesnotpermitotherstoreceivethem,andcaststhemoutoftheChurchthefirstinstanceofonepartyintheChristianChurchexcommunicating
anotherfordifferenceofdoctrine.Thelossofsocialandspiritualintercoursewasintendedtolead,insuchcases,torecantationofopinions,asin
otherstorepentanceforsin.
F.R.MONTGOMERYHITCHCOCK.
EXILE.SeeISRAEL,I.23.
EXODUS.ThebookrelatesthehistoryofIsraelfromthedeathofJosephtotheerectionoftheTabernacleinthesecondyearoftheExodus.In
itspresentform,however,itisaharmonyofthreeseparateaccounts.
1.ThenarrativeofP.whichcanbemostsurelydistinguished,isgivenfirst.
BeginningwithalistofthesonsofIsrael(1:15),itbrieflyrelatestheoppression(1:7,13f.,2:23b25),anddescribesthecallofMoses,which
takesplaceinEgypt,therevelationofthenameJahweh,andtheappointmentofAaron(67:13).Theplagues(7:10,20a,21b,22,8:57,15b19,
9:812,11:9f.),whicharewroughtbyAaron,formatrialofstrengthwithPharaohsmagicians.Thelastplagueintroducesdirectionsforthe
Passover,thefeastofunleavenedbread,thesanctificationofthefirstbornandtheannualPassover(12:120,28,4051,13:1f.).Henceemphasisis
laid,notonthebloodsprinkling,butontheeating,whichwastheperpetualfeature.
TheroutetotheRedSea(whichgivesoccasiontoastatementaboutthelengthofthesojourn.12:40f.)isrepresentedasdeliberatelychosenin
orderthatIsraelandEgyptmaywitnessJahwehspoweroverPharaoh(12:37,13:20,14:14).WhenMosesstretchesouthishand,thewatersare
miraculouslydividedandrestored(14:8f,15a,16b18,21ac,22f.,26,27a,28a,15:19).
BetweentheRedSeaandSinaithenamesofsomehaltingplacesaregiven(16:13,17:1a,19:2a).Ch.16isalsolargely(vv.613a,1624,31
36)fromP.ButthementionoftheTabernacleinv.34provesthestorytobelongtoalaterdatethanthestayatSinai,sincetheTabernaclewasnot
inexistencebeforeSinai.Probablythenarrativehasbeenbroughtintoitspresentpositionbytheeditor.
OnthearrivalatSinai,Jahwehsgloryappearsinafierycloudonthemountain.Asnopriestshavebeenconsecrated,andthepeoplemustnot
drawnear,Mosesascendsalonetoreceivethetablesofthetestimony(24:15b18a)writtenbyJahwehonbothsides.Heremains(probablyfor40
days)toreceiveplansforasanctuary,with
JahwehspromisetomeetwithIsrael(intheTentofMeeting)andtodwellwithIsrael(intheTabernacle)(25:131:18a,32:15).Hereturns(34:29
35),depositsthetestimonyinanarkhehascausedtobeprepared,andconstructstheTabernacle(3540).Thedifferingorderintheplansas
orderedandasexecuted,andtheconditionofthetextintheLXX,provethatthesesectionsunderwentalterationsbeforereachingtheirpresent
form.
Thisaccountwasevidentlywrittenformenwhowereotherwiseacquaintedwiththeleadingfactsofthehistory.Itisdominatedbytwoleading
interests:(1)toinsistinitsownwaythateverythingwhichmakesIsraelanationisduetoJahweh,sothatthereligionandthehistoryare
interwoven(2)togiveahistoryoftheorigins,especiallyoftheecclesiasticalinstitutions,ofIsrael.
2.ThenarrativeofJE.TherestofthebookissubstantiallyfromJE,butitisextremelydifficulttodistinguishJfromE.For(1)withthe
revelationofthenameofJahweh,oneofourcriteria,theavoidanceofthisnamebyEdisappears(2)specialcarehasbeentakentoweldthe
accountsofthelawgivingtogether,anditisoftendifficulttodecidehowmuchistheworkoftheeditor.Wegivethebroadlinesoftheseparation,
butremarkthatincertainpassagesthismustremaintentative.
A.IsraelinEgypt
AccordingtoJ,thepeoplearecattleowners,livingapartinGoshen,wheretheyincreasesorapidlyastoalarmPharaoh(1:6,812).Moses,after
receivinghisrevelationandcommissioninMidian(2:1122,3:24a,5,7f.,1620,4:116,19,20a,2426a,2931),demandsfromPharaohliberty
todepartthreedaysjourneytosacrifice(5:3,523).OnPharaohsrefusal,theplagues,whicharenaturalcalamitiesbroughtbyJahweh,andwhich
arelimitedtoEgypt,followMosesrepeatedannouncement(7:14,16,17a,18,21a,24f.,8:14,815a,209:7,1335,10:111,13b,14b,15a,
15c18,2426,28f.,11:48).InconnexionwiththePassover(12:2127),bloodsprinkling,noteating,isinsistedon.Theescapeishurried(2934,
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15c18,2426,28f.,11:48).InconnexionwiththePassover(12:2127),bloodsprinkling,noteating,isinsistedon.Theescapeishurried(2934,
3739),andsoahistoricalmeaningisattachedtotheuseofunleavenedbread(13:316[basedonJ]).
AccordingtoE,thepeopleliveamongtheEgyptiansasroyalpensionersandwithoutcattle.Theirnumbersaresosmallthattwomidwives
sufficeforthem(1:1520a,21f.)Moses(2:1,10),whosefatherinlawisJethro(3:1),receiveshisrevelation
(3:6,9b15,21f)andcommission(4:17f.,2023,27f.).Obeying,hedemandsthatIsraelhefreed(5:1f,4)inordertoworshiptheirGodonthis
mountainagreaterdistancethanthreedaysjourney.Esaccountoftheplagueshassurvivedmerelyinfragments,butfromtheseitwouldappear
thatMosesspeaksonlyoncetoPharaoh,andthattheplaguesfollowhismeregesturewhilethemiraculouselementisheightened(7:15,17b,20b,
23,9:2225,10:12,13a,14a,15b,2023,27).TheIsraelites,however,havenoimmunityexceptfromthedarkness.TheExodusisdeliberate,since
thepeoplehavetimetoborrowfromtheirneighbours(11:13,12:35f.).
B.TheExodus
AccordingtoJ,anunarmedhostisguidedbythepillaroffireandcloud(13:21f.).Pharaohpursuestorecoverhisslaves(14:5f.),andwhenthe
peoplearedismayed,Mosesencouragesthem(14:1014,19b,20b.).Aneastwinddrivesbackthewater,sothattheIsraelitesareabletocross
duringthenight(14:21b,24,25b,27b,28f.,30f.)butthewaterreturnstooverwhelmtheEgyptians.Israeloffersthanksinahymnofpraise(15:1)
butsooninthewildernesstemptsJahwehbymurmuringforwater(vv.
2225a,27,17:3,2b,7).
AccordingtoE,anarmedbodymarchoutinsoleisurelyafashionthattheyareabletobringJosephsbones.ForfearofthePhilistinesthey
avoidtherouteoftheisthmus(13:1719).Pharaohpursues(14:9a,10b.).butthepeople,protectedbyanangel,crosswhenMosesliftshisrod(vv.
15b,16a,19a,20a,25a,29).Thewomencelebratetheescape(15:218,20f.)andinthewildernessJahwehtestsIsrael,whethertheycanliveona
dailyprovisionfromHim(16:4,15a,19a,16a,19b21,35a).Water,forwhichtheymurmur,isbroughtbyMosesstrikingtherockwithhisrod
(17:1b,2a,46,7b).JethrovisitsandadvisesMoses(ch.18[inthemainfromE]).TheconditionoftheaccountofthejourneybetweentheRedSea
andSinai,andthefactthateventsofalaterdatehavecertainlycomeintoPsaccount,makeitlikelythatJEhadverylittleonthisstage,theaccount
ofwhichwasamplifiedwithmaterialfromthewildernessjourneyafterSinai.
C.AtSinai[heretheaccountsareexceptionallydifficulttodisentangle,andtheresultscorrespondinglytentative].
AccordingtoJ,JahwehdescendsonSinaiinlire(19:2b,18),andcommandsthepeopletoremainafaroff,whiletheconsecratedpriests
approach(vv.11b,12,2022,24f.).Aaron,Nadab,Abihu,and70eldersascend(24:1f.)andcelebrateacovenantfeast(vv.911).Mosesthengoes
upalonetoreceivetheTenWordsontableswhichhehimselfhashewn,andremaining40daysand40nightsreceivesalsotheBookofthe
Covenant(ch.34)[Jsstatementastothe40dayshasbeenomittedinfavourofEs,butitspresenceinhisaccountcanbeinferredfromreferences
in34:1,4].Ch.34isalsoinsertedatthispoint,becauseitspresentpositioniseminentlyunsuitableaftertheperemptorycommandinJandEto
leaveSinai(32:34,33:13).HearingfromJahwehoftherebellion(32:712,14),Mosesintercedesforforgiveness,anddescendstoquelltherevolt
withhelpfromtheLevites(vv.2529).HefurtherintercedesthatJahwehshouldstillleadHispeople,andobtainsapromiseoftheDivinepresence
(33:1,3,1223).ThiswasprobablyfollowedbyNu10:29ff.TheLawhedepositsinanarkwhichmustalreadyhavebeenprepared.
Jslaw(ch.34)istheoutcomeoftheearliestefforttoembodytheessentialobservancesoftheJahwehreligion.Thefeastsareagricultural
festivalswithoutthehistoricalsignificancegiventheminDeuteronomy,andtheobservancesareofaceremonialcharacter,for,accordingtoJ,itis
thepriestswhoaresummonedtoSinai.Effortshavebeenfrequentlymade(sinceGoethesuggestedit)toprovethatthisisJsdecaloguea
ceremonialdecalogue.Anydivisioninto10laws,however,hasalwaysanartificialcharacter.
AccordingtoE.Jahwehdescendsinacloudbeforethewholepeople(19:311a),whomMosesthereforesanctifies(vv.1417).Theyhear
JahwehuttertheDecalogue(v.19,20:117),but,astheyareafraid(20:1821),thefurtherrevelationwithitscovenantisdeliveredtoMosesalone
(20:2223:33inpart).Thepeople,however,assenttoitsterms(24:38).MosesascendstheMountwithJoshuatoreceivethestonetables,onwhich
JahwehhasinscribedtheDecalogue(24:1215a),andremains40days(v.18b)toreceivefurthercommands.Hereturnswiththetables(31:18b),to
discoveranddealwiththeoutbreakofidolatry(32:16,1624).Onhisintercessionhereceivesapromiseofangelicguidance(vv.3035).From
versesinch.33(vv.4,611)whichbelongtoEandfromDt10:3,5(basedonE),thisaccountrelatedthemakingofanarkandTentofMeeting,

thelatteradornedwiththepeoplesdiscardedornaments.WhenJEwascombinedwithP,thisnarrative,beingsuperfluousalongside25ff.,was
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thelatteradornedwiththepeoplesdiscardedornaments.WhenJEwascombinedwithP,thisnarrative,beingsuperfluousalongside25ff.,was
omitted.
EsaccountthuscontainsthreeofthefourcollectionsoflawsfoundinExodus,for
2123consistsoftwocodes,acivil(21:122:16)andaceremonial(22:1723:33
[roughly]).ProbablytheceremonialsectionwasoriginallyEscounterparttoch.34inJ,whilethecivilsectionmayhavestoodinconnexionwith
ch.18.Asitnowstands,Eisthepropheticversionofthelawgiving.ThebasisoftheJahwehreligionistheDecaloguewithitsclearlymarked
moralandspiritualcharacter.(Cf.art.DEUTERONOMY.)Thisisdeliverednottothepriests(likech.34inJ),buttothewholepeople.When,
however,thepeopleshrinkback,Moses,thepropheticintermediary,receivesthefurtherlawfromJahweh.Yettheceremonialandcivilcodeshave
asecondaryplace,andareparallel.TheDecalogue,acommonpossessionofthewholenation,withitsappealtothepeoplesmoralandreligious
sense,isfundamental.Onitallthenationalinstitutions,whethercivilorceremonial,arebased.Civilandceremoniallawhaveequalauthorityand
equalvalue.Asyet,however,theprincipleswhichinformtheDecaloguearenotbroughtintoconsciousconnexionwiththecodeswhichcontroland
guidethenationallife.TheBookofDeuteronomyproveshowatalaterdatetheeffortwasmadetopenetratetheentirelegislationwiththespiritof
theDecalogue,andtomakethisameansbywhichthenationallifewasguidedbythenationalfaith.
Thefollowingviewofthehistoryofthecodesisdeservingofnotice.EbeforeitsunionwithJcontainedthreeofthesecodes:theDecalogueas
thebasisoftheCovenanttheBookoftheCovenant,leadinguptotherenewaloftheCovenantandtheBookofJudgments,whichformedpartof
MosespartingaddressontheplainsofMoab.TheeditorwhocombinedJandE,wishingtoretainJsversionoftheCovenant,useditforthe
accountoftherenewaloftheCovenant,andunitedEsBookoftheCovenant,thusdisplaced,withtheDecalogueasthebasisofthefirstCovenant.
TheeditorwhocombinedJEwithD,displacedEsBookofJudgmentsinfavourofDeuteronomy,whichhemadeMosespartingaddressand
combinedthedisplacedBookofJudgmentswiththeBookoftheCovenant.
Theviewrepresentedinthearticle,however,explainsthephenomenaadequately,ismuchsimpler,andrequiresfewerhypotheses.
A.C.WELCH.
EXORCISM.Thewordmaybedefinedasdenotingtheactionofexpellinganevilspiritbytheperformanceofcertainrites,includingalmost
alwaystheinvocationofareputedlyholyname.AnanticipationofthelatermethodsoccursinDavidsattempttoexpelSaulsmelancholiaby
meansofmusic(1S16:16,23)andintheperceptionofthebenefitofmusicmaypossiblybefoundtheoriginoftheincantationsthatbecamea
markedfeatureoftheprocess.Amorecomplicatedmethodis
prescribedbytheangelRaphael(To6:16f.,8:2).InNTtimesthearthaddevelopedprofessionalexorcistshadbecomenumerous(Ac19:13,19),
whilstotherpersonswereadepts,andpractisedasoccasionneeded(Mt12:27,Lk11:19).AnolddivisionoftheBabylonianreligiousliterature(cf.
Cuneif.Textsfrom,TabletsinBrit.Mus.,pts.xvi.,xvii.)containsmanyspecimensofincantationsandtheconnexionoftheJewswiththatcountry,
especiallyduringtheExile,isanobviousexplanationofthegreatextensionbothoftheconceptionoftheinfluenceofdemonsandofthemeans
adoptedfortheirtreatment.ExorcismwasarecognizedoccupationandneedintheJewishlifeofthefirstcentury,asitbecameafterwardsincertain
sectionsoftheChristianChurch.
Intheprocedureandformulofexorcism,differencesaretraceableinthepracticeoftheJews,ofChrist,andofHisdisciples.Anillustrationof
theJewishmethodmaybefoundinJosephus(Ant.VIII.ii.5),whoclaimsSolomonforitsauthor,anddescribesacasethathehadhimself
witnessed.Otherinstancesoccurinthepapyri(e.g.Dieterich,Abraxas,138ff.),andintheTalmud(e.g.Berakhoth,51aPesachim,112b).Thevital
partoftheprocedurewastheinvocationofaname(oraseriesofnames,ofadeityoranangel,atthementionofwhichtheevilspiritwassupposed
torecognizethepresenceofasuperiorpowerandtodeclineacombat,asthoughaspellhadbeenputuponhim.Christ,ontheotherhand,usesno
spell,butinvirtueofHisownauthoritybidstheevilspiritsretire,andtheyrenderHisslightestword
unquestioningobedience.SometimesHedescribes.HimselfasactingbythefingerofGod(Lk11:20)orbytheSpiritofGod(Mt12:28),and
sometimesHiswillisindicatedevenwithoutspeech(Lk13:13,16)butthegeneralmethodisasternorperemptorycommand(Mt8:16,Mk1:25,
9:25,Lk8:29).Hedoesnotrequireanypreviouspreparationonthepartofthesufferer,thoughoccasionally(Mk9:23f.)Heusestheincidentto
excitefaithonthepartoftherelatives.Hisownpersonality,Hismerepresenceonthescene,areenoughtoalarmtheevilspiritsandtoputanendto
theirmischief.InthecaseofHisdisciples,thepowertoexercisewasgivenbothbeforeandaftertheresurrection(Mt10:1,8,Mk3:15,16:17,Lk
9:1),andwassuccessfullyexercisedbythem(Mk6:13,Lk10:17,Ac5:16,8:7,19:12)buttheauthoritywasderived,andonthatground,ifnotby79/85
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9:1),andwassuccessfullyexercisedbythem(Mk6:13,Lk10:17,Ac5:16,8:7,19:12)buttheauthoritywasderived,andonthatground,ifnotby
explicitcommand(cf.inmyname,Mk16:17).theinvocationofthenameofJesuswasprobablysubstitutedforHisdirectcommand.Thatwas
clearlythecourseadoptedbySt.Paul(Ac16:18,
19:1316),asbySt.PeterandtheApostlesgenerallyinothermiracles(Ac3:6,4:10,Ja5:14).ThenameofJesuswasnotrecitedasaspell,but
appealedtoasthesourceofallspiritualpower,asnotonlythebadgeofdiscipleshipbutthenameoftheeverpresentLordofspiritsandSaviourof
men(Mt28:19f.,Jn14:13).
R.W.MOSS.
EXPECT.Fromhenceforthexpectingtillhisenemiesbemadehisfootstool
(He10:13),thatis,waiting.IntheDonaiBiblethecommentonSir11:8is:Expecttheendofanothermansspeechbeforeyoubegintoanswer.
Expectalsoifaniethatiselder,orbetterable,willanswerfirst.
EXPERIENCE.Thisword,whichplayssolargeapartinmodernphilosophyandreligion,occurs4times(includingexperiment)inEV.Of
theseinstancesonlyonesurvivesinRV,viz.,Ec1:16,wherehathhadgreatexperienceof=hathseenmuchof(wisdom),etc.InGn30:27I
havelearntbyexperience(=experiment)becomesIhavedivined,theHeb.vb.beingthesameasinGn44:5,15,Dt18:10.InRo5:4(RV
probation)experience,andin2Co9:13(RVproving)experiment.wastherenderingofaGr.wordborrowedfromtheassayingofmetal,
whichsignifiedthetesting,ortest,ofpersonalworththesamenounappearsinAVastrial(RVproof)in2Co2:9,8:2,andproofin2Co13:3
andPh2:22.Christianexperience,inmodernphraseology,coverswhatisspokenofinScriptureastheknowledgeofGod,ofChrist,etc.,andas
thesealorwitness(testimony)oftheHolySpirit,ofourconscience,etc.,oraspeace,assurance,salvation,andthelike.Cf.nextarticle.
G.G.FINDLAY.
EXPERIMENT.In2Co9:13experimentmeansproof:bytheexperimentofthisministrationtheyglorifyGod.Itisproofarisingoutof
experience,asinHall,Works,iii.467:Wehaveknown,indeed,someholysouls,whichoutofthegenerallpreceptsofpiety,andtheirownhappy
experimentsofGodsmercy,have,throughthegraceofGod,growntoagreatmeasureofperfectionthiswaywhichyetmighthavebeenmuch
expeditedandcompleated,bythosehelpswhichthegreaterilluminationandexperienceofothersmighthaveaffordedthem.Cf.preced.article.
EYE.Theeyewassupposedtobetheorganorwindowbywhichlighthadaccesstothewholebody(Mt6:22).Forbeautyofeyescf.1S
16:12[RVm],Ca1:15,5:12,andthenameDorcasinAc9:36inGn29:17thereferenceseemstobetoLeahsweakeyes(soDriver,adloc.).The
wantonoralluringeyesofwomenarereferredtoinPr6:25,Is3:16.Theirbeautywasintensifiedbypainting,antimonybeingusedfordarkening
theeyelashes(2K9:30,Jer4:30,Ezk23:40[allRV]).Kerenhappuch(Job42:14)meanshornofeyepaint.Pr23:29speaksofthedrunkards
rednessofeye.InDt6:8,14:1betweentheeyesmeansontheforehead.Shavingtheeyebrowswaspartofthepurificationoftheleper(Lv14:9).
Eyeisusedinmanyfigurativephrases:astheavenueoftemptation(Gn3:6,Job31:1)ofspiritualknowledgeandblindness,asindicating
feelingspride(2K19:22),favour[especiallyGodsprovidence(Ps33:18)],hostility(Ps10:8).Anevileyeimpliesenvy(Mk7:22cf.1S18:9,
theonlyuseoftheverbinthissenseinEnglish)orniggardliness(Dt15:9,Pr28:22,andprobablyMt6:22,wherethesingleeyemaymean
liberalitycf.Pr22:9).InGn20:16coveringoftheeyesmeansforgetfulnessofwhathashappened.InRev3:18eyesalveorcollyriumisa
PhrygianpowdermentionedbyGalen,forwhichthemedicalschoolatLaodiceaseemstohavebeenfamous.(SeeRamsay,SevenChurches.)The
referenceistotherestoringofspiritualvision.
C.W.EMMET.
EZBAI.ThefatherofNaarai,oneofDavidsmightymen(1Ch11:37).
EZBON.1.EponymofaGaditefamily(Gn46:16),calledinNu26:16Ozni.2.AgrandsonofBenjamin(1Ch7:7).
EZEKIAS.1.(AVEzechias)1Es9:14=Jahzeiah.Ezr10:15,2.(AVEzecias1Es9:43,calledHilkiahinNeh8:4.
EZEKIEL(=Jahwehstrengthens).
I. THEMAN.EzekielwasthesonofBuzi,apriestofthefamilyofZadok,andwascarriedintoexilewithJehoiachin,B.C.597(2K80/85
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I.THEMAN.EzekielwasthesonofBuzi,apriestofthefamilyofZadok,andwascarriedintoexilewithJehoiachin,B.C.597(2K
24:8ff.).Josephus(Ant.X.vi.3)statesthathewasaboyatthetimebutthisisdoubtful,forinthefifthyearfromthenhewasoldenoughtobe
calledtothepropheticoffice(1:2),andcouldspeakofhisyouthaslongpast(4:14):intheninthyearhiswifedies(24:16)hisacquaintance
withtheTempleisbestexplainedbysupposingthathehadofficiatedthere,andthepredictionsinch.38f.readasthoughherememberedthe
inroadofB.C.626.Heandhisfellowexilesformedanorganizedcommunity,presidedoverbyelders,atTelAbib,onthebanksofthecanal
Chebar(3:15).Ezekiellivedinahouseofhisown(3:24),and,foratleast22years(1:2,29:17),endeavouredtoservehispeople.Hiscallwas
prefacedbyanimpressivevisionoftheDivineglory,andtheexpression,thehandofJwasuponme(1:3,8:1,37:1,40:1),indicatesthatthe
revelationswhichhereceivedcametohiminastateoftranceorecstasycf.also3:15,25with24:27.Hismessagemetatfirstwith
contemptuousrejection(3:7),andthestandingtitle,arebellioushouse,showsthatheneverachievedtheresultwhichhedesired.Yettherewas
somethinginhisspeechwhichpleasedtheearsofthecaptives,andbroughtthemtohishouseforcounsel(8:1,14:1,20:1,33:3033).Nodoubt
hischaracteralsocommandedattention.Hismoralcouragewasimpressive(3:8)heeveractedasamanunderauthority,acceptingan
unpleasantcommissionandadheringtoitinspiteofspeedy(3:14)andconstantsuffering(3:18ff.,33:7)evenwhenhesighsitisatGods
bidding(21:6,7),andwhenhisbelovedwifediesherestrainshistearsandresumeshisteaching(24:1518).Partofhismessagewasgivenin
writing,butthespokenwordisinevidencetoo(3:10,11:25,20:3,24:18,33:3033).Ithasbeensaidthathewaspastorratherthanprophet,
andthiswouldnotbefarfromthetruthifitran,pastoraswellasprophet,forhebothwatchedoverindividualsoulsandclaimedtheearofthe
people.Again,hehasbeencalledapriestinprophetsgarb,forthethoughtsandprinciplesofthepriesthoodcontrolledhisconduct(4:14),
comeoutamidstthevigorousethicalteachingofchapter33,andgiveitsdistinctivecolouringtotheprogrammeunfoldedatthecloseofthe
book.Weknownothingofhislaterlife.
Clem.Alex.referstothelegendthathemetPythagorasandgavehiminstruction.
PseudoEpiphaniusandothersassertthathewasmartyredbyaHebrewwhomhehadrebukedforidolatry.Hisreputedgrave,afewdaysjourney
fromBaghdad,wasapilgrimageresortofthemedivalJews.
II.THEBOOK
1.DivisionandContents.Twohalvesaresharplydifferentiatedfromeachotherinmatterandtone.Thechangesynchronizedwiththe
beginningofthesiegeofJerusalem(24:1,2).Chs.124containdenunciationsofsinandpredictionsofjudgment2548areoccupiedwiththe
hopesofthefuture.Inthefirstdivisionwedistinguish:1.TheIntroduction(13:21).2.Thefirstseriesofpropheciesinactandword(3:227).3.
TheabominationspractisedinJerusalem(811).4.Sins,reasonings,sternthreats(1219).5.Thesamesubject,andthebeginningoftheend(20
24).Intheseconddivision:1.Theremovalofhostileneighbours(2532).2.Themoralrequirementsnowtobemetthedestructionofthelast
enemy(3339).3.Asketchofthecommunityofthefuture(4048).Inbothpartsthereisascrupulousexactnessofdating,unexampledinany
earlierprophet(1:1,2,8:1,20:1,24:1,26:1,29:1,17,30:20,31:1,32:1,17,33:21,40:1).
Ezekielsverdictonthenationalhistoryisofunmixedseverity.FromtheirstartingpointinEgyptthepeoplehadbehavedill(cf.20:513with
Jer2:2).Jerusalemtohimalmostsynonymouswiththenationwaspaganinoriginandcharacter(16).Therootoftheirwickednesswasan
inveterateloveofidolatry(passim).EvenEzekielsowncontemporarieslongedtobeheathens:theirGodcouldholdthembackonlybyextreme
violence(20:3238).TheexilesweresomewhatlessguiltythantheirbrethreninJerusalem(14:22f.).But,onthewhole,princes,priests,andpeople
wereanabandonedrace.Theylovedtheworshipofthehighplaces,which,accordingtoEzekiel,hadalwaysbeenidolatrousandillegitimate.They
atefleshwiththebloodinit,disregardedtheSabbath,pollutedtheTemplewithceremonialandmoraldefilements,committedadulteryandother
sexualabominations,wereguiltyofmurder,oppression,theexactionofusury,harshnesstodebtors.ThelistcanbeparalleledfromotherProphetic
writings,butthestressisherelaidonoffencesagainstGod.AndthisisinaccordancewiththestronglightinwhichEzekielalwaysseestheDivine
claims.ThevisionwithwhichthewholeopenspointstoHistranscendentmajesty.Thetitle,sonofman,bywhichtheprophetisaddressed116
times,marksthegulfbetweenthecreatureandhisMaker.ThemostregrettableresultofIsraelscalamitiesisthattheyseemtosuggestimpotence
onJahwehsparttoprotectHisown.ThemotivewhichhasinducedHimtosparethemhitherto,andwill,hereafter,ensuretheirrestoration,isthe
desiretovindicateHisownglory.IntheidealfuturetheprincespalaceshallbebuiltataproperdistancefromJahwehs,andnoteventheprince
shalleverpassthroughthegatewhichhasbeenhallowedbythereturninggloryoftheLord.Henceitisnaturalthatthereformationandrestoration
ofIsraelareGodswork.Hewillsprinklecleanwateronthem,givethemanewheart,produceinthemhumilityandselfloathing.Hewilldestroy
theirfoesandblesstheirlandwithsupernaturalfertility.ItwasHewhohadsoughtamongsttheminvainforonewhomightbetheirSaviour.Itwas
HewhoinHiswrathhadcausedthemtoimmolatetheirchildreninsacrifice.Godisallinall.Yetthepeoplehavetheirparttoplay.Ezekielprotests
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HewhoinHiswrathhadcausedthemtoimmolatetheirchildreninsacrifice.Godisallinall.Yetthepeoplehavetheirparttoplay.Ezekielprotests
againstthetraditionalnotionthatthepresentgenerationweresufferingfortheirancestorsfaults:toacquiesceinthatistodeadenthesenseof
responsibilityanddestroythespringsofaction.HerehejoinshandswithJer.(Jer31:29f.),bothalikecomingtoclosequarterswiththeindividual
conscience.Hepushesalmosttoofarthetruththatachangeofconductbringsachangeoffortune(33:1416).Butthereisimmensepracticalvalue
inhisinsistenceonappropriateaction,hisappealtotheindividual,andthetendernessoftheappeal(18:23,31,33:11).NowhereisJahwehs
longingforthedeliveranceofHispeoplemorepatheticallyexpressed.And,notwithstandingtheircontinualwrongdoing,thebondofunionisso
closethatHeresentsasapersonalwrongthespitefulnessoftheirneighbours(2532,35).Theheathen,assuch,havenofuture,althoughindividual
heathensettlerswillsharethecommonprivileges(47:22f.).
Theconcludingchapters,4048,theweightiestinthebook,areacarefullyelaboratedsketchofthepolityofrepatriatedIsraelIsrael,i.e,not
asanation,butasanecclesiasticalorganization.IntheforegroundistheTempleanditsservices.Itsposition,surroundings,size,arrangements,are
minutelydetailedeventheplaceandnumberofthetablesonwhichthevictimsmustbeslainaresettled.Theordinancesrespectingthepriesthood
areprecisenonebuttheZadokitesmayofficiatepriestswhohadministeredoutsideJerusalemarereducedtothemenialdutiesofthesanctuary(cf.
Dt18:8).Adequateprovisionismadeforthemaintenanceofthelegitimatepriests.Rulesarelaiddowntoensuretheirceremonialpurity.Theoffice
ofhighpriestisnotrecognized.Andthereisnorealking.Inch.37theruler,ofDavidsline,seemstocountforsomethingnotsohere.True,heis
warnedagainstoppressinghissubjects(45:9,46:1618),buthehasnopoliticalrle.Adomainissetaparttoprovidehimarevenue,andhischief
functionistosupplythesacrificesforthefestivals.Thecountryisdividedintoequalportions,oneforeachtribe,allofwhomarebroughtbackto
theHolyLand.Nolandistobepermanentlyalienatedfromthefamilytowhichitwasassigned.Godsgloryreturnstotheremodelledandrebuilt
sanctuary,andEzekielsprophecyreachesitsclimaxintheconcludingwords,Thenameofthecityfromthatdayshallbe,Jahwehisthere.It
wouldbedifficulttoexaggeratetheeffectwhichthisUtopiahasproduced.Somedetails,suchastheequaldivisionoftheland,thearrangements
respectingthepositionandrevenueoftheprince,therelationofthetribestothecity,wereimpracticable.Butthelimitationofthepriesthoodtoa
particularclass,theintroductionofamuchmorescrupulousavoidanceofceremonialdefilement,theeradicationofpaganelementsofworship,the
exclusionofallrivalobjectsofworship,wentalongwaytowardscreatingJudaism.Andwhilstthishasbeenthepracticalresult,thechaptersin
question,togetherwith
Ezekielsvisionsofthechariotandcherubim,havehadnolittleinfluenceinthesymbolismandimaginativepresentmentofJewishapocalyptic
literatureandChristianviewsoftheunseenworld.
2.Style.NotwithstandingthefavourableopinionofSchiller,whowishedtolearnHeb.inordertoreadEzekiel,itisimpossibletoregardthis
prophetasoneofthegreatestmastersofstyle.Hisprolixityhasbeenadducedasaproofofadvancedage.Repetitionsabound.Certainwordsand
formulasrecurwithwearisomefrequency:I,Jahweh,havespoken,TheyshallknowthatIamJahweh(56times),Timeoftheiniquityofthe
end,AdesolationandanastonishmentEzekielsfavouritewordforidolsisusednofewerthan38times.Thebookaboundsinimagery,butthis
suffersfromthejuxtapositionofincongruouselements(17:36,32:2),amixtureofthefigurativeandtheliteral(31:17f.),inaptness(11:3,15:15):
thatinchs.16and23isoffensivetoWesternbutprobablynottoEasterntastethatoftheIntroductoryVisionwaspartlysuggestedbythe
compositeformsseeninthetemplesandpalacesofBabylonia,andisdifficulttoconceiveofasaharmoniouswhole.ButasaruleEzekielseesvery
distinctlythethingsheisdealingwith,andthereforedescribesthemclearly.Nothingcouldbemoreforciblethanhislanguageconcerningthesins
thatprevailed.Thefiguresof29:3f.,34:119,37:114areverytelling.Thereisgenuinelyricforcein27:2632,32:1732,andotherdirgesthereis
acharmingidyllicpicturein34:2531.Theabundantuseofsymbolicactionsclaimsnotice.Ezekielsministryopenswitharoughdrawingona
tile,andnootherprophetresortedsooftentolikemethodsofinstruction.
3.Text,integrity,andcanonicity.EzekielshareswithSamueltheunenviabledistinctionofhavingthemostcorrupttextintheOT.Happily
theLXX,andinaminordegreetheTargumandthePesh.,enableustomakemanyindisputablecorrections.Paralleltexts,internalprobability,and
conjecturehavealsocontributedtothenecessaryreconstruction,butthereremainnosmallnumberofpassageswhereitisimpossibletobecertain.
Theintegrityofthebookadmitsofnoseriousquestion.Hereandthereaninterpolationmayberecognized,asat24:22f.,27:9b25a.Onebrief
sectionwasinsertedbytheprophetoutofitschronologicalorder(29:1720).ButtheworkasawholeisEzekielsownarrangementofthe
memorandawhichhadaccumulatedyearafteryear.AlthoughtheRabbisneverdoubtedthis,EzekielnarrowlyescapedexclusionfromtheCanon.
Chag.,13a,informsusthatbutforacertainHananiahitwouldhavebeenwithdrawnfrompublicuse,becausetheprophetswordscontradictthose

oftheLaw.MistrustwasalsoarousedbytheopeningwhichtheVisionoftheChariotaffordedfortheosophicalspeculationnoonemightdiscussit
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oftheLaw.MistrustwasalsoarousedbytheopeningwhichtheVisionoftheChariotaffordedfortheosophicalspeculationnoonemightdiscussit
aloudinthepresenceofasinglehearer(Chag.,11b).
J.TAYLOR.
EZEL.ThespotwhereJonathanarrangedtomeetDavidbeforethelattersfinaldeparturefromthecourtofSaul(1S20:19).Theplaceisnot
mentionedelsewhere,anditisnowgenerallyadmittedthattheHeb.textofthispassageiscorrupt.Thetruereadingseemstohavebeenpreserved
bytheLXX,accordingtowhichweshouldreadinv.19yondercairn,andinv.41frombesidethecairn.EZEM(1Ch4:29).SeeAZMON.
EZER.1.AHoriteduke(Gn36:21,1Ch1:38).2.AsonofEphraimwho,accordingto1Ch7:21,wasslainbythemenofGath.3.A
Judahite(1Ch4:4).4.AGaditechiefwhojoinedDavid(1Ch12:9).5.AsonofJeshuawhohelpedtorepairthewall(Neh3:19).6.Apriestwho
officiatedatthededicationofthewalls(Neh12:42).
EZIONGEBER,latercalledBerenice(Jos.Ant.VIII.vi.4).AportontheRedSea(ontheGulfofAkabah)usedbySolomonforhis
commerce(1K9:26).HerealsotheIsraelitesencamped(Nu33:35,Dt2:8).
A.J.MACLEAN.
EZNITE.SeeADINO.
EZORA.The sons of Ezora, in 1 Es 9:34, take the place of the strange nameMachnadebai(or Mabnadebai, AVm) in Ezr 10:40, where
thereisnoindicationofafreshfamily.
EZRA(perhapsanabbreviationofAzariah=Jahwehhelps),1.AJewishexileinBabyloninthereignofArtaxerxesI.Longimanns(B.C.
464424),whoplayed,asiswellknown,aprominentpartinJerusalemduringthecriticalperiodofreformassociatedwiththegovernorshipof
Nehemiah.Oursourcesofinformationregardinghimare(1)theautobiographicalnarrativesembodiedinEzr710,andNeh810and(2)later
traditionasembodiedinthenarrativeofthecompilerofEzr.Neh.,andtheaccountsintheapocryphalbooks.
AccordingtoEzr7:15,Ezrawasofpriestlydescent,andinfactamemberofthehighpriestlyfamily(aZadokite).ButtheSeraiahthere
mentionedcannotbehisfather,asthisSeraiahhadbeenexecutedbyNebuchadnezzarinB.C.586(133yearsbeforeEzrasappearance).The
genealogymayonlyintendtoassertthatEzrabelongedtothehighpriestlyfamily(cf.also1Es4:40,49).Buthispriestlydescenthasbeencalled
inquestion.Hisworkandachievementsrathersuggestthecharacterofthescribe(sphr)parexcellence.Intheapocalypticworkknownas2(4)
Esdrasheisrepresentedasaprophet(2Es1:1).
InordertoformajustestimateofEzrasworkandaims,wemustpicturehimasadiligentstudentoftheLaw.Hedoubtlessstoodatthehead
or,atanyrate,wasaleadingfigureofaneworderwhichhadgrownupintheExileamongtheJewsoftheGolahorcaptivityinBabylonia.
AmongtheseexilesgreatliteraryactivityapparentlyprevailedduringthelateryearsoftheExileandonwards.ThesocalledPriestlyCode
whichmustberegardedastheworkofawholeschoolofwriterswasformed,oratleasttheprincipalpartofit,probablybetweentheclosing
yearsoftheExileandthearrivalofEzrainJerusalem(B.C.536458),andwasdoubtlessthelawofGodwhichEzrabroughtwithhimto
Jerusalem.ThecentreofJewishculture,wealth,andleisurewasatthistimeandforsometimecontinuedtobeBabylonia,whereexternal
circumstanceshadbecome(sincethePersiansupremacy)comparativelyfavourablefortheJews.InthisrespectthepositionoftheJerusalem
community,duringtheseyears,affordedapainfulcontrast.ThetinycommunityinJudahadtowageasawholealongandsordidstruggleagainst
povertyandadversesurroundings.ItsreligiousconditionwasmuchinferiortothatoftheGolah.Movedbyreligiouszeal,andalso,itwouldseem,
withthestatesmanlikeviewofmakingJerusalemoncemoretherealspiritualmetropolisofJudaism,EzraconceivedtheideaofInfusingnewlife
andnewidealsintotheJudancommunity,byleadingafreshhandofzealouslyreligiousexilesfromBabyloniabacktoJudaonamissionof
reform.Withtheaid,possibly,ofJewsatcourt,heenlistedthegoodwillofArtaxerxes,andsecuredanImperialfirmaninvestinghimwithallthe
authoritynecessaryforhispurpose.ThisedicthasbeenpreservedinanessentiallytrustworthyforminEzr.7:1226.AllJewswhosowishedcould
departfromBabylonofferingsweretobecarriedtotheTempleinJerusalem,andtheLawofGodwastobeenforced.Inthe7thyearofArtaxerxes

(B.C.458)Ezracollectedahandof1496men(Ezr8:114in1Es8:2841thenumberisgivenas1690),besideswomenandchildren,andstarted83/85
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(B.C.458)Ezracollectedahandof1496men(Ezr8:114in1Es8:2841thenumberisgivenas1690),besideswomenandchildren,andstarted
onhisjourneyacrossthedesert.Infourmonthstheyreachedtheirdestination.
Here,afterthesacredgiftshadbeenofferedintheTemple,Ezrasoonlearnedofthelaxstateofaffairsthatprevailedintheholycity,andamong
theJudanvillages.Theholyseed(includingevenpriestsandLevites)hadmingledthemselveswiththepeoplesofthelands,andthehandof
theprincesanddeputieshadbeenfirstinthistrespass(Ezr9:2).Ezrasconsequentprayerandconfession,inthepresenceofalargeassemblage
ofthepeople,leadtodrasticmeasuresofreform.Ageneralcongregationofthecommunityauthorizestheestablishmentofadivorcecourt,presided
overbyEzra,whichfinishesitslaboursafterthreemonthswork:andtheymadeanendwiththewholebusiness(10:17[correctedtext]),many
innocentwomenandchildrenbeingmadetosufferintheprocess.
InthepresentformofthenarrativeEzradoesnotemergeagaintillafteranintervalof13years,afterNehemiahhadarrivedinJerusalemandre
erectedanddedicatedthecitywalls.Shortlyaftertheseevents(accordingtotheusualchronology,inB.C.444)theBookoftheLawwasreadby
Ezrabeforethepeopleinsolemnassembly,whopledgedthemselvestoobeyit.Withinthesamemonth(i.e.Tishri,theseventhmonth)thefirstof
itsinjunctionstobecarriedoutwastheduecelebrationoftheFeastofBooths(Neh8:1318).
Thesequenceofeventsasdescribedaboveisnotwithoutdifficulties.HowisthelongintervalbetweenEzrasarrivalinJerusalem(B.C.458)
andthepromulgationoftheLaw(B.C.444)tobeexplained?Itmaybe,asStadehassuggested,thatthecompulsorydivorceproceedingsalienateda
considerablebodyofthepeople,andthattheopportunemomentforintroducingthecodewasinconsequencepostponed.Orandthereissome
probabilityinthisviewthechronologymayhavebecomedislocatedinthepresentcompositenarrative,andEzramayreallyhaveaccomplished
thebulkofhisworkbeforeNehemiahsarrival.PerhapswithevengreaterplausibilityacasemaybemadeoutforplacingEzrasworksubsequent
toNehemiahsgovernorship.Cheyne(JRLp.54f.)placesitbetweenthetwovisits(445and432).See,further,NEHEMIAH[BOOKOF],3.Itis
certainlyremarkablethatintheirrespectivememoirsEzraandNehemiahmentioneachotherbutonce.
Ezrasisanaustereandcommandingfigure,whichhasleftalastingimpressuponthereligionslifeoftheJewishpeople.Ezraisthetruefounder
ofJudaism.ByinvestingtheLawwithasanctityandinfluencethatithadneverbeforepossessed,andmakingitthepossessionoftheentire
community,heendowedtheJewishpeoplewithacohesivepowerwhichwasproofagainstallattacksfromwithout.
G.H.BOX.
2.EponymofafamilywhichreturnedwithZerub.(Neh12:1,13,33).
EZRA,BOOKOF.OurpresentBookofEzra,whichconsistsof10chapters,isreallypartofacompositework,EzraNehemiah,which,
again,isthecontinuationofChronicles.TheentireworkChroniclesEzraNehemiahisacompilationmadebytheChronicler.See,further,
NEHEMIAH[BOOKOF],1.
1.Analysisofthebook.TheBookofEzrafallsintotwomaindivisions:(a)chs.16(b)chs.710.
(a)Chs.16giveanaccountoftheReturnandtherebuildingoftheTemple.Ch.1tellshowCyrus,afterthecaptureofBabyloninB.C.538,
issuedanedictpermittingtheexilestoreturnofthelatterabout40,000availedthemselvesoftheopportunityandreturnedtoJudaunderJoshua
thehighpriestandZerubbabel,amemberoftheroyalDavidicfamily,whowasappointedgovernor(pechah)byCyrus(B.C.538537).Ch.2
containsalistofthosewhoreturnedandtheirofferingsforthebuildingoftheTemple.Ch.3describeshowinOctober537thealtarofburnt
offeringwasreerectedonitsancientsite,thefoundationstoneoftheTemplelaid(May536),andtheworkofrebuildingbegun.Ch.4tellsthat,
owingtotheunfriendlyactionofneighbouringpopulations,thebuildingoftheTemplewassuspendedduringtherestofthereignsofCyrusand
Cambyses.ItcontainsthecorrespondencebetweenRehum,Shimshai,andtheircompanions,andkingArtaxerxes.In5:612weareinformedthat,
asaconsequenceoftheearnestexhortationsoftheprophetsHaggaiandZechariah,thebuildingoftheTemplewasenergeticallyresumedinthe
secondyearofDariusI.(B.C.520).In5:66:12wehavethecorrespondencebetweenthesatrapTattenaiand
Darius.Wereadin6:1322ofhowtheTemplewassuccessfullycompletedonthe3rdMarch515B.C.[Anintervalofsilence,lastingnearlysixty
years,ensues,ofwhichthereseemstobelittleornorecordelsewhere.]
(b)Chs.710dealwithEzraspersonalwork.Inch.7thesilenceofnearlysixtyyearsisbrokenintheyearB.C.458,whenEzra,theteacherof
theLaw,attheheadofafreshbandofexiles,leavesBabyloniabearingacommissionfromArtaxerxesI.tobringaboutasettlementinthereligious

conditionoftheJudancommunity.Ch.8givesalistoftheheadsoffamilieswhojourneyedwithhim,andtellsoftheirarrivalinJerusalem.Ch.984/85
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conditionoftheJudancommunity.Ch.8givesalistoftheheadsoffamilieswhojourneyedwithhim,andtellsoftheirarrivalinJerusalem.Ch.9
describestheproceedingsagainsttheforeignwives,andcontains
Ezraspenitentialprayer.Inch.10wereadthatanassemblyofthewholepeople,inDecember458,appointedacommissiontodealwiththemixed
marriages.Thenarrativeabruptlybreaksoffwithanenumerationofthemenwhohadmarriedstrangewomen.
2.Sourcesofthebook.InitspresentformtheBookofEzraNehemiahis,ashasbeenpointedout,theworkoftheChronicler.The
compilation,however,embracesoldermaterial.Themostimportantpartsofthislatterareundoubtedlytheautobiographicalsections,whichhave
beentakenpartlyfromEzras,partlyfromNehemiahs,personalmemoirs.
(a)ExtractsfromEzrasmemoirsembodiedintheBookofEzra.ThelongpassageEzr7:279:15(except8:35,36)isgenerallyadmittedtobe
anauthenticextractfromEzrasmemoirs.Theabruptbreakwhichtakesplaceat9:15mustbeduetoacompiler.Theeventsofthenextthirteen
yearswereclearlyoftoodismalacharactertomakeitdesirabletoperpetuatethememoryofthem(Cornill).[Itisprobablethatanevenlarger
excerptfromthesememoirsistobeseeninNeh9:610:39.]
ItseemsprobablethatthesememoirswerenotusedbytheChroniclerintheiroriginalform,butinaformadaptedandarrangedbyalaterhand,
towhichEzr10isdue.Thislatternarrativeisoffirstrateimportanceandrestsuponextremelygoodinformation.Itwasprobablywrittenbythe
samehandthatcomposedthemainpartofNeh810(seeNEHEMIAH[BOOKOF],2).
TheImperialfirmananAramaicdocument(7:1226)theessentialauthenticityofwhichhasnowbeenmadecertainisanextractfromthe
memoirspreservedinthesamecompilerswork,fromwhichEzr2(=Neh7:673)wasalsoderived.Theintroductoryverses(7:111)are
apparentlytheworkoftheChronicler.
(b)Othersourcesofthebook.TheothermostimportantsourceusedbytheChroniclerwasanAramaicone,written,perhaps,aboutB.C.450,
whichcontaineda
historyofthebuildingoftheTemple,thecitywalls,etc.,andcitedoriginaldocuments.FromthisauthoritycomeEzr4:822,5:16:16(cited
verbally).
TheChronicler,however,partlymisunderstoodhisAramaicsource.Hehasmisconceived4:6,andassignedafalsepositiontothedocument
embodiedin4:723.
(c)PassageswrittenbytheChronicler.ThefollowingpassagesbearclearmarksofbeingtheactualcompositionoftheChronicler:Ezr1,3:2
4:7,4:24,6:167:11,8:35,36.
3.SeparationofEzrafromChronicles.ItwouldappearthatafterthegreatworkoftheChroniclerhadbeencompleted(1and2Chronicles,
EzraNehemiah),thepartwhichcontainednarrativesofotherwiseunrecordedeventswasfirstreceivedintotheCanon.Hence,intheJewishCanon,
EzraNehemiahprecedestheBooksofChronicles.Intheprocessofseparationcertainversesarerepeated(Ezr1:13a=2Ch36:22,23)v.23
seemstohavebeenaddedin2Ch36toavoidadismalending(v.
21).
Forthehistoricalvalueofthebookcf.whatissaidunderNEHEMIAH[BOOKOF],3.
G.H.BOX.
EZRAH.AJudahite(1Ch4:17).
EZRAHITE.AnamegiventoHemaninthetitleofPs88,andtoEthan(wh.see)inPs89.ItisusedofEthanalsoin1K4:31.
EZRI.Davidssuperintendentofagriculture(1Ch27:26).
EZRIL.1Es9:34=Azarel,4(Ezr10:41).

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FABLE.Forthedefinitionofafable,asdistinctfromparable,allegory,etc.,seeTrench,Parables,p.2ff.Itsmainfeatureisthe
introductionofbeastsorplantsasspeakingandreasoning,anditsobjectismoralinstruction.Asitmovesongroundcommontomanand
lowercreatures,itsteachingcanneverrisetoahighspirituallevel.Worldlyprudenceinsomeformisitsusualnote,oritattackshumanfolly
andfrailty,sometimesinaspiritofbittercynicism.HenceithasonlyasmallplaceintheBible.SeePARABLE.
1.InOT.TherearetwofablesintheOT,thoughthewordisnotuseditisperhapssignificantthatneitherisinanysenseamessage
fromGod.(1)JothamsfableofthetreeschoosingtheirkingillustratesthefollyofthemenofShechem(Jg9:8).(2)Jehoashsfableofthe
thistleandthecedar(2K14:9)ishisrebukeofAmaziahspresumptionarebukeinitselffullofhaughtycontempt,howeverwellgrounded.
Ezk17:310isnotafable,butanallegory.InBar3:23authorsoffablesoccursinthelistofwisemenoftheearthwhohavenotyetfound
Wisdom.Sir13:17wouldseemtobeareferencetosopsfablessoMt7:15.ThistypeofliteraturewasfreelyusedbylaterJewishteachers,
andsopsandotherfablesarefrequentlyfoundintheTalmud.
2.InNT.Fableoccursinadifferentsense.ItisusedtotranslatetheGr.myth,whichhaslostitsbettersenseasanallegoricalvehicle
fortruth,whethergrowingnaturallyordeliberatelyinvented,asinPlatosRepublic,andhascometomeanadeludingfictionofamoreorless
extravagantcharacter.Thecunninglydevisedfablesof2P1:16areapparentlyattemptstoallegorizetheGospelhistory,andthebeliefinthe
SecondAdvent.ThewordoccursfourtimesinthePastoralEpp.,withamoredefinitereferencetoatypeoffalseteachingactuallyinvogueat
EphesusandinCrete.Thesefablesareconnectedwithendlessgenealogieswhichministerquestionings(1Ti1:4)theyaredescribedas
profaneandoldwivesfables(4:7),andcontrastedwithsounddoctrine(2Ti4:4).TheyareJewish,thecommandmentsofmen(Tit
1:14),andthegenealogiesareconnectedwithfightingsaboutlaw(3:9).Theexactnatureoftheteachingreferredtoisdisputed,butthe
followingpointsarefairlyestablished,(a)Thereferencesdonotpointto2ndcenturyGnosticism,whichwasstronglyantiJewish,buttoan
earlierandlessdevelopedform,suchasisnecessarilyimpliedinthemoreelaboratesystems.Theheresiescombatedarenoindicationofthe
latedateoftheseEpistles.(b)TheheresymaybecalledGnosticbyanticipation,andapparentlyarosefromamixtureofOrientalandJewish
elements(perhapsEssene).Itsviewsonthesinfulnessofmatterledontheonehandtoanextremeasceticism(1Ti4:3),ontheotherto
unbridledlicence(Tit1:15,16).(c)ThereismuchevidenceconnectingthistypeofteachingwithAsiaMinorCol.,Tit.,Rev.,Ignatian
Letters,andthecareerofCerinthus.RamsaypointsoutthatPhrygiawasafavourablesoil,theJewsthere
beingparticularlylax.(d)Thefablesmaybespeciallythespeculationsaboutonsandemanations,ordersofangels,andintermediarybeings,
whicharecharacteristicofallformsofGnosticismthepassagesaresoappliedby2ndcent.Fathers.Butwearealsoremindedofthe
legendaryandallegoricalembellishmentsofthenarrativesoftheOT,whichweresopopularwiththeJewishRabbis.SemiChristianteachers
mayhaveborrowedtheirmethods,andthewordmythwouldbespeciallyapplicabletotheproduct.
C.W.EMMET.
FACEisusedfreelyofanimals,aswellasofmenalsoofthesurfaceofthewilderness(Ex16:4),oftheearth,ofthewatersordeep,ofthe
sky.Itisusedofthefrontofahouse(Ezk41:14),ofaporch(40:15,41:25),ofathrone(Job26:9).Coveringthefacein2S19:4isasignof
mourning(cf.coveringthehead)itisalsoamarkofreverence(Ex3:6,1K19:13,Is6:2).InGn24:65itindicatesmodesty.Otherwiseitis
usedsimplyofblindfolding,literal(Mk14:65),ormetaphorical(Job9:24).TofallonthefaceisthecustomaryEasternobeisance,whetherto
manortoGod.Spittinginthefaceistheclimaxofcontempt(Nu12:14,Dt25:9,Mt26:67).TheOrientalwillsay,Ispitinyourface,while
heactuallyspitsontheground.Thefacenaturallyexpressesvariousemotions,fear,sorrow,shame,orjoy.Thefallenface(Gn4:5)isused
ofdispleasurehardeningthefaceofobstinatesin(Pr21:29,Jer5:3).Thefacewasdisfiguredinfasting(Mt6:16).Itmaybethe
expressionoffavour,particularlyofGodtoman(Nu6:25,Ps31:16),orconverselyofmanturninghisfacetoGod(Jer2:27,32:33)orof
disfavour,asinthephrasetosetthefaceagainst(Ps34:16,Jer21:10,andofteninEzk.),ortohidetheface.[N.B.InPs51:9thephraseis
useddifferently,meaningtoforgetorignore,cf.Ps90:8].Closelyrelatedaretheusagesconnectedwithbeholdingtheface.Thismeanttobe
admittedtothepresenceofapotentate,king,orgod(Gn33:10,43:3,5,2K25:19,Est1:14,4:11,16cf.angel(s)ofthefaceorpresence,Is
63:9,To12:15,Rev8:2,andofteninapocalypticliterature).Sotolookuponthefaceistoaccept(Ps84:9),toturnawaythefaceisto
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63:9,To12:15,Rev8:2,andofteninapocalypticliterature).Sotolookuponthefaceistoaccept(Ps84:9),toturnawaythefaceisto
reject(Ps132:10,1K2:16RVm).TobeholdthefaceofGodmaybeusedeitherliterallyofappearingbeforeHispresenceinthesanctuary
orelsewhere(Gn32:30[PenielisthefaceofGod],Ex33:11,Ps42:2theshewbreadisthebreadofthefaceorpresence),orwitha
morespiritualreferencetotheinwardrealityofcommunionwhichliesbehind(Ps17:15)soseekingthefaceofGod(Ps24:6,27:8).Onthe
otherhand,in2K14:8seefacetofaceisusedinasinistersenseofmeetinginbattle.
TheHeb.wordforfaceisusedveryfreely,bothaloneandinmanyprepositionalphrases,asanidiomaticperiphrasis,e.g.honourthe
faceoftheoldman(Lv19:32),grindthefaceofthepoor(Is3:15),orthecommonphrasebeforemyface(Dt8:20,Mk1:2),orbefore
thefaceofIsrael(Ex14:25).Manyoftheseusagesaredisguisedinourversions,notbeinginaccordancewithEnglishidiomsthepronounis
substituted,orpresence,countenanceareused,facebeingoftenindicatedinAVmorRVm(Gn1:20,1K2:16)sointhephrase
respectpersons(Dt1:17).Ontheotherhand,faceiswronglygivenforeyein
AVof1K20:38,41,whereashesonfaceshouldbeheadbandovereyein2K
9:30,Jer4:30,thereferenceistopaintingtheeyeinGn24:47RVsubstitutesnose,inEzk38:18nostrils.
C.W.EMMET.
FAIRHAVENS.AharbouronthesouthcoastofCrete,nearLasea,whereSt.PaulsshiptookshelteronthevoyagetoRome(Ac
27:8).Itstillretainsitsname.
A.J.MACLEAN.
FAITH.Nounforbelieve,havinginearlyEng.oustedbelief(wh.see)fromitsethicaluses.Bythisseveranceofnounandvb.(soin
Lat.fidescredere,Frenchfoicroire)Eng.suffersincomparisonwithGerman(Glaubeglauben)andGreek(pistispisteu).Butfaith
hasanoblepedigreecomingfromtheLatinfides,throughNormanFrench,itconnotesthesenseofpersonalhonourandofthemutualloyalty
attachingtothepledgedword.
1.InOT.Thisword,thenormalNTexpressionforthereligiousbond,isfoundbuttwiceintheOT(EV)inDt32:20,signifying
steadfastness,fidelityandinHab2:4,whereaslightlydifferentnounfromthesameHeb.stem(containedinamenanddenotingwhatisfirm,
reliable),maycarryameaningidenticalwiththeabovethejustshalllivebyhisfaithfulness(RVm).Theoriginaltermhasnoothersense
thanfaithfulnessortruthelsewheresoinPs37:3(RV)96:13,Dt32:4(RV),Is11:5etc.thecontextinHab.,however,lendstoita
pregnantemphasis,suggesting,besidesthetemperofsteadfastness,itsmanifestationinsteadfastadherencetoJehovahswordunderthe
circumstances,passivefidelitybecomesactivefaiththerighteousIsraelshalllivenotbywayofrewardforhisloyalty,butbyvirtueof
holdingfasttoJehovahslivingword(cf.1:12).Ifso,St.PaulhasdonenoviolencetothetextinRo1:17,Gal3:11.Thecorrespondingvb.
(fromtherootamen:inactiveandpassive,torelyon,andtohaverelianceorbereliable)occursabove20timeswithGod,Hischaracter,
word,ormessengers,forobject.Morethanhalftheseexamples(inEx.,Dt.,Ps.)refertofaithorunbeliefinthemissionofMosesand
JehovahsredemptiveactsatthefoundationofthenationalCovenant.Thesamevb.suppliestwoofIsaiahswatchwords,in7:9and28:16.
TheformersentenceisanuntranslatableepigramIfyouwillnotholdfast,youshallhavenoholdfast!,Nofealty,nosafety!thelatter
leadsusintotheheartofOTfaith,thecollectivetrustofIsraelinJehovahasherRockoffoundationandsalvation,which,asIsaiahdeclared
(in8:1215),mustservealsoforastoneofstumblingandrockofoffencetotheunfaithful.Thiscombinationofpassagesistwicemadein
theNT(Ro9:33and1P2:68),sincethenewhouseofGodbuiltofChristianbelieversrestsonthefoundationlaidinZion,viz.thecharacter
andpromiseoftheImmutable,towhomnowasthenfaithsecurelybindsHispeople.InHab1:5(citedAc13:41)Israelsunbeliefin
threatenedjudgment,inIs53:1(Jn12:38,Ro10:16)herunbeliefinthepromisedsalvation,comingthroughJehovahshumiliatedServant,are
chargeduponherasafatalblindness.ThusthecardinalimportoffaithismarkedatsalientpointsofIsraelitehistory,whichNTinterpreters
seizedwithasureinstinct.AttheheadoftheOTsayingsonthissubjectstandsGn15:6,thetextonwhichSt.Paulfoundedhisdoctrineof
justificationbyfaith(seeRo4:9,22,Gal3:6alsoJa2:23)andAbrahambelievedJehovah,andhecountedittohimforrighteousness(JE)
acrucialpassageinJewishcontroversy.St.PaulrecognizedinAbrahamtheexemplarofpersonalreligion,antedatingthelegalsystemthe
faithofthemanwhostandsindirectheartrelationshiptoGod.Gn15:6suppliesthekeytohischaracterandhistoricalposition:hishearts
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faithofthemanwhostandsindirectheartrelationshiptoGod.Gn15:6suppliesthekeytohischaracterandhistoricalposition:hishearts
trustfulresponsetoJehovahspromisemadeAbrahamallthathehasbecometoIsraelandhumanityandthemenoffaitharehischildren
(Gal3:68).Onlyhere,however,andinHab2:4,alongwithtwoorthreepassagesinthePsalms(27:13,116:10quoted2Co4:13,and
possibly119:66),doesfaithipsonomine(orbelieve)assumethepersonalvaluewhichisofitsessenceintheNT.Thedifferencein
expressionbetweentheOTandNTinthisrespectdisclosesadeeplyingdifferenceofreligiousexperience.ThenationalredemptionofIsrael
(fromEgypt)layentirelyontheplaneofhistory,andwasthereforetoberememberedwhereasthedeathandrisingofourLord,while
equallyhistorical,belongtothespiritualandeternal,andaretobebelieved.UndertheOldCovenantthepeopleformedthereligiousunit
therelationsoftheindividualIsraelitetoJehovahweremediatedthroughthesacredinstitutions,andtheLawdemandedoutwardobedience
ratherthaninnerfaithhearingthevoiceof
Jehovah,keepinghisstatutes,walkinginhiswayso(inthelanguageofGal3:23)theageoffaithwasnotyet.Besidesthis,theIsraelite
revelationwasconsciouslydefectiveandpreparatory,thelawmadenothingperfectwhenSt.Paulwouldexpresstohisfellowcountrymen
inawordwhatwasmostprecioustohimselfandthem,hespeaksnotofthefaithbutthehopeofIsrael(Ac28:20etc.),andthewriterof
He11definesthefaithofhisOTheroesastheassuranceofthingshopedforaccordingly,Hebrewtermsgivingtofaiththeaspectof
expectationtrusting,waiting,lookingforJehovaharemuchcommonerthanthosecontainingthewordbelieve.Again,thefactthat
oppressionandsufferingenteredsolargelyintothelifeofOTbelievershascolouredtheirconfessionsinpsalmandprophecyinsteadof
believinginJehovah,theyspeakofcleavingtoHim,takingrefugeunderHiswings,makingHimashield,atower,etc.Inallthistheliveliness
ofEasternsentimentandimaginationcomesintoplayandwhilefaithseldomfiguresunderthebareabstractterm,itistoberecognizedin
manifoldconcreteactionandindressofvariedhue.UndertheOldCovenant,asundertheNew,faithwroughtbylove(Dt6:5,Ps116:1etc.,
Lv19:18etc.),whileitinspiredhope.
2.InNT.TheNTuseofpistis,pisteu,isbasedonthatofcommonGreek,wherepersuasionistheradicalideaoftheword.Fromthis
sprangtwoprincipalnotions,meetingintheNTconception:(a)theethicalnotionofconfidence,trustinaperson,hisword,promise,etc.,and
thenmutualtrust,ortheexpressionthereofintrothorpledgeausagewithonlyacasualreligiousapplicationinnonBiblicalGreekand(b)
theintellectualnotionofconviction,belief(indistinctionfromknowledge),coveringalltheshadesofmeaningfrompracticalassurancedown
toconjecture,butalwaysconnotingsincerity,abeliefheldingoodfaith.TheuseoffaithinMt23:23belongstoOTphraseology(seeDt
32:20,quotedabove)alsoinRo3:3,Gal5:22,pistisisunderstoodtomeangoodfaith,fidelity(RVfaithfulness),asofteninclassicalGreek.
Insense(b)pistiscameintothelanguageoftheology,thegodsbeingreferred(e.g.byPlutarchasareligiousphilosopher)totheprovinceof
faith,sincetheyarebeyondthereachofsenseperceptionandlogicaldemonstration.
(1)Inthiswayfaithcametosignifythereligiousfacultyinthebroadestsense,ageneralizationforeigntotheOT.PhiloJudus,the
philosopherofJudaism,thusemploysthetermquotingGn15:6,hetakesAbrahamfortheembodimentoffaithsounderstood,viewingitas
thecrownofhumancharacter,thequeenofthevirtuesforfaithis,withPhilo,asteadyintuitionofDivinethings,transcendingsenseand
logicitis,infact,thehighestknowledge,theconsummationofreason.ThislargeHellenisticmeaningisconspicuousinHe11:1b,6,27etc.,
andappearsinSt.Paul(2Co4:18,5:7byfaithnotbyappearance).ThereisnothingdistinctivelyChristianaboutfaithunderstoodinthe
baresignificanceofseeingtheinvisiblethedemonsbelieve,andshudderthebeliefthatcontainsnomoreisthedeadfaith,which
condemnsinsteadofjustifying(Ja2:1426).AsSt.JamesandSt.Paulbothsawfromdifferentstandpoints,Abraham,beyondthebeliefthat
Godis,recognizedwhatGodisandyieldedHimaloyaltrust,whichcarriedthewholemanwithitanddeterminedcharacterandactionhis
faithincludedsense(a)ofpisteu(whichliesintheHeb.vb.believe)alongwith(b).Inthiscombinationliestherichandpowerfulimport
ofNTbelieving:itisaspiritualapprehensionjoinedwithpersonalaffiancetherecognitionoftruthin,andtheplightingoftrothwith,the
Unseeninthistwofoldsense,withtheheart(theentireinnerself)manbelievethuntorighteousness(Ro10:10).Thosepenetratedbythe
spiritoftheOTcouldnotusethewordpistisinrelationtoGodwithoutattachingtoit,besidestherationalideaofsupersensibleapprehension,
thewarmerconsciousnessofmoraltrustandfealtynativetoitalreadyinhumanrelationships.
(2)ContactwithJesusChristgavetothewordagreatlyincreaseduseandheightenedpotence.BelievingmeanttoChristsdisciplesmore
thanhitherto,sincetheyhadHimtobelieveinandbelievers,theythathadbelieved,becameastandingnameforthefollowersofChrist
(Ac2:44,Ro10:4,1Co14:22,Mk16:17).AspecialendowmentofthispowergiventosomeintheChurchseemstobeintendedbythe
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(Ac2:44,Ro10:4,1Co14:22,Mk16:17).AspecialendowmentofthispowergiventosomeintheChurchseemstobeintendedbythe
faithof1Co12:9(cf.Mt17:19f.,Lk17:5f.).FaithwasourLordschiefandincessantdemandfrommenHepreaches,Heworkspowers,
toelicitanddirectitthemiraclefaithattractedbysignsandwondersbeingasteppingstonetofaithinthePersonanddoctrineofGods
Messenger.ThebodilycuresandspiritualblessingsJesusdistributesareconditioneduponthisonethingOnlybelievelAllthingsare
possibletohimthatbelieveth.TherewasafaithinJesus,realsofarasitwentbutnotsufficientfortruediscipleship,sinceitattacheditselfto
HispowerandfailedtorecognizeHischaracterandspiritualaims(seeJn2:23ff.,4:48,6:14ff.,7:31,8:30ff.,11:45,12:11ff.,14:11),which
Jesusrejectedandaffrontedakintothis,inamoreactivesense,isthefaiththatcallsHimLordandremovesmountainsinHisname,but
doesnotinlovedotheFatherswill,whichHemustdisown(Mt7:21ff.,1Co13:2).FollowingtheBaptist,Jesussetsoutwiththesummons,
Repent,andbelievethegoodnewsthatthekingdomofGodisathand(Mk1:15)likeMoses,HeexpectsIsraeltorecognizeHismission
asfromGod,showingsignstoprovethis(seeJn2:11,23,3:2etc.cf.Ac
2:22,He4:2).AsHisteachingadvanced,itappearedthatHerequiredanunparalleledfaithinHimselfalongwithHismessage,thatthe
KingdomofGodHespeaksofcentresinHisPerson,thatinfactHeisthewordofGodHebrings,HeisthelightandlifewhosecomingHe
announces,thebreadfromheaventhatHehastogivetoafamishedworld(Jn6:33ff.,8:12,11:25,14:6etc.).Forthosewhoreceivedhim,
whobelievedonhisnameinthiscompletesense,faithacquiredascopeundreamedofbeforeitsignifiedtheuniqueattachmentwhich
gatheredroundthePersonofJesusahumantrust,initspurityandintensitysuchasnoothermanhadeverelicited,whichgrewupintoand
identifieditselfwithitspossessorsbeliefinGod,transformingthelatterindoingso,andwhichdrewthewholebeingofthebelieverintothe
willandlifeofhisMaster.WhenThomashailsJesusasMyLordandmyGod!hehasbelievedthisprocessiscompleteinthemindofthe
slowestdisciplethetwofaithsarenowweldedinseparablytheSonisknownthroughtheFather,andtheFatherthroughtheSon,andThomas
givesfullaffiancetobothinone.AsJesuswasexalted,Godinthesamedegreebecamenearertothesemen,andtheirfaithinGodbecame
richerincontentsandfirmeringrasp.SosureanddirectwasthecommunionwiththeFatheropenedbyJesustoHisbrethren,thattheword
faith,ascommonlyused,failedtoexpressit:
Henceforthyeknow(theFather),andhaveseenhim,saidJesus(Jn14:7)andSt.John,usingthevb.believemorethananyone,employs
thenounfaithbutonceinGospelandEpp.(1Jn5:4)knowingGod,theFather,etc.,is,forhim,theChristiandistinction.TheirLords
departure,andtheshockandtrialofHisdeath,wereneedfultoperfectHisdisciplesfaith(Jn16:7),removingitsearthlysupportsand
breakingitslinkswithallmaterialisticMessianism.AsJesusgoestotheFather,theyrealizethatHeandtheFatherareonetheirfaithrests
nolonger,inanydegree,onaChristafterthefleshtheyarereadytoreceive,andtoworkin,thepoweroftheSpiritwhomHesendstothem
fromtheFather.JesusishenceforthidentifiedwiththespiritualandeternalordertothefaithwhichthusacknowledgesHimHegivesthe
benediction,Blessedaretheythathavenotseen,andyethavebelieved(Jn20:29cf.1P1:8).Todefinethisspecificfaithanew
grammaticalconstructionappearsinNTGreek:onedoesnotsimplybelieveJesus,orbelieveonHim,onebelievesintooruntoHim,orHis
name(whichcontainstheimportofHispersonandoffices)soinMt18:6,andcontinuallyinJn.(2:11,23,3:18,36,4:39,6:29,35,7:38f.,
9:35,11:25f.,12:36f.,14:1,12,17:20etc.alsoinPaul)whichsignifiessobelievinginHimastocometoHimrealizingwhatHeis.Bya
varietyofprepositionalconstructions,theGreektongue,imperfectlyfollowedinsuchrefinementsbyourown,strivestorepresentthevariety
ofattitudeandbearinginwhichfaithstandstowardsitsObject.ThatthemissionofJesusChristwasanappealforfaith,withHisownPerson
asitschiefgroundandmatter,isstrikinglystatedinJn20:31:ThesethingsarewrittenthatyemightbelievethatJesusistheChrist,theSon
ofGodandthatbelievingyemighthavelifeinhisname.Christianfaithisthedecisiveactionofthewholeinnermanunderstanding,
feeling,willitisthetrustfulandselfsurrenderingacknowledgmentofGodinChrist.
(3)Further,JesuscalledontheworldtobelievethegoodnewsofHiscomingforredemption.Thistask,markedoutbyOTprophecy,and
laidonHimatHisbirth(Lk1:6879,2:38)andbaptism(Jn1:29),fromanearlyperiodofHisministryJesusconnectedwithHisdeath(seeJn
2:1922,3:14f.:andlater,Mt16:1628,20:28,Lk9:31,12:50,Jn12:2325).ThewordsofMt26:28,whichmustbevindicatedasoriginal,
makeitclearthatJesusregardedHisdeathastheculminationofHismissionattheLastSupperHeisreadytoofferHisbloodtosealthe
newcovenantunderwhichforgivenessofsinswillbeuniversallyguaranteed(cf.Jer31:33f.).HavingconcentratedonHimselfthefaithof
men,givingtofaiththerebyanewheartandenergy,HefinallyfastensthatfaithuponHisdeathHemarksthiseventforthefutureasthe
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objectofthespecificallysavingfaith.Bythispath,therisenLordexplained,HehadenteredintohisgloryandreceivedfromtheFatherthe
promiseoftheSpirit,inthestrengthofwhichHisservantsarecommissionedtopreachtoallthenationsrepentanceandremissionofsins
(Lk24:4648cf.Ac2:2238).TaughtbyHim,theApostlesunderstoodandproclaimedtheirMastersdeathasthehingeoftherelations
betweenGodandmanthatcentreinChristbelievinginHimmeant,aboveall,believinginthat,andfindinginthecrossthemeansof
deliverancefromsinandtherevelationofGodssavingpurposetowardtherace(Ac3:18f.,20:28,1Co1:1825,2Co5:1421,1P3:18,Rev
1:46,etc.).FaithintheresurrectionofJesuswaslogicallyantecedenttofaithinHissacrificialdeathforHisrisingfromthedeadsetHis
dyinginitstruelight(Ac4:1012),revealingtheshamefulcrucifixionofIsraelsMessiahasagloriousexpiationfortheguiltofmankind(He
2:9,Ro4:25,1P1:21).ToconfesswithonesmouthJesusasLord,andbelieveinonesheartthatGodraisedhimfromthedead,was
thereforetofulfiltheessentialconditionsoftheChristiansalvation(Ro10:9),sincetheLordsresurrection,includingHisascensionwhich
completesit,givesassuranceofthepeacewithGodwonbyHisacceptedsacrifice(He7:25,9:1114,10:19,22)itvindicatesHisDivine
SonshipandverifiesHisclaimsonhumanhomage(Ro1:4,Ac2:36,1P1:21)itguaranteestheredemptionofthebody,andtheattainment,
bothfortheindividualandfortheChurch,ofthegloryoftheMessianicKingdom,theconsummatedsalvationthatisinChristJesus(1Co
15:1228,Ro8:1723,Eph1:1723,Ac17:31,Rev1:5,17f.,etc.).Intwowords,theChristianfaithistobelievethatJesusdiedandrose
again(1Th4:14)thatindyingHeatonedforhumansin,andinrisingHeabolisheddeath.St.Paulwasthechiefexponentanddefenderof
thiswordofthecross,whichisatthesametimethewordoffaith(Ro10:8)itsvariousaspectsandissuesappearundertheterms
JUSTIFICATION,ATONEMENT,
PROPITIATION,GRACE,LAW(inNT),etc.ButSt.Peterinhis1stEp.,St.Johninhis1stEp.andRev.,andthewriterofHebrews,eachin
hisownfashion,combinewithSt.PaultofocustheredeemingworkofJesusinthecross.AccordingtothewholetenoroftheNT,the
forgivinggraceofGodtheremeetsmankindinitssinandfaithisthehandreachedouttoacceptGodsgiftsofmercyprofferedfromthecross
ofChrist.Thefacultyoffaith,whichweunderstoodinitsfundamentalmeaningasthespiritualsense,theconsciousnessofGod,isinnowise
narrowedordivertedwhenitfixesitselfonJesusChrist,andhimcrucifiedfor,asSt.Paulinsists,Godcommendethhisownlovetousin
thatChristdiedforus,GodwasinChrist,reconcilingtheworlduntohimself.ThegloryofGodshinesintomenshearts,Histrue
characterbecomesforthefirsttimeapparent,andcallsforthafullandsatisfiedfaith,whenbeheldinthefaceofChrist(Ro5:8,2Co4:6,
5:1821).
G.G.FINDLAY.
FAITHLESS.WhereverthiswordoccursinAV,itmeans,notuntrustworthy,butunbelieving,justasintheMerchantofVeniceShylock
iscalledafaithlessJew,simplybecausehewasanunbelieverinChrist.
FALCON.RVtr.ofayyh,Lv11:14,Dt14:13(AVkite),Job28:7(AVvulture).SeeKITE,VULTURE.
FALL.ThestoryoftheFallinGn3istheimmediatesequeltotheaccountofmanscreationwithwhichtheJahwisticdocumentopens
(seeCREATION).Ittellshowthefirstmanandwoman,livinginchildlikeinnocenceandhappinessintheGardenofEden,weretemptedby
thesubtleserpenttodoubtthegoodnessoftheirCreator,andaimatthepossessionofforbiddenknowledgebytastingthefruitoftheonetree
ofwhichtheyhadbeenexpresslychargednottoeat.Theirtransgressionwasspeedilyfollowedbydetectionandpunishmentontheserpent
waslaidthecurseofperpetualenmitybetweenitandmankindthewomanwasdoomedtothepainsofchildbearing:andthemanto
unremittingtoilinthecultivationoftheground,whichwascursedonaccountofhissin.Finally,lestthemanshouldusehisnewlyacquired
insighttosecuretheboonofimmortalitybypartakingofthetreeoflife,hewasexpelledfromthegarden,whichappearstobeconceivedas
stillexisting,thoughbarredtohumanapproachbythecherubimandtheflamingsword.
Itisrighttopointoutthatcertainincongruitiesofrepresentationsuggestthattwoslightlyvaryingnarrativeshavebeencombinedinthe
sourcefromwhichthepassageistaken(J).Thechiefdifficultyarisesinconnexionwiththetwotreesonwhichthedestinyofmankindis
madetoturn.In2:9thetreeoflifeandthetreeoftheknowledgeofgoodandevilgrowtogetherinthemidstofthegardenin2:17thesecond
aloneismadethetestofmansobedience.Butch.3(downtov.22)knowsofonlyonecentraltree,andthatobviously(thoughitisneverso
named)thetreeofknowledge.Thetreeoflifeplaysnorealpartinthestoryexceptin3:22,24anditsintroductiontherecreates
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named)thetreeofknowledge.Thetreeoflifeplaysnorealpartinthestoryexceptin3:22,24anditsintroductiontherecreates
embarrassmentforifthistreealsowasforbidden,thewriterssilenceregardingtheprohibitionisinexplicable,andifitwasnotforbidden,can
wesupposethattheDivineprerogativeofimmortalitywasplacedwithinmansreachduringtheperiodofhisprobation?Thehypothesisofa
twofoldrecensionoftheParadisestory,whilerelievingthisdifficulty,wouldbeofinterestasshowingthatthenarrativehadundergonea
developmentinHebrewliteraturebutitdoesnotmateriallyaidtheexegesisofthepassage.Themainnarrative,whichiscomplete,isthat
whichspeaksofthetreeofknowledgetheother,ifitbepresentatall,istoofragmentarytothrowlightonthefundamentalideasembodiedin
thestory.
Thatthisprofoundlysuggestivenarrativeisaliteralrecordofahistoricoccurrenceisanopinionnowgenerallyabandonedevenby
conservativetheologiansandtheviewwhichtendstoprevailamongstmodernexpositorsisthattheimageryisderivedfromthestoreof
mythologicaltraditionscommontotheSemiticpeoples.ItistruethatnocompleteBabylonianparallelhasyetbeendiscoveredtheutmost
thatcanbeclaimedisthatparticularelementsormotivesoftheBiblicalstoryseemtobereflectedinsomeoftheBabylonianlegends,andstill
moreinthereligioussymbolismdisplayedonthemonuments(treeoflife,serpent,cherubim,etc.).Thesecoincidencesaresufficientlystriking
tosuggesttheinferencethatamythicalaccountofmansoriginalconditionandhisfallexistedinBabylonia,andhadobtainedwidecurrency
intheEast.Itisareasonableconjecturethatsuchalegend,strippedofitsprimitivepolytheism,andretainingonlyfainttracesofwhatwas
probablyitsoriginalmythologicalcharacter,formedthematerialsettingwhichwasadaptedbythe[Biblical]narratorforthepurposeof
exhibiting,underastrikingandvividimaginativeform,thedeepspiritualtruthswhichhewasinspiredtodiscern(Driver).Thesespiritual
truths,inwhichtherealsignificanceofthenarrativelies,wemustendeavourverybrieflytoindicate.
(1)Thestoryoffers,onthefaceofit,anexplanationoftheoutstandingillsthatfleshisheirto:thehard,toilsomelotofthehusbandman,
thetravailofthewomanandhersubjectiontoman,theuniversalfateofdeath.Theseevils,itistaught,areinconsistentwiththeidealof
humanlife,andcontrarytotheintentionofagoodGod.Man,asoriginallycreated,wasexemptfromthemandtothequestion,Whencecame
they?theansweristhattheyaretheeffectofaDivinecursetowhichtheraceissubjectthoughitistobenotedthatnocurseispronounced
onthefirstpair,butonlyontheserpentastheorganoftemptation,andthegroundwhichiscursedformanssake.
(2)Theconsequencesofthecursearethepenaltyofasinglesin,bywhichmanincurredthejustangerofGod.Theauthorsconceptionof
sinmaybeconsideredfromtwopointsofview.Formally,itisthetransgressionofaDivinecommandment,involvingdistrustofthewisdom
andgoodnessoftheAlmighty,andbreakingtheharmonywhichhadsubsistedbetweenmanandhisMaker.Theprocessbywhichtheseevil
thoughtsareinsinuatedintothemindofthewomanisdescribedwithamasterlyinsightintothepsychologyoftemptationwhichis
unsurpassedinliterature.Butitisamistaketosupposethattheessenceofthesinconsistsinthemerelyformaldisobediencetoacommand
arbitrarilyimposedasatestoffidelity.TherewasareasonfortheDivineinjunction,andareasonformanstransgressionofitandthe
reasonsareunambiguouslyindicated.ToeatofthetreewouldmakemanlikeGod,knowinggoodandevilandGoddoesnotwishmantobe
likeHimself.Theessenceofthesinisthereforepresumption,anoversteppingofthelimitsofcreaturehood,andanencroachmentonthe
prerogativesofDeity.
(3)What,then,ismeantbytheknowledgeofgoodandevil,whichwasacquiredbyeatingofthetree?Doesitmeansimplyan
enlargementofexperiencesuchasthetransitionfromchildhoodtomaturitynaturallybringswithit,andofwhichthefeelingofshame(3:7)is
thesignificantindex?Orisit,ashasgenerallybeenheld,theexperimentalknowledgeofmoraldistinctions,theawakingoftheconscience,
thefacultyofdiscerningbetweenrightandwrong?Itisverydifficulttosaywhichoftheseinterpretationsexpressesthethoughtinthemindof
thewriter.ItisinaccordancewithHebrewidiomtoholdthatknowledgeofgoodandevilisequivalenttoknowledgeingeneralthoughitis
ofcoursenotcertainthatthatisthesenseinwhichthephraseishereused.Ontheotherhand,thereisnothingtoshowthatitreferstothe
moralsenseandthefactthatneitherofthewaysinwhichthenewlyacquiredfacultymanifestsitself(theperceptionofsex,andinsightinto
themysticvirtueofthetreeoflife,v.22)isadistinctivelyethicalcognition,ratherfavourstheopinionthattheknowledgereferredtoisthe
powertodiscernthesecretmeaningsofthingsandutilizethemforhumanends,regardlessofthewillandpurposeofGodtheknowledge,in
short,whichistheprincipleofagodlesscivilization.TheideamaybethatsuccinctlyexpressedbythewriterofEcclesiastes:Godmademan
uprightbuttheyhavesoughtoutmanyinventions(Ec7:29).
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(4)Onespecificfeatureofthestoryremainstobeconsidered,namely,therleassignedtotheserpent,andhischaracter.Theidentification
oftheserpentwiththedevilappearsfirstintheApocryphalliterature(Wis2:24)inthenarrativeitselfheissimplythemostsubtleofthe
creaturesthatGodhasmade(3:1),andthereisnottheslightestreasontosupposethatheisthereregardedasthemouthpieceoftheevilspirit.
Atthesametimeitisimpossibletoescapetheimpressionthattheserpentisconceivedasamalevolentbeing,designedlyinsinuating
suspicionofGodintothemindsofourfirstparents,andincitingthemtoanactwhichwillfrustratetheDivinepurposeregardingmankind.
Thereisthusacertainambiguityintherepresentationoftheserpent,whichmayhaveitssourceinsomemoreprimitivephaseofthelegend
butwhichalsopointstheway,undertheinfluenceofadeeperapprehensionofthenatureofmoralevilthanhadbeenattainedinthetimeof
thewriter,tothatidentificationoftheserpentwiththeEvilOnewhichwefindintheNT(Ro16:20,Rev12:9,20:2).Inthesameway,and
withthesamejustification,thereflexionoflateragesreadintothecurseontheserpent(v.15)thepromiseofultimateredemptionfromthe
powerofevilthroughthecomingofChrist.Strictlyinterpreted,thewordsimplynothingmorethanaperpetualantagonismbetweenthe
humanraceandtherepulsivereptileswhichexciteitsinstinctiveantipathy.Itisonlythegeneralscopeofthepassagethatcanbethoughtto
warranttheinferencethatthevictoryistobeonthesideofhumanityanditisastillhigherflightofreligiousinspirationtoconceiveofthat
victoryasculminatinginthetriumphofHimwhosemissionitwastodestroytheworksofthedevil.
J.SKINNER.
FALLOWDEER.ThiswordoccursintheAVamongthecleananimals(Dt14:5),andinthelistofgamefurnishedforSolomonsdaily
table(1K4:23).Ineachlistayyl,zb,andyachmroccurinthesameorder.Thefirstiscorrectlytranslated,inbothAVandRV,hart(see
HART).Thesecondisincorrectlytr.inAVroebuck,andcorrectlyinRVgazelle(seeGAZELLE).Thethirdisincorrectlytr.inAVfallow
deer,andcorrectlyinRVroebuck(seeROE,ROEBUCK).
FAMILIAR.TheexpressionfamiliarspiritwastakenintotheAVfromtheGenevaVersion,asthetrans.ofHeb.obh.SeeMAGIC,
etc.Thewordisalsousedasasubst.inJer20:10Allmyfamiliarswatchedformyhalting(RVfamiliarfriends,Heb.menofmyplace).
FAMILY
1.CharacterofthefamilyinOT.FamilyintheOThasawidersignificancethanthatwhichweusuallyassociatewiththeterm.The
wordtr.house(Gn7:1)approachesmostnearlytoourwordfamily:butamanshousemightconsistofhismotherhiswivesandthe
wiveschildrenhisconcubinesandtheirchildrensonsinlawanddaughtersinlaw,withtheiroffspringillegitimatesons(Jg11:1)
dependentsandallensandslavesofbothsexes.PolygamywasinpartthecauseofthelargesizeoftheHebrewhouseholdinpartthecauseof
itmaybefoundintheinsecurityofearlytimes,whensafetylayinnumbers,andconsequentlynotonlythemarriedsonsanddaughtersdwelt,
forthesakeofprotection,withtheirfather,butremoterelativesandevenforeigners(thestrangerwithinthygates)wouldattachthemselves,
withasimilarobject,toagreathousehold.Theideaofthefamilysometimeshadanevenwidersignificance,extendingtoandincludingthe
nation,oreventhewholeraceofmankind.OfthisafamiliarillustrationisthefigureofAbraham,whowasregardedasbeinginaveryreal
sensethefatherofthenation.Soalsothesamefeelingfortheideaofthefamilyistobefoundinthecarefulassigningofafathertoevery
knownnationandtribe(Gn10).FromthisitiseasilyperceivedthatthefamilyplayedanimportantpartinHebrewthoughtandaffairs.It
formedthebaseuponwhichthesocialstructurewasbuiltupitsindistinguishablemergingintothewidersenseofclanortribeindicateshow
itaffectedthepoliticallifeofthewholenation.
Polygynyandbigamywererecognizedfeaturesofthefamilylife.Fromthe
Orientalpointofviewtherewasnothingimmoralinthepracticeofpolygamy.Thefemaleslaveswereineveryrespectthepropertyoftheir
master,andbecamehisconcubinesexceptincertaincases,whentheyseemtohavebelongedexclusivelytotheirmistress,andcouldnotbe
appropriatedbythemanexceptbyhersuggestionorconsent(Gn16:23).Theslaveconcubineswereobtainedasbootyintimeofwar(Jg
5:30), or bought from povertystricken parents (Ex 21:7) or, possibly, in the ordinary slave traffic with foreign nations. In addition to his

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concubines a man might take several wives, and from familiar examples in the OT it seems that it was usual for wealthy and important
personagestodosoAbraham,
Jacob,David,Solomon,occurasinstances.Elkanah,thehusbandofHannahandPeninnah,isaninterestingexampleofamanofnoparticular
positionwhoneverthelesshadmorethanonewifethismaybeanindicationthatbigamy,atleast,ifnotpolygamy,wasnotconfinedtothe
verywealthyandexalted.Atallevents,polygynywasanestablishedandrecognizedinstitutionfromtheearliesttimes.Thegradualevolution
intheOTofmonogamyastheidealisthereforeofthehighestinterest.Theearliestcodesattemptinvariouswaystoregulatethecustomof
polygyny.TheDeut.codeinparticularactuallyforbidskingstomultiplywives(Dt17:17)thisisthefruit,apparently,oftheexperienceof
Solomonsreign.Inthepropheticwritingsthenoteofprotestismoreclearlysounded.NotonlyAdambutalsoNoah,thesecondfounderof
thehumanrace,representsmonogamy,andonthataccountrecommendsitasGodsordinance.ItisinthelineofCainthatbigamyisfirst
represented,asthoughtoemphasizetheconsequencesoftheFall.ReasonsaregiveninexplanationofthebigamyofAbraham(Gn16)andof
Jacob(29:23).Hoseaandotherprophetsconstantlydwelluponthethoughtofamonogamousmarriageasbeingasymboloftheunion
betweenGodandHispeopleanddenounceidolatryasunfaithfulnesstothisspiritualmarriagetie.
2.Positionofthewife.Sidebysidewiththegrowthoftherecognitionofmonogamyastheidealformofmarriage,polygamywas
practisedevenaslateasNTtimes.Thenaturalaccompanimentofsuchapracticewastheinsignificanceofthewifesposition:shewas
ordinarilyregardedasapieceofproperty,asthewordingoftheTenthCommandmenttestifies.Alsoherrightsandprivilegeswerenecessarily
sharedbyothers.Therelativepositionsofwivesandconcubinesweredeterminedmainlybythehusbandsfavour.Thechildrenofthewife
claimedthegreaterpart,orthewhole,oftheinheritanceotherwisetheredoesnotseemtohavebeenanyinferiorityinthepositionofthe
concubineascomparedwiththatofthewife,norwasanyideaofillegitimacy,inoursenseoftheword,connectedwithherchildren.
Thehusbandhadsupremeauthorityoverthewife.Hewaspermittedbythe
Deut.codetodivorceherwithapparentlylittlereason.Thevariouspassages(Dt22:13,19,28,29,Is50:1,Jer3:8,Mal2:16)referringtoand
regulatingdivorce,indicatethatitwasoffrequentoccurrence.Yetwives,andevenconcubineswhohadbeenboughtinthefirstplaceas
slaves,mightnotbesold(Ex21:711,Dt21:14).Indeed,theLawthroughoutprovesitselfsympathetictowardsthepositionofthewifeand
desirousofimprovinghercondition(Ex21:2,12,Dt21:1017).ThisveryattitudeoftheLaw,however,indicatesthattherewasneedof
improvement.Thewifeseemstohavehadnoredressifwrongedbythehusbandshecouldnotdivorcehimandabsolutefaithfulness,though
requiredofthewife,wasnotexpectedofthehusband,solongashedidnotinjuretherightsofanyotherman.
Thewife,then,wasintheorythemerechattelofherhusband.Awomanofcharacter,however,couldimprovehersituationandattaintoa
considerabledegreeofimportanceandinfluenceaswellasofpersonalfreedom.ThuswereadnotonlyofHagars,whoweredealthardlywith
andwereobligedtosubmitthemselvesunderthehandsoftheirmastersandrivals,butalsoofSarahsandRebekahsandAbigails,whocould
actindependentlyandevenagainstthewishesoftheirhusbandsinordertogaintheirownends.AndtheBookofProverbstestifiestothe
advantageaccruingtoamaninthepossessionofagoodwife(19:14,31:10ff.),andtothemiserywhichitisinthepowerofaselfishwoman
toinflict(19:13etc.).
3.Children.Inahouseholdconsistingofseveralfamilies,themotherofeachsetofchildrenwouldnaturallyhavemoretodowith
themthanthefather,andthematernalrelationshipwouldusuallybemorecloseandaffectionatethanthebondbetweenthefatherandhis
children.Althoughitwasrecognizedtobedisastrousforahouseholdtobedividedagainstitself,yetfrictionbetweenthevariousfamilies
couldhardlyhavebeenavoided.Onewhomhismothercomforteth(Is66:13)musthavebeenasightcommonenoughamotherconsoling
herinjuredsonforthetauntsandblowsofherrivalschildren.Thusthemotherwouldhavetheearlycareandeducationofherchildrenunder
herowncontrol.Thefather,ontheotherhand,hadcompletepoweroverthelivesandfortunesofhischildren,andwouldrepresenttothem
theideaofauthorityratherthanoftenderness.Heitwaswhoarrangedthemarriageofhissons(Gn24:4,28:2,Jg14:2),andhadtherightto
sellhisdaughters(Ex21:7).Thefatherseemseventohavehadpowersoflifeanddeathoverhischildren(Jg11:39):andtheLawprovided
thatanunworthysonmightbestonedtodeathupontheaccusationofhisparents(Dt21:1821).Seealsoart.CHILD.

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4.Familyduties.Theclaimsofthefamilyuponthevariousmembersofitwerestronglyfelt.Manylawsprovideforthevengeanceand
protectionoftheinjuredanddefencelessbytheirnextofkin.Brothersweretheguardiansoftheirsisters(Gn34).Achildlesswidowcould
demand,thoughnotenforce,remarriagewithherbrotherinlaw(Dt25:510).Boaz,asthenearestrelation,performedthisdutytowards
Ruth.Inspiteoftheprohibitionofthelatercode(Lv20:21),leviratemarriageseemstohavebeenpractisedatthetimeofChrist(Mt22:25ff.).
Itspurposewasperhapsratherforthepreservationoftheparticularbranchofthefamilythanfortheadvantageofthewidowherself:inany
caseitillustratesthestrongsenseofdutytowardsthefamilyasawhole.
Childrenowedobedienceandrespecttotheirparents.Evenamarriedmanwouldconsiderhimselfstillundertheauthorityofhisfather,
whetherlivingwithhimornotandhiswifewouldbesubjecttoherfatherinlawevenafterherhusbandsdeath.
ToanIsraelite,familyconveyedthenotionsofunity,security,order,anddiscipline.Theseconceptionswerenourishedbythereligious
customsandobservancesinthehome,themostconspicuousinstanceofwhichwasthekeepingofthePassover.Suchobservancesnodoubt
helpedtobindthemembersofthefamilyinclosereligiousandspiritualsympathies.ThecommonlongingtoloveandtoserveGodwasthe
baseofthefamilyaffectionandunityfrompatriarchaltimeswhentheheadofeachfamilywouldoffersacrificeuponhisownaltar,untilthe
hourinwhichMarysSonaskedintendersurpriseofherandJoseph:WistyenotthatImustheinmyFathershouse?(Lk2:49).
E.G.ROMANES.
FAMINE.InPalestine,famineisusuallyduetofailureoftherainfall(Lv26:19,Am4:6,7).Bothcropsandpasturagedependonthe
properamountfallingattherighttime,theearlyraininOct.Nov.,thelatterinMarchApril.Itsimportanceanduncertaintycausedittobe
regardedasthespecialgiftofGod(Dt11:11,14).AccordinglyfamineisalmostalwaysadirectjudgmentfromHim(1K17:1,Ezk5,and
continuallyintheProphetsJa5:17).HencewefinditamongsttheterrorsoftheeschatologicalpassagesofNT(Mk13:8,Rev18:8).Theidea
isspiritualizedinAm8:11afamineofhearingthewordsoftheLord.InEgypt,famineisduetothefailureoftheannualinundationofthe
Nile,whichisultimatelytraceabletolackofrainintheAbyssinianhighlandsoftheinterior.
Cropsmaybedestroyedbyothercauseshailandthunderstorms.(Ex9:31,1S12:17)locustsandsimilarpests(Ex10:15,Jl1:4,Am
4:9).Further,famineistheusualaccompanimentofwar,themosthorribleaccountsoffaminesbeingconnectedwithsieges(2K6:25,25:3,
Jer21:9,La4:10).
ThesepassagesshouldbecomparedwiththeterribledescriptionofDt28:49
57,andwithJosephusaccountofthelastsiegeofJerusalem(BJV.x.3).SoinRev6:5scarcity,connectedwiththeblackhorse,followson
bloodshedandconquestbutamaximumpriceisfixedforwheatandbarley,andoilandwineareuntouched,sothatthefullhorrorsoffamine
aredelayed.Anaturalresultoffamineispestilence,duetoimproperandinsufficientfood,lackofwater,andinsanitaryconditions.Thetwo
arefrequentlyconnected,especiallyinEzk.andJer.(1K8:37,Jer21:9,Lk21:11[notMt24:7]).
FaminesarerecordedinconnexionwithAbraham(Gn12:10)andIsaac(26:1).ThereisthefamoussevenyearsfamineofGn41ff.,which
includedSyriaaswellasEgypt.Itapparentlyaffectedcerealsratherthanpasturage,beastsoftransportbeingunharmed(cf.percontra1K
18:5).ThedevicebywhichJosephwardedoffitsworsteffectsisillustratedbyEgyptianinscriptions.Inone,Baba,wholivedaboutthetime
ofJoseph,says:Icollectedcorn,asafriendoftheharvestgod,andwaswatchfulatthetimeofsowing.Andwhenafaminearose,lasting
manyyears,Idistributedcorntothecityeachyearoffamine(seeDriver,Genesis,p.346).
Otherfamines,besidesthosealreadyreferredto,arementionedinRu1:1,2S21:1.
ThefamineofAc11:28isusuallyidentifiedwithonementionedbyJosephus(Ant.XX.ii.5,v.2),whichisdatedA.D.45.Butfamineswere
characteristicofthereignofClaudius(Suetoniusmentionsassiduaesterilitates),sothattheexactreferenceremainsuncertain.
C.W.EMMET.
FAN.ThefanofScripture(Is30:24,Mt3:12,Lk3:17)isthefiveorsixprongedwoodenwinnowingfork,forwhichsee
AGRICULTURE,3.Thecorrespondingverbisrenderedwinnow,Is30:24,Ru3:2,butfanelsewhere(Amer.RVhaswinnow

throughout)thefannersofJer51:2(AV,RVmandVersions)arethewinnowers,asAmer.RVm.Fanningorwinnowingisafrequentfigure 9/34
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throughout)thefannersofJer51:2(AV,RVmandVersions)arethewinnowers,asAmer.RVm.Fanningorwinnowingisafrequentfigure
fortheDivinesiftingandchastisement,Jer4:11,15:7etc.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
FARTHING.SeeMONEY,7.
FASTING
1.IntheOT.ToafflictthesoulIsthetermbywhichfastingisusuallymentioned(cf.Lv16:2931,23:27,32,Nu29:7,30:13thetwo
termsarecombinedinPs35:13,Is58:3,5).IntheperiodprecedingtheCaptivitywefindnouniversalfastprescribed.Theinstitutionofthe
DayofAtonementtheonlyfastordainedintheLawwastraditionallyascribedtothisperiodbutthereisnocertainreferencetoitbefore
Sir50:5ff.Zechariahdoesnotalludetoit,andEzk4048prescribesamoresimpleceremonialforsuchanoccasion,whenceitmaybe
inferredthattheelaborateritualofLv16wasnotyetcustomary.Neh7:739:38recordsageneralfastonthe24thdayofthe7thmonth,and
thereforethe10thdayofthatmonththeproperdatefortheDayofAtonementwasprobablynotyetsetapartforthispurpose.Moreover,
thecharacteristicideasofthefastitspublicconfession,itsemphasisonsinandatonementarelate,andcanbecomparedwithpostexilic
analogies(Ezr9,Neh1:411,9:3).SeeATONEMENT[DAYOF].PreviouslytotheCaptivityfastingwasobservedbyindividualsorthe
whole
peopleonspecialoccasions(cf.2S12:16,1K21:27,Jg20:26,1S7:6,2Ch
20:3).
AftertheCaptivitythistypeoffastsofcoursecontinued(cf.Ezr8:2123,Neh1:4,9:1).ButinZec7:35,8:19wehearoffourgeneral
fastswhichwereobservedwithcomparativeregularity.On17thTammuz(July)afastwasordainedtocommemoratethecaptureofJerusalem
byNebuchadnezzar(Jer39:2,52:6).Thiswascelebratedonthe17thdayofthe4thmonth,andnotonthe9th,because,accordingtothe
Talmudictradition,the17thwasthedayonwhichMosesbrokethetablesoftheLaw,onwhichthedailyofferingceasedowingtothefamine
causedbytheChaldansiege,andonwhichAntiochusEpiphanesburnttheLawandintroduced,anidolintotheHolyPlace.Onthe9thday
ofthe5thmonth(Ab)wascelebratedafastinmemoryoftheburningoftheTempleandcity(2K25:8,Jer52:12).The9th,andnotthe7th
or10th,wastheprescribedday,becausetraditionplacedonthe9ththeannouncementthattheIsraeliteswerenottoenterCanaan,andthe
destructionoftheSecondTemple.Onthe3rdofTishri(October)themurderofGedaliahwascommemoratedbyafast(Jer41:1),andonthe
10thofTebeth(January)anotherfastrecalledthesiegeofJerusalembytheChaldans(2K25:1,Jer52:4).Besidesthese,wehearofaFastof
EstherbeingobservedonthisseePURIM.
Fastingprobablymeantcompleteabstinence,thoughtheTalmudallowedlentilstobeeatenduringtheperiodofmourning.Noworkwas
doneduringafast(Lv16:29,31,23:32,Nu29:7),andsackclothandashesweresometimesused(Dn9:3,Jon3:6,7).Theusualreasonsfora
fastwereeithermourning(1S31:13)orawishtodeprecatetheDivinewrath(2S12:16,17).
2.IntheNT.Wehearthatfrequentadditionalfastswereimposedbytradition,andthatstrictobserverskepttwoweeklyfasts(Lk18:12)
onThursdayandMondaycommemorating,asitseems,thedaysonwhichMosesascendedandcamedownfromtheMount.Afterthe
destructionofJerusalembyTitus,ahugesystemoffastswasinstituted,andthepresentJewishcalendarprescribes22,besidestheDayof
Atonement,theFastofEsther,andthefourfastsofZec8:19.
3.Christianityandfasting.Jesusrefusedtolaydownanyspecificinjunctionstofast.ToprescribeformswasnotHispurposeall
outwardobservancewastobedictatedbyaninwardprinciple.HeHimselfprobablykepttheusualfasts,andindividualones,asduringthe
Temptation.ButHelaidemphasisinHisteachingontheinutilityoffastingexceptasapartofpersonalgodliness,andgaveplainwarningsof
itspossibleabusebyhypocrisy(Mt6:1618,9:1417,Mk2:1822,Lk5:3339).TheearlyChurchusedtofastbeforesolemnappointments
(Ac13:2,14:23)andSt.Paulalludestohisfastings,whethervoluntaryorcompulsory,in2Co6:5,11:27.Intimeagreaterstresswasputon
thevalueoffasting,asisshownbytheprobableinsertionofanallusiontoitinMt17:21,Mk9:29,Ac10:30,1Co7:5.
A.W.F.BLUNT.
FAT.SeeFOOD,10,SACRIFICEANDOFFERING.
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FAT.SeeFOOD,10,SACRIFICEANDOFFERING.
FAT.Thesamewordasvat,alargevesselforholdingliquids,butinOTandNTonlyinconnexionwiththemakingofwine.SeeWINE
ANDSTRONGDRINK,2.
FATHER.SeeFAMILY,GENEALOGY,1.
FATHERHOODOFGOD.SeeGOD,7.
FATHOM.SeeWEIGHTSANDMEASURES.
FAUCHION(Jth13:6AVRVscimitar).TheEng.worddenotedoriginallyabroadswordmoreorlesscurvedontheconvexside
butinlateruseandinpoetryitsignifiedaswordofanykind.
FAVOUR.TheEng.wordfavourisusedinAVinthemodsenseofgoodwillbutinwellfavouredandillfavouredweseethe
oldermeaningofpersonalappearance.InJos11:20thewordseemstobeusedintheoldsenseofmercythathemightdestroythem,and
theymighthavenofavourasinElyot,TheGovernour,ii.298:Andthey,whichbythatlawewerecondemned,wereputtodethewithout
anyfavour.ForthetheologyofthewordseeGRACE.
FAWN.SeeROE.3.
FEAR.IntheOTthefearoftheLordisfrequentlyadefinitionofpiety.ThepurposeofthegivingoftheLawistheimplantingofthis
fearintheheartsofmen(Dt4:10)itisthesumofreligiousduty(6:13)andpromptstoobedientandlovingservice(10:12).Fearcannotbe
appraisedwithoutreferencetotheworthoftheobjectsfeared(Martinean,TypesofEthicalTheory,ii.184)henceitisontherevelationofthe
Divinenatureasholyandtobefeared(Ps111:9)thatthisfundamentalprincipleofreligionrests:thosewhoknowHisnamehavelearntthat
tofearHimistruewisdom(v.10)andtrueblessedness(Ps112:1).IntheNTmentionismadeofafearwhichhashighmoralqualityand
religiousvalue.ThefearoftheLordwastherulebywhichtheearlyChristianswalked(Ac9:31),andwhenanuncircumcisedforeigner
becameadevoutworshipperoftheGodofIsraelhewasknownasonethatfearethGod(10:2cf.2Co7:1,Ph2:12,1P1:17,2:17,Rev
14:7,15:4,19:5).AlthoughtheusualGr.wordforfearisnotusedinHe5:7,thereferencetothegodlyfearoftheperfectSonemphasizes
thecontrastbetweenreverentaweandslavishterror.
Thefearwhichhathpunishment(1Jn4:18)istheresultofsin(Gn3:10).Thesinner,undercondemnationoftheLaw,isinbondageunto
fear(Ro8:15),andinasmuchasthestingofdeathissin(1Co15:56),heisalsothroughfearofdeathsubjecttobondage(He2:15).
TransgressionmaysocompletelydeceivehimthathehasnoterrorofGod(Ps36:1)theclimaxofhumanwickednessisthelossofany
dreadofGodsjudgments,thoughtheGr.andEng.translationsoftheHeb.wordforterror(pachadh,cf.Is2:10,19,21RV)failtobringout
thisthoughtinSt.Paulsquotationofthisverse(Ro3:18).TorousemenfromthiscallousindifferencetoGodsthreateningsisthepurposeof
theappealtofear,whichisaprimaryandselfregardingemotionandapowerfulspringofhumanaction.Thisappealiswarrantedbyour
Lordswords(Mt10:28)aswellasbyApostolicexample(He4:1,10:31,1Ti5:20,Jude23).Thespiritinwhichthisappealshouldbemade
isthatwhichinspiredSt.Paul,whenhedeclaresthat,knowingthefearoftheLord,beforewhosejudgmentseatallmustbemademanifest,
heisconstrainedbytheloveofChristtopersuadementobereconciledtoGod(2Co5:11ff.).
J.G.TASKER.
FEARFULNESS.Theadj.fearfulisoftenusedinAVinthesense,notofcausingfear,butoffeelingit:andfearfulnessalways
denotestheemotionoffear.ThusMt8:26Whyareyefearful,Oyeoflittlefaith?Ps55:5Fearfulnessandtremblingarecomeuponme.In
theRVoftheNTtheonlymeaningoffearfulisfulloffear,theRevisers,Westcotttellsus,havingpurposelyretainedthisuseinorderthat
fear,fearful,andfearfulnessmightallagreeinmeaning.TheyhaveaccordinglychangedfearfulsightsinLk21:11intoterrors.The
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fear,fearful,andfearfulnessmightallagreeinmeaning.TheyhaveaccordinglychangedfearfulsightsinLk21:11intoterrors.The
RevisersoftheOT,however,hadnosuchthought,andtheyhaveleftthewordunchanged.
FEASTS.Introductory.ThesacredfestivalsoftheJewswereprimarilyoccasionsofrejoicing,treatedasapartofreligion.Torejoice
beforeGodwassynonymouswithtocelebrateafestival.Inprocessoftimethischaracteristicwasmodified,andaprobablylateinstitution,
liketheDayofAtonement,couldberegardedasafeast,thoughitsprevalentnotewasnotoneofjoy.Butthemostprimitivefeastswere
markedbyreligiousmerrimenttheywereaccompaniedwithdances(Jg21:21),and,asitseems,ledtoseriousexcessesinmanycases(1S
1:13,Am2:7,2K23:7,Dt23:18).Mostofthefeastswereonlylocalassembliesforactsandpurposesofsacredworshipbutthethreegreat
nationalfestivalsweretheoccasionsforgeneralassembliesofthepeople,atwhichallmalesweresupposedtoappear(Ex23:14,17,34:23,Dt
16:16).
I.FEASTSCONNECTEDWITHTHESABBATH.Thesewerecalculatedonthebasisofthesacrednumber7,whichregulatedallthe
greatdatesoftheJewishsacredyear.Thusthe7thwasthesacredmonth,thefeastsofUnleavenedBread
andTabernacleseachlastedfor7days,Pentecostwas49daysaftertheFeastofUnleavenedBread,PassoverandTabernacleseachbeganon
the14thdayoftheirrespectivemonths,andtherewere7daysofholyconvocationintheyear.
1.TheSabbathandtheobservancesakintoitwerelunarincharacter(cf.Am
8:5,Hos2:11,Is1:13,2K4:23).TheSabbathordinancesaretreatedinEx20:11,31:17asdesignedtocommemoratethecompletionof
creation,butDt5:14,15connectsthemwiththeredemptionfromEgypt,andEx23:12ascribesthemtohumanitarianmotives.Onthisday
workofallsortswasforbidden,andthedailymorningandeveningsacrificesweredoubled.Sabbathbreakingwaspunishablewithdeath(Nu
15:3236,Ex31:14,15).NoevidenceofSabbathobservanceistracedintheaccountsofthepatriarchalage,andverylittleinpreexilic
records(Is56:2,6,58:13,Jer17:2024,Ezk20:12,13,16,20).ButaftertheCaptivitytherulesweremorestrictlyenforced(Neh13:15,22),
andinlatertimestheRabbinicalprohibitionsmultipliedtoaninordinateextent.Seeart.SABBATH.
2.AttheNewMoonspecialsacrificeswereoffered(Nu28:1115),andthesilvertrumpetswereblownoverthem(Nu10:10).Alltrade
andbusinesswerediscontinued,aswellasworkinthefields(Am8:5).Itappearsalsothatthiswastheoccasionofacommonsacredmeal
andfamilysacrifices(cf.1S20:5,6,18,24),anditseemstohavebeenaregulardayonwhichtoconsultprophets(2K
4:23).
3.TheFeastofTrumpetstookplaceattheNewMoonofthe7thmonth,Tishri(October).SeeTRUMPETS.
4.TheSabbaticalyear.AnextensionoftheSabbathprincipleledtotherulethatinevery7thyearthelandwastobeallowedtolie
fallow,andfieldsweretobeneithertillednorreaped.SeeSABBATICALYEAR.
5.Byafurtherextension,every50thyearwastobetreatedasayearof
Jubilee,whenHebrewslaveswereemancipatedandmortgagedpropertyrevertedtoitsowners.SeeSABBATICALYEAR.
II.GREATNATIONALFESTIVALS.Theseweresolarfestivals,andmostlyconnectedwithdifferentstagesoftheharvesttheJewsalso
ascribedtothemacommemorativesignificance,andtraditionallyreferredtheirinaugurationtovariouseventsoftheirpasthistory.Theywere:

1.ThePassover,followedimmediatelybytheFeastofUnleavenedBread.
Thesetwofeastswereprobablydistinctinorigin(Lv23:5,6,Nu28:16,17),andJosephusdistinguishesbetweenthembutinlatertimesthey
werepopularlyregardedasone(Mk14:12,Lk22:1).ThePassoverfestivalisprobablyofgreatantiquity,buttheFeastofUnleavenedBread,
beingagriculturalincharacter,canscarcelyhaveexistedbeforetheIsraelitesenteredCanaan.Forthecharacteristicfeaturesofthetwo
festivals,seePASSOVER.
2.Pentecost,onthe50thdayafter16thNisan(April),celebratedthecompletionofthecornharvest.SeePENTECOST.
3.TheFeastofTabernacles,theJewishharvesthome,tookplaceattheperiodwhentheharvestsoffruit,oil,andwinehadbeen
gatheredin.SeeTABERNACLES.
III.MINORHISTORICALFESTIVALS
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III.MINORHISTORICALFESTIVALS
1.TheFeastofPurim,datingfromthePersianperiodofJewishhistory,commemoratedthenationsdeliverancefromtheintriguesof
Haman.SeePURIM.
2.TheFeastoftheDedicationrecalledthepurificationoftheTempleafteritsdesecrationbyAntiochusEpiphanes.SeeDEDICATION.
3.TheFeastoftheWoodofferingoroftheWoodcarriers,onthe15thdayofAbib(April),markedthelastofthenineoccasionson
whichofferingsofwoodwerebroughtfortheuseoftheTemple(Neh10:34,13:31).
Besidesthesetherewerecertainpettyfeasts,alludedtoinJosephusandtheApocrypha,buttheyseemnevertohavebeengenerally
observedortohaveattainedanyreligiousimportance.Suchare:theFeastoftheReadingoftheLaw(1Es9:50,cf.Neh8:9)theFeastof
Nicanoronthe13thdayofAdar(March)(1Mac7:49seePURIM)theFeastoftheCapturedFortress(1Mac13:5052)theFeastof
Baskets.
A.W.F.BLUNT.
FELIX,ANTONIUS.ProcuratorofJuda(Ac23:24ff.)accordingto
Josephus,hehadbeensenttosucceedCumanusinA.D.52butthiscontradictsTacitus,whomakesCumanusgovernorofGalileeandFelixof
SamariasimultaneouslyandthissuitsAc24:10(manyyears).Bothhistoriansgive52astheyearofCumanusdisgrace,sothatwemay
probablytakethatasthedateofFelixaccessiontoofficeinJuda.FelixwasbrotherofPallas,Claudiuspowerfulfreedman,whose
influencecontinuedhiminofficeunderNero,andonhisdisgrace(duetoariotatCsarea)procuredhimhislife.HeisdescribedbyTacitus
asaverybadandcruelgovernor.HewassomewhattouchedbySt.Paulspreaching(24:25f.),butkepthiminprison,firstinhopeofabribe,
oneofmanydetailsshowingthatSt.Paulwasaprisonerofsocialimportance,and,finally,topleasetheJews.Heiscalledmost
excellent(23:26,24:3cf.26:25,Lk1:3),atitlegivenhimasgovernor,butmoreproperlyconfinedtothoseofequestrianrank.Hemarried
thrice,eachtimetoapersonofroyalbirthseeDRUSILLA.
A.I.MACLEAN.
FELLOW.ThisEng.wordisusedinAVwiththemeaningeitherof(1)companion,or(2)ofperson.Thus(1)Ps45:7God,thyGod,
hathanointedtheewiththeoilofgladnessabovethyfellows(2)Mt26:71ThisfellowwasalsowithJesusofNazareth(RVmanthereis
nowordintheGr.).Cf.Tindalestrans.ofGn39:2AndtheLORDEwaswithJoseph,andhewasaluckiefellowe.Althoughthewordwhen
usedinAVforpersonmayhaveatouchofdisparagement,nowhereisitusedtoexpressstrongcontemptasnow.
FELLOWSHIP.SeeCOMMUNION.
FENCE.Ps62:3istheonlyoccurrenceofthesubst.,andprobablythewordtherehasitsmodernmeaning(Coverdalehedge).Butthe
participlefenced(usedofacity)alwaysmeansfortified(whichAmer.RValwayssubstitutes).SeeFORTIFICATION.
FERRET(anqah).Anuncleananimal,Lv11:30,RVgecko.Rabbinicalwriterssuggestthebedgehog,butthisisunlikely.Forgecko
seeLIZARD.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
FESTUS,PORCIUS.ProcuratorofJudaafterFelix.Hisshorttermofofficewasmarkedbyamuchbetteradministrationthanthatof
FelixorofAlbinushissuccessor(Jos.Ant.XX.viii.f.).HeisaddressedwithrespectbySt.Paul(Ac26:24ff.),whomhewouldnotgiveupto
theJewsuntrieditwas,however,fromfearofbeingeventuallygivenupthatSt.PaulmadehisappealtoCsar,inconsequenceofwhichhe
wassenttoRome.FestuswasafriendofkingAgrippaII.,whosevisittohimisdescribedinAc25:13ff.,andtookhissideinadisputewith
theJewishpriests.HisaccessiontoofficeisoneofthepuzzlesofNTchronologyEusebiusgivesA.D.56,butthisisprobablysomethree
yearstooearly.
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A.J.MACLEAN.
FETTER.SeeCHAIN.
FEVER.SeeMEDICINE.
FIERYSERPENT.SeeSERPENT,SERAPHIM.
FIG.(tenh).Thecommonfig,fruitoftheFicuscarica,iscultivatedfromoneendofPalestinetotheother,especiallyinthe
mountainousregions,occupyingtodayaplaceasimportantasitdidinBibletimes.Thefailureofthefigandgrapeharvestwouldevennow
bringuntolddistress(Jer5:17,Hab3:17etc.).Althoughthefigsareallofonegenus,thefellahndistinguishmanyvarietiesaccordingtothe
qualityandcolourofthefruit.
Thesummerfoliageofthefigisthick,andexcelsothertreesforitscoolandgratefulshade.Inthesummertheownersofgardens
everywheremaybeseensittingintheshadowoftheirfigtrees.ItispossiblethereferencesinMic4:4,Zec3:10maybetothis,ortothenot
uncommoncustomofhavingfigtreesoverhangingruraldwellings.Althoughfigtreesareofmediumheight,someindividualtrees(e.g.near
Jeninreachtoover25feethigh.Selfsownfigtreesareusuallybarren,andareknowntothenativesaswildormalefigtrees.Thefruitingof
thefigisveryinterestingandpeculiar.Thoughearlierintheplains,theannualoccurrenceinthemountainregions,e.g.roundJerusalem,isas
follows:Thetrees,whichduringthewintermonthshavelostalltheirleaves,abouttheendofMarchbeginputtingforththeirtenderleafbuds
(Mt24:32,Mk13:2832,Lk21:2933),andatthejunctionoftheoldwoodwiththeseleavesappearatthesametimethetinyfigs.Theselittle
figsdevelopalongwiththeleavesuptoacertainpoint,toaboutthesizeofasmallcherry,andthenthegreatmajorityofthemfalltothe
ground,carrieddownwitheverygustofwind.Theseimmaturefigsareknownasthetaksh,andareeatenbythefellahnastheyfalltheymay
indeedsometimesbeseenexposedforsaleinthemarketinJerusalem.Theyarethepaggim(greenfigs)ofCa2:13,andtheolynthoi
(untimelyfigs)ofRev6:13.Inthecaseofsometrees,especiallythebestvarieties,acertainproportionoftheselittlegreenfigscontinueto
develop,andreachripenessinJune.Thesearethenknownasthedafrorearlyfigs,mentionedinIs28:4,Jer24:2,Hos9:10,Mic7:1,as
bikkrh,thefigsfirstripe.Theyaretoday,asofold,speciallyesteemedfortheirdelicateflavour.Asthedafrareripening,thelittlebuds
ofthenextcropbegintoappearhigherupthebranches.Thesesteadilydevelopandformthesecondandgreatcropoffigs,whichcomesabout
August.
InthemuchdiscussedmiracleofourLord(Mt21:1820,Mk11:12,13,2021)wemaydismissatoncethetheorythatHecamelooking
forfigsfromthepreviousseason,asHewouldcertainlynothavefoundanysuchsurvivors,andsuchfruitwouldnothavebeeneatable.On
theotherhand,atthePassoverseason,aboutApril,whentheyoungleavesareonthefigtrees,everytreewhichisgoingtobearfruitatallwill
havesometakshonit,andso,thoughitisatruestatementthatthetimeoffigs,i.e.ofordinaryediblefigs,wasnotyet(Mk11:13),yet
therewouldbefruitwhichcouldbe,andistoday,eaten,andfruit,too,whichwouldbeaguaranteeofaharvesttocomelateron.Itwasthe
wantofpromiseoffuturefruitfulnessintheJewishnationforwhichtheywerecondemnedintheactedparableofthebarrenfigtree.Itmaybe
noted,however,thatinMaymanyfigtreesmaybefoundroundJerusalemwhichhavedroppedalltheirgreenfigs(noneripeningtodafr)
andhavenotyetputforththebudsofthelatesummercrop.
FigsareeateninPalestinenotonlyfreshbutdried,thefruitbeingoftenthreadedontolongstringsforconvenienceofcarriage.Theyare
alsopressedintoasolidcakewhichcanbecutinsliceswithaknife.Thesearethefigcakesof1S25:18,30:12,1Ch12:40.Alumpofsuch
wasusedasapoulticeforHezekiahsboil,2K20:7,Is28:21.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
FILE.Only1S13:21,butthepassageisverycorruptseethelargercommentaries.
FINE.Theverbtofine(mod.refine)isusedinJob28:1Surelythereisaveinforsilver,andaplaceforgoldwheretheyfineit(RV
whichtheyrefine).FiningoccursinPr17:3,27:21andfinerinPr25:4avesselforthefiner(Amer.RVrefiner).SeeREFINER.
FINES.SeeCRIMESANDPUNISHMENTS,8.
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FINES.SeeCRIMESANDPUNISHMENTS,8.
FIR(bersh,RVmcypress[wh.see],2S6:5,1K5:8,10,6:15,34etc.).Itwasatreeoflargegrowth(2K19:23,Ezk31:8)evergreen
(Hos14:8)achiefelementinthegloryofLebanon(Is60:13)associatedwithcedars(Ps104:16,17,Is14:8,Zec11:2).Thetimberofthe
bershrankedwiththecedarforhouseandshipbuilding(1K5:8,10etc.).Cypressisacceptedbymostmodernauthorities,butbershmay
havealsoincludedseveralvarietiesofpine.FirisalsoRVtr.ofreninIs44:14(AVandRVmwronglyash).
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
FIRE.SeeHOUSE,7,andnextarticle.
FIREPAN.1.Apanofbronze(Ex27:3etc.),silver(Mishna,Yma,iv.4),orgold(1K7:50etc.),forremovingcharcoal,andprobably
ashesalso,fromthealtarofburntoffering.AccordingtotheMishna(loc.cit.),thefirepansorcoalpanswereofvarioussizes,theregiven,
andwereeachfurnishedwithalongorashorthandle.Theyseem,therefore,tohaveresembledladies,orthenowobsoletebedwarmers.
Whenusedtoholdlivecharcoalfortheburningofincensethecoalpanbecomesacenser(Lv10:1,16:12etc.).HenceinNu4:14,1K
7:50,2Ch4:22,RVhasfirepansforAVcensers,therebeingnoreferenceinthesepassagestoincense.Thesameutensilwasusedfor
removingtheburntportionsofthelampwicksofthegoldencandlestickorlampstand,althoughrenderedsnuffdishes(whichseeTindale
hasrightlyfirepans).
2.InZec12:6RVthereismentionofapan(AVhearth)offireinotherwords,abrasier.SeeCOALHOUSE,7.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
FIRKIN.SeeWEIGHTSANDMEASURES.
FIRMAMENT.SeeCREATION.
FIRSTBORN.1.Thededicationofthefirstbornofmenandbeastswasprobablyaprimitivenomadiccustom,andthereforeearlier
thantheofferingoffirstfruits,whichcouldnotariseuntiltheIsraeliteshadsettledintoagriculturallifeinCanaan.Theoriginofthebeliefthat
apeculiarvalueattachedtothefirstborncannotbedefinitelytracedbutitwouldbeanaturalinferencethatwhatwasvaluabletotheparent
wouldbevaluabletohisGod.AndthusthewordfirstborncouldbeusedfigurativelyofIsraelasthefirstbornofJamongthenations(Ex
4:22,cf.Jer31:9),andtheseedofDavidamongdynasties(Ps89:28).ThelawofthededicationofthefirstbornisfoundinJE(Ex13:1116,
22:29b,30,34:19f.),D(Dt15:1923),P(Ex13:1f.,Nu3:1113,4051,18:1518).Itisnotimpossiblethatinveryprimitivetimesfirstborn
sonsweresometimesactuallysacrificed(cf.2K3:27,Mic6:7),butthepracticewouldsoongrowupofredeemingthembymoneyor
paymentsinkind.
2.Thefirstborn(bekhr)enjoyedthebirthright(bekhrh).Hesucceededhisfatherasheadofthefamily,andtookthelargestshareof
thepropertythiswasfixedinDt21:17asadoubleportion.[In2Ch21:3theprincipleofthebirthrightisextendedtothesuccessiontothe
throne.Butthisisalatepassage,anditisnotcertainthatthefirstbornwasnecessarilytheheirapparent].Ifamandiedwithoutchildren,the
heirwasthefirstbornofhiswidowbyhisbrotherornextofkin(Dt25:510).Therightofthefirstborn,however,wasoftendisturbed,owing
tothejealousiesandquarrelsarisingfromthepolygamypractisedinIsrael.ThelawinDt21:1517isdirectedagainsttheabuse.Reuben,
althoughthesonofLeah,thelessfavouredofJacobstwowives,wasconsideredthefirstborn,andlosttherightonlybecauseofhissin(Gn
49:3f.,1Ch5:1).ButIshmaelwasallowednoshareatallinthefathersproperty(Gn21:10)andthesuperiorityofJacoboverEsau
(symbolizingthesuperiorityofIsraeloverEdom)isdescribedashavingbeenforetoldbeforetheirbirth(25:23),andasbroughtaboutby
Esausvoluntarysurrenderofthebirthright(vv.2934).Andotherinstancesoccuroftheyoungerbeingpreferredtotheelder,e.g.Ephraim
(48:1320),Solomon(1K1),Shimri(1Ch26:10).

3. ThedeathofthefirstbornwasthelastofthepunishmentssentuponEgyptforPharaohsrefusaltolettheIsraelitesgo.Mosesgave
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3.ThedeathofthefirstbornwasthelastofthepunishmentssentuponEgyptforPharaohsrefusaltolettheIsraelitesgo.Mosesgave
himduewarning(Ex11:48),andonhiscontinuedrefusalthestrokefell(12:29f.).TheeventisreferredtoinPs78:51,105:36,135:8,
136:10,He11:28.Itisprobable(seePLAGUESOFEGYPT)thatthestoriesofalltheotherplagueshavebeenfoundedonhistorical
occurrences,andthattheEgyptianssufferedfromaseriesofnaturalcatastrophes.Ifthisistrueofthefirstnine,itisreasonabletoassumeit
forthelast,andwemaysupposethatapestilenceragedwhichcreatedgreathavoc,butdidnotspreadtotheIsraelitequarter.Thegrowthof
thetraditionintoitspresentformmustbeexplainedbythetiologicalinterestoftheHebrewwriterthetendencytocreateidealized
situationsinaremotepastforthepurposeofexplainingfactsorinstitutionswhoseoriginwasforgotten.ThustheFeastofBoothswas
accountedforatalatedatebythedwellingoftheIsraelitesinboothsaftertheExodus(Lv23:43),theFeastofUnleavenedCakesbythehaste
withwhichtheydepartedfromEgypt(Ex12:34,13:7f.),theFeastofthePassoverbythepassingoverofthehousesmarkedwithbloodatthe
destructionofthefirstborn(12:12f.,23,27).Andsimilarlythesinglingoutofthefirstbornfordestructionwasitselfconnectedwiththe
ancientpracticeofofferingtoGodannuallyinspringthefirstlingsofbeasts.Mosesdemandedreleaseinordertoofferthesacrifice(10:25f.),
andbecausePharaohrefusedtoallowthemtooffertheirfirstlings,JtookfromtheEgyptianstheirfirstborn.Thisexplanation,thoughnot
explicitlygiven,isimpliedinthecloseconnexionofthededicationofthefirstbornwiththePassover(13:1113,Dt15:19,16:18).Ina
redactionalpassage(Ex4:22f.)adifferentexplanationisoffered.Thedeathofthefirstbornwouldbeapunishmentforrefusaltorelease
Israel,whowasJsfirstborn.
4.IntheNTthetermfirstborn(prtotokos)isusedofChrist(Ro8:29,Col1:15,18,He1:6,Rev1:5),andofChristianswhohavedied
(He12:23)seethecommentaries.
A.H.MNEILE.FIRSTFRUITS.SeeSACRIFICEANDOFFERING.
FISHwouldappeartohavealwaysbeenafavouritearticleofdietamongtheHebrews(Nu11:5andreferencesintheGospels),asitisto
day.FisharefoundinenormousnumbersinalltheinlandwatersofPalestine,andespeciallyintheLakeofGalilee,LakeHuleh,andthe
meadowlakesofDamascus.TheextraordinaryfeatureofthesefishisthenumberofspeciespeculiartotheJordanvalley.Outofatotalof43
speciesfoundintheregion,nofewerthan14arepeculiartothisdistrict.Manyofthesearequitesmall.Thechiefediblefisharemembersof
theChromidesandoftheCyprinid(carps).Thecatfish,Clariasmacracanthus,notbeingascalyfish,cannotbeeatenbytheJews(Dt14:9),
thoughconsideredadelicacybytheChristiansofDamascus.ItisthoughtbysometobethebadfishofMt13:47,48.InNTtimesfish
curingwasextensivelycarriedonatTaricheontheLakeofTiberias.Someofthenativefishisstillsaltedtoday.ThefishpoolsofCa7:4
andthepondsforfishinIs19:10arebothmistranslations.SeealsoFOOD,6.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
FITCHES.1.qetsach(Is28:25,27),RVmblackcummin,theseedsofthearomaticherbNigellasativa,commonlyusedtodayin
Palestineasacondiment,especiallyonthetopofloavesofbread.Thecontrastbetweenthestaffforthefitchesandtherodforthecumminis
themoreinstructivewhenthegreatsimilarityofthetwoseedsisnoticed.2.kussemeth,Ezk4:9,inAVmandRVspelt,andinEx9:32,Is
28:25AVrieandRVspelt.Spelt(Triticumspelta)isaninferiorkindofwheat,thegrainsofwhicharepeculiarlyadherenttothesheath.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
FLAG.1.ch(Job8:11),prop.reedgrass(cf.Gn41:2,18).2.sph(Ex2:3,6,Is19:6),sedgyplantsbytheNileanditscanals.
FLAGONoccursfivetimesinAV,butinonlyoneoftheseinstancesisthetr.retainedbyRV,namely,Is22:24,vesselsofflagons.Hereit
isperhapsanearthenwarebottle.Ontheotherhand,RVintroducesflagonsintwoinstanceswhereitisnotfoundinAV,namely,Ex25:39,
37:16.Thistr.isprobablycorrect,althoughRVgivescupsforthesameHeb.wordinNu4:7.InallthesethreepassagesAVhascovers.In
theremainingfourinstanceswhereAVgives

flagons(2S6:19,1Ch16:3,Hos3:1,Ca2:5),themeaningoftheHeb.wordisapressedcakecomposedofmeal,oil,anddibs(W.R.
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flagons(2S6:19,1Ch16:3,Hos3:1,Ca2:5),themeaningoftheHeb.wordisapressedcakecomposedofmeal,oil,anddibs(W.R.
Smith,OTJC1434,n.7).Hencein2S6:19,1Ch16:3,RVgivescakeofraisinsforAVflagon[ofwine],inHos3:1cakesofraisinsfor
flagonsofwine,andinCa2:5raisins(RVm
cakesofraisins)forflagons.
FLAX(pishtah).TheplantLinumusitatissimum,andthepreparedfibresusedformakinglinen.ItwasearlycultivatedinPalestine(Jos
2:6)thefailureoftheflaxwasoneofGodsjudgments(Hos2:9).Theplantisabouttwotothreefeethigh,withprettyblueflowerstheflax
issaidtobebolled(Ex9:31)whentheseedvesselsreachmaturityandtheplantisreadyforgathering.Thestalksweredriedonthe
housetops(Jos2:6),andthensoakedinwaterandthefibrecombed
out(Is19:9RV).ThetowofIs43:17isteasedoutflax.Theoiloftheseedsisthewellknownlinseedoil.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
FLEA(parsh,1S24:14,26:20).Thecommonflea,Pulexirritans,isauniversalpestinPalestine.Fleasarepresentinincredible
numbersinthedustofcavestowhichgoatsresort.RVmhasfleasforliceinEx8:16.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
FLESH.ThiswordisusedinScripturetoexpress:(1)thesubstanceoftheanimalbody,whetherofmanorofbeast(Gn41:2).(2)The
wholehumanbody(Ex4:7).(3)Relationshipbybirthormarriage(Gn2:24,37:27,Neh5:5),forwhichalsothefurtherphrasefleshand
bonesisfound(Gn2:23,2S19:12)aphrasewhichisalsousedtodescribetherealityofthehumanityofJesusafterHisresurrection(Lk
24:39).(4)Thefiniteearthlycreature,incontrastwithGodandHisSpirit(Is31:3,Gn7:21)auseofthetermtoemphasizemansfrailtyand
dependenceonGod(Job34:15,Is40:68),butwithoutanymoraldisparagement,asitisappliedtothewholehumanracewithoutreferenceto
itssin(Jl2:28),andtothehumannatureofChrist(Jn1:14,Ro1:3).WehavetheequivalentphrasefleshandbloodintheNT(1Co15:50
||corruption,He2:14=humannature[cf.Jn1:13]).(5)Oneelementofthenatureofmanincombinationorcontrastwiththeothers,suchas
soul(Ps63:1),heart(73:26),soulandheart(84:2)whileitisthelowerelement,itisrecognizedeveninmansrelationtoGod(Job
19:26).IntheNTfleshis,withoutsuggestionormoraldefect,eithercombinedorcontrastedwithspirit(Mt26:41,1Co5:5).Asa
necessaryelementinhumannatureunderpresentconditions,itisinnowaycondemned(Gal2:20)thedualityisascribedtoChristHimself
(Ro1:3,4)andsinisrepresentedasinfectingtheotherelementsinmanaswellasthebody(2Co7:1,Eph2:3).(6)Theseatandvehicleof
sin,ascontrastedwiththemindwhichapprovesandservesthelawofGod(Ro7:25),andthespiritwhichisthegiftofGod(Ro8:4ff.,Gal
5:16.Asimilaruseismadeoftheadjectivefleshlyorcarnal,incontrastwithspiritual(Ro7:14,1Co3:1,Col2:18).Itistobenoted,
however,thatinthisusethefleshisnotconceivedasexclusivelymaterialsubstance,foramongtheworksofthefleshareincludedidolatry,
sorcery,enmities,strifes,jealousies,etc.(Gal5:20).Theexplanationusuallygivenofthisuseofthetermfleshisthat,manhavingfallen,sin
comesbynaturalinheritance(flesh),whereasgoodnessisgivenbysupernaturalgrace(spirit).WhateverbetheexplanationofthePaulineuse,
thatthetermgetsadistinctlyethicalcontent,andisusedwithreferencetosinasdwellinginhumannature,cannotbedenied.
PfleidererendeavourstoshowhowfromtheHebraicuseofthetermforcreaturelyweakness,St.PaulpassedtotheHellenicuseformoral
defect.Hisconclusionisthatfromtheoppositionofphysicallydifferentsubstancesresultsthedualismofantagonisticmoralprinciples
(Paulinism,i.p.54).Theusualexplanationofthedepravityofhumannatureisrejectedthereseemstobenoallusion,saysUsteri,quoted
byPfleiderer(p.61),inthewritingsofPaultoachangeinthemoralnatureofman,orofhisbodilyconstitutioninconsequenceofthefall,
i.e.ofthefirstactualsinofAdam.St.Paulissupposedtoleaveuswithtwoexplanationsoftheoriginofsin.Againsttheassumptionofthis
dualismBruceoffersthefollowingarguments:(1)ItisunHebrew,andSt.PaulscultureisRabbinicratherthanHellenistic(2)thebodyis
capableofsanctificationaswellasthespirit(1Th5:23,1Co6:19,20,2Co7:1)(3)thebodyaswellasthesoulwillberaisedfromthedead,
althoughitwillbechanged(1Co15:4450)(4)theChristiansalvationisinthepresentlife,andnotonlyafterthedeathofthebody(St.

PaulsConceptionofChristianity,269ff.).ItmaybeaddedthatfleshisascribedtoChrist,andSt.Paulsphrasethelikenessofsinfulflesh
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PaulsConceptionofChristianity,269ff.).ItmaybeaddedthatfleshisascribedtoChrist,andSt.Paulsphrasethelikenessofsinfulflesh
(Ro8:3)isintendedtodenysinfulness,notasimilarbodyinChrist(seeComm.inloc.).
ALFREDE.GARVIE.
FLESHHOOK.ThefleshhookusedbythepriestsservantatShilohwasathreeprongedfork(1S2:13),aswereprobablythoseof
bronzeandgoldmentionedinconnexionwiththeTabernacle(Ex27:3,38:3)andTemple(1Ch28:17,2Ch4:16)respectively.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
FLESHLY,FLESHY.ThereisadistinctionpreservedintheAVbetweenthesewords.Fleshlyisthatwhichbelongstotheflesh,
carnal,asCol2:18fleshlymind,asopposedtospirituallyminded(cf.Ro8:6).Fleshyisthatwhichismadeofflesh,tender,as2Co3:3
writtennotintablesofstone,butinfleshytablesoftheheart.
FLESHPOTS(Ex16:3).SeeHOUSE,9.
FLINT.SeeMININGANDMETALS.
FLOCK.SeeSHEEP.
FLOOD.SeeDELUGE.Andnoticethatthewordisusedgenerallyforastreamorriver,asIs44:3Iwillpourwateruponhimthatis
thirsty,andfloodsuponthedryground(RVstreams).Sometimesaparticularriverismeant,theEuphrates,theNile,ortheJordan.(1)The
EuphratesisreferredtoinJos24:2
(yourfathersdweltontheothersideoftheflood,RVbeyondtheRiver)24:14,
15,2Es13:44,1Mac7:8.(2)TheNileinPs78:44,Am8:89:5,Jer46:7,8.(3)
TheJordaninPs66:6(theywentthroughthefloodonfoot).ThewordisalsofrequentlyusedinAVasnow,ofatorrent,asPs69:2Iam
comeintodeepwaters,wherethefloodsoverflowme(Heb.shibboleth,thewordwhichtheEphraimitespronouncedsibboleth).
FLOOR.UsedinAV(a)intheprimarysenseofahousefloor,and(b)inthesecondarysenseofathreshingfloor,theHeb.wordsfor
whicharequitedistinct.Under(a)wehavetheearthenflooroftheTabernacle,Nu5:17,andthewoodenflooroftheTemple,1K6:15(see
HOUSE,4.)Byfromfloortofloor,7:7RV,ismeantfromfloortoceiling,asenseimpliedinthebetterreadingfromthefloortothe
rafterscf.6:15,whereforwallsreadraftersoftheceiling.InAm
9:3ourEVhasobscuredthefigurethefloorofthesea.
(b)Whereflooroccursinthesenseofthreshingfloor(seeAGRICULTURE,
3),thelatterhasbeensubstitutedbyRVexceptinthreepassages(Gn50:11,Is21:10,Jl2:24).Thesameword(goren)appearsasbarnfloor
(2K6:27,RVthreshingfloor)andcornfloor(Hos9:1AVandRV).
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
FLOUR.SeeBREAD,FOOD,2,MILL.
FLOWERS.1.nizzn,onlyCa2:12.2.ziz,Is28:1,4,40:6,Job14:2,blossomsNu17:8.3.nizzahusedoftheinconspicuousflowers
ofvineandolive,Is18:5,Job15:33.4.perach,Ex25:33,Is18:5,AVbud,RVblossom,Nah1:4.Flowersareoneoftheattractivefeatures
ofPalestine:theycomeintheearlyspring(Ca2:12),butfadealltoosoon,thebrilliantdisplaybeingamatterofbutafewshortweeks.Hence
theyareanappropriatesymboloftheevanescenceofhumanlife(Job14:2,Ps103:15etc.).TheliliesofthefieldofMt6:28mayhavebeen
acomprehensivetermforthebrilliantandmanycolouredanemones,theirises,thegladioli,etc.,whichlendsuchenchantmenttothehillsides
inMarchandApril.
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E.W.G.MASTERMAN.FLUTE.SeeMUSICANDMUSICALINSTRUMENTS.
FLUX.Theexpressionabloodyflux(1611bloodyflixe)isusedinAVforGr.dysenterion(RVdysentery).Thistrans.isfirstfound
inWyclif,whooffersthealternativedissenterie,orflix.SeeMEDICINE.
FLY.1.zebb,Ec10:1,Is7:18:alsoBaalzebub[wh.see].2.arb,Ex8:21etc.,theinsectsofoneoftheplaguesofEgypt,thoughtby
sometohavebeencockroaches.Fliesofmanykinds,mosquitoes,sandfiles,etc.,swarminPalestineandEgypt.Insummeranysweet
preparationleftuncoveredisatoncedefiledbyfliesfallingintoit(Ec10:1).Fliescarryophthalmiaandinfectfoodwiththemicroorganisms
ofotherdiseases,e.g.cholera,entericfever,etc.Theyfrequentlydeposittheireggsinuncleanlywoundsanddischargingears,andtheseeggs
developintomaggots.Specialflies,inAfricaatanyrate,carrythetrypanosoma,whichproducefataldiseaseincattleandsleepingsickness
inman.
Mosquitoes,whichmayhavebeenincludedinthearb(theswarmsofflies)inEgypt,arenowknowntobethecarriersofthepoisonof
malaria,thegreatestscourgeofpartsofPalestine.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
FODDER(bell,Job6:5andJg19:21RV).SeePROVENDER.
FOLK.ThisEng.wordisusedintheNTindefinitelyforpersons,therebeingnowordintheGr.(Mk6:5,Jn5:3,Ac5:16).Butinthe
OTthewordhasthedefinitemeaningofnationorpeople,evenPr30:26Theconiesarebutafeeblefolk,havingthismeaning.Inthe
metricalversionofPs100:3,flockshouldbefolk,correspondingtopeopleintheproseversion.Sotheauthorwrote
TheLordyeknowisGodindedeWithoutouraide,hedidusmake:
Wearehisfolek,hedothusfede,
Andforhisshepe,hedothustake.
FOLLOW.ThisEng.verbmeansnownomorethantocomeafter,butinolderEng.itwasoftenequivalenttopursue.Nowitstatesno
morethantherelativeplaceoftwopersons,formerlyitexpressedpurposeordetermination.TindaletranslatesLv26:17yeshalfleewhenno
manfolowethyou,andDt28:22they[thediseasesnamed]shallfolowethe,intyllthouperishe.InAVtofollowissometimestoimitate,as
2Th3:7Foryourselvesknowhowyeoughttofollowus.
FOOD.Thisarticlewilldealonlywithfoodstuffs,inotherwords,withtheprincipalarticlesoffoodamongtheHebrewsinBibletimes,
thepreparationandservingofthesebeingreservedforthecomplementaryarticleMEALS.
1.ThefoodofatypicalHebrewhouseholdinhistoricaltimeswasalmostexclusivelyvegetarian.Forallbuttheveryrichtheuseofmeat
wasconfinedtosomespecialoccasion,afamilyfestival,thevisitofanhonouredguest,asacrificialmealatthelocalsanctuary,andthelike.
AccordingtotheauthorofthePriestsCode,indeed,thefoodofmenandbeastsalikewasexclusivelyherbaceousintheperiodbeforethe
Deluge(Gn1:29f.),permissiontoeatthefleshofanimals,understipulationastodrawingofftheblood,havingbeenfirstaccordedtoNoah
(9:3ff.).InIsaiahsvisionofthefuture,whenthelionshalleatstrawliketheox(11:7),areturniscontemplatedtotheidyllicconditionsof
thefirstageofall.
Thegrowthofluxuryunderthemonarchy(cf.Am6:4f.andsimilarpassages)iswellillustratedbyacomparisonof2S17:28f.with1K
4:22f.IntheformerthereisbroughtfortheentertainmentofDavidandhisfollowerswheatandbarleyandmealandparchedcornandbeans
andlentilsandparchedpulse[seep.266,3]andhoneyandbutterandsheepandcheeseofkinewhile,accordingtothelatterpassage,
Solomonsdailyprovisionwasthirtymeasuresoffineflourandthreescoremeasuresofmealtenfatoxenandtwentyoxenoutofthe
pastures,andanhundredsheep,besideshartsandgazellesandroebucksandfattedfowl.
2. ThefirstplaceinthelistofHebrewfoodstuffsmustbegiventothevariouscerealsincludedunderthegeneralnameofcornin
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2.ThefirstplaceinthelistofHebrewfoodstuffsmustbegiventothevariouscerealsincludedunderthegeneralnameofcornin
Amer.RValwaysgrainthetwomostimportantofwhichwerewheatandbarley.Millet(Ezk4:9)andspelt(seeFITCHES,RIE)areonly
casuallymentioned.Themostprimitivemethodofusingcornwastopluckthefreshears(Lv23:14RV,2K4:42)andremovethehuskby
rubbinginthehands(Dt23:25,Mt12:1etc.).WhenbruisedinamortartheseearsyieldedthebruisedcornofthefreshearofLv2:1416
RV.Afavouritepracticeinallperiodsdowntothepresentdayhasbeentoroasttheearsonanironplateorotherwise.Theresultisthe
parchedcornsofrequentlymentionedinOT.ParchedcornandbreadwithalightsourwinefurnishedthemiddaymealofBoazsreapers(Ru
2:14).Thechiefuse,however,towhichwheatandbarleywereputwastosupplythehouseholdwithbread(wh.see).Wheatenandbarley
meal(RV)werepreparedinearlytimesbymeansoftheprimitiverubbingstones,whichtheexcavationsshowtohavelongsurvivedthe
introductionofthequernorhandmill(forreferencestoillustrationsofboth,seeMILL).ThefineflourofourEVwasobtainedfromthe
coarservarietybyboltingthelatterwithafinesieve.Barleybread(Jg7:13,Jn6:9,13)wastheusualbread,indeedtheprincipalfood,ofthe
poorerclasses.(Fordetailsofbreadmaking,see
BREAD.)TheobscurewordrendereddoughinNu15:20,Neh10:37,Ezk44:30denotedeithercoarsemeal(soRVm)orasortofporridge
madefromwheatandbarleymeal,likethepolentaoftheRomans.
3.Nextinimportancetowheatandbarleyasfoodstuffsmayberankedtheseedsofvariousmembersofthepulsefamily(Leguminos),
althoughonlytwoleguminousplants(lentilsandbeans)arementionedbynameinOT.ThepulseofDn1:12,16denotesedibleherbs
generally(soRVm)theparched(pulse)of2S17:28,ontheotherhand,isduetoamistakenrenderingofthewordforparchedcorn,here
repeatedbyacopyistsslip.OfredlentilsJacobmadehisfatefulpottage(Gn25:29ff.),probablyastewinwhichthelentilswereflavoured
withonionsandotheringredients,asisdoneatthepresentdayinSyria.Lentilsandbeanswereoccasionallygroundtomakebread(Ezk4:9).
Nexttoitsfish,theHebrewsinthewildernesslookedbackwistfullyonthe
cucumbers,melons,leeks,onions,andgarlickofEgypt(Nu11:5),allofthemsubsequentlycultivatedbytheminPalestine.Itistothe
agriculturaltreatisesoftheMishna,however,thatthestudentmustturnforfullerinformationregardingtherichsuppliesavailableeitherfora
dinnerofherbs(Pr15:17)alone,orforsupplementingameatdiet.Atleastfourvarietiesofbean,forexample,arenamed,alsothechickpea
(whichtheVulgatesubstitutesfortheparchedpulseabovereferredto),variousspeciesofchicoryandendivethebitterherbsofthe
Passoverritual(Ex12:8)mustard(Mt13:31),radish,andmanyothers.
4.Passingnowtothefoodtrees(Lv19:23),wemayfollowtheexampleofJothaminhisparable(Jg9:8ff.),andbeginwiththeolive,
although,asithappens,theoliveberry(Ja3:12AV)isneverexpresslymentionedinScriptureasanarticleofdiet.Apart,however,from
theirextensiveuseinfurnishingoil(wh.see),itselfaninvaluableaidinthepreparationoffood,oliveswerenotonlyeateninthefreshstate,
butwereatalltimespreservedforlaterusebybeingsoakedinbrine.Suchpickledoliveswere,andstillare,usedasarelishwithbreadby
richandpooralike.
Nexttotheoliveinrank,Jothamsparableplacesthefigtree,whose
sweetnessandgoodfruititextols(Jg9:11).Thegreateconomicimportanceofthefigneednotbeemphasized.FromIs28:4,Jer24:2it
appearsthatthefirstripefig,i.e.theearlyfigwhichappearsonlastyearswood,wasregardedasaspecialdelicacy.Thebulkoftheyears
fruitwasdriedforuseoutoftheseason,aswasthecasealsoamongtheGreeksandRomans,bywhomdriedfigswerethemostextensively
usedofallfruits.Whenpressedinamouldtheyformedcakesoffigs(1S25:18,1Ch12:40).Afigcake,itwillberemembered,was
prescribedbyIsaiahasapoultice(EVplaister)forHezekiahsboil(Is38:21=2K20:7RV).
WiththefigHebrewwritersconstantlyassociatethegrape,thefruitofthevine(Mt26:29andparallels).Liketheformer,grapeswere
notonlyenjoyedintheirnaturalstate,butwerealso,byexposuretothesunafterbeinggathered,driedintoraisins,thedriedgrapesofNu
6:3.Inthisformtheywerebettersuitedfortheuseoftravellersandsoldiers(1S25:18,1Ch12:40).Whatpreciselyismeantbytheword
renderedraisincake,cakeofraisins,byRV(2S6:19,Is16:7,Hos3:1AVwronglyflagonofwine)isstilluncertain.Byfarthegreater
partoftheproduceofthevineyardswasusedforthemanufactureofwine(wh.see).Foranothereconomicproductofthegrape,seeHONEY.
DatesareonlyoncementionedinAV,andthatwithoutanyjustification,asthemarginalalternativeofhoney,2Ch31:5yetJoelincludes
thepalmtreeinhislistoffruittrees(1:12),andfromtheMishnawelearnthatdates,likethefruitsalreadydiscussed,werenotonlyeatenas
theycamefromthepalm,butweredriedinclustersandalsopressedintocakesforconvenienceoftransport.
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theycamefromthepalm,butweredriedinclustersandalsopressedintocakesforconvenienceoftransport.
Forotherlessimportantfruits,suchasthepomegranate,themuchdiscussedtappachtheappleofAV,accordingtoothersthequince
(seeAPPLE),thefruitofthesycomoreorfigmulberry,associatedwithAmostheprophet,andthehusks(Lk15:16),orratherpodsofthe
carobtree,referencemustbemadetotheseparatearticles.Tothesetherefalltobeaddedherealmondsandnutsofmorethanonevariety.
5.Ascomparedwiththewiderangeoffoodssuppliedbythecereals,vegetables,andfruitsabovementioned,thesupplyoffleshfoodwas
confinedtosuchanimalsandbirdsasweretechnicallydescribedasclean.Forthisimportantterm,andtheprinciplesunderlyingthe
distinctionbetweencleanandunclean,seeCLEANANDUNCLEAN.Thecleananimalsadmittedtothetableaccordingtotheofficiallists
inLv11:23,Dt14:420(convenientlyarrangedinparallelcolumnsforpurposesofcomparisoninDriversDeut.adloc.),mayberanged
underthetwocategories,domesticanimals,whichalonewereadmittedassacrificetothetableofJ(Mal1:7,12),andgame.Theformer
comprisedthetwoclassesoftheflock,i.e.sheepandgoats,andtheherd.
Thefleshofthegoat,andespeciallyofthekidofthegoats,wasmorerelishedbytheHebrewsthanbythepresentinhabitantsof
Palestine,bywhomthegoatisrearedchieflyforitsmilk.Akid,aslessvaluablethanawellfleecedlamb,wasthemostfrequentandreadiest
victim,especiallyamongthepoor,afactwhichgivespointtothecomplaintoftheElderSonintheparable(Lk15:29).Theoriginal
significanceofthethricerepeatedinjunctionagainstseethingakidinitsmothersmilk(Ex23:19andparallels)isstilluncertain.
Regardingthesheepasfood,itmaybenotedthatinthecaseofthefattailedbreedthetailwasforbiddenasordinaryfoodbythePriests
Codeatleast,andhadtobeofferedwithcertainotherportionsofthefat(see10p.267)uponthealtar(Ex29:22,Lv3:9,bothRV).Ofthe
neatcattle,thefleshoffemalesaswellasofmaleswaseaten,theHebrewsnothavingthatrepugnancetocowsfleshwhichdistinguishedthe
Egyptiansofantiquity,asitdoestheHindusoftoday.Calves,ofcourse,suppliedthedaintiestfood,andmightbetakendirectlyfromthe
herd,aswasdonebyAbraham(Gn18:7,cf.1K4:23),orspeciallyfattenedforthetable.ThefattedcalfofLk15:23willbeatonce
recalled,alsothefatlings,andthestalled,i.e.stallfed,ox(Pr15:17)ofOT.OneoxandsixchoicesheepwereNehemiahsdailyportion
(Neh5:18)Solomonshasbeenalreadygiven(1).Fromthefemalesoftheherdandoftheflock(Dt32:14),especiallyfromtheshegoat(Pr
27:27),probablyalsofromthemilchcamel(Gn32:15),camethesupplyofmilkanditspreparations,butterandcheese,forwhichsee
MILK.
OfthesevenspeciesofgamementionedinDt14:5,itisevidentfrom12:15thatthegazelleandthehartwerethetypicalanimalsofthe
chasehuntedforthesakeoftheirflesh.TheyarealsonamedalongwiththeroebuckinSolomonslist,1K4:23.Oneormoreofthese,
doubtlesssuppliedthevenisonfromwhichEsauwaswonttomakethesavourymeatwhichhisfatherloved(Gn25:28,27:5f.).Amongthe
uncleananimalswhichweretaboototheHebrewsthemostinterestingaretheswine(Lv11:7,Dt14:8:cf.Mt8:30ff.andparallels),thecamel,
thehare,andtheass(butsee2K6:25).
6.IntheDeuteronomiclistabovecited,thepermittedandforbiddenquadrupedsarefollowedbythisprovisionregardingfish:Theseye
shalleatofallthatareinthewaters,whatsoeverhathfinsandscalesshallyeeat:andwhatsoeverhathnotfinsandscalesyeshallnoteat,itis
uncleanuntoyou(Dt14:9f.RVcf.Lv11:912).NoparticularspeciesoffishisnamedinOT,eitherasfoodorotherwise,althoughnofewer
thanthirtysixspeciesaresaidtobefoundintheJordansystemalone.YetwemaybesurethatthefishwhichtheHebrewsenjoyedinEgypt
fornought(Nu11:5RV)hadtheirsuccessorsinCanaan.Indeed,itisusualtofindinthewordsofDt33:19,theyshallsucktheabundance
oftheseas,acontemporaryreferencetothefisheriespossessedbythetribesofZebulunandIssachar.InthedaysofNehemiahaconsiderable
tradeincuredfishwascarriedonbyTyrian,i.e.Phnician,merchantswithJerusalem(Neh13:16).whereamarketmusthavebeenheldator
neartheFishgate(3:3etc.).Instilllatertimes,asissoabundantlytestifiedbytheGospelsandJosephus,theSeaofGalileewasthecentreof
agreatfishingindustry.Inadditiontothedemandforfreshfish,athrivingtradewasdoneinthesaltingandcuringoffishforsalethroughout
thecountry.ThefishesofourLordstwomiraclesoffeedingwerealmostcertainlyofthiskind,fishcleaned,splitopen,salted,andfinally
driedinthesun,havingbeenatalltimesafavouriteformofprovisionforajourney.
7.Regardingthecleanbirds,allofwhichwereallowedasfood(Dt14:11),nodefinitecriterionisprescribed,butalistofprohibited
speciesisgiven(Lv11:1319,Dt14:1118),mostlybirdsofprey,includingthebat.Intheritualofvarioussacrifices,however,pigeonsand
turtledoves,andtheseonly,findaplace,andarethereforetobereckonedascleanforordinarypurposesaswell.Theearlydomesticationof
thesebirdsisshownbythereferencetothewindowsofthedovecotsinIs60:8,whiletheMishnahasmuchtosayregardingvariousbreeds 21/34
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thesebirdsisshownbythereferencetothewindowsofthedovecotsinIs60:8,whiletheMishnahasmuchtosayregardingvariousbreeds
ofdomesticpigeons,theirtowers,feeding,etc.Theordinarydomesticfowlofthepresentdayseemstohavebeenfirstintroducedinto
PalestinefromtheEastinthePersianperiod(2Es1:30,Mt23:37,26:34andparallels).ThefattedfowlforSolomonstable(1K4:23)are
generallysupposedtobegeese,whichwithpoultryandhousepigeonsarefrequentlynamedintheMishna.Roastgoosewasafavouritefood
oftheEgyptians,andhas,indeed,beencalledtheirnationaldish.
Amongtheediblegamebirdsmentionismadeofthepartridgeandthequail(seethesearticles).Mostorallofthesewereprobably
includedinthefowls(lit.birds)whichappearedonNehemiahstable(5:18).Thehumblesparrow(Mt10:29,Lk12:6)wouldhavebeen
beneaththedignityofaPersiangovernor.Theeggsofallthecleanbirdswerealsoimportantarticlesoffood(Dt22:6,Is10:14,Lk11:12Job
6:6isdoubtful,seeRVm).OstricheggshaverecentlybeenfoundinanearlygraveatGezer(PEFSt1907,191).
8.Undertheheadofanimalfoodmustalsobereckonedthevariousedibleinsectsenumerated,Lv11:22f.,apparentlyfourspeciesofthe
locustfamily(seeLOCUST).LocustswereregardedasdelicaciesbytheAssyrians,formedpartofthefoodofJohntheBaptist(Mt3:4,Mk
1:6),andarestilleatenbytheArabs.Bythelattertheyarepreparedinvariousways,oneofthecommonestbeingtoremovethehead,legs,
andwings,andtofrythebodyinsamnorclarifiedbutter.Locustsmayalsobepreservedbysalting.Thisistheplace,further,torefertothe
articleHONEYforinformationregardingthatimportantarticleofdiet.
9.Nothinghasasyetbeensaidonthesubjectofcondiments.Salt,thechiefofcondiments,willbetreatedseparately(seeSALT).Ofthe
othersithasbeensaidthat,beforepepperwasdiscoveredorcameintogeneraluse,seedslikecummin,thecoriander,etc.,naturallyplayeda
moreimportantrle.OfthesethegreyishwhiteseedsofthecorianderarenamedinEx16:31,Nu11:7thesearestillusedintheEastasa
spiceinbreadmakingandtoflavoursweetmeats.Similarlytheseedsoftheblackcummin(Is28:25RVm)aresprinkledonbreadlike
carawayseedsamongourselves.Fortheothercondiments,mint,anise,cummin,andrue,seetheseparatearticles.Tothesemaybeadded
mustard,ofwhichtheleaves,nottheseed,(Mt13:31),werecutupandusedasflavouring.PepperisfirstmentionedintheMishna.The
caperberry(Ec12:5RV)waseatenbeforemealsasanappetizer,ratherthanusedasacondiment.
10.ReferencehasalreadybeenmadetotherestrictionslaidupontheHebrewsinthematterofanimalfoodbytheallimportantdistinction
betweencleanandunclean,asappliednotonlytoquadrupeds,buttofish,birds,andwinged
creaturesgenerally.Allcreaturestechnicallyuncleanweretaboo,tousethe
modernterm(seeABOMINATION,CLEANANDUNCLEAN).Therewereotherfoodtaboos,however,whichrequireabriefmentionhere.
Thechiefofthesewastheabsoluteprohibitionofthebloodevenofcleanbeastsandbirds,whichoccupiesaprominentplaceinallthe
stagesoftheHebrewdietarylegislation(Dt12:16,23,25,15:23Lv17:10ff.[H],3:17,7:26f.[P],etc.).Itsantiquityisattestedbythe
incidentrecorded1S14:32ff.AccordingtoP,indeed,itiscoevalwiththeDivinepermissiontoeatanimalfood(Gn9:4).Allsacrificial
animalshadthereforetobedrainedoftheirbloodbeforeanypartcouldbeofferedtoGodorman,andsowithallanimalsslaughteredfor
domesticuseonly(Dt12:15f.),andwithallgameofbeastandbirdtakeninthechase(Lv17:13).
Closelyassociatedwiththeabove(cf.Lv3:17)isthetabooimposeduponcertainspecifiedportionsoftheintestinalfatofthethree
sacrificialspecies,theox,thesheep,andthegoat(Lv3:3ff.,7:22ff.etc.),towhich,aswehaveseen,thefattailofthesheepwasadded.There
wasforbidden,further,thefleshofeveryanimalthathaddiedanaturaldeath(Dt14:21,Lv17:15),orhadbeendonetodeathbyabeastof
prey(Ex22:31,Lv17:15)inshort,allfleshwasrigidlytabooexceptthatofananimalwhichhadbeenrituallyslaughteredasabove
prescribed.Foranothercurioustaboo,seeGn32:32.TheJewsofthepresentdayeatonlysuchmeatashasbeencertifiedbytheirown
authoritiesaskosher,i.e.ashavingbeenkilledinthemannerprescribedbyRabbiniclaw.
TheintimateassociationinearlytimesbetweenfleshfoodandsacrificeexplainstheabhorrenceoftheHebrewforallfoodpreparedbythe
heathen,asillustratedbyDaniel(Dn1:8),JudasMaccabus(2Mac5:27),Josephus(Vita3),andtheirassociates(cf.alsoAc15:20,29,1Co
8:110,10:19,28).
11.AwordfinallyastothesourcesoftheHebrewfoodsupply.Underthesimplerconditionsofearlytimestheexclusivesourceofsupply
wasthehouseholdersownherd(Gn18:7)orflock(27:9),hisvineyardandoliveyardorhisgardenofherbs(1K21:2).AstheHebrews
becamedwellersincitiestheirfoodstuffsnaturallybecamemoreandmorearticlesofcommerce.Thebakers,forexample,whogavetheir
nametoastreetinJerusalem(Jer37:21),notonlyfiredthedoughpreparedinprivatehouses,asatthepresentday,but,doubtless,bakedand 22/34
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nametoastreetinJerusalem(Jer37:21),notonlyfiredthedoughpreparedinprivatehouses,asatthepresentday,but,doubtless,bakedand
soldbreadtothepublic,asdidtheirsuccessorsinthefirstandsecondcenturies(seeMishna,passim).Anactivetradeinvictualsisattested
forNehemiahsday(13:15f.),whenwehearofthefishgate(3:3)andthesheepgate(3:1),sonamed,doubtless,fromtheirrespective
markets.Thediscipleswereaccustomedtobuyprovisionsastheyjourneyedthroughtheland(Jn4:8cf.13:29)andCorinth,wemaybesure,
wasnottheonlycityofthetimethathadaprovisionmarket(1Co10:25,EVshambles).InJerusalem,again,cheesewastobeboughtinthe
CheesemakersValley(Tyropon),andoilattheoilmerchants(Mt25:9),andsoon.Intheearlymorningespecially,thestreetsnearthecity
gatesonthenorthandwest,whichledtothecountry,weredoubtlessthen,asnow,transformedintomarketplaces,linedwithmenandwomen
offeringforsaletheproduceoftheirfarmsandgardens.EventheoutercourtoftheTempleitselfhadinourLordsdaybecomeahouseof
merchandise(Jn2:16).
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
FOOL.TheHeb.languageisrichinwordswhichexpressvariouskindsoffolly.1.Thekeslisgliboftongue,hismouthishis
destruction(Pr18:7cf.9:13,14:33)inEc5:1f.thesacrificeoffoolsisofferedbyhimwhoisrashwithhismouth.Butsuchanoneis
lighthearted,thoughtlessandnoisyratherthanvicious.2.Theskhlmanifestshisfollynotinspeech,butinactionitwasafterDavidhad
numberedthepeoplethathereproachedhimselfforactingveryfoolishly(2S24:10).Consequencesprovethatfoolsofthisclasshave
blunderedintheircalculations(Gn31:28,1S13:13,Is44:25).3.Theevlisstupid,impatientofreproof,oftensullenandquarrelsome.He
despiseswisdomandinstruction(Pr1:7,cf.15:5),issoonangry(Pr12:16,27:3),andmaysometimesbedescribedassinful(Pr5:22f.,24:9).
4.Thefollyofthenbhlisnevermereintellectualdeficiencyorstupidityitisamoralfault,sometimesacrime,alwaysasin.Tocommit
follyisaeuphemismforgrossunchastity(Dt22:21,Jer29:23)thewordisusedalsoofsacrilege(Jos7:15),ofblasphemy(Ps74:18),as
wellasofimpietyingeneral(Dt32:6,Ps14:1).Thesewordsaresometimesemployedinamoregeneralsensetodeterminetheshadeof
meaningapplicableinanypassage,a
studyofthecontextisessential.ForfurtherdetailsseeKennedy,HebrewSynonyms,p.29ff.
IntheNTtheGr.wordsforfooldescribehimasdeficientinunderstanding(Lk24:25),unwise(Eph5:16),senseless(Lk12:20),
unintelligent(Ro1:21).TheGr.wordwhichcorrespondstotheimpiousfooloftheOTisfoundinMt5:22:Racaexpressescontemptfora
manshead=youstupid!Butfool(mre)expressescontemptforhisheartandcharacter=youscoundrell(Bruce,EGT,inloc.).Ifmre
wereaHebrewexpressionofcondemnation(RVm),itwouldenjoythedistinctionofbeingtheonlypureHebrewwordintheGreek
Testament(Field,NotesontheTranslationofNT,p.3).ApureHebrewwordmeansawordnottakenfromtheLXXandnotAramaic.
J.G.TASKER.
FOOT.Is3:18,18referstotheornamentsofwomensfeet.Mostofthemetaphoricalorfigurativeusagesareconnectedwiththeideaof
thefeetasthelowestpartofthebody,opposedtotheheadhencefallingatamansfeet,astheextremeofreverenceorhumility,kissingthe
feet(Lk7:38),sittingatthefeet,astheattitudeofthepupil(Lk10:39,Ac22:3).Thefootwasliterallyplacedontheneckofconqueredfoes
(Jos10:24),asmaybeseeninEgyptianmonuments.Henceunderfootisusedofsubjection(Ps8:6,1Co15:27).InDt11:10thereferenceis
tosomesystemofirrigationinvogueinEgypt,eithertotheturningofawaterwheelbythefoot,ortoamethodofdistributingwaterfroma
canalbymakingorbreakingdownwiththefootthesmallridgeswhichregulateitsflow(Driver,adloc.).Otherusagesarisefromthefeetas
stainedordefiledinwalking.Theshakingofdustfromthefeet(Mt10:14,Ac13:51)wasthesignofcompleterejectionthelandwasasa
heathenland,anditsdustunclean.Sothesandalswereremovedasasignofreverence(Ex3:5,Jos5:15cf.coveringthefeet,Is6:2).To
removethesandalwasalsothesignoftherenunciationofaright(Dt25:9,Ru4:8).Towalkbarefootwasthesymbolofmourning(2S15:30)
orslavery(Is20:2).Jer2:25Withholdthyfootfrombeingunshod,i.e.donotweartheshoesoffyourfeetinrunningafterstrangegods.
Washingthefeetstainedwiththedustoftheroadwaspartoftheregulardutyofhospitality(Gn18:4,Ex30:19,2S11:8,Ca5:3,Lk7:44).
Theuseofointmentforthispurposewasthesignofthepenitentslavishlove(Lk7:38,Jn12:3).ThewashingofthefeetattheLastSupper
isprimarilyconnectedwiththiscustom(Jn13).ChristtheLordandMasterassumesthegarbanddoestheworkofaslave(13:4).Thelesson
isnotmerelyoneofhumility(cf.thedisputeinLk22:24),butofreadyandselfsacrificingservice.AninterestingRabbinicparallelisquoted23/34
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isnotmerelyoneofhumility(cf.thedisputeinLk22:24),butofreadyandselfsacrificingservice.AninterestingRabbinicparallelisquoted
onEzk16:9:AmongmentheslavewasheshismasterbutwithGoditisnotso.Edersheimfurtherseesintheactasubstituteforthe
washingofhandswhichwaspartofthePaschalceremonialandtheremaybeareferencetotheproverb,connectedwiththeGreekmysteries,
thatagreatundertakingmustnotbeentereduponwithunwashedfeet.TheserviceoftheKingdomofheaven(orinparticularthecrisisof
thatnight)isnottobeapproachedinthespiritofunthinkingprideshowninthedisputeaboutprecedence(seeD.Smith,TheDaysofHis
Flesh,p.440).Besidesthelessonofhumility,thereisalsothesymbolismofpurification.St.Peter,atfirstprotesting,afterwards
characteristicallyacceptsthisasliteral.Christsreplytakesupthefigureofonewhohaswalkedfromthebathtohishostshouse,andneeds
onlytohavethedustofhisjourneyremoved.Broadly,theyarecleanbytheirconsecrationtoHim,buttheyneedcontinualcleansingfromthe
defilementsofdailylife.ItseemsimpossiblenottoseeinthewordbathedaforeshadowingoftheideaofChristianbaptism(Westcott,ad
loc.).Thesameorothercommentariesshouldbeconsultedforlaterimitationsoftheceremony(cf.1Ti5:10).
C.W.EMMET.
FOOTMAN.Thiswordisusedintwodifferentsenses:1.Afootsoldier,alwaysinplur.footmen,footsoldiers,infantry.Footmen
probablycomposedthewholeoftheIsr.forces(1S4:10,15:4)beforethetimeofDavid.2.Arunneronfoot:1S22:17(AVmorguard,Heb.
runnersRVguard,RVmHeb.runners).Runnerswouldbetheliteral,andatthesametimethemostappropriate,rendering.Theking
hadabodyofrunnersabouthim,notsomuchtoguardhispersonastorunhiserrandsanddohisbidding.Theyformedarecognizedpartof
theroyalstate(1S8:11,2S15:1)theyservedasexecutioners(1S22:17,2K10:25)and,accompanyingthekingorhisgeneralintobattle,
theybroughtbackofficialtidingsofitsprogressorevent(2S18:18).InJer12:5boththeHeb.andtheEng.(footmen)seemtobeusedinthe
moregeneralsenseofracersonfoot.
FOOTSTOOL.SeeHOUSE,8.
FORBEARANCE.SeeLONGSUFFERING.
FORD.OfthenumerousfordsorpassagesoftheJordan,twoinancienttimeswereofchiefimportance:thatoppositeJerichonear
Gilgal(Jos2:7,Jg3:28),andthatatBethabara(mod.Abarah),atthejunctionoftheJalud(whichdrainstheJezreelvalley)andtheJordan.
BridgesarenowusedincrossingtheJordan.In2S15:28,17:18theAVhasplainforfords,andinJg12:5,6passages.Otherfordswere
thoseoftheJabbok(Gn32:22)andtheArnon(Is16:2).
G.L.ROBINSON.
FOREHEAD.InJer3:3awhoresforeheadisatypeofshamelessnessinEzk3:8,8theforeheadstandsforobstinacy.In9:4the
righteousreceiveamark,probablytheletterTaw,ontheirforehead.HencethesymbolisminRev7:3,etc.,wherethemarkistheDivine
signet.Itisdoubtfulwhatisthemarkofthebeast(Rev13:15)seeSwete,adloc.17:5isaprobableallusiontoacustomofRomanharlots.
Shavingtheforeheadinsignofmourningisforbidden(Dt14:1).ForEzk16:12,seeRV.SeealsoMARKS.
C.W.EMMET.
FOREIGNER.SeeNATIONS,STRANGER.
FOREKNOWLEDGE.SeePREDESTINATION.
FORERUNNER.TheEnglishwordgivestheexactsenseoftheGreekprodromos,which,initsclassicalusage,signifiesonewhogoes
beforeitmaybeasascouttoreconnoitre,orasaheraldtoannouncethecomingofthekingandtomakereadythewayfortheroyaljourney.
1.JohntheBaptistwasourLordsforerunner.ThewordisneverappliedtohimintheNT,buthewasthemessengersentbeforethe
faceoftheLordtopreparehisway(Mt11:10,Mk1:2,Lk7:27cf.Mal3:1),andtoexhortotherstomakehispathsstraight(Mk1:2cf.
Is40:3ff.).
2. OnlyinHe6:20isthewordforerunnerfoundintheEV(Wyclifthebiforgoer,Rheimstheprecursor).InsteadoftheAVwhither 24/34
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2.OnlyinHe6:20isthewordforerunnerfoundintheEV(Wyclifthebiforgoer,Rheimstheprecursor).InsteadoftheAVwhither
theforerunnerhasforusentered,evenJesus,theRVrightlyrenders:whitherasaforerunnerJesusenteredforus.Thechangeisimportant.
TothereadersofthisEpistleitwouldbeastartlingannouncementthatJesushadenteredtheHolyofHoliesasaforerunner.Thitherthe
Jewishhighpriest,onedayintheyear,wentalone(He9:7).Hewasthepeoplesrepresentative,buthewasnottheirforerunner,fornone
mightdaretofollowhim.ThekeynoteoftheEpistleisthatallbelievershaveaccesswithboldnesstothepresenceoftheMostHolyGodin
thebloodofJesustheyhavethisboldnessbecausetheirHighPriesthasinauguratedforthemafreshandlivingway(10:19ff.).Already
withintheveilhopeenterswithassurance,forJesushasgonethatwemayfollowtoo.AstheForerunnerofHisredeemedHehas
inauguratedtheirentrance,Hemakesintercessionforthem,andHeispreparingforthemaplace(Jn14:2).Commentingonthesignificanceof
thisoneword,Dr.A.B.BrucesaysthatitexpressesthewholeessentialdifferencebetweentheChristianandtheLeviticalreligion
betweenthereligionthatbringsmennightoGod,andthereligionthatkeptorleftmenstandingafaroff(Expositor,III.vii.[1888],p.167f.).
J.G.TASKER.
FOREST.1.yaar(rootmeaningaruggedplace),Dt19:5,2K2:24,Jer46:23,Mic3:12etc.2.horesh,2Ch27:4etc.tr.wood,1S
23:15(perhapsapropername).3.pards,Neh2:3AVkingsforest,RVmparkalsotr.orchards,Ca4:13,Ec2:5,RVparks.Fromthe
manyreferencesitisclearthatPalestinehadmoreextensiveforestsinancienttimesthantoday,indeed,withinlivingmemorytherehas
beenavastdestructionoftreesforfuel.Considerablepatchesofwoodlandstillexist,e.g.onTaborandCarmel,inpartsofN.Galilee,around
Banias,andspeciallyinGileadbetweenesSaltandtheJabbok.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
FORGETFULNESS.Ps88:12Shallthywondersbeknowninthedark?andthyrighteousnessinthelandofforgetfulness?The
meaningisgeneral,asCoverdalethelondewhereallthingesareforgotten,butprobablymorepassivethanactive,thatthepersonisforgotten
ratherthanthatheforgets.SoWis17:3butinWis14:26,16:11,Sir11:25thewordexpressesthetendencytoforget.
FORGIVENESS.LikemanyotherwordsemployedtoconveyideasconnectedwiththerelationsofGodandman,thiscoversavariety
ofthoughts.InbothOTandNTwehaveevidencesofamoreelasticvocabularythantheEVwouldleadustosuppose.1.TheOThasatleast
threedifferentwordsalltr.
forgivenessorpardon,referringeithertoGodsactionswithregardtomen(cf.
Ex34:7,Ps86:5,Neh9:17)ortoforgivenessextendedtomenbyeachother(cf.Gn50:17,1S25:28).Ataveryearlyperiodofhuman,orat
leastofJewish,history,somesenseoftheneedofforgivenessbyGodseemstohavebeenfelt.Thiswillbeespeciallyevidentifthewordsof
despairingcomplaintputintothemouthofCalnbetr.literally(seeDriver,TheBookofGenesis,on4:13,cf.RVm).Thepowertoforgive
cametobelookedonasinherentinGod,whonotonlypossessedtheauthority,butlovedthustoexhibitHismercy(Dn9:9,Neh9:17,Jer
36:3).Inorder,however,toobtainthisgift,acorrespondingconditionofhumiliationandrepentanceonmansparthadtobefulfilled(2Ch
7:14,Ps86:5),andwithoutaconsciousdeterminationofthetransgressortoamendandturntowardshisGod,nohopeofpardonwasheldout
(Jos24:19,2K24:4,Jer5:1,7).Ontheotherhand,assoonasmenacknowledgedtheirerrors,andaskedGodtoforgive,nolimitwassetto
Hisloveinthisrespect(1K8:36,50,Ps103:3cf.Dt30:110).Norcouldthisconditionberegardedasunreasonable,forholiness,the
essentialcharacteristicoftheDivinenature,demandedanansweringcorrespondenceonthepartofmanmadeinGodsimage.Withoutthis
correspondenceforgivenesswasrenderedimpossible,andthat,sotospeak,automatically(cf.Lv19:2,Jos24:19seeNu14:18,Job10:14,
Nah1:3).
AccordingtotheLeviticalcode,whenwrongwasdonebetweenmanandman,thefirstrequlsiteinordertoDivinepardonwasrestitution,
whichhadtobefollowedupbyaserviceofatonement(Lv6:27).Eveninthecaseofsinsofignorance,repentanceanditsoutward
expressioninsacrificehadtoprecedeforgiveness(Lv4:13ff.,Nu15:23ff.etc.).HeretheeducativeinfluenceoftheLawmusthavebeen
powerful,inculcatingasitdidatoncethetranscendentholinessofGodandtheneedofasimilarholinessonthepartofHispeople(Lv11:44).
ThusthePaulinesaying,ThelawhathbeenourtutortobringustoChrist(Gal3:24),isprofoundlytrue,andthegreatpriestlyservicesofthe
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ThusthePaulinesaying,ThelawhathbeenourtutortobringustoChrist(Gal3:24),isprofoundlytrue,andthegreatpriestlyservicesofthe
Temple,withthesolemnandornateritual,musthavegivenglimpsesoftheapproachbywhichmencouldfeeltheirwayandobtainthehelp
indispensablefortheneedsadumbratedbythedemandsoftheMosaicinstitutions.Theburdenofthepropheticexhortations,Turnye,turnye,
whywillyedie?(Ezk33:11cf.Is44:22,Jer35:15,18:11,Hos14:1,Jl2:13etc.),wouldbemeaninglessifthepowertoobeywerewithheld,
orthewaykepthidden.Indeed,thesepreachersofmoralrighteousnessdidnothesitatetoemphasizetheconversesideofthistruthindwelling
ontherepentanceofGodandHisreturningtoHisafflictedbutrepentantpeople(Jon3:9,Mal3:7etc.).Theresultanteffectofthismutual
approachwastherestorationtoDivinefavour,ofthosewhohadbeenalienated,bythefreeactofforgivenessonthepartofGod(Ps85:4,Is
55:7,59:20,Jer13:17,24etc.).
2.WearethusnotsurprisedtolearnthatbeliefintheforgivenessofsinswasacardinalarticleoftheJewishfaithinthetimeofJesus(Mk
2:7=Lk5:21,cf.Is43:25).NorwastheteachingofJesusinanyinstanceoutoflinewiththenationalbelief,for,accordingtoHiswords,the
sourceofallpardonwasHisFather(Mk11:25f.,Mt6:14f.cf.Hisappealonthecross,Father,forgivethem,Lk23:34).Itistruethatthe
SonofManhathpoweronearthtoforgivesins(Mk2:10=Mt9:6=Lk5:24),buttheformoftheexpressionshowsthatJesuswaslaying
claimtoadelegatedauthority(cf.Lk7:43,where,asinthecaseofthepalsiedman,thewordsaredeclaratoryratherthanabsolutesee
Plummer,ICC,inloc.).ThisismoreclearlyseenbyareferencetoNTepistolaryliterature,whereagainandagainforgivenessandrestoration
arespokenofasmediatedinorthroughChrist(Eph4:32,Col2:12ff.,1P5:10cf.Eph1:7,Rev1:5,1Jn2:12etc.).Here,asinOT,only
moreinsistentlydwelton,theconsciousnessofguiltandoftheneedofpersonalholinessisthefirststepontheroadtoGodsforgiveness(1Jn
1:9,cf.Ps32:5,51:3etc.)andtheopenacknowledgmentofthesefeelingsislookedonasthenaturaloutcomeoftheirexistence(Ac19:18
cf.Ro10:10,1Jn1:9).ThehopelessnesswhichattimesseemedtohavesettleddownonJesus,whenconfrontedbyPharisaicopposition,was
theresultofthemoralandspiritualblindnessofthereligiousteacherstotheirrealposition(Jn9:40f.).
3.Again,followingalongthelinewehavetracedintheOT,onlymoredefinitelyandspecificallyemphasized,theNTwritersaffirmthe
necessityforamorallikenessbetweenGodandman(cf.Mt5:48).Itisinthisregion,perhaps,thatthemoststrikingdevelopmentistobe
seen.Withoutexhibiting,intheirrelationstoeachother,theDivinespiritofforgiveness,menneedneverhopetoexperienceGodspardonfor
themselves.This,weareinclinedtothink,isthemoststrikingfeatureintheethicalcreationsofJesusteaching.Byalmosteverymethodof
instruction,fromincidentalpostulate(Mt6:12=Lk11:4,Mk11:25)todeliberatestatement(Mt18:21ff.,6:15,Mk11:25,Lk17:4)and
elaborateparable(Mt18:2335),HesoughttoattunethemindsofHishearerstothishighanddifficultnoteoftheChristianspirit(cf.Col
3:13,1Jn4:11).Oncemore,JesusdefinitelyassertsthelimitationtowhichthepardonandmercyevenofGodaresubjected.Whatevermay
betheprecisemeaningattachingtothewordsaneternalsin(Mk3:29),itisplainthatsomedefiniteborderlineisreferredtoasthelineof
demarcationbetweenthosewhomayhopeforthisevidenceofGodsloveandthosewhoareoutsideitsscope(Mt12:32).Seeart.SIN,III.1.
4.Wehavelastlytoconsiderthewords,recordedonlybySt.John,oftherisenJesustoHisassembleddisciples(Jn20:23).Itis
remarkablethatthisistheonlyplaceintheFourthGospelwherethewordtr.forgive(RV)occurs,andwemustnotforgetthattheincidentof
conferringthepowerofabsolutiononthebodyofbelievers,astheyweregatheredtogether,ispeculiartothiswriter.Atthesametime,itis
instructivetorememberthatnowhereisSt.Johnmuchconcernedwithasimplenarrativeofeventsassuchheseemstobeengagedratherin
choosingthosefactswhichhecansubordinatetohisteachingpurposes.Thechoice,then,ofthiscircumstancemusthavebeenintentional,as
havingaparticularsignificance,andwhentheimmediatelyprecedingcontextisread,itisseenthatthepeculiarpowertransmittedis
consequentuponthegiftoftheHolySpirit.Ontwootheroccasionssomewhatsimilarpowerswerepromised,oncepersonallytoSt.Peteras
thegreatrepresentativeofthatcompletefaithintheIncarnationofwhichtheChurchistheguardianintheworld(Mt16:19),andoncetothe
Churchinitscorporatecapacityasthefinaljudgeofthetermsoffellowshipforeachofitsmembers(Mt18:18).Inboththeseinstancesthe
wordsusedbyJesuswithregardtothisspiritualpowerdifferfromthosefoundinthenarrativeoftheFourthGospel,andthelatterisseento
bemoredefinite,profound,andfarreachinginitsscopethantheformer.TheabidingpresenceofthelivingSpiritintheChurchisthesure
guaranteethatherpowersinjudgingspiritualthingsareinherentinher(cf.1Co2:1215)astheBodyofChrist.Henceforthshecarriesinher
bosomtheauthoritysoemphaticallyclaimedbyherLord,todeclarethewondrousfactofDivineforgiveness(Ac13:38)andtosetforththe
conditionsuponwhichitultimatelyrests(seeWestcott,GospelofSt.John,inloc.).CloselyconnectedwiththeexerciseofthisDivinelygiven
authorityistheriteofBaptism,conditionedbyrepentanceandissuingintheremissionofsins(Ac2:38).Itistheinitialactinvirtueof
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authorityistheriteofBaptism,conditionedbyrepentanceandissuingintheremissionofsins(Ac2:38).Itistheinitialactinvirtueof
whichtheChurchclaimstorule,guide,andupbuildthelifeofhermembers.Itissymbolic,aswasJohnsbaptism,ofadeathuntosinanda
newbirthuntorighteousness(Mk1:4=Lk3:3cf.Ro6:4,Col2:12).Itismorethansymbolic,forbyit,asbyavisiblechannel,thelivingand
activeSpiritofGodisconveyedtothesoul,wherethefruitionofthepromisedforgivenessisseeninthefulnessoftheChristianlife(Ac
2:38,cf.10:43,47,19:5f.).
5.OnmorethanoneoccasionSt.Paulspeaksoftheforgivenessofsinsasconstitutingtheredemptionofthehumanraceeffectedbythe
deathofChrist(throughhisbloodEph1:7,cf.Col1:14)andtheauthoroftheEpistletotheHebrewsemphasizesthisaspectoftheatoning
workofJesusbyshowingitsharmonywithallwithwhichpreviousrevelationhadmadeusfamiliar,forapartfromsheddingofbloodthereis
noremission(9:22).Thesamewriter,moreover,assertsthatoncethisobjecthasbeenaccomplished,nothingfurtherremainstobedone,as
thereisnomoreofferingforsin(10:18)thanthatwhichthebloodofJesus(10:19)hasaccomplished.ThetriumphantcryoftheCrucified,
Itisfinished(Jn19:30),isforthiswritertheguaranteenotonlythattheDeathofChrististheobjectivegroundonwhichthesinsofmen
areremitted(Dale,TheAtonement,p.430f.)itisalsotheassurancethatforgivenessofsinisthegoalofthelifeanddeathofHimwhose
firstwordsfromthecrossbreathedaprayerfortheforgivenessofHistormentors.
J.R.WILLIS.
FORNICATION.SeeCRIMESANDPUNISHMENTS,3.
FORTIFICATIONANDSIEGECRAFT.AtthedateoftheHebrew
invasionofCanaanitsinhabitantswerefoundtobeinpossessionofcitiesgreatandfenceduptoheaven(Dt9:1cf.Nu13:28,Jos14:12),
mostofthem,asisnowknown,withahistoryofmanycenturiesbehindthem.Theinhabitedplaces,thenasalways,wereoftwoclasses,
walledandunwalled(Dt3:5),thelattercomprisingthecountryvillages,theformertheverynumerouscities,whichthoughsmallinarea
werefenced,i.e.fortified(themoderntermeverywhereadoptedbyAmer.RV),withhighwalls,gates,andbars.Inthisarticleitis
proposedtoindicatethenatureofthewallsbywhichthesecitieswerefencedinOTtimes,andofthefortressesorstrongholdssofrequently
mentionedinHebrewhistory,andfinally,todescribethemethodsofattackanddefenceadoptedbytheHebrewsandtheircontemporaries.
1.TheearliestfortificationyetdiscoveredinPalestineisthaterected,itmaybe,asfarbackasB.C.4000bytheneolithiccavedwellersof
Gezer.Thisconsistedofasimplebankofearth,betweensixandsevenfeetinheight,theinsidefaceofwhichisvertical,theoutsidesloping,
andbothcasedwithrandomstones(PEFSt,1903,113,withsectionplan1161904,200fordatesee1905,29).Asimilarearthrampartwas
foundatTellelHesy,theancientLachish.
TheSemiticinvaders,whoappearedinCanaanaboutthemiddleofthethirdmillennium,wereablewiththeirtoolsofbronzetocarrythe
artoffortificationfarbeyondthisprimitivestage.Theircitieswereplantedforthemostpartonanoutlyingspurofamountainrange,orona
moreorlessisolatedeminenceortell.Ineithercasethesteeprockfacesofnaturesbuildingmaybesaidtohavebeenthecitysfirstlineof
defence.Thewalls,ofcrudebrickorstone,withwhichartsupplementednature,followedthecontoursoftheridge,therockitselfbeing
frequentlycutawaytoformartificialscarps,onthetopofwhichthecitywallwasbuilt.Consequentlythewallswerenotrequiredtobeof
uniformheightthroughouttheenceinte,beinglowestwheretherockscarpwassteepest,andhighestonthatsideofthecityfromwhich
approachwaseasiestandattackmosttobefeared.Inthelattercase,asatJerusalem,whichwasassailableonlyfromthenorth,itwasusualto
strengthenthedefencesbyawideanddeeptrench.Where,ontheotherhand,thecitywaspercheduponanelevatedtell,asatGezer,Lachish,
andintheShephlahgenerally,atrenchwasnotrequired.
TherecentexcavationsinPalestinehaveshownthatthefortificationsofCanaaniteandHebrewcitieswerebuilt,liketheirhouses,ofsun
driedbricks,orofstone,orofbothcombined.Whenbrickwasthechiefmaterialitwasusualtobeginwithoneormorefoundationcoursesof
stoneasaprotectionagainstdamp.Aftertheintroductionofthehatteringram(6)itwasnecessarytoincreasetheresistanceofbrickwalls
byarevetmentorfacingofstone,orlessfrequentlyofkilnburntbricks,moreespeciallyinthelowerpartofthewall.AtTellelHesyor
Lachishthelowerfaceofthenorthwallhadbeenpreservedbyastrengtheningwallontheoutside,consistingoflargeroughstonesina
parallellineaboutthreefeetaway,withtheinterveningspacefilledinwithpebbles(Bliss,AMoundofManyCities,29).AtTellesSafi,
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parallellineaboutthreefeetaway,withtheinterveningspacefilledinwithpebbles(Bliss,AMoundofManyCities,29).AtTellesSafi,
againperhapstheancientGaththelowerpartofthecitywallshowsexternalandinternalfacingsofrubblewithapackingofearthand
smallfieldstones,whiletheupperparthadbeenbuiltoflargemudbricks(BlissandMacalister,ExcavationsinPalestine,30tobecitedin
thesequelasBM.Exc.Inthisworkwillbefounddetaileddescriptions,withplansandillustrations,ofthewallsofthevariouscitiesof
SouthernPalestineexcavatedbythePalestineExplorationFundin18981900).
Thetreatmentofthestoneusedforfortificationsandothermasonryofimportancevariedconsiderablyinthesuccessiveperiods,gradually
advancingfromthatoftheimposingbutprimitivecyclopeanwallscharacteristicoftheearlyarchitectureoftheLevant,tothecarefully
dressedstoneswithdraftedmargins,laidinperfectcourses,oftheHerodianperiod.Therewasalsoagreatvarietyinthesizeofthestones
employed.SomeofthosestillinsituinthewalloftheTempleenclosureatJerusalemareover30feetlong,8feetwide,and31/2feethigh,
weighingover80tons(Warren),andeventheseareexceededbythecolossalstones,over60feetinlength,stilltobeseeninthetemplewall
atBaalbek.
2.Thethicknessofthewallsvariedfromcitytocity,andeveninthesamecity,beingtoacertainextentdependentontherequiredheight
atanygivenpoint.TheouterwallofGezer,ofdatecir.B.C.1500,was14feetinthickness.AtoneperiodthenorthwallofLachishwasat
least17feetthick,whileathicknessof28ft.isreachedbyawallwhichisregardedastheoldestfortificationofMegiddo.Thefootofthis
wall,accordingtoawellknownpractice,wasprotectedbyaglacisofbeatenearth.
Toincreasethestrengthofawall,theearliestbuilderswerecontenttoaddtoitsthicknessbymeansofbuttresses,which,byincreasingthe
projection,graduallypassintotowers.Thelatterwereindispensableatthecornersofwalls(cf.2Ch26:15,Zeph1:16,bothRVmseethe
plansofthewallsandtowersofTellZakariyaetc.inBM.Exc.).Besidesstrengtheningthewall,theprojectingtowerswereofthefirst
importanceasenablingthedefenderstocommandtheportionofthewalls,technicallythecurtain,betweenthem.
Col.Billerbeck,arecognizedauthorityonancientfortifications,hasshownthatthelengthofthecurtainbetweenthetowerswas
determinedbytheeffectiverangeofthebowsandslingsoftheperiod,whichheestimatesat30metres,say,100feet
(DerFestungsbauimAltenOrient,4f.).ThisestimatereceivesastrikingconfirmationfromtheearlierofthetwowallsofGezer,ofdatecir.
B.C.2900.Thiswallisprovidedwithlongnarrowtowers,ofsmallprojection,atintervalsof
90feet,whichispreciselythedistancebetweenthetowersofSargonscityatKhorsabad.ThemostfamoustowersinlaterHebrewhistoryare
thethreeroyaltowersofHerodsJerusalemHippicus,Phasaelus,andMariamne.
3.Theheightofthefortifications,aswehaveseen,variedwiththenatureofthesite.Theminimumheight,accordingtoBillerbeck(op.
cit.6),wasabout30feet,thisbeingthemaximumlengthoftheancientscalingladders.NoCanaanitecitywall,however,hasyetbeenfound
intact,andwecanonlycalculateroughlyfromthebreadthwhattheheightmayhavebeeninanyparticularcase.Theformer,accordingtothe
authorityjustquoted,hadforreasonsofstabilitytobefromonethirdtotwothirdsoftheheight.Fromthenumerousrepresentationsofcity
wallsontheAssyriansculptures,andfromothersources,weknowthatthewallswerefurnishedwithabreastworkorbattlements,generally
crenellatedprobablythepinnaclesofIs54:12RV.Thetowersinparticularwereprovidedwithprojectingbattlementssupportedoncorbels
springingfromthewall.
Whenthesitewasstronglyprotectedbynature,asinglewallsufficedotherwiseitwasnecessarytohaveanouterwall,whichwasofless
heightthanthemainwall.ThisisthechlfrequentlymentionedinOT,generallyrenderedrampart(1K21:23)orbulwark)Is26:1).AtTell
SandahannahprobablytheancientMareshahwerefoundtwowallsofthesameperiod,theouterbeinginsomeplaces15feetinadvance
oftheinner(BM.Exc.54).Itwasonasimilarouterwall(chl)thatthewisewomanofAbelofBethmaacahheldparleywithJoab(2S
20:15forthereadingseeCent.Bible,inloc.).Jerusalem,asiswellknown,waslatterlyfencedontheN.andN.W.bythreeindependent
walls(seeJERUSALEM).
4.Inadditiontoitswalls,everyancientcityofimportancepossessedastronglyfortifiedplace,correspondingtotheacropolisofGreek
cities,whichservedasarefugefrom,andalastdefenceagainst,theenemywhenthecityitselfhadbeenstormed(cf.Jg9:51).Suchwasthe
strongtowerofThebez(Jg.loc.cit.),thecastleinTirzah(1K16:18RV),andthetowerofJezreel(2K9:17).Themostfrequentdesignation
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strongtowerofThebez(Jg.loc.cit.),thecastleinTirzah(1K16:18RV),andthetowerofJezreel(2K9:17).Themostfrequentdesignation
inEV,however,isholdorstronghold,asthestrongholdofZion(2S5:7),theacropolisoftheJebusitecity,whichAVin5:9termsthe
fort,andin1Ch11:5thecastleofZion.InthelaterstruggleswiththeSyriansandRomans,respectively,twoJerusalemfortsplayedan
importantpart:thecitadel(RV)of1Mac1:32,3:45etc.(intheoriginaltheAcra,builtbyAntiochusIV.)andthecastleofAntonia,onthe
siteoftheearliercastleofNehemiahsday(Neh2:8,7:2RV),anditselfthecastleofAc21:34,22:24etc.
ApartfromthesecitadelsthereisfrequentmentioninOToffortressesinthemodernsenseoftheword,thatis,strongplacesspecially
designedtoprotectthefrontier,andtocommandtheroadsandpassesbywhichthecountrymightbeinvaded.Suchweremostoftheplaces
built,i.e.fortified,bySolomon(1K9:15,17f.),thestrongholdsfortifiedandprovisionedbyRehoboam(2Ch11:11),thecastlesand
towersbuiltbyJotham(27:4),andmanymore.Asmallerisolatedfortwasnamedthetowerofthewatchmen(2K17:9,18:8).Amongthe
morefamousfortressesoflatertimesmaybenamedastypes:theIdumanfortressofBethsura,conspicuousintheMaccabanstruggle
Jotapata,thefortressinGalileeassociatedwiththenameofthehistorianJosephusMachrus,saidbyPlinytohavebeenthestrongestplace
inPalestine,nexttoJerusalemandMasada,thesceneoftheJewslaststandagainsttheRomans.
WhilethereisEgyptianevidencefortheexistenceoffortressesinSouthern
PalestineortheneighbourhoodasearlyasB.C.3600,andwhileastatueofGudea(cir.B.C.3000),withthetracingofanelaboratefortress,
showsthattheearlyBabylonianswereexpertfortressbuilders,theoldestactualremainsofaCanaanitefortressarethosediscoveredby
SchumacheronthesiteofMegiddoin1904,anddatedbyhimbetweenB.C.2500and2000.Itsmostinterestingfeatureisafosse8ft.wide
andfrom6to10ft.deep,withacounterscarplinedwithstone.AttheneighbouringTaanachDr.Sellinlaidbareseveralforts,amongthem
thenowfamouscastleofIshtarWashshur,inwhichwasfoundthefirstPalestinianlibraryyetdiscovered,intheshapeofaseriesof
cuneiformtabletscontainingthisprincescorrespondencewithneighbouringchiefs.
Itisimpossiblewithinthelimitsofthisarticletogivedetailsofthoseinterestingbuildings.ThestudentisreferredtoSellinsTellTaanek
invol.50(1904),andhisNachlessinvol.52(1905),oftheDenkschriftenoftheViennaAcademy.Anexcellentrsum,withplansand
photographs,bothoftheTaanachandtheMegiddofortresses,isgivenbyFatherVincentinhisCanaandaprslexplorationrcente,pp.47
65.Moreeasilyaccessibletotheordinarystudentisthedetailedaccount,withmeasurementsandplans,ofthecitadelofTellZakariya
perhapstheancientAzekahfortifiedbyRehoboam(2Ch11:9,cf.Jer34:7)givenbyBlissandMacalisterintheirExcavations,etc.,pp.14
23,andplates25.
5.Nomentionhasasyetbeenmadeofanimportantelementinthelineofacitysdefences,namely,thegates.Thesewereasfewas
possible,asbeingtheweakestpartofthedefence,andforthesamereasonthestrongesttowersarefoundoneithersideofthegates(cf.2Ch
26:9).Themosteffectivearrangementwastomakethegatewayapassagethroughasinglegatetower,whichprojectedbeyondboththeouter
andinnerfacesofthewall.Insuchcasestwogateswereprovided,anouterandaninner,ateitherendofthepassage,aswasthecaseat
Mahanaim,whereDavidisfoundsittingbetweenthetwogates(2S18:24).Herewefurtherlearnthatitwasusualtohaveastairleadingup
toanupperstoreyinthegatetower(v.33),theroofofwhichwasapparentlyonalevelwiththetopofthecitywall(v.24).Inplaceofa
straightpassagewaythroughthetower,apassagebentatarightangleliketheletterLincreasedthepossibilitiesofdefence.Inmostcasesthe
baseoftheLwouldbeontheinside,towardsthecity,butinoneoftheTaanachfortsabovereferredtotheoutergateisinthesideofanouter
tower,anditistheinnergatethatisinlinewiththewalls(seerestoredplaninVincent,op.cit.59).Theaveragewidthofthenumerous
gatewayslaidbarebyrecentexcavationisaboutninefeet.
Thegateitself,calledthedoorofthegateinNeh6:1,consistedordinarilyoftwopartsorleaves(Is45:1)ofwood.Forgreatersecurity
againstfirethesewereoftenoverlaidwithbronze,thegatesofbrassofPs107:16,Is45:2.Theleaveswerehungonpivotswhichturnedin
socketsinthesillandlintel,andwerefastenedbyboltsletintotheformer.Astrongbarorbarsofwood,bronze(1K4:13),oriron(Job40:18)
securedthewholegate,passingtransverselyintosocketsinthegateposts,aswelearnfromSamsonsexploitatGaza(Jg16:13).Tohave

thechargeofthegate(2K7:17)wasamilitarypostofhonour,asthispassageshows.Inwartime,atleast,asentinelwaspostedontheroof 29/34
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thechargeofthegate(2K7:17)wasamilitarypostofhonour,asthispassageshows.Inwartime,atleast,asentinelwaspostedontheroof
ofthegatehouseortower(2S18:24,cf.2K9:17).
6.ItremainstodealbrieflywiththesiegecraftoftheHebrewsandtheircontemporaries.Afencedorfortifiedplacemightbecapturedin
threeways:(a)byassaultorstorm,(b)byablockade,or(c)byaregularsiege.(a)Thefirstmethodwasmostlikelytosucceedinthecaseof
placesofmoderatestrength,orwheretreacherywasatwork(cf.Jg1:23ff.).Theassaultwasdirectedagainsttheweakestpointsofthe
enceinte,particularlythegates(cf.Is28:6).BeforetheHebrewslearnedtheuseofthebatteringram,entrancetoanenemyscityorfortress
wasobtainedbysettingfiretothegates(Jg9:49,52),andbyscalingthewallsbymeansofscalingladders,undercoverofadeadlyshowerof
arrowsandslingstones.Accordingto1Ch11:6,JoabwasthefirsttoscalethewallsoftheJebusitefortressofZion,whenDavidtookitby
assault.Althoughscalingladdersareexplicitlymentionedonlyin1Mac5:30apriorreferencemaybefoundinPr21:22theyare
familiarobjectsintheEgyptianrepresentationsofsiegesfromanearlydate,aswellasinthelaterAssyrianrepresentations,andmaybe
assumedtohavebeenusedbytheHebrewsfromthefirst.Inearlytimes,asisplainfromtheaccountsofthecaptureofAi(Jos8:10ff.)and
Shechem(Jg9:42ff.),afavouritestratagemwastoenticethedefendersfromthecitybyapretendedflight,andthenaforceplacedinambush
wouldmakeadashforthegate.
(b)Thesecondmethodwastocompletelysurroundthecity,and,bypreventingingressandegress,tostarveitintosurrender.Thiswas
evidentlythemethodadoptedbyJoabattheblockadeofRabbathammon,whichwasforcedtocapitulateafterthecaptureofthewaterfort
(forthisrenderingseeCent.Bibleon2S12:26f.),bywhichthedefendersmainwatersupplywascutoff.
(c)Inconductingaregularsiege,whichofcourseincludedbothblockadeandassault,thefirststepwastocastupabank(AV2S20:15,
2K19:32,Is37:33)ormount(AVEzk4:2,17:17RVhasmount,Amer.RVmoundthroughout).Thiswasamoundofearthwhichwas
graduallyadvancedtillitreachedthewalls,andwasalmostequaltotheminheight,andfromwhichthebesiegerscouldmeetthebesiegedon
moreequalterms.ThemountisfirstmetwithintheaccountofJoabssiegeofAbelofBethmaacah(2S20:15ff.).InEVJoabis
representedas,atthesametime,batteringor,inRVm,underminingthewall,butthetextishereinsomedisorder.Batteringramsarefirst
mentionedinEzekiel,andarescarcelytobeexpectedsoearlyasthetimeofDavid.TheEgyptiansusedalongpole,withametalpointshaped
likeaspearhead,whichwasnotswungbutworkedbyhand,andcouldonlybeeffective,therefore,againstwallsofcrudebrick(seeillustr.in
Wilkinson,Anc.Egypt,i.242).
Thebatteringengines(Ezk26:9RVAVenginesofwar)oftheAssyrianswerecalledramsbytheHebrews(Ezk4:2,21:22),from
theirbuttingaction,althoughtheywerewithoutthefamiliarramsheadoftheRomanaries.TheAssyrianbatteringramendedeitherinalarge
spearhead,aswiththeEgyptians,orinaflatheadshodwithmetal,andwasworkedundertheshelteroflargewoodentowersmountedon
fourorsixwheels,ofwhichtherearemanyrepresentationsintheAssyrianwallsculptures(seeillustr.inToysEzekiel,SBOT,102).These
towersweresometimesofseveralstoreys,inwhicharcherswerestationed,andweremovedforwardagainstthewallsonthemoundsabove
described.
WhenNebuchadnezzarlaidsiegetoJerusalem,histroopsaresaidtohavebuiltfortsagainstitroundabout(2K25:1,cf.Ezk4:2),but
theoriginaltermisobscure,andisrather,probably,tobeunderstoodinthesenseofasiegewallorcircumvallatiothebankofLk19:43
RVforthepurposeofmakingtheblockadeeffective.Ontheotherhand,thebulwarksofDt20:20,alsoEc9:13,whichhadtobemadeof
woodotherthantreesformeat,properlydenotewoodenfortsorothersiegeworks(Is29:3RV)builtfortheprotectionofthebesiegersin
theireffortstostormorunderminethewalls.
7.TheAssyriansculpturesgivelifelikepicturesofthevariousoperationsofancientsiegecraft.Hereweseethemassivebatteringrams
detachingthestonesorbricksfromanangleofthewall,whilethedefenders,bymeansofagrapplingchain,areattemptingtodragtheram
fromitscoveringtower.Therethearchersarepouringaheavyfireonthemenuponthewall,frombehindlargerectangularshieldsorscreens
ofwoodorwickerwork,standingontheground,withasmallprojectingcover.Theseareintendedbytheshieldof2K19:32,thebuckler
ofEzk26:8,andthemanteletofNah2:5,allnamedinconnexionwithsiegeworks.Inanotherplacetheminersarebusyunderminingthe
wallwithpicks,protectedbyacurvedscreenofwickerworksupportedbyapole(illustr.ofbothscreensinToy,op.cit.149cf.Wilkinson,
op.cit.i.243).
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ThemonumentsalsoshowthattheAssyrianshadmachinesforcastinglargestoneslongbeforethetormenta,orsiegeartillery,aresaidto
havebeeninventedinSicilyinB.C.399.Bytheartilleryof1S20:40AVis,ofcourse,meanttheordinarybowandarrowsbutUzziahis
creditedbytheChroniclerwithhavingmadeenginesinventedbycunningmentobeonthetowersanduponthebattlementstoshootarrows
andgreatstoneswithal(2Ch26:15).TheBooksoftheMaccabeesshowthatbythesecondcentury,atleast,theJewswerenotbehindtheir
neighboursintheuseoftheartillery(1Mac6:51f.AV)oftheperiod,enginesofwarandinstrumentsforcastingfireandstones,andpieces
tocastdartsandslings.(Adetaileddescription,withillustrations,ofthesecatapultandballist,astheRomanstermedthem,willbefound
intheart.TormentuminSmithsDict.ofGr.andRom.Antiq.)AtthesiegeofGezer(suchisthebestreading,1Mac13:45)Simoniseven
saidtohaveusedeffectivelyapieceofthemostformidablesiegeartillerythenknown,thehelepolis(lit.citytaker,RVengineofsiege),
whichTitusalsoemployedinthesiegeofJerusalem(fordescriptionseeHelepolisinSmith,op.cit.).InthissiegetheJewshad300pieces
fordischargingarrowsorratherbolts(catapult),and40piecesforcastingstones(ballist),accordingtoJosephus,whogivesagraphic
accountoftheworkingoftheseformidableenginesofwarinhisstoryofthesiegeofJotapata(BJIII.vii.
23.)
8.Theaimofthebesiegedwasbyeveryartificeintheirpowertocounteracttheeffortsofthebesiegerstoscaleortomakeabreachinthe
walls(Am4:3),andinparticulartodestroytheirsiegeworksandartillery.Thebatteringramswererenderedineffectivebylettingdownbags
ofchaffandotherfendersfromthebattlements,orwerethrownoutofactionbygrapplingchains,orbyhavingtheheadbrokenoffbyhuge
stoneshurledfromabove.Themoundssupportingthebesiegerstowerswereundermined,andthetowersthemselvesandtheotherengines
setonfire(1Mac6:15cf.thefierydartsorarrowsofEph6:16).
Inadditiontotheeffortsofthebowmen,slingers,andjavelinthrowers,whomannedthewalls,boilingoilwaspouredonthoseattempting
toplacethescalingladders,ortopasstheboardingbridgesfromthetowerstothebattlements.Ofalltheseandmanyotherexpedientsthe
JewishWarofJosephusisafamiliarrpertoire.There,too,willbefoundthefullestaccountofthediredistresstowhichacitymightbe
reducedbyaprolongedsiege(cf.2K6:25ff.).
A.R.S.KENNEDY.

FORTUNATUS.ThenameofanapparentlyyoungmemberofthehouseholdofStephanas,andaCorinthian.WithStephanasand
AchaicushevisitedSt.PaulatEphesus(1Co16:17)hehadprobablybeenbaptizedbytheApostlehimself(1:16).Lightfoot(Clement,i.29,
ii.187)thinksthathemaywellhavebeenalivefortyyearslater,andthathemaybetheFortunatusmentionedinClementofRomesEpistleto
theCorinthians(65).ThemannerinwhichthenameisthereintroducedsuggeststhatitbelongstoaCorinthian.
A.J.MACLEAN.
FORTUNE.SeeGAD(tribeandgod).
FOUNDATION.Greatimportancewasattachedtothelayingofthefoundation.Itwasaccompaniedbyhumansacrifice,asmaybeseen
intheBabylonianrecordsapossibletraceoccursinthestoryofHiel(1K16:34).Hencethestressonthesizeandsplendourofthe
foundation,asinSolomonsTemple(7:9).Itisanaturalmetaphorfortheultimatebasisonwhichathingrests(Job
4:19,Ezk13:14,Lk6:48).RighteousnessandjudgmentarethefoundationofGodsthrone(Ps89:14,97:2RV).Thecitythathath,the
foundationsisthetypeoftherealandeternal(He11:10).TheApostlesthemselvesarethefoundationoftheNewJerusalem,formedofall
mannerofpreciousstones(Rev21:14,19).TheApostolicChurchisconditionedthroughtheagesbythepreachingandworkofthe
Apostolate(Swete,adloc.cf.Is28:16,Mt16:18,Eph2:20).In1Co3:10themetaphorisslightlydifferent,thepreachingofJesusChrist
beingtheonefoundation(cf.Is19:10RVm,wherethewordisusedofthechiefmenoftheState).Inthefrequentphrasefromthefoundation
oftheworld,thewordisactive,meaningfounding.Foundationsoccurssimilarlyinapassivesense,theearthbeingmoreorlessliterally
conceivedofasahugebuildingrestingonpillarsetc.(Ps18:7,15,24:2,Is24:18).InPs11:3,75:3,82:5,Ezk30:4,theideaisapplied
metaphoricallytothefundamentalprinciplesoflawandjusticeonwhichthemoralorderrests.In2Ch3:3,Is6:4,16:7,Jer50:15,RV
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metaphoricallytothefundamentalprinciplesoflawandjusticeonwhichthemoralorderrests.In2Ch3:3,Is6:4,16:7,Jer50:15,RV
shouldbefollowed.In2Ch23:5thegateofthefoundationisobscurspossiblyweshouldreadthehorsegate.SeealsoHOUSE,3.
C.W.EMMET.
FOUNTAIN.Awordappliedtolivingspringsofwaterascontrastedwithcisterns(Lv11:35)specificallyofBesrlahairoi(Gn16:7),
Elim(Nu33:8,RVheresprings),Nephtoah(Jos15:9),andJezreel(1S29:1).TheporouschalkylimestoneofPalestineaboundsingood
springsofwater,which,owingtotheirimportanceinacountryrainlesshalftheyear,wereeagerlycoveted(Jg1:15).Inmanyspringstheflow
ofwaterhasbeendirectedandincreasedbyenlargingtotunnelsthefissuresthroughwhichthewatertrickledmanyofthesetunnelsareof
considerablelength.SpecimensexistatUrtas.Bittir,andotherplacesnearJerusalem.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
FOWL.ThewordfowlisusedinAVforanykindofbird.Thetwowordsbirdandfowlareemployedsimplyforthesakeofvariety
orperhapstodistinguishtwodifferentHeb.orGr.wordsoccurringnearoneanother.ThusGn15:10thebirds(Heb.tsippr)dividedhenot,
15:11whenthefowls(Heb.ayit)camedownuponthecarcasesJer12:8thebirdsroundabout(sameHeb.asfowlsinGn15:11),Ps8:8
thefowloftheair(sameHeb.asbirdsinGn15:10).SeeBIRD.
FOWLER.SeeSNARES.
FOX.(1)shl,seeJACKAL.(2)alpx(Gr.),Mt8:20,Lk9:58,13:32.IntheNTthereisnodoubtthatthecommonfoxandnotthe
jackalisintended.ItisnotedinRabbinicalliteratureandinPalestinianfolkloreforitscunningandtreachery.Itburrowsintheground(Lk
9:58).ThesmallEgyptianfox(Vulpesnilotica)iscommoninS.Palestine,whiletheTawnyfox(V.flavescens).alargeranimaloflighter
colour,occursfarthernorth.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
FRANKINCENSE(lebnhGr.libanosMt2:11,Rev18:13).Frankincenseisinsixpassages(Is43:23,60:6,66:3,Jer6:20,17:26,
41:5)mistranslatedinAVincense,butcorrectlyinRV.Itisasweetsmellinggum,obtainedasamilkyexudationfromvariousspeciesof
Boswellia,thefrankincensetree,anallyoftheterebinth.ThegumwasimportedfromS.Arabia(Is60:6,Jer6:20)itwasaconstituentof
incense(Ex30:34)itisoftenassociatedwithmyrrh(Ca3:6,4:6,Mt2:11)itwasofferedwiththeshewbread(Lv24:7).
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
FRAY.ThisobsoleteEng.verbisfoundinZec1:21and1Mac14:12(everymansatunderhisvineandhisfigtree,andtherewasnone
tofraythem)andfrayawayoccursinDt28:26,Jer7:33,Sir22:20(whosocastethastoneatthebirdsfrayeththemaway).Itisa
shortenedformofafray,ofwhichtheptcp.afraidisstillinuse.
FREE.Intheuseofthisadj.intheEng.Biblenotice1P2:16asfree,andnotusingyourlibertyforaclokeofmaliciousness,butasthe
servantsofGod,thatis,freefromtheLaw,yetservants(slaves)tothehigherlawoflovetoGod.Ps88:5freeamongthedead,adifficult
passage:theprobablemeaningoftheHeb.isseparatedfromcompanionshiporperhapsfromDivineprotection.Ac22:28Iwasfreeborn,
thatis,asaRomancitizen.2Th3:1PrayforusthatthewordoftheLordmayhavefreecourse(Gr.literallyMayrun,asAVmandRV):
freemeansunhinderedasinShakespearesLovesLaboursLost,V.ii.738,Formineownpart,Ibreathefreebreath.Ps51:12upholdme
withthyfreespirit(RVmandAmer.RVwilling):thewordmeansgenerous,noble,andthereferenceistothemansownspirit(RVwitha
freespirit).
FREELY.Theusetoobserveiswhenfreelymeansgratuitously.asNu11:5Werememberthefish,whichwedideatinEgyptfreely
(Vulg.gratis)Mt10:5freelyyereceived,freelygive(Gr.drean,Rhem.gratis).

FREEWILL.SeePREDESTINATION.
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FREEWILL.SeePREDESTINATION.
FRINGES.InNu15:37ff.theHebrewsarecommandedtomakethemfringes(Heb.tststh)intheborders[butRVmtasselsinthe
corners]oftheirgarmentsthroughouttheirgenerations.Thesameordinance,somewhatdifferentlyexpressed,isfoundintheearlier
legislationofDt.:Thoushaltmaketheefringes(lit.,asRVm,twistedthreads)uponthefourquarters(RVborders)ofthyvesturewherewith
thoucoverestthyself(Dt22:12).ThevestureherereferredtoistheplaidlikeuppergarmentoftheHebrews,asisevidentfromEx22:27,
wherevesture(RVcovering)isdefinedasthesimlah,theuppergarment(RV)inquestion,asdescribedunderDRESS,4(a).
Thefringestobemadeforthisgarment,however,arenotacontinuousfringeroundthefoursides,likethefringeswhicharea
characteristicfeatureofAssyriandress,but,asRVm,tasselsoftwistedorplaitedthreads,andaretobefastenedtothefourcornersofthe
simlah.Itwasfurtherrequiredthattheyputuponthefringeofeachborderacordofblue(Nu15:38RV),theprecisemeaningofwhichis
uncertain.Itisusuallytakentomeanthateachtasselwastobeattachedbymeansofthiscordofblue,orratherofbluepurple,toacornerof
thesimlah.
ThatthisordinancewasfaithfullyobservedbytheJewsofNTtimesisseenfromthereferencestothetststhortasselofourLordsupper
garment,disguisedinEVunderthehem(AV)ofMt9:20,14:36,andborderofMk6:56,Lk8:44.RVhasborderthroughout.These
tasselsarestillwornbytheJews,attachedtothetallithorprayershawl,andtothesmallertallith,intheshapeofachestprotector,nowworn
asanundergarment,butwithouttheadditionofthebluethread.(Forthesomewhatcomplicatedmethodbywhichthetasselsaremade,the
modeofattachment,andthemysticalsignificanceassignedtothethreadsandknots,seeHastingsDBii.69aforillustrationseei.627a.)In
thepassageinNu,itisexpresslysaidthattheobjectofthisordinancewastofurnishtheHebrewswithavisiblereminderoftheobligation
restinguponthem,asJschosenpeople,towalkinHislawandtokeepallHiscommandments.Itdoesnotnecessarilyfollow,however,that
thepracticeofwearingsuchtasselswasunknownbeforethedateoftheDeuteronomiclegislation.Onthecontrary,therepresentationsof
AsiaticsonthewallsoftombsandotherEgyptianmonumentsshowthattasselledgarmentsareofearlydateinWesternAsia(seeplateiibof
WilkinsonsAnc.Egyp.vol.i.,wherenotethatthetasselsareofbluethreads).HenceitisaltogetherprobablethattheobjectoftheHebrew
legislationistomakeadeeplyrootedcustomserveafittingreligiouspurpose(G.B.Gray,Numbers[ICC],183f.).
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
FROCK.IntheGreektextofSir40:4thepoormansdressissaidtobeofunbleachedlinen,paraphrasedinAVasalinenandinRVas
ahempenfrock.TheHebreworiginalhas,hethatwrapshimselfinamantleofhair(Smend),forwhichseeDRESS,4(c).
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
FROG.1.tsepharda,Ex8:214,Ps78:45,105:30oneoftheplaguesofEgypt.2.batrachos(Gr.),Rev16:13,14,atypeof
uncleanness.TheediblefrogandthelittlegreentreefrogarebothcommonallovertheHolyLand.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.FRONTLETS.SeeORNAMENTS,2PHYLACTERIES.
FROWARD.Frowardisadialecticformoffromwarditistheoppositeoftoward,aswesaytoandfrofortoandfrom.Thusits
meaningisperverse.ThewordisusedchieflyinProverbs.InNTitoccursonlyonce,1P2:18,wheretheGr.meansliterallytortuouslikethe
courseofariver,andthenisappliedtoconductthatisnotstraightforward.FrowardlyisfoundinIs57:17andhewentonfrowardlyinthe
wayofhisheart.TheHeb.islit.bewalkedturningaway,asAVm.FrowardnessoccursonlyinPr.(2:14,6:14,10:32).Barlowesays
MoysesthemostfaythfullseruaunteofGodwaspartelybytheirfrowardnesdebarredfrotheplesauntelandeofbehest.
FRUIT.SeeFOOD,4.
FRYINGPANSeeHOUSE,9.

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FUEL.Theprincipalfuel[lit.food]offire(Is9:5,19)inuseamongtheHebrewswasundoubtedlywood,eitherinitsnaturalstateor,
amongthewealthierclasses,ascharcoal(seeCOAL).Thetreeswhichfurnishedthemainsupply(cf.Is44:14ff.)probablydifferedlittlefrom
thosesoemployedinSyriaatthepresentday,forwhichseePEFSt.,1891,118ff.Amongothersourcesofsupplywereshrubsand
undergrowthofallkinds,includingthebroom(Ps120:4RVm)andthebuckthorn(58:9)alsochaffandotherrefuseofthethreshingfloor
(Mt3:12)andwitheredherbage,thegrassofMt6:30.Theuseofdriedanimaldungasfuel,whichisuniversalinthemodernEast,was
apparentlynotunknowntotheHebrews(cf.Ezk4:1215).Seefurther,HOUSE,7.
FULLER,FULLERSFIELD.SeeARTSANDCRAFTS,6andJERUSALEM,I.4.
FULNESS.SeePLEROMA.
FURLONG.SeeWEIGHTSANDMEASURES.
FURNACE.EVtr.ofkibshn(Gn19:28,Ex9:8etc.),ll(Ps12:6),kr(Dt4:20,1K8:51etc.),attn(Dn3:8,11etc.),whichstand
foreitherabrickkilnorasmeltingfurnaceandoftannr,whichisbetterrenderedoven(seeBREAD).
FURNITURE.IntheAVfurnitureisusedinthegeneralsenseoffurnishings,justasBunyanspeaksofsoldiersandtheirfurniture
(HolyWar,p.112).1.Forthedetailsofhousefurniture,seeHOUSE,8.Inthissensewereadalsoofthefurnitureofthetabernacle(Ex
31:7,Nu3:8RV,forAVinstruments,andelsewhere).Forthelessappropriatefurnitureofthetableofshewbreadandofthecandlestick
(Ex31:8),RVhasvessels.
2.ThecamelsfurnitureofGn31:34wasacamelpalankeen(Oxf.Heb.Lex.
p.1124),acratedframe,withcushionsandcarpetsinside,andprotectedbyanawningabove,fastenedtothecamelssaddle(Driver,
Genesis,inloc.),stillusedbywomentravellersintheEast.
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GAAL,sonofEbed(Jg9:26ff.),organizedtherisingagainstAbimelechbythediscontentedinShechem.Zebul,Abimelechsofficerthere,
warnedhismaster,whocamewithastrongforce,anddefeatedtherebelsunderGaaloutsidethecity.Gaalandhisbrethrenweredrivenoutof
Shechem,andterriblevengeancewastakenuponthedisaffectedcity.SeeABIMELECH,2.
W.EWING.
GAASH.AmountaininEphraim(Jos24:30,Jg2:9).ThetorrentvalleysofGaasharementionedin2S23:30=1Ch11:32.
GABAEL.1.AdistantancestorofTobit(To1:1).2.AfriendandkinsmanofTobitresidingatRagesinMedia.TohimTobit,when
purveyortothekingofAssyria,onceentrusted,asadeposit,10talentsofsilver(To1:14).WhenblindnessandpovertycameonTobitin
Nineveh,herecollected,afterprayer,thelongforgottentreasure(To4:1),andwishedhissonTobiastofetchit(v.21).Tobiasfoundaguide,
Raphaelindisguise,whosaidhehadlodgedwithGabael(To5:6).WhenTobiasmarriedSarahinEcbatana,hesentRaphaelforthedeposit
(9:2).
GABATHA.OneoftwoeunuchswhoseplotagainstArtaxerxes(the
Ahasuerus,i.e.Xerxes,ofcanonicalEst.)wasdiscoveredandfrustratedbyMardocheus(Mordecai).Ad.Est12:1.InEst2:21heiscalled
Bigthanandin6:2Bigthana.
GABBAI.ABenjamite(Neh11:8,buttextdoubtful).
GABBATHA(Jn19:13).Themeaningofthiswordismostuncertainpossiblyheightorridge.ItisusedastheHeb.orAramaic
equivalentoftheGr.
lithostrtonorpavement.ThereisnomentioninanyotherplaceofeitherGabbathaorthePavement.Thatitwas,ashasbeensuggested,a
portabletessellatedpavementsuchasJuliusCsarissaidtohavecarriedaboutwithhim,seemshighlyimprobable.Traditionhasidentifiedas
GabbathaanextensivesheetofRomanpavementrecentlyexcavatedneartheEcceHomoArch.Itcertainlycoveredalargearea,andthe
blocksofstonecomposingitaremassive,theaveragesizebeing4ft.3ft.6in.andnearly2ft.thick.Thepavementisinpartsroughenedfor
thepassageofanimalsandchariots,butovermostoftheareaitissmooth.Thepavedareawasonaloftyplace,thegroundrapidlyfallingto
eastandwest,andwasincloseproximityto,ifnotactuallyincludedwithin,theAntonia.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
GABBE(1Es5:20).InEzr2:26Geba.
GABRIAS.ThebrotheroftheGabaeltowhomTobitentrusted10talentsofsilver(To1:14in4:20AVandRVwronglytr.Gabaelthe
sonofGabrias).
GABRIEL(manofGod).Inthefirstrankoftheinnumerablehostsoftheheavenlyhierarchy(Dn7:10)therearesevenwhooccupythe
firstplacethesevenarchangelsoftheseGabrielisone.InDn8:15ff.GabrielissenttoexplaintoDanielthemeaningofthevisionofthe
ramandthehegoatin9:21ff.hetellsDanieloftheseventyweekswhicharedecreeduponthepeopleandtheholycity.Thisistheonly
mentionofGabrielintheOT.InpostBiblicalliteraturethenameoccursmorefrequently.HeappearstwiceintheNTasGodsmessenger.He
issenttoannouncetoZachariasthatElisabethwillbearasonhealsotellsthenamethatthechildistobear(Lk1:820).InLk1:2638he
appearstotheVirginMaryandannouncesthebirthofasontoherhereagainhesayswhatthenameofthechildistobe:Thoushaltcallhis
nameJesus.
IntheBabylonianandPersianangelologiesthereareanalogiestothesevenarchangelsoftheJews,andthepossibilityofJewishbelief
havingbeeninfluencedbythesemustnotbelostsightof.
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W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
GAD(fortunate).Gn30:9ff.(J),35:26(P)thefirstsonofZilpah,Leahshandmaid,byJacob,andfullbrotherofAsher(Happy).This
likeotherofthetribalnames,e.g.Dan,Asher,isveryprobably,despitethispopularetymology,thenameofadeity(cf.Is65:11,whereAV
renderstroopbutRVFortune).Anothersemietymologyor,better,paronomasia(Gn49:19)connectsthenameofthetribewithitswarlike
experiencesandcharacteristics,takingnoteonlyofthisfeatureofthetriballife:
gdhgedhdhyeghdhennuwehyghdhqbh:
AsforGad,plunderersshallplunderhim,
Andheshallplunderintherear(i.e.effectreprisalsandplunderinreturn).
IntheBlessingofMoses(Dt33:20)Gadiscomparedtoalionessthatteareththearmandthecrownofthehead,andlater(1Ch12:8,14)
theGaditeswhojoinedDavidaredescribedasleonineinappearanceandincomparableincombat:Theirfacesareasthefacesoflions,the
smallestisequaltoahundredandthegreatesttoathousand.
UponthegeneticrelationsofGadandAsherthegenealogythrowsnolight,forthefactthatGadandAsher,asitappears,werenamesof
relateddivinitiesofGoodFortunewouldbesufficientgroundforunitingthembutwhytheyshouldhavebeenbroughttogetherunderthe
nameofZilpahisnottobeconjecturedwithanycertainty.Leah,unlikeRachel,whowasbarrenuntilafterhermaidhadbroughtforthto
Jacob,hadalreadybornefoursonsbeforeZilpahwascalledintohelpherinfirmity.
ItappearsthatGad,notwithstandingthegenealogy,wasalatetribe.IntheSongofDeborahitisnotevenmentioned.Gileadtheretakesits
place,butMesha(9thcent.)knowstheinhabitantsofGileadasthemenofGad.
ThefamiliesofGadaregivenbyPinGn46:16andNu26:15ff.,1Ch5:11ff.repeatsthemwithvariations.IntheSinaicensusPgives
46,650menofwar.BythetimetheyhadreachedtheWildernesstheyhaddecreasedto40,500.Theirpositiononthemarchthroughthedesert
isvariouslygiveninNumbersas3rd,6th,11th.
Nu32:3436(P)giveseighttownslyingwithintheterritoryofGad.Themostsoutherly,Aroer,layupontheArnonthemostnortherly,
Jogbehah,notfarfromtheJabbok.Ataroth,anotherofthesetowns,ismentionedontheMoabitestone(l.
10),andthemenofGadaretheresaidtohavedweltwithinitfromofold.
Withinthisregion,andclusteringaboutHeshbon,PgivessixcitiestotheReubenites,ButinJos13:15ff.Reubenhasalltothesouthof
Heshbon,andGadalltothenorthofit.OwingtothedivergentstatementsintheHexateuchandthehistoricalbooks,itisquiteimpossibleto
saywhatthenorthernboundarywas.Inanycaseitwasnotastableone.
ThereasonassignedbythetraditionsforthesettlementofGadandReubeninGileadisthattheywerepastoraltribes,withlargeherdsand
flocks,andthattheyfoundthelandpreeminentlyadaptedtotheirneeds.They,therefore,obtainedfromMosespermissiontosettleontheeast
sideofJordanaftertheyhadfirstcrossedtheriverandhelpedtheothertribesintheworkofconquest(seeNu32andDt3:1820).
Aftertheconquest,inthetimeoftheJudges,thepeopleofGileadwereoverrunbytheAmmonitesuntilJephthahfinallywroughttheir
deliverance.InDavidsconflictswithSaul,theGaditesandothereasterntribescametohisassistance.AstheMeshastoneshows,theyhad
probablyatthattimeabsorbedtheReubenites,whohadbeenmoreexposedpreviouslytoMoabiteattacks,whichatthistimefellmoredirectly
uponGad.Whenthenortherntribesrevolted,JeroboammusthavefoundtheGaditesamonghisstaunchestsupporters,foritwastoPenuelin
GaditeterritorythathemovedthecapitalfromShecheminEphraim(1K12:25).
In734theGaditeswiththeirkinsmenoftheEastJordan,GalileeandNaphtali,werecarriedcaptivebyTiglathpileserIII.whenAhazin
hisperplexityventuredupontheboldalternativeofappealingtohimforassistanceagainstthepowerfulconfederationofSyrians,Israelites,
andEdomiteswhohadleaguedtogethertodethronehim(1K15:29,2Ch28:16ff.).ItwasclearlyacaseofScyllaandCharybdisforAhaz.It
wasfatalforGad.SeealsoTRIBESOFISRAEL.
JAMESA.CRAIG.
GAD.AgodwhosenameappearsinGn30:11(bythehelpofGadsoinv.13bythehelpofAsherah)intheplacenamesBaalgad,
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GAD.AgodwhosenameappearsinGn30:11(bythehelpofGadsoinv.13bythehelpofAsherah)intheplacenamesBaalgad,
andMigdalgad(Jos
11:17,12:7,13:5,15:37)andinthepersonalnameAzgad(Ezr2:12,Neh7:17,10:15).InIs65:11Gad(RVFortune)andMeniarenamed
astwodemonswithwhomtheIsraelitesheldcommunion(seeMENI).Gadwasprobablyanappellativebeforeitbecameapersonalnamefor
adivinity,andisofAraman,Arabian,andSyrianprovenance,butnotBabylonian.Hewasthegodwhogavegoodfortune(Gr.Tyche),and
presidedoveraperson,house,ormountain.
W.F.COBB.
GADisentitledtheseer(1Ch29:29),Davidsorthekingsseer(1Ch21:9,2Ch29:25,2S24:11),ortheprophet(1S22:5,2S
24:11),HeisrepresentedashavingannouncedtheDivinecondemnationontheroyalcensus,andashavingadvisedtheerectionofanaltaron
Araunahsthreshingfloor(2S24:11ff.=1Ch21:9ff.).TheChronicleragain(1Ch29:29)nameshimashavingwrittenanaccountofsome
partofhismastersreign.AlateconceptionassociatedhimwiththeprophetNathan(2Ch29:25)inthetaskofplanningsomeofthekings
regulationswithreferencetothemusicalpartoftheservice,while(1S22:5)heisalsostatedtohaveactedasDavidscounsellorinperil
duringtheperiodwhenthetwodwelttogetherinthehold.
GAD(Valleyof).Mentionedonlyin2S24:5,andtherethetextshouldreadinthemidstofthevalleytowardsGad,thevalley(wady)
herebeingtheArnon(wh.see).
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
GADARA.Atownwhoseruins(extensive,butinrecentyearsmuchdestroyedbythenatives)bearthenameofUmmKeis,aboutsix
milesS.E.oftheSeaofGalilee.ItwasatownoftheDecapolis,probablyGreekinorigin,andwasthechiefcityofPera.Thedateofits
foundationisunknown,itscapturebyAntiochus(B.C.218)beingthefirsteventrecordedofit.Itwasfamousforitshotbaths,thespringsof
whichstillexist.Thenarrativeofthehealingofthedemoniac,accordingtoMt8:28,islocatedinthecountryoftheGadarenes,areading
repeatedinsomeMSSofthecorrespondingpassageofLk.(8:26),whereotherMSSreadGergesenes.Theprobabilityisthatneitherofthese
iscorrect,andthatweoughttoadoptathirdreading,Gerasenes,whichiscorroboratedbyMk5:1.Thiswouldreferthemiraclenotto
Gadara,which,asnotedabove,wassomedistancefromtheSeaofGalilee,buttoamoreobscureplacerepresentedbythemodernKersa,on
itsEasternshore.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
GADARENES.SeeGADARA.
GADDI.TheManassitespy,Nu13:11(P).
GADDIEL.TheZebulunitespy,Nu13:10(P).
GADDIS(1Mac2:2).ThesurnameofJohananorJohn,theeldestbrotherofJudasMaccabus.ThenameperhapsrepresentstheHeb.
Gaddi(Nu13:11),meaningmyfortune.
GADI.FatherofMenahemkingofIsrael(2K15:14,17).
GADITES.SeeGAD(tribe).
GAHAM.AsonofNahorbyhisconcubineReumah(Gn22:24).
GAHAR.AfamilyofNethinimwhoreturnedwithZerub.(Ezr.2:47,Neh7:49),calledin1Es5:30Geddur.
GAI.GivenasapropernameinRVof1S17:52untilthoucomesttoGai,whereAVhasuntilthoucomesttothevalley.TheLXX,as3/82
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GAI.GivenasapropernameinRVof1S17:52untilthoucomesttoGai,whereAVhasuntilthoucomesttothevalley.TheLXX,as
isnotedinRVm,hasGath,andthiswouldsuitthecontext.
GAIUS.ThisnameismentionedinfiveplacesofNT.OneGaiuswasSt.PaulshostatCorinth,convertedandbaptizedbyhim(Ro
16:23,1Co1:14).HewasperhapsthesameasGaiusofDerbewhoaccompaniedtheApostlefromGreecetoAsia(Ac20:4)ifso,hewould
beanativeofDerbe,butadwelleratCorinth.TheGaiusofMacedonia,St.PaulscompanionintravelwhowasseizedintheriotatEphesus
(Ac19:29),andtheGaiusaddressedbySt.John(3Jn1),wereprobablydifferentmen.
A.J.MACLEAN.
GALAL.ThenameoftwoLevites(1Ch9:15,16,Neh11:17).
GALATIAisaGreekword,derivedfromGalat,theGr.namefortheGaulswhoinvadedAsiaMinorintheyearB.C.2787(Lat.
Gallogrci[=GreekGauls],todistinguishthemfromtheirkindredwholivedinFranceandNorthern
Italy).TheseGaulshadbeenravagingthesoutheasternpartsofEurope,Greece,
Macedonia,andThrace,andcrossedintoAsiaMinorattheinvitationof
Nicomedes,kingofBithynia.PartofthesamesouthwardtendencyappearsintheirmovementsinItalyandtheirconflictswiththeRomansin
theearlycenturiesoftheRepublic.ThosewhoenteredAsiaMinorcameasanationwithwivesandfamilies,notasmercenarysoldiers.After
somefiftyyearsraidingandwarring,theyfoundapermanentsettlementinnortheasternPhrygia,wherethepopulationwasunwarlike.Their
historydowntothetimeoftheRomanEmpireisbeststudiedinRamsaysHistor.Com.onGalatians,p.45ff.Theycontinuedthroughout
thesetwocenturiestobetherulingcasteofthedistrict,greatlyoutnumberedbythenativePhrygianpopulation,who,thoughinmanyrespects
aninferiorrace,hadapowerfulinfluenceonthereligion,customs,andhabitsoftheGauls,assubjectracesoftenhaveovertheirconquerors.
TheearliersenseofthetermGalatiais,then,thecountryoccupiedbytheGaulishimmigrants,theformernortheasternpartofPhrygia,and
thetermGalatisusedaftertheoccupationtoincludethesubjectPhrygiansaswellastheGalatstrictlysocalled(e.g.1Mac
8:2).
AboutB.C.160theGaulsacquiredaportionofLycaoniaontheirsouthernfrontier,takinginIconiumandLystra.Aboutthesametimealso
theyhadtakeninPessinusintheN.W.TheseandotherexpansionstheyultimatelyowedtothesupportofRome.FromB.C.64Galatiawasa
clientstateofRome.AtthebeginningofthatperioditwasunderthreerulersfromB.C.44itwasunderoneonly.Deiotarus,thegreatestof
theGalatianchiefs,receivedArmeniaMinorfromPompeyinB.C.64.MarkAntonyconferredtheeasternpartofPaphlagoniaonCastoras
soleGalatiankinginB.C.40,andatthesametimegaveAmyntasakingdomcomprisingPisidicPhrygiaandPisidiagenerally.InB.C.36,
CastorsGalatiandominionsandPamphyliawereaddedtoAmyntaskingdom.HewasalsogivenIconiumandtheoldLycaoniantetrarchy,
whichAntonyhadformerlygiventoPolemon.AfterthebattleofActiuminB.C.31,OctavianconferredonAmyntastheadditionalcountryof
CiliciaTracheia.HehadthustokeeporderforRomeonthesouthsideoftheplateauandontheTaurusmountains.HegovernedbyRoman
methods,and,whenhediedinB.C.25,helefthiskingdominsuchastatethatAugustusresolvedtotakethegreaterpartofitintotheEmpire
inthestrictersenseofthatterm,andmadeitintoaprovincewhichhecalledGalatia.ThisisthesecondsenseinwhichthetermGalatiais
usedinancientdocuments,namely,thesphereofdutywhichincludedtheethnicdistricts,Papblagonia,PontusGalaticus,Galatia(inthe
originalnarrowersense),PhrygiaGalatica,andLycaoniaGalatica(withtheAddedLand,partoftheoriginalLycaoniantetrarchy).Galatia,
asaprovince,meansalltheseterritoriestogether,underoneRomangovernor,andtheinhabitantsofsuchaprovince,whatevertheirrace,
were,inconformitywithinvariableRomancustom,denominatedbyanameetymologicallyconnectedwiththenameoftheprovince.Thus
Galat(Galatians)hasasecondsense,inconformitywiththesecondsenseofthetermGalatia:itisusedtoincludealltheinhabitantsofthe
province(seethefirstmapintheabovementionedworkofRamsay).
ThewordGalatiaoccursthreetimesintheNT(1Co16:1,Gal1:2,and1P1:1).Apossiblefourthcase(2Ti4:10)mustbeleftoutof
account,asthereadingthereisdoubtful.ThereisanalternativeGallia,which,evenifitbenottheoriginal,suggeststhatthewordGalatia
thereshouldbetakeninthesenseofGallia(thatis,France).Itisbeyonddoubtthatinthepassageof1Peterthewordmustbetakeninthe
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thereshouldbetakeninthesenseofGallia(thatis,France).Itisbeyonddoubtthatinthepassageof1Peterthewordmustbetakeninthe
senseoftheprovince.ThebeareroftheletterevidentlylandedatsomeportontheBlackSea,perhapsSinope,andvisitedtheprovincesinthe
orderinwhichtheyappearintheaddressoftheletter:Pontus,Galatia,Cappadocia,Asia,andBithynia,takingshipagainattheBlackSea
forRome.The
TaurusrangeofmountainswasalwaysconceivedofasdividingthepeninsulaofAsiaMinorintotwoparts,andSt.Peterhereappearsas
supervisingoradvisingthewholebodyofChristiansnorthoftheTaurusrange.(TheeffectoftakingGalatiaintheothersensewouldbeto
leaveoutcertainPaulinechurches,Derbe,Lystra,Iconium,andPisidianAntioch,andperhapsthesealone,inallthatvastregion:whichis
absurd.)WithregardtothetwopassagesinSt.Paul,thecaseissettledbyhisunvaryingusage.Ithasbeennotedthathe,asaRomancitizen
andastatesman,invariablyusesgeographicaltermsintheRomansense,andthatheevendoesviolencetotheGreeklanguagebyforcingthe
LatinnamesforPhilippians(Ph4:15)andIllyricum(Ro15:19)intoGreek,andpassesbytheproperGreektermineachcase.Weare
bound,therefore,tobelievethatheusesGalatiaintheRomansense,namelyinthemeaningoftheRomanprovinceasabovedefined.(This
provincehad,aswehaveseen,Galatiainthenarrowerandearliersenseasoneofitsparts.)Itfollows,therefore,thatheusesGalatians
(Gal3:1)alsointhewidersenseofall(Christian)inhabitantsoftheprovince,irrespectiveoftheirrace,asfarastheywereknowntohim.
InordertodiscoverwhatcommunitiesinthisvastprovinceareespeciallyaddressedbytheApostleinhisEpistle,itisnecessarytomakea
criticalexaminationoftheonlytwopassagesinActswhichaffordusaclue(16:6,18:23).ItisimportanttonotethatSt.Lukeneverusesthe
termGalatiaortheterm
Galatians,butonlytheadjectiveGalatic(16:6,18:23).In16:6therulesoftheGreeklanguagerequireustotranslate:thePhrygoGalatic
regionortheregionwhichisbothPhrygianandGalatianthatis,theregionwhichaccordingtoonenomenclatureisPhrygian,and
accordingtoanotherisGalatian.ThiscanbenoneotherthanthatsectionoftheprovinceGalatiawhichwasknownasPhrygiaGalatica,and
whichcontainedPisidianAntiochandIconium,exactlytheplacesweshouldexpectSt.PaulandhiscompanionstogotoafterDerbeand
Lystra.In18:23theGreekmaybetranslatedeithertheGalaticoPhrygianregionortheGalatianregionandPhrygia,preferablythelatter,
asitisdifficultotherwisetoaccountfortheorderintheGreek.TheGalatianregion,then,willcoverDerbeandLystraPhrygiawill
includeIconiumandPisidianAntioch.Weconcludethenthat,whetheranyotherchurchesarecomprisedintheaddressoftheEpistletothe
Galatiansornot,andanegativeanswerisprobablycorrect,thechurchesofDerbe,Lystra,Iconium,andPisidianAntiochareincluded.
ThereisnotascrapofevidencethatSt.Paulhadvisitedanyothercitiesinthatgreatprovince.
A.SOUTER.
GALATIANS,EPISTLETOTHE
1.OccasionoftheEpistle.FrominternalevidencewegatherthatSt.Paulhad,whenhewrote,paidtwovisitstotheGalatians.Onthe
firstvisit,whichwasduetoanillness(4:13),hewaswelcomedinthemostfriendlywayonthesecondhewarnedthemagainstJudaizers
(1:9,5:3again,cf.4:13theformertime,thoughthismaybetranslatedformerly).AfterthesecondvisitJudaizerscameamongthe
Galatians,and,undertheinfluenceofasingleindividual(thewhoof3:1,5:7issingular,cf.5:10)persuadedthemthattheymustbe
circumcised,thatSt.Paulhadchangedhismindandwasinconsistent,thathehadrefrainedfrompreachingcircumcisiontothemonlyfroma
desiretobeallthingstoallmen,butthathehadpreachedit(atanyrateasthebetterway)toothers.ItisdoubtfuliftheJudaizersupheld
circumcisionasnecessarytosalvation,oronlyasnecessarytoacompleteChristianity.Itdependsonwhetherwefixthedatebeforeorafter
theCouncilofAc15,whichoftheseviewsweadopt(see4).Further,theJudaizersdisparagedSt.Paulsauthorityascomparedwiththatof
theTwelve.OnhearingthistheApostlehastilywrotetheEpistletochecktheevil,and(probably)soonfolloweduptheEpistlewithapersonal
visit.
2.Towhomwritten.TheNorthGalatianandSouthGalatiantheories.ItisdisputedwhethertheinhabitantsofN.Galatiaare
addressed(Lightfoot,Salmon,theoldercommentators,SchmiedelinEncyc.Bibl.),ortheinhabitantsofPisidianAntioch,Iconium,Lystra,
andDerbe,whichlayintheS.partoftheRomanprovinceGalatia(Ramsay,Sanday,Zahn,Renan,Pfleiderer,etc.).ThosewhoholdtheN.
GalatiantheorytakeAc16:6,18:23asindicatingthatSt.PaulvisitedGalatiaproper,makingalongdetour.Theypresstheargumentthathe
wouldnothavecalledmenofthefourcitiesbythenameGalatians,astheselayoutsideGalatiaproper,andthatGalatiansmustmeanmen 5/82
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wouldnothavecalledmenofthefourcitiesbythenameGalatians,astheselayoutsideGalatiaproper,andthatGalatiansmustmeanmen
whoareGaulsbybloodanddescentalsothatbywritersspeakingfamiliarlyofthescenesinwhichtheyhadthemselvestakenpartpopular
usageratherthanofficialisprobable,andthereforetocalltheChristiancommunitiesinthefourcitiesthechurchesofGalatiawouldbeas
unnaturalastospeakofPesthor(beforetheItaloAustrianwar)VeniceastheAustriancities(Lightfoot,Gal.p.19).Pesthisnotacasein
point,fornoeducatedpersonwouldcallitAustrianbuttheVeniceillustrationisapt.Thesearetheonlyweightyarguments.Ontheother
hand,theN.GalatiantheorycreatesChurchesunheardofelsewherein1stcent.recordsitisdifficultonthishypothesistounderstandthe
silenceofActs,whichnarratesallthecriticalpointsofSt.Paulswork.ButActsdoestellusveryfullyofthefoundationoftheChurchinS.
Galatia.Then,again,ontheN.Galatiantheory,St.PaulnowhereinhisEpistlesmentionsthefourcitieswheresucheventfulthingshappened,
exceptonceforblamein2Ti3:11asilencemademoreremarkablebythefactthatinthecollectionofthealmshedoesmentionthe
churchesofGalatia(1Co16:1).Ifthefourcitiesarenotherereferredto,whyweretheyomitted?ThemainargumentoftheN.Galatian
theory,givenabove,issufficientlyansweredbytakingintoaccountSt.PaulsrelationtotheRomanEmpire(seeart.ACTSOFTHE
APOSTLES,7.)
Withregardtothenomenclature,wenoticethatSt.LukesometimesusespopularnonpoliticalnameslikePhrygiaorMysia(Ac2:10,
16:3)butSt.Paul,asaRomancitizen,usesplacenamesintheirRomansensethroughout,e.g.Achaia(whichinGreekpopularusagehada
muchnarrowermeaningthanthe
Romanprovince,anddidnotincludeAthens,whileSt.PaulcontrastsitwithMacedonia,theonlyotherRomanprovinceinGreece,and
thereforeclearlyusesitinitsRomansense,Ro15:25,2Co9:2,11:10,1Th1:7f.cf.1Co16:5),Macedonia,Illyricum(Ro15:19only
theGreeksdidnotusethisnamepopularlyasasubstantive,andnonebutaRomancouldsodenotetheprovincein2Ti4:10St.Paulhimself
callsitDalmatia,asthenameusagewaschangingfromtheonetotheother),SyriaandCilicia(oneRomanprovince),andAsia(the
Romanprovinceofthatname,theW.partofAsiaMinor,includingMysia).WemaycompareSt.Petersnomenclaturein1P1:1,whereheis
somuchinfluencedbyPaulineideasastodesignateallAsiaMinornorthoftheTaurusbyenumeratingtheRomanprovinces.St.Paul,then,
callsallcitizensoftheprovinceofGalatiabythehonourablenameGalatians.TocalltheinhabitantsofthefourcitiesPhrygiansor
Lycaonianswouldbeasdiscourteousastocallthemslavesorbarbarians.TheRomancolonieslikePisidianAntiochweremostjealousof
theirRomanconnexion.
TheSouthGalatiantheoryreconcilestheEpistleandActswithoutthesomewhatviolenthypothesesoftherivaltheory.Thecrucial
passagesareAc16:6,18:23,whichareappealedtoonbothsides.In16:6St.PaulcomesfromSyroCiliciatoDerbeandLystra,nodoubtby
land,throughtheCilicianGates[Derbebeingmentionedfirstasbeingreachedfirst,whilein14:6Lystrawasreachedfirstandmentioned
first],andthentheywentthrough(v.l.goingthrough)theregionofPhrygiaandGalatia,lit.thePhrygianandGalaticregion[soallthebest
MSSreadtheselastwords].Thisregion,then(probablyatechnicaltermforthesubdivisionofaprovince),wasasingledistricttowhichthe
epithetsPhrygianandGalaticcouldbothbeappliedthatis,itwasthatdistrictwhichwaspartoftheoldcountryofPhrygia,andalsopart
oftheRomanprovinceofGalatia.ButnopartoftheoldGalatiaoverlappedPhrygia,andtheonlydistrictsatisfyingtherequirementsisthe
regionaroundPisidianAntiochandIconiumthereforein16:6adetourtoN.Galatiaisexcluded.Moreover,noroutefromN.Galatiato
BithyniacouldbringthetravellersoveragainstMysia(16:7).Theywouldhavehadtoreturnalmosttothespotfromwhichtheystartedon
theirhypotheticjourneytoN.Galatia.Attemptstotranslatethispassage,evenasreadbythebestMSS,asifitwerePhrygiaandtheGalatic
region,astheAVtext(followinginferiorMSS)hasit,havebeenmadebyacitationofLk3:1,butthisappearstobeamistaketheword
translatedthereIturaisreallyanadjectiveIturan,andthemeaningprobablyistheIturanregionwhichisalsocalledTrachonitis.
Intheotherpassage,Ac18:23,thegrammarandthereforethemeaningaredifferent.St.Paulcomes,probably,bythesamelandrouteas
before,andtothesamedistrictyetnowDerbeandLystraarenotmentionedbyname.St.PaulwentinsuccessionthroughtheGalaticregion
andthroughPhrygia(or[the]Phrygian[region]).Thegrammarrequirestwodifferentdistrictshere.ThefirstistheGalaticregion[of
Lycaonia]thatpartofoldLycaoniawhichwasintheprovinceGalatia,i.e.theregionroundDerbeandLystra.ThesecondisthePhrygian
region[ofGalatia],i.e.whatwasin16:6calledthePhrygoGalaticregion,thataroundAntiochandIconium.InusingadifferentphraseSt.
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LukeconsidersthetravellerspointofviewforinthelattercasetheyleaveSyrianAntioch,andenter,bywayofnonRomanLycaonia,into
GalaticLycaonia(theGalaticregion),whileintheformercasetheystartfromLystraandenterthePhrygoGalaticregionnearIconium.
AllthisisclearontheS.Galatiantheory.ButontheothertheoryitisveryhardtoreconciletheEpistlewithActs.TheS.Galatiantheory
alsofitsinverywellwithincidentalnoticesintheEpistle,suchasthefactthattheGalatiansevidentlyknewBarnabaswell,andwereaware
thathewasthechampionoftheGentiles(2:13
evenBarnabas)butBarnabasdidnotaccompanyPaulontheSecondMissionaryJourney,when,ontheN.Galatiantheory,theGalatians
werefirstevangelized.Again,Gal4:13fitsinverywellwithAc13:14ontheS.Galatiantheoryfortheverythingthatoneattackedwithan
illnessinthelowlyinglandsofPamphyliawoulddowouldbetogotothehighuplandsofPisidianAntioch.Thisseemstohavebeenan
unexpectedchangeofplan(onewhichperhapscausedMarksdefection).Ontheotherhand,ifavisittoGalatiaproperwerepartoftheplanin
Ac16tovisitBithynia,Gal4:13isunintelligible.
3.St.Paulsautobiography.Inchs.1,2theApostlevindicateshisauthoritybysayingthathereceiveditdirectfromGod,andnot
throughtheolderApostles,withwhomtheJudaizerscomparedhimunfavourably.Forthispurposehetellsofhisconversion,ofhisrelations
withtheTwelve,andofhisvisitstoJerusalemandshowsthathedidnotreceivehiscommissionfrommen.Prof.Ramsayurgeswithmuch
forcethatitwasessentialtoPaulsargumentthatheshouldmentionallvisitspaidbyhimtoJerusalembetweenhisconversionandthetimeof
hisevangelizingtheGalatians.IntheEpistlewereadoftwovisits(1:18,2:1),theformer3yearsafterhisconversion(orafterhisreturnto
Damascus),tovisitCephas,whenoftheApostleshesawonlyJamestheLordsbrotherbesides,andthelatter14yearsafterhisconversion(or
afterhisfirstvisit),whenhewentbyrevelationwithBarnabasandTitusandprivatelylaidbeforetheTwelve(thisprobablyisthemeaning
ofthemin2:2:James,Cephas,andJohnarementioned)thegospelwhichhepreachedamongtheGentiles.Wehave,then,toask,Towhich,
ifany,ofthevisitsrecordedinActsdothesecorrespond?MostscholarsagreethatGal1:18=Ac9:26ff.,andthatthewordApostlesInthe
latterplacemeansPeterandJamesonly.ButthereismuchdiversityofopinionconcerningGal2:1.LightfootandSandayidentifythisvisit
withthatofAc15:2(theJerusalemCouncil),sayingthatattheintermediatevisitofAc11:30therewerenoApostlesinJerusalem,thestorm
ofpersecutionhavingbrokenovertheChurch(onlytheeldersarementioned),andtheApostleshavingretiredas,therefore,St.Pauls
objectwastogivehisrelationtotheTwelve,hedoesnotmentionthisvisit,duringwhichhedidnotseethem.Ramsayidentifiesthevisitwith
thatofAc11:30,sinceotherwiseSt.Paulwouldbesuppressingapointwhichwouldtellinfavourofhisopponents,itbeingessentialtohis
argumenttomentionallhisvisits(seeabove)moreover,thehypothesisoftheflightoftheApostlesandofeveryChristianofrankis
scarcelycreditabletothem.TheywouldhardlyhavelefttheChurchtotakecareofitself,orhaveallowedtheelderstobearthebruntofthe
stormwhilethementionofeldersonlyin11:30wouldbeduetothefactthatthey,nottheApostles,wouldadministertheaims(cf.Ac6:2).
Otherargumentsoneithersidemayperhapsbalanceeachother,andarenotcrucial.ThusProf.Ramsayadducesthediscrepanciesbetween
Gal2:2andAc15:2intheformercasethevisitwasbyrevelation,inthelatterbyappointmentofthebrethren(thesearenotaltogether
incompatiblefacts)intheformercasethediscussionwasprivate,inthelatterpublic(thisisaccountedforbythesuppositionofapreliminary
privateconference,butthatgreatlydamagesSt.Paulsargument).Ontheotherband,Dr.SandaythinksthatthestageofcontroversyinGal2
suitsAc15ratherthanAc11.Thisargumentdoesnotappeartothepresentwritertobeofmuchvalue,forthequestionoftheGentilesandthe
MosaicLawhadreallyarisenwiththecaseofCornelius(Ac11:2ff.),andfromthenatureofthingsmusthavebeenpresentwhenevera
GentilebecameaChristian.TheCouncilinAc15representstheclimaxwhenthemattercametopublicdiscussionandformaldecisionwe
cannotsupposethatthecontroversysprangupsuddenlywithamushroomgrowth.Onthewhole,inspiteofthegreatweightofthenamesof
Bp.LightfootandDr.Sanday,thebalanceoftheargumentappearstolieonthesideofProf.Ramsay.
St.PeteratAntioch.Thisincidentintheautobiography(2:11ff.)isplacedbyLightfootimmediatelyafterAc15:36.Ramsaythinksthatit
wasnotnecessarilylaterintimethanthatwhichprecedes,thoughonhisviewofthesecondvisititisinitsproperchronologicalorder.Heputs
itaboutthetimeofAc15:1.Thesituationwouldthenbeasfollows.AtfirstmanyJewishChristiansbegantoassociatewithGentile
Christians.ButwhenthelogicalpositionwasputtothemthatGodhadopenedanotherdoortosalvationoutsidetheLawofMoses,andsohad
practicallyannulledtheLaw,theyshrankfromtheconsequences,Peterbegantodrawback(thisistheforceofthetensesinGal2:12),and
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practicallyannulledtheLaw,theyshrankfromtheconsequences,Peterbegantodrawback(thisistheforceofthetensesinGal2:12),and
evenBarnabaswassomewhatcarriedaway.ButPaulsargumentswereconvincing,andbothPeterandBarnabasbecamechampionsofthe
GentilesattheCouncil.ItisdifficulttounderstandPetersactionifithappenedaftertheCouncil.
4.Dateandplaceofwriting.UpholdersoftheN.Galatiantheory,understandingAc16:6,18:23torepresentthetwovisitstothe
GalatiansimpliedinGal4:13,usuallyfixonEphesusastheplaceofwriting,andsupposethattheEpistledatesfromthelongstaythere
recordedinAc19:8ff.,probablyearlyinthestay(cf.Gal1:6yearesoquicklyremoving)butLightfootpostponesthedateforsometwo
years,andthinksthattheEpistlewaswrittenfromMacedonia(Ac20:1),ratherearlierthanRomansandafter2Corinthians.Hegivesa
comparisonoftheseEpistles,showingtheverycloseconnexionbetweenRomansandGalatians:thesameuseofOT,thesameideasandsame
arguments,foundedonthesametextsinthedoctrinalpartofGalatianswecanfindaparallelforalmosteverythoughtandargumentin
Romans.Itisgenerallyagreedthatthelatter,asystematictreatise,islaterthantheformer,apersonalandfragmentaryEpistle.Thelikenessis
muchlessmarkedbetweenGalatiansandIand2Corinthiansbutin2CorinthianstheApostlevindicateshisauthoritymuchasinGalatians.
Theoppositiontohimevidentlydiedawaywiththecontroversyaboutcircumcision.ThusitisclearthatthesefourEpistleshangtogetherand
aretobeseparatedchronologicallyfromtherest.
OntheS.Galatiantheory,theEpistlewaswrittenfromAntioch.RamsayputsitattheendoftheSecondMissionaryJourney(Ac18:22).
Timothy,hethinks,hadbeensenttohishomeatLystrafromCorinth,andrejoinedPaulatSyrianAntioch,bringingnewsoftheGalatian
defection.Paulwroteoffhastily,despatchedTimothybackwiththeletter,andassoonaspossiblefollowedhimself(Ac18:23).Onthis
suppositionthetwovisitstotheGalatiansimpliedbytheEpistlewouldbethoseofAc13f.and16.TheintendedvisitofPaulwouldbe
announcedbyTimothy,thoughitwasnotmentionedintheletter,whichinanycasewasclearlywritteningreathaste.Itiscertainlystrange,
ontheEphesusorMacedoniahypothesis,thatPaulneithertookanystepstovisittheerringGalatians,nor,ifhecouldnotgotothem,
explainedthereasonofhisinability.Ramsaysview,however,hasthedisadvantagethatitseparatesGalatiansandRomansbysomeyears.Yet
ifSt.Paulkeptacopyofhisletters,hemightwellhaveelaboratedhishastilysketchedargumentinGalatiansintothetreatiseinRomans,at
somelittleintervaloftime.RamsaygivesA.D.53forGalatians,theotherthreeEpistlesfollowingin56and57.
AnotherviewisthatofWeber,whoalsoholdsthatSyrianAntiochwastheplaceofwriting,butdatestheEpistlebeforetheCouncil(seeAc
14:28).HeagreeswithRamsayastothetwovisitstoJerusalembuthethinksthatthemanneroftheJudaizersattackpointstoatimebefore
theApostolicdecreee.Gal6:12(compel)suggeststhattheyinsistedoncircumcisionasnecessaryforsalvation(1).Ifso,theiraction
couldhardlyhavetakenplaceaftertheCouncil.AstrongargumentonthissideisthatSt.Paulmakesnoallusiontothedecisionofthe
Council.Thechronologicaldifficultyofthe14years(2:1)ismetbyplacingtheconversionofSt.PaulinA.D.32.Weberthinksthat5:2could
nothavebeenwrittenafterthecircumcisionofTimothybutthisisdoubtful.ThetwovisitstotheGalatians,onthisview,wouldbethoseof
Ac13,ontheoutwardandthehomewardjourneyrespectively.ThestrongestargumentagainstWebersdateisthatitnecessitatessuchalong
intervalbetweenGalatiansandRomans.
5.AbstractoftheEpistle.Chs.1,2.AnswertotheJudaizersdisparagementofPaulsofficeandmessage.Narrativeofhislifefromhis
conversiononwards,showingthathedidnotreceivehisApostleshipandhisgospelthroughthemediumofotherApostles,butdirectfrom
God.
3:15:12.Doctrinalexpositionofthefreedomofthegospel,asagainstthelegalismoftheJudaizers.Abrahamwasjustifiedbyfaith,notby
theLaw,andsoarethechildrenofAbraham.TheLawwasaninferiordispensation,thoughgoodforthetime,andusefulaseducatingthe
worldforfreedomtheGalatianswerebentonreturningtoastateoftutelage,andtheirpresentattitudewasretrogressive.5:136:10.
Hortatory.Holdfastbyfreedom,butdonotmistakeitforlicence.
Beforbearingandliberal.
6:1118.Conclusion.SummingupofthewholeinPaulsownhand,writteninlargecharacters(6:11RV)toshowtheimportanceofthe
subjectoftheautograph.6.GenuinenessoftheEpistle.UntillatelyGalatians,Romans,1and2Corinthianswereuniversally
acknowledgedtobebySt.Paul,andtheTbingenschoolmadetheirgenuinenessthebasisoftheirattackontheotherEpistles.LatelyProf.
vanManen(Encyc.Bibl.s.v.Paul)andothershavedeniedthegenuinenessofthesefouralso,chieflyonthegroundthattheyaresaidto
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vanManen(Encyc.Bibl.s.v.Paul)andothershavedeniedthegenuinenessofthesefouralso,chieflyonthegroundthattheyaresaidto
quotelateJewishapocalypses,toassumetheexistenceofwrittenGospels,andtoquotePhiloandSeneca,andbecausetheexternalattestation
issaidtobeginaslateasA.D.150.
Theseargumentsareveryunconvincing,thefactsbeingimprobable.AndwhyshouldtherenothavebeenwrittenGospelsinSt.Paulstime?
(cf.Lk1:1).Asforthetestimony,ClementofRomeexplicitlymentionsandquotes1Corinthians,andhisdatecannotbebroughtdownlater
thanA.D.100.OurEpistleisprobablyalludedtoorcitedbyBarnabas,Hermas,andIgnatius(5times)certainlybyPolycarp(4times),the
EpistletoDiognetus,JustinMartyr,Melito,Athenagoras,andtheActsofPaulandThecla.ItisfoundintheOldLatinandSyrianversionsand
intheMuratorianFragment(c.A.D.180200),usedby2ndcent.heretics,alludedtobyadversarieslikeCelsusandthewriterofthe
ClementineHomilies,andquotedbynameanddistinctly(astheirfashionwas)byIrenus,ClementofAlexandria,andTertullian,attheend
ofthe2ndcentury.But,apartfromthisexternaltestimony,thespontaneousnatureoftheEpistleisdecisiveinfavourofitsgenuineness.There
isnopossiblemotiveforforgery.AnantiJewishGnosticwouldnothaveusedexpressionsofdeferencetotheApostlesoftheCircumcision
anEbionitewouldnothaveusedtheargumentsoftheEpistleagainsttheMosaicLaw(thustheClementineHomilies,anEbionitework,
clearlyhitsattheEpistleinseveralpassages)anorthodoxforgerwouldavoidallappearanceofconflictbetweenPeterandPaul.AfterA.D.
70thereneverwastheleastdangeroftheGentileChristiansbeingmadetosubmittotheLaw.Thereisthereforenoreasonforsurprisethatthe
recentattackontheauthenticityoftheEpistlehasbeendecisivelyrejectedinthiscountrybyallthebestcritics.
A.J.MACLEAN.
GALBANUM.Oneoftheingredientsofthesacredincense(Ex30:34).Itisabrownishyellow,pleasantsmellingresinfromvarious
speciesofFerulaitisimportedfromPersia.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
GALEED(cairnofwitness).Thenamewhich,accordingtoGn31:47,wasgivenbyJacobtothecairnerectedontheoccasionofthe
compactbetweenhimandLaban.ThereisevidentlyacharacteristicattemptalsotoaccountinthiswayforthenameGilead.Therespective
proceedingsofJacobandofLabanareuncertain,forthenarrativeisnotonlyofcompositeorigin,buthassufferedthroughtheintroductionof
glossesintothetext.ItisprettycertainthatweshouldreadLabaninsteadofJacobinv.45.TheLXXseeksunsuccessfullytoreducethe
narrativetoorderbymeansoftranspositions.
GALILEE
1.Position.GalileewastheprovinceofPalestinenorthofSamaria.ItwasboundedsouthwardbytheCarmelrangeandthesouthern
borderoftheplainofEsdraelon,whenceitstretchedeastwardbyBethshean(Scythopolis,Beisan)tothe
Jordan.EastwarditwaslimitedbytheJordanandthewesternbankofitsexpansions(theSeaofGalileeandWatersofMerom).Northward
andtothenorthwestitwasboundedbySyriaandPhniciaitreachedtheseaonlyintheregionroundthebayofAcca,andimmediatelynorth
ofit.Itsmaximumextentthereforewassomewhereabout60milesnorthtosouth,and30easttowest.
2.Name.ThenameGalileeisofHebreworigin,andsignifiesaringorcircuit.Thenameisacontractionofafullerexpression,
preservedbyIs9:1,namely,Galileeofthe[foreign]nations.ThiswasoriginallythenameofthedistrictatthenorthernboundaryofIsrael,
whichwasafrontiersurroundedbyforeignersonthreesides.Thenceitspreadsouthward,tillalreadybyIsaiahstimeitincludedtheregionof
thesea,i.e.theSeaofGalilee.Itsfurtherextensionsouthward,toincludetheplainofEsdraelon,tookplacebeforetheMaccabanperiod.The
attributiveofthenationswasprobablydroppedaboutthistimepartlyforbrevity,partlybecauseitwasbroughtintotheJewishStatebyits
conquestbyJohnHyrcanus,abouttheendofthe2ndcent.B.C.
3.History.InthetribalpartitionofthecountrytheterritoryofGalileewasdividedamongtheseptsofAsher,Naphtali,Zebulun,and
partofIssachar.IntheOThistorythetribaldesignationsaregenerallyusedwhensubdivisionsofthecountryaredenotedthisisnodoubtthe
reasonwhythenameGalilee,whichisnotatribalname,occurssorarelyintheHebrewScripturesthoughthepassageinIsaiahalready
quoted,aswellasthereferencestoKedeshandothercitiesinGalilee(Jos20:7,21:32,1K9:11,2K15:29,1Ch6:76),showthatthename 9/82
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quoted,aswellasthereferencestoKedeshandothercitiesinGalilee(Jos20:7,21:32,1K9:11,2K15:29,1Ch6:76),showthatthename
wasfamiliarandemployeduponoccasion.ButthoughsomeofthemostimportantofthehistoricaleventsoftheearlyHebrewhistorytook
placewithinthebordersofGalilee,itcannotbesaidtohavehadahistoryofitsowntilllatertimes.
AfterthereturnoftheJewsfromtheExile,thepopulationwasconcentratedforthegreaterpartinJuda,andthenorthernpartsof
PalestinewerelefttothedescendantsofthesettlersestablishedbyAssyria.Itwasnottillitsconquest,probablybyJohoHyrcanus,thatitwas
oncemoreincludedinJewishterritoryandoccupiedbyJewishsettlers.UnderthepressureofEgyptianandRomaninvadersthenational
patriotismdevelopedrapidly,anditbecameasintenselyaJewishStateasJerusalemitself,notwithstandingthecontemptwithwhichthe
haughtyinhabitantsofJudaregardedthenorthernprovincials.UndertheRomandominationGalileewasgovernedasatetrarchate,heldby
membersoftheHerodfamily.HerodtheGreatwasrulerofGalileeinB.C.47,andwassucceededbyhissonAntipas,astetrarch,inB.C.4.
AfterthefallofJerusalem,GalileebecamethecentreofRabhiniclife.TheonlyancientremainsofJewishsynagoguesaretobeseenamong
theruinsofGalilancities.MaimonideswasburiedatTiberias.ButitisastheprincipaltheatreofChristslifeandworkthatGalilee
commandsitsgreatestinterest.AlmostthewholeofHislife,fromHissettlementasaninfantinNazareth,wasspentwithinitsborders.The
greatmajorityofthetwelveApostleswerealsonativesofthisprovince.
4.PhysicalCharacteristics.OwingtomoisturederivedfromtheLehanonmountains,GalileeisthebestwatereddistrictofPalestine,
andaboundsinstreamsandsprings,thoughtheactualrainfallislittlegreaterthanthatofJuda.Theresultofthisenhancedwatersupplyis
seeninthefertilityofthesoil,whichisfargreaterthananywhereinSouthernPalestine.Itwasfamousforoil,wheat,barley,andfruit,aswell
ascattle.TheSeaofGalileefisherieswerealsoimportant.Theformationofthecountryislimestone,brokenbyfrequentdykesandoutflows
oftrapandothervolcanicrocks.HotspringsatTiberiasandelsewhere,andnotinfrequentearthquakes,indicateacontinuanceofvolcanicand
analogousenergies.
5.Population.GalileeinthetimeofChristwasinhabitedbyamixedpopulation.TherewasthenativeJewishelement,graftednodoubt
onasubstratumoftheAssyriansettlersandotherimmigrants,whoseintrusiondatedfromtheIsraeliteExilewithprobablyyetalower
stratum,stretchingbacktothedaysoftheCanaanites.BesidesthesetherewasthecultivatedEuropeanclasstheinhabitantsoftheGreek
citiesthatsurroundedtheSeaofTiberias,andthemilitaryrepresentativesofthedominantpowerofRome.WehaveseenthatinJudathe
Galilanswerelookeddownupon.CananygoodthingcomeoutofNazareth?(Jn1:46)wasoneproverb.OutofGalileearisethno
prophet(7:52)wasanother,inthefaceofthefactthatGalileewasthehomeofDeborah,Barak,Ibzan,Tola,Elon,withtheprophetsJonah,
Elisha,andpossiblyHosea.TheGalilansnodoubthadprovincialisms,suchastheconfusionofthegutturalsinspeech,whichgratedonthe
sensitiveearsoftheJudans,andwasoneoftheindicationsthatbetrayedPeterwhenheendeavouredtodenyhisdiscipleship(Mt26:73).
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
GALILEE,MOUNTAININ.AfterourLordsresurrection,theelevendiscipleswentawayfromJerusalemintoGalilee,untothe
mountainwhereJesushadappointedthem(Mt28:16).Norecordorhintindicatestouswhatmountainismeant.Thereisnofoundationfor
thetheorythatitistheMt.ofOlives,whosenorthpointissaidtohavebornethenameGalilee.
GALILEE,SEAOF
1.Situation,etc.TheSeaofGalileeisanexpansionoftheJordan,13mileslong,about8milesinmaximumbreadthitssurfaceis680
feetbelowthatoftheMediterraneanitsmaximumdepthisabout150feet.Inshapeitislikeapear,thenarrowendpointingsouthward.Like
theDeadSea,itissetdeepamonghills,whichriseontheeastsidetoaheightofabout2000feet.AttheemergenceoftheJordan,however,
theLakeimpingesontheplainoftheGhr.
2.Names.TheoriginalnameoftheSeaseemstohavebeenChinnerethor
Chinneroth,whichahazardousetymologyconnectswiththeHeb.kinnr,harp.ThenameissupposedtobegiventotheSeaonaccountof
itsfanciedresemblancetosuchaninstrument.ItmoreprobablytakesitsnamefromanasyetunrecognizedtownordistrictinNaphtali(which
borderedtheLakeonthewestside)referredtoinJos11:2,19:35,1K15:20.Bythisnameitisreferredtoinassigningtheborderofthe
PromisedLand(Nu34:11),instatingtheboundaryofthetransJordanictribes(Dt3:12,Jos13:27),andinenumeratingthekingsconquered 10/82
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PromisedLand(Nu34:11),instatingtheboundaryofthetransJordanictribes(Dt3:12,Jos13:27),andinenumeratingthekingsconquered
byJoshua(Jos12:3).TheLakeisreferredtoalsobythenameGennesarinJosephus(always),andin1Mac11:67(AV).Thisnamealsoisof
uncertainoriginstronggroundsexistforquestioningitsderivationasacorruptionoftheearlierappellation.IntheGospelsitisreferredto
underavarietyofnames:besidessuchgeneraltermsasthelake(Lk8:22etc.),orthesea(Jn6:16),wefindLakeofGennesaret(onlyin
Lk5:1),SeaofTiberias(Jn21:1,andalsoasanexplanatoryoralternativenameinJn6:1),butmostfrequentlySeaofGalilee,whichseems
tohavebeenthenormalname.ThemodernnameisBahrTubarya,whichisoftenrenderedinEnglishasLakeofTiberias,bywhichname
theSeaisnowfrequentlydescribed(asinBaedekersSyriaandPalestine).
3.ImportanceinNTTimes.TheSeainthetimeofChristwassurroundedbyanumberofimportantcities,eachofthemthecentreofa
culturedpopulation.SuchwereTiberias,Bethsaida,Capernaum,Chorazin,Magdala,andothers.Thefishingindustrywasextensive,and
wherenowbutafewsmallboatsaretobeseen,thereevidentlywereformerlylargefleetsoffishingvessels.ThefishingtradeofGalileewas
ofgreatimportance,andwasrenownedthroughouttheworld.OwingtothegreatheightofthemountainssurroundingtheLake,differencesof
temperatureareproducedwhichgiverisetosuddenandviolentstorms.TwosuchstormsarementionedintheGospelsoneinMt8:23,Mk
4:36,Lk8:22,theotherinMt14:22,Mk6:46,Jn6:16.TherepetitionoftheeventwithinthenarrowhistoricallimitsoftheGospelsindicates
thatsuchtempests,thenasnow,weremattersoffrequentoccurrence.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
GALL.(1)rsh,someverybitterplant,Dt29:18,La3:19waterofgall,Jer8:14,9:16tr.hemlock,Hos10:4poison,Job20:16.
Hemlock(Coniummaculatum),colocynth(Citrulluscolocynthis),andthepoppy(Papaversomniferum)haveallbeensuggested.Thelastis
perhapsmostprobable.(2)merrah(Job16:16)andmerrah(20:25)refertothebile.Thepoisonofserpentswassupposedtolieintheirbile
(20:14).Thegall(Gr.chol)ofMt27:34evidentlyreferstotheLXXversionofPs69:21,wherecholistr.ofrsh.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
GALLERY.1.AVinCa7:6readsThekingisheldinthegalleries.The
Heb.isbrehtm,which,thereisnoreasonabledoubt,meansinthetresses(so
RV).Thekingiscaptivated,thatistosay,bythetressesofthisprincesdaughter.2.AVandRVtr.ofattq,awordwhoseetymologyand
meaningarebothobscure.ItisfoundonlyinthedescriptionofEzekielstemple(Ezk41:18,16,42:8,8).
GALLEY.SeeSHIPSANDBOATS.
GALLIM(heaps).AplacenearJerusalem(1S25:44).Itispersonified,alongwithAnathothandothertowns,inIs10:30.Itis
generallyplacedtotheN.ofJerusalem,buttheexactsiteisunknown.
GALLIO.TheelderbrotherofSeneca.AccordingtoActs(18:1217),hewasproconsulofAchalaundertheEmperorClaudiusA.D.53,
whenSt.PaulwasinCorinth.SenecamentionsthathisbrothercontractedfeverinAchaia,andthuscorroboratesActs.TheJewsofCorinth
broughtSt.PaulbeforeGallio,charginghimwithpersuadingmentoworshipGodcontrarytothelaw(v.13).When,however,Galliofound
thattherewasnochargeofvillainy,butonlyofquestionswhichtheJewsasaselfadministeringcommunitywerecompetenttodecidefor
themselves,hedrovethemfromthejudgmentseat(v.14f.).Sosthenes,therulerofthesynagogue,wasthendraggedbeforehimandbeaten
butsuchLynchlawhadnoeffectupontheproconsul(v.17).
PlinytellsusthatGallioafterhisconsulshiptravelledfromRometoEgyptinconsequenceofanattackofhmorrhagefromthelungs.
EusebiusquotesJeromeassayingthathecommittedsuicideA.D.65itisalsosaidthatheaswellasSenecawasputtodeathbyNerobut
thesereportsareunsubstantiated.Senecaspeaksofhimasamanofextremeamiabilityofcharacter.
CHARLEST.P.GRIERSON.

GALLOWS.ThiswordoccurseighttimesinEVintheBookofEstheronly(5:14etc.)astherenderingoftheordinaryHeb.wordfor
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GALLOWS.ThiswordoccurseighttimesinEVintheBookofEstheronly(5:14etc.)astherenderingoftheordinaryHeb.wordfor
tree(seemargins).Itisverydoubtfulifdeathbystrangulationisintendedtreeinallprobabilityhavinghereitsfrequentsenseofpole,
onwhich,aswascustomaryinPersia,thecriminalwasimpaled(seeCRIMESANDPUNISHMENTS,10).
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
GAMAEL.1Es8:29=Daniel,No.3(Ezr8:2).
GAMALIEL.1.ThesonofPedahzur,andprinceofthechildrenof
Manasseh(Nu1:10,2:20,etc.).2.GamalielI.,thegrandsonofHillel,wasaPharisee,andregardedasoneofthemostdistinguisheddoctors
oftheLawofhisage.HewasamemberoftheSanhedrinduringtheyearsofourLordsministry.
HisviewsweretolerantandlargeheartedheemphasizedthehumanersideoftheLaw,relaxingsomewhattherigourofSabbatical
observance,regulatingthecustomsofdivorcesoasthemoretoprotecthelplesswoman,andinculcatingkindnessonthepartofJewstowards
surroundingheathen.Theadvicegivenbyhimtothechiefpriests(Ac5:3440)inreferencetotheirdealingwiththeApostlesshowssimilar
toleranceandwisdom.AthisfeetSt.Paulwasbroughtup(Ac22:3).
TheClementineRecognitionsabsurdlystatethatbytheadviceoftheApostlesheremainedamongtheJewsasasecretbelieverinChrist.
TheMishnadeploresthatwiththedeathofGamalielI.thereverenceforDivineLawceased,andtheobservanceofpurityandpietybecame
extinct.
CHARLEST.P.GRIERSON.
GAMES
I.AMONGTHEISRAELITES.TheJewswereessentiallyaseriouspeople.Whatinothernationsdevelopedintoplayandgamesof
variouskinds,hadwiththemaseriouslypracticalandoftenareligiouscharacter.Theirdanceswereacommonformofreligiousexercise,
whichmightindeeddegenerateintodisorderlyorunseemlybehaviour,butwereonlyexceptionallyasourceofhealthysocialamusement(Ps
150:4,Ex32:6,19,2S6:14ff.,Jer31:4,Ec3:4).Music,againwasespeciallyassociatedwithsacredsong.Itssecularusewascondemnedby
Isaiahasasignofextravagantluxury(Is5:12).LotsandthelikewereusedasameansofascertainingtheDivinewill,notforamusementor
profit.Evenwhatwithchildrenmightbecalledgamesofmakebelievebecamewithsomeoftheprophetsvehiclesofreligiousinstruction.
ThesymbolicobjectlessonsofEzekielwerelikechildrenstoysadaptedtoareligiouspurpose(seeesp.ch.4).Eventhishumourofthe
prophets,strikingasitwas,wasintenselyserious:witnessthescathingridiculeofPhnicianidolatrybyElijahandDeuteroIsaiah(1K18:27,
Is44:1220,46:1,
2).
ItisamatterofsomedisputewhethermanlysportshadanyplaceinthesociallifeoftheIsraelites.Therewasundoubtedlysomesortof
trainingintheuseofweapons,particularlythesling(amongtheBenjamitesespecially)andthebow,forthepurposesofwarfareandthe
chase.Wehaveadefinitereferencetothecustomofpractisingatamarkin1S20:20,35ff.,andthereareseveralmetaphoricalallusionstothe
samepractice(Job16:12,13,La3:12).Again,ithasalsobeenthoughtthatwehaveintheburdensomestoneofZec12:2anallusiontoa
customofliftingaheavystoneeitherasatestofstrengthorasameansofstrengtheningthemusclesbutthereisnoactualproofthatthere
wasanysortofcompetitivecontestinsuchexercises.Itmaybesuggested,however,ontheotherhand,thatthepracticeofdetermining
combatsbyselectedchampions,oneormore,fromeitherside,whichwereadofin1S17:10,2S2:1316,andtheexpressionusedinthe
lattercase,lettheyoungmenariseandplaybeforeus,makesitlikelythatfriendlytournamentswerenotunknown.
Riddleguessingistheoneformofcompetitionofwhichwehaveanycertainproof.InJg14:1214thepropoundingandguessingof
riddlesasawagerappearsaspartoftheentertainmentofamarriagefeast.ThequestionsputbythequeenofShebatoSolomonprobably

belongtothesamecategory(1K10:1,3).Indeed,thepropoundingofdarksayingswasacommonelementinproverbialliterature(Ps78:2,12/82
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belongtothesamecategory(1K10:1,3).Indeed,thepropoundingofdarksayingswasacommonelementinproverbialliterature(Ps78:2,
Pr1:6).
ChildrensGames.Gamesofplayaresoinvariableanelementofchildlifeamongallpeoples,thatithardlyneedsproofthatthe
Israeliteswerenoexceptiontotherule.TheplayingoftheboysandgirlsinthestreetsoftheglorifiedJerusalem(Zec8:6)mightindeedmean
nothingmorethankittenplaybutfortunatelywehaveinMt11:15.||Lk7:31f.amostinterestingallusiontothegames(mockweddingsand
mockfunerals)playedinthemarketplaceinourLordstime,astheyareplayedinPalestineatthepresentday.
Wereadin2Mac4:917howJasonthehighpriestandtheheadoftheHellenizingparty,havingbribedAntiochusEpiphaneswith150
talentsofsilver,setupaplaceofexercise(gymnasium)forthetrainingupofyouthsinthepracticesoftheheathen.Theonlygame
specificallymentionedisthediscus.Thereisalsomentionedinv.18agamethatwasheldeveryfifthyearatTyreevidentlyanimitation
oftheOlympicgames.Later,HerodtheGreatappearsfromJosephus(Ant.XV.viii.1)tohaveprovokedaconspiracyoftheJewsbybuilding
atheatreandanamphitheatreatJerusalemforthespectacularcombatsofwildbeasts,andtohaveinitiatedverysplendidgameseveryfive
yearsinhonourofCsar.Theseincludedwrestlingandchariotraces,andcompetitorswereattractedfromallcountriesbytheverycostly
prizes.
II.GAMESOFGREECEANDROME.Athleticcontestsformedavery
importantfeatureinthesociallifeoftheGreeks.Theyoriginatedinprehistorictimes,andwerecloselyassociatedwithreligiousworship.
ThustheOlympicgameswereheldinhonourofOlympianZeusinconnexionwiththemagnificenttempleinOlympiainElistheIsthmian
gamesontheIsthmusofCorinthinhonourofPoseidonthePythianwereassociatedwiththeworshipofthePythianApolloatDelphithe
NemeanwerecelebratedatNemea,avalleyofArgolis,tocommemoratetheNemeanZeus.ThesefourgamesweregreatPanHellenic
festivals,towhichcrowdscamefromallparts,notonlyfreebornGreeks,butalsoforeigners,althoughthelatter,excepttheRomansinlater
times,werenotallowedtocompete.ThemostimportantofthesegamesweretheOlympic.Theywereheldeveryfouryears,andsogreatwas
theoccasionthatfromtheyearB.C.264eventsasfarbackas776werecomputedbythem.Theperiodbetweenonecelebrationandanother
wascalledanOlympiad,andaneventwassaidtohaveoccurredinthe1st,2nd,3rd,or4thyearofsuchanOlympiad.TheIsthmiangames,
whichtookplacebienniallyinthefirstandthirdyearofeachOlympiad,seemtohavebeenmodelledonverymuchthesamelinesasthe
Olympic.TotheBiblicalstudenttheyhaveamoredirectinterest,asitishighlyprobablethatthefrequentallusionstosuchcontestsbySt.
Paul(seeesp.1Co9:2427)wereduetohispersonalobservationofthesegames,whichmusthavetakenplacewhilehewasatCorinth.As,
however,ourknowledgeoftheOlympicgames,ofwhichseveralancientwritershaveleftusparticulars,isfarmorecomplete,itoftenhappens
thatthelanguageofSt.Paulismoreeasilyillustratedfromthem.Itshouldbementionedalsointhisconnexionthatbesidesthesefourgreat
athleticcontests,gamesofalocalcharacter,ofteninimitationoftheOlympic,wereheldthroughoutGreeceandhercoloniesinalltownsof
importance,whichhadboththeirstadiumandtheirtheatre.Themostimportantofthese,fromtheBiblicalstudentspointofview,werethe
gamesofEphesus.WiththeseSt.Paulwascertainlyfamiliar,and,aswillbeseenbelow,allusionstogamesareremarkablyfrequentin
writingsconnectedwithEphesus.
ThecontestsatOlympiaincludedrunning,boxing,wrestling,chariotraces,andothercompetitionsbothformenandforyouths.The
judges,whoseemalsotohaveactedasasortofmanagingcommittee,withmanydependents,werechosenbylot,oneforeachdivisionof
Elis.Theyheldatonceahighlyhonouredandaverydifficultpost,andwererequiredtospendtenmonthsinlearningthedutiesoftheiroffice.
Forthelast30daysofthisperiodtheywererequiredpersonallytosuperintendthetrainingoftheathleteswhowerepreparingtocompete.In
additiontothis,theathleteswererequiredtoswearbeforecompetingthattheyhadspenttenmonthspreviouslyintraining.Wethusrealizethe
forceofsuchallusionsasthatof1Ti4:7,8,whereSt.Paulinsistsonthegreaterimportanceofthetraininguntogodlinessthanthatofthe
body.Thesefactsalsoaddpointtotheallusionsin2Ti2:5.Anathleteisnotcrownedunlesshecontendaccordingtoregulation.These
regulationsrequiredthedisqualificationnotonlyofthedisfranchisedandcriminals,butofthosewhohadnotundergonetherequiredtraining.
Itisthelasttowhichthepassageseemsespeciallytopoint.
Theprize,whileitdifferedindifferentplaces,wasalwaysacrownofleaves.AtOlympiaitwasmadeofwildoliveintheIsthmus,inSt.
Paulstime,ofpineleavesatDelphi,oflaurelatNemea,ofparsley.Inadditiontothis,atOlympia,Delphi,andprobablyelsewhere,the
victorhadhandedtohimapalmbranchasatokenofvictory.Itisalmostimpossibletoexaggeratethehonourattachedtowinningtheprizein13/82
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victorhadhandedtohimapalmbranchasatokenofvictory.Itisalmostimpossibletoexaggeratethehonourattachedtowinningtheprizein
thesecontests.Thevictorenteredhisnativecityintriumphalprocessionhehadconferreduponhimmanyprivilegesandimmunities,andhis
victorywasfrequentlycelebratedinverse.Hisstatuemightbe,andoftenwas,placedinthesacredgroveofElis,andhewaslookeduponasa
publicbenefactor.
St.Paulin1Co9:2427makesuseofthespiritoftheseconteststoillustratetotheCorinthians,towhomitmusthavespeciallyappealed,the
selfdenial,thestrenuousness,andthegloriousissueoftheChristianconflict,drawinghismetaphoricalallusionspartlyfromthefootraceand
partlyfromtheboxingandwrestlingmatches.Theydoittoreceiveacorruptiblecrownbutweanincorruptible.Ithereforesorun,asnot
uncertainlysofightI,asnotbeatingtheairbutIbuffetmybody,andbringitintobondage,etc.
ThereisaveryinterestingallusiontothegamesofEphesusin2Ti4:7Ihavecontendedthegoodcontest,Ihavecompletedtherace
henceforthislaidupformethecrownofrighteousness,etc.ThisstandsinstrikingcontrasttoPh3:1216NotthatIhavealreadyobtained,
oramalreadymadeperfect:butIpressonforgettingthethingswhicharebehind,andstretchingforwardtothethingswhicharebefore,I
pressontowardthegoaluntotheprizeofthehighcallingofGodinChristJesus.Hereagainitistheintenseeagernessoftheathletethatis
speciallyin
St.Paulsmind.WehavemanyotherallusionsbySt.Paultothefootrace,asinRo9:16,Gal2:2,5:7,Ph2:16,Ac20:24.Thesegenerally
refertothecourseoflifeandconduct.Thelastpassage,itshouldberemembered,isaddressedtotheeldersatEphesus.Thefullsignificance
ofRo9:16ismissedunlesswerealizetheintensityofeffortrequiredbytheracer.Thesupremeeffortofthewillisworthlesswithoutthegrace
ofGod.
WehaveallusionstothewrestlingmatchcertainlyinEph6:12,whereSt.Paulspeaksofwrestlingagainstspiritualforces,andprobablyto
boxingin4:27,wheregivingplacemeansgivingvantagegroundtothespiritualfoe.InconnexionwithEphesuswemaynoticealsothe
allusioninAc19:31totheAsiarchstheofficerswhosuperintendedthegames.ThereferencetofightingwithwildbeastsatEphesusin1
Co15:32isprobablyametaphoricalallusiontosuchcontestsaswerecommonafterwardsintheColosseumatRome,andwere,accordingto
Schmitz(seeIsthmiainSmithsDict.ofGr.Rom.Ant.),probablyintroducedintotheIsthmiangamesaboutthistime.
OutsideSt.PaulswritingsthereisanimportantreferencetoathleticcontestsinHe12:12.Herethetwopointsemphasizedare:(1)the
cloudofwitnesses(Gr.martyres),whosepastachievementsaretoencouragetheChristiancombatantsforthefaith(2)theselfsacrificeand
earnestnessneededinrunningtheChristianrace.TheChristianathletemustlayasideeveryweighteveryhindrancetohiswork,justasthe
runnerdivestedhimselfofhisgarments,havingpreviouslybyhardtraininggotridofallsuperfluousflesh,andlookonlytoChrist.Again,in
Rev7:9wehaveinthepalmsinthehandsofthegreatcompanyofmartyrsaveryprobablereferencetothepalmsgiventothesuccessful
competitorsinthegames.Here,again,itshouldbeborneinmindthatitwastoEphesusandthesurroundingtowns,thedistrictofthegreat
Ephesiangames,thatSt.Johnwaswriting.
F.H.WOODS.
GAMMADIM.Atermofverydoubtfulmeaning,occurringinEzk27:11TheGammadim(AVims)wereinthytowers.Noplaceof
thenameofGammadisknown,butapropernameiswhatthecontextseemstodemand.RVmvalorousmenhasnotcommendeditselftothe
majorityofscholars.
GAMUL(weaned).AchiefoftheLevites,andheadofthe22ndcourseofpriests(1Ch24:17).
GARDEN(Heb.gan[lit.enclosure],gannah,which,likethePersian[mod.Armenian]pards[Neh2:8etc.],andtheArabjannahand
bustn,maymeanagardenofherbs[Dt11:10,1K21:2etc.],afruitorchard[Jer29:5,28,Am4:9etc.],oraparklikepleasureground[2K
25:4,Est1:5etc.]).Flowerswerecultivated(Ca6:2),anddoubtless,asinmoderntimes,cropsofgrainorvegetablesweregrowninthe
spacesbetweenthetrees.InthelongdrysummerofPalestinethefruitfulnessofthegardendependsuponabundantwatersupply(Nu24:6).
Perennialfountainsfleckthelandscapewiththeluxuriantgreenanddeliciousshadeofgardens,ase.g.atJenn(Ca4:15).Greatcisternsand
reservoirscollectthewaterduringtherains,andfromthese,bynumerousconduits,itisledateveningtorefreshallpartsofthegarden.
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reservoirscollectthewaterduringtherains,andfromthese,bynumerousconduits,itisledateveningtorefreshallpartsofthegarden.
Failureofwaterissoonevidentinwitheredleavesandwiltedplants(Is58:11,cf.1:30).TheorangeandlemongrovesofJaffaandSidonare
famousandtheorchardsaroundDamascusformoneofthemainattractionsofthatearthlyparadise.Thecoolshadeofthetrees,themusic
ofthestream,andthedelightfulvarietyoffruitsintheirseason,makethegardensafavouriteplaceofresort(Est7:7,Ca4:16etc.),especially
towardseveningandinthesummermonthsmanyspendthenightthere.Inthesweetair,undertheshelteringboughs,inthegardensofOlivet,
Jesusnodoubtpassedmanyofthedarkhours(Mk11:19RV,Lk21:37).FromHisagonyinagarden(Jn18:1,26)HewenttoHisdoom.
Thegardens,withtheirluxuriantfoliageandsoftobscurities,weregreatlyresortedtoforpurposesofidolatry(Is56:3,Bar6:70).Therethe
Moslemmaybeseentoday,spreadinghisclothorgarmentunderorange,fig,ormulberry,andperforminghisdevotions.Thegarden
furnishesthecharmsofhisheaven(eljannah,orFirdaus):seeartt.PARADISE,EDEN[GARDENOF].
Tombswereoftencutintherockbetweenthetrees(2K21:18etc.)insuchatombthebodyofJesuswaslaid(Jn19:41).
W.EWING.
GARDENHOUSEin2K9:27shouldprob.beBethhaggan(leavingHeb.
untranslated),thenameofanunknownplaceSofJezreel.
GAREB.1.OneofDavidsThirty(2S23:38,1Ch11:40).2.AhillnearJerusalem(Jer31:39).Itssituationisuncertain,beinglocated
bysometotheS.W.,whileothersplaceittotheN.,ofthecapital.AtthepresentdaythereisaWadyGourabtotheW.ofJerusalem.
GARLAND.Thegarlands(Gr.stemmata)ofAc14:13wereprobablyintendedtobeputontheheadsofthesacrificialvictims.Forthe
useofagarland(Gr.stephanos)asaprizetothevictorinthegames,seeart.CROWN,2,andcf.GAMES.
GARLIC(Nu11:5).ThefamiliarAlliumsativum,stillaverygreatfavouriteinPalestine,especiallywiththeJews.Originallyaproduct
ofCentralAsia,andonceadelicacyofkings,itisonlyintheEastthatitretainsitsplaceintheaffectionsofallclasses.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
GARMENT.SeeDRESS.
GARMITE.AgentilicnameappliedinatotallyobscuresensetoKeilahin1Ch4:19.
GARNER.Garner,whichisnowarchaicifnotobsolete,andgranary,theformnowinuse,bothcomefromLat.granaria,a
storehouseforgrain.RVretainsthesubst.inallitsoccurrencesinAV,andintroducestheverbinIs62:9Theythathavegarnered(AV
gathered)itshalleatit.
GAS(1Es5:34).Hissonswereamongthetempleservants(Ezr.andNeh.omit).
GASHMU(Neh6:6).AformofthenameGeshem(wh.see),probablyrepresentingthepronunciationofN.Arabiandialect.
GATAM.ThesonofEliphaz(Gn36:11=1Ch1:36),anddukeofanEdomiteclan(Gn36:16)whichhasnotbeenidentified.
GATE.SeeCITY,FORTIFICATIONANDSIEGECRAFT5,JERUSALEM,TEMPLE.
GATH.AcityofthePhilistinePentapolis.ItismentionedinJos11:22asaplacewheretheAnakimtookrefugebutJoshuais
significantlysilentabouttheapportioningofthecitytoanyofthetribes.ThearkwasbroughtherefromAshdod(1S5:8),andthenceto
Ekron(5:10).ItwasthehomeofGoliath(1S17:4,2S21:19),andaftertheroutofthePhilistinesatEphesdammimitwasthelimitoftheir
pursuit(1S17:52[LXX]).Davidduringhisoutlawrytookrefugewithitsking.Achish(1S21:10).AbodyguardofGittiteswasattachedto
DavidspersonundertheleadershipofacertainIttaitheseremainedfaithfultothekingaftertherevoltofAbsalom(2S15:18).Shimeis
servantsrantoGath,andwerepursuedthitherbyhimcontrarytothetabulaiduponhim(1K2:40).GathwascapturedbyHazaelofSyria(215/82
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servantsrantoGath,andwerepursuedthitherbyhimcontrarytothetabulaiduponhim(1K2:40).GathwascapturedbyHazaelofSyria(2
K12:17).AnunsuccessfulEphraimitecattleliftingexpeditionagainstGathisrecorded(1Ch7:21).ThecitywascapturedbyDavid,
accordingtotheChronicler(18:1).andfortifiedbyRehoboam(2Ch11:8).ItwasagaincapturedbyUzziah(26:6).Amosreferstoitinterms
whichimplythatsomegreatcalamityhasbefallenit(6:2)thelaterprophets,thoughtheymentionothercitiesofthePentapolis,aresilent
respectingGath,whichseemsthereforetohavedroppedoutofexistence.Theexactcircumstancesofitsfinalfateareunknown.The
topographicalindications,bothoftheScripturereferencesandoftheOnomasticon,pointtothegreatmoundTellesSafiasthemostprobable
sitefortheidentificationofGath.ItstandsatthemouthoftheValleyofElah,andclearlyrepresentsalargeandimportanttown.Itwas
partiallyexcavatedbythePalestineExplorationFundin1899,but,unfortunately,thewholemoundbeingmuchcumberedwithamodern
villageanditsgraveyardsandsacredshrines,onlyalimitedareawasfoundavailableforexcavation,andtheresultswerenotsodefiniteas
theymighthavebeen.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
GATHHEPHER(Jos19:13[AVwronglyGittahhepher,whichissimplytheformofthenamewithHelocale],2K14:25,winepressof
thepitorwell).ThehomeoftheprophetJonah.ItlayontheborderofZebulun,andismentionedwithJaphiaandRimmonthemodern
YfandRummneh.Jerome,intheprefacetohisCom.onJonah,speaksofGethquaeestinOpher(cf.Vulg.2K14:25),andplacesit2
RomanmilesfromSepphoris(Seffrieh),ontheroadtoTiberias.ThispointstoelMeshhed,avillageonaslighteminenceN.oftheTiberias
road,1/2mileW.ofKefrKenna,whereoneofJonahsmanyreputedtombsisstillpointedout.
W.EWING.
GATHRIMMON.1.AcityinDan,nearJebudandBeneherak(Jos19:45),assignedtotheKohathites(21:24),andreckoned(1Ch
6:69)toEphraim.Itisunidentified.2.AcityofManasseh,assignedtotheKohathites(Jos21:25).LXXhasIebatha(B),orBaithsa(A),while
1Ch6:70hasBileam=Ibleam(wh.see).Thepositionofthetownisnotindicated,sointhisconfusionnoidentificationispossible.
W.EWING.
GAULANITIS.SeeGOLAN.
GAULS.SeeGALATIA.
GAZA.AcityofthePhilistinePentapolis.ItisreferredtoinGenesis(10:19)asabordercityoftheCanaanites,andinJos10:41asa
limitoftheSouthcountryconqueredbyJoshuaarefugeoftheAnakim(Jos11:22),theoreticallyassignedtoJudah(15:47).Samsonwashere
shutinbythePhilistines,andescapedbycarryingawaythegates(Jg16:13)hewas,howeverbroughtbackhereincaptivityafterbeing
betrayedbyDelilah,andherehedestroyedhimselfandthePhilistinesbypullingdownthetemple(16:2130).Gazawasneverforlongin
Israelitehands.ItwithstoodAlexanderforfivemonths(B.C.332).InB.C.96itwasrazedtotheground,andinB.C.57rebuiltonanewsite,
theprevioussitebeingdistinguishedasOldorDesertGaza(cf.Ac8:26).ItwassuccessivelyinGreek,ByzantineChristian(A.D.402),
Muslim(635),andCrusaderhandsitwasfinallylostbytheFranksin1244.ACrusaderschurchremainsinthetown,nowamosque.Itis
nowacityofabout16,000inhabitants,andbearsthenameGhuzzeh.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
GAZARA.AnimportantstrongholdoftenmentionedduringtheMaccabanstruggle(1Mac4:16,7:45,9:52,13:53,14:7,34,15:28,
16:1,2Mac10:32.InAnt.XII.vii.4,XIV.v.4,BJ,I.viii.5,itiscalledGadara).ThereseemstobenodoubtthatitistheOTGezer(wh.
see).
GAZELLE(zeb,tr.2S2:18,1Ch12:8etc.inAVroeinDt14:5etc.roebuck,butinRVgazelle).Thegazelle(Arab.ghazal,also
zabi)isoneofthecommonestofthelargeranimalsofPalestineitisoneofthemostbeautifulandgracefulofantelopes.Itisfawnandwhite
incolouritismuchhunted(Pr6:5,Is13:14)itisnotedforitsspeed(2S2:13,1Ch12:8)itsfleshisconsidered,atleastintowns,a
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incolouritismuchhunted(Pr6:5,Is13:14)itisnotedforitsspeed(2S2:13,1Ch12:8)itsfleshisconsidered,atleastintowns,a
delicacy.
Ghazaleh(femalegazelle)isafavouritenameforagirlamongtheYeminJews,asDorcasandTabitha,withthesamemeaning,werein
NTtimes(Ac9:36,
40).
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
GAZERA(1Es5:31).HissonswereamongtheTempleservants.InEzr2:48Gazzam.
GAZEZ.1.AsonofEphah,Calebsconcubine(1Ch2:46).2.InsameverseasecondGazezismentionedasasonofHaram,whowas
anotherofEphahssons.
GAZITES.TheinhabitantsofGaza(wh.see),Jos13:3,Jg16:2.
GAZZAM.AfamilyofNethinimwhoreturnedwithZerub.(Ezr2:48,Neh7:51),calledin1Es5:31Gazera.
GEBA(Heb.geba,ahill).AcityofBenjamin,ontheN.E.frontier(Jos
18:24),assignedtotheLevites(Jos21:17,1Ch6:60).ItstandsfortheN.limitofthekingdomofJudah(2K23:8fromGebatoBeersheba).
In2S5:25weshouldprobablyreadGibeonasin1Ch14:16.ThepositionofGebaisfixedin1S14:5S.ofthegreatWdySuweint,over
againstMichmash,themodernMukhms.ThiswasthesceneofJonathansfamousexploitagainstthePhilistines.Everythingpointstoits
identitywithJeba,avillage6milesN.ofJerusalem.Itoccupiedanimportantpositioncommandingthepassageofthevalleyfromthenorth.
ItwasfortifiedbyAsa(1K15:22).ItappearsinIsaiahspictureoftheapproachoftheAssyrianuponJerusalem(10:28ff.).Itismentioned
alsoasoccupiedaftertheExile(Neh11:31,Ezr2:26etc.).ItseemstobeconfusedwiththeneighbouringGibeahinJg20:10,33,1S13:8,16.
InJg20:31GibeahshouldbeGeba.2.AstrongholdinSamaria,betweenwhichandScythopolisHolofernespitchedhiscamp(Jth3:10).
PerhapsJebaaisintended,about2milesS.ofSanr,ontheroadtoJenn.
W.EWING.
GEBAL.1.AplaceapparentlyS.oftheDeadSea,whoseinhabitantsmadealeaguewithEdomites,Moabites,andtheBedouinofthe
ArabahagainstIsrael,onsomeunknownoccasion(Ps83:7),possiblytheGentileattackdescribedin1Mac5.ItisthemodernJebal.2.A
towninPhnicia,nowJebeil.Itwastheoretically(neveractually)withinthebordersofthePromisedLand(Jos13:5).Itprovidedbuildersfor
Solomon(1K5:18RVGebalites,AVstonesquarers)andshipscaulkersforTyre(Ezk27:9).
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
GEBER(1K4:19).OneofSolomonstwelvecommissariatofficers,whosedistrictlaytotheE.ofJordan.Attheendofv.19comesa
sentencereferredbyAVandRVtothisGeber,andrenderedandhewastheonlyofficerwhichwasintheland.Butitispossiblethatthetext
shouldbeemendedsoastoreadandoneofficerwasoveralltheofficerswhowereintheland,thereferencebeing,notto
Geber,buttoAzariah,sonofNathan,mentionedinv.6asovertheofficers.
GEBIM.AplaceN.ofJerusalem(Is10:31only).InEusebiusaGeba5RomanmilesfromGophna,onthewaytoNeapolis(Shechem),
isnoticed.ThisisthemodernJeba,which,beingnearthegreatnorthernroad,isapossiblesiteforGebim.
GECKO.SeeFERRET,LIZARD.
GEDALIAH.1.SonofAhikam,whohadprotectedJeremiahfromtheantiChaldanparty(Jer26:24),andprobablygrandsonof
Shaphan,thepiousscribe(2K22).GedaliahnaturallysharedtheviewsofJeremiah.ThiscommendedhimtoNebuchadnezzar,whomadehim
governoroverthepoorofthepeoplethatwereleftintheland.HistwomonthsruleandtreacherousmurderaredetailedinJer40,41(2K 17/82
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governoroverthepoorofthepeoplethatwereleftintheland.HistwomonthsruleandtreacherousmurderaredetailedinJer40,41(2K
25:2225).TheanniversaryofGedaliahsmurderthethirddayoftheseventhmonth,Tishri(Zec7:5,8:19)haseversincebeenobserved
asoneofthefourJewishfasts.2.EldestsonofJeduthun(1Ch25:3,9).3.ApriestofthesonsofJeshua,whohadmarriedastrange
woman(Ezr10:18)calledin1Es9:19Joadanus.4.SonofPashhur,aprinceinthereignofZedekiah(Jer38:1).5.Grandfatherofthe
prophetZephaniah(Zeph1:1).
GEDDUR(1Es5:30).InEzr2:47andNeh7:49Gahar.
GEDER.AnunidentifiedCanaanitishtown,whosekingwasamongstthoseconqueredbyJoshua(Jos12:13only).Itisveryprobably
identicalwithBethgaderof1Ch2:51.In1Ch27:28Baalhanan,whohadchargeofDavidsolivesandsycomores,iscalledtheGederite,
whichmaybeagentilicnamederivedfromGeder,althoughsomeprefertoderiveitfromGederah(wh.see).
GEDERAH.AVof1Ch4:23breads,Thosethatdwellamongplants(RVmplantations)andhedges,butRVgivestheinhabitantsof
NetaimandGederah,andthisisprobablythecorrectrendering.InthatcasetheGederahreferredtowouldprobablybethecityofthatname
locatedbyJos15:36intheShephlah,themodernJedirehandtheGedourofEusebius.ThegentilicnameGederathiteoccursin1Ch12:4.
GEDEROTH.AtownofJudahintheShephlah(Jos15:41,2Ch28:18).ItappearstobethemodernKatrahnearYebna.Possiblyitis
alsotheKidronof1Mac15:39,41,16:8.
GEDEROTHAIMoccursinJos15:36asoneofthefourteencitiesofJudahthatlayintheShephlah.Thereare,however,fourteencities
withoutit,anditisprobablethatthenamehasarisenbydittographyfromtheprecedingGederah.ThesubterfugeoftheAVmGederahor
Gederothaimisnotpermissible.
GEDOR.AtownofJudah(Jos15:58cf.1Ch4:4,18,12:7).ItisgenerallyidentifiedwiththemodernJedrnorthofBeitsur.2.The
districtfromwhichtheSimeonitesaresaidtohaveexpelledtheHamitesettlers(1Ch4:39ff.).TheLXX,however,readsGerar,andthissuits
admirablyastodirection.3.ABenjamite,anancestorofkingSaul(1Ch8:31,9:37).4.5.TheeponymoftwoJudahitefamilies(1Ch4:4,
18).
GEHARASHIM(valleyofcraftsmen,1Ch4:14,Neh11:35).InthelatterpassageitoccurswithLodandOno.Thelocationofthis
valleyisquiteuncertain.
GEHAZI.OftheantecedentsofGehazi,andofhiscalltobetheattendantofElisha,thesacredhistoriangivesusnoinformation.He
appearstostandinthesameintimaterelationtohismasterthatElishahaddonetoElijah,andwasprobablyregardedasthesuccessorofthe
former.Throughlackofmoralfibrehefell,andhisheritageinthepropheticorderpassedintootherhands.Gehaziisfirstintroducedtousin
connexionwiththeepisodeoftheShunammitewoman.Theprophetconsultsfamiliarlywithhim,inregardtosomesubstantialwayof
showingtheirappreciationofthekindnessoftheirhostess.GebazibearsElishasmessagetoher:Behold,thouhastbeencarefulforuswith
allthiscarewhatistobedoneforthee?Wouldstthoubespokenfortotheking,ortothecaptainofthehost?Onherrefusaltobeacandidate
forsuchhonours,Gehaziremindshismasterthatthewomanischildless.Takinguphisattendantssuggestion,Elishapromisesasontotheir
benefactress(2K4:8ff.).Accordingtoprediction,thechildisbornbutafterhehasgrowntobealad,hesuffersfromsunstrokeanddeath
ensues.Themotherimmediatelybetakesherselftotheprophet,whosendsGehaziwithhisownstafftoworkamiracle.Totheservantsprayer
thereisneithervoicenorhearingbutwherehefalls,theprophetsucceeds(2K4:1737).Gehazi,likehismaster,hadaccesstothecourt,for
wereadofhimnarratingtothekingthestoryoftheprophetsdealingswiththeShunammite(2K8:4,5).Incontrastwiththespiritofthe
othercharacters,hiscovetousnessandlyingstandoutinblackhideousnessinthestoryofNaaman(wh.see).Theprophetsrefusaltoreceive
anypaymentfromtheSyriangeneralforthecurewhichhadbeeneffected,doesnotmeetwiththeapprovalofGehazi.Hefollowsthe
cavalcadeofNaaman,and,fabricatingamessagefromhismaster,begsatalentofsilverandtwochangesofraimentfortwoyoungmenofthe
sonsoftheprophets,whoaresupposedtobeonavisittoElisha.Havingreceivedandhiddenhisillgottenpossessions,hestandsbeforehis 18/82
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sonsoftheprophets,whoaresupposedtobeonavisittoElisha.Havingreceivedandhiddenhisillgottenpossessions,hestandsbeforehis
mastertodohisbiddingasifnothinghadoccurred,quiteunawarethatElishawithpropheticeyehaswatchedhimonhisfoulmissionof
deception.Dumbfoundedhemusthavebeentohearhispunishmentfromthelipsoftheprophet:Theleprosy,therefore,ofNaamanshall
cleaveuntotheeanduntothyseedforever(2K5:20ff.).Withthisdreadsentence,Gehaziisusheredoffthestageofsacredhistory,neverto
reappear.
JAMESA.KELSO.
GEHENNA.AwordderivedfromGeHinnom,thevalleyonthewestof
Jerusalem.InthisvalleyitispossiblethatMolechandTammuzwereworshipped(2K23:18,2Ch28:3,33:6,Jer7:31,32:35).The
recollectionofthisterribleworshipgavetothevalleyasinistercharacter,andledtoitsbeingdefiledbyJosiah(2K23:6,10),forthepurpose
ofpreventingtheserites.Thereafteritbecametheplacefortheburningoftherefuseofthecity,alongwithdeadanimalsandthebodiesof
criminals.Itwasnatural,therefore,thatthenameshouldbecomeasynonymofhell(cf.Mt5:29,10:28).InitseschatologicalforceGehenna
wastheplaceofpunishment.Itgenerallywasconceivedofasbeingundertheearth,butitwasverymuchvasterinextentthantheearth.It
wasbelievedtobefilledwithfireintendedforthepunishmentofsinners,whoapparentlywentthereimmediatelyafterdeath.LateRabbinic
thoughtwouldseemtoimplythatmenwhoareneithergreatsaintsnorgreatsinnersmightbepurifiedbythefireofGehenna.Onlythosewho
hadcommittedadulteryorshamedorslanderedtheirneighbourswerebelievedtobehopelesslycondemnedtoitsfires,whiletheJewswere
nottobepermanentlyinjuredbythem.Accordingtothelaterbelief,Gehennawastobedestroyedatthefinalconsummationoftheage.There
isnoclearevidencethatGehennawasregardedasaplacefortheannihilationofthewicked,althoughtherearesomepassageswhichgivea
certainsupporttothisopinion.Nosystematiceschatologicalstatementhas,however,beenpreservedforusfromJewishtimes,muchlessone
whichmaybesaidtorepresentageneralconsensusofopinion.TheNTwritersemploythewordinitsgeneralforceasasynonymfortheidea
ofendlesspunishmentforsinners,asoveragainstheaventhesynonymofendlessblissforthosewhohaveenjoyedtheresurrection.They
attempt,however,nodescriptionofsufferingwithinitslimitsfurtherthanthatimpliedinthefiguresoffireandworms.
SHAILERMATHEWS.
GELILOTH(stonecircles,Jos18:17).IdenticalwiththeGilgalofJos15:7,andpossiblywiththeBathgilgalofNeh12:29.Itwasa
placeontheborderofBenjaminandJudahneartheAscentofAdummim.ThislastwasprobablyintheneighbourhoodofTalateddum,a
hillnearthesocalledInnoftheGoodSamaritanonthecarriageroadtoJericho.Thewordgellthoccursalsointhe
Heb.inJos13:2,22:10,11andJl3:4,andistr.inAVeitherbordersorcoasts,RVregions.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
GEM.SeeJEWELSANDPRECIOUSSTONES.
GEMALLI.FatheroftheDanitespy,Nu13:12(P).
GEMARA.SeeTALMUD.
GEMARIAH.1.AsonofShaphanthescribe.HevainlysoughttodeterkingJehoiakimfromburningtheroll(Jer36:10,11,12,25).2.
AsonofHilkiahwhocarriedaletterfromJeremiahtothecaptivesatBabylon(Jer29:3).
GENEALOGY.ThegenealogiesoftheOTfallintotwoclasses,nationalandindividual,thoughthetwoaresometimescombined,the
genealogyoftheIndividualpassingintothatofthenation.
1.Nationalgenealogies.Thesebelongtoawellrecognizedtype,bywhichtherelationshipofnations,tribes,andfamiliesisexplainedas
duetodescentfromacommonancestor,whoisoftenaneponymoushero,inventedtoaccountforthenameofthenation.Theprinciplewas
prevalentinGreece(seeGrote,Hist.vol.i.ch.iv.etc.andp.416)e.g.HellenisthefatherofDorus,olus,andXuthus,whoisinturnthe
fatherofIonandAchus,theexistenceofthevariousbranchesoftheGreekracesbeingthusexplained.MLennan(StudiesinAncient
History,2ndseries,ix.)givesfurtherexamplesfromRome(genealogiestracedtoNuma),Scotland,India,Arabia,andAfricatheBerbers 19/82
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History,2ndseries,ix.)givesfurtherexamplesfromRome(genealogiestracedtoNuma),Scotland,India,Arabia,andAfricatheBerbers
(barbarians)ofN.AfricainventedanancestorBerr,andconnectedhimwithNoah.TheArabsderivedalltheirsubdivisionsfromNebaioth
orJoktan.ThegenealogiesofGenesisareofthesametype.ThegroundworkofthePriestlynarrative(P)isaseriesofinterconnected
genealogies,eachbeginningwiththeformula,Thesearethegenerations(toledth)of(2:4,5:1,6:9etc.).ThegapbetweenAdamand
Noahisfilledbyagenealogyof10generations(Gn5),andinGn10thenationsoftheworld,asknowntothewriter,aretracedina
genealogicaltreetoNoahsthreesons.Wefindinthelistpluralordualnames(e.g.Mizraim,Ludim,Anamim),namesofplaces(Tarshish,
Zidon,Ophir)orofnations(theJebusite,Amorite,etc.).AnEberappearsastheeponymousancestoroftheHebrews.Sometimesthenames
mightinformrepresenteitherindividualsornations(Asshur,Moab,Edom),buttherecaninmostcasesbelittledoubtthattheancestorhas
beeninventedtoaccountforthenation.Inlaterchaptersthesamemethodisfollowedwithregardtotribesmoreorlesscloselyrelatedto
IsraeltheconnexionisexplainedbyderivingthemfromanancestorrelatedtoAbraham.InGn22:20thetwelveAramantribesarederived
fromNahorhisbrotherin25:12twelveN.Arabiantribes,nearerakin,aretracedtoIshmaelandHagarsixothers,astepfartherremoved,to
Keturah,hissecondwife,orconcubine(25:1).TheEdomites,asmostnearlyrelated,arederivedfromEsau(36).Thefrequentrecurrenceof
thenumber12intheselistsisasignofartificiality.ThesameprincipleisappliedtoIsraelitself.TheexistenceofallthetwelvesonsofJacob
asindividualsisonvariousgroundsimprobabletheyrepresenttribes,andinmanycasestheirdescendantsaresimplyindividualnames
coinedtoaccountforcities,clans,andsubdivisionsofthetribes(Gn46:8,Nu26).AgoodillustrationisfoundinthecaseofGilead.InDt
3:15wearetoldthatMosesgaveGileadtoMachir,sonofManasseh.InNu26:29etc.GileadhasbecomethesonofManasseh,andinJg
11:1begetsJephthah.SoamongthesonsofCalebwefindcitiesofJudah
(Hebron,Tappuah,Ziph,Gibea,etc.,1Ch2:42ff.),andKiriathjearimandBethlehemaredescendantsofHur(2:51).Itisindeedobviousthat,
whetherconsciouslyornot,termsofrelationshipareusedinanartificialsense.FatheroftenmeansfounderofacityinGn4:20itstands
fortheoriginatorofoccupationsandprofessionsmembersofaguildorclanareitssons.Thetownsofadistrictareitsdaughters(Jg1:27
RVm).
Withregardtothehistoricalvalueofthesegenealogies,tworemarksmaybemade.(a)Therecords,thoughinmostcasesworthlessif
regardedasreferringtoindividuals,areofthehighestimportanceasevidenceofthemovementsandhistoryofpeoplesandclans,andofthe
beliefsentertainedaboutthem.Gn10givesgeographicalandethnographicalinformationofgreatvalue.Agoodexampleisfoundinwhatwe
learnofCalebandtheCalebites.Intheearliesttradition(Nu32:12,Jos14:6,14)heisdescendedfromKenaz,atribeofEdom,and
grandsonofEsau(Gn36:11,42)in1S25:3,30:14theCalebiteterritoryisstilldistinctfromJudah.Butin1Ch2:4ff.Calebhasbecomea
descendantofJudah.WegatherthattheCalebites(dogtribe)werearelatedbutalienclan,whichenteredintofriendlyrelationswithJudah
atthetimeoftheconquestofCanaan,andperhapstooktheleadintheinvasion.UltimatelytheycoalescedwithJudah,andwereregardedas
pureIsraelites.Sogenerally,thoughnouniforminterpretationofthegenealogiesispossible,amarriagewilloftenpointtotheincorporationof
newelementsintothetribe,abirthtoafreshsubdivisionormigration,oranunfruitfulmarriagetothedisappearanceofaclan.Contradictory
accountsofanindividualindocumentsofdifferentdatemaytellusofthehistoryofatribeatsuccessiveperiods,asinthecaseofthe
Calebites.
(b)Thoughthegenealogicalnamesusuallyrepresentnations,thereis,nodoubt,incertaincasesapersonalelementaswell.Thepatriarchs
andmoreprominentfigures,suchasIshmaelandEsauandCaleb,werenodoubtindividuals,andtheirhistoryisnotentirelyfigurative.On
thispointseeDriver,Genesis,pp.liv.ff.alsoartt.ABRAHAM,andTRIBES.WeshouldnotethatthedistinctivefeatureoftheGreek
genealogies,whichtracednationaldescentfromthegods,isabsentfromtheOT.AtraceremainsinGn6:4(cf.Lk3:38).
2.Genealogiesofindividuals.WhateverviewbetakenofthegenealogiesofourLord(seenextarticle),theirincorporationinthe
GospelsprovestheimportanceattachedtodescentintheNTperiodtheyalsoshowthatatthattimerecordswerekeptwhichmadethe
constructionofsuchtablesapossibility.St.Paulwasconsciousofhispurepedigree(Ph3:5),andinseveralcasesintheNTthenameofa
personstribeispreserved.ThehopeofbeingtheancestoroftheMessiah,andthenaturalprideofroyaldescent,probablycausedtherecords
ofthehouseofDavidtobepreservedwithgreatcare.InthesamewayJosephus,intheopeningchapterofhisLife,setsouthisgenealogyas
vouchedforbythepublicrecords,thoughonlyasfarhackashisgrandfatherSimon.Inc.Apion.i.7,hespeaksofthecarefulpreservationof
thePriestlygenealogiesandthestoryofAfricanus(ap.Eus.HEi.7,13),thatHerodtheGreatdestroyedthegenealogicalrecordsoftheJews20/82
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thePriestlygenealogiesandthestoryofAfricanus(ap.Eus.HEi.7,13),thatHerodtheGreatdestroyedthegenealogicalrecordsoftheJews
inordertoconcealhisownorigin,isatleastanindicationoftheexistenceofsuchrecordsandofthevalueattachedtothem.TheTalmud
speaksofprofessionalgenealogists,andinthepresentdaymanyJews,especiallyamongthepriests,treasurelonganddetailedfamilytrees,
showingtheirpuredescent(cf.,foranearlierperiod,1Mac2:1,Bar1:1,To1:1).
TherecanbenodoubtthatthiscarefulrecordingofgenealogiesreceiveditsmainimpetusinthetimeofEzra.Itwasthenthattheline
betweentheJewsandothernationsbecamesharplydrawn,andstresswaslaidonpurityofdescent,whetherrealorfictitious.Afterthereturn
fromBabylon,itwasmoreimportanttobeabletotracedescentfromtheexilesthantobeanativeofJudah(Ezr9).Certainfamilieswere
excludedfromthepriesthoodforlackoftherequisitegenealogicalrecords(2:61,Neh7:63).Andinfactpracticallyallthedetailed
genealogiesofindividualsaspreservedinP,Chronicles,andkindredwritings,datefromthisoralaterperiod.NodoubttheinjunctionsofDt
23:3andthearrangementsforacensus(2S24)implythattherewassomesortofregistrationoffamiliesbeforethis,andthestageof
civilizationreachedunderthemonarchymakesitprobablethatrecordswerekeptofroyalandimportanthouses.Butthegenealogicalnotes
whichreallydatefromtheearlierperiodrarelygofurtherbackthantwoorthreegenerations,andthelatergenealogiesbearmanytracesof
theirartificiality.Thenamesareinmanycaseslateandpostexilic,andthereisnoevidenceoutsidethegenealogiesthattheywereinuseatan
earlierperiod.OfthetwentyfourcoursesofthesonsofAaronin1Ch24:1ff.,sixteennamesarepostexilic.Namesofplacesandclans
appearasindividuals(2:1824,7:3040).Gapsarefilledupbytherepetitionofthesamenameinseveralgenerations(e.g.6:414).Atalater
timeitwasusualforachildtobenamedafterhisfatherorkinsman(Lk1:59,61),butthereareprobablynocaseswherethisisrecordedfor
thepreexilicperiod,exceptintheChroniclerslists(seeGray,HPN).Therearenumerousdiscrepanciesinthevariouslists,andthereisa
stronglymarkedtendencytoascribeaLeviticaldescenttoallengagedintheserviceofthesanctuary,e.g.theguildsofsingersandporters.So
SamuelismadeaLevitebytheChronicler(6:22,33),almostcertainlywrongly,ashisstoryshows.Inthesamewaythepositionofclans,such
asCalebandJerahmeel,whichintheearlyhistoryappearasalien,islegitimizedbyartificialgenealogies(1Ch2).
In25:4thenamesofthesonsofHemanseemtobesimplyfragmentsofahymnorpsalm.In6:4thereare,includingAaron,23priestsfrom
theExodustotheCaptivityanevidentlyartificialreconstructionfortyyearsisageneration,and4012=480yearstothebuildingofthe
Temple (1 K 6:1), the other 11 priests filling up the period till the Exile, which took place in the eleventh generation after Solomon. Such
marks of artificiality, combined with lateness of date, forbid us to regard the lists as entirely historical. No doubt in certain cases the
genealogisthadfamilyrecordstoworkupon,buttheforminwhichourmaterialhasreachedusmakesitalmostimpossibletodisentangle
thesewithanydegreeofcertainty.W.R.Smith(KinshipandMarriageinEarlyArabia,p.6)givesaninterestingparalleltothisdevelopment
ofgenealogizingactivityataparticularperiod.TheArabiangenealogiesalldatefromthereignofCaliphOmar,whencircumstancesmade
purityofdescentofgreatimportance.
C.W.EMMET.
GENEALOGYOFJESUSCHRIST
1.Thetwogenealogies.BoththeFirstandThirdEvangelists(hereforbrevityreferredtoasMt.andLk.)giveourLordsancestry,but
theydifferfromoneanotherverylargely.Lk.tracesbackthegenealogytoAdam,Mt.toAbrahamonly.
BothlistsagreefromAbrahamtoDavid,exceptthatAramorRaminMt1:3=ArminLk3:33(besttext)butbetweenDavidandJosephthe
listshaveonlyShealtielandZerubbabel,andpossiblytwoothernames(seebelow),incommon.
(a)TheMatthanlistfromPereztoDavidistakenalmostverbatimfromRu4:18b22LXX(insertingRahabandRuth,andcalling
Davidtheking),andagreeswith1Ch2:116itthengivesthenamesofthekingstoJechoniah,from1Ch3:1015,butinsertsthe
[wife]ofUriahandomitskingsAbaziah,Joash,andAmaziahbetweenJoramandUzziah(=Azariah),andalsoJehoiakimsonofJosiah
andfatherofJechoniah(Coniah,Jer22:24)orJehoiachin(2Ch36:8).Thislastomissionmaybemerelyamistake,forthelistismadeup
ofthreeartificialdivisionsoffourteengenerationseach,andJechoniahappearsbothattheendofthesecondandatthebeginningofthe
thirddivision,beingcountedtwice.Perhaps,then,originallyJehoiakimendedtheseconddivision,andJehoiachinbeganthethird,andthey
becameconfusedowingtothesimilarityofspellingandwerewrittenalike(asin1Ch3:15,Jer52:31LXX)thenthesynonymJechoniah
wassubstitutedforboth.InthethirddivisionthenamesShealtiel,Zerubbabel(bothinLk.also)arefromEzr3:2,1Ch3:17,19butwe 21/82
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wassubstitutedforboth.InthethirddivisionthenamesShealtiel,Zerubbabel(bothinLk.also)arefromEzr3:2,1Ch3:17,19butwe
noticethatinMt.andEzra
ZerubbabeliscalledsonofShealtiel,whereasin1Ch(exceptinsomeMSSoftheLXX)heishisnephew.BothinMt.and1Ch.Shealtielis
calledsonofJechoniah.BetweenZerubbabelandJosephthenamesareperhapsfromsometraditionallistoftheheirsofthekings,butsome
namesherealsohavebeenomitted,forinMt.
tengenerationsarespreadovernearly500years,whileLk.givesnineteengenerationsforthesameperiod.TheMt.genealogyendswith
Matthan,Jacob,Joseph.
(b)TheLukanlist,whichinvertstheorder,beginningatJesusandendingat
Adam,takesthelinefromAdamtoAbraham,fromGn5,10:2125(toPeleg),1
Ch1:127,butinsertsCainanbetweenArphaxadandShelah,asdoestheLXXinGn.and1Ch.itpracticallyagreeswithMt.(seeabove)
fromAbrahamtoDavid,butthengivesthelinetoShealtielthroughDavidssonNathan,makingShealtielthesonofNeri,notofking
Jechoniah(see2below).ThenamesbetweenNathanandShealtielarenotderivedfromtheOT,andthosebetweenZerubbabelandJosephare
otherwiseunknowntous,unless,asPlummersupposes(ICC,St.Luke,p.104,)Joanan(Lk3:27RV)=HananiahsonofZerubbabel(1Ch
3:19)thenameRhesabeingreallyatitle(ZerubbabelRhesa=Z.theprince),misunderstoodbysomecopyistbeforeLk.andJoda(Lk
3:26RV)=Abind(Mt1:18)=Hodaviab(1Ch3:24RV,adescendantofZerubbabel,notsonofHananiah).SomethinkthatMatthat(Lk3:24)
=Matthan(Mt1:15).
2.Reasonofthedifferences.ItisnotenoughmerelytosaythattheorieswhichendeavourtoharmonizethefourGospelsarefailures,
andthat,asisshowninart.GOSPELS,2(b),Mt.andLk.wroteeachwithoutknowingtheworkoftheother.Wehavetoconsiderwhytwo
independentwriters,bothprofessingtogiveourLordsgenealogy,producedsuchdifferentlists.Jewishgenealogieswerefrequentlyartificial
thatofMt.isobviouslysoforexample,itsomissionswereapparentlymadeonlysoastoproduceanequalitybetweenthethreedivisions.
Burkitt(EvangeliondaMepharreshe,ii.260f.)andAllen(ICC,St.Matthew,p.2ff.)thinkthatMt.compiledhisgenealogyforthepurpose
ofhisGospel.ThedetailsaboutTamar,Rahab,Ruth,Bathsheba,nottobeexpectedinagenealogy,butsuitableforthatpurpose(seebelow),
andtheartificialdivisions,seemtopointtothisview.TheobjectoftheMt.genealogywouldbetorefuteanearlyJewishslanderthatJesus
wasbornoutofwedlockaslandercertainlyknowntoCelsusinthe2ndcent.(Origen,c.Cels.i.28etc.).InthisconnexionBurkitt(l.c.)
showsthatMt.1:2arebythesamehandastherestoftheGospel(seealsoHawkins,HorSynoptic,p.4ff.).Thisviewmay,however,
perhapsbemodifiedalittlebythehypothesisthattheMt.listisduetoaChristianpredecessoroftheFirstEvangelist,perhapstooneofhis
sourcesthismodificationwouldallowforthecorruptionofJeboiakimandJeboiachin(above,1).
Inanycase,inspiteoftheargumenttothecontrarybyBaconinHastingsDBii.139,wemustprobablyagreewithWestcott(NTin
Greek2,ii.141),Barnard(HastingsDCGi.638),Allen,andBurkitt,thatthewordbegatinthislistexpresseslegalheirshipandnotphysical
descent.Thesameistrueinsomecasesin1Chronicles.Mt.clearlybelievedintheVirginBirth,andputsthegenealogyimmediatelybefore
theassertionofitifphysicaldescentisintended,the
genealogythroughJosephisunmeaning.HewishestoprovethatJesusislegallydescendedfromDavid,andthereforegivesthethrone
succession,thelistofregalheirs.Ontheotherhand,itmaybesupposedthatLk.statesJesusheirshipbygivingJosephsactualphysical
descentaccordingtosomegenealogypreservedinthefamily.Accordingtothisview,JosephwasreallythesonofHeli(Lk3:23)butthelegal
heirofJacob(Mt1:16).ItisnotdifficulttounderstandwhyShealtielandZerubbabelappearinbothlists.Jechoniahwaschildless,oratleast
hisheirsdiedout(Jer22:24,30),andShealtiel,thoughcalledhissonin1Ch3:17,wasprobablyonlyhislegalheir,beingsonofNeri(Lk
3:27).ThistheoryiselaboratedbyLordA.Hervey,BishopofBathandWells(TheGenealogiesofourLord,1853,andinSmithsDB2).
ThereasonoftheinsertionofthenamesofthefourwomenintheMt.listisnotquiteobvious.Ithasbeensuggestedthattheobjectwasto
showthatGodacceptspenitentsandstrangers.Burkitt,withmoreprobability,supposesthatthementionoftheheirsbeingbornoutofthe

directlineorirregularlyisintendedtoprepareusforthestillgreaterirregularityatthelaststage,fortheVirginBirthofJesus(l.c.p.260).We22/82
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directlineorirregularlyisintendedtoprepareusforthestillgreaterirregularityatthelaststage,fortheVirginBirthofJesus(l.c.p.260).We
notethatintheOTRahabisnotsaidtohavebeenthewifeofSalmonasinMt.1:5.
3.Othersolutions.(a)Africanus,perhapstheearliestwritertodiscussBiblicalquestionsinacriticalmanner(c.A.D.220),treatsof
thesegenealogiesinhisLettertoAristides(Euseb.HEi.7,vi.31).Heharmonizesthem(expressly,however,notasamatteroftradition)on
thetheoryofleviratemarriages,supposingthattwohalfbrothers,sonsofdifferentfathers,marriedthesamewoman,andthattheissueofthe
secondmarriagewasthereforelegallyaccountedtotheelder,butphysicallytotheyoungerbrother.Itisadifficultythattwo,oreventhree,
suchmarriagesmustbesupposedinthelistandthistheoryisalmostuniversallyrejectedbymoderns.Africanusbadnodoubtthatboth
genealogieswereJosephs.
AfricanussaysthatHerodtheGreatdestroyedalltheJewishgenealogieskeptinthearchives,soastohidehisownignobledescent,but
thatnotafewhadprivaterecordsoftheirown(Euseb.HEi.7).HereclearlyAfricanusexaggerates.Josephussaysthathisowngenealogywas
giveninthepublicrecords,andthatthepriestspedigrees,evenamongJewsoftheDispersion,werecarefullypreserved(Life,1,c.Ap.i.7).
ThereisnoreasonwhyLK.shouldnothavefoundagenealogyinJosephsfamily.AfricanussaysthatourLordsrelatives,calleddesposyni,
pridedthemselvesonpreservingthememoryoftheirnobledescent.
(b)Amoremoderntheory,expoundedbyWeiss,butfirstbyAnniusofViterbo
(c.A.D.1490),isthatMt.givesJosephspedigree,Lk.Marys.ItisnecessaryonthistheorytorenderLk3:23thus:beingtheson(aswas
supposed)ofJoseph[butreallythegrandson]ofHeli.ThistranslationsrightlypronouncedbyPlummertobeincredible(l.c.p.103)anda
birthrightderivedthroughthemotherwouldbequiteoutofharmonywitheitherJewishideasorGentileideas.Theimportantthingwasto
stateJesusbirthright,andtheonlypossiblewaytodothiswouldbethroughJoseph.
Itmust,however,beaddedthatJosephandMarywereprobablynearrelations.Wecannot,indeed,saywithEusebius(HEi.7)thatthey
musthavebeenofthesametribe,becauseintermarriagesbetweendifferenttribeswerenotpermitted.HeisevidentlyreferringtoNu36:6f.,
butthisrelatesonlytoheiresses,who,iftheymarriedoutoftheirtribe,wouldforfeittheirinheritance.MaryandElisabethwerekinswomen,
thoughthelatterwasdescendedfromAaron(Lk1:5,36).ButitwasundoubtedlythebeliefoftheearlyChristiansthatJesuswasdescended,
accordingtotheflesh,fromDavid,andwasofthetribeofJudah(Ac2:30,13:23,Ro1:3,2Ti2:8,He7:14,Rev5:5,22:16cf.Mk10:47,
11:10).AtthesametimeitisnoteworthythatourLorddidnotbaseHisclaimsonHisDavidicdescent.IntheTestamentsoftheTwelve
Patriarchs,anapocryphalworkwritteninitspresentformc.A.D.120,wefind(Sym.7,Gad,8)theideathattheLordshouldraise(one)
fromLeviaspriestandfromJudahasking.Godandman,anInference,asSandayHeadlamremark(ICC,Romans,p.7),fromLk1:36.
4.TheMatthantext.InMt1:16thereadingofalmostallGreekMSS,attestedbyTertullian,isthatofEV,JacobbegatJosephthe
husbandofMary,ofwhomwasbornJesus,etc.ThelatelydiscoveredSinaiticSyriacpalimpsesthasJacobbegatJoseph:Joseph,towhom
wasbetrothedMarytheVirgin,begatJesus.ThisreadingiscarefullydiscussedbyProf.Burkitt(l.c.p.262ff.),whothinksthatitisnot
original,butderivedfromavariantoftheordinarytext:JacobbegatJoseph,towhombeingbetrothedtheVirginMarybare[lit.begat,as
often]Jesus[thisisquestionedbyAllen,l.c.p.8].Ontheotherhand,ithasbeensuggestedthattheSinaiticpalimpsesthastheoriginal
readingofasourceofourMt.whichdidnotbelieveintheVirginBirth.Ifso,itisstrangethattheFirst
Evangelistshouldplaceitinsuchclosejuxtapositiontohisassertionofthatbelief.Inview,however,ofwhathasbeensaidabove,thatthe
wordbegatinMt.impliesonlylegalheirship,thequestionhasnorealdoctrinalsignificance.Onpurelyliterarygrounds,Prof.Burkittseems
tothepresentwritertohaveestablishedhispoint.
A.J.MACLEAN.
GENERAL.Thisadj.meansinAVuniversal,asLatimer,Sermons,182,
ThepromisesofGodourSaviouraregeneraltheypertaintoallmankind.SoinHe12:23,thegeneralassemblymeansthegatheringofall23/82
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ThepromisesofGodourSaviouraregeneraltheypertaintoallmankind.SoinHe12:23,thegeneralassemblymeansthegatheringofall
withoutexception.Generallyinlikemannermeansuniversally,2S17:11IcounselthatallIsraelbegenerallygathereduntothee.The
subst.generalisonce(1Ch27:34)usedforHeb.sar,ofwhichthemoreusualrenderingiscaptain(wh.seecf.ARMY,2).
GENERATION.GenerationisusedinAVtotr.1.Heb.dr,whichisused(a)generallyforaperiod,especiallyinthephrasesdr
wdhr,etc.,oflimitlessdurationpast,Is51:8future,Ps10:6pastandfuture,Ps102:24(b)ofallmenlivingatanygiventime(Gn6:9)
(c)ofaclassofmenwithsomespecialcharacteristic,Pr30:1114offourgenerationsofbadmen(d)inIs38:12andPs49:19dris
sometimestakenasdwellingplace.2.Heb.tldhth(fromyladh,begetorbearchildren),whichisusedinthesenseof(a)genealogies
Gn5:1,figurativelyoftheaccountofcreation,Gn2:4also(b)divisionsofatribe,asbasedongenealogytldhthoccursonlyinthe
PriestlyCode,inRu4:18,andin1Ch.3.Gr.geneainsamesenseas1(a),Col1:26as1(b),Mt24:34.4.genesis=
2(a),Mt1:1,animitationofLXXuseofgenesisfortldhth.5.Gennma,offspring=1(c):soMt3:7||(generation,i.e.offspring,of
vipers).6.genos,race=1(c):so1P2:9(AVchosengeneration,RVelectrace).
GENESIS
1.Name,Contents,andPlan.ThenameGenesis,asappliedtothefirstbookoftheBible,isderivedfromtheLXX,inoneortwo
MSSofwhichthebookisentitledGenesiskosmou(originoftheworld).Amoreappropriatedesignation,representedbytheheadingofone
GreekMS,isTheBookofOriginsforGenesisispreeminentlytheBookofHebrewOrigins.Itisacollectionoftheearliesttraditionsof
theIsraelitesregardingthebeginningsofthings,andparticularlyoftheirnationalhistorythesetraditionsbeingwovenintoacontinuous
narrative,commencingwiththecreationoftheworldandendingwiththedeathofJoseph.ThestoryiscontinuedinthebookofExodus,and
indeedformstheintroductiontoahistoricalworkwhichmaybesaidtoterminateeitherwiththeconquestofPalestine(Hexateuch)orwith
theBabyloniancaptivity(2Kings).ThenarrativecomprisedinGenesisfallsnaturallyintotwomaindivisions(i)Thehistoryofprimeval
mankind(chs.111),includingthecreationoftheworld,theoriginofevil,thebeginningsofcivilization,theFlood,andthedispersionof
peoples.(ii.)Thehistoryofthepatriarchs(ch.1250),whichisagaindividedintothreesections,correspondingtothelivesofAbraham(12
25:18),Isaac(25:1936),andJacob(3750)althoughinthelasttwoperiodsthestoryisreallyoccupiedwiththefortunesofJacoband
Josephrespectively.Thetransitionfromoneperiodtoanotherismarkedbyaseriesofgenealogies,someofwhich(e.g.chs.5,11:10ff.)
serveachronologicalpurposeandbridgeoverintervalsoftimewithregardtowhichtraditionwassilent,whileothers(chs.10,36,etc.)
exhibitthenearerorremoterrelationtoIsraelofthevariousracesandpeoplesofmankind.Thesegenealogiesconstituteasortofframework
forthehistory,andatthesametimerevealtheplanonwhichthebookisconstructed.Asthedifferentbranchesofthehumanfamilyare
successivelyenumeratedanddismissed,andthehistoryconvergesmoreandmoreonthechosenline,wearemeanttotracetheunfoldingof
theDivinepurposebywhichIsraelwasseparatedfromallthenationsoftheearthtobethepeopleofthetrueGod.
2.Literarysources.TheunityofplanwhichcharacterizestheBookofGenesisdoesnotnecessarilyexcludethesuppositionthatitis
composedofseparatedocumentsandacarefulstudyofthestructureofthebookprovesbeyondalldoubtthatthisisactuallythecase.The
cluetotheanalysiswasobtainedwhen(in1753)attentionwasdirectedtothesignificantalternationoftwonamesforGod,Jahwehand
Elohim.ThisatoncesuggestedacompilationfromtwopreexistingsourcesalthoughitisobviousthatapreferenceforoneorotherDivine
namemightbecommontomanyindependentwriters,anddoesnotbyitselfestablishtheunityofallthepassagesinwhichitappears.Itwas
speedilydiscovered,however,thatthischaracteristicdoesnotoccuralone,butisassociatedwithanumberofotherfeatures,linguistic,
literary,andreligious,whichwerefoundtocorrespondingeneralwiththedivisionbasedontheuseoftheDivinenames.Hencethe
convictiongraduallygainedgroundthatinGenesiswehavetodonotwithanindefinitenumberofdisconnectedfragments,butwithafew
homogeneouscompositions,eachwithaliterarycharacterofitsown.Theattemptstodeterminetherelationoftheseveralcomponentstoone
anotherprovedmoreorlessabortive,untilitwasfinallyestablishedin1853thattheuseofElohimisapeculiaritycommontotwoquite
dissimilargroupsofpassagesandthatoneofthesehasmuchcloseraffinitieswiththesectionswhereJahwehisusedthanwiththeother

Elohisticsections.Sincethen,criticismhasrapidlyadvancedtothepositionsnowheldbythegreatmajorityofOTscholars,whichmaybe
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Elohisticsections.Sincethen,criticismhasrapidlyadvancedtothepositionsnowheldbythegreatmajorityofOTscholars,whichmaybe
brieflysummarizedasfollows:
(1)PracticallythewholeofGenesisisresolvedintothreeoriginallyseparatedocuments,eachcontainingacompleteandconsecutive
narrative:(a)theJahwistic(J),characterizedbytheuseofJahweh,commencingwiththeCreation(2:4bff.)andcontinuedtotheendofthe
book(b)theElohistic(E),usingElohim,beginningatch.20(c)thePriestlyCode(P),alsousingElohim,whichopenswiththefirst
accountoftheCreation(12:4a).(2)InthecompilationfromthesesourcesofourpresentBookofGenesis,twomainstagesarerecognized:
first,thefusionofJandEintoasinglework(JE)andsecond,theamalgamationofthecombinedworkJEwithP(anintermediatestagethe
combinationofJEwiththeBookofDeuteronomy,isherepassedoverbecauseithasnoappreciableinfluenceonthecompositionofGenesis).
(3)TheoldestdocumentsareJandE,whichrepresentslightlyvaryingrecensionsofacommonbodyofpatriarchaltradition,towhichJhas
prefixedtraditionsfromtheearlyhistoryofmankind.BothbelongtothebestageofHebrewwriting,andmusthavebeencomposedbeforethe
middleofthe8thcent.B.C.ThecompositeworkJEisthebasisoftheGenesisnarrativetoitbelongallthegraphic,picturesque,andracy
storieswhichgivelifeandcharmtothebook.Differencesofstandpointbetweenthetwocomponentsareclearlymarkedbutbothbearthe
stampofpopularliterature,fulloflocalcolourandhumaninterest,yetdeeplypervadedbythereligiousspirit.TheirviewofGodandHis
conversewithmenisprimitiveandchildlikebuttheboldanthropomorphicrepresentationswhichaboundinJarestrikinglyabsentfromE,
wheretheelementoftheologicalreflexioniscomewhatmorepronouncedthaninJ.(4)Thethirdsource,P,reproducesthetraditionalscheme
ofhistorylaiddowninJEbutthewritersunequaltreatmentofthematerialathisdisposalrevealsaprevailinginterestinthehistoryofthe
sacredinstitutionswhichweretobethebasisoftheSinaiticlegislation.Asaruleheenlargesonlyonthoseepochsofthehistoryatwhich
somenewreligiousobservancewasintroduced,viz.,theCreation,whentheSabbathwasinstitutedtheFlood,followedbytheprohibitionof
eatingthebloodandtheAbrahamicCovenant,ofwhichcircumcisionwastheperpetualseal.Fortherest,thenarrativeismostlyameagreand
colourlessepitome,basedonJE,andscarcelyintelligibleapartfromit.WhilethereisevidencethatPusedothersourcesthanJE,itis
significantthat,withtheexceptionofch.23,thereisnosingleepisodetowhichaparallelisnotfoundintheolderandfullernarrative.ToP,
however,weowethechronologicalscheme,andtheseriesofgenealogiesalreadyreferredtoasconstitutingtheframeworkofthebookasa
whole.TheCodebelongstoacomparativelylateperiodofHebrewliterature,andisgenerallyassignedbycriticstotheearlypostexilicage.
3.Natureofthematerial.ThatthecontentsofGenesisarenothistoricalinthetechnicalsense,isimpliedinthefactthateventhe
oldestofitswrittendocumentsarefarfrombeingcontemporarywiththeeventsrelated.Theyconsistforthemostpartoftraditionswhichfor
anindefiniteperiodhadcirculatedorallyamongsttheIsraelites,andwhich(asdivergencesinthewrittenrecordstestify)hadundergone
modificationinthecourseoftransmission.Noonedeniesthatoraltraditionmayembodyauthenticrecollectionofactualoccurrencesbutthe
extenttowhichthisisthecaseisuncertain,andwillnaturallyvaryindifferentpartsofthenarrative.Thusabroaddistinctionmaybedrawn
betweentheprimitivetraditionsofchs.111ontheonehand,andthoserelatingtothepatriarchsontheother.TheaccountsoftheCreation,
theFall,theFlood,andtheDispersion,allexhibitmoreorlessclearlytheinfluenceofBabylonianmythologyandwithregardtothesethe
questionisonenotoftrustworthyhistoricalmemory,butoftheavenuethroughwhichcertainmythicalrepresentationscametotheknowledge
ofIsrael.Forthepatriarchalperiodtheconditionsaredifferent:herethetraditionisostensiblynationalthepresumedintervaloforal
transmissionisperhapsnotbeyondthecompassoftheretentiveOrientalmemoryanditwouldbesurprisingifsomerealknowledgeofits
ownantecedentshadnotpersistedinthenationalrecollectionofIsrael.Theseconsiderationsmaybeheldtojustifythebeliefthatasubstratum
ofhistoricfactunderliesthepatriarchalnarrativesofGenesisbutitmustbeaddedthattodistinguishthatsubstratumfromlegendary
accretionsishardlypossibleinthepresentstateofourknowledge.Theprocessbywhichthetwoelementscametobeblendedcan,however,
partlybeexplained.Thepatriarchs,forinstance,areconceivedasancestorsoftribesandnationsanditiscertainthatinsomenarrativesthe
characteristics,themutualrelations,andeventhehistory,oftribesarereflectedinwhatistoldasthepersonalbiographyoftheancestors.
Again,thepatriarchsarefoundersofsanctuariesanditisnaturaltosupposethatlegendsexplanatoryofcustomsobservedatthesesanctuaries
areattachedtothenamesoftheirreputedfoundersandgotoenrichthetraditionalnarrative.Oncemore,theyaretypesofcharacterandinthe
inevitablesimplificationwhichaccompaniespopularnarrationthefeaturesofthetypetendedtobeemphasized,andthefiguresofthe
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inevitablesimplificationwhichaccompaniespopularnarrationthefeaturesofthetypetendedtobeemphasized,andthefiguresofthe
patriarchsweregraduallyidealizedaspatternsofHebrewpietyandvirtue.Nogreatermistakecouldbemadethantothinkthatthesenon
historical,legendaryorimaginative,partsofthetraditionarevaluelessfortheendsofrevelation.Theyareinseparablywovenintothatideal
backgroundofhistorywhichboundedthehorizonofancientIsrael,andwasperhapsmoreinfluentialinthemouldingofnationalcharacter
thanaknowledgeofthenakedrealitywouldhavebeen.TheinspirationoftheBiblicalnarratorsisseeninthefashioningofthefloatingmass
oflegendandfolkloreandhistoricalreminiscencesintoanexpressionoftheirDivinelygivenapprehensionofreligioustruth,andso
transformingwhatwouldotherwisehavebeenaconstantsourceofreligiouserrorandmoralcorruptionastomakeitavehicleofinstruction
intheknowledgeandfearofGod.Oncetheprincipleisadmittedthateverygenuineandworthymodeofliteraryexpressionisasuitable
mediumofGodswordtomen,itisimpossibletosupposethatthemythicfaculty,whichplayssoimportantapartinthethinkingofallearly
peoples,wasaloneignoredintheDivineeducationof
Israel.
J.SKINNER.GENEVABIBLE.SeeENGLISHVERSIONS,26.
GENNUS.ThefatherofApollonius,aSyriancommanderofadistrictinPalestine(2Mac12:2).
GENNESARET,LAKEOF.SeeGALILEE[SEAOF]
GENNESARET,LANDOF.MentionedonlyintheparallelpassagesMt14:34,Mk6:53,astheplacewhitherthedisciplessailedafter
thestillingofthesecondstormontheLake.ItwassomewhereontheW.bankoftheLakeofGalilee,asthefeedingofthefivethousandhad
takenplace,justbeforethecrossing,ontheE.sideitwasalsonearhabitations,assickpeoplewerebroughtforhealingtoChristonHis
landing.Itisusually,andwithreason,identifiedwiththelowlandattheN.W.corneroftheLake.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
GENTILES.SeeNATIONS.ForCourtoftheGentiles,seeTEMPLE.
GENTLENESS.ThewordgentleoccursfivetimesinNT(AV).In1Th2:7and2Ti2:24itcorrespondstoGr.piositisthecharacter
propertoanurseamongtryingchildren,orateacherwithrefractorypupils.InTit3:2,Ja3:17,1P2:18gentleistheAVtr.ofepieiks,
whichisuniformlysorenderedinRV.ThegeneralideaoftheGr.wordisthatwhichissuggestedbyequityasopposedtostrictlegaljusticeit
expressesthequalityofconsiderateness,ofreadinesstolookhumanelyandreasonablyatthefactsofacase.Thereisagooddiscussionofitin
Trench,Syn.xliii.hethinkstherearenowordsinEnglishwhichanswerexactlytoit,theideasofequityandfairness,whichareessentialto
itsimport,usuallygettinglessthanjusticeintheproposedequivalents.
In2S22:36=Ps18:35(Thygentlenesshathmademegreat)RVkeepsgentlenessinthetext,butgivescondescensioninthemargin,
whichismuchbetter.ThekeytothemeaningisfoundincomparingsuchpassagesasPs113:5f.,Is57:15,Zec9:9,Mt11:29.
GENUBATH.SonofHadad,thefugitiveEdomiteprince,bythesisterofqueenTahpenes(1K11:19,20).
GEOGRAPHYOFPALESTINE.SeePALESTINE.
GEOLOGYOFPALESTINE
I.NATURALDIVISIONS.ThelandofPalestine(usingthenameinitswidestsensetoincludethetransJordanicplateauandtheSinai
Peninsula)isdividedbyitsconfigurationandbynaturalboundarylinesintofivestronglycontrasteddivisions.Theseare(1)theCoastPlain,
(2)theWesternTableland,(3)theGhr,(4)theEasternTableland,(5)theSinaiPeninsula.
1.TheCoastPlainextendsfromthemouthoftheNiletoCarmel(thepoliticalboundaryline,thevalleyknownasWadyelArsh,orthe
RiverofEgypt,isofnoimportancegeologically).NorthofCarmel,EsdraelonandthenarrowstripthatextendsasfarasBeyroutisthe
continuationofthesamedivision.Itischaracterizedbysandhillsalongthecoast,andbyundulatinggroundinland.
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continuationofthesamedivision.Itischaracterizedbysandhillsalongthecoast,andbyundulatinggroundinland.
2.TheWesternTablelandextendsfromLebanontothenorthernborderofSinai:theheadlandofCarmelisanintrusionfromthis
divisionontothepreceding.Itconsistsofaridgeoflimestonewithdeepvalleysrunningintoitoneachside,andatHebronitattainsaheight
of3040feetabovethesealevelitbroadensoutintothedesertoftheTib(orofthewanderings)analmostbarrenexpanseofanaverage
levelof4000feet.
3.TheGhristhelineofafaultwhereinthestrataontheEasternsidehavebeenraised,oronthewesternsidedepressed.Itrunsfromthe
baseofLebanontotheDeadSea,whereitis1292feetbelowtheleveloftheMediterraneanthenceitrisesto640feetabovethesameplane
aterRishi,whenceitdescendsbyagentleslopetotheGulfofAkabah.
4.TheEasternTablelandrunsalongtheW.sideoftheArabiandesertfromHermontotheGulfofAkabah.Itischieflyvolcanicinthe
characterofitsrocks.
5.TheSinaiPeninsulaiscomposedofArchanrocks,whichformbaremountainsofverystrikingoutline.
Eachofthesedivisionshasspecialcharactersofitsown.TheCoastPlainiscomposedofsand,gravel,orcalcareoussandstone,overlaidin
manyplaceswithrichfertileloam.TheWesternTablelandhasstreamsrisingincopiousspringsofwaterstoredinthelimestonestratathese
streamsontheEasternsidehaveaveryrapidfall,owingtothegreatdepthoftheGhr.Thehillsaregenerallybare,butthevalleys,wherethe
soilhasaccumulated,areveryfertile.ThesurfaceoftheGhrisforitsgreaterpartalluvial.TheEasternTablelandiscomposedofgranite
andotherigneousrocks,overlaidtowardstheNorthbysandstoneswhicharethemselvescoveredbycalcareousstrata.TotheSouth,however,
itisentirelycoveredwithbasalticlavasheets,throughwhichtheconesofextinctvolcanoesrise.TheSinaiPeninsulaischaracterizedbyits
barrenness,vegetationbeingfoundonlyinthevalleys.
II.GEOLOGICALFORMATIONS.Thegeologicalformationsofwhichtheaboveregionsarecomposedarethefollowing.(1)
Archan(graniticgneiss,hornblende,diorite,etc.):theoldestrocksinthisregion,foundonlyamongthemountainsofSinaiandEdom.(2)
Volcanic(lavas,ashbeds,etc.):foundintheWadyHarnandJebaleshShomar,eastoftheDeadSea.(3)Lower
Carboniferous(sandstone,bluelimestone):foundinWadyNasb,andLebruj,E.oftheDeadSea:sandstonesbelow,andlimestonescontaining
shellsandcoralsofcarboniferouslimestonespecies.(4)Cretaceous:lowerbedsofNubiansandstone,whichisfoundallalongtheTib
escarpmentandalongtheWesternescarpmentfromAkabahtobeyondtheDeadSea.Itwasprobablyalakedeposit.Itisoverlaidbyagreat
thicknessofcretaceouslimestone,amountingtonearly1000feet.ThisisthemostimportantconstituentoftherocksofPalestine.Good
buildingstonesaretakenfromitinthequarriesofJerusalem.(5)LowerEocene:nummulitelimestone,foundoverlyingthecretaceousbeds
inelevatedsituations,suchasCarmel,Nblus,andJerusalem.(6)UpperEocene:aformationofcalcareoussandstoneonthesurface
betweenBeershebaandJaffa.Itstruepositionisuncertain.Prof.HullassignsittotheUpperEocene,butDr.Blanckenhorntoaposttertiary
ordiluvialorigin.(7)MiocenePeriod.Norocksareassignabletothisperiod,butitisimportantasbeingthatinwhichthecountryrosefrom
thebedoftheseaandassumeditspresentform.ThiswasthetimewhenthegreatfaultintheJordanvalleytookplace.(8)Plioceneto
PluvialPeriod.Duringthisperiodasubsidenceofabout220feettookplaceroundtheMediterraneanandRedSeabasins,afterwards
compensatedbyareelevation.Theevidenceforthisremainsinanumberofraisedbeaches,especiallyinthevalleyofSheriah,eastofGaza.
AsimilarphenomenonhasbeenfoundatMokattam,aboveCairo.(9)PluvialtoRecentPeriod.Intheglacialepochtherewereextensive
glaciersinLebanon,whichhavelefttracesinanumberofmoraines.Atthattimethetemperaturewascolder,andtherainfallhigherhencethe
valleys,nowdry,werechannelsofrunningwater.AlluvialterracesintheJordanvalleylakeprovethattheDeadSeawasformerlyhundredsof
feethigherthanitspresentlevel.WiththepassingofthePleistoceneperiodthelakesandstreamswerereducedtotheirpresentlimits.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
GEPHYRUN.AcitycapturedbyJudasMaccabus(2Mac12:13AVhewentalsoabouttomakeabridgetoacertaincity,RVhe
alsofelluponacertaincityGephyrun).ItispossiblethattheGreektextiscorrupt(seeRVm).
GER.SeeSTRANGER.
GERA.OneofBenjaminssons(Gn46:21,omittedinNu26:3840).Acc.to1Ch8:3,8,7hewasasonofBelaandagrandsonof
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GERA.OneofBenjaminssons(Gn46:21,omittedinNu26:3840).Acc.to1Ch8:3,8,7hewasasonofBelaandagrandsonof
Benjamin.GerawasevidentlyawellknownBenjamiteclan,towhichbelongedEhud(Jg3:15)andShimel(2S16:5,19:16,18,1K2:3).
GERAH,thetwentiethpartoftheshekel(Ex30:13,Lv27:25etc.).SeeMONEY,3WEIGHTSANDMEASURES,III.
GERAR.AplacementionedinGn10:19intheboundaryoftheCanaaniteterritorynearGaza,wheresAbrahamsojournedandcamein
contactwithacertainAbimelechkingofGerar(20:1).AsimilarexperienceisrecordedofIsaac(26:1),butthestoriesareevidentlynot
independent.Gerarreappearsonlyin2Ch14:13,14,inthedescriptionoftheroutoftheEthiopiansbyAsa,inwhichGerarwasthelimitof
thepursuit.EusebiusmakesGerar25RomanmilesS.ofEleutheropolishenceithasbeensoughtatUmmelJerr,6milesS.ofGaza.This,
however,seemsacomparativelymodernsiteandname.PossiblythereweretwoGerars:theAbrahamicGerarhasalsobeenidentifiedwith
WadyJerr,13milesW.S.W.fromKadesh.Theproblem,likethatofthementionofPhilistinesinconnexionwiththisplaceinthetimeof
Abraham,hasnotyetbeensolved.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
GERASA.AcityoftheDecapolisofunknownorigin,thefirstknowneventinitshistorybeingitscapturebyAlexanderJannus,about
B.C.83.ItwasrebuiltbytheRomansinA.D.65,anddestroyedintheJewishrevolt.Vespasiansgeneral,LuciusAnnius,againtookand
destroyedthecity.Inthe2ndcent.A.D.itwasaflourishingcity,adornedwithmonumentsofartitwasatthistimeacentreoftheworshipof
Artemis.Itafterwardsbecametheseatofabishop,butseemstohavebeenfinallydestroyedintheByzantineage.Anuncertaintraditionof
someJewishscholars,favouredbysomemodernwriters,identifiesitwithRamothgilead.Theruinsofthecitystillexistunderthemodern
nameJershtheylieamongthemountainsofGilead,about20milesfromtheJordan.Theseareveryextensive,andtestifytotheimportance
andmagnificenceofthecity,buttheyareunfortunatelybeingrapidlydestroyedbyacolonyofCircassianswhohavebeenestablishedhere.
Thechiefremainsarethoseofthetownwalls,thestreetofcolumns,severaltemples,atriumphalarch,ahippodrome,atheatre,etc.
GerasaisnotmentionedintheBible,unlesstheidentificationwithRamothgileadhold.TheGerasenesreferredtoinMk5:1(RV)cannot
belongtothisplace,whichistoofarawayfromtheSeaofGalileetosuitthestory.ThisnameprobablyreferstoaplacenamedKersa,onthe
shoreoftheLake,whichfulfilstherequirements.SeeGADARA.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
GERASENES,GERGESENES.SeeGADARAandGERASA.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
GERIZIM.AmountainwhichwithEbalenclosesthevalleyinwhichisbuiltthetownofNblus(Shechem).TheSamaritansectregard
itasholy,itbeingtothemwhatJerusalemandMountZionaretotheJew.AccordingtoSamaritantradition,thesacrificeofIsaactookplace
here.FromGerizimwerepronouncedtheblessingsattachedtoobservanceoftheLaw(Jos8:33),whentheIsraelitesformallytookpossession
ofthecountry.Itwasprobablychosenasthefortunatemountain(ascontrastedwithEbal,themountofcursings),becauseitwouldbeonthe
righthandofaspectatorfacingeast.HereJothamspokehisparabletotheeldersofShechem(Jg9:7).
Theacousticpropertiesofthevalleyaresaidtoberemarkable,andexperimenthasshownthatfromsomepartsofthemountainitis
possiblewithverylittleefforttomakethevoicecarryoveraveryconsiderablearea.Aledgeofrockhalfwayupthehillisstilloftencalled
Jothamspulpit.
Onthismountainwaserected,about432B.C.,aSamaritantemple,whichwasdestroyedabout300yearsafterwardsbyHyrcanus.Itssite
ispointedoutonasmalllevelplateau,underthehilltop.ThePassoverisannuallycelebratedhere.Otherruinsoflessinterestaretobeseen
onthemountaintop,suchastheremainsofacastleandaByzantinechurch.Thesummitofthemountaincommandsaviewembracingnearly
thewholeofPalestine.ContrarytothestatementofJosephus,itisnotthehighestofthemountainsofSamaria,EbalandTellAzurbeing
ratherhigher.
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R.A.S.MACALISTER.
GERONshouldpossiblyappearasapropernamein2Mac6:1(AVandRVanoldmanofAthensRVmGeronanAthenian).
GERRENIANS(2Mac13:24).Thetruereadingandthepeopleintendedarebothuncertain.Theanalogyof1Mac11:59suggestssome
placeneartheborderofEgyptbutGerrha,betweenPelusiumandRhinocolura,wasinEgyptianterritory.
IthasbeensuggestedthatthereferenceistoGerar,anancientPhil.cityS.E.ofGaza.Ontheotherhand,Syr.readsGazar,i.e.Gezeror
Gazara,notfarfromLydda(cf.1Mac15:28,35).
GERSHOM.1.TheelderofthetwosonsbornetoMosesbyZipporah(Ex2:22,18:26theexplanationofthenamegiveninthesetwo
passagesisfolketymology).AccordingtoEx14:25,25,theoriginofcircumcisionamongtheIsraeliteswasconnectedwiththatofGershom
theritewasperformedbyhismotherthiswascontrarytolaterusage,accordingtowhichthiswasalwaysdonebyaman.Thesonof
Gershom,Jonathan,andhisdescendantswereprieststothetribeoftheDanitesbutthefactthattheselattersetupforthemselvesagraven
image,andthatthereforethedescendantsofGershomwereconnectedwithworshipofthiskind,wasregardedasagraveevilbylater
generations,forwhichreasonthewordMosesinJg18:30wasreadManassehbytheinsertionofannabovethetextitwasthought
derogatorytothememoryofMosesthatdescendantsofhisshouldhavebeenguiltyoftheworshipofgravenimages.InJg17:7thereisa
possiblereferencetoGershom,forthewordsandhesojournedtherecanalsobereadandhe(was)Gershom(W.H.Bennett).In1Ch
23:16,26:24thesonsofGershomarementioned,ShebuelorShubaelbeingtheirchief.2.AsonofLevi(1
Ch6:16[v.1inHeb.])seeGERSHON.3.AdescendantofPhinehas,oneoftheheadsofhouseswhowentupwithEzrafromBabylonin
thereignofArtaxerxes(Ezr8:2).
W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
GERSHON,GERSHONITES.ThenameGershonisgiventotheeldestsonofLevi,towhomadivisionoftheLevitestracedtheir
descent(Gn46:11,Ex6:16,Nu3:17,1Ch6:1,16[Gershom]23:6).ThetitleGershonitesisfoundinNu3:21,23f.,4:24,27f.,26:57,Jos
21:33,1Ch23:7,26:21,2Ch29:12andofanindividual,1Ch26:21,29:8thesonsofGershon(Ex6:17,Nu3:18,25,4:22,36,41,7:7,
10:17,Jos21:6,27),orofGershom(1Ch6:17,62,71,15:7).Theyweresubdividedintotwogroups,theLibnitesandtheShimeites(Nu
3:21,26:58),eachbeingtracedtoasonofGershon(Ex6:17,Nu3:18,1Ch6:17,20[42,Shimeiisomittedfromthegenealogy]).Ladan
standsforLibniin1Ch23:7ff.,26:21.Fromthesefamiliesfragmentsofgenealogiesremain(see1Ch23:811).Comparativelylittleis
relatedoftheGershonitesaftertheExile.Certainofthemarementionedin1Ch9:15andNeh11:17a,22asdwellinginJerusalem
immediatelyaftertheReturn.OfthesonsofAsaph(Gershonites),128(Ezr2:41)or148(Neh7:44)returnedwithEzratothecityinB.C.
454.AsaphitesledthemusicatthefoundationoftheTemple(Ezr3:10)andcertainofthemblewtrumpetsintheprocessionatthededication
ofthecitywalls(Neh12:25).
PandtheChroniclerintroducethefamilyintotheearlierhistory.(1)DuringthedesertwanderingstheGershoniteswereonthewestsideof
theTent(Nu3:23)theirdutywastocarryallthehangingswhichcomposedtheTentproper,andtheoutercoveringsandthehangingsofthe
court,withtheircords(3:25f.,4:24ff.,10:17),forwhichtheyweregiventwowagonsandfouroxen(7:7)andtheyweresuperintendedby
Ithamar,theyoungestsonofAaron(4:33,7:8).(2)AfterthesettlementinPalestine,thirteencitieswereassignedtothem(Jos21:6,2733=1
Ch6:62,7176).(3)InDavidsreigntheChroniclerrelatesthattheTemplemusicwasmanagedpartlybyAsaph,aGershonite,andhisfamily
(1Ch6:3943,25:1f.,6,8a,10,12,14andsee15:7,1719).DaviddividedtheLevitesintocoursesaccordingtothesonsofLevi(23:6
Gershonites,vv.711)andparticularofficesofGershonitesarestatedin26:21f.(4)Jahaziel,anAsaphite,prophesiedtoJehoshaphatbefore
thebattleofEngedi(2Ch20:1417).(5)TheytookpartinthecleansingoftheTempleunderHezekiah(29:12f.).Cf.alsoKOHATH.
A.H.MNEILE.GERSON(1Es8:29)=Ezr8:2Gershom.

GERUTHCHIMHAM(Jer41:17).Akhan(?)whichpossiblyderiveditsnamefromChimham,thesonofBarzillaltheGileadite(2S 29/82
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GERUTHCHIMHAM(Jer41:17).Akhan(?)whichpossiblyderiveditsnamefromChimham,thesonofBarzillaltheGileadite(2S
19:37f.).Insteadofgrthweshouldperhapsreadgidrthhurdles.
GESHAN.AdescendantofCaleb,1Ch2:47.Mod.editionsofAVhaveGesham,althoughthecorrectformofthenameappearsined.
of1611.
GESHEM(Neh2:18,6:1,2in6:6theformGashmuoccurs).AnArabianwhoisnamed,alongwithSanballattheHoroniteandTobiah
theAmmonite,asanopponentofNehemiahduringtherebuildingofthewallsofJerusalem(Neh2:16,6:1ff.).Hemayhavebelongedtoan
Arabcommunitywhich,aswelearnfromthemonuments,wassettledbySargoninSamariac.B.C.715thiswouldexplainhisclose
connexionwiththeSamaritansorhemayhavebeenthechiefofanArabtribedwellingintheS.ofJudah,inwhichcasehispresencewould
pointtoacoalitionofalltheneighbouringpeoplesagainstJerusalem.
GESHUR,GESHURITES.AsmallAramantribe,whoseterritory,togetherwiththatofMaacah(wh.see),formedtheW.borderof
Bashan(Dt3:14,Jos12:6,13:11).TheGeshuriteswerenotexpelledbythehalftribeofManasseh,towhomtheirlandhadbeenallotted(Jos
13:13),andwerestillruledbyanindependentkinginthereignofDavid,whomarriedthedaughterofTalmai,kingofGeshur(2S3:3).After
themurderofhishalfbrotherAmnon,AbsalomtookrefugewithhismaternalgrandfatherinGeshurofAram(2S13:37,15:8).Geshurand
MaacahwereprobablysituatedinthemodernJauln,iftheyarenottobeidentifiedwithit.In1Ch2:23GeshurandAramaresaidtohave
takenthetentvillagesofJairfromtheIsraelites.OnthestrengthofJos13:2and1S27:8,ithasbeenmaintainedthattherewasanother
tribeofthisnameintheneighbourhoodofthePhilistinesbuttheevidenceinsupportofthisviewisveryprecarious.
GESTURES.TheOrientalisanaturalexpertinappropriateandexpressivegesture.Tohisimpulsiveandemotionaltemperament,
attitudeandactionformamoreaptvehicleforthoughtandfeelingthanevenspeech.Movementoffeature,shrugofshoulder,turnofhand,
expressmuch,andsuggestdelicateshadesofmeaningwhichcannotbeputinwords.Conversationisaccompaniedbyasortofrunning
commentaryofgestures.Easternsconductargumentandaltercationatthepitchoftheirvoicesemphasisissuppliedalmostwhollyby
gestures.Theseareoftensoviolentthatanunskilledwitnessmightnaturallyexpecttoseebloodshedfollow.
TheworddoesnotoccurinScripture,butthething,invariousforms,isconstantlyappearing.Bowingtheheadorbodymarksreverence,
homage,orworship(Gn18:2,Ex20:5,1Ch21:21,Ps95:6,Is60:14).Thesameistrueofkneeling(1K19:18,2K1:13,Ps95:6,Mk1:40).
ThissignofhomagethetemptersoughtfromJesus(Mt4:9).Kneelingwasacommonattitudeinprayer(1K8:54,
Ezr9:6,Dn6:10,Lk22:41,Eph3:14etc.).Theglanceoftheeyemaymeanappeal,astheupwardlookinprayer(Job22:26,Mk6:41etc.),
anger(Mk3:5),orreproach(Lk22:61).Ashakeoftheheadmayexpressscornorderision(2K19:21,Ps109:25,Mk15:29etc.).Agrimace
ofthelipisasignofcontempt(Ps22:7).Shakingthedustoffthefeet,orshaking,howevergently,onesraiment,indicatescomplete
severance(Mt10:14etc.),denialofresponsibility(Ac18:16),andoftennow,totalignoranceofanymatterreferredto.Rendingthegarments
betokensconsternation,real(Gn37:29,Jos7:6,Ac14:14etc.)orassumed(2Ch23:13,Mt26:65),andgrief(Jg11:35,2S1:11etc.).Joywas
expressedbydancing(Ex15:20,1S30:16,Jer31:4etc.)andclappingthehands(Ps47:1,Is55:12etc.).Spittingupon,orintheface,
indicateddeepdespite(Nu12:14,Is50:6,Mt26:67,etc.).SeeHAND,MOURNINGCUSTOMS,SALUTATION.
Somegesturesincommonuseareprobablyancient.Onewhonarrowlyescapesdanger,describinghisexperience,willcrackhisthumbnail
offtheedgeofhisfrontteeth,suggestingJobswiththeskinofmyteeth(19:20).Onechargedwithafaultwillputhiselbowstohissides,
turnhispalmsoutward,andshrughisshoulders,withaslightsideinclinationofthehead,repudiatingresponsibilityforanactwhich,inhis
judgment,wasplainlyinevitable.
W.EWING.
GETHER.NamedinGn10:23,alongwithUz,Hul,andMash,asoneofthesonsofAram(in1Ch1:17simplysonsofShem).The
clanofwhichheistheeponymousfounderhasnotbeenidentified.

GETHSEMANE.AplacetowhichChristretiredwithHisdisciples(Mt26:35,Mk14:32),andwhereJudasbetrayedHim.Itwas
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GETHSEMANE.AplacetowhichChristretiredwithHisdisciples(Mt26:35,Mk14:32),andwhereJudasbetrayedHim.Itwas
probablyafavouriteresortofourLord,asJudasknewwhereHewaslikelytobefound.Therearetwotraditionalsites,sidebyside,oneunder
theGreeks,theotherundertheLatins.Itmaybeadmittedthattheyaresomewherenearthepropersite,ontheW.slopeoftheMountofOlives
abovetheKidronbutthereisnojustificationfortheexactlocalizationofthesite.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
GEUEL.TheGaditespy,Nu13:15(P).
GEZER.AveryancientcityoftheShephlah,onthebordersofthePhilistinePlaininhabitedc.B.C.3000byaraceprobablykintothe
Horites,whoweresucceededbytheSemiticCanaanitesaboutB.C.2500.ThesewerenotdrivenoutbytheinvadingIsraelites(Jg1:29).In
DavidstimethecitywasinPhilistinehands(1Ch20:4).ThekingofEgyptcapturedit,andgaveitasadowrytohisdaughter,Solomons
wife(1K9:16).SimonMaccabusbesiegedandcapturedit,andbuiltforhimselfadwellingplace(1Mac13:4353GazaraRV).Thecity
hasbeenpartlyexcavatedbythePalestineExplorationFund,andSimonsdwellingplacediscovered,aswellasagreatCanaanitehighplace,
andinnumerableotherremainsofearlyPalestiniancivilization.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
GHOST.Aghost=Germ.Geist(thehhascreptintothewordthroughwhatEarlecallsanItalianaffectationofspelling)isaspirit.The
wordisalsousedinOldEnglishofthebreath,thesoulorspiritofalivingperson,andevenadeadbody.InAVitoccursonlyinthephrase
giveuporyielduptheghostandinthenametheHolyGhost.WhereverinAVhagionholyoccurswithpneumaspirit,thetr.isHoly
Ghostbutwhenpneumaoccursalone,itisalwaysrenderedSpiritorspirit,accordingasitissupposedtorefertoGodortoman.See
HOLYSPIRITandSPIRIT.
GIAH.NamedintheaccountofJoabspursuitofAbner(2S2:24).Itssituationisquiteunknownitisevendoubtfulwhetherthe
mentionofGiahisnotduetotextualcorruption.
GIANT
I.INTHEO.T.1.Astr.ofHeb.nephlm.InGn6:4theNephilimappearasaraceofdemigods,distinguishedbytheirpowerand
renown,butwithoutanymentionofgiganticstature.ThecontextItselfsuggeststhattheyweretheantediluvians,oramongtheantediluvians,
destroyedbytheFlood.Thestoryoftheiroriginis,however,commoninmoreorlessdegreetomanyancientracesanditisthoughtbysome
tohavenooriginalconnexionwiththeFloodstory.AtanyratethenameappearsagaininNu13:33,wheretheyappeartobeidentifiedwith
theAnakim.Itseemsprobable,therefore,thatthestoryinGen.isanancientmythwhicharosetoaccountfortheoriginofthisrace,and
perhapsofotherancientracesofasimilartype.
2.Astr.ofHeb.rephm.Thisword,frequentlyleftuntranslated,esp.inRV,isusedofseveralprobablydifferentaboriginalpeoplesof
Palestine,andprobablymeantgiants.TheRephaimincludedtheAnakim,theaboriginesofPhilistiaandthesoutherndistrictsofJudah(Dt
2:11)theEmim,theaboriginesoftheMoabitecountry(Dt2:10)theZamzummim,theaboriginesoftheAmmonitecountry(Dt2:20),who
areperhapstobeidentifiedwiththeZuzimofGn14:5andtheoldinhabitantsofBashan(Dt3:11).ThestatementthatOg,whosegigantic
bedstead(orperhapssarcophagusseeDriver,inloco)wasstilltobeseenatRabbah,wasoneoftheRephaim(thoughthelastsurviving
memberoftheraceinthatdistrict)isconfirmedbyGn14:5,wheretheRephaimarethefirstofthepeoplessmittenbythefourkingsontheir
journeysouth.ThesewerefollowedbytheZuzimandEmim.Wethushaveevidenceofawidelyspreadpeopleorpeoplescalled
Rephaimfromancienttimes.InadditiontotheRephaimofBashan,theZuzimorZamzummim,andtheEmim,ontheeastofJordan,the
AnakiminthesouthwestandsouthforArba,thetraditionalfounderofHebron,isdescribedastheprogenitoroftheAnakim(Jos15:13)
wefindtracesofRephaiminthewellknownvalleyofthatnamenearJerusalem(Jos15:8,9),andapparentlyalsointheterritoryofEphraim
(Jos17:16).Takentogether,thisevidenceseemstosuggestthatthenameRephaimwasappliedtothepreCanaaniteracesofPalestine.
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Thereisawellknowntendencyamongancientpeoplestoregardtheiraborigineseitherasgiantsorasdwarfs,accordingastheywerea
tallerorashorterracethanthemselves.ThustheAoakimweresotallthattheIsraelitishspieswereincomparisonasgrasshoppers(Nu13:33).
ThebedsteadofOgcannotpossiblyhavebeenlessthan11ft.inlength[themoreprobableestimateofthecubitwouldgive13ft.6in.]but
thisisnotverysurprisingifasarcophagusisreallymeant,asitwasacomplimenttoadeadherotogivehimalargetomb(Dt3:11).The
ZamzummimaredescribedasapeoplegreatandtallliketheAnakim(Dt2:21).Again,Goliathwasamanoffabulousheight.
TheRephaimwere,nodoubt,verylargelyannihilatedbytheirconquerors,butpartlyalsoabsorbed.Wenaturallyfindthemostevident
tracesoftheminthosedistrictsofPalestineanditsbordersmorerecentlyoccupiedbypastinvaders,asintheEastofJordanandPhilistia.In
thelattercountryespecially,thatmostrecentlyoccupiedbeforetheIsraelitishsettlement,weseemtofindtracesofthemintheencounterwith
Goliathandhiskind.WhereasOgwasthelastoftheRephaimofBashaaatthetimeoftheConquest,theseseemtohavecontinuedtothetime
ofDavid.
3.Astr.ofthesing.wordrphhorrph.Thisisevidentlyakintotheplur.
rephm.In2S21:1522,partofwhichrecursin1Ch20:48,fourmighty
PhilistinesIshbibenob,Saph(Chron.Sippai),GoliaththeGittite(Chron.Lahmi,thebrotherofGoliath,etc.),andamonsterwith6
fingersoneachhandand6toesoneachfootarecalledsonsofthegiant.As,however,thefouraresaidinv.22tohavefallenbythehand
ofDavidandhisservants,andnotoneofthemisdescribedasslainbyDavid,thepassageisevidentlyincomplete,andtheoriginalprobably
containedthestoryofsomeencounterbyDavid,withwhichthestoryofGoliathcametobeconfused.This,whichascribeshisdeathto
Elhanan,isprobablytheearliestformofthatstory,anditisprobablethatthereadingofChroniclesisaglossintendedtoreconcilethis
passagewith1S17.Thegiantisprobablyusedgenerically,meaningthattheywereallgiants.Thepassageisprobablyanextractfroman
oldaccountofDavidandhisfaithfulcompanionswhilehewasanoutlaw,fromwhichalsowegetthegreaterpartof2S23.ThoughGoliath
inthewellknownstoryisnotcalledagiant,hewascertainlythetypicalgiantoftheOT.Hisheight,6cubitsandaspan(1S17:4),not
necessarilymorethan7ft.4in.,butmoreprobably9ft.10in.,maywellberegarded,withtheenormoussizeandweightofhisarmour,asthe
naturalexaggerationtobeexpectedinapopularstory.Evenifthestoryisnothistoricalinitspresentform,itaroseoutoftheconflictswhich
DavidandhismenwerefrequentlyhavingwiththosePhilistinegiants.ThereisnomentionoftheRephaimorofasinglegiantafterDavids
time.
4.Astr.ofHeb.gibbr=amightyman,asinJob16:14cf.Ps19:5(Pr.Bk.version).Thisishardlyacorrecttr.oftheword.
II.INTHEAPOCRYPHA.Wefindheresomeinterestingallusions:(1)tothesupposeddestructionoftheNephlmbytheFlood(Wis
14:6,Sir16:7,Bar3:2628)(2)totheslaughterofthegiantbyDavid(Sir47:4).
F.H.WOODS.
GIBBAR.AfamilywhichreturnedwithZerub.(Ezr2:20).ThenameisprobablyanerrorforGibeonofNeh7:25.
GIBBETHON(mound,height).AtownbelongingtothetribeofDan,andaLeviticalcity(Jos19:44,21:23).Nadab,kingofIsrael,
wasbesiegingitwhenhewasslainbyBaashaandOmriwassimilarlyengagedwhenhewasmadekingbythearmy(1K15:27,16:1617).It
ispossiblythemodernKibbiah,totheN.E.ofLydda.
GIBEA.AgrandsonofCaleb(1Ch2:49).ThelistofthedescendantsofJudahthroughCalebgivenin1Ch2:42ff.isgeographicalrather
thangenealogical,andcomprisesallthetownslyingintheNegebofJudahtotheS.ofHebron.Gibeaisprobablyonlyavariationinspelling
ofthemorecommonGibeah.SeeGIBEAH,1.
GIBEAH(Heb.gibh,ahill).Thename,similarinformandmeaningtoGeba,attachedtoaplacenotfarfromthatcity.Thetwohave
sometimesbeenconfused.Itisnecessarytonotecarefullywherethewordmeanshillandwhereitisthenameofacity.Atleasttwoplaces
weresocalled.1.AcityinthemountainsofJudah(Jos15:57,perhapsalso2Ch13:2),nearCarmelandZiph,totheS.E.ofHebron,and
thereforenottobeidentifiedwiththemodernJeba,9milesW.ofBethlehem(Onomast.)siteunknown.2.GibeahofBenjamin(Jg19:12 32/82
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thereforenottobeidentifiedwiththemodernJeba,9milesW.ofBethlehem(Onomast.)siteunknown.2.GibeahofBenjamin(Jg19:12
etc.),thesceneoftheawfuloutrageupontheLevitesconcubine,andoftheconflictinwhichtheassembledtribesexecutedsuchterrible
vengeanceuponBenjamin.ItwasthehomeofIsraelsfirstking(1S10:26),andwasknownasGibeahofSaul(1S11:4,Is10:29)probably
identicalwithGibeahofGod(1S10:5RVm).FromthenarrativeregardingtheLevitewelearnthatGibeahlayneartheN.roadfrom
Bethlehem,betweenJerusalemandRamah.ItwasnearthepointwheretheroadfromGebajoinedthehighwaytowardsBethel(Jg20:31).Jg
20:33affordsnoguidance:Maarehgeba(RV)isonlyatransliterationofthewordsastheystandinMT.Aslightemendationofthetext
makesitreadfromthewestofGibeah,whichisprobablycorrect(Moore,Judges,inloc.).Josephus,whocallsitGabaothsaul(BJV.ii.1),
placesit30stadiaN.ofJerusalem.ThesitemostcloselyagreeingwiththeseconditionsisTuleilelFl,anartificialmound,E.oftheroadto
theN.,about4milesfromJerusalem.TheroadtoJebaleadsoffthemainroadimmediatelytothenorthofthesite.Certainremainsofancient
buildingsthereare,butnothingofimportancehasyetbeendiscovered.Asaplaceofstrategicimportance,GibeahformedthebaseofSauls
operationsagainstthePhilistines(1S13,14).TherewasenactedthetragedyinwhichsevenofSaulssonsperished,givingoccasionforthe
patheticvigilofRizpah.ItappearsinthedescriptionofSennacheribsadvancefromthenorth(Is10:2832).
W.EWING.
GIBEATH(Heb.gibath,st.constr.ofgibh),hillof,entersintothecompositionofplacenames,andisoccasionallyretained
untranslatedbyRVm.Suchinstancesare:(a)Gibeathharlth,hilloftheforeskins,wheretheIsraeliteswerecircumcised(Jos5:3).(b)
GibeathPhinehas,inMountEphraim,whereEleazarwasburied(Jos24:33)siteunknown.(c)Gibeathhammreh(Jg7:1etc.see
MOREH,2).(d)GibeathhElohm(1S10:5)=Gibeah,2.(e)GibeathhHachlah(1S23:19etc.).SeeHACHILAH.(f)GibeathAmmah
(2S2:24).SeeAMMAH.(g)GibeathGareb(Jer31:39).SeeGAREB,2.
W.EWING.
GIBEON.AtowninPalestinenorthofJerusalem.ItsinhabitantsseemtohavebeenHivites(Jos9:7),thoughspokenofin2S21:2by
themoregeneraltermAmorites.Itwasacityofconsiderablesize.Itsinhabitants,bymeansofatrick,succeededinmakingatrucewith
Joshua,butwerereducedtoservitude(Jos9)acoalitionofotherCanaanitekingsagainstitwasdestroyedbyhim(ch.10).Itbecamea
Leviticalcity(21:17)inthetribeofBenjamin(18:25).ThecircumstancesofthedestructionofpartoftheGibeonitesbySaul(2S21:1)are
unknown.HerethechampionsofDavidfoughtthoseoftherivalkingIshbosheth(2S2:1832),anddefeatedthemandhereJoabmurdered
Amasa(20:9).ThegreatstoneInGibeonwasprobablysomepartoftheimportanthighplacewhichweknowfrom1K3:4wassituated
here.Thestatementoftheparallelpassage,2Ch1:3,thatthearkwasplacedhereatthetime,isprobablyduemerelytothedesireofthe
ChroniclertoexplainSolomonssacrificingthereinthelightoftheDeuteronomiclegislation.HereSolomonwasvouchsafedatheophanyat
thebeginningofhisreign.InJer41:12weagainhearofGibeon,inconnexionwithJohanansexpeditionagainstIshmaeltoavengethe
murderofGedaliah.
ThecityhasconstantlybeenidentifiedwithelJib,andtherecanbelittleornodoubtthattheidentificationiscorrect.Thisisasmall
villagestandingonanisolatedhillabout5milesfromJerusalem.Thehillisrockyandregularlyterraced.Itisremarkablechieflyforits
copiousspringsareputationitevidentlyhadinantiquity(2S2:13,Jer41:12).NinetyfiveGibeonitesreturnedfromBabylonunder
Zerubbabel(Neh7:25),andGibeoniteswereemployedinrepairingpartofthewallofJerusalem(3:7).AtGibeon,CestiusGallusencampedin
hismarchfromAntipatristoJerusalem.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
GIDDALTI(Imagnify[God]).AsonofHeman(1Ch25:4,29).
GIDDEL(verygreat).1.TheeponymofafamilyofNethinim(Ezr2:47=Neh7:49)calledin1Es5:30Cathua.2.Theeponymofa
familyofSolomonsservants(Ezr2:56=Neh7:58)calledin1Es5:33Isdael.

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GIDEON.ThesonofJoash,aManassitehedweltinOphrah,aplacehithertounidentified,whichbelongedtotheclanoftheAbiezrites.
GideonhasalsothenamesofJerubbaal(Jg6:32)andJerubbesheth(2S11:21).AfterthevictoryoftheIsraelites,undertheguidanceof
Deborah,overtheCanaanites,thelandhadrestforfortyyears(anindefiniteperiod).ApostasyfromJahwehagainresultedintheirbeing
oppressed,thistimebytheneighbouringBedouintribes,theMidianitesandAmalekites.Theunderlyingideaisthat,sincetheIsraelitesdid
notexclusivelyworshiptheirnationalGod,HewithdrewHisprotection,withtheresultthatanothernation,aidedbyitsnationalgod,was
enabledtoovercometheunprotectedIsraelites.Areturntoobedience,andrecognitionofJahwehthenationalGod,ensuresHisrenewed
protectionrelieffromtheoppressorisbroughtaboutbysomechoseninstrument,ofwhomitisalwayssaidthatJahwehiswithhimthisis
alsothecasewithGideon(Jg6:18).
ThesourcesofthestoryofGideon,preservedinJg6:18:35,offersomedifficultproblems,uponwhichscholarsdifferconsiderablyall
thatcanbesaidwithcertaintyisthatthenarrativeiscomposite,thatthehandoftheredactorisvisibleincertainverses(e.g.6:20,7:6,8:22,
23),andthatthesourceshavenotalwaysbeenskilfullycombinedthiscomesoutmostclearlyin7:248:3,whichbreaksthecontinuityofthe
narrative.Disregardingdetails,thegeneraloutlineofthehistoryofGideonisasfollows:
Introduction,6:110:ForsevenyearstheIsraelitessufferedundertheMidianiteoppressionbutontheircryinguntotheLordaprophetis
sent,whodeclaresuntothemthereasonoftheirpresentstate,viz.thatitwastheresultoftheirhavingforsakenJahwehandservedthegodsof
theAmorites.*
ThecallofGideon,6:1132:TheAngeloftheLordappearstoGideonandtellshimthattheLordiswithhim,andthatheistofreeIsrael
fromtheMidianiteinvasion.Gideonrequiresasign:hebringsanofferingofakidandunleavenedcakes,theAngeltouchesthesewithhis
staff,whereuponfireissuesfromtherockonwhichtheofferingliesandconsumesit.GideonisnowconvincedthatitwastheAngelofthe
Lordwhohadbeenspeakingtohim,andatJahwehscommandhedestroysthealtarofBaalinOphrahandbuildsonetoJahweh,towhomhe
alsoofferssacrifice.ThisactembittersGideonsfellowtownsmenagainsthimtheyare,however,quieteddownbytheboldnessand
shrewdnessofGideonsfather.
Gideonsvictory,6:337:23,8:421:AllegiancetoJahwehbeingthuspubliclyacknowledged,theIsraelitesareoncemoreinapositionto
asserttheirpoliticalindependencesothatwhentheMidianitesagaininvadetheirland,Gideonraisesanarmyagainstthem,beingmoreover
assuredbythemiracleofthedewonthefleecethathewillbevictorious.AtthecommandofJahwehhisarmyistwicereduced,firsttoten
thousandmen,andthentothreehundred.AtthecommandofJahwehagain,hegoeswithhisservant,Purah,downtothecampofthe
Midianites,whereheisencouragedbyoverhearingaMidianiterecountingadream,whichisinterpretedbyanotherMidianiteas
foreshadowingthevictoryofGideon.OnhisreturntohisowncampGideondivideshismenintothreecompanieseachmanreceivesatorch,
anearthenjar,andahornatagivensign,thehornsareblown,thejarsbroken,andtheburningtorchesexposedtoview,withtheresultthat
theMidianitesfleeinterror.GideonpursuesthemacrosstheJordanhehaltsduringthepursuit,bothatSuccothandatPenuel,inorderto
refreshhisthreehundredfollowersineachcasefoodisrefusedhimbytheinhabitantsafterthreateningthemwithvengeanceonhisreturn,
hepresseson,overtakestheMidianitehost,andisagainvictorioushethenfirstpunishestheinhabitantsofSuccothandPenuel,andnext
turnshisattentiontotheMidianitechiefs,ZebahandZalmunna.
FromthispartofthenarrativeitwouldseemthatGideonsattackupontheMidianiteswas,inpart,undertakenowingtoabloodfeudfor,on
hisfindingoutthatthemurderersofhisbrethrenatTaborwerethesetwoMidianitechiefs,heslaystheminordertoavengehisbrethren.
Theofferofthekingship,8:2228:OntheIsraelitesofferingtoGideonandhisdescendantsthekingship,Gideondeclinesitontheocratic
grounds,butasksinsteadforpartofthegoldfromthespoiltakenfromtheMidianitesofthishemakesanimage(ephod),whichhesetsupat
Ophrah,andwhichbecomesthecauseofapostasyfromJahweh.ThenarrativeofGideonsleadershipisbroughttoaclosebyareferenceto
hisoffspring,andspecialmentionofhissonAbimelechafterhisdeath,wearetold,theIsraeliteswentawhoringaftertheBaalim.
Inthesection8:2235thereisclearlyamixingupofthesourcesontheonehandIsraelsapostasyistracedtotheactionofGideon,onthe
otherthisdoesnottakeplaceuntilafterhisdeath.Again,therefusalofthekingshipontheocraticgroundsisanideawhichbelongstoamuch
latertimemoreover,Gideonsson,Abimelech,becamekingafterslayinghisfatherslegitimatesonsitistakenforgranted(9:2)thatthereis
tobearulerafterGideonsdeath.This,togetherwithotherindications,leadstothebeliefthatinitsoriginalformtheearliestsourcegavean
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tobearulerafterGideonsdeath.This,togetherwithotherindications,leadstothebeliefthatinitsoriginalformtheearliestsourcegavean
accountofGideonasking.
Thesection7:248:3isundoubtedlyancientittellsofhowtheEphraimites,atGideonscommand,cutoffpartofthefugitiveMidianite
hostundertwooftheirchiefs,OrebandZeeb,whomtheEphraimitesslew.WhenthevictoriousbandwithGideonjoinshandswiththe
Ephraimites,thelattercomplaintoGideonbecausehedidnotcallthemtoattackthemainbodyoftheenemyGideonquietsthembymeans
ofshrewdflattery.Thissectionisevidentlyafragmentoftheoriginalsource,whichpresumablywentontodetailwhatfurtheractionthe
EphraimitestookduringtheMidianitecampaignforthattheMidianiteoppressionwasbroughttoanendbythisonebattleitisimpossibleto
believe.*
W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
GIDEONI.FatherofAbidan,princeofBenjamin(Nu1:11,2:22,7:60,66,10:24(P)).
GIDOM.ThelimitofthepursuitofBenjaminbytheothertribes(Jg21:15).Possiblythewordisnotapropername,butmaybereadas
aninfinitive,tilltheycutthemoff.NoplaceofthenameofGidomismentionedelsewhere.
GIEREAGLE(gieristhesameastheGermanGeier,vulture,hawk,)istr.inAVofrchminLv11:16andDt14:17,inbothof
whichpassagesRVhasvulture.RVgivesgiereaglealsoastr.ofperesinDt14:12,whereAVhas
ossifrage(lit.bonebreaker).TheperesisthebeardedvultureorLmmergeier,thelargestandmostmagnificentofthevulturetribe.The
adultrchmhasthefrontoftheheadandtheupperpartofthethroatandcerenaked,andofabrightlemonyellow.Theplumageisofadirty
white,exceptthequillfeathers,whichareofagreyishblack.Itsappearancewhensoaringisverystrikingandbeautiful.Itistheuniversal
scavengerofEgyptiancities.ItisfoundingreatabundancealsoinPalestineandSyria.
GIFT,GIVING
I.IntheOT.1.IntheEastwhatisdescribedasagiftisoftenhardlyworthyofthename.Giftmaybeacourtesytitleformuchthatis
ofthenatureofbarterorexchange,tributeorcompulsoryhomage,orevenofbribery.Itiswellunderstoodthatagiftacceptedlaysthe
recipientundertheobligationofreturningaquidproquoinsomeformorother.ThequeenofShebasgiftstoSolomonwereasortofroyal
commerce.ThecharmingpictureofEphronsgenerositytoAbrahamwithregardtothecaveofMachpelah(Gn23)mustbeinterpretedinthe
lightofOrientalcustomitisamerepieceofpoliteness,notintendedtobeaccepted.AnArabwillgiveanythingtoanintendingbuyer,and
appealtowitnessesthathedoesso,butitisunderstoodtobeonlyaform,tohelphimtoraisetheprice(seeDriver,Genesis,ad.loc.).Cf.the
transactionbetweenDavidandAraunah(2S24:22).Inothercasesthereturnisofalessmaterialcharacter,consistingofthegrantingofa
requestortherestoringoffavour.HenceJacobsanxietyastoEsausacceptanceofhisgifts(Gn32:20,33:10)cf.thepresenttoJoseph
(43:11)and1S25:27,30:28.TheprincipleisstatedinPr18:16Amansgiftmakethroomforhim,andbringethhimbeforegreatmen(cf.
19:8).Itisobviousthatagiftinthissenseeasilybecomesabribehencethefrequentcommandstoreceivenogift,foragiftblindeththeeyes
ofthewise(Ex23:8,Dt16:19,27:25,Pr17:8,23,Ps15:5,Is1:23,5:23etc.).ItshouldbenoticedthatinthisconnexionaspecialHeb.word
(shchad)isused,meaningabribeAVandRVoftentr.giftorreward.In1K15:19,2K16:8itisusedofabribefromkingtoking.
EventheRomanFelixexpectsagift(Ac24:26).
2.Inamorelegitimatesensewefindgiftsofferedtokings,etc.,bywayofhomage(1S10:27,Ps45:12),ortribute(Jg3:15,2S8:2,6,1
K4:21,Ps72:10)thepresentstoAssyria,etc.,areclearlynotspontaneous,andthereceivingofsuchhomagefromsubjectkingsisa
favouritesubjectofsculpturesandpaintings.1S25illustratesthegroundonwhichsuchagiftwassometimesclaimeditwasapaymentfor
protection.Giftswereexpectedinconsultingaprophetororacle(Nu22,1S9:7,2K5:5,2K8:9,Dn5:17).Whetherregulatedor
unregulated,theyformedthechiefsupportofpriestsandLevites,andwerethenecessaryaccompanimentofworship.Noneshallappear
beforemeempty(Ex23:15,34:20).OnesideofsacrificeisgivingtoGod.ThespiritualreligionrealizedthatJehovahsfavourdidnot
dependonthesethings(Is1,Ps50),stillmorethatHewasnottobebribed.InDt10:17itissaidthatHeisOnewhotakethnotreward[the
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wordforbribeseeabove].ButtherecanbenodoubtthatinthepopularviewagifttoGodwassupposedtooperateinpreciselythesame
mannerasagifttoajudgeorearthlymonarch(Mal1:8).Itsacceptancewasthesignoffavourandofthegrantingoftherequest(Jg13:23,2
Ch7:1)itsrejection,ofdisfavour(Gn4:4,Mal1:10).1S26:10showsthatagiftwasregardedaspropitiatory,andthemachineryofthevow
takesthesamepointofview.Itshouldbenotedthatthewordminchah,whichiscontinuallyusedofgiftsandhomagetomen,isalsospecially
usedofofferingstoGod,andinPtechnicallyofthemealoffering.ForthemeaningofgiftorCorbaninMk7:11etc.,seeart.SACRIFICE
ANDOFFERING.AlmsgivingbecameoneofthethreethingsbywhichmeritwasearnedbeforeGod,theothertwobeingprayerandfasting
andmagnificentgiftstotheTemplewereameansofpersonaldisplay(Lk21:5,Jos.Ant.XV.xi.3).
3.Passingfromcaseswherethegiftisneitherspontaneousnordisinterested,butisonlyapoliteOrientalperiphrasisforotherthings,we
turntoinstanceswherethewordisusedinatruersense.Ifthekinglookedforgiftsfromhissubjects,hewasalsoexpectedtoreturnthemin
theshapeoflargess,especiallyonfestiveoccasions(Est2:18).Thisoftentooktheformofanallowancefromtheroyaltable(Gn43:34,2S
11:8,Jer40:5).WereadmoregenerallyofgiftstotheneedyinNeh8:10,Est9:22,Ec11:2,Ps112:9(seeALMSGIVING).Thegiftofarohe,
orotherarticlefromtheperson,wasofspecialsignificance(1S18:4).InterchangesofgiftsbetweenequalsarementionedinEst9:19,Rev
11:10.Ontheoccasionofawedding,presentsaresentbyfriendstothebridegroomshouse.Gifts,asdistinctfromthedowry,were
sometimesgivenbythebridegroomtothebride(Gn24:63,34:12)sometimesbythebridesfather(Jg1:14,1K9:18).
II.IntheNT.ItischaracteristicoftheNTthatmanyofitsusagesofthewordgiftareconnectedwithGodsgiftstomenHisSon,
life,theHolySpirit,etc.GraceisthefreegiftofGod.GiftsisspeciallyusedofthemanifestationsoftheSpirit(seeSPIRITUALGIFTS).
Eph4:8illustrateswellthechangeofattitude.St.PaulquotesfromPs68:19,wherethepointisthehomagewhichJehovahreceivesfrom
vanquishedfoes,andappliesthewordstothegiftswhichthevictoriousChristhaswonforHisChurch.ItismoreDivine,morecharacteristic
ofGod,togivethantoreceive.Thisis,infact,theteachingoftheNTonthesubject.AstheFatherandHisSonfreelygiveallthings,somust
theChristian.AlmsgivingisrestoredtoitsproperplacethetruegiftisnotgiventowinmeritfromGod,ortogainthepraiseofmen,but
proceedsfromlove,hopingfornothingagain(Mt6:1,Lk6:32seeALMSGIVING).OurLordHimselfacceptedgifts,andtaughtthatitis
ourhighestprivilegetogivetoHimandHislittleones(Lk5:29,7:37,8:2,Jn12:2).AndgivingremainsanintegralpartofChristian
worship,asawillinghomagetoGod,thewrongideasofcompulsionorpersuasionbeingcastaside(1Ch29:14,Mt2:11,5:25,2Co9:7ff.,
Rev21:24).ThegiftstoSt.Paulfromhisconverts(Ph4:16),andfromtheGentileChurchestoJerusalem(Ac11:29,Ro15:20,1Co16:1,2
Co8,9),playaveryimportantpartinthehistoryoftheearlyChurch.
C.W.EMMET.
GIHON(fromroottoburstforth,1K1:33,35,45,2Ch32:30,33:14).1.AspringnearJerusalem,evidentlysacredandtherefore
selectedasthesceneofSolomonscoronation(1K1:32).Hezekiahmadeanaqueductfromit(2Ch
32:30).UndoubtedlythemodernAinummedderajorVirginsFount.SeeSILOAM.2.OneofthefourriversofParadise.SeeEDEN
[GARDENOF].
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
GILALAI.ALeviticalmusician(Neh12:36).
GILBOA(1S28:4,31:1,8,2S1:6,21,21:12,1Ch10:1,8).Arangeofhills,nowcalledJebelFaka,ontheE.boundaryofthePlain
ofEsdraelon.TheyrunfromZerin(Jezreel)dueS.E.,andfromtheeasternextremityaprolongationrunsS.towardsthehillsofSamaria.
TheyaremostimposingfromtheValeofJezreelandJordanValley,butnowherereachaheightofmorethan1700feetabovesealevel.The
littlevillageofJelbunontheslopesofJebelFakaisthoughttoretainanechoofthenameGilboa.Theslopesofthesehillsaresteep,
rugged,andbare.AttheN.footliesAinJalud,almostcertainlythespringofHarod(wh.see).
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
GILEAD.1.Aperson(orpersonifiedsept),sonoftheManassiteMachir(Nu
26:29,1Ch2:21),andgrandfatherofZelophehad(Nu27:1).SeeNo.4below.2.AGadite,sonofMichael(1Ch5:14).3.Amountain
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26:29,1Ch2:21),andgrandfatherofZelophehad(Nu27:1).SeeNo.4below.2.AGadite,sonofMichael(1Ch5:14).3.Amountain
mentionedinJg7:3inanorderofGideonstohisfollowers,Whosoeverisfearfullethimreturnanddepartfrom[mg.goroundabout]
MountGilead.Thepassageisverydifficult,andprobablycorrupt.ThetransJordanicGileadwillnotsuitthecontext,andnootherisknown.
Variousattemptshavebeenmadeatemendation,noneofwhichhascommandedacceptance.
4.ThenameoftheterritoryboundedonthenorthbyBashan,onthewestbytheJordanbetweentheSeaofGalileeandtheDeadSea,on
theeastbythedesert,andonthesouthbytheterritoryofMoab.Itisaloftyfertileplateau,about2000feetabovethesealevelitswestern
edgeistheprecipitouseasternwalloftheJordanValley.Itisanuplandcountry,woodedinplaces,withproductivefieldsintersectedby
valleysandstreams.ItismentionedfirstinconnexionwithJacobsflightfromLabanitwasthegoalatwhichheaimed,theplacewherethe
pursuerovertookhim,andwheretheheapofwitnesswasraised(Gn31).Eveninthepatriarchalperioditwasfamousforitsspices,myrrh,
andmedicinalbalm,whateverthatmayhavebeen(cf.Jer8:22,46:11).TheIshmaelitetradingcaravanwhichboughtJosephwascarrying
thesesubstancesfromGileadtoEgypt(Gn37:25).TheAmoriteswereinpossessionofGileadundertheirkingSihonwhentheIsraeliteswere
ledtotheLandofPromise.Whenthatkingwasdefeated,histerritoryarousedthedesiresofthepastoraltribesofReubenandGad.Itsfitness
forpastureiscelebratedintheSongofSongs:theShulammiteshairistwicecomparedtogoatsthatliealongthesideofMountGilead(Ca
4:6,6:5).Onthepartitionoftheland,Gileadwasdividedintotwo,thesouthernhalfbeinggiventoReubenandGad,thenorthernhalftothe
transJordanichalfofManasseh.The
ManassitepartisdistinguishedbythenameHavvothjair,apparentlymeaningtheSettlementsofJair.JairwasasonofManasseh,according
toNu32:41,butheseemsinJg10:5tobeconfusedwithoneoftheminorJudgesofthesamename.AnotherJudge,Jephthah(Jg11),wasa
Gileadite,whoseprowessdeliveredIsraelfromAmmon.Hissubsequentsacrificeofhisdaughterisindicatedastheoriginofafestivalof
Israelitewomen(Jg11:40).InapreviousstressoftheIsraelites,Gileaddidnothearitspart,andisupbraidedforitsremissnessbyDeborah(
Jg5:17).InJg20:1GileadisusedasageneraltermfortransJordanicIsrael.HeresomeoftheHebrewstookrefugefromthePhilistines(1S
13:7)andoverGileadandotherpartsofthecountryIshboshethwasmadeking(2S2:9).HitherDavidfledfrombeforeAbsalom,andwas
succoured,amongothers,byBarzillai(2S17:27,19:31,1K2:7),whosedescendantsarereferredtoinpostexilicrecords(Ezr2:61,Neh
7:63).ToGileadDavidscensusagentscame(2S24:6).ItwasadministeredbyBengeberforSolomon(1K4:13).ItwasthelandofElijahs
origin(1K17:1).ForcrueltiestoGileadites,DamascusandAmmonaredenouncedbyAmos(1:3,13),whileontheotherhandHosea(6:8,
12:11)speaksbitterlyofthesinsofGilead.PekahhadafollowingoffiftyGileaditeswhenheslewPekahiah(2K15:25).Thecountrywas
smittenbyHazael(10:33),anditsinhabitantscarriedawaycaptivebyTiglathpileser(15:29).
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
GILGAL.AnamemeaningstonecircleappliedtoseveralplacesmentionedintheOT.1.AplaceontheeastborderofJericho(Jos
4:19),wheretheIsraelitesfirstencampedaftercrossingJordan,andwhichremainedtheheadquartersofthecongregationtillaftertheroutof
thenorthernkingsatMerom(14:6).Thestonecirclefromwhichitcertainlytookitsname(inspiteoftheimpossibleetymologygiveninJos
5:9),wasnodoubtthattowhichthetraditionembodiedinJos4:20refers,andthesameastheimagesbyGilgalinthestoryofEhud(Jg3:19
RVm).ThenameisstillpreservedinthemodernJiljlieh.ThisisprobablythesameGilgalasthatincludedintheannualcircuitofSamuel(1
S7:16).ThisshrineismentionedbyHosea(4:16,9:16,12:11)andbyAmos(4:4,5:6).2.AplaceofthesamenamenearDormentionedina
listofconqueredkings(Jos12:23).ItmaybeJiljlieh,about4milesN.ofAntipatris(RaselAin).3.AplaceintheSamaritanmountains(2
K4:38),somewherenearBethel(2:1).ItmaypossiblybeJiljlia,8milesN.W.ofBethel.4.TheGilgalofDt11:30isunknown.Itmaybe
identicalwithNo.1butitseemscloselyconnectedwithEbalandGerizim.ThereisaJuleijil21/2milesS.E.ofNhlusthatmayrepresent
thisplace.5.Aplaceofuncertainlocality,alsopossiblythesameasNo.1,intheborderofthetribeofJudah(Jos15:7).
Atnoneoftheseplaceshaveanyremainsofearlyantiquitybeenasyetobserved.TherewasinA.D.700alargechurchthatcoveredwhat
weresaidtobethetwelvecommemorationstonesofJoshua:thisisreportedbyArculf.Thechurchandstoneshavebothdisappeared.The

onlyrelicofantiquitynowtobeseenisalargepool,probablyofmedivalworkmanship,100ft.by84ft.Atraditionevidentlysuggestedby 37/82
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onlyrelicofantiquitynowtobeseenisalargepool,probablyofmedivalworkmanship,100ft.by84ft.Atraditionevidentlysuggestedby
theBiblicalstoryofthefallofJerichoisrecordedbyConderashavingbeenrelatedtohimhere.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
GILOH.AcityinthesouthernhillsofJudah(Jos15:61),thebirthplaceofAhithopheltheGilonite,thefamouscounsellorofDavid(2S
15:12,23:34).Itssiteisuncertain.
GIMEL.ThethirdletteroftheHeb.alphabet,andassuchusedinthe119thPsalmtodesignatethe3rdpart,eachverseofwhichbegins
withthisletter.
GIMZO.AtownontheborderofPhilistia(2Ch28:18).ItisthemodernJimznearAijalon.
GIN.SeeSNARES.
GINATH.FatherofTibni,whounsuccessfullylaidclaimagainstOmritothethroneofIsrael(1K16:21,22).
GINNETHOI.Apriestamongthereturnedexiles(Neh12:4)calledinNeh12:16,10:6Ginnethon.
GIRDINGTHELOINS,GIRDLE.SeeDRESS,2,3.
GIRGASHITES(inHeb.alwayssing.theGirgashite,andrightlysorenderedinRV).Verylittleisknownofthispeople,whosename,
thoughoccurringseveraltimesinOTinthelistofCan.tribes(Gn10:16,15:21,Dt7:1[and20:17inSam.andLXX],Jos3:10,24:11,1Ch
1:14,Neh9:8),affordsnoindicationoftheirposition,ortowhatbranchoftheCanaanitestheybelonged,exceptintwoinstances,namely,Gn
10:16,wheretheGirgashiteisgivenasthenameofthefifthsonofCanaanandJos24:11,wheretheGirgashiteswouldseemtohave
inhabitedthetractonthewestofJordan,theIsraeliteshavingbeenobligedtocrossoverthatriverinordertofightthemenofJericho,among
whomwerethe
Girgashites.
GIRZITES.Acc.to1S27:8,DavidandhismenwhilelivingatthecourtofAchishkingofGath,madearaidupontheGeshuritesand
theGirzites(RVm
Gizrites)andtheAmalekites:forthosenationsweretheinhabitantsoftheland,whichwereofold,asthougoesttoShur,evenuntotheland
ofEgypt.TheLXX(B)isprobablycorrectinreadingonlyonenameGizritesforGeshuritesandGirzites,viz.theCanaaniteinhabitantsof
Gezer(wh.see),atownontheS.W.borderofEphraim(Jos10:33,16:3,10,Jg1:29).
GISHPA.AnoverseeroftheNethinim(Neh11:21),buttextisprobablycorrupt.
GITTAIM.AtownofBenjamin(?),2S4:3,noticedwithHazorandRamah(Neh11:33).Thesiteisunknown.
GITTITES.SeeGATH.
GITTITH.SeePSALMS(titles).
GIZONITE.Agentilicnamewhichoccursin1Ch11:34inthecolloc.HashemtheGizonite.Inallprobabilitythisshouldbecorrected
toJashen(cf.theparallelpassage2S23:32)theGunite.SeeJASHEN.
GIZRITES.SeeGIRZITES.

GLASS,LOOKINGGLASS,MIRROR.ThisindispensablearticleofaladystoiletisfirstmetwithinEx38:8,wherethelaverof
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GLASS,LOOKINGGLASS,MIRROR.ThisindispensablearticleofaladystoiletisfirstmetwithinEx38:8,wherethelaverof
brassanditsbasearesaidtohavebeenmadeofthemirrors(AVlookingglasses)oftheservingwomenwhichservedatthedoorofthetent
ofmeeting(RV).ThispassageshowsthatthemirrorsoftheHebrews,likethoseoftheotherpeoplesofantiquity,weremadeofpolished
bronze,asisimpliedinthecomparison,Job37:18,oftheskytoamoltenmirror(RVandAVlookingglass).AdifferentHebrewwordis
renderedhandmirrorbyRVinthelistoftoiletarticles,Is3:23.Thefactthatthisworddenotesawritingtabletin8:1(RV)perhaps
indicatesthatintheformerpassagewehaveanoblongmirrorinawoodenframe.Theusualshape,however,oftheEgyptian(seeWilkinson,
Anc.Egyp.ii.350f.withillust.),asoftheGreek,handmirrorswasroundorslightlyoval.Asaruletheywerefurnishedwithatang,which
fittedintoahandleofwoodormetal,oftendelicatelycarved.Twospecimensofcircularmirrorsofbronze,one5inches,theother41/2,in
diameter,haverecentlybeendiscoveredinPhilistine(?)gravesatGezer(PEFSt,1905,3211907,199withillusts.).
IntheApocryphathereisareference,Sir12:11,totherustthatgatheredonthesemetalmirrors,andinWis7:26theDivinewisdomis
describedastheunspottedmirrorofthepowerofGod,theonlyoccurrenceinAVofmirror,whichRVsubstitutesforglassthroughout.
TheNTreferences,finally,arethosebyPaul(1Co13:12,2Co3:18)andbyJames(1:23).Fortheseaofglass(RVglassysea)ofRev4:6,
15:2seeart.SEAOFGLASS.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
GLEANING.ForthehumanitarianprovisionsofthePentateuchalcodes,bywhichthegleaningsofthecornfield,vineyard,and
oliveyardweretheperquisitesofthepoor,thefatherless,thewidow,andthegroutlander,seeLv19:9f.,23:22(bothH),Dt24:1921cf.
AGRICULTURE,3POVERTY.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
GLEDE.SeeKITE.
GLORY(inOT).Thefirstuseofthiswordistoexpresstheexaltedhonourorpraisepaideithertothings,ortoman,ortoGod.From
thatitpassestodenotethedignityorwealth,whethermaterialorspiritual,thatcallsforthsuchhonour.Thenceithascometomean,intheOT
especially,themajestyandsplendourthatattendtherevelationofthepowerorcharacterofGod.TheprincipalHeb.word(kbd)forglory
isderivedfromarootdenotingheaviness.TherootmaybeseeninIs1:4,apeopleheavywiththeburdenofiniquity.Foritsderiveduse,cf.
loadedwithhonours,weightofglory.Afewillustrationsofeachoftheseusesmaybegiven.
1.ItisonlynecessarytomentiontheconstantlyrecurringphraseglorytoGod(Jos7:16,Ps29:1etc.).Asapplyingtomanmaybe
quoted,thewiseshallinheritglory(Pr3:35).
2.PhrasessuchasthegloryofLebanon(Is35:2),i.e.thecedarsofhishouse(Ps49:16),i.e.hismaterialpossessionsthegloryand
honourofthenations(Rev21:26),parallelwiththewealthofthenationsinIs60:11,maybequotedhere.Myglory(Gn49:6,Ps16:9,
30:12,57:8etc.)isusedassynonymouswithsoul,anddenotesthenoblestpartofmancf.alsoPs8:5.JehovahiscalledthegloryofIsrael
astheproudestpossessionofHispeople(Jer2:11cf.1S4:21,22,Lk2:32).WithreferencetoGodmaybenamedPs19:1,Hiswisdomand
strengthandPs63:2,theworthinessofHismoralgovernment.
3.TwousesoftheexpressionthegloryofJehovaharetobenoted.(a)ThemanifestationofHisgloryintheselfrevelationofHis
characterandbeing,e.g.Is6:3.HeregloryistheshowingforthofGodsholiness.ForGodsglorymanifestedinhistoryandinthecontrol
ofthenations,seeNu14:22,Ezk39:21innature,Ps29:3,6,104:31.(b)AphysicalmanifestationoftheDivinePresence.Thisisespecially
notableinEzekiel,e.g.1:28,wherethegloryisbrightliketherainbow.InthePsectionsofthePentateuchsuchrepresentationsarefrequent(
seeEx24:1618,Lv9:8etc.).ApassagecombiningthesetwoconceptionsisthestoryofthetheophanytoMoses(Ex33:1723,34:6,7).
Herethevisibleglory,thebrightnessofJehovahsface,maynotbeseen.Thespiritualgloryisrevealedintheproclamationofthenameof
Jehovah,fullofcompassionandgracious.
WILFRIDJ.MOULTON.
GLORY(inApocr.andNT).Exceptin1P2:20(whereitmeansrenown),glory,asanoun,isalwaysthetranslationofGr.doxa.This 39/82
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GLORY(inApocr.andNT).Exceptin1P2:20(whereitmeansrenown),glory,asanoun,isalwaysthetranslationofGr.doxa.This
word,comingfromarootmeaningtoseem,mightsignifyoutwardappearanceonly,or,inasecondarysense,opinion.Thisuseisnotfound
intheBiblicalwritings,butthederivedclassicalusefavourableopinionorreputation,andhenceexaltedhonouror,asappliedtothings,
splendour,isverycommon(Wis8:10,Ro2:710,Bar2:17,Jn9:24,Sir43:1,50:7).ThespecialLXXuseofgloryforthephysicalorethical
manifestationofthegreatnessofGodisalsofrequent.InAVofNTdoxaisoccasionallytranslatedhonour(e.g.Jn5:41,2Co6:8etc.)in
Apocryphasometimeshonour1Es8:4etc.),andafewtimespomp(1Mac10:86,11:6etc.),ormajesty(Ad.Est15:7)otherwiseitis
uniformlyrenderedglory.Asaverb,gloryinthesenseofboast(Gr.kauchaomai)isfrequentlyfound(Sir11:4,1Co1:29).
Afewexamplesoftheuseofglorytodenotethebrightnessofgoodnessmaybegiven.InBar5:4isthestrikingphrasethegloryof
godliness,whilstwisdomiscalledacleareffluenceofthegloryoftheAlmighty(Wis7:26).InJn1:14thegloryoftheOnlybegotten
consistsingraceandtruth(cf.Jn2:11,17:5,22).InRo3:23thegloryofGod,ofwhichmenhavefallenshort,isHismanifestedexcellence,
revealedatfirstinmanmadeinGodsimage(cf.1Co11:7a),lostthroughsin,butmeanttoberecoveredasheistransfiguredfromgloryto
glory(2Co3:18).Forgloryasusedtoexpressthevisiblebrightness,cf.To12:15,where
RaphaelgoesinbeforethegloryoftheHolyOne(cf.2Mac3:26,ofangels).InNT,cf.Lk2:9ThegloryoftheLordshoneroundabout
them.In2Co3:711thedoubleuseofgloryisclearlyseenthefadingbrightnessonthefaceofMosesiscontrastedwiththeabiding
spiritualgloryofthenewcovenant.Passageswhichcombineboththeethicalandthephysicalmeaningsarethosewhichspeakofthegloryof
theSonofMan(Mt16:27etc.),andtheglory,bothofbrightnessandofpurity,whichgiveslighttotheheavenlycity(Rev21:23).Glory,as
appliedtothesaints,culminatesinastatewherebothbodyandspiritarefullychangedintothelikenessoftheglorifiedLord(Ph3:21,Col
3:4).
InWis18:24aspecialuseappears,wherethegloriesofthefathersisaphraseforthenamesofthetwelvetribes,writtenontheprecious
stonesofthehighpriestlybreastplate.Doubtlessthisissuggestedbytheflashinggems.AninterestingparallelisgiveninMurray,Eng.Dict.
s.v.:Theypresentedtohis
ElectoralHighnesstheTwoStarsorGlories,andTwoPiecesofRibbonoftheOrder[oftheGarter]cf.KalischonEx28Thejewelsare
theemblemsofthestars,whichtheyrivalinsplendour.
WILFRIDJ.MOULTON.
GNAT(Mt23:24).VariousmembersoftheCulicid,mosquitoesandtruegnats,arefoundinPalestineoftheformer,fourspeciesare
knownwhicharefeverbearing.Theseandsuchsmallinsectsareveryapttofallintofoodorliquid,andrequiretobestrainedout(RV),
especiallyinconnexionwithLv11:22,24.AnArabproverbwellillustratestheideasofMt23:24:Heeatsanelephantandissuffocatedbya
gnat.IntheRVmofIs51:6likegnatsissuggestedforinlikemanner.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
GNOSTICISM
1.Gnosticismproper.Theterm,whichcomesfromtheGr.gnsis,knowledge,isnowtechnicallyusedtodescribeaneclectic
philosophyofthe2ndcent.A.D.whichwasrepresentedbyanumberofsectsordivisionsofpeople.Thephilosophywasconstructedoutof
Jewish,Pagan,andChristianelements,andwasduemainlytotheinevitablecontactandconflictbetweenthesevariousmodesofthought.It
wasanattempttoIncorporateChristianwithJewishandPaganideasinsolvingtheproblemsoflife.Themoreimportantoftheseproblems
were(1)HowtoreconcilethecreationoftheworldbyaperfectlygoodGodwiththepresenceofevil(2)howthehumanspiritcametobe
imprisonedinmatter,andhowitwastobeemancipated.Thefirstproblemwassolvedbypredicatingaseriesofemanationsstartingfroma
perfectlygoodandsupremeGod,andcomingdownstepbysteptoanimperfectbeingwhocreatedtheworldwithitsevils.Thustherewasan
essentialdualismofgoodandevil.Thesecondproblemwassolvedbyadvocatingeitheranasceticlife,whereineverythingmaterialwasasfar
aspossibleavoided,orelsealicentiouslife,inwhicheverythingthatwasmaterialwasusedwithoutdiscrimination.Associatedwiththese
speculationswasaviewofChristwhichresolvedHimintoaphantom,deniedtherealityofHisearthlymanifestation,andmadeHimonlya
temporarynonmaterialemanationofDeity.Gnosticismculminated,asthenamesuggests,intheglorificationofknowledgeandinatendency40/82
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temporarynonmaterialemanationofDeity.Gnosticismculminated,asthenamesuggests,intheglorificationofknowledgeandinatendency
tosetknowledgeagainstfaith,regardingtheformerassuperiorandasthespecialpossessionofaselectspiritualfew,andassociatingthelatter
withthegreatmassofaveragepeoplewhocouldnotrisetothehigherlevel.Salvationwasthereforebyknowledge,notbyfaith.Thewillwas
subordinatedtotheintellect,andeverythingwasmadetoconsistofanesotericknowledgewhichwastheprivilegeofanintellectual
aristocracy.
2.GnosticisminrelationtotheNT.ItisobviousthatitisonlyintheslightestandmostpartialwaythatwecanassociateGnosticism
ofafullydevelopedkindwiththeNT.
Thereisaconstantdanger,whichhasnotalwaysbeenavoided,ofreadingbackintoisolatedNTexpressionstheGnosticideasofthe2nd
century.WhilewemayseeintheNTcertaingermswhichafterwardscametomaturityinGnosticism,wemustbeonourguardlestweread
toomuchintoNTphraseology,andtherebydrawwrongconclusions.Oneexampleofthisdangermaybegiven.SimonMagusoccupiesa
prominentplaceinthethoughtsofmany2ndand3rdcent.writers,andbysomeheisregardedasoneofthefoundersofGnosticism.Thismay
ormaynothavebeentrue,butatanyratethereisabsolutelynothinginAc8tosuggesteventhegermoftheidea.
Itisnecessarytoconsidercarefullythemainideaofgnosis,knowledge,intheNT.(a)ItisanessentialelementoftrueChristianity,andis
associatedwiththeknowledgeofGodinChrist(2Co2:14,4:6),withtheknowledgeofChristHimself(Ph3:8,2P3:18),andwiththe
personalexperienceofwhatisinvolvedintheChristianlife(Ro2:20,15:14,1Co1:5,3:19,Col2:3).Inthetermepignosiswehavethe
furtherideaoffullknowledgewhichmarkstheripe,matureChristian.ThiswordisparticularlycharacteristicofthePaulineEpistlesofthe
FirstCaptivity(Phil.,Col.,Eph.),andindicatestheApostlesviewofthespirituallyadvancedbeliever.Butgnosisandepignosisalwaysimply
somethingmoreanddeeperthanintellectualunderstanding.Theyrefertoapersonalexperienceatonceintellectualandspiritual,andinclude
intellectualapprehensionandmoralperception.Asdistinctfromwisdom,knowledgeisspiritualexperienceconsideredinitself,whilewisdom
isknowledgeinitspracticalapplicationanduse.InColossiansitisgenerallythoughtthattheerrorscombatedwereassociatedwithcertain
formsofGnosticism.Lightfoot,ontheonehand,seesinthereferencesinch.2Jewishelementsofscrupulousnessintheobservanceofdays,
andofasceticisminthedistinctionofmeats,togetherwithGreekorotherpurelyGnosticelementsintheosophicspeculation,shadowy
mysticism,andtheinterpositionofangelsbetweenGodandman.Hethinksthereferencesaretooneheresyinwhichthesetwoseparate
elementsareused,andthatSt.Pauldealswithbothaspectsatoncein2:823.WithGnosticintellectualexclusivenesshedealsin1:18and
2:11,withspeculativetendenciesin1:1520,2:915,withpracticaltendenciestoasceticismorlicencein2:1623.Hort(Judaistic
Christianity),ontheotherhand,seesnothingbutJudaisticelementsintheEpistle,andwillnotallowthattherearetwoindependentsetsof
ideasblended.Heconsidersthat,apartfromthephrasephilosophyandvaindeceit(2:8),thereisnothingofspeculativedoctrineinthe
Epistle.Hesaysthatangelworshipwasalreadyprevalentquiteapartfromphilosophy,andthatthereisnoneedtolookbeyondJudaismfor
whatisfoundhere.Thisdifferencebetweenthesetwogreatscholarsshowstheextremedifficultyofattemptingtofindanythingtechnically
calledGnosticisminColossians.(b)ThePastoralEpistlesareusuallynextputunderreview.In1Ti1:4,4:8,wearehiddenbyLightfootto
seefurtherdevelopmentsofwhathadbeenrifeinColoss.Hortagaindiffersfromthisview,andconcludesthatthereisnoclearevidenceof
speculativeorGnosticizingtendencies,butonlyofadangerousfondnessforJewishtrifling,bothofthelegendaryandcasuisticalkind.(c)In
theFirstEpistleof
John(4:1,3)weareremindedoflaterGnostictendenciesasrepresentedbyCerinthusandothers,whoregardedourLordasnotreallyman,
butonlyaphantomandatemporaryemanationfromtheGodhead.Theprominencegivento
knowledgeasanessentialelementoftrueChristianlifeisverystrikinginthis
Epistle,partofwhosepurposeisthatthosewhopossesseternallifeinChristmayknowit(5:13).TheverbtoknowoccursintheEpistleno
lessthanthirtyfivetimes.(d)InRevelation(2:6,15,20,24and3:14,21)itisthoughtthatfurthertendenciesofaGnostickindareobservable,
andLightfootseesinthelatterpassageproofthattheheresyofColosswascontinuinginthatdistrictofAsiaMinor.Theprecariousnessof
thispositionis,however,evident,whenitisrealizedthattheerrorsreferredtoareclearlyantinomian,andmaywellhavearisenapartfromany
Gnosticspeculations.
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Fromtheabovereview,togetherwiththedifferencesbetweengreatscholars,itisevidentthattheattempttoconnecttheNTwiththelater
Gnosticismofthe2ndcent.mustremainatbestbutpartiallysuccessful.AllthatwecanproperlysayisthatintheNTtherearesignsof
certaintendencieswhichwereafterwardsseeninthe2ndcent.Gnosticism,butwhethertherewasanyrealconnexionbetweenthe1stcent.
germsandthe2ndcent.developmentsisanotherquestion.IntheclashofJudaistic,Hellenic,andChristianthought,itwouldnotbesurprising
ifalreadytherewereattemptsateclecticism,butthepreciselinksofconnexionbetweenthegermsoftheNTandthedevelopmentsofthe2nd
cent.areyettoseek.
Onethingwemustkeepclearlybeforeus:gnosisintheNTisatrulyhonourableandimportantterm,andstandsforanessentialpartofthe
Christianlife.Ofcoursethereisalwaystheliabilitytothedangerofmerespeculation,andtheconsequentneedofemphasizingloveas
contrastedwithmereknowledge(1Co8:1,13:2),butwhengnosisisregardedasbothintellectualandmoral,weseeatoncehownecessaryit
istoatrue,growingChristianlife.ThestresslaiduponepignosisinlaterbooksoftheNT,PaulineandPetrine,andthemarkedprominence
giventothecognatetermsin1John,clearlyindicatetheimportanceplacedontheideabyApostolicwritersasasafeguardoftheChristian
life.WhileitistheessentialfeatureoftheyoungChristiantohave(forgiveness)andofthegrowingChristiantobe(strong)itisthatofthe
ripeChristiantoknow(1Jn2:1214).KnowledgeandfaitharenevercontrastedintheNT.Itisafalseandimpossibleantithesis.Through
faithweunderstand(He11:3).Faithandsight,notfaithandreason,areantithetical.Weknowinordertobelieve,credenceleadingto
confidenceandthenwebelieveinordertoknowmore.Knowledgeandtrustactandreactoneachother.Truthandtrustarecorrelatives,not
contradictories.Itisonlymerespeculativeknowledgethatisfalselysocalled(1Ti6:20),becauseitdoesnottakeitsriseandfinditslifeand
sustenanceinGodsrevelationinChristbutChristiangnosisreceivedintotheheart,mind,conscienceandwill,isthatbywhichweare
enabledtoseethetrueasopposedtothefalsetodistinguishthingsthatdiffer(Ph1:10),andtoadherecloselytothewayoftruthandlife.
TheApostledescribesthenaturalearthboundmanaslackingthisspiritualdiscernmenthehasnosuchfaculty(1Co2:14,15).Thespiritual
man(2:15,3:1),ortheperfectorripeman(2:8),isthemanwhoknowsandthisknowledgewhichisatonceintellectual,moralandspiritual,
isoneofthegreatestsafeguardsagainsteveryformoferror,andoneofthechoicestsecretsoftheenjoymentoftherevelationofGodin
Christ.
W.H.GRIFFITHTHOMAS.
GOAD.SeeAGRICULTURE,1.
GOAH.AnunknownlocalitynearJerusalem(Jer31:39).
GOAT.(1)z,usedgenerically,bothsexes,Gn30:35,Ex12:5,Ezr6:17etc.(2)tsphr(roottoleap),hegoat,2Ch29:21,Ezr8:35,
Dn8:5,8.(3)sr(roothairy),usuallyahegoat,e.g.Dn8:21roughgoatserah,Lv5:6shegoatserm,tr.devils2Ch11:15,
satyrsIs13:21,34:14.SeeSATYR.(4)attd,onlyinpl.attdm,hegoatsGn31:10,12,AVmandRVchiefonesIs14:8,butRVmhe
goats.(5)taysh,hegoat,Pr30:31etc.InNTeriphos,eriphion,Mt25:32,33tragos,He9:12,13,19,10:4.Goatsareamongthemost
valuedpossessionsofthepeopleofPalestine.Nabalhadathousandgoats(1S25:2seealsoGn30:33,35,32:14etc.).Theyareledtopasture
withthesheep,butarefromtimetotimeseparatedfromthemformilking,herding,andevenfeeding
(Mt25:32).Goatsthriveonextraordinarilybarepasturage,buttheydoimmeasurabledestructiontoyoungtreesandshrubs,andare
responsibleformuchofthebarrennessofthehills.GoatssupplymostofthemilkusedinPalestine(Pr27:27)theyarealsokilledforfood,
especiallytheyoungkids(Gn27:9,Jg6:19,13:15etc.).TheSyriangoat(Capramambrica)isblackorgrey,exceptionallywhite,andhas
shaggyhairandremarkablylongears.Goatshairisextensivelywovenintocloaksandmaterialfortents(Ex26:7,36:14),andtheirskinsare
tannedentiretomakewaterbottles.SeeBOTTLE.
Wildgoat.(1)yl(cf.propernameJael),usedinpl.yelm,1S24:2,Ps104:18,andJob39:1.(2)akk,Dt14:5.Probablyboththese
termsrefertothewildgoatoribex,Caprabeden,thebedenorgoatsofMosesoftheArabs.Itiscommonontheinaccessiblecliffsroundthe

DeadSea,someofwhichareknownasjebelelbeden,themountainsofthewildgoats(cf.1S24:2).Theibexisveryshy,anddifficultto
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DeadSea,someofwhichareknownasjebelelbeden,themountainsofthewildgoats(cf.1S24:2).Theibexisveryshy,anddifficultto
shoot.Thoughaboutthesizeofanordinarygoat,itsgreatcurvedhorns,often3feetlong,giveitamuchmoreimposingappearance.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
GOB.Aplacementionedonlyin2S21:18asthesceneofanexploitofoneofDavidswarriors.Intheparallelpassage1Ch20:4Gob
appearsasGezermanytextsreaditasNob.TheGr.andSyr.versionshaveGath.Nothingisknownof
Gobasaseparateplace.Thewordmeanscistern.
W.F.COBB.
GOD.TheobjectofthisarticleistogiveabriefsketchofthehistoryofbeliefinGodasgatheredfromtheBible.TheexistenceofGodis
everywhereassumedinthesacredvolumeitwillnotthereforebenecessaryheretoconsidertheargumentsadducedtoshowthatthebeliefin
Godsexistenceisreasonable.ItistruethatinPs14:1,53:1thefool(i.e.theungodlyman)saysthatthereisnoGodbutthemeaning
doubtlessis,notthattheexistenceofGodisdenied,butthatthefoolallegesthatGoddoesnotconcernHimselfwithman(seePs10:4).
1.Divinerevelationgradual.Godspake,i.e.revealedHimself,bydiversportionsandindiversmanners(He1:1).Theworldonly
graduallyacquiredtheknowledgeofGodwhichwenowpossessanditisthereforeagrossmistaketolookforourideasandstandardsof
responsibilityintheearlyagesofmankind.Theworldwaseducatedpreceptuponprecept,lineuponline(Is28:10)anditisnoteworthythat
evenwhenthegospelagearrived,ourLorddidnotinamomentrevealalltruth,butaccommodatedHisteachingtothecapacityofthepeople
(Mk4:33)thechosendisciplesthemselvesdidnotgraspthefulnessofthatteachinguntilPentecost(Jn16:12f.).Thefactoftheveryslow
growthofconceptionsofGodismademuchclearerbyourincreasedknowledgewithrespecttothecompositionoftheOTnowthatwehave
learnt,forexample,thattheMosaiccodeistobedated,asawhole,centurieslaterthanMoses,andthatthepatriarchalnarrativeswerewritten
down,aswehavethem,inthetimeoftheKings,andarecolouredbytheideasofthattime,weseethattheideathatIsraelhadmuchthesame
conceptionofGodintheageofthePatriarchsasinthatoftheProphetsisquiteuntenable,andthatthefullerconceptionwasamatterofslow
growth.ThefactofthecompositecharacterofthePentateuch,however,makesitverydifficultforustofindoutexactlywhatwerethe
conceptionsaboutGodinpatriarchalandinMosaictimesanditisimpossibletobedogmaticinspeakingofthem.Wecandealonlywith
probabilitiesgatheredfromvariousindicationsintheliterature,especiallyfromthesurvivalofoldcustoms.
2.NamesofGodinOT.ItwillbeconvenienttogathertogethertheprincipalOTnamesofGodbeforeconsideringtheconceptionsof
successiveages.Thenameswilltosomeextentbeaguidetous.
(a)ElohimtheordinaryHebrewnameforGod,apluralwordofdoubtfuloriginandmeaning.Itisused,asanordinaryplural,ofheathen
gods,orofsupernaturalbeings(1S28:13),orevenofearthlyjudges(Ps82:1,5,cf.Jn10:34)butwhenusedoftheOneGod,ittakesa
singularverb.Assoused,ithasbeenthoughttobearelicofprehistoricpolytheism,butmoreprobablyitisapluralofmajesty,suchasis
commoninHebrew,orelseitdenotesthefulnessofGod.ThesingularEloahisrareexceptinJobitisfoundinpoetryandinlateprose.
(b)El,commontoSemitictribes,anameofdoubtfulmeaning,butusuallyinterpretedastheStrongOneorastheRuler.Itisprobably
notconnectedphilologicallywithElohim(Driver,Genesis,p.404).Itisusedofteninpoetryandinpropernamesinproserarely,exceptas
partofacompoundtitlelikeElShaddai,orwithanepithetordescriptivewordattachedasGodofBethel,ElBethel(Gn31:13)ajealous
God,Elqann(Ex20:5).
(c)ElShaddai.ThemeaningofShaddaiisuncertainthenamehasbeenderivedfromarootmeaningtooverthrow,andwouldthen
meantheDestroyerorfromarootmeaningtopour,andwouldthenmeantheRaingiverorithasbeeninterpretedasmyMountainor
myLord.TraditionallyitisrenderedGodAlmighty,andthereisperhapsareferencetothissenseofthenameinthewordsHethatis
mightyofLk1:49.AccordingtothePriestlywriter(P),thenamewascharacteristicofthepatriarchalage(Ex6:3,cf.Gn17:1,28:3).
ShaddaialoneisusedofteninOTasapoeticalnameofGod(Nu24:4etc.),andisrenderedtheAlmighty.
(d)ElElyon,GodMostHigh,foundinGn14:18ff.(apassagederivedfroma

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specialsourceofthePentateuch,i.e.notfromJ,E,orP),andthoughtbyDriver(Genesis,p.165)perhapstohavebeenoriginallythename
ofaCanaanitedeity,butappliedtothetrueGod.Elyonisalsofoundalone,asinPs82:5(sotr.intoGreek,Lk1:32,35,76,6:35),andwith
ElohiminPs57:2,incloseconnexionwithElandwithShaddaiinNu24:15,andwithJahwehinPs7:17,18:13etc.ThatElElyon
wasacommonlyusednameismadeprobablebythefactthatitisfoundinanAramaictranslationinDn3:26,4:2,5:1821andinaGreek
translationin1Es6:31etc.,Mk5:7,Ac16:17,andsoinHe7:1,whereitistakendirectfromGn14:18LXX.
(e)Adonai(=Lord),atitle,commonintheprophets,expressingdependence,asofaservantonhismaster,orofawifeonherhusband
(Ottley,BL2p.192f.).
(f)Jehovah,properlyYahweh(usuallywrittenJahweh),perhapsaprehistoricname.Prof.H.Guthe(EBiii.art.Israel,4)thinksthat
itisofprimitiveantiquityandcannotbeexplainedthatittellsusnothingaboutthenatureoftheGodhead.Thisisprobablytrueofthename
inpreMosaictimesthatitwastheninexistencewascertainlytheopinionoftheJahwistwriter(Gn4:25,J),andisprovedbyitsoccurrence
inpropernames,e.g.inJochebed,thenameofMosesmother(Ex6:20,P).Whatitoriginallysignifiedisuncertaintherootfromwhichitis
derivedmightmeantoblowortobreathe,ortofall,ortobe.Further,thenamemighthavebeenderivedfromthecausativetomaketo
be,andinthatcasemightsignifyCreator.But,asDriverremarks(Genesis,p.409),theimportantthingforustoknowisnotwhatthename
meantoriginally,butwhatitcameactuallytodenotetotheIsraelites.AndtherecanbenodoubtthatfromMosestimeonwardsitwasderived
fromtheimperfecttenseoftheverbtobe,andwasunderstoodtomeanHewhoiswonttobe,orelseHewhowillbe.Thisisthe
explanationgiveninEx3:10ff.whenGodHimselfspeaks,Heusesthefirstperson,andthenamebecomesIamorIwillbe.Itdenotes,
then,ExistenceyetitisunderstoodasexpressingactiveandselfmanifestingExistence(Driver,p.408).ItisalmostequivalenttoHewho
haslifeinHimself(cf.Jn5:26).ItbecamethecommonnameofGodinpostMosaictimes,andwasthespeciallypersonaldesignation.
Wehavetoconsiderwhetherthenamewasusedbythepatriarchs.TheJahwistwriter(J)usesitconstantlyinhisnarrativeoftheearly
agesandGn4:26(seeabove)clearlyexhibitsmorethanamereanachronisticuseofanamecommoninthewritersage.Ontheotherhand,
thePriestlywriter(P)wasofopinionthatthepatriarchshadnotusedthename,buthadknownGodasElShaddai(Ex6:2f.)foritisputting
forceuponlanguagetosupposethatPmeantonlythatthepatriarchsdidnotunderstandthefullmeaningofthenameJahweh,althoughthey
usedit.PisconsistentinnotusingthenameJahwehuntiltheExodus.SotheauthorofJob,wholayshissceneinthepatriarchalage,makes
thecharactersofthedialogueuseShaddai,etc.,andonlyonce(12:9)Jahweh(Driver,p.185).Wehavethuscontradictoryauthorities.
Driver(p.xix.)suggeststhatthoughthenamewasnotabsolutelynewinMosestime,itwascurrentonlyinalimitedcircle,asisseenfromits
absenceinthecompositionofpatriarchalpropernames.
Jehovahisamodernandhybridform,datingonlyfromA.D.1518.ThenameJahwehwassosacredthatitwasnot,inlaterJewish
times,pronouncedatall,perhapsowingtoanoverliteralinterpretationoftheThirdCommandment.InreadingAdonaiwassubstitutedfor
ithencethevowelsofthatnamewereinMSSattachedtotheconsonantsofJahwehforaguidetothereader,andtheresult,whentheMSS
arereadaswritten(astheywerenevermeantbyJewishscribestoberead),isJehovah.Thusthismodernformhastheconsonantsofone
wordandthevowelsofanother.TheHellenisticJews,inGreek,cubstitutedKyrios(Lord)forthesacredname,anditisthusrenderedin
LXXandNT.ThisexplainswhyinEVtheLORDistheusualrenderingofJahweh.TheexpressionTetragrammatonisusedforthefour
consonantsofthesacredname,YHWH,whichappearsinGreekcapitallettersasPipi,owingtothesimilarityoftheGreekcapitalptothe
Hebrewh,andtheGreekcapitalitotheHebrewyandw[thus,Heb.=Gr.].
(g)JahisanapocopatedformofJahweh,andappearsinpoetry(e.g.Ps68:4,Ex15:2)inthewordHallelujahandinpropernames.For
JahJahwehseeIs11:2,26:4.
(h)JahwehTsbth(SabaothofRo9:29andJa5:4),inEVLORDof
hosts(wh.see),appearsfrequentlyinthepropheticalandpostexilicliterature(Is1:9,6:3,Ps84:1etc.).Thisnameseemsoriginallytohave
referredtoGodspresencewiththearmiesofIsraelinthetimesofthemonarchyasfullerconceptionsofGodbecameprevalent,thename

receivedanamplermeaning.JahwehwasknownasGod,notonlyofthearmiesofIsrael,butofallthehostsofheavenandoftheforcesof
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receivedanamplermeaning.JahwehwasknownasGod,notonlyofthearmiesofIsrael,butofallthehostsofheavenandoftheforcesof
nature(Cheyne,AidstoDevoutStudyofCriticism,p.
284).
Wenotice,lastly,thatJahwehandElohimarejoinedtogetherinGn2:43:22,9:26,Ex9:30,andelsewhere.Jahwehisidentifiedwith
theCreatoroftheUniverse(Ottley,BL2p.195).Wehavethesameconjunction,withSabaothadded(LordGodofhosts),inAm5:27.
AdonaiwithSabaothisnotuncommon.
3.PreMosaicconceptionsofGod.WearenowinapositiontoconsiderthegrowthoftherevelationofGodinsuccessiveagesand
specialreferencemayherebemadetoKautzschselaboratemonographontheReligionofIsraelinHastingsDB,Ext.vol.pp.612734,for
acarefuldiscussionofOTconceptionsofGod.WithregardtothoseofpreMosaictimesthereismuchroomfordoubt.Thedescriptions
writtensomanycenturieslaterarenecessarilycolouredbytheideasoftheauthorsage,andwehavetodependlargelyonthesurvivalofold
customsinhistoricaltimescustomswhichhadoftenacquiredanewmeaning,orofwhichtheoriginalmeaningwasforgotten.Certainlypre
MosaicIsraelconceivedofGodasattachedtocertainplacesorpillarsortreesorsprings,asweseeinGn12:6,13:18,14:7,35:7,Jos24:26
etc.Ithasbeenconjecturedthatthestonecircle,Gilgal(Jos4:28,20ff.),wasaheathensanctuaryconvertedtothereligionofJahweh.A.B.
Davidson(HastingsDBii.201)trulyremarksonthedifficultyinprimitivetimesofrealizingdeityapartfromalocalabodelateron,theArk
relievedthedifficultywithoutrepresentingJahwehunderanyform,forHispresencewasattachedtoit(butseebelow,4).Tracesof
Totemism,orbeliefinthebloodrelationshipofatribeandanaturalobject,suchasananimal,treatedastheprotectorofthetribe,havebeen
foundintheworshipofJahwehundertheformofamoltenbull(1K12:28butthiswasdoubtlessderivedfromtheCanaanites),andinthe
avoidanceofuncleananimals.TracesofAnimism,orbeliefintheactivityofthespiritsofonesdeadrelations,anditsconsequence
Ancestorworship,havebeenfoundinthemourningcustomsofIsrael,suchascuttingthehair,woundingtheflesh,wearingsackcloth,
funeralfeasts,reverencefortombs,andtheleviratemarriage,andinthenameelohim(i.e.supernaturalbeings)giventoSamuelsspiritand
(probably)otherspiritsseenbythewitchofEndor(1S28:13).Kautzschthinksthattheseresultsarenotproved,andthatthebeliefin
demoniacalpowersexplainsthemourningcustomswithoutitsbeingnecessarytosupposethatAnimismhaddevelopedintoAncestor
worship.PolytheismhasbeentracedinthepluralElohim(see2above),intheteraphimorhouseholdgods(Gn31:30,1S19:13,16:found
intemples,Jg17:5,18:14cf.Hos3:4)andpatriarchalnames,suchasAbraham,Sarah,havebeentakenforthetitlesofprehistoric
divinities.UndoubtedlyIsraelwasindangerofworshippingforeigngods,butthereisnotraceofaHebrewpolytheism(Kautzsch).Itwillbe
seenthattheresultsarealmostentirelynegativeandwemustremainindoubtastothepatriarchalconceptionofGod.Itseemsclear,
however,thatcommunionoftheworshipperwithGodwasconsideredtobeeffectedbysacrifice.
4.PostMosaicconceptionsofGod.TheageoftheExoduswasundoubtedlyagreatcrisisinthetheologicaleducationofIsrael.Moses
proclaimedJahwehastheGodofIsrael,supremeamonggods,alonetobeworshippedbythepeoplewhomHehadmadeHisown,andwith
whomHehadenteredintocovenant.ButtherealizationofthetruththatthereisnoneotherGodbutJahwehcamebyslowdegreesonly
henotheism,whichtaughtthatJahwehalonewastobeworshippedbyIsrael,whiletheheathendeitieswererealbutinferiorgods,gaveplace
onlyslowlytoatruemonotheisminthepopularreligion.TheoldnameMicah(=WhoislikeJahweh?,Jg17:1)isoneindicationofthisline
ofthought.ThereligionoftheCanaaniteswasanatureworshiptheirdeitieswerepersonifiedforcesofnature,thoughcalledLordorLady
(Baal,Baalah)oftheplacewheretheywerevenerated(Guthe,EBiii.art.Israel,6)andwhenlefttothemselvestheIsraelitesgravitated
towardsnatureworship.ThegreatneedoftheearlypostMosaicage,then,wastodeveloptheideaofpersonality.Thedefectiveideaof
individualityisseen,forexample,intheputtingofAchanshouseholdtodeath(Jos7:24f.),andinthewholesaleslaughteroftheCanaanites.
(Thedefectappearsmuchlater,inanOrientalnation,inDn6:24,andisconstantlyobservedbytravellersintheEasttothisday.)Jahweh,
therefore,isproclaimedasapersonalGodandforthisreasonalltheolderwritersfreelyuseanthropomorphisms.TheyspeakofGodsarm,
mouth,lips,eyesHeissaidtomove(Gn3:8,11:6,18:1f.),towrestle(32:24ff.).SimilarlyHeissaidtorepentofanaction(Gn6:6,Ex
32:14butsee1S15:29.),tobegrieved,angry,jealous,andgracious,toloveandtohateinthesewaystheintelligence,activity,andpower

ofGodareemphasized.AsapersonalGodHeentersintocovenantwithIsrael,protecting,ruling,guidingthem,givingthemvictory.Thewars
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ofGodareemphasized.AsapersonalGodHeentersintocovenantwithIsrael,protecting,ruling,guidingthem,givingthemvictory.Thewars
andvictoriesofIsraelarethoseofJahweh(Nu21:14,Jg5:23).
ThequestionofimagesintheearlypostMosaicperiodisadifficultone.DidMosestolerateimagesofJahweh?Ontheonehand,itseems
certainthattheDecalogueinsomeformorothercomesfromMosestheconquestofCanaanisinexplicableunlessIsraelhadsomeprimary
lawsofmoralconduct(Ottley,BL2p.172f.).But,ontheotherhand,theSecondCommandmentneednothaveformedpartoftheoriginal
DecalogueandthereisaverygeneralopinionthatthemakingofimagesofJahwehwasthoughtunobjectionableuptothe8thcent.B.C.,
thoughKautzschbelievesthatimagesofwoodandstonewerepreferredtometalonesbecauseoftheCanaanitishassociationsofthelatter(Ex
34:17,butseeJg17:3)hethinksalsothatthefactoftheArkbeingtheshrineofJahwehandrepresentingHispresencepointstoitshaving
containedanimageofJahweh(butsee3above),andthattheephodwasoriginallyanimageofJahweh(Jg8:26f.),thoughthewordwas
afterwardsusedforagoldorsilvercasingofanimage,andsoinlatertimesforasortofwaistcoat.Inouruncertaintyastothedateofthe
varioussourcesoftheHexateuchitisimpossibletocometoadefiniteconclusionaboutthismatterandMoses,likethelaterprophets,may
havepreachedahighdoctrinewhichpopularopiniondidnotendorse.TothisviewBarnes(HastingsDB,art.Israel,ii.509)seemsto
incline.AtleastthefactremainsthatimagesofJahwehwereactuallyusedformanygenerationsafterMoses.
5.TheconceptionsofthePropheticage.Thisageismarkedbyagrowth,perhapsaverygradualgrowth,towardsatruemonotheism.
MorespiritualconceptionsofGodaretaughtimagesofJahweharedenouncedGodisunrestrictedinspaceandtime(e.g.1K8:27),andis
enthronedinheaven.Heisholy(Is6:3)separatefromsinners(cf.He7:26),forthisseemstobethesenseoftheHebrewwordtheideaisas
oldas1S6:20.HeistheHolyOneofIsrael(Is1:4andoften).HeisAlmighty,presenteverywhere(Jer23:24),andfulloflove.The
prophets,thoughtheytaughtmorespiritualideasaboutGod,stillusedanthropomorphisms:thus,IsaiahsawJahwehonHisthrone(Is6:1),
thoughthiswasonlyinavision.ThegrowthoftruemonotheisticideasmaybetracedinsuchpassagesasDt4:35,39,6:4,10:14,1K8:60,
Is37:16,Jl2:27itculminatesinDeuteroIsaiah(Is43:10BeforemetherewasnoGodformed,neithershalltherebeafterme44:6Iam
thefirstandIamthelast,andbesidemethereisnoGodso45:5).ThesameideaisexpressedbytheteachingthatJahwehrulesnotonlyHis
peoplebutallnations,asinthenumerouspassagesinDeuteroIsaiahabouttheGentiles,inJer10:7,ofteninEzekiel(e.g.35:4,9,15of
Edom),Mal1:5,11,14,andelsewhere.TheearlierprophetshadrecognizedJahwehasCreator
(thoughKautzschthinksthatseveralpassageslikeAm4:13arelaterglosses)butDeuteroIsaiahemphasizesthisattributemorethananyof
hisbrethren(Is40:12,22,28,41:4,42:5,44:24,45:12,18,48:13).
Wemayheremakeashortdigressiontodiscusswhethertheheathendeities,thoughbelievedbythelaterJews,andafterwardsbythe
Christians,tobenogods,wereyetthoughttohavearealexistence,orwhethertheywereconsideredtobesimplynonexistent,creaturesof
theimaginationonly.InIs14:12(theBabyloniankinglikenedtofalsedivinities?)and24:21theheathengodsseemtobeidentifiedwiththe
fallenangels(seeWhitehouse,inHastingsDBi.592)soperhapsinDeuteroIsaiah(46:1f.).Inlatertimestheyareoftenidentifiedwith
demons.InEth.Enoch(19:1)Urielspeaksoftheevilangelsleadingmenastrayintosacrificingtodemonsastogods(seeCharlessnoteand
alsoxcix.7).AndtheideawascommoninChristiantimesithasbeenattributedtoSt.Paul(1Co10:20though8:5f.pointstheotherway,
whethertheseversesaretheApostlesownwordsorareaquotationfromtheletteroftheCorinthians).JustinMartyr(Apol.i.9,64,etc.),
Tatian(Add.totheGreeks,8),andIrenus(Hr.iii.6:3),whiledenyingthattheheathendeitiesarereallygods,makethemtohaveareal
existenceandtobedemonsAthenagoras(Apol.18,28),ClementofAlexandria(Exh.totheGreeks,2f.),andTertullian(Apol.10)makethem
tobemeremenorbeastsdeifiedbysuperstition,orcombinebothideas.
6.PostexilicconceptionsofGod.IntheperiodfromtheExiletoChrist,acertaindeteriorationinthespiritualconceptionofGodis
visible.Itistruethattherewasnolongeranydangerofidolatry,andthatthisagewasmarkedbyanuncompromisingmonotheism.Yetthere
wasatendencygreatlytoexaggerateGodstranscendence,tomakeHimselfcentredandselfabsorbed,andtowidenthegulfbetweenHim
andtheworld(Sanday,inHastingsDBii.206).ThistendencybeganevenattheExile,andaccountsforthediscontinuanceof
anthropomorphiclanguage.InthePriestsCode(P)thislanguageisavoidedasmuchaspossible.Andlater,whentheLXXwastranslated,the
alterationsmadetoavoidanthropomorphismsareverysignificant.ThusinEx15:3LXXthenameManofwar(ofJahweh)disappearsinEx
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alterationsmadetoavoidanthropomorphismsareverysignificant.ThusinEx15:3LXXthenameManofwar(ofJahweh)disappearsinEx
19:3LXXMoseswentupnotto
Elohim,buttothemountofGodinEx24:10thewordstheysawElohimof
IsraelbecometheysawtheplacewheretheGodofIsraelstood.SointheTargumsmanisdescribedasbeingcreatedintheimageofthe
angels,andmanyotheranthropomorphismsareremoved.ThesametendencyisseeninthealmostconstantuseofElohimratherthanof
JahwehinthelaterbooksofOT.Thetendency,onlyfaintlymarkedinthelatercanonicalbooks,ismuchmoreevidentastimewenton.Side
bysidewithitistobenoticedtheexaltationoftheLaw,andtheinconsistentconceptionofGodassubjecttoHisownLaw.IntheTalmudHe
isrepresentedasagreatRabbi,studyingtheLaw,andkeepingtheSabbath(Gilbert,inHastingsDCGi.582).
YettherewerepreparationsforthefullteachingofthegospelwithregardtodistinctionsintheGodhead.Theoldnarrativesofthe
Theophanies,ofthemysteriousAngeloftheLordwhoappearedatonetimetobeGodandatanothertobedistinctfromHim,wouldprepare
mensmindsinsomedegreefortheIncarnation,bysuggestingapersonalunveilingofGod(seeLiddon,BLII.i.)eventhecommonuseof
thepluralnameElohim,whateveritsoriginalsignificance(see2above),wouldnecessarilypreparethemforthedoctrineofdistinctionsin
theGodhead,aswouldthequasipersonificationoftheWordandWisdom,asinProverbs,Job,Wisdom,Sirach,andinthelaterJewish
writers,whonotonlypersonifiedbutdeifiedthem(Scott,inHastingsDB,Ext.vol.p.308).Aboveall,thequasipersonificationoftheSpirit
ofGodinthepropheticalbooks(esp.Is48:16,63:10)andinthePsalms(esp.51:11),andtheexpectationofasuperhumanKingMessiah,
wouldtendinthesamedirection.
7.ChristiandevelopmentofthedoctrineofGod.WemayfirstdealwiththedevelopmentintheconceptionofGodsfatherhood.As
contrastedwiththeOT,theNTemphasizestheuniversalfatherhoodandloveofGod.Thepreviousageshadscarcelyrisenabovea
conceptionofGodasFatherofIsrael,andinaspecialsenseofMessiah(Ps2:7)theyhadthoughtofGodonlyasrulingtheGentilesand
bringingthemintosubjection.OurLordtaught,ontheotherhand,thatGodisFatherofallandlovingtoallHeiskindeventowardthe
unthankfulandevil(Lk6:35,cf.Mt5:45).JesusthereforeusedthenameFathermorefrequentlythananyother.YetHeHimselfbearsto
theFatherauniquerelationshiptheVoiceattheBaptismandattheTransfigurationwouldotherwisehavenomeaning(Mk1:11,9:7and||
Mt.Lk.).JesusneverspeakstoHisdisciplesoftheFatherasourFatherHecallsHimabsolutelytheFather(seldominSynoptics,Mt
11:27,24:36[RV]28:19[see8],Mk13:32,Lk10:22,passiminJn.),ormyFather(veryfrequentlyinalltheGospels,alsoinRev2:27,
3:5),orelsemyFatherandyourFather(Jn20:17).TheuseofhisFatherinMk8:38and||Mt.Lk.issimilar.Thisuniquerelationshipisthe
pointofthesayingthatGodsentHisonlybegottenSontosavetheworld(Jn3:16f.,1Jn4:9)asayingwhichshowsalsotheuniversal
fatherhoodofGod,forsalvationisofferedtoallmen(soJn12:32).ThepassageMt11:27(=Lk10:22)isimportantasbeingamongthe
earliestmaterialsmadeuseofbytheEvangelists,andascontainingthewholeoftheChristologyoftheFourthGospel(Plummer,ICC,St
Luke,p.282forthelatestcriticismonitseeSanday,CriticismoftheFourthGosp.p.223f.).ItmarkstheuniquerelationinwhichJesus
standstotheFather.Wehave,then,intheNTthreesensesinwhichGodisFather.(a)HeistheFatherofJesusChrist.(b)HeistheFather
ofallHiscreatures(cf.Ac17:28,Ja1:17f.,He12:9),ofGentilesaswellasofJewsMk7:27impliesthat,thoughtheJewsweretobefed
first,theGentileswerealsotobefed.HeistheFatherofalltheJews,aswellasofthedisciplesofJesusthewordsOneisyourFatherwere
spokentothemultitudesalso(Mt23:1,9).(c)ButinaveryspecialsenseHeisFatherofthedisciples,whoaretaughttoprayOurFather
(Mt6:9intheshorterversionofLk11:2RV,Father),andwhocallonHimasFather(1P1:17RV).ForPaulinepassageswhichteachthis
triplefatherhoodseeart,PAULTHEAPOSTLE,iii.1.ThemeaningofthedoctrineoftheuniversalfatherhoodisthatGodislove(1Jn4:6),
andthatHemanifestsHislovebysendingHisSonintotheworldtosaveit(seeabove).
8.DistinctionsintheGodhead.WeshouldnotexpecttofindthenomenclatureofChristiantheologyintheNT.Thewritingscontained
thereinarenotamanualoftheologyandtheobjectofthetechnicaltermsinventedoradoptedbytheChurchwastoexplainthedoctrineof
theBibleinaformintelligibletotheChristianlearner.TheydonotmarkadevelopmentofdoctrineintimessubsequenttotheGospelage.
TheuseofthewordsPersonsandTrinityaffordsanexampleofthis.TheywereadoptedinordertoexpresstheteachingoftheNTthat
therearedistinctionsintheGodheadthatJesusisnomereman,butthatHecamedownfromheaventotakeournatureuponHimthatHe
andtheFatherareonething(Jn10:30,seebelow),andyetaredistinct(Mk13:32)thattheSpiritisGod,andyetdistinctfromtheFatherand
theSon(Ro8:9,seebelow).AtthesametimeChristiantheologytakescarethatweshouldnotconceiveoftheThreePersonsasofthree
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theSon(Ro8:9,seebelow).AtthesametimeChristiantheologytakescarethatweshouldnotconceiveoftheThreePersonsasofthree
individuals.ThemeaningofthewordTrinityis,inthelanguageofthe
Quicunquevult,thattheFatherisGod,theSonisGod,andtheHolyGhostis
GodandyettheyarenotthreeGods,butoneGod.
ThepresentwritermustprofoundlydissentfromtheviewthatJesusteachingaboutGodshowedbutlittleadvanceonthatoftheprophets,
andthattheTrinitarianideaasfoundintheFourthGospelandinMt28:19wasadevelopmentofalaterage,sayoftheveryendofthe1st
century.Confessedlyagreatandmarvellousdevelopmenttookplace.Towhomarewetoassignit,ifnottoourLord?Hadagreatteacher,ora
schoolofteachers,arisen,whocouldofthemselvesproducesuchanabsoluterevolutioninthought,howisitthatcontemporarywritersand
posterityalikeputthemcompletelyinthebackground,andgavetoJesustheplaceoftheGreatTeacheroftheworld?Thiscanbeaccounted
foronlybytherevolutionofthoughtbeingtheworkofJesusHimself.
Anexaminationoftheliteraturewillleadustothesameconclusion.
(a)WebeginwithSt.Paul,asourearliestauthority.TheApostolicbenediction(2Co13:14)which,asDr.Sandayremarks(HastingsDB
ii.213),hasnodogmaticobjectandexpoundsnonewdoctrineindeedexpoundsnodoctrineatallunequivocallygroupstogetherJesus
Christ,God[theFather],andtheHolyGhostasthesourceofblessing,andinthatremarkableorder.ItisinconceivablethatSt.Paulwould
havedonethishadhelookedonJesusChristasamereman,orevenasacreatedangel,andontheHolyGhostonlyasaninfluenceofthe
Father.Buthowdidhearriveatthistriplegrouping,whichisstrictlyconsistentwithhisdoctrineelsewhere?Wecannotthinkthatheinvented
itanditisonlynaturaltosupposethathefoundedituponsomewordsofourLord.
(b)ThecommandtobaptizeintothenameoftheFatherandoftheSonandoftheHolyGhost(Mt28:19),ifspokenbyourLord,
whatevertheexactmeaningofthewords,whetherasaformulatobeused,orasexpressingtheresultofChristianbaptismwouldamply
accountforSt.Paulsbenedictionin2Co13:14.Butithasbeenstrenuouslydeniedthatthesewordsareauthentic,or,iftheyareauthentic,
thattheyareourLordsownutterance.Wemustcarefullydistinguishthesetwoallegations.First,itisdeniedthattheyarepartoftheFirst
Gospel.IthasbeenmaintainedbyMr.Conybearethattheyareaninterpolationofthe2ndcent.,andthattheoriginaltexthad:Makedisciples
ofallthenationsinmyname,teachingthem,etc.Allextantmanuscriptsandversionshaveourpresenttext(theOldSyriaciswantinghere)
butinseveralpassagesofEusebius(c.A.D.260340)whichrefertotheverse,thewordsaboutbaptismarenotmentioned,andinsomeof
themthewordsinmynameareadded.TheallegationiscarefullyandimpartiallyexaminedbyBp.ChaseinJThStvi.483ff.,andisjudged
byhimtobebaseless.Asamatteroffact,nothingismorecommoninancientwritersthantoomit,inreferringtoaScripturepassage,any
wordswhicharenotrelevanttotheirargument.DeanRobinson(JThStvii.186),whocontrovertsBp.Chasesinterpretationofthebaptismal
command,isyetentirelysatisfiedwithhisdefenceofitsauthenticity.Secondly,itisdeniedthatthewordsinquestionwerespokenbyour
LorditissaidthattheybelongtothatlaterstageofthoughttowhichtheFourthGospelisascribed.Asamatteroffact,itisurged,theearliest
baptismswerenotintothenameoftheFather,Son,andHolyGhost,butinthenameofJesusChrist,orintothenameoftheLordJesus,or
intoChristJesus,orintoChrist(Ac2:38,8:16,10:48,19:5,Ro6:3,Gal3:27).Nowitisnotnecessarytomaintainthatinanyoftheseplacesa
formulaofbaptismisprescribedormentioned.Thereverseisperhapsmoreprobable(seeChase,l.c.).ThephrasesinActsneedmeanonly
thatconvertswereunitedtoJesusorthattheybecameChristians(cf.1Co10:2)thephraseinMt28:19maymeanthatdisciplesweretobe
unitedtoFather,Son,andHolyGhostbybaptism,withoutanyformulabeingenjoinedorifwetakewhatseemstobethelessprobable
interpretation(thatofDeanRobinson),thatinthenamemeansbytheauthorityof,asimilarresultholdsgood.Weneednotevenholdthat
Mt28:19representsourLordsipsissimaverba.ButthatitfaithfullyrepresentsourLordsteachingseemstofollowfromtheuseofthe
benedictionin2Co13:14(above),andfromthefactthatimmediatelyaftertheApostolicagethesoleformofbaptizingthatwereadofwas
thatofMt28:19,asinDidache7(thewordsquotedexactly,thoughin9Christiansaresaidtohavebeenbaptizedintothenameofthe
Lord),inJustinMartyr,Apol.i.61(hedoesnotquotetheactualwords,butparaphrases,andattheendofthesamechaptersaysthathewho
isilluminatediswashedinthenameofJesusChrist),andinTertullian,adv.Prax.26(paraphrase),deBapt.13(exactly),dePrscr.Hr.20
(paraphrase).ThusthesecondgenerationofChristiansmusthaveunderstoodthewordstobeourLords.Butthesamedoctrineisfoundalso
innumerousotherpassagesoftheNT,andwemaynowproceedbrieflytocomparesomeofthemwithMt28:19,prefacingtheinvestigation
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withtheremarkthatthesuspectedwordsinthatverseoccurinthemostJewishoftheGospels,wheresuchteachingisimprobableunlessit
comesfromourLord(soScottinHastingsDB,Ext.vol.p.313).
(c)ThattheFourthGospelisfullofthedoctrineofFather,Son,andSpiritisallowedbyall(seeesp.Jn1416).TheSonandtheSpirit
arebothParacletes,sentbytheFathertheSpiritissentbytheFatherandalsobyJesusJesushasallthingswhatsoevertheFatherhasthe
SpirittakesthethingsofJesusanddeclaresthemuntous.InJn10:30ourLordsays:IandtheFatherareonething(thenumeralisneuter),
i.e.oneessencethewordscannotfallshortofthis(Westcott,inloc.).ButthesamedoctrineisfoundinallpartsoftheNT.OurLordisthe
onlybegottenSon(see7above),whowaspreexistent,andwasDavidsLordinheavenbeforeHecametoearth(Mt22:45:thisistheforce
oftheargument).Heclaimstojudgetheworldandtobestowglory(Mt25:34,Lk22:69cf.2Co5:10),toforgivesinsandtobestowthe
powerofbindingandloosing(Mk2:5,10,Mt28:18and18:18cf.Jn20:23)HeinvitessinnerstocometoHim(Mt11:28cf.10:37,Lk
14:26)Heistheteacheroftheworld(Mt11:29)HecastsoutdevilsasSonofGod,andgivesauthoritytoHisdisciplestocastthemout(Mk
3:11f.,15).TheclaimsofJesusareastremendous,and(Inthegreatexampleofhumility)atfirstsightassurprising,intheSynopticsasinJn.
(Liddon,BLv.iv.).Similarly,inthePaulineEpistlestheApostleclearlyteachesthatJesusisGod(seeart.PAULTHEAPOSTLE,iii.3,4).
InthemGodtheFatherandJesusChristareconstantlyjoinedtogether(justas
Father,Son,andSpiritarejoinedintheApostolicbenediction),e.g.in1Co1:3,
8:6.Soin1P1:2wehavethetripleconjunctiontheforeknowledgeofGodtheFather,thesanctificationoftheSpirit,thebloodofJesus
Christ.ThesameconjunctionisfoundinJude20f.PrayingintheHolySpirit,keepyourselvesintheloveofGod,lookingforthemercyof
ourLordJesusChristuntoeternallifecf.also1Co12:36,Ro8:1417etc.
TheHolySpiritisrepresentedintheNTasaPerson,notasamereDivineinfluence.ThecloseresemblancebetweentheLukanandthe
JohannineaccountsofthepromiseoftheSpiritisverynoteworthy.St.LuketellsusofthepromiseofmyFather,andofthecommandto
tarryinthecityuntiltheApostleswereclothedwithpowerfromonhigh(Lk24:49)thisisinterpretedinAc1:5asabaptismwiththeHoly
Ghost,andoneofthechiefthemesofActsisthebestowaloftheHolyGhosttogivelifetotheChurch(Ac2:4,33,8:15ff.,19:2ff.etc.).This
iscloselyparalleltothepromiseoftheParacleteinJn1416.BoththeFirstandtheThirdEvangelistsascribetheconceptionofJesustothe
actionoftheHolyGhost(Mt1:18,20,Lk1:35,wheretheMostHighistheFather,cf.Lk6:35f.).AtthebaptismofJesus,theFatherandthe
Spiritarebothmanifested,theappearanceofthedovebeinganindicationthattheSpiritisdistinctfromtheFather.TheSpiritcanbesinned
against(Mk3:29and||Mt.Lk.)throughHimJesusisfilledwithDivinegracefortheministry(Lk4:1,14,18),andcastsoutdevils(Mt
12:28cf.Lk11:20thefingerofGod).TheSpiritinspiredDavid(Mk12:36).SoinSt.PaulsEpistlesHeintercedes,isgrieved,isgivento
us,giveslife(seeart.PAULTHEAPOSTLE,iii.6).AndthedistinctionsintheGodheadareemphasizedbyHisbeingcalledtheSpiritof
GodandtheSpiritofChristinthesameverse(Ro8:9).ThatHeistheSpiritofJesusappearsalsofromAc16:7RV,2Co3:17,Gal4:6,Ph
1:19,1P1:11.
Thisverybriefepitomemustheresuffice.ItisperhapsenoughtoshowthattherevelationwhichJesusChristmadecausedan
immeasurableenlargementoftheworldsconceptionofGod.OurLordteachesthatGodisOne,andatthesametimethatHeisnomere
Monad,butTriune.Cf.art.TRINITY.
A.J.MACLEAN.
GOEL.SeeAVENGEROFBLOOD,andKIN[NEXTOF].
GOG.1.TheprinceofRosh,Meshech,andTubal,fromthelandofMagog(Ezk38:2,andofteninchs.38,39),whomEzk.picturesas
leadingagreathostofnationsfromthefarNorthagainsttherestoredIsrael,andasbeingignominiouslydefeated,byJsintervention,upon
themountainsofCanaan.WhencethenameGogwasderivedwedonotcertainlyknow:thenameremindsusofthatofGyges(Gr.Guges,
Assyr.Gugu),thefamouskingofLydia,ofwhomHdt.(i.814)tellsus,andwho,Ashurbanipalstates(KIBii.1735),whenhiscountrywas
invadedbytheGimirr(Cimmerians),expelledthemwithAssyrianhelp(c.B.C.665)andithasbeenconjectured(Sayce)thatthisname
mighthavereachedPalestineasthatofadistantandsuccessfulking,whomightbemadeatypicalleaderofahordeofinvadersfromthe
North.ThatGomer(=theCimmerian),whowasreallyhisfoe,appearsinEzk.amonghisallies,mightbeexplainedeitherfromthevagueness49/82
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North.ThatGomer(=theCimmerian),whowasreallyhisfoe,appearsinEzk.amonghisallies,mightbeexplainedeitherfromthevagueness
oftheknowledgewhichreachedPal.,orbecauseEzk.hadinview,notthehistorical
GogbutmerelyanidealfiguresuggestedbythehistoricalGog.
UponthebasisofEzk38,39,GogandMagogappearofteninthelater
Jewisheschatologyasleadingthefinal,butabortive,assaultofthepowersoftheworldupontheKingdomofGod.Cf.Rev.20:79inthe
Mishna,Eduyoth2.10Sib.Orac.iii.319322andseefurtherreff.inSchrer,29.III.4Weher,Altsynag.Theol.(Index)Volz,Jd.
Eschat.p.176(andindex).
2.TheeponymofaReubenitefamily(1Ch5:4).
S.R.DRIVER.
GOIIMistheHeb.wordwhichinEVisvariouslyrenderedGentiles,
nations,heathen(seePrefacetoRVofOT).IntheobscureexpressioninGn14:1,whereAVhaskingofnations,RVretainsGoiim
(possiblyacorruptionfromGut[apeoplelivingtotheE.ofthelittleZab])asapropername,althoughRVmoffersthealternativerendering
nations.ThesamedifferenceinrenderingbetweenAVandRVisfoundalsoinJos12:23.PossiblyinGn14:1thereferencemaybetothe
Ummanmanda,orhordesofnorthernpeoples,whofromtimetotimeinvadedAssyria(soSayce).
GOLAN.OneofthethreecitiesofrefugeE.oftheJordan(Dt4:43,Jos20:8),assignedtothesonsofGershon(Jos21:27,1Ch6:71),in
theterritorybelongingtothehalftribeofManassehinBashan.Boththetown,Golan,andadistrict,Gaulanitis,wereknowntoJosephus
(Ant.XIII.xv.3,XVII,viii.1).ThelatteriscalledbytheArabsJauln.Thenameseemstohavebeenappliedfirsttoacity,andthentothe
districtroundaboutetymologically,however,theroot,meaningcircuit,wouldpointtotheoppositeconclusion.Theexactsiteofthecityis
veryuncertain.Schumacher(AcrosstheJordan,92)somewhathesitatinglyidentifiesitwiththeruinsofSahemelJauln,17milesE.ofthe
SeaofGalilee.
GEORGEL.ROBINSON.
GOLD.SeeMININGANDMETALS.
GOLGOTHA(Mt27:33,Mk15:22,Jn19:17,fromtheAram.Gulgalta.InLk23:33theplaceiscalledKranion(RVtheskull,AV
Calvary)).Thesituationwasevidentlyoutsidethecity(He13:12),butnearit(Jn19:20)itwasasitevisibleafaroff(Mk15:40,Lk
23:49),andwasprobablynearahighroad(Mt27:29).
Fourreasonshavebeensuggestedforthename.(1)Thatitwasaplacewhereskullsweretobefound,perhapsaplaceofpublicexecution.
Thisisimprobable.
(2)Thatthehillwasskullshaped.Thisisapopularmodernview.AgainstitmaybeurgedthatthereisnoevidencethatGolgothawasa
hillatall.Seealsobelow.
(3)Thatthenameisduetoanancient,andprobablypreChristian,traditionthattheskullofAdamwasfoundthere.Thistraditionisquoted
byOrigen,Athanasius,Epiphanius,etc.,anditssurvivaltodayismarkedbytheskullshownintheChapelofAdamundertheCalvaryin
theChurchoftheHolySepulchre.(4)ThereisthehighlyimprobabletheorythatthelegendoftheskullofAdam,andeventhename
Golgotha,reallyhavetheirorigininthecapitoliumofliaCapitolina,whichstoodonthesitenowcoveredbytheChurchoftheSepulchre.
OfthemanyproposedsitesforGolgothaitmaybebrieflysaidthatthereisnosideofthecitywhichhasnotbeensuggestedbysome
authorityfortheplaceofaskullbut,practicallyspeaking,thereareonlytwoworthconsidering,thetraditionalsiteandthegreenhillor
GordonsCalvary.ThetraditionalsiteincludedintheChurchoftheSepulchreandincloseproximitytothetombitselfhasacontinuous
traditionattachingtoitfromthedaysofConstantine.Infavourofthissiteitmaybearguedwithgreatplausibilitythatitisveryunlikelythat
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alltraditionofaspotsoimportantintheeyesofChristiansshouldhavebeenlost,evenallowingallconsiderationforthevicissitudesthatthe
citypassedthroughbetweentheCrucifixionandthedaysofConstantine.Thetopographicaldifficultiesaredealtwithinthediscussionofthe
siteofthesecondwall[seeJERUSALEM],butitmaysafelybesaidthatinvestigationshavecertainlytendedinrecentyearstoreducethem.
WithregardtothegreenhilloutsidetheDamascusgate,whichhassecuredsomuchsupportinsomequarters,itsclaimsarebaseduponthe
fourpresuppositionsthatGolgothawasshapedlikeaskull,thatthepresentskullshapedhillhadsuchanappearanceatthetimeofthe
Crucifixion,thattheancientroadandwallranastheydotoday,andthattheCrucifixionwasneartheJewishplaceofstoning(whichissaid
byanunreliablelocalJewishtraditiontobesituatedhere).
Allthesehypothesesareextremelydoubtful.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
GOLIATH.Agiant,saidtohavebeenadescendantoftheearlyraceofAnakim.Hewasslain,insinglecombat,byDavid(or,according
toanothertradition,byElhanan)atEphesdammim,beforeanimpendingbattlebetweenthePhilistinesandtheIsraelites.Thatthisduelwas
ofareligiouscharactercomesoutclearlyin1S17:43,45,wherewearetoldthatthePhilistinecursedDavidbyhisgods,whileDavidreplies:
AndIcometotheeinthenameoftheLordofhosts.ThefactthatDavidbringsthegiantsswordasanofferingintothesanctuaryatNob
pointsinthesamedirection.Goliathisdescribedasbeingsixcubitsandaspaninheight,i.e.overninefeet,atthelikeliestreckoninghis
armourandweaponswereproportionatetohisgreatheight.Humanskeletonshavebeenfoundofequalheight,sothatthereisnothing
improbableintheBiblicalaccountofhisstature.TheflightofthePhilistinesonthedeathoftheirchampioncouldbeaccountedforbytheir
beliefthattheIsraeliteGodhadshownHimselfsuperiortotheirgod(butsee2S23:912,1Ch11:12ff.)see,further,DAVID,ELHANAN.
W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
GOMER.1.OneofthesonsofJaphethandthefatherofAshkenaz,Riphath,andTogarmah(Gn10:2f.,1Ch1:5f.),whoalongwith
TogarmahisincludedbyEzekielinthearmyofGog(Ezk38:6).GomerrepresentsthepeopletermedGimirrbytheAssyrians,and
CimmeriansbytheGreeks.TheiroriginalhomeappearstohavebeennorthoftheEuxine,butbythe7thcent.B.C.theyhadcompletely
conqueredCappadociaandsettledthere.
2.DaughterofDiblaim,wifeoftheprophetHosea(wh.see).
L.W.KING.
GOMORRAH.SeePLAIN[CITIESOFTHE].
GOODMAN.TheonlyoccurrenceofthisEng.wordintheOTisPr7:19thegoodmanisnotathome.TheHeb.issimplytheman
butasthereferenceistothewomanshusband,goodman,stillusedinScotlandforhusband,wasin1611anaccuraterendering.IntheNT
thewordoccurs12times(alwaysintheSynop.Gospels)asthetrans.ofoikodespots,masterofthehouse.ThesameGr.wordistranslated
householderinMt13:27,52,20:1,21:33,andmasterofthehouseinMt10:25,Lk13:25.
GOPHERWOOD(Gn6:14),ofwhichthearkwasconstructed,wasbytraditioncypresswood,andthis,orelsethecedar,maybeinferred
asprobable.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
GORGIAS.AgeneralofAntiochusEpiphanes,whoisdescribedasamightymanofthekingsfriends(1Mac3:38),andacaptainwho
hadexperienceinmattersofwar(2Mac8:9).WhenAntiochussetoutonhisParthiancampaign(B.C.166or165),hischancellor,Lysias,
whowaschargedwiththesuppressionoftherevoltinPal.,despatchedalargearmytoJuda,underthecommandofPtolemy,Nicanor,and
Gorgias.Thefortunesofthewararedescribedin1Mac3:40,4:25,5:16ff.,55ff.,2Mac8:1229,10:14ff.,12:32ff.Jos.Ant.XII.vii.4,viii.
6.
GORTYNA.ThemostimportantcityinCrete,afterGnossus,situatedaboutmidwaybetweenthetwoendsoftheisland.Itisnamed(1 51/82
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GORTYNA.ThemostimportantcityinCrete,afterGnossus,situatedaboutmidwaybetweenthetwoendsoftheisland.Itisnamed(1
Mac15:23)amongtheautonomousStatesandcommunestowhichweresentcopiesofthedecreeoftheRomanSenateinfavouroftheJews.
GOSHEN.1.AnunknowncityinJudah(Jos15:51)2.AnunknownterritoryinS.Palestine,probablytheenvironsofNo.1(Jos10:41).
3.AdivisionofEgyptinwhichthechildrenofIsraelweresettledbetweenJacobsentryandtheExodus.Itwasaplaceofgoodpasture,onor
nearthefrontierofPalestine,andplentifulinvegetablesandfish(Nu11:5).Itcannotwithexactnessbedefined.Jth1:9,10isprobablywrong
inincludingthenomesofTanisandMemphisinGoshen.TheLXXreadsGesemofArabiainGn45:10,46:34,elsewhereGesem.Now
ArabiaisdefinedbyPtolemy,thegeographer,asanEgyptiannomeontheEastborderoftheDeltaoftheNile,andthisseemstobethe
localitymostprobablycontemplatedbythenarrator.ItrunseastwardsfromoppositethemodernZagazig(Bubastis)totheBitterLakes.There
seemstobenoEgyptianoriginforthename,unlessitrepresentedKesem,theEgyptianequivalentofPhacussa(thechieftownofthenomeof
ArabiaaccordingtoPtolemy).ItmaybeofSemiticorigin,asissuggestedbytheoccurrenceofthename,asnoticedabove,outsideEgyptian
territory.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
GOSPEL.Thisword(lit.Godstory)representsGreekeuangelion,whichreappearsinoneformoranotherinecclesiasticalLatinandin
mostmodernlanguages.InclassicalGreekthewordmeanstherewardgiventoabearerofgoodtidings(so2S4:10LXXinpl.),but
afterwardsitcametomeanthemessageitself,andsoin2S18:20,22,25[LXX]aderivedwordisusedinthissense.InNTthewordmeans
goodtidingsaboutthesalvationoftheworldbythecomingofJesusChrist.Itisnotthereusedofthewrittenrecord.Agenitivecaseora
possessivepronounaccompanyingitdenotes:(a)thepersonorthethingpreached(thegospelofChrist,orofpeace,orofsalvation,orofthe
graceofGod,orofGod,oroftheKingdom,Mt4:23,9:35,24:14,Mk1:14,Ac20:24,Ro15:19,Eph1:13,6:15etc.)orsometimes(b)the
preacher(Mk1:1(?),Ro2:16,16:25,2Co4:3etc.)orrarely(c)thepersonspreachedto(Gal2:7).ThegospelisoftenusedinNT
absolutely,asinMk1:15,8:35,14:9RV,16:15,Ac15:7,Ro11:28,2Co8:16(wheretheideamustnotbeentertainedthatthereferenceisto
LukeasanEvangelist),andsothisgospel,Mt.26:13butEnglishreadersshouldbearinmindthatusually(thoughnotinMk16:15)theEV
phrasetopreachthegospelrepresentsasimpleverboftheGreek.ThenounisnotfoundinLk.,Heb.,ortheCatholicEpistles,andonlyonce
intheJohanninewritings(Rev14:6,aneternalgospelanangelicmessage).InRo10:16thegospelisusedabsolutelyofthemessageof
theOTprophets.
ThewrittenrecordwasnotcalledtheGospeltillalaterage.BytheearliestgenerationofChristianstheoralteachingwasthemainthing
regardedmentoldwhattheyhadheardandseen,orwhattheyhadreceivedfromeyewitnesses.Asthesediedoutandthewrittenrecord
aloneremained,theperspectivealtered.TheearliestcertainuseofthewordinthissenseisinJustinMartyr(c.A.D.150:TheApostlesinthe
Memoirswrittenbythemselves,whicharecalledGospels,Apol.1.66cf.theMemoirswhichweredrawnupbyHisApostlesandthosewho
followedthem,Dial.103),thoughsomefinditinIgnatiusandtheDidache.TheearliestknowntitlesoftheEvangelicrecords(which,
however,wecannotasserttobecontemporarywiththerecordsthemselves)aresimplyAccordingtoMatthew,etc.
A.J.MACLEAN.
GOSPELS.UnderthisheadingwemayconsiderthefourGospelsasawhole,andtheirrelationstooneanother,leavingdetailed
questionsofdateandauthorshiptotheseparatearticles.
1.TheaimsoftheEvangelists.OnthispointwehavecontemporaryevidenceintheLukanpreface(1:14),whichshowsthatno
Evangelistfelthimselfabsolvedfromtakingallpossiblepainsinsecuringaccuracy,thatmanyhadalreadywrittenGospelrecords,andthat
theirobjectwastogiveacontemporaryaccountofourLordslifeonearth.Asyet,whenSt.Lukewrote,theserecordshadnotbeenwrittenby
eyewitnesses.Buttheydependedfortheirauthorityoneyewitnesses(1:2)andthisistheimportantpoint,thenamesoftheauthorsbeing
comparativelyimmaterial.Therecordshaveareligiousaim(Jn20:31).Unlikethemodernbiography,whichseekstorelatealltheprincipal
eventsofthelifedescribed,theGospelaimsatproducingfaithbydescribingafewsignificantincidentstakenoutofamuchlargerwhole.
HencetheEvangelistsareallsilentaboutmanythingswhichweshouldcertainlyexpecttoreadaboutiftheGospelswerebiographies.This
considerationtakesawayallpointfromthesuggestionthatsilenceaboutaneventmeansthatthewriterwasignorantofit(seeSanday,
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considerationtakesawayallpointfromthesuggestionthatsilenceaboutaneventmeansthatthewriterwasignorantofit(seeSanday,
CriticismofFourthGospel,p.71).Again,although,beforeSt.Lukewrote,therewerenumerousGospels,onlyoneofthesesurvivedtill
Irenustime(see4).Buthavetherestentirelyvanished?Itmayperhapsbeconjecturedthatsomefragmentswhichseemnottobelongto
ourcanonicalGospels(suchasLk22:43f.,Jn7:538:11,Mk16:920)aresurvivalsofthesedocuments.Butthisisamereguess.
2.TheSynopticproblem.ThefirstthreeGospelsinmanyrespectsagreecloselywithoneanother,anddifferfromtheFourth.Their
topicsarethesametheydealchieflywiththeGalilanministry,notexplicitlymentioningvisitstoJerusalemafterJesusbaptismuntilthe
lastonewhiletheFourthGospeldealslargelywiththosevisits.Inaword,thefirstthreeGospelsgivethesamegeneralsurvey,thesame
synopsis,andarethereforecalledtheSynopticGospels,andtheirwriterstheSynoptists.Butfurther,theyagreeverycloselyinwords,
arrangementofsentences,andinmanyotherdetails.Theyhavealargenumberofpassagesincommon,andinmanycasesallthreerelatethe
sameincidentsinnearlythesamewordsinothers,twooutofthethreehavecommonmatter.Thelikenessgoesfarbeyondwhatmightbe
expectedfromthreewritersindependentlyrelatingthesameseriesoffacts.Inthatcaseweshouldlookforlikenessesindetailsofthe
narratives,butnotintheactualwords.AstrikingexampleisinMt9:6=Mk2:10=Lk5:24.Theparenthesis(Thensaithhetothesickofthe
palsy)iscommontoallthreeanimpossiblecoincidenceifallwereindependent.Oragain,inMt.andMk.theBaptistsimprisonmentis
relatedparenthetically,outofitsplace(Mt14:35.,Mk6:17ff.),thoughinLk.itcomesinitstruechronologicalorder(Lk3:19).The
coincidenceinMt.andMk.showssomedependence.Ontheotherhand,therearestrikingvariations,eveninwords,inthecommonpassages.
ThustheSynoptistsmusthavedealtveryfreelywiththeirsourcestheydidnottreatthemasunalterable.What,then,isthenatureofthe
undoubtedliteraryconnexionbetweenthem?
(a)TheOralTheory.ItisclearfromNT(e.g.Lk1:2)andearlyecclesiasticalwriters(e.g.Papias,whotellsusthathelaidspecialstress
ontheutterancesofalivingandabidingvoice,seeEusebius,HEiii.39),thatthenarrativeteachingoftheApostleswashandedonbyword
ofmouthinaverysystematicmanner.Easternmemoriesareveryretentive,andthisfactfavourssuchamodeoftradition.Weknowthatthe
Jewskeptuptheirtraditionsorally(Mt15:2ff.etc.).Itisthought,then,thatboththeresemblancesandthedifferencesbetweentheSynoptists
maybeaccountedforbyeachofthemhavingwrittendowntheoraltraditiontowhichhewasaccustomed.
ThisistheOralTheory,whichmetwithagreatdegreeofsupport,especiallyinEngland,agenerationorsoago.Itwasfirst
systematicallypropoundedinGermanybyGieseler,in1818,andwasmaintainedbyAlfordandWestcott,andlatelybyA.Wright.Itis
suggestedthatthistheorywouldaccountforunusualwordsorexpressionsbeingfoundinalltheSynoptics,asthesewouldretaintheirholdon
thememory.Itisthoughtthatthecatecheticalinstructionwascarriedoutverysystematically,andthatthereweredifferentschoolsof
catechistsandthatthiswouldaccountforallthephenomena.Themainstrengthofthetheoryliesintheobjectionsrainedtoitsrival,the
DocumentaryTheory(seebelow),especiallythatonthelatterviewthefreedomwithwhichthelaterEvangelistsusedtheearlier,orthe
commonsources,contradictsanyideaofinspirationorevenofauthorityattachingtotheirpredecessors.Itisevensaid(Wright)thataman
copyingfromadocumentcouldnotproducesuchmultitudinousvariationsinwording.ThegreatobjectiontotheOralTheoryisthatitcould
notproducetheextraordinarilycloseresemblancesinlanguage,suchastheparenthesesmentionedabove,unlessindeedtheoralteachingwere
sofirmlystereotypedandsoexactlylearntbyheartthatithadbecomepracticallythesamethingasawrittenGospel.HencetheOralTheory
hasfallenintodisfavour,thoughthereiscertainlythiselementoftruthinit,thatoralteachingwentonforsometimesidebysidewithwritten
Gospels,andprovidedindependenttraditions(e.g.thatJesuswasborninacave,asJustinMartyrsays),andindeedinfluencedthelater
EvangelistsintheirtreatmentoftheearlierGospels.ItwasonlytowardstheendofthelivesoftheApostlesthatourGospelswerewritten.
(b)TheDocumentaryTheory,inoneform,nowobsolete,supposedthatthelatestoftheSynoptistsknewandborrowedfromtheothertwo,
andthemiddleSynoptistfromtheearliest.
Thistheory,iftrue,wouldbeasufficientcausefortheresemblancesbutinspiteofZahnsargumenttothecontrary(Einleitung,ii.400),it
isextremelyunlikelythatMatthewknewLukesGospelorviceversa.Tomentiononlyoneinstance,theBirthnarrativesclearlyarguethe
independenceofboth,especiallyinthematterofthegenealogies.AugustinestheorythatMarkfollowed,andwastheabbreviatorof,Matthew
isnowseentobeimpossible,bothbecauseofthegraphicandautopticnatureofMk.,whichprecludestheideaofanabbreviator,andbecause53/82
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isnowseentobeimpossible,bothbecauseofthegraphicandautopticnatureofMk.,whichprecludestheideaofanabbreviator,andbecause
inparallelpassagesMk.isfullerthanMt.,thelatterhavinghadtoabbreviateinordertointroduceadditionalmatter.
Theformofthistheorywhichmaynowbesaidtoholdthefield,isthatthesourceofthecommonportionsoftheSynopticsisaGreek
writtennarrative,called(forreasonsstatedinart.MARK[GOSPELACC.TO])thePetrinetraditionthepreachingofSt.Peterreducedto
theformofaGospel.ThefavouriteideaisthatourMk.isitselfthedocumentwhichtheotherSynoptistsindependentlyusedbutifthisisnot
thecase,atleastourMk.representsthatdocumentmostclosely.Thistheorywouldatonceaccountforthecloseresemblances.
Hereitmaybeaswelltogiveatonceasufficientanswertothechiefobjectiontoalldocumentarytheories(seeabove).Theobjection
transfersmodernideaswithregardtoliteraryborrowingtothe1stcentury.Asamatteroffact,wesnowthatoldwritersdidtheverything
objectedtoe.g.GenesisfreelyembodiesolderdocumentstheDidache(c.A.D.120)probablyincorporatesanoldJewishtractontheWayof
LifeandtheWayofDeath,andwasitselfafterwardsincorporatedandfreelytreatedinlaterdocumentssuchastheApostolicConstitutions(c.
A.D.375),whichalsoabsorbedandalteredtheDidascaliaandsothelaterChurchOrdersormanualswereproducedfromtheearlier.We
havenorighttomakeaprioritheoriesastoinspiration,andtotakeitforgrantedthatGodinspiredpeopleinthewaythatcommendsitselfto
us.AndweknowthatasamatteroffactwrittendocumentswereinexistencewhenSt.Lukewrote(Lk1:1).Itisnotthenunreasonableto
supposethatMk.orsomethingverylikeitwasbeforetheFirstandThirdEvangelistswhentheywrote.Astrongargumentforthepriorityof
Mk.willbeseenifthreeparallelpassagesoftheSynopticsbewrittenoutinGreeksidebyside,andthewordsandphrasesinMk.whichare
foundin||Mt.or||Lk.beunderlineditwillbefoundalmostalwaysthatnearlythewholeofMk.isreproducedinoneorbothoftheother
Synoptics,thoughtakensinglyMk.isusuallythefullestinparallelpassages.Mk.hasverylittlewhichispeculiartoitselfitsgreatvalue
lyinginanotherdirection(seeart.MARK[GOSPELACC.TO]forotherarguments).Theconclusionisthatit,oranotherGospelclosely
resemblingit,isacommonsourceofMt.andLk.ThisaccountsfortheresemblancesoftheSynoptiststheirdifferencescomefromSt.
MatthewandSt.Lukefeelingperfectlyfreetoaltertheirsourcesandnarrateincidentsdifferentlyasseemedbesttothem.Theyhadother
sourcesbesidesMk.Hereitmaybedesirabletoremarkbywayofcautionthatinsofarastheyuseacommonsource,theSynoptistsarenot
independentwitnessestothefactsoftheGospelsinsofarastheysupplementthatsource,theygiveadditionalattestationtothefacts.Yetan
eventspokenofbyallthreeSynoptistsinthesamewayisoftentreatedasbeingmoretrustworthythanonespokenofbyonlyoneorbytwo.
Arealexampleofdoubleattestation,ontheotherhand,isthereferencein1Co13:2tothefaiththatremovesmountains,ascomparedwith
Mt17:20,21:21.
AnotherformoftheDocumentaryTheorymaybebrieflymentioned,namely,thatthecommonsourcewasanAramaicdocument,
differentlytranslatedbythethreeEvangelists.This,itisthought,mightaccountforthedifferencesandmuchingenuityhasbeenexpendedon
showinghowanAramaicwordmight,bydifferentpointing(forpointstaketheplaceofvowelsinAramaic),orbyaslighterror,producethe
differencesinGreekwhichwefind.Butitisenoughtosaythatthistheorycouldnotpossiblyaccountforthecloseverbalresemblancesor
evenformostofthedifferences.AGreekdocumentmustbethecommonsource.
(c)ThenonMarkansourcesofMt.andLk.WehavenowtoconsiderthosepartsofMt.andLk.whicharecommontoboth,butarenot
foundinMk.,andalsothosepartswhicharefoundonlyinMt.oronlyinLk.Intheformerthesamephenomenaofverbalresemblancesand
differencesoccurbut,ontheotherhand,thecommonmatteris,toagreatextent,treatedinquiteadifferentorderbyMt.andLk.This
peculiarityisthoughtbysometobeduetothesourceusedbeingoral,eventhoughthePetrinetradition,thecommonsourceofthethree,was
adocument.Butthesameobjectionsasbeforeapplyhere(e.g.cf.Mt6:24,27=Lk16:13,12:25,orMt23:3739=Lk13:34f.,whichare
almostwordforwordthesame).WemustpostulateawrittenGreekcommonsourceandthedifferencesoforderaremosteasilyaccounted
forbyobservingthecharacteristicsoftheEvangelists.St.Matthewaimedratheratnarrativeaccordingtosubject,groupingincidentsand
teachingstogetherforthisreason,whileSt.Lukeratherpreservedchronologicalorder(cf.thetreatmentoftheBaptistsimprisonment,as
above).ThusinMt.wehavegroupsofsayings(e.g.theSermonontheMount)andgroupsofparables,notnecessarilyspokenatonetime,but
closelyconnectedbysubject.WemayinferthatSt.LuketreatedthedocumentcommontohimandSt.Matthewinastricterchronological
order,becausehetreatsMk.inthatway.HeintroducesalargepartofMk.inoneplace,keepingalmostalwaystoitsorderthenhe
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order,becausehetreatsMk.inthatway.HeintroducesalargepartofMk.inoneplace,keepingalmostalwaystoitsorderthenhe
interpolatesalongsectionfromsomeotherauthority(Lk9:5118:14),andthengoesbackandpicksupMk.nearlywherehehadleftit.
Probably,therefore,Lk.isnearerinordertothenonMarkandocumentthanMt.
Ofwhatnaturewasthisdocument?Some,followingaclueofPapias(seeart.MATTHEW[GOSPELACC.TO]),callittheLogia,and
treatitasacollectionofteachingsratherthanasaconnectedhistoryithasbeensuggestedthateachteachingwasintroducedbyJesussaid,
andthattheoccasionofeachwasnotspecified.Thiswouldaccountfordifferencesoforder.Butitwouldinvolveaveryunnecessary
multiplicationofdocuments,forconsiderationsofverbalresemblancesshowthatinthenarrative,aswellasinthediscourses,acommonnon
MarkandocumentmustunderlieMt.andLk.and,whatevermeaningbeascribedtothewordlogia,itisquiteimprobablethatPapiasrefersto
arecordofsayingsonly.While,then,itisprobablethatdiscoursesformedthegreaterpartofthenonMarkandocument,wemayby
comparingMt.andLk.concludethatitdescribedatleastsomehistoricalscenes.Thedocumentmusthaveincludedthepreachingofthe
Baptist,theTemptation,theSermonontheMount,thehealingofthecenturionsservant,thecomingofJohnsmessengerstoJesus,the
instructionstothedisciples,theLordsPrayer,thecontroversyaboutBeelzebub,thedenunciationofthePharisees,andpreceptsaboutover
anxiety.ItisverylikelythatitcontainedalsoanaccountoftheCrucifixionandResurrection,andmanyotherthingswhichareinMk.forin
someofthepassagescommontoallthree
Synoptists,Mt.andLk.agreetogetheragainstMk.Thiswouldbeaccountedforbytheirhaving,intheseinstances,followedthenonMarkan
documentinpreferencetothePetrinetradition.
Inadditiontheremusthavebeenothersources,oralordocumentary,ofMt.andLk.separately,forinsomepassagestheyshowcomplete
independence.
3.RelationoftheFourthGospeltotheSynoptics.ThedifferenceswhichstrikeusatoncewhenwecompareJn.withtheSynoptics
wereobviousalsototheFathers.ClementofAlexandriaaccountsforthefactofthedifferencesbyasolutionwhichhesayshederivedfrom
theancientelders,namely,thatJohn,seeingthattheexternal(lit.bodily)factshadalreadybeensufficientlysetforthintheotherGospels,
composed,attherequestofhisdisciplesandwiththeinspirationoftheSpirit,aspiritualGospel(quotedbyEusebius,HEvi.14).Bythis
phraseClementclearlymeansaGospelwhichemphasizestheGodheadofourLord.ThehumansideoftheGospelstoryhadalreadybeen
adequatelytreated.ElsewhereEusebius(HEiii.24)givesanoldtraditionthatJohnhadtheSynopticsbeforehim,andthathesupplemented
them.Inallessentialparticularsthissolutionmaybetreatedascorrect.ThemaindifferencesbetweenJohnandtheSynopticsareasfollows:
(a)GeographicalandChronological.TheSynoptistslaythesceneoftheministryalmostentirelyinGalileeandPeraSt.Johndwells
ontheministryinJuda.TheSynoptistshardlynotetheflightoftimeatallfromacursoryreadingoftheiraccountstheministrymighthave
beenthoughttohavelastedonlyoneyear,assomeearlyFathersbelieved,thusinterpretingtheacceptableyearoftheLord(Is61:2,Lk
4:19)though,ifwecarefullystudytheSynoptics,especiallyLk.,wedofaintlytracethreestagesinthewildernessofGalilee(abrief
record),inGalilee(fulldescription),andinCentralPalestineasfarasJerusalemandontheothersideofJordan.DuringthislaststageJesus
sethisfacetogotoJerusalem(Lk9:51cf.2K12:17,Ezk21:2).ButinJn.timeismarkedbythementionofseveralJewishfeasts,notably
thePassover,andwegatherfromJn.thattheministrylastedeither21/2or31/2years,accordingaswereadin5:1afeast(whichcould
hardlybeaPassover)orthefeast(whichperhapswasthePassover).Thesedifferencesarewhatweshouldexpectwhenweconsiderthatthe
SynopticstoryischieflyaGalilanone,andisnotconcernedwithvisitstoJerusalemandJudauntilthelastonejustbeforetheCrucifixion.
Yetfromincidentalnoticesinthe
SynopticsthemselvesweshouldhaveguessedthatJesusdidpayvisitsto
Jerusalem.EveryreligiousJewwoulddoso,ifpossible,atleastforthePassover.IfJesushadnotconformedtothiscustom,buthadpaidthe
firstvisitofHisministryjustbeforetheCrucifixion,wecouldnotaccountforthesuddenenmityoftheJerusalemJewstoHimatthattime,or
fortheexistenceofdisciplesinJuda,e.g.,
JudasIscariotandhisfatherSimonIscariot(Jn6:71RV),probablynativesofKeriothinJudaJosephofArimatha,acityoftheJews(Lk
23:51)thehouseholdatBethanyandSimontheleper(Mk14:3).TheowneroftheassandcoltatBethphage,andtheowneroftheroom
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wheretheLastSupperwaseaten,evidentlyknewJesuswhenthedisciplescamewiththemessages.AndiftheApostleshadjustarrivedin
Jerusalemforthefirsttimeonlyafewweeksbefore,itwouldbeunlikelythattheywouldmaketheirheadquartersthereimmediatelyafterthe
Ascension.ThustheaccountinJn.ofaJudanministryisindirectlyconfirmedbytheSynoptics(cf.alsoMt23:37howoften).
(b)ProclamationofJesusMessiahship.IntheSynoptics,especiallyinMk.,thisisaverygradualprocess.Theevilspiritswhoannounce
itinopportunelyaresilenced(Mk1:2f.).EvenafterPetersconfessionatCsareaPhilippiattheendoftheGalilanministry,thedisciplesare
chargedtotellnoman(Mk8:30).ButinJn.,theBaptistbeginsbycallingJesustheLambofGodandtheSonofGod
(1:29,34)Andrew,Philip,andNathanaelatoncerecognizehimasMessiah(1:41,45,49).Canbothaccountsbetrue?Now,aswehaveseen,
aJudanministrymusthavebeencarriedonsimultaneouslywithaGalilanonethesewouldbekeptabsolutelyseparatebythehostile
districtofSamariawhichlaybetweenthem(Jn4:9).Probablytwomethodswereusedfortwoquitedifferentpeoples.Theruralpopulationof
GalileehadtobetaughtbyveryslowdegreesbutJerusalemwasthehomeofreligiouscontroversy,anditsinhabitantswereacutereasoners.
WiththemthequestionwhoJesuswascouldnotbepostponedthisisshownbythewayinwhichthePhariseesquestionedtheBaptist.To
them,therefore,theMessiahshipwasproclaimedearlier.ItistruethattherewouldbeadifficultyiftheTwelvefirstlearnedaboutthe
MessiahshipofJesusatCsareaPhilippi.ButthisdoesnotappearfromtheSynoptics.TheApostleshadnodoubtheardthequestionsasked
inJuda,anddidknowourLordsclaimtobeChristbuttheydidnotfullyrealizeallthatitmeanttilltheincidentofPetersconfession.
(c)TheclaimsofourLordaresaidtobegreaterinJn.thanintheSynoptics(e.g.Jn.10:30),anditissuggestedthattheyarean
exaggerationduetoalaterage.CertainlyJn.isatheologicalGospel.ButinrealitytheclaimsofourLordareasgreatintheSynoptics,
thoughtheymaynotbesoexplicitlymentioned.TheclaimofJesustobeLordoftheSabbath(Mk2:28),torestatetheLaw(Mt5:17,21f.,
RV,etc.),tobeabouttocomeinglory(Mk8:38,14:62),tobetheJudgeoftheworld(Mt25:31ff.etc.),theinvitationComeuntome(Mt
11:28ff.),theassertionoftheatoningefficacyofHisdeath(Mk10:45,14:24)cannotbesurpassed(seealsoMARK[GOSPELACC.TO],
3).TheselfassertionofthegreatExampleofhumilityisequallygreatinalltheGospels,andisthegreatstumblingblockofallthethoughtful
upholdersofapurelyhumanitarianChrist.
(d)Otherdifferences,whichcanherebeonlyalludedto,aretheemphasisinJn.
ontheworkoftheSpirit,theComfortertheabsenceinJn.ofsetparables,allegoriestakingtheirplaceandthecharacterofthemiracles,there
beingnocastingoutofdevilsinJn.,and,ontheotherhand,themiracleatCanabeingunlikeanythingintheSynoptics.Theonlymiracle
commontothefourGospelsisthefeedingofthefivethousand,whichinJn.ismentionedprobablyonlytointroducethediscourseat
Capernaum,ofwhichitformsthetext(Jn6).AllthesephenomenamaybeaccountedforonClementshypothesis.TheFourthEvangelisthad
theSynopticsbeforehim,andsupplementedthemfromhisownknowledge.Anditmayberemarkedthat,hadJn.beenalateworkwritten
afterthedeathofalltheApostles,theauthorwouldneverhaveventuredtointroducesomanydifferencesfromGospelsalreadylongin
circulationwhereasonewhohadbeenaneyewitness,writingattheendofhislife,mightwellbeinsuchapositionofauthority(perhapsthe
lastsurvivoroftheApostoliccompany,whoeverhewas)thathecouldsupplementfromhisownknowledgetheaccountsalreadyinuse.
ThesupplementarycharacterofJn.isseenalsofromitsomissionofmatterstowhichthewriterneverthelessalludes,assumingthathis
readersknowtheme.g.,Jesusbaptism(withouttheknowledgeofwhichJn1:32wouldbeunintelligible),thecommissiontobaptize(cf.the
Nicodemusnarrative,Jn3),theEucharist(cf.Jn6,whichitishardlypossibletoexplainwithoutanyreferencetoJesuswordsattheLast
Supper,forwhichitisapreparation,takingawaytheirapparentabruptness),theTransfiguration(cf.1:14),theBirthofourLord(itisassumed
thattheanswertotheobjectionthatChristcouldnotcomefromNazarethiswellknown,1:46,7:41,52),theAscension(cf.6:62,20:17),etc.
SoalsoitisoftenrecordedinJn.thatJesusleftquestionsunanswered,andtheEvangelistgivesnoexplanation,assumingthattheansweris
wellknown(3:4,4:11,15,6:52,7:35).
TherearesomewellknownapparentdifferencesindetailsbetweenJn.andtheSynoptics.Theyseemtodifferastowhetherthedeathof
ourLordortheLastSuppersynchronizedwiththesacrificingofthePaschallambs,andastothehouroftheCrucifixion(cf.Mk15:25withJn
19:14).Varioussolutionsofthesediscrepancieshavebeensuggestedbutthereisonesolutionwhichisimpossible,namely,thatJn.isa2nd
cent.pseudepigraphicwork.Forifso,thefirstcarethatthewriterwouldhavewouldbetoremoveanyobviousdifferencesbetweenhiswork
andthatofhispredecessors.Itclearlyprofessestobebyaneyewitness(Jn1:14,19:35).Either,then,Jn.wastheworkofonewhowroteso 56/82
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andthatofhispredecessors.Itclearlyprofessestobebyaneyewitness(Jn1:14,19:35).Either,then,Jn.wastheworkofonewhowroteso
earlythathehadneverseentheSynopticrecord,butthisiscontradictedbytheinternalevidencejustdetailed,orelseitwaswrittenbyone
whooccupiedsuchaprominentpositionthathecouldgivehisownexperienceswithoutstoppingtoexplainanapparentcontradictionof
formerGospels.Infactthedifferences,puzzlingthoughtheyaretous,areanindicationoftheauthenticityoftheFourthGospel.
4.AretheGospelscontemporaryrecords?Wehavehithertoconsideredthemfrominternalevidence.Wemay,inconclusion,briefly
combinethelatterwiththeexternalattestation,inordertofixtheirdate,referring,however,fordetailstotheseparateheadings.Itisgenerally
agreedthattheFourthGospelisthelatest.Internalevidenceshowsthatitsauthorwasaneyewitness,aPalestinianJewofthe1stcent.,whose
interestswereentirelyofthatage,andwhowasnotconcernedwiththecontroversiesandinterestsofthatwhichfollowedit.Ifso,wecannot
placeitlaterthanA.D.100,andthereforetheSynopticsmustbeearlier.Irenus(c.A.D.180)hadalreadyformulatedthenecessityofthere
beingfour,andonlyfour,canonicalGospelsandheknewofnodoubtexistingonthesubject.Itisincrediblethathecouldhavespokenthusif
Jn.hadbeenwritteninthemiddleofthe2ndcentury.Tatian(c.A.D.160)made,asweknowfromrecentdiscoveries,aHarmonyofourfour
Gospels(theDiatessaron),andthisbeganwiththePrologueofJn.JustinMartyr(c.A.D.150)isnowgenerallyallowedtohaveknownJn.,
thoughsomeholdthathedidnotputitonalevelwiththeSynoptics.Again,itishardtodenythat1Jn.andtheFourthGospelwerewrittenby
thesameauthor,and1Jn.isquotedbyPapias(c.140orearlier),aswelearnfromEusebius(HEiii.39),andbyPolycarp(Phil.7,writtenc.
A.D.111).Ifso,theymusthaveknowntheFourthGospel.Otherallusionsinearly2ndcent.writerstotheFourthGospeland1Jn.areatleast
highlyprobable.Thentheexternalevidence,liketheinternal,wouldleadustodatetheFourthGospelnotlaterthanA.D.100.ThisGospel
seemstogivetheresultsoflongreflexionon,andexperienceoftheeffectof,theteachingofourLord,writtendowninoldagebyonewho
hadseenwhathenarrates.TheSynoptics,towhichJn.issupplementary,mustthenbeofearlierdateandthisistheconclusiontowhichthey
themselvespoint.TheThirdGospel,beingwrittenbyatravellingcompanionofSt.Paul(seeart.LUKE[GOSPELACC.TO]),canhardly
havebeenwrittenafterA.D.80andtheSecond,whetheritbeexactlytheGospelwhichSt.Lukeused,orthesameeditedbySt.Markthe
interpreterofSt.Peter(seeart.MARK[GOSPELACC.TO]),mustbeeithersomewhatearlierthanLk.(asisprobable),oratleast,evenifit
beaneditedform,verylittlelater.Itsautopticcharacter,givingevidenceofdependingonaneyewitness,makesalaterdatedifficultto
conceive.SimilarargumentsapplytoMt.(seeart.MATTHEW[GOSPELACC.TO]).Thus,then,whilethereisroomfordifferenceof
opinionastothenamesandpersonalitiesofthewritersoftheGospels(for,likethehistoricalbooksofOT,theyareanonymous),critical
studiesleadusmoreandmoretofindinthemtrustworthyrecordswhosewritershadfirsthandauthorityforwhattheystate.
Itmaybewellheretostateadifficultythatarisesinreviewingthe2ndcent.attestationtoourGospels.Inthefirstplace,theChristian
literatureoftheperiodA.D.100175isextremelyscanty,sothatweshouldnotaprioriexpectthateveryApostolicwritingwouldbequoted
initsextantremains.And,further,thefashionofquotationchangedasthe2ndcent.wenton.Towardstheendofthecentury,wefinddirect
quotationsbyname.Butearlierthiswasnotso.InIgnatius,Polycarp,Justin,andotherearly2ndcent.writers,wefindmanyquotationsand
references,butwithoutnamesgivensothatdoubtissometimesraisedwhethertheyareindebtedtoourcanonicalGospelsortosomeother
source,oralorwritten,forourLordswords.ItisclearthatourcanonicalGospelswerenottheonlysourcesofinformationthatthesewriters
hadoraltraditionhadnotyetdiedout,andtheymayhaveusedotherwrittenrecords.Totakeanexample,itisobviousthatJustinknewthe
SermonontheMountbutwhenweexaminehisquotationsfromitwecannotbecertainifheiscitingMt.orLk.orboth,or(possibly)an
earlyHarmonyofthetwo.Itmaybepointedoutthatif,asisquitepossible,thequotationspointtotheexistenceofHarmoniesbeforeTatians,
thatfactinrealitypushesbacktheexternalevidencestillearlier.Many,ormost,ofthedifferencesofquotation,however,mayprobablybe
accountedforbythedifficultyofcitingmemoriter.Whentoquoteaccuratelymeanttoundoarollwithoutstopsorparagraphs,earlywriters
maybepardonedfortrustingtoomuchtotheirmemories.Anditisnoteworthythatasarulethelongerthequotationintheseearlywriters,the
moretheyconformtoourcanonicalGospels,forinlongpassagestheycouldnottrusttheirmemories.Thesamepeculiarityisobservedin
theirquotationsfromtheLXX.

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Bearingthesethingsinmind,wemay,withoutgoingbeyondTatian,concludewiththehighestdegreeofprobability,fromevidencewhich
hasundergonetheclosestscrutiny:(a)thatourMt.wasknownto,orwasincorporatedinaHarmonyknownto,Justinandthewriterofthe
Didache(c.A.D.120)andBarnabasandsimilarly(b)thatourMk.wasknowntoPapias,Justin,Polycarp,and(perhaps)pseudoClement
(2Clem.adCor.),Hermas,andtheauthoroftheGospelofpseudoPeterandtheClementineHomilies,andHeracleonandValentinus(c)
thatourLk.wasknowntoJustin(veryobviously),theDidachewriter,Marcion(whobasedhisGospelonit),Celsus,Heracleon,andthe
authoroftheClementineHomiliesand(d)thatourJn.wasknowntoJustin,Papias,andPolycarp.
A.J.MACLEAN.
GOSPELS,APOCRYPHAL.AccordingtoLk.1:14,therewereanumberofaccountsofthelifeandteachingsofJesusincirculation
amongtheChristiansofthe1stcentury.AmongthesewerenotonlythesourcesofourcanonicalGospels,butalsoanumberofotherwritings
purportingtocomefromvariouscompanionsofJesusandtorecordHislifeandwords.Inprocessoftimethesewerelost,orbutpartially
preserved.TheGospelsweresupplementedbyothers,untilthereresultedaliteraturethatstandsrelatedtotheNTCanonmuchastheOT
ApocryphastandrelatedtotheOTCanon.Asawhole,however,itneverattainedtheimportanceoftheOTApocrypha.IndividualGospels
seemtohavebeenusedasauthoritative,butnoneofthemwaseveracceptedgenerally.
I.THEORIGINOFTHEAPOCRYPHALGOSPELS.Sovoluminousisthis
literature,solocalwasthecirculationofmostofit,andsoobscurearethecircumstancesattendingitsappearance,thatitisimpossibletomake
anygeneralstatementastoitsorigin.FewapocryphalGospelsreachusentire,andmanyareknowntousonlyasnamesintheChurchFathers.
Itwouldseem,however,asiftheliteratureasweknowitmighthaveoriginated:(a)FromthecommonEvangelictraditionpreservedinits
bestforminourSynopticGospels(e.g.GospelaccordingtotheHebrews,GospeloftheEgyptians).(b)Fromthehomiletictendencywhich
hasalwaysgivenrisetostoriesliketheHaggadahofJudaism.TheGospelsofthissortundertaketocompletetheaccountofJesuslifeby
supplyingfictitiousincidents,oftenbywayofaccountingforsayingsinthecanonicalGospels.Atthispointthelegendmakingprocesses
weregivenfreescope(e.g.GospelofNicodemus,ProtevangeliumofJames,GospelaccordingtoThomas,ArabicGospelofInfancy,Arabic
GospelofJoseph,PassingofMary).(c)FromtheneedofGospelnarrativestosupportvariousheresies,particularlyGnosticandascetic(e.g.
GospelsaccordingtoPeter,Philip,pseudoMatthew,theTwelveApostles,Basilides).
InthiscollectionmaybeincludedfurtheranumberofotherGospelsaboutwhichweknowlittleornothing,beinginignoranceevenasto
whethertheyweremerelymutilatededitionsofcanonicalGospelsorthosebelongingtothethirdclass.Thepresentarticlewillconsideronly
themoreimportantandbestknownoftheseapocryphalGospels.
II.CHARACTERISTICSOFTHESEGOSPELS.Eventhemostsuperficial
readeroftheseGospelsrecognizestheirinferioritytothecanonical,notmerelyinpointofliterarystyle,butalsoingeneralsobernessofview.
InpracticallyallofthemaretobefoundillustrationsofthelegendmakingprocesswhichearlyovertooktheChristianChurch.Theyabound
inaccountsofallegedmiracles,thepurposeofwhichisoftentrivial,andsometimesevenmalicious.Withtheexceptionofafewsayings,
mostlyfromtheGospelaccordingtotheHebrews,theteachingtheycontainisobviouslyaworkingupofthatofthecanonicalGospels,or
clearlyimagined.IntheentireliteraturetherearefewsayingsattributedtoJesusthatareatthesametimeauthenticandextracanonical(see
UNWRITTENSAYINGS).TheseGospelspossessvaluefortheChurchhistorianinthattheyrepresenttendenciesatworkintheChurchof
thefirstfourorfivecenturies.Fromthepointofviewofcriticism,however,theyareofsmallimportancebeyondheighteningourestimation
ofthesobernessandsimplicityofthecanonicalnarratives.
TheseGospels,whenemployingcanonicalmaterial,usuallymodifyitintheinterestofsomepeculiardoctrinalview.Thisisparticularly
trueofthatclassofGospelswrittenforthepurposeofsupportingsomeoftheearlierheresies.Sofantasticalaresomeofthem,thatitisalmost
incrediblethattheyshouldeverhavebeenreceivedasauthoritative.ParticularlyisthistrueofthosethatdealwiththeearlylifeofMaryandof
theinfantChrist.InsomecasesitisnotimpossiblethatcurrentpaganlegendsandfolkstorieswereattachedtoMaryandJesus.
Notwithstandingthisfact,however,manyofthesestories,particularlythoseofthebirth,girlhood,anddeathofMary,havefoundtheirway
intotheliteratureandeventhedoctrineoftheRomanChurch.OflatetherehasbeensomeattemptbytheCuriatochecktheuseofthese
works,andin1884LeoXIII.declaredthe
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works,andin1884LeoXIII.declaredthe
ProtevangeliumofJamesandotherworksdealingwiththeNativityofJesustobe
impuresourcesoftradition.
III.THEMOSTIMPORTANTGOSPELS
1.TheGospelaccordingtotheHebrews.(1)TheearliestPatristicstatementsregardingourNTliteraturecontainreferencestoeventsin
thelifeofJesuswhicharenottobefoundinourcanonicalGospels.EusebiusdeclaresthatoneofthesestoriescamefromtheGospel
accordingtotheHebrews.ClementofAlexandriaandOrigen,particularlythelatter,apparentlyknewsuchaGospelwell.Origenquotesitat
leastthreetimes,andClementtwice.Eusebius(HEiii.25)mentionstheGospelasbelongingtothatclasswhich,liketheShepherdofHermas
andtheDidache,wereacceptedinsomeportionsoftheEmpireandrejectedinothers.JeromeobtainedfromtheSyrianChristiansacopyof
thisGospel,whichwaswritteninAramaic,andwasusedamongthesectsoftheNazarenesandEbionites,bywhichtwoclassesheprobably
meantthePalestinianChristiansofthenonPaulinechurches.JeromeeithertranslatedthisbookfromHeb.orAram.intobothGreekand
Latin,orrevisedandtranslatedacurrentGreekversion.
(2)TheauthorshipoftheGospelaccordingtotheHebrewsisincompleteobscurity.Itappearsthatinthe4thcent.someheldittobethe
workoftheApostleMatthew.Jerome,however,evidentlyknewthatthiswasnotthecase,foritwasnotcirculatingintheWest,andhefound
itnecessarytotranslateitintoGreek.Epiphanius,Jeromescontemporary,describesitasbeginningwithanaccountofJohntheBaptist,and
commencingwithoutanygenealogyorsectionsdealingwiththeinfancyofChrist.ThiswouldmakeitlikeourGospelaccordingtoMark,
withwhich,however,itcannotbeidentifiedifitistobejudgedbysuchextractsashavecomedowntous.
(3)ThetimeofcompositionoftheGospelaccordingtotheHebrewsisevidentlyveryearly.Itmayevenhavebeenoneformoftheoriginal
GospelofJesus,coordinatewiththeLogiaofMatthewandtheearliestsectionoftheBookofLuke.Caution,however,isneededintaking
thisposition,asthequotationswhichhavebeenpreservedfromitdiffermarkedlyfromthoseofanyofthesourcesofourcanonicalGospels
whichcanbegainedbycriticism.Atallevents,theGospelistobedistinguishedfromtheHebreworiginalofthecanonicalGospelof
MatthewmentionedbyPapias(Euseb.HEiii.39.16,vi.25.4Irenus,l.1).Onthewhole,thesafestconclusionisprobablythattheGospel
waswellknownintheeasternpartoftheRomanEmpireinthelatterhalfofthe2ndcent.,andthatingeneralitwascomposedofmaterial
similartothatofthecanonicalGospels,butcontainedalsosayingsofJesuswhichourcanonicalGospelshavenotpreservedforus.
ThemostimportantquotationsfromtheGospelareasfollows:
Ifthybrothersininwordandgivetheesatisfaction,receivehimseventimesintheday.Simon,Hisdisciple,saidtoHim,Seventimesin
theday?TheLordansweredandsaidtohim,Yea,Isayuntothee,untilseventytimesevenforwiththeprophetsalso,aftertheywere
anointedwiththeHolySpirit,therewasfoundsinfulspeech(Jerome,adv.Pelag.iii.2).
AlsothesocalledGospelaccordingtotheHebrews,whichwasrecentlytranslatedbymeintoGreekandLatin,whichOrigen,too,often
uses,relatesaftertheresurrectionoftheSaviour:ButwhentheLordhadgiventhelinenclothtothepriestsservant,HewenttoJamesand
appearedtohim.ForJameshadtakenanoaththathewouldnoteatbreadfromthathourinwhichhehaddrunkthecupoftheLord,untilhe
shouldseeHimrisingfromthatsleep.
Andagain,alittlefartheron:Bringme,saiththeLord,atableandbread.Andtherefollowsimmediately:Hetookthebread,and
blessed,andbrake,andgavetoJamestheJust,andsaidtohim.Mybrother,eatthybread,inasmuchastheSonofManhathrisenfromthem
thatsleep(Jerome,deVir.Illus.ii.).
IntheGospelaccordingtotheHebrewsisthefollowingstory:Behold,theLordsmotherandHisbrethrenweresayingtoHim,John
theBaptistbaptizesuntotheremissionofsinsletusgoandbebaptizedbyhim.ButHesaiduntothem,WhatsinhaveIdone,thatIshouldgo
andbebaptizedbyhim?unlessperchancethisverythingwhichIhavesaidisanignorance(Jerome,adv.Pelag.iii.2).
IntheGospelwhichtheNazarenesareaccustomedtoread,thataccordingtotheHebrews,thereisputamongthegreatestcrimes,hewho
shallhavegrievedthespiritofhisbrother(Jerome,inEzech.18:7).

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IntheHebrewGospel,too,wereadoftheLordsayingtothedisciples,Andnever,saidHe,rejoice,exceptwhenyouhavelookedupon
yourbrotherinlove.(Jerome,inEphes.5:3f.).
Forthosewordshavethesamemeaningwiththoseothers,Hethatseekethshallnotstopuntilhefind,andwhenhehathfoundheshall
wonder,andwhenhehathwonderedheshallreign,andwhenhehathreignedheshallrest(Clem.ofAlex.Strom,ii.9.45).
AndifanyonegoestotheGospelaccordingtotheHebrews,theretheSaviourHimselfsaith:JustnowmymothertheHolySpirittook
mebyoneofmyhairsandcarriedmeofftothegreatmountainTabor(Origen,inJoan.vol.ii.6).
ItiswritteninacertainGospel,thesocalledGospelaccordingtotheHebrews,ifanyonelikestotakeitupnotashavinganyauthority
buttoshedlightonthematterinhand:Theother,itsays,oftherichmensaiduntoHim,Master,bydoingwhatgoodthingshallIhave
life?Hesaidtohim,Man,dotheLawandtheProphets.Heanswereduntohim,Ihave.Hesaidtohim,Go,eellallthatthouhast,and
distributetothepoor,andcome,followMe.Buttherichmanbegantoscratchhishead,anditpleasedhimnot.AndtheLordsaiduntohim,
Howsayestthou,IhavedonetheLawandtheProphets,sinceitiswrittenintheLaw,Thoushaltlovethyneighbourasthyselfandbehold
manybrethrenofthine,sonsofAbraham,arecladinfilth,dyingofhunger,andthyhouseisfullofgoodthings,andnothingatallgoesout
fromittothem.AndHeturnedandsaidtoSimonHisdisciple,whowassittingbyHim:Simon,sonofJohn,itiseasierforacameltogo
throughtheeyeofaneedlethanforarichmantoenterintothekingdomofheaven(Origen,inMat.15:14).
TheGospelwhichhascomedowntousinHebrewcharactersgavethethreatasmadenotagainsthimwhohid(histalent),butagainsthim
wholivedriotouslyfor(theparable)toldofthreeservants,onewhodevouredhislordssubstancewithharlotsandflutegirls,onewhogained
profitmanyfold,andonewhohidhistalentandhowintheissueonewasaccepted,onemerelyblamed,andoneshutupinprison(Euseb.
Theoph.xxii.).
2.TheGospeloftheEgyptians.ThisGospelismentionedinthelastquarterofthe2ndcent.byClementofAlexandria,bywhomitwas
regardedasapparentlyofsomehistoricalworth,butnotofthesamegradeasourfourGospels.OrigeninhisCommentaryonLukementionsit
amongthosetowhichtheEvangelistreferred,butdoesnotregarditasinspired.Hippolytussaysthatitwasusedbyanotherwiseunknown
GnosticsectknownasNaassenes.Itwasalsoapparentlyknowntothewriterof2Clement(ch.xii.).
TheoriginoftheGospelisaltogetheramatterofconjecture.ItsnamewouldseemtoindicatethatitcirculatedinEgypt,possiblyamong
theEgyptianasdistinguishedfromtheHebrewChristians.TheprobabilitythatitrepresentstheoriginalEvangelictraditionisnotasstrongas
inthecaseoftheGospelaccordingtotheHebrews.Atleastbytheendofthe2ndcent.itwasregardedaspossessedofhereticaltendencies,
particularlythoseoftheEncratites,whowereopposedtomarriage.Itisnotimpossible,however,thattheGospeloftheEgyptianscontained
theoriginaltradition,butinformsufficientlyvarianttoadmitofmanipulationbygroupsofheretics.
ThemostimportantsayingsofJesuswhichhavecomedownfromthisGospelarefromtheconversationofJesuswithSalome,givenby
ClementofAlexandria.
WhenSalomeaskedhowlongdeathshouldhavepower,theLord(notmeaningthatlifeisevilandthecreationbad)said.Aslongas
youwomenbear(Strom.iii.64.5).
AndthosewhoopposedthecreationofGodthroughshamefulabstinenceallegealsothosewordsspokentoSalomewhereofwemade
mentionabove.Andtheyarecontained,Ithink,intheGospelaccordingtotheEgyptians.FortheysaidthattheSaviourHimselfsaid,Icame
todestroytheworksofthefemale,thefemalebeinglust,andtheworksbirthandcorruption(Strom,iii.9.63).
AndwhydonottheywhowalkanywayratherthanbytheGospelruleoftruthadducetherestalsoofthewordsspokentoSalome?For
whenshesaid,ThereforehaveIdonewellinthatIhavenotbroughtforth,asifitwerenotfittingtoacceptmotherhood,theLordreplies,
saying,Eateveryherb,butthatwhichhathbitternesseatnot(ib.).
ThereforeCasaiansays:WhenSalomeinquiredwhenthosethingsshouldbeconcerningwhichsheasked,theLordsaid,Whenye
trampleonthegarmentofshame,andwhenthetwoshallbeone,andthemalewiththefemale,neithermalenorfemale(Strom.iii.13.92).

3. TheGospelaccordingtoPeter.ThisGospelismentionedbyEusebius(HEvi.12)ashavingbeenrejectedbySerapion,bishopof
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3.TheGospelaccordingtoPeter.ThisGospelismentionedbyEusebius(HEvi.12)ashavingbeenrejectedbySerapion,bishopof
Antioch,inthelastdecadeofthe2ndcentury.HefounditincirculationamongtheSyrianChristians,andatfirstdidnotopposeit,butafter
havingstudieditfurther,condemneditasDocetic.OrigeninhisCommentaryonMatthew(Bookx.17,andoccasionallyelsewhere)mentions
it,oratleastshowsanacquaintancewithit.Eusebius(HEiii.
3,25)rejectsitasheretical,asdoesJerome(deVir.Illus.i.).
In1886afragmentofthisGospelwasdiscoveredbyM.Bouriant,andpublishedwithatrans.in1892.Itrelatesinsomedetailthedeath,
burial,andresurrectionofJesus.Itisparticularlyinterestingasindicatinghowcanonicalmaterialcouldbeelaboratedandchangedinthe
interestsoftheDoceticheresy.ThusthewordsofJesusonthecross,MyGod,myGod,whyhastthouforsakenme?aremadetoread,My
power,mypower,thouhastforsakenme.Atthetimeoftheresurrectionthesoldiersaresaidtohaveseenhowthreemencamsforthfromthe
tomb,andtwoofthemsupportedone,andthecrossfollowedthemandofthetwotheheadreacheduntotheheavens,buttheheadofhimthat
wasledbythemoverpassedtheheavensandtheyheardavoicefromtheheavenssaying,Thouhastpreacheduntothemthatsleep.Anda
responsewasheardfromthecross,Yea.
4.TheGospelofNicodemus.ThisGospelembodiesthesocalledActsofPilate,anallegedofficialreportoftheprocuratortoTiberius
concerningJesus.Tertullian(Apol.v.2)wasapparentlyacquaintedwithsuchareport,andsomesimilardocumentwasknowntoEusebius
(HEii.2)andtoEpiphanius(Hr.i.1)buttheActsofPilateknowntoEusebiuswasprobablystillanotherandheathenwriting.Tischendorf
heldthattheActsofPilatewasknowntoJustinbutthatisdoubtful.
OurpresentGospelofNicodemus,embodyingthisallegedreportofPilate,wasnotitselfwrittenuntilthe5thcent.,andthereforeisof
smallhistoricalimportanceexceptasitmayberegardedasembodyingolder(butuntrustworthy)material.Asitnowstandsitgivesan
elaborateaccountofthetrialofJesus,HisdescenttoHades,resurrection,andascension.Altogetheritcontainstwentysevenchapters,each
oneofwhichismarkedbythegeneraltendencytoelaboratetheGospelaccountsforhomileticpurposes.BeyonditsexpositionofJesus
descentintoHadesitcontainslittleofdoctrinalimportance.Itisnotimprobable,however,thatchs.1727,whichnarratethisallegedevent,
arelaterthanchs.116.TheGospelmaynonethelessfairlybesaidtorepresentthebeliefinthisvisitofJesustodepartedspiritswhich
markedtheearlyandmedivalChurch.ItisalsoinharmonywiththeanteAuselmicdoctrineoftheAtonement,inaccordancewithwhich
JesusgaveHimselfaransomtoSatan.
ThefirstsixteenchaptersaboundinanecdotesconcerningJesusandHistrial,inwhichthequestionofthelegitimacyofJesusbirthis
establishedbytwelvewitnessesofthemarriageofMaryandJoseph.ItrelatesalsothatatthetrialofJesusanumberofpersons,including
NicodemusandVeronica,appearedtotestifyinHisbehalf.TheaccountsofthecrucifixionareclearlybaseduponLk23.Thestoryofthe
burialisfurtherelaboratedbytheintroductionofanumberofBiblicalcharacters,whoundertaketoprovethegenuinenessoftheresurrection.
AlthoughtheGospelofNicodemuswasofanaturetoacquiregreatpopularity,andhashadaprofoundinfluenceuponthevariouspoetical
andhomileticpresentationsoftheeventssupposedtohavetakenplacebetweenthedeathandresurrectionofJesus,andalthoughtheActsof
Pilatehasbeentreatedmoreseriouslythantheevidenceinitsfavourwarrants,theGospelisobviouslyoftheclassofJewishHaggadahor
legend.Itisthusoneformoftheliteraturedealingwithmartyrs,andapparentlyneverwasusedaspossessingserioushistoricalordoctrinal
authorityuntilthe13thcentury.
5.TheProtevangeliumofJames.ThisbookinitspresentformwasusedbyEpiphaniusinthelatterpartofthe4thcent.,ifnotby
othersoftheChurchFathers.
ItisnotimprobablethatitwasreferredtobyOrigenunderthenameoftheBookofJames.AsClementofAlexandriaandJustinMartyrboth
referredtoincidentsconnectedwiththebirthofJesuswhicharerelatedintheProtevangelium,itisnotimpossiblethatthewritingcirculated
inthemiddleofthe2ndcentury.
TheProtevangeliumpurportstobeanaccountofthebirthofMaryandofherearlylifeintheTemple,whithershewasbroughtbyher
parentswhenshewasthreeyearsofage,andwhereattwelveyearsofageshewasmarriedtoJoseph,thenanoldmanwithchildren.It
includesalsoanaccountoftheAnnunciationandthevisitofMarytoElisabeth,ofthetrialbyordealofJosephandMaryonthechargeof
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havingbeensecretlymarried,ofthebirthofJesusinacave,andaccompanyingmiraclesofthemostextravagantsort.Thewritingcloseswith
anaccountofthemartyrdomofZachariasandthedeathofHerod.
ItisprobablethatthechaptersdealingwiththebirthofJesusareofindependentoriginfromtheothers,althoughitisnotimprobablethat
eventheremainderoftheProtevangeliumisacompositework,probablyoftheJewishChristians,whichhasbeeneditedintheinterestsof
Gnosticism.Theoriginalcannotwellbelaterthanthemiddleofthe2ndcent.,whiletheGnosticrevisionwasprobablyacenturylater.
FromthecriticalpointofviewtheProtevangeliumisimportantastestifyingtoinsistenceinthemiddleofthe2ndcent.uponthe
miraculousbirthofJesus.ItisalsoofinterestaslyingbehindthetwoLatinGospelsofpseudoMatthewandtheNativityofJesusalthoughit
maybefairlyquestionedwhetherthesetwolaterGospelsarederiveddirectlyfromtheProtevangeliumorfromitssource.
6.TheGospelaccordingtoThomas.HippolytusquotesfromaGospelaccordingtoThomaswhichwasbeingusedbytheNaassenes.
TheGospelwasalsoknowntoOrigenandtoEusebius,whoclassesitwiththehereticalwritings.Itwassubsequentlyheldinhighregardby
theManichans.ItexiststodayinGreek,Latin,andSyriacversions,which,however,donotaltogetheragree,andallofwhichareapparently
abbreviatedrecensionsoftheoriginalGospel.
TheGospelofThomasisanaccountofthechildhoodofJesus,andconsistslargelyofstoriesofHismiraculouspowerandknowledge,the
mostinterestingofthelatterbeingtheaccountofJesusvisittoschool,andoftheformer,thewellknownstoryofHiscausingtwelvesparrows
ofclaytofly.
ThebookisundoubtedlyofGnosticorigin,anditschiefmotiveseemstobetoshowthatJesuswaspossessedofDivinepowerbeforeHis
baptism.TheoriginalGospelofThomas,thenatureofwhichis,however,verymuchindispute,mayhavebeeninexistenceinthemiddleof
the2ndcentury.Itspresentformislaterthanthe6thcentury.
7.TheArabicGospeloftheChildhoodofJesus.TheArabicGospelisatranslationofaSyriaccompilationofstoriesconcerningthe
childJesus.ItsearliersectionsareapparentlyderivedfromtheProtevangelium,anditslaterfromtheGospelofThomas.
ThisGospelsuppliesstillfurtherstoriesconcerningtheinfancyofJesus,andbeginsbydeclaringthatJesus,asHewaslyinginHiscradle,
saidtoMary,IamJesus,theSonofGod,theLogos,whomthouhastbroughtforth.Themiracleswhichitnarratesareprobablythemost
fantasticofallintheGospelsoftheinfancyofJesus.FromthefactthatitusesotherapocryphalGospels,itcanhardlyhavebeenwrittenprior
tothe7thor8thcentury.
8.TheGospelofPhilip.TheonlyclearallusiontotheexistenceofsuchabookisareferenceinPistisSophia.Fromthisitmightbe
inferredthatfromthe3rdcent.suchaGospelcirculatedamongtheGnosticsinEgypt.Itisofevenlesshistoricalvaluethanthe
Protevangelium.
9.TheArabicHistoryofJosephtheCarpenter.ThisGospelundertakestoexplainthenonappearanceofJosephintheaccountofthe
canonicalGospels.ItdescribesindetailJosephsdeathandburial,aswellasthelamentationandeulogyspokenoverhimbyJesus.Itisat
somepointsparallelwiththeProtevangelium,butcarriesthemiraculouselementofthebirthastepfarther,inthatitmakesJesussayofMary,
Ichoseherofmyownwill,withtheconcurrenceofmyFatherandthecounseloftheHolySpirit.Suchaformularypointstothe4thcent.as
thetimeofcomposition,butitcouldhardlyhavebeenwrittenlaterthanthe5thcent.,asJesusissaidtohavepromisedMarythesamesortof
deathasothermortalssuffer.TheworkisprobablyareworkingofJewishChristianmaterial,andisnotstronglymarkedbyGnosticqualities.
10.TheGospeloftheTwelveApostles.ThisGospelisidentifiedbyJeromewiththeGospelaccordingtotheHebrews.This,however,is
probablyamistakeonhispart.TheGospelcomesdowntousonlyinquotationsinEpiphanius(Hr.XXX.1316,22).Tojudgefromthese
quotations,itwasarewritingofthecanonicalGospelsintheinterestofsomesectofChristiansopposedtosacrifice.Jesusisrepresentedas
saying,Icometoputanendtosacrifices,andunlessyeceasefromsacrificing,angerwillnotceasefromyou.Thesamemotiveappearsin
itsrewritingofLk22:15,wherethesayingofJesusisturnedintoaquestionrequiringanegativeanswer.Ifthesefragmentsgivenby
EpiphaniusarefromaGospelalsomentionedbyOrigen,itisprobablethatitdatesfromtheearlypartofthe3rdcentury.
11.ThePassingofMary.ThisGospelhascometousinGreek,Latin,Syriac,Sahidic,andEthiopicversions.Itcontainsahighly
imaginativeaccountofthedeathofMary,towhosedeathbedtheHolySpiritmiraculouslybringsvariousApostlesfromdifferentpartsofthe
world,aswellassomeofthemfromtheirtombs.Theaccountaboundsinmiraclesofthemostirrationalsort,anditfinallyculminatesinthe
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world,aswellassomeofthemfromtheirtombs.Theaccountaboundsinmiraclesofthemostirrationalsort,anditfinallyculminatesinthe
removalofMarysspotlessandpreciousbodytoParadise.Theworkisevidentlybasedonvariousapocryphalwritings,includingthe
Protevangelium,andcouldnotwellhavecomeintoexistencebeforetheriseoftheworshipoftheVirgininthelatterpartofthe4thcentury.It
hashadalargeinfluenceonRomanCatholicthoughtandart.
12.InadditiontotheseGospelsthereisaconsiderablenumberknowntouspracticallyonlybyname:
(a)TheGospelaccordingtoMatthias(orpseudoMatthew).MentionedbyOrigenasahereticalwriting,andpossiblyquotedbyClement
ofAlexandria,whospeaksofthetraditionsofMatthias.IfthesearethesameastheGospelaccordingtoMatthias,wecouldconcludethat
itwasknowninthelatterpartofthe2ndcent.,andwas,onthewhole,ofaGnosticcast.
(b)TheGospelaccordingtoBasilides.BasilideswasaGnosticwholivedaboutthemiddleofthe2ndcent.,andissaidbyOrigentohave
hadtheaudacitytowriteaGospel.TheGospelismentionedbyAmbroseandJerome,probablyontheauthorityofOrigen.Littleisknownof
thewriting,anditispossiblethatOrigenmistookthecommentaryofBasilidesontheGospelforaGospel.Itis,however,notintheleast
improbablethatBasilides,asthefounderofaschool,reworkedthecanonicalGospels,somethingafterthefashionofTatian,intoa
continuousnarrativecontainingsayingsofthecanonicalGospelsfavourabletoGnostictenets.
(c)TheGospelofAndrew.PossiblyreferredtobyAugustine,andprobablyofGnosticorigin.
(d)TheGospelofApelles.ProbablyarewritingofsomecanonicalGospel.AccordingtoEpiphanius,theworkcontainedthesayingof
Jesus,Beapprovedmoneychangers.
(e)TheGospelofBarnabas.MentionedintheGelasianDecree.Amedival(orRenaissance)workofsametitlehaslatelybeen
published(seeExp.T.xix.[1908],p.263ff.).
(f)TheGospelofBartholomew.MentionedintheGelasianDecreeandinJerome,butotherwiseunknown.
(g)TheGospelofCerinthus.MentionedbyEpiphanius.
(h)TheGospelofEve.AlsomentionedbyEpiphaniusasinuseamongtheBorborites,anOphitesectoftheGnostics.
(i)TheGospelofJudasIscariot,usedbyasectoftheGnosticstheCainites.
(j)TheGospelofThaddus.MentionedintheGelasianDecree,butotherwiseunknown.
(k)TheGospelofValentinus.Usedamongthefollowersofthatarchheretic,andmentionedbyTertullian.
(l)TheFayyumGospelFragment.ItcontainsthewordsofChristtoPeterattheLastSupper,butinadifferentformfromthatofthe
canonicalGospels.
(m)TheLogia,foundbyGrenfellandHuntatOxyrhynchus,containsafewsayings,somelikeandsomeunlikethecanonical
Gospels.PossiblyderivedfromtheGospeloftheEgyptians.
(n)TheDescentofMary.QuotedbyEpiphanius,andofthenatureofaGnosticantiJewishromance.
(o)TheGospelofZacharias.SubsequentlyincorporatedintotheProtevangelium.
OtherGospelsweredoubtlessinexistencebetweenthe2ndand6thcenturies,asitseemstohavebeencustomaryforallthehereticalsects,
particularlyGnostics,towriteGospelsasasupportfortheirpeculiarviews.Theoldestandmostinterestingofthesewas
(p)ThesocalledGospelofMarcion,which,althoughlost,weknowasaprobablereworkingofLukebytheomissionoftheInfancy
sectionandothermaterialthatinanywayfavouredtheJewishChristianconceptionswhichMarcionopposed.ThisGospelcanbelargely
reconstructedfromquotationsgivenbyTertullianandothers.TheimportanceoftheGospelofMarcionasthusreconstructedisconsiderable
forthecriticismofourThirdGospel.
SHAILERMATHEWS.

GOTHOLIAS(1Es8:33).FatherofJesalas,whoreturnedwithEzracalledinEzr8:7Athaliah,whichwasthusbothamaleanda
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GOTHOLIAS(1Es8:33).FatherofJesalas,whoreturnedwithEzracalledinEzr8:7Athaliah,whichwasthusbothamaleanda
femalename(2K11:1).
GOTHONIEL.ThefatherofChabris,oneoftherulersofBethulia(Jth
6:15).
GOURD(kkyn,Jon4:5).ThesimilarityoftheHeb.totheEgyp.kiki,thecastoroilplant,suggeststhisasJonahsgourd.Thisplant,
Ricinuscommunis,oftenattainsintheEastthedimensionsofaconsiderabletree.Thebottlegourd,Cucurbitalagenaria,whichisoften
trainedoverhastilyconstructedbooths,seemstosatisfytheconditionsofthenarrativemuchbetter.
Wildgourds(pakkth,2K4:39)wereeitherthecommonsquirtingcucumber(Ecballiumelalerium),oneofthemostdrasticofknown
cathartics,or,moreprobably,thecolocynth(Citrulluscolocynlhis),atrailingvinelikeplantwithroundedgourds,intenselybittertothetaste
andanirritantpoison.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
GOVERNMENT.ThepurposeofthisarticlewillbetosketchinoutlinetheformsofgovernmentamongtheHebrewsatsuccessive
periodsoftheirhistory.Theindicationsareinmanycasesvague,anditisimpossibletoreconstructthecompletesystematnoperiodwas
thereadefinitelyconceived,stilllessawritten,constitutioninthemodernsense.Forfullerdetailsreferenceshouldbemadethroughouttothe
separatearticlesontheofficials,etc.,mentioned.
WemayatoncesetasideLegislation,oneofthemostimportantdepartmentsofgovernmentasnowunderstood.Inancientcommunities,
lawrestedonDivinecommandandimmemorialcustom,andcouldasarulebealteredonlybyfictions.Theideaofavowedlynew
legislationtomeetfreshcircumstanceswasforeigntoearlymodesofthought.AtnoperioddowefindalegislativebodyintheBible.Grotes
dictumthatThehumankingonearthisnotalawmaker,butajudge,appliestoalltheBiblicalformsofgovernment.Themainfunctionsof
governmentwerejudicial,military,andatlaterperiodsfinancial,andtoalimitedextentadministrative.
1.Duringthenomadicorpatriarchalagetheunitisthefamilyorclan,and,forcertainpurposes,thetribe.Theheadofthehouse,owing
tohispositionandexperience,wasthesupremerulerandjudge,infacttheonlypermanentofficial.Hehadundisputedauthoritywithinhis
familygroup(Gn22,38:24,Dt21:13,Jg11:34).Headsoffamiliesmakeagreementswithoneanotherandsettlequarrelsamongtheir
dependents(Gn21:22,31:45)theonlysanctiontowhichtheycanappealistheDivinejusticewhichwatchesbetweenthem(31:49,53,
49:7).Theirholdovertheindividuallayinthefactthattodisobeywastobecomeanoutlawandtobeanoutcastfromthetribewastobe
withoutprotectororavenger.Theheadsoffamiliescombinedform,inasomewhatmoreadvancedstage,theelders(Ex3:15,18:21,Nu
22:7)andsometimes,particularlyintimeofwar,thereisasinglechiefforthewholetribe.Mosesisanextremeinstanceofthis,andwecan
seethathispositionwasfelttobeunusual(Ex2:14,4:1,Nu16).Itwasundefined,andrestedonhispersonalinfluence,backedbytheDivine
sanction,which,ashisfollowersrealized,hadmarkedhimout.ThisenableshimtonominateJoshuaashissuccessor.
2.TheperiodoftheJudgesmarksahigherstageatthesametime,asaperiodoftransitionitappearedrightlytolatergenerationsasa
timeoflawlessness.ThenameJudges,thoughincludingthenotionofchampionordeliverer,pointstothefactthattheirchieffunctionwas
judicial.Thepositionwasnothereditary,thusdifferingfromthatofking(Jg9ff.GideonandAbimelech),thoughSamuelisabletodelegate
hisauthoritytohissons(1S8:1).Theirstatuswasgainedbypersonalexploits,implyingDivinesanction,whichwassometimesexpressedin
otherwayse.g.giftofprophecy(Deborah,Samuel).Theirpowerrestedonthemoralauthorityofthestrongman,and,thoughsometimes
extendingoverseveraltribes,wasprobablynevernational.Duringthisperiodthenomadictribegiveswaytothelocaltiesofplacearemore
importantthantiesofbirth.Atownholdstogetheritsneighbouringvillages(daughters),asabletogivethemprotection(Nu21:25,32,Jos
17:11).TheeldersbecometheeldersofthecityJg8:6,14,18mentionsofficials(srm)andeldersofSuccoth,i.e.headsoftheleading
families,responsibleforitsgovernment.In11:5theeldersofGileadhavepowerinanemergencytoappointaleaderfromoutside.

3. TheMonarchycameintobeingmainlyunderthepressureofPhilistineinvasion.Thekingwasacentreofunity,theleaderofthenation64/82
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3.TheMonarchycameintobeingmainlyunderthepressureofPhilistineinvasion.Thekingwasacentreofunity,theleaderofthenation
inwar,andajudge(1S8:20).Hispowerrestedlargelyonapersonalbasis.Aslongashewassuccessfulandstrong,andretainedthe
allegianceofhisimmediatefollowers,hiswillwasabsolute(David,Ahab,Jehucf.Jer36,37).Atthesametimetherewereelementswhich
preventedtheJewishmonarchyfromdevelopingtheworstfeaturesofanOrientaldespotism.Atleastatfirstthepeoplebadavoiceinhis
election(David,Rehoboam).InJudahthehereditaryprincipleprevailed(therewerenorivaltribestocausejealousy,andDavidslinewasthe
centreofthenationalhopes),butthepeoplestillhadinfluence(2K14:21,21:24).IntheNorthernKingdomthepositionofthereigninghouse
wasalwaysinsecure,andtheultimatepenaltyofmisgovernmentwastheriseofanewdynasty.Amoreimportantcheckwasfoundinthe
religiouscontrol,democraticinitsbestsense,exercisedbytheprophets(Samuel,Nathan,Elijah,Elisha,Jeremiah,etc.).TheJewishkinghad
atleasttohearthetruth,andwasneverallowedtobelievethathewasindeedagodonearth.Atthesametimethereisnoconstitutionalcheck
onmisrulethelawofthekingdominDt17:14dealsratherwithmoralandreligiousrequirements,asnodoubtdidJehoiadascovenant(2K
11:17).Withthekingdomcametheestablishmentofastandingarmy,Davidsmightymenquicklydevelopingintothemoreorganized
forcesofSolomonsandlatertimes.Thecommandoftheforceswasessentialtothekingspowercf.insurrectionofJehuthecaptain(2K
9),andJehoiadascaretogetcontrolofthearmy(11:4).Sidebysidewiththepoweroftheswordcamethegrowthofacourt,withitsharem
andluxuriousentourage,itspalaceanditsthrone.Thesewerevisiblesymbolsoftheroyal
power,impressingthepopularmind.Thelistsofofficers(2S8:16,1K4)aresignificanttheyindicatethegrowthofthekingsauthority,and
thedevelopmentofrelationswithotherStates.Therealpowerofgovernmenthaspassedintothehandsofthekingsclientte.Hisservants
holdofficeathispleasure,and,providedtheyretainhisfavour,thereislittletolimittheirpower.Theymayattimesshowindependenceof
spirit(1S22:17,Jer36:25),butareusuallyhisreadytools(2S11:14cf.theoldandtheyoungcounsellorsofRehoboam,1K12:6ff.).The
propheticpicturesofthecourtanditsadministrationarenotfavourable(Am3:8,4:1,6,Is5etc.).Themethodsofraisingrevenuewere
undefined,andbeingundefinedwereoppressive.Wehearofgiftsandtribute(1S10:27,2S8:10,1K4:7,2128,10:1125),oftollsand
royalmonopolies(10:15,28,29),offorcedlabour(5:13)andofthekingsmowings(Am7:1),ofconfiscation(1K21),and.inan
emergency,ofstrippingtheTemple(2K18:15).Intimeofpeacethemainfunctionofthekingistheadministrationofjustice(2S15:2,2K
15:5)hissubjectshavetherightofdirectaccess(2K8:8).Thismusthavelessenedthepowerofthelocalelders,whonodoubthadalsoto
yieldtothecentralcourtofficials.Theeldersofthecityappearduringthisperiodasalocalauthority,sometimesrespectedandconsulted(2
S19:11,1K20:7,2K23:1),sometimestheobedientagentsofthekingswill(1K21:8,11,2K10:1,5).2Ch19:511describesajudicial
systemorganizedbyJehoshaphat,whichagreesinitsmainfeatureswiththatimpliedbyDt16:18,17:813therearelocalcourts,witha
centraltribunal.InDt.theeldersappearmainlyasjudicialauthorities,buthavethepowerofexecutingtheirdecisions(19:12,21,22:15etc.).
Theinfluenceofthepriesthoodinthisconnexionshouldbenoticed.TheadministrationofjusticealwaysincludedaDivineelement(Ex
18:15,19,21:6,22:8cf.wordTorah),andintheDeuteronomiccodethepriestsappearsidebysidewiththelayelementinthecentralcourt
(17:9,19:17cf.Is28:7,Ezk44:24etc.).Butthegovernmentisnotyettheocratic.Jehoiadareliesonhispersonalinfluenceandactsinconcert
withthechiefsofthearmy(2K11,12),andevenaftertheExileJoshuaisonlythefellowofZerubbabel.TheappointmentofLevitesas
judges,ascribedtoDavidin1Ch23:4,26:29,isnodoubtananachronism.Cf.alsoart.JUSTICE(II.).
4.Postexilicperiod.UnderthePersiansJudahwasasubdistrictofthegreatprovincewestoftheEuphratesandsubjecttoitsgovernor
(Ezr5:3).Ithadalsoitslocalgovernor(Neh5:14),withameasureoflocalindependence(Ezr10:14)weread,too,ofaspecialofficialatthe
kingshandinallmattersconcerningthepeople(Neh11:24).Theeldersareprominentduringthisperiodbothinexile(Ezk8:1,14:1,20:1)
andinJudah(Ezr5:9,6:7,10:8,Neh2:16).Thechieffeatureofthesubsequentperiodwasthedevelopmentofthepriestlypower,andtherise
toimportanceoftheofficeofthehighpriest.UnderGreekrule(afterB.C.333)theJewsweretoagreatextentallowedtheprivilegesofself
government.Theeldersdevelopintoagerousiaorsenateanaristocracycomprisingthesecularnobilityandthepriesthood(1Mac12:6,
14:20)itisnotknownwhenthenameSanhedrinwasfirstused.ThehighpriestbecametheheadoftheState,anditsofficialrepresentative,
hispoliticalpowerreceivingagreatdevelopmentundertheHasmonans.Owingtothegrowingimportanceoftheoffice,theSeleucids
alwaysclaimedthepowerofappointment.InB.C.142,Simonisdeclaredtobehighpriest,captain,andgovernorforever(1Mac14:27
47).Thetitleethnarch(seeGOVERNOR)isusedofhimandotherhighpriests.Aristobulusbecomesking
(B.C.105),andAlexanderJannususesthetitleoncoins(B.C.10478).UnderRomanrule(B.C.63)thesituationbecomescomplicatedby 65/82
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(B.C.105),andAlexanderJannususesthetitleoncoins(B.C.10478).UnderRomanrule(B.C.63)thesituationbecomescomplicatedby
therisetopoweroftheHerodiandynasty.PalestinepassedthroughthevaryingformsofgovernmentknowntotheRomanImperial
constitution.HerodtheGreatwasitstitularking,withconsiderableindependencesubjecttogoodbehaviour(rexsocius).Archelausforfeited
hisposition(A.D.6).ThenceforwardJudawasunderthedirectruleofaprocurator(seenextarticle),exceptfromA.D.41to44,when
AgrippaI.wasking.AntipaswastetrarchofGalileeandPeraMarkstitleofking(6:14)iscorrectedbyMatthewandLuke.Theposition
waslesshonourableandlessindependentthanthatofking.Thehighpriest(nowappointedbytheRomans)andtheSanhedrinregainedthe
powerwhichtheyhadlostunderHerodthegovernmentbecameoncemoreanaristocracy(Jos.Ant.XX.x.).Exceptforthepoweroflifeand
deaththeSanhedrinheldthesupremejudicialauthoritytherewerealsolocalcourtsconnectedwiththeSynagogue(Mt5:22).Itsmoral
authorityextendedtoJewsoutsidePalestine.IntheDiaspora,theJews,tenaciousoftheirnationalpeculiarities,wereinmanycasesalloweda
largemeasureofselfgovernment,particularlyinjudicialmatters.InAlexandria,inparticular,theyhadspecialprivilegesandanethnarchof
theirown(Jos.Ant.XIV.vii.2).ForthecitiesofAsiaMinor,seeRamsay,LetterstotheSevenChurches,chs.xi.xii.
Forgovernments(1Co12:28)seeHELPS.
C.W.EMMET.
GOVERNOR.ThiswordrepresentsvariousHeb.andGr.words,technicalandnontechnical.InGn42:6(Joseph,cf.41:40)itis
probablytheTate,thesecondafterthekinginthecourtofthepalacecf.1K18:3,Dn2:48forsimilaroffices.Itfrequentlyrepresentsan
Assyr.word,pechah,usedofPersiansatrapsingeneral(Est3:12,8:8),andofAssyriangenerals(2K18:24,cf.1K20:24).Itisapplied
particularlytoTattenai,thegovernorofthelargePersianprovinceofwhichJudawasasubdistrict(Ezr5:3,6:6etc.,cf.Neh2:7).Itisalso,
liketirshatha(wh.see),appliedtothesubordinategovernorofJuda(Ezr5:14[Sheshbazzar]6:7[Nehemiah],Hag1:1,14[Zerubbabel]).
Thefirstpassageshowsthatthesubordinatepechahwasdirectlyappointedbytheking.
IntheNTthewordusuallyrepresentsGr.hgemn,andisusedofPontiusPilate(Lk3:1etc.),ofFelix(Ac23:26),andofFestus(26:30).
Thepropertitleofthesegovernorswasprocurator(Tac.Ann.xv.44),ofwhichoriginallyeparchosandthenepitroposweretheGr.
equivalents.Josephus,however,useshgemn,aswellasthesewords,forthegovernorofJuda,sothatthereisnoinaccuracyinits
employmentbyNTwriters.But,beingageneralword,itdoesnothelpustodecidethenatureofthegovernorshipofQuirinius(Lk2:2).The
procurator,originallyafinancialofficial,wasappointeddirectlybytheEmperortogovernprovinces,suchasThrace,Cappadocia,andJuda,
whichwereinatransitionalstate,beingnolongerruledbysubjectkings,butnotyetfullyRomanized,andrequiringspecialtreatment.The
procuratorwasinasensesubordinatetothelegateoftheneighbouringprovince,e.g.CappadociatoGalatia,JudatoSyriabutexceptin
emergencieshehadfullauthority,military,judicial,andfinancial.In1P2:14thewordisspeciallyappropriatetoanyprovincialgovernor,as
sentbytheEmperor.In2Co11:32itrepresentsethnarch,awordapparentlyusedoriginallyoftherulerofanation(ethnos)livingwith
lawsofitsowninaforeigncommunitybutasappliedtoAretasitmaymeannomorethanpettyking.InGal4:2itmeans
steward(RV),thetutorcontrollingthewardsperson,thestewardhisproperty(Lightfoot,adloc.).InJa3:4RVhassteersman.The
governorofthefeast(Jn2:8,RVruler)wasprobablyaguest,notaservant,chosentocontrolandarrangeforthefeastItisdoubtful
whetherheistobeidentifiedwiththefriendofthebridegroomorbestman.
C.W.EMMET.
GOZAN.OneoftheplacestowhichIsraelitesweredeportedbythekingof
AssyriaonthecaptureofSamaria(2K17:6,18:11,1Ch5:26mentionedalsoin2K19:12,Is37:12).GozanwasthedistricttermedGuzanu
bytheAssyriansandGauzanitisbyPtolemy,anditwassituatedontheKhbr.
L.W.KING.
GRACE(fromLat.gratia[=favour,eitherreceivedfromorshowntoanother],throughtheFr.grace).Ofthethreemeaningsassigned
tothiswordintheEng.Dict.(1)pleasingness,(2)favour,(3)thanks(thesenseoffavourreceived)(1)and(2)belongtotheEng.
Bible(3)attachestotheequivalentGr.charis,whereitisrenderedthank(s)orthankfulness(He12:28RVm.).ThespecificBiblicaluseof66/82
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Bible(3)attachestotheequivalentGr.charis,whereitisrenderedthank(s)orthankfulness(He12:28RVm.).ThespecificBiblicaluseof
gracecomesunderthesecondoftheabovesignificationsitisprominentintheNT.TheOTusagerequiresnoseparatetreatment.(2)isthe
primarymeaningoftheHebreworiginal,renderedfavouralmostasoftenasgracebut(1)oftheGreekcharis,whichatitsrootsignified
thegladdening,joybringing.HencethecorrespondencebetweenthecommonGreeksalutationchaire(te)orchairein(Joytoyou!)andthe
Christiancharis(Gracetoyou!)ismorethanaverbalcoincidence.
1.Ofthesensecharm,winsomeness(ofperson,bearing,speech,etc.)ausageconspicuousincommonGreek,andpersonifiedinthe
Charites,thethreeGracesofmythologytheprominentinstancesintheOTarePs45:2(Graceispouredonthylips)andprobablyZec4:7
addtothesePr1:9,3:22,4:9,22:11,31:30(favour).ThesamenounoccursintheHeb.ofPr5:10,11:16,andEc10:12,Pr
17:8,undertheadjectivalrenderingspleasant,gracious,precious,andinNah
3:4(wellfavoured).FortheNT,graceischarminLk4:22,Col4:8inEph4:28theremaybeaplayonthedoublesenseoftheword.
CharmofspeechisdesignatedbycharisinSir20:18,21:10,37:21,intheApocrypha.inJa1:11graceofthefashionrendersasingleGreek
wordsignifyingfairseemingness,quitedistinctfromcharis.
2.TheOTpassagescomingunder(2)above,employgracechieflyintheidiomtofindgrace(orfavour),whichisusedindifferentlyof
favourintheeyesofJ(Gn6:8)orofonesfellowmen(39:4),andwhetherthefinderbringgood(39:4)orill(19:19)deserttothequest.With
thisbroadapplication,gracemeansgoodwill,favourableinclinationtowardsanotherofthesuperior(king,benefactor,etc.)oronetreated
assuchbycourtesy,totheinferiorshownonwhateverground.IntheEng.NT,favourisreservedforthiswidesenseofcharisseeLk
1:30,2:52,Ac2:47,7:10,46,25:3:gracehasthesamemeaninginLk2:40,Ac4:33,Zec12:10istheoneinstanceinwhichgraceinthe
OTapproximatestoitsprevalentNTimportbuttheHeb.adj.forgracious,andtheequivalentvb.,aretogetherusedofJ,inHisattitude
towardsthesinful,morethantwentytimes,associatedoftenwithmerciful,etc.see.e.g.,Ex33:19,34:6,Ps77:9,103:8,Jl2:13,Jon4:2.
ThecharacterinGodwhichtheOTpreferstoexpressbymercy,signifyingHispitifuldispositiontowardsmanasweakandwretched,theNT
ineffecttranslatesintograce,assignifyingHisforgivingdispositiontowardsmanasguiltyandlost.
3.Christianityfirstmadegracealeadingterminthevocabularyofreligion.TheprominenceandemphasisofitsuseareduetoSt.Paul,in
whoseEpp.thewordfigurestwiceasoftenasinalltheNTbesides.GraceisthefirstwordofgreetingandthelastoffarewellinSt.Pauls
lettersforhimitincludesthesumofallblessingthatcomesfromGodthroughChrist:gracethesource,peacethestream.IntheGospels,
theJohanninePrologue(vv.1417:contrastedwithlaw,andcoextensivewithtruth)suppliestheonlyexampleofgraceusedwiththe
Paulinefulnessofmeaning.Thispassage,andtheLukanexamplesinActs(6:3,
11:23,13:43,14:8,15:11,20:24,32),withthekindredusesinHebrews,1and2Pet.,Jude,2Jn.,Rev.,maybesetdowntotheinfluenceof
PaulinismonApostolicspeech.ThereislittleinearlierphraseologytoexplainthesupremacyintheNTofthisspecifictermanewexperience
demandedanewname.GracedesignatestheprincipleinGodofmanssalvationthroughJesusChrist.ItisGodsunmerited,unconstrained
lovetowardssinners,revealedandoperativeinChrist.Tit2:1114,interpretedbyRo5:16:23,isthetextwhichapproachesnearesttoa
definitionthispassageshowshowSt.PaulderivedfromGodsgracenotonlythesoulsreconciliationandnewhopesinChrist(Ro5:111),
butthewholemoralupliftingandrehabilitationofhumanlifethroughChristianity.St.Paulsexperienceinconversiongavehimthis
watchwordtheDivinegoodnessrevealeditselftothechiefofsinnersundertheaspectofgrace(1Co15:9f.,1Ti1:1316).The
spontaneityandgenerosityofGodslovefeltintheactofhissalvation,thecompletesettingasidethereinofeverythinglegalandconventional
(with,possibly,theaddedconnotationofcharmofwhichcharisisredolent),markedoutthiswordasdescribingwhatSt.Paulhadprovedof
ChristsredemptionunderthisnamehecouldcommendittotheworldofsinfulmenhisministrytestifiesthegospelofthegraceofGod
(Ac20:24).Essentially,gracestandsopposedtosinitisGodswayofmeetingandconqueringmanssin(Ro5:20f.,6:1ff.,15ff.):Hethus
effectstheimpossibletaskoftheLaw(Ro7:78:4).ThelegaldisciplinehadtaughtSt.Paultounderstand,bycontrast,thevalueandthe
operationoftheprincipleofgracehewasabletohandleitwitheffectinthelegalistcontroversy.Gracesupplies,inhistheology,theoneand
sufficientmeansofdeliverancefromsin,holdingobjectivelytheplacewhichfaithholdssubjectivelyinmanssalvation(Eph2:8,Tit2:11).
Formally,andinpointofmethod,gracestandsopposedtothelaw,whichworkethwrath(Ro3:1926,4:15,Gal2:1521,5:4)it
supersedesthefutileworksbywhichtheJewhadhoped,infulfillingtheLaw,tomeritsalvation(Ro4:28,11:6,Gal2:1620,Eph2:8f.).
Graceexcludes,therefore,allnotionofdebtasowingfromGodtomen,allthoughtofearningtheMessianicblessings(Ro4:4)by
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Graceexcludes,therefore,allnotionofdebtasowingfromGodtomen,allthoughtofearningtheMessianicblessings(Ro4:4)by
establishingarighteousnessofonesown(Ro10:3)throughitmenarejustifiedgratis(Ro3:24)andreceivethegiftofrighteousness
(5:17).IntwentytwoinstancesSt.PaulwritesofthegraceofGod(orhisgrace)Infifteen,ofthegraceofChrist(theLordJesus
Christ,etc.).Tenofthelatterexamplesbelongtosalutationformul(soinRev22:21),thefullestofthesebeing2Co13:14,wherethegrace
oftheLordJesusChristisreferredtotheloveofGodasitsfountainheadIntheremainingfivedetachedinstancesthecontextdictatesthe
combinationgraceofChrist(ourLord,etc.),Ro5:15,2Co8:9,12:9,Gal1:6,1Ti1:14(alsoin2P3:16).InotherNTwritingsthe
complementispredominantlyofGod1P5:10invertstheexpressiontheGodofallgrace.Oncein2Th1:12graceisreferred
conjointlytoGodandChrist.ChrististheexpressionandvehicleofthegraceoftheFather,andiscompletelyidentifiedwithit(seeJn1:14,
17),sothatGodsgracecanequallybecalledChristsbutitsreferencetothelatterisstrictlypersonalinsuchapassageas2Co8:9.Areal
distinctionisimpliedintheremarkablelanguageofRo5:15,where,afterpositingthegraceofGodasthefundamentalgroundof
redemption,St.Pauladdstothisthegiftingrace,viz.thegraceoftheonemanJesusChrist,whoisthecounterpartofthesinfulandbaleful
Adam:thegenerousbountyoftheMantowardsmen,shownbyJesusChrist,servedanessentialpartinhumanredemption.
Cognatetocharis,andchargedinvariouswayswithitsmeaning,isthevb.rendered(RV)tograntinAc27:24,Gal3:18,Ph1:29,Philem
22,giveinPh2:9,freelygiveinRo8:32,1Co2:12,and(withwrongordebtforobject,expressedorimplied)forgiveinLk7:42f.,2Co
2:7,10,12:13,Eph4:32,Col2:13,3:18.
Therearetwooccasionalsecondaryusesofgrace,derivedfromtheabove,inthePaulineEpp.:itmaydenote(a)agraciousendowment
orbestowment,Godsgracetomentakingshapeinsomeconcreteministry(soEph4:7,inviewofthefollowingcontext,andperhapsGal2:9
cf.Ac7:10)forcharisinthissensecharisma(charism)isSt.Paulsregularterm,asin1Co12:4etc.and(b)astateofgrace,Godsgrace
realizedbytherecipient(Ro5:2,2Ti2:1).
G.G.FINDLAY.
GRACIOUS.ThisEng.adj.isnowusedonlyinanactivesense=bestowinggrace,showingfavour.Andthisisitsmostfrequentuse
inAV,asEx33:19And[I]willbegracioustowhomIwillbegracious.Butitwasformerlyusedpassivelyalso=favoured,accepted,as1
Es8:20Yea,whenwewereinbondage,wewerenotforsakenofourLordbuthemadeusgraciousbeforethekingsofPersia,sothatthey
gaveusfood.Andfromthisitcametosignifyattractive,asPr11:16agraciouswomanretainethhonour,lit.awomanofgrace,thatis,
ofattractiveappearanceandmannerLk4:22thegraciouswordswhichproceededoutofhismouth,lit.,asRV,wordsofgrace,thatis,says
Plummer,winningwordsheadds,theveryfirstmeaningofcharisiscomeliness,winsomeness.
GRAFTING.Inoliveculturegraftingisuniversal.Whenthesaplingisaboutsevenyearsolditiscutdowntothestem,andashootfrom
agoodtreeisgrafteduponit.Threeyearslateritbeginstobearfruit,itsproducegraduallyincreasinguntilaboutthefourteenthyear.Notree
undercultivationisallowedtogrowungraftedthefruitinsuchcasebeinginferior.GraftingisalludedtoonlyonceinScripture(Ro11:17
etc.).St.PaulcomparesthecominginoftheGentilestothegraftingofawildolivebranchuponagoodolivetree:aprocesscontraryto
nature.Nowack(Heb.Arch.i.238)saysthatColumeliasstatementthatolivetreesarerejuvenatedandstrengthenedinthisway(seeComm.
onRomans,byPrincipalBrownandGodet,adloc.),isnotconfirmed.SandayHeadlamsay(ICConRomans,p.328):Graftsmust
necessarilybebranchesfromacultivatedoliveinsertedintoawildstock,thereverseprocessbeingonewhichwouldbevalueless,andis
neverperformed.Theungraftedtree,theysay,isthenaturalorwildolive,followingTristram,Nat.Hist.oftheBible,371377.Prof.
TheobaldFischerinclinestoviewtheoliveandthewildoliveasdistinctspeciesinthisagreeingwithsomemodernbotanists(Derlbaum,4
f.),acontraryopinionbeingheldbyothers(p.5).SirWilliamRamsay,Expositor,VI.ix.[1905],154ff.,statesgroundsonwhichtheoleaster
(Eleagnusangustifotia)mayberegardedastheplantintended.Thisisthetypetowhichthecultivatedolivetendstorevertthroughcenturies
ofneglect,asseen,e.g.,inCyrenaica.(Prof.Fischerdoesnotadmitthis[Derlbaum,69].)Whengraftedwithashootofthenoblertreeit
givesrisetothetrueolive.Butthetwoareclearlydistinguishedbysize,shape,andcolourofleavesandcharacteroffruit.

NoonecouldmistaketheoleasterfortheolivebutthecaseisnotclearenoughtojustifyRamsayincallingtheoleasterthewildolive
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NoonecouldmistaketheoleasterfortheolivebutthecaseisnotclearenoughtojustifyRamsayincallingtheoleasterthewildolive
(Expositor,utsupra,152).Dr.W.M.Thomson,whoseaccuracyRamsaycommends,citinghiminfavourofhisownview(ib.154),isreallya
witnessontheotherside,quiteplainlyholdingthatthewildoliveistheungraftedtree(LBiii.33ff.)andthisistheuniversalviewamong
olivegrowersinmodernPalestine.Thefruitofthewildoliveisacridandharsh,containinglittleoil.
Prof.FischerstatesthatinPalestineitisstillcustomarytoreinvigorateanolivetreewhichisceasingtobearfruit,bygraftingitwitha
shootofwildolive,sothatthesapofthetreeennoblesthiswildshoot,andthetreenowagainbeginstobearfruit(Derlbaum,9).Hegives
noauthority.Ramsayacceptsthestatementwithoutquestion(Expositor,utsupra,19),andthevalueofhissubsequentdiscussionrestsupon
theassumptionofitstruth.Theassumptionisprecarious.Thepresentwritercanfindnoevidencethatsuchanoperationiseverperformed.In
responsetoinquiriesmadeinthemainolivegrowingdistrictsofPalestine,heisassuredthatitisneverdoneandthat,forthepurpose
indicated,itwouldbeperfectlyfutile.
SandayHeadlamseemrightlytoapprehendtheApostlesmeaning.ItisnottheirviewthatSt.Paulprovesaspiritualprocesscredible
becauseitresemblesaprocessimpossibleinandcontrarytoexternalnature(Ramsay,ib.26f.).HeexhortstheGentilestohumility,because
GodinHisgoodnesshasdonefortheminthespiritualsphereathingwhichtheyhadnoreasontoexpect,sinceit,accordingtoSanday
Headlam,never,accordingtoRamsay,veryseldom,isdoneinthenatural.ThelanguageofSt.Paulisjustifiedineithercase:itmightbeall
themoreeffectiveiftheformerweretrue.Mr.BaringGouldsinferenceastotheApostlesignoranceonlyillustrateshisownblindness(Study
ofSt.Paul,p.275).Seealsoart.OLIVE.
W.EWING.
GRAPES.SeeWINEANDSTRONGDRINK.
GRASS.(1)chatsrequivalentofArab.khudra,whichincludesgreenvegetablesmanyreferences,e.g.1K18:6,2K19:26tr.hay
inPr27:25,Is15:6,andinNu11:5leeksreferstoherbageingeneral.(2)deshe(Aram.dethe),Jer14:5,Pr27:25,Job38:27,Is66:14
(pastureland),Dn4:15,23(tendergrass).(3)yereq,tr.grass,Nu22:4seeHERB.(4)seb,Dt11:15,32:2etc.,buttr.herbinother
placesseeHERB.(5)chortos,Mt6:30,Mk6:39etc.Pasturage,asitoccursinWesternlands,isunknowninPalestine.Suchgreenherbage
appearsonlyforafewweeks,andwhentherainsceasesoonperishes.HencegrassisintheOTafrequentsymboloftheshortnessofhuman
life(Ps90:57,103:15,Is40:6cf.1P1:24).Evenmorebriefistheexistenceofthegrassuponthe[mudmade]housetops,whichwithereth
aforeitgrowethup(Ps129:6).
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
GRASSHOPPER.SeeLOCUST.
GRATE,GRATING.SeeTABERNACLE,4(a).
GRAVE.SeeMOURNINGCUSTOMS,TOMB.
GRAVENIMAGE.SeeIMAGES.
GRAY.SeeCOLOURS,1.
GREATBIBLE.SeeENGLISHVERSIONS,22.
GREATSEA.SeeSEA.
GREATSYNAGOGUE.SeeSYNAGOGUE.
GREAVES.SeeARMOUR,2.(d).
GREECErepresentsinEnglishtheLatinwordGrscia,whichisderivedfromGrci.ThisnameGrciproperlybelongedonlytoasmall
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GREECErepresentsinEnglishtheLatinwordGrscia,whichisderivedfromGrci.ThisnameGrciproperlybelongedonlytoasmall
tribeofGreeks,wholivedinthenorthwestofGreecebutasthistribewasapparentlythefirsttoattracttheattentionofRome,dwellingasit
didontheothersideoftheAdriaticfromItaly,thenamecametobeappliedbytheRomanstothewholerace.ThetermGrcia,whenusedby
Romans,isequivalenttotheGreeknameHellas,whichisstillusedbytheGreekstodescribetheirowncountry.InancienttimesHellaswas
frequentlyusedinawidesensetoincludenotonlyGreeceproper,buteverysettlementofGreeksoutsidetheirowncountryaswell.Thusa
portionoftheCrimea,muchofthewestcoastofAsiaMinor,settlementsinCyrene,Sicily,Gaul,andSpain,andaboveallthesouthernhalfof
Italy,werepartsofHellasinthiswidesense.SouthernItalywassostuddedwithGreeksettlementsthatitbecameknownasMagnaGrcia.
AftertheconquestsofAlexandertheGreat,whodied323B.C.,alltheterritoryannexedbyhim,suchasthegreaterpartofAsiaMinor,as
wellasSyriaandEgypt,couldheregardedasinasenseHellas.AlexanderwasthechiefagentinthespreadoftheGreekcivilization,
manners,language,andcultureoverthesecountries.Thedynastiesfoundedbyhisgenerals,theSeleucidsandPtolemysforexample,
continuedhiswork,andwhenRomebegantointerfereinEasternpoliticsaboutthebeginningofthe2ndcent.B.C.,theGreeklanguagewas
alreadyfirmlyestablishedintheEast.When,aboutthreecenturiesafterAlexandersdeath,practicallyallhisformerdominionshadbecome
Romanprovinces,GreekwastheonelanguagewhichcouldcarrythetravellerfromtheEuphratestoSpain.TheEmpirehadtwoofficial
languages,LatinforItalyandallprovincesnorth,southwest,andwestofitGreekforalleastandsoutheastofItaly.TheRomanswisely
madenoattempttoforceLatinontheEasternpeoples,andwerecontenttoletGreekremaininundisputedswaythere.Alltheirofficials
understoodandspokeit.ThusitcameaboutthatChristianitywaspreachedinGreek,thatourNTbookswerewritteninGreek,andthatthe
languageoftheChurch,accordingtoalltheavailableevidence,remainedGreektillaboutthemiddleofthe2ndcent.A.D.
AsGalileewasthicklyplantedwithGreektowns,therecanbelittledoubtthatJesusknewthelanguage,andspokeitwhennecessary,
thoughitisprobablethatHecommonlyusedAramaic,asHecamefirsttothelosttribesofIsrael.WithSt.Paulthecasewasdifferent.Most
oftheJewsoftheDispersionwereprobablyunabletospeakAramaic,andusedtheOTintheGreektranslation.Thesewouldnaturallybe
addressedinGreek.ItistruethathespokeAramaicononeoccasion(Ac21:40)atleast,butthisoccasionwasexceptional.Itwasapieceof
tactonhispart,tosecuretherespectfulattentionofhisaudience.ProbablyonlytheinhabitantsofthevillagesintheEasternRomanprovinces
wereunabletospeakGreek,andeventheycoulddoubtlessunderstanditwhenspoken.TheJewswereamongstthechiefspreadersofthe
language.SomeofthesuccessorsofAlexanderesteemedthemhighlyascolonists,andtheyweretobefoundinlargenumbersoverthe
RomanEmpire,speakinginthefirstinstanceGreek(cf.Ac2:9).Whentheywrotebooks,theywrotetheminGreek:PhiloandJosephusare
examples.ItisnotmeantthatGreekkilledthenativelanguagesoftheprovinces:thesehadtheirpurposeandsubsisted.
ThenameHellasoccursonlyonceintheNT(Ac20:2).ThereitisusedinanarrowsenseoftheGreekpeninsula,exclusiveevenof
Macedonia:itisinfactusedinthesenseofAchaia(wh.see).
A.SOUTER.
GREEKS,GRECIANS.BoththesetermsareusedindifferentlyinAVofOTApocr.todesignatepersonsofGr.extraction(1Mac1:10,
6:2,8:9,2Mac4:36etc.).InNTthelinguisticusageofEVmakesadistinctionbetweenthetermsGreeksandGrecians.Greeks
uniformlyrepresentsthewordHellns,whichmaydenotepersonsofGr.descentinthenarrowestsense(Ac16:1,18:4,Ro1:14),ormaybe
ageneraldesignationforallwhoarenotofJewishextraction(Jn12:20,Ro1:16,10:12,Gal3:28).Grecians,ontheotherhand(Ac6:1,
9:29),isAVtr.ofHellnistai,whichmeansGr.speakingJews(RVGrecianJews).Seepreced.art.andDISPERSION.Aninteresting
questionisthatofthecorrectreadingofAc11:20.WerethosetowhomthemenofCyprusandCyrenepreached,GreciansorGreeks?Inother
words,weretheyJewsorGentiles?TheweightofMSauthorityisinfavourofGrecians,butitisheldbymanythatinternalevidence
necessitatesGreeks.
GREEKVERSIONSOFOT
I.TheSeptuagint(LXX).1.TheSeptuagint,orVersionoftheSeventy,hasspecialcharacteristicswhichdifferentiateitstronglyfromall
otherversionsoftheScriptures.NotonlyareitsrelationstotheoriginalHebrewoftheOTmoredifficultandobscurethanthoseofanyother
versiontoitsoriginal,but,astheGreekOToftheChristiancommunityfromitsearliestdays,ithasaspecialhistoricalimportancewhichno
otherversioncanclaim,andonlytheVulgatecanapproach.Itshistory,moreover,isveryobscure,anditscriticismbristleswithdifficulties,
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otherversioncanclaim,andonlytheVulgatecanapproach.Itshistory,moreover,isveryobscure,anditscriticismbristleswithdifficulties,
fortheremovalofwhichmuchworkisstillneeded.Thepresentarticlecanaimonlyatstatingtheprincipalquestionswhichariseinrelationto
it,andtheprovisionalconclusionsatwhichtheleadingstudentsofthesubjecthavearrived.2.ThereisnodoubtthattheLXXoriginatedin
Alexandria,inthetimeoftheMacedoniandynastyinEgypt.GreekshadbeensporadicallypresentinEgyptevenbeforetheconquestofthe
countrybyAlexander,andunderthePtolemystheyincreasedandmultipliedgreatly.HundredsofdocumentsdiscoveredinEgyptwithinthe
lastfewyearstestifytothepresenceofGreeksandthewidespreadknowledgeoftheGreeklanguagefromthedaysofPtolemySoter
onwards.Amongthem,especiallyinAlexandria,weremanyJews,towhomGreekbecamethelanguageofdailylife,whiletheknowledgeof
Aramaic,andstillmoreofliteraryHebrew,decayedamongthem.ItwasamongsuchsurroundingsthattheLXXcameintoexistence.The
principalauthorityonthesubjectofitsoriginistheLetterofAristeas(editedbyH.St.J.ThackerayinSwetesIntroductiontotheOTin
Greek[1900],andbyP.WendlandintheTeubnerseries[1900]).Thisdocument,whichpurportstobewrittenbyaGreekofficialofhighrank
inthecourtofPtolemyII.(Philadelphus,B.C.285247),describeshowtheking,atthesuggestionofhislibrarian,DemetriusofPhalerum,
resolvedtoobtainaGreektranslationofthelawsoftheJewsforthelibraryofAlexandriahow,attheinstigationofAristeas,hereleasedthe
Jewishcaptivesinhiskingdom,tothenumberofsome100,000,payingthe(absurdlysmall)sumof20drachmasapieceforthemtotheir
mastershowhethensentpresentstoEleazar,thehighpriestatJerusalem,andbeggedhimtosendsixeldersoutofeachtribetotranslatethe
Lawhowthe72eldersweresent,andmagnificentlyentertainedbyPtolemy,andwerethensetdowntotheirworkintheislandofPharosand
howin72daystheycompletedthetaskassignedtothem.ThestoryisrepeatedbyJosephus(Ant.XII.ii.)fromAristeasinacondensedform.
Inlatertimesitreceivedvariousaccretions,increasingthemiraculouscharacteroftheworkbuttheseadditionshavenoauthority.
3.ThattheLetterofAristeasissubstantiallyrightinassigningtheoriginaltranslationoftheLawtothetimeofoneoftheearlyPtolemys
thereisnoreasontodoubtbutthestoryhastheairofhavingbeenconsiderablywrittenup,anditisimpossibletosaypreciselywherehistory
stopsandfictionbegins.DemetriusofPhalerumwaslibrariantoPtolemyI.,butwasindisgraceunderhissuccessor,anddiedabout283
hencehecanhardlyhavebeentheprimemoverintheaffair.Butifnot,thewriteroftheLettercannothavebeenthepersonofrankin
Ptolemyscourtthatherepresentshimselftobe,andthecreditofthedocumentisseverelyshaken.Itcannotbedependedonforaccuracyin
details,anditisnecessarytoturntotheinternalevidenceforfurtherinformation.ItwillbeobservedthatAristeasspeaksonlyoftheLaw,
i.e.thePentateuchandthereisnoreasontodoubtthatthiswasthefirstpartoftheOTtobetranslated,andthattheotherbooksfollowedat
differenttimesandfromthehandsofdifferenttranslators.Alowerlimitforthecompletionofthework,orofthemainpartofit,isgivenin
theprologuetoSirach(writtenprobablyinB.C.132),wherethewriterspeaksofthelawitselfandtheprophetsandtherestofthebooks(sc.
theHagiographa)ashavingbeenalreadytranslated.ItmaythereforebetakenasfairlycertainthattheLXXasawholewasproducedbetween
B.C.285and150.
4.Itscharactercannotbedescribedinaword.ItiswritteninGreek,whichinvocabularyandaccidenceissubstantiallythatkoin
dialektos,orHellenisticGreek,whichwasincommonusethroughouttheempireofAlexander,andofwhichourknowledge,initsnon
literaryform,hasbeengreatlyextendedbytherecentdiscoveriesofGreekpapyriinEgypt.Initssyntax,however,itisstronglytingedwith
Hebraisms,whichgiveitadistinctcharacterofitsown.ThegeneraltendencyoftheLXXtranslatorswastobeveryliteral,andtheyhave
repeatedlyfollowedHebrewusage(notablyintheuseofpronouns,prepositions,andparticipialconstructions)toanextentwhichrunsentirely
countertothegeniusoftheGreeklanguage.[Forexamples,andforthegrammaroftheLXXgenerally,seetheIntroductiontoSelectionsfrom
theSeptuagint,byF.C.ConybeareandSt.GeorgeStock(1905).]Thequalityofthetranslationdiffersindifferentbooks.Itisatitsbestinthe
Pentateuch,whichwasprobablyboththefirstandthemostdeliberatelypreparedportionofthetranslation.ItisatitsworstintheProphets,
whichpresentedthegreatestdifficultiesinthewayofinterpretation.NeithertheGreeknortheHebrewscholarshipofthetranslatorswasofa
highorder,andtheynotinfrequentlywrotedownwordswhichconveynorationalmeaningwhatever.Somethinghasbeendoneoflateto
distinguishtheworkofdifferenttranslators.[SeethearticlesofH.St.J.ThackerayinJThStiv.245,398,578,viii.262,theresultsofwhich
areheresummarized.]IthasbeenshownthatJer.isprobablytheworkoftwotranslators,whorespectivelytranslatedchs.128and2951(in
theGreekorderofthechapters),thelatter,whowasaninferiorscholar,beingresponsiblealsoforBaruch.Ezek.likewiseshowstracesoftwo
translators,onetakingchs.127and4048,theother2839.TheMinorProphetsformasinglegroup,whichhasconsiderableaffinitieswith
thefirsttranslatorsofbothJer.andEzekiel.Isaiahstandsmarkedlyapartfromallthese,exhibitingamoreclassicalstyle,butlessfidelityto 71/82
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thefirsttranslatorsofbothJer.andEzekiel.Isaiahstandsmarkedlyapartfromallthese,exhibitingamoreclassicalstyle,butlessfidelityto
theHebrew.1Kings(=1Sam.)similarlystandsapartfrom24Kings,thelatterhavingfeaturesincommonwithJudges.
5.SomeotherfeaturesoftheLXXmustbementionedwhichshowthateachbook,orgroupofbooks,requiresseparatestudy.InJudges
thetwoprincipalMSS(Codd.AandB,seebelow,10)differsoextensivelyastoshowthattheyrepresentdifferentrecensions.Insome
books(notablythelatterchaptersofEx.,3K411,Pr2429,Jer2551)theorderoftheLXXdifferscompletelyfromthatoftheHebrew,
testifyingtoanarrangementofthetextquitedifferentfromthatoftheMassoretes.Elsewherethedifferencesarenotinarrangementbutin
contents.ThisisespeciallythecaseinthelatterchaptersofJos.,1Kings(=1Sam.)1718,wheretheLXXomits(ortheHeb.adds)several
verses3K8and12,wheretheLXXincorporatesmaterialfromsomefreshsourcePs151,whichisaddedinthe
LXXJob,theoriginalLXXtextofwhichwasmuchshorterthanthatoftheMassoreticHebrewEsther,wheretheGreekhaslargeadditions,
whichnowappearseparatelyinourApocrypha,butwhichareanintegralpartoftheLXXJer.,wheresmallomissionsandadditionsare
frequentandDaniel,wheretheLXXincludestheepisodesofSusanna,BelandtheDragon,andtheSongoftheThreeChildren,whichhave
nowbeenrelegated(inobediencetoJeromesexample)totheApocrypha.
6.ThementionoftheApocryphasuggeststhelargestandmoststrikingdifferencebetweentheLXXandtheHebrewOT,namely,inthe
booksincludedintheirrespectivecanonsfortheApocrypha,asitstandstodayinourBibles,consists(withtheexceptionof2Esdrasandthe
PrayerofManasseh)ofbookswhichformanintegralpartoftheLXXcanon,butwereexcludedfromtheHebrewcanonwhenthatwasfinally
determinedabouttheendofthe1stcentury[seeCANONOFOT].NordidthesebooksstandapartfromtheothersintheLXXasaseparate
group.Thehistoricalbooks(1Esdras,Tob.,Judith,andsometimesMac.)havetheirplacewithChron.,Ezr.,Neh.thepoeticalbooks(Wisd.,
Sir.)standbesideProv.,Eccles.,andCant.andBaruchisattachedtoJeremiah.ThewholearrangementoftheOTbooksdiffers,indeed,from
thestereotypedorderoftheMassoreticHebrew.Thelatterhasitsthreefixeddivisions(i)theLaw,i.e.the
Pentateuch(ii)theProphets,consistingoftheFormerProphets(Jos.,Judg.,14
Kings)andtheLatterProphets(Isaiah,Jeremiah,Ezekiel,andtheMinorProphets)
(iii)theHagiographa,includingChron.,Ps.,Job,Prov.,Ruth,Cant.,Eccles.,Lam.,
Esth.,Dan.,Ezr.,Nehemiah.ButtheLXXattachesRuthtoJudges,Chron.and
Ezr.Neh.toKings,BaruchandLam.toJer.,andDan.tothethreeGreaterProphets.Itsprincipleofarrangementis,infact,different.Inplace
ofdivisionswhichsubstantiallyrepresentthreedifferentstagesofcanonization,itclassifiesthebooksingroupsaccordingtothecharacterof
theirsubjectmatterLaw,History,Poetry,andProphecy.ThedetailsoftheorderofthebooksdifferindifferentMSSandauthoritativelists,
butsubstantiallytheprincipleisasherestatedandthedivergencehashadconsiderablehistoricalimportance.Inspiteofthedissentofseveral
oftheleadingFathers,suchasOrigenandAthanasius,theLXXcanonwasgenerallyacceptedbytheearlyChristianChurch.Throughthe
mediumoftheOldLatinVersionitpassedintotheWest,andinspiteofJeromesadoptionofthe
HebrewcanoninhisVulgate,theimpugnedbooksmadetheirwaybackintoallLatinBibles,andhaveremainedtherefromthatdaytothis.
[Foranexplanationofthecuriousmisapprehensionwhereby1Esdras(onwhichsee17)wasexceptedfromthisfavourablereceptioninthe
LatinprintedBiblesandrelegatedtoanappendix,seeanarticlebySirH.HoworthinJThStvii.343(1906).]IntheReformedChurchestheir
fatehasbeendifferentfortheGermanandEnglishtranslatorsfollowedJeromeinadoptingtheHebrewcanon,andrelegatedtheremaining
bookstothelimbooftheApocrypha.TheauthorityattachingtotheLXXandMassoreticcanonsrespectivelyisamatterofcontroversywhich
cannotbesettledoffhandbutthefactoftheirdivergenceiscertainandhistoricallyimportant.
7.IftheLXXhadcomedowntousinthestateinwhichitwasatthetimewhenitscanonwascomplete(sayinthe1stcent.B.C.),it
wouldstillhavepresentedtothecriticproblemsmorethanenough,byreasonofitsdifferencesfromtheHebrewincontentsandarrangement,
andthedoubtattachingtoitsfidelityasatranslationbutthesedifficultiesaremultipliedtenfoldbythemodificationswhichitunderwent
betweenthistimeandthedatetowhichourearliestMSSbelong(4thcent.A.D.).IthasbeenshownabovethattheLXXwastheBibleofthe
GreekspeakingworldatthetimewhenChristianityspreadoverit.ItwasinthatformthattheGentileChristiansreceivedtheOTandthey
wereundernotemptationtodesertitfortheHebrewBible(whichwasthepropertyoftheirenemies,theJews),eveniftheyhadbeenableto
readit.TheLXXconsequentlybecametheBibleoftheearlyChristianChurch,towhichthebooksoftheNTwereaddedincourseoftime.
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readit.TheLXXconsequentlybecametheBibleoftheearlyChristianChurch,towhichthebooksoftheNTwereaddedincourseoftime.
ButthemoretheChristianswereattachedtotheLXX,thelesswillingbecametheJewstoadmititsauthorityandfromthetimeofthe
activityoftheRabbinicalschoolofJamnia,abouttheendofthe1stcent.,towhichperiodthefixingoftheMassoreticcanonandtextmaybe
assignedwithfaircertainty,theydefinitelyrepudiatedit.Thisrepudiationdidnot,however,doawaywiththeneedwhichnonPalestinian
JewsfeltforaGreekOTandtheresultwastheproduction,inthecourseofthe2ndcent.,ofnolessthanthreenewtranslations.These
translations,whichareknownunderthenamesofAquila,Theodotion,andSymmachus,aredescribedbelow(1518)hereitissufficientto
saythattheywerealltranslatedfromtheMassoreticOT,andrepresentitwithdifferentdegreesoffidelity,fromthepedanticverbalimitation
ofAquilatotheliteraryfreedomofSymmachus.Bythebeginningofthe3rdcent.therewere,therefore,fourGreekversionsoftheOTinthe
field,besidesportionsofotherswhichwillbementionedbelow.
8.SuchwasthestateofthingswhenOrigen(A.D.185253),thegreatestscholarproducedbytheearlyChurch,enteredthefieldoftextual
criticism.HislaboursthereinhadthemostfarreachingeffectonthefortunesoftheLXX,andarethecauseofalargepartofourdifficultiesin
respectofitstexttoday.StruckbythediscrepanciesbetweentheLXXandtheHeb.,heconceivedtheideaofavastworkwhichshouldset
thefactsplainlybeforethestudent.ThiswastheHexapla,orsixfoldversionoftheOT,inwhichsixversionsweresetforthinsixparallel
columns.Thesixversionswereasfollows(1)theHebrewtext(2)thesametransliteratedinGreekcharacters(3)theversionofAquila,
whichofalltheversionswasthenearesttotheHebrew(4)theversionofSymmachus(5)hisowneditionoftheLXX(6)theversionof
Theodotion.InthecaseofthePsalms,nolessthanthreeadditionalGreekversionswereincluded,ofwhichverylittleisknowntheyare
calledsimplyQuinta,Sexta,andSeptima.Elsewherealsothereisoccasionalevidenceofanadditionalversionhavingbeenincludedbutthese
areunimportant.AseparatecopyofthefourmainGreekversionswasalsomade,andwasknownastheTetrapla.Theprincipalextant
fragmentofaMSoftheHexapla(a10thcent.palimpsestatMilan,containingabout11Psalms)omitstheHebrewcolumn,butmakesupthe
totalofsixbyacolumncontainingvariousisolatedreadings.Theonlyotherfragmentisa7thcent.leafdiscoveredatCairoinagenizah(or
receptaclefordamagedanddisusedsynagogueMSS),andnowatCambridge.ItcontainsPs22:1518,2028,andhasbeeneditedbyDr.C.
Taylor(CairoGenizahPalimpsests,1900).OrigensHebrewtextwassubstantiallyidenticalwiththeMassoreticandAq.,Symm.,and
Theod.,ashasbeenstatedabove,weretranslationsfromitbuttheLXX,inviewofitswideandfrequentdiscrepancies,receivedspecial
treatment.PassagespresentintheLXX,butwantingintheHeb.,weremarkedwithanobelus(or)passageswantingintheLXX,but
presentintheHeb.,weresuppliedfromAq.orTheod.,andmarkedwithanasterisk(*)thecloseofthepassagetowhichthesignsapplied
beingmarkedbyametobelus(:or%.or).Incasesofdivergencesinarrangement,theorderoftheHeb.wasfollowed(exceptinProv.),and
thetextoftheLXXwasconsiderablycorrectedsoastobringitintobetterconformitywiththeHeb.Theestablishmentofsuchaconformity
wasinfactOrigensmainobject,thoughhisconscienceasascholarandhisreverencefortheLXXdidnotallowhimaltogethertocastout
passageswhichoccurredinit,eventhoughtheyhadnosanctionintheHebrewtextasheknewit.
9.ThegreatMSSoftheHexaplaandTetraplawerepreservedforalongtimeinthelibraryestablishedbyOrigensdisciple,Pamphilus,at
Csarea,andreferencesaremadetotheminthescholiaandsubscriptionsofsomeoftheextantMSSoftheLXX(notablyandQ).Solong
astheywereinexistence,withtheirapparatusofcriticalsigns,theworkofOrigeninconfusingtheGr.andHeb.textsoftheOTcouldalways
beundone,andtheoriginaltextsoftheLXXsubstantiallyrestored.ButMSSsohugecouldnoteasilybecopied,andthenaturaltendencywas
toexcerpttheLXXcolumnbyitself,asrepresentingaGreektextimprovedbyrestorationtomoreauthenticform.Suchanedition,containing
Origensfifthcolumn,withitsapparatusofcriticalsigns,wasproducedearlyinthe4thcent.byPamphilus,thefounderofthelibraryat
Csarea,andhisdiscipleEusebiusandalmostsimultaneouslytwofresheditionsoftheLXXwerepublishedinthetwoprincipalprovincesof
GreekChristianity,byHesychiusatAlexandria,andbyLucianatAntioch.ItisfromthesethreeeditionsthatthemajorityoftheextantMSS
oftheLXXhavedescendedbuttheintricaciesofthedescentareindescribablygreat.InthecaseofHexaplaricMSS,theinevitabletendency
ofscribeswastoomit,moreorlesscompletely,thecriticalsignswhichdistinguishedthetrueLXXtextfromthepassagesimportedfromAq.
orTheod.theversionsofAq.,Theod.,andSymm.havedisappeared,andexistnowonlyinfragments,sothatwecannotdistinguishallsuch
interpolationswithcertaintyHexaplaric,Hesychian,andLucianicMSSactedandreactedononeanother,sothatitisverydifficulttoidentify
MSSascontainingoneorotheroftheseeditionsandalthoughsomeMSScanbeassignedtooneorotherofthemwithfairconfidence,the
majoritycontainmixedandundeterminedtexts.Thetaskofthetextualcriticwhowouldgetbehindallthisconfusionofversionsand
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majoritycontainmixedandundeterminedtexts.Thetaskofthetextualcriticwhowouldgetbehindallthisconfusionofversionsand
recensionsisconsequentlyveryhard,andtheproblemhasasyetbynomeansbeencompletelysolved.
10.Thematerialsforitssolutionare,asintheNT,threefoldManuscripts,
Versions,PatristicQuotationsandthesemustbebrieflydescribed.Theearliest
MSSarefragmentsonpapyrus,someofwhichgobacktothe3rdcentury.About
16inallareatpresentknown,themostimportantbeing(i)OxyrhynchusPap.656
(early3rdcent.),containingpartsofGn1427,wheremostofthegreatvellumMSSaredefective(ii)Brit.Mus.Pap.37(7thcent.),
sometimesknownasU,containingthegreaterpartofPs1034[itisbyameremisunderstandingthatHeinrici,followedbyRahlfs,quotesthe
authorityofWilckenforassigningthis
MStothe4thcent.WilckensopinionrelatedtoanotherPsalterfragmentinthe
BritishMuseum(Pap.230)](iii)aLeipzigpapyrus(4thcent.),containingPs3055,thefirstfivebeingconsiderablymutilated(iv)a
papyrusatHeidelberg(7thcent.),containingZec4:6Mal4:5.ApapyrusatBerlin,containingabouttwothirdsofGen.,andsaidtobeofthe
4thor5thcent.,isnotyetpublished.
TheprincipalvellumuncialMSS,whichareofcoursethemainfoundationofourtextualknowledge,areasfollows.SeealsoTEXTOF
NT.
orS.CodexSinaiticus,4thcent.,43leavesatLeipzig,156(besidesthewhole
NT)atSt.Petersburg,containingfragmentsofGeo.andNum.,1Ch9:2719:17,2
Es9:9toend,Esth.,Tob.,Judith,1and4Mac.,Is.,Jer.,La1:12:20,Joel,Obad.,Jon.,Nah.Mal.,andthepoeticalbooks.Itstextisofa
verymixedcharacter.IthasastrongelementincommonwithB,andyetisoftenindependentofit.InTob.ithasaquitedifferenttextfrom
thatofAandB,andisperhapsnearertotheoriginalHeb.Itsoriginisprobablycomposite,sothatitisnotpossibletoassignittoanyone
school.ItsmostimportantcorrectorsareCaandCb,bothofthe7thcent.,theformerofwhomstates,inanoteappendedtoEsth.,thathe
collatedtheMSwithaveryearlycopy,whichitselfhadbeencorrectedbythehandofPamphilus.
A.CodexAlexandrinus,5thcent.,intheBritishMuseumcompleteexceptinPs49:1979:10andsmallerlacun,chieflyinGen.3and4
Mac.areincluded.ThePsalterisliturgical,andisprecededbytheEpistleofAthanasiusonthePsalter,andtheHypotheseisofEusebiusthe
Canticlesareappendedtoit.Thetextiswrittenbyatleasttwoscribestheprincipalcorrectionsarebytheoriginalscribesandareviserofnot
muchlaterdate.ItisalmostcertainlyofEgyptianorigin,andhassometimesbeensupposedtorepresenttheeditionofHesychius,butthisisby
nomeanscertainyet.InJudgesithasatextwhollydifferentfromthatofB,andingeneralthetwoMSSrepresentdifferenttypesoftextthe
quotationsfromtheLXXintheNTtendtosupportAratherthanB.
B.CodexVaticanus,4thcent.,intheVaticancomplete,exceptforthelossof
Gn1:146:28,2K2:57,1013,Ps105:27137:6,andtheomissionof14Maccabees.Itscharacterappearstodifferindifferentbooks,but
ingeneralHortsdescriptionseemssound,thatitiscloselyakintothetextwhichOrigenhadbeforehimwhenhesetabouthisHexapla.Itis
thusofEgyptianorigin,andisveryfrequentlyinaccordwiththeBohairicversion.RecentlyRahlfshasarguedthatinPs.itrepresentsthe
editionofHesychius,buthisproofisveryincompleteforsinceheadmitsthatHesychiusmusthavemadebutfewalterationsinthe
preOrigenianPsalter,andthatthetextofBisnotquiteidenticalwiththatwhichhetakesasthestandardofHesychius(namely,thequotations
inCyrilofAlexandria),hishypothesisdoesnotseemtocoverthephenomenasowellasHorts.ThetruecharacterofB,however,stillrequires
investigation,andeachoftheprincipalgroupsofbooksmustbeexaminedseparately.
C.CodexEphrmirescriptus,5thcent.,atParis64leavespalimpsest,containingpartsofthepoeticalbooks.
D.TheCottonGenesis,5thcent.,intheBritishMuseumanillustratedcopyofGen.,almostwhollydestroyedbyfirein1731,butpartially
knownfromcollationsmadepreviously.

G.CodexSarravianus,5thcent.,130leavesatLeyden,22atParis,andoneatSt.PetersburgcontainsportionsoftheOctateuchina
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G.CodexSarravianus,5thcent.,130leavesatLeyden,22atParis,andoneatSt.PetersburgcontainsportionsoftheOctateuchina
Hexaplartext,withOrigensapparatus(incompletelyreproduced,however)ofasterisksandobeli.
L.TheViennaGenesis,6thcent.,insilverlettersonpurplevellum,withillustrationscontainsGen.incomplete.
NV.CodexBasilianoVenetus,8thor9thcent.,partlyintheVaticanandpartlyatVenicecontainsportionsoftheOT,fromLv13:594
Mac.Ofimportancechieflyashavingbeenused(inconjunctionwithB)forthestandardeditionoftheLXXprintedatRomein1587.
Q.CodexMarchalianus,6thcent.,intheVaticancontainstheProphets,complete.WritteninEgyptitstextisbelievedtobeHesychian,
anditcontainsalargenumberofHexaplaricsignsandreadingsfromtheHexaplainitsmargins,whichareofgreatimportance.
R.CodexVeronensis,6thcent.,atVeronacontainsPsalter,inGreekandLatin,withCanticles.
T.ZrichPsalter,7thcent.,writteninsilverletters,withgoldinitials,onpurplevellumtheCanticlesareincluded.RandTrepresentthe
WesterntextofthePsalms,astheLeipzigandLondonpapyrusPsaltersdotheUpperEgyptiantext,andBtheLowerEgyptian.
AMSofDeut.andJos.,ofthe6thcent.,foundinEgyptandnowattheUniversityofMichigan,istobepublishedshortly.
TheotheruncialMSSarefragmentaryandoflesserimportance.OfminusculeMSSover300areknown,andsomeofthemareof
considerableimportanceinestablishingthetextsofthevariousrecensionsoftheLXX.Mostofthemareknownmainlyfromthecollationsof
HolmesandParsons,whichareoftenimperfecttheCambridgeSeptuagint,nowinprogress,willgivemoreexactinformationwithregardto
selectedrepresentativesofthem.
11.TheVersionsoftheLXXdonotoccupysoprominentapositioninitstextualcriticismasisthecaseintheNT,butstillareof
considerableimportanceforidentifyingthevariouslocaltexts.Thefollowingarethemostimportant
(a)TheBohairicversionofLowerEgypt,thelatestoftheCopticversions,andtheonlyonewhichiscomplete.Theanalysisofits
characterisstillimperfect.ItisnaturaltolooktoitfortheHesychiantext,butitisdoubtfulhowfarthiscanbeassumed,andinthecaseofthe
MinorProphetsithasbeendeniedbyDeissmannastheresultofhisexaminationoftheHeidelbergpapyrus.InthePsalmsitagreesclosely
withB,intheMajorProphetsratherwithAQ.
(b)TheSahidicversionofUpperEgyptJobandPs.areextantcomplete,andthereareconsiderablefragmentsofotherbooks.InPs.the
textagreessubstantiallywiththatofthepapyrusPsalters,andissaidtobepreOrigenian,butconsiderablycorrupted.InJobalsoitispre
Origenian,anditstextisshorterbyonesixththanthereceivedtextscholarsstilldifferastowhichisthetruerrepresentationoftheoriginal
book.Thefragmentsoftheotherbooksneedfullerexamination.AMSofProv.inathirdCopticdialect(MiddleEgyptian)hasquiterecently
beendiscovered,andisnowinBerlinbutnodetailsastoitscharacterhavebeenpublished.
(c)TheSyriacversions.TheOldSyriac,soimportantfortheNT,isnotknowntohaveexistedfortheOT.ThePeshittaappearstohave
beenmadefromtheHebrew,buttohavebeensubsequentlyaffectedbytheinfluenceoftheLXX,andconsequentlyisnotwhollytrustworthy
foreither.ThemostimportantSyriacversionoftheOTisthetranslationmadefromtheLXXcolumnoftheHexaplabyPaulofTellainA.D.
616617,inwhichOrigenscriticalsignswerecarefullypreservedan8thcent.MSatMilancontainstheProphetsandthepoeticalbooks,
whileEx.andRuthareextantcompleteinotherMSS,withpartsofGen.,Numb.,Josh.,Judg.,and3and4Kings.Theotherhistoricalbooks
wereeditedinthe16thcent.fromaMSwhichhassincedisappeared.ThisisoneofthemostimportantsourcesofourknowledgeofOrigens
work.
(d)TheLatinversions.Theseweretwoinnumber,theOldLatinandthe
Vulgate.OntheoriginoftheOL,seeTEXTOFTHENT.ThegreaterpartoftheHeptateuch(Gn16:9Jg20:31,butwithmutilations)is
extantinaMSatLyonsofthe5th6thcent.ThenonMassoreticbooks(ourApocr.),exceptJudithandTob.,werenottranslatedbyJerome,
andconsequentlywereincorporatedintheVulg.fromtheOLRuthsurvivesinoneMS,thePsalmsintwo,andEstherinseveraland
considerablefragmentsofmostoftheotherbooksareextantinpalimpsestsandotherincompleteMSS.Inadditionwehavethequotationsof
CyprianandotherearlyLatinFathers.TheimportanceoftheOLliesinthefactthatitsorigingoesbacktothe2ndcent.,anditis
consequentlypreHexaplar.Also,sinceitsaffinitiesareratherwithAntiochthanwithAlexandria,itpreservesreadingsfromatypeoftext
prevalentinSyria,that,namely,onwhichLuciansubsequentlybasedhisedition.ThistypeoftextmaynotbesuperiortotheAlexandrian,but75/82
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prevalentinSyria,that,namely,onwhichLuciansubsequentlybasedhisedition.ThistypeoftextmaynotbesuperiortotheAlexandrian,but
atleastitdeservesconsideration.OntheOL,seeKennedyinHastingsDB,andBurkittsTheOldLatinandtheItala(1896).OntheVulgate,
seeart.s.v.Sinceitwas,inthemain,aretranslationfromtheHebrew,itdoesnot(exceptinthePsalter)comeintoconsiderationinconnexion
withtheLXX.
TheremainingversionsEthiopic,Armenian,Georgian,Arabic,Gothic,Slavonicareofminorimportance,andneednotbedescribed
here.
12.TheevidenceoftheFathershasbeenlessfullyusedfortheLXXthanfortheNT,butitsimportanceindistinguishingandlocalizing
typesoftextisincreasinglyrecognized.
Origenisofparticularimportanceforhisexpressstatementsontextualmatters,thoughhisdeclaredacceptanceoftheHebrewasthe
standardoftruthhastoberememberedinweighinghisevidence.MuchthesamemaybesaidofJerome.Fatherswhohadnointerestin
textualcriticismareoftenmorevaluableaswitnessestothetypeoftextinuseintheirageandcountry.ThusCyrilofAlexandriagivesusan
Egyptiantext,whichmayprobablybethatofHesychius.TheodoretandChrysostom,whobelongtoAntioch,representtheSyriantext,i.e.the
editionofLucian.CyprianisaprincipalwitnessfortheAfricanOldLatin.TheApostolicFathers,notablyClementofRomeandBarnabas,
carryusfartherback,andcontributesomeevidencetowardsadecisionbetweentherivaltextsrepresentedbyAandB,theirtendencyonthe
wholebeinginfavouroftheformerandthesameisthecasewithIrenus,Justin,andClementofAlexandria,thoughtheirresultsarebyno
meansuniform.Thisfieldofinquiryisnotworkedoutyet.
13.WiththesematerialsthecritichastoapproachtheproblemoftherestorationofthetextoftheLXX.Ideally,whatisdesirableisthatit
shouldbepossibletopointoutthethreemaineditions,thoseofOrigen,Lucian,andHesychius,andthencetogobacktothetextwhichlies
behindthemall,thatofthepreOrigenianLXX.Someprogresshasbeenmadeinthisdirection.SomeMSSaregenerallyrecognizedasbeing
predominantlyLucianicsomereadingsarecertainlyknowntobeHexaplarbutwearestillfarfromanagreementonallpoints.Especiallyis
thisthecasewiththeeditionofHesychius.Somescholarshaveidentifiedit(notablyintheProphets)withthetextofA,which,however,
seemscertainlytohavebeenmodifiedbytheinfluenceofOrigen.MorerecentlythetendencyhasbeentofinditinBbuthereitisstillopen
toquestionwhetherBisnotmainlybothpreHesychianandpreOrigenian.Itwouldbeunjustifiabletopretendatpresentthatcertaintyhas
beenarrivedatonthesepoints.AndwithregardtothegreatbulkofMSS,itisclearthattheirtextsareofamixedcharacter.InthePsalmsit
wouldappearthattheeditionofLucianwas,inthemain,adoptedatConstantinople,andsobecamethecommontextoftheChurchbutin
regardtotheotherbooks,thecommontext,whichappearsinthebulkofthelaterMSS,cannotbeidentifiedwithanyofthethreeprimary
editions.TheinfluenceoftheHebrew,especiallyaftertheexampleofOrigen,wasconstantlyadisturbingfactoranditiscertainthatcriticism
hasstillmuchtodobeforeitcangiveusevenanapproximatelysoundtextoftheLXX.
14.Andwhenthatisdone,thequestionoftherelationoftheLXXtothe
Hebrewstillremains.NootherversiondifferssowidelyfromitspresumedoriginalastheLXXdoesfromtheMassoreticHebrewbutitisby
no means easy to say how far this is due to the mistakes and liberties of the translators, and how far to the fact that the text before them
differedfromtheMassoretic.Thatthelatterwasthecasetosomenotinconsiderableextentiscertain.ReadingsinwhichtheLXXissupported
againsttheMassoreticbytheSamaritanversionmustalmostcertainlyrepresentadivergentHebreworiginalbutunfortunatelytheSamaritan
existsonlyforthePentateuch,inwhichthevariantsareleast.Elsewherewehavegenerallytodependoninternalevidenceandthemorethe
LXX is studied in detail, the less willing, as a rule, is the student to maintain its authority against the Hebrew, and the less certain that its
variantsreallyrepresentdifferencesintheoriginaltext.Thepalpablemistakesmadebythetranslators,theinadequacyoftheirknowledgeof
Hebrew,thefreedomwithwhichsomeofthemtreatedtheiroriginal,allthesegofartoexplainalargemarginofdivergenceandtothese
mustbeaddeddivergencesarising,notfromadifferentHebrewtext,butfromsupplyingdifferentvowelpointstoatextwhichoriginallyhad
none.AllthesefactorshavetobetakenintoaccountbeforewecansafelysaythattheHebrewwhichlaybeforetheLXXtranslatorsmusthave
been different from the Massoretic text and each passage must be judged on its own merits. An instructive lesson may be learnt from the
recentdiscoveryoftheoriginalHebrewofSirach,whichhasrevealedaquiteunsuspectedamountofblundering,andevenwilfulalteration,on
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recentdiscoveryoftheoriginalHebrewofSirach,whichhasrevealedaquiteunsuspectedamountofblundering,andevenwilfulalteration,on
thepartoftheGreektranslator.ThetestimonyoftheLXXmustthereforebereceivedwithextremecautionandalthoughthereisnoreasonto
doubtthatitcontainsmuchgoodgrain,yetitisalsocertainthatmuchskillandlabourhavestilltobeexercisedinordertoseparatethegrain
fromthechaff.Inpassing,itmaybesaidthatthereappearstobenosoundbasisforthecharge,oftenbroughtbyearlyChristianwriters,that
theJewsmadelargealterationsintheHeb.textfordoctrinalandcontroversialreasons.
II.Aquila(Aq.).15.OftherivalGreekversionswhich,asmentionedin7,cameintobeinginthe2ndcent.,thefirstwasthatof
Aquila,aGentileofSinope,inPontus,whowasconvertedfirsttoChristianityandthentoJudaism.HeissaidtohavebeenapupilofRabbi
Akiba,andtohaveflourishedinthereignofHadrian(A.D.117138).HistranslationoftheOTwasmadeintheinterestsofJewish
orthodoxy.ThetextwhichsubsequentlyreceivedthenameofMassoretichadpracticallybeenfixedbytheJewishscholarsattheendofthe
1stcent.,andAquilafolloweditwithslavishfidelity.AllthoughtforthegeniusandusageoftheGreeklanguagewasthrownaside,andthe
GreekwasforcedtofollowtheidiosyncrasiesoftheHebrewindefianceofsenseandgrammar.Aq.wouldconsequentlybeanexcellent
witnesstotheHebrewtextofthe2ndcent.,ifonlyitexistedintactbutwepossessonlysmallfragmentsofit.Theseconsistforthemostpart(
untilrecently,wholly)offragmentsofOrigensthirdcolumnpreservedinthemarginsofHexaplarMSS(suchasQ)buttheyhavebeen
supplementedbymoderndiscoveries.TheMilanpalimpsestoftheHexapla(see8)containsthetextofAq.for11Psalmsbutthough
discoveredbyMercatiin1896,onlyasmallspecimenofithasyetbeenpublished.TheCambridgefragmentpublishedbyDr.Taylorgivesthe
textofPs22:2028.In1897Mr.F.C.BurkittdiscoveredthreepalimpsestleavesofaMSofAq.(5th6thcent.)amongalargequantityof
tatteredMSSbrought,likethelastmentionedfragment,fromCairoandthese,whichcontain3K20:717and4K23:1127,werepublished
in1897.Furtherfragments,fromthesamesourceandofthesamedate,publishedbyDr.C.Taylor(1900),containPs90:1792:10,96:7
97:12,98:2,102:16103:18andin1900Messrs.Grenfelland
HuntpublishedGn1:18intheversionsoftheLXXandAq.fromapapyrusofthe4thcent.inthecollectionofLordAmherst.These
discoveriesconfirmourpreviousknowledgeofthecharacteristicsofAq.anditisnoteworthythatintheCambridgeMSSofAq.theDivine
TetragrammatoniswrittenintheoldHebrewcharacters.
III.Theodotion(Theod.).16.Theoriginofthisversionmustbeascribedtoadesire(similartothatwhichactuatedOrigen)onthe
partoftheChristianstohaveaGreekversionoftheOTwhichshouldcorrespondbetterthantheLXXwiththecurrentHebrewtext,andyet
notbesocloselyidentifiedwiththeirJewishopponentsandsodisregardfulofthegeniusoftheGreeklanguageasAquila.Theodotion,though
sometimesdescribedasaJewishproselyte,appearsrathertohavebeenanEbioniticChristian,wholivedatEphesusaboutthemiddleofthe2
ndcent.andhisversionfoundfavourwiththeChristians,muchasAq.didwiththeJews.Thisversionfollowsinthemaintheauthorized
Hebrew,butismuchmorefreethanAq.,andagreesmorewiththeLXX.HencewhenOrigen,intheexecutionofhisplanforbringingthe
LXXintoaccordwiththeHebrew,hadtosupplyomissionsintheLXX,hehadrecoursetoTheod.forthepurpose.Further,theLXXversion
ofDan.beingregardedasunsatisfactory,theversionofTheod.wastakenintouseinstead,andsoeffectuallythattheLXXofthisbookhas
survivedinbutonesingleMS.Itisprobable,however,thatTheod.wasnotwhollyoriginalinthisbook,fortherearestrongtracesof
TheodotionicreadingsintheNT(HebrewsandApocalypse),Hermas,Clement,andJustinwhenceitseemsnecessarytoconcludethatTheod.
basedhisversionononewhichhadbeenpreviouslyinexistencesidebysidewiththeLXX.
17.BesidesthiscompletebookandtheextractsfromtheHexaplaandtheMilanpalimpsest(theTheodotioncolumnintheCambridgeMS
islost),thereissomereasontobelievethatstillmoreofTheod.hassurvivedthanwasformerlysupposed.Itiswellknownthatthebook
whichappearsinourApocryphaas1Esdras,andintheGreekBibleas,issimplyadifferentrecensionofthecanonicalbookof
Ezra(withpartsof2Chron.andNehemiah),whichintheGreekBibleappears(withNeh.)as.faithfullyrepresentsthe
MassoreticHebrewisfreelyparaphrastic,andcontainssomeadditionalmatter(1Es3:15:6).Josephus,whoknewtheLXX,but
not,ofcourse,
Theod.,plainlyfollows.andithasbeenarguedbyWhiston(in1722)andSirH.Howorth(Soc.Bibl.Arch.,May1901Nov.1902)
that.istheoriginalLXXversion,and.theversionofTheod.,which,asinDan.,hasousteditspredecessorfromgeneraluse.
Thetheoryisnotatallimprobable(andthereissomeevidencethatintheHexapla,whereTheod.ofcoursehaditsowncolumn,thetextin
theLXXcolumnwas.),butitstillneedsconfirmationbyalinguisticcomparisonbetween.andTheodotionsDan.,whichit 77/82
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theLXXcolumnwas.),butitstillneedsconfirmationbyalinguisticcomparisonbetween.andTheodotionsDan.,whichit
ishopedwillshortlybemade.SirH.HoworthfurthersuggeststhattheversionofChron.whichnowappearsintheLXXisreallythatof
Theod.,theoriginalLXXhavinginthiscasecompletelydisappeared.Chron.iscertainlycloselyconnectedwith.,andthesuggestion
deservesfullexaminationbutintheabsenceofanalternativeversion,orofanyreferencetoone,itwillbemoredifficulttoestablish.
IV.Symmachus(Symm.).18.OfSymm.thereislesstosay.Like
Theodotion,hehasbeencalledanEbionite,and,likebothTheodotionandAquila,hehasbeensaidtobeaproselytetoJudaismtheformer
statementisprobablytrue.HisworkwasknowntoOrigenbyaboutA.D.228,andwasprobablyproducedquiteattheendofthe2ndcentury.
Fromtheliterarypointofview,itwasthebestofalltheGreekversionsoftheOT.Itwasbased,likeAq.andTheod.,ontheMassoretic
Hebrew,butitaimedatrenderingitintoidiomaticGreek.Consequently,itneitherhadthereputationwhichAq.acquiredamongtheJews,nor
wasitsowellfittedasTheod.tomakegoodthedefects,realorsupposed,oftheLXXamongtheChristiansanditshistoricalimportanceis
thereforelessthanthatofitsrivals.TheextantmaterialsforitsstudyarepracticallythesameasinthecaseofAq.,namely,thetwofragments
ofMSSoftheHexapla[theCambridgefragmentcontainstheSymm.columnforPs22:1518,2024thepreciseextentoftheMilanMSis
notknown],andthecopiousextractsfromtheHexaplainthemarginsofcertainMSSandthequotationsoftheFathers.
LITERATURE.ByfarthebestworkontheLXXinanylanguageisDr.H.B.SwetesIntrod.totheOTinGreek(1900),whichincludes
fullreferencestoalltheliteratureofthesubjectbeforethatdate.SeealsoNestlesarticleinHastingsDB,andhisSeptuagintastudien(1886
1907).ApopularaccountwithadescriptionofalltheuncialMSSisgiveninKenyonsOurBibleandtheAncientMSS,pp.4892
(1895reviseded.,1898).ThemostimportantrecentworksareRahlfs
SeptuagintaStudien(I.,1904,onthetextofKingsII.,1907,onPs.),andR.L.
Ottleys Book of Isaiah according to the Septuagint (2 vols., 19046). The remains of the Hexapla are collected in F. Fields Origenis
Hexaplorumqusupersunt(Oxford,1875).CerianisstudyoftheCodexMarchalianusandDeissmannsoftheHeidelbergProphetspapyrus
makeimportantcontributionstotheclassificationoftheMSS.AnEnglishtranslationoftheLXXwasprintedbyC.ThomsonatPhiladelphia
(1808),andhasrecentlybeenreprintedbyS.F.PellsanotherbySirL.Brentonwaspublishedin1844.
Editions.TheLXXwasfirstprintedintheComplutensianPolyglot(151417,published1521),butfirstpublishedbyAldus(1519).The
standardeditionisthatissuedatRomebyPopeSixtusv.in1587.This,byexcellentfortune,wasbasedmainlyontheCodexVaticanus(B),
withthehelpoftheVeniceMS(V),andothers.HencetheTRoftheGreekOT,unlikethatoftheNT,hasalwaysrestedontheauthorityof
goodMSS,thoughthesewerenotverycriticallyemployed.AneditionbasedontheCodexAlexandrinus(A)waspublishedatOxfordby
Grabein170720.ThetextualcriticismoftheLXXrestsuponthegreateditionofR.HolmesandJ.Parsons(Oxford,17981827),who
printedtheSixtinetextwithanapparatusdrawnfrom20uncialand277minusculeMSS,besidesversions.Unfortunatelyseveralofthe
collationsmadebytheirassistantswerenotuptomodernstandardsofaccuracy.Tischendorfpublishedarevisedtext,withvariousreadings
fromafewoftheleadinguncials(18507thed.,1887)butthefoundationofrecenttextualstudyoftheLXXwaslaidbytheCambridge
manualeditionin3vols.bySwete(188794revised,189599).InthisthetextisprintedfromB,whenavailable,otherwisefromAor,and
thetextualapparatusgivesallthevariantsintheprincipaluncialMSS.Alargereditiongivingthesametext,butwiththeadditionofthe
evidenceofalltheuncials,aconsiderablenumberofcarefullyselectedandrepresentativeminuscules,andtheprincipalversionsandpatristic
quotations,isbeingpreparedbyA.E.BrookeandN.Maclean,andGenesishasalreadyappeared(1906).
F.G.KENYON.

GREEN,GREENISH.SeeCOLOURS,1.
GREETING.SeeSALUTATION.

GREYHOUND.SeeDog.
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GREYHOUND.SeeDog.
GRINDER.ThegrindersofEc12:3arewomengrindingatthemill.ButinJob29:17mthegrindersarethemolarteeth.Holland,
Pliny,xi.37,says,Thegreatgrinderswhichstandbeyondtheeyeteeth,innocreaturewhatsoeverdofalloutofthemselves.
GRISLED.SeeCOLOURS,1.
GROUND.SeeEARTH.
GROVE.ApartfromGn21:33,tobepresentlymentioned,groveiseverywhereinAVamistakentr.,whichgoesbackthroughthe
VulgatetotheLXX,ofthenameoftheCanaanitegoddessAsherah.Thegroves,sooftensaidtohavebeen,ortobedeservingtobe,cut
down,werethewoodenpolessetupassymbolsofAsherah.Seefurthertheart.ASHERAH.
InGn21:33thegrovewhichAVmakesAbrahamplantinBeershebawasreallyatamarisktree(soRV),atreewhichalsofiguresinthe
storyofSaul,1S22:6,31:13(bothRV).
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
GRUDGE.Ps59:15Letthemwanderupanddownformeat,andgrudgeiftheybenotsatisfied.Thewordgrudgeformerlystoodfor
dissatisfactionexpressedaloud,i.e.murmur,grumblebutby1611itwasbecomingconfinedtothefeelingratherthantheopenexpression,so
thatitoccursinAVlessfrequentlythanintheolderversions.BesidesPs59:15ithastheoldermeaninginWis12:27,Sir10:25,andJa5:9
grudgenotoneagainstanother(RVmurmurnot).
GUARDBODYGUARD.TheformerisusedinEValmostexclusivelyforthebodyguardofroyalandotherhighplacedpersonages,
suchasNehemiah(Neh4:22f.)andHolofernes(Jth12:7).Bodyguardoccursonly1Es3:4RVofthe
guard(AV)ofDarius.ThemembersofthebodyguardofthePharaohofGn
37:35andofNebuchadnezzar(2K25:8etc.)are,intheoriginalstyle,
slaughterers(ofanimalsforfood),notasRVmexecutioners.ThosecomposingthebodyguardoftheHebrewkings,ontheotherhand,are
styledrunners(1S22:17RVandmarg.,2K10:25,11:4etc.),oneoftheirdutiesbeingtoruninfrontoftheroyalstatechariot(cf.2S15:1,
1K1:5).In1K14:28wehearofaguardchamber.Theofficeofthecaptainoftheguardwasatalltimesoneofgreatdignityand
responsibility.Davidsbodyguardconsistedofforeignmercenaries,theCherethitesandPelethites(seep.122b),commandedbyBenaiah(2S
20:23comparedwith23:23).ThefamousPrtorianguardoftheRomanemperorsismentionedinPh1:13RValsoAc28:16AVina
passageabsentfromthebesttextsandRV.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
GUDGODAH.AstationinthejourneyingsoftheIsraelites(Dt10:7),whencetheyproceededtoJotbathah.Therecanbelittledoubt
thatHorhaggidgadintheitineraryofNu33:33indicatesthesameplace.
GUEST,GUESTCHAMBER.SeeHOSPITALITY.
GUILT.1.Guiltmaybedefinedintermsofrelativity.Itisrathertheabidingresultofsinthansinitself(seePearsonsExpositionofthe
Creed,ed.JamesNichols,p.514f.).Itisnotpunishment,orevenliabilitytopunishment,forthispresupposespersonalconsciousnessof
wrongdoingandleavesoutofaccounttheattitudeofGodtosinunwittinglycommitted(Lv5:1ff.cf.Lk12:48,Ro5:13seeSanday
Headlam,Romans,p.144).Ontheotherhand,wemaydescribeitasacondition,astate,orarelationtheresultantoftwoforcesdrawing
differentways(Ro7:14ff.).Itincludestwoessentialfactors,withoutwhichitwouldbeunmeaningasanobjectiverealityorentity.Atone
pointstandspersonalholiness,includingwhateverisholyinmanatanother,personalcorruption,includingwhatisevilinman.Mans

relationtoGod,asitisaffectedbysin,iswhatconstitutesguiltinthewidestsenseoftheword.Thehumanstruggleafterrighteousnessisthe 79/82
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relationtoGod,asitisaffectedbysin,iswhatconstitutesguiltinthewidestsenseoftheword.Thehumanstruggleafterrighteousnessisthe
surestevidenceofmansconsciousnessofracialandpersonalguilt,andanacknowledgmentthathispositioninthisrespectisnotnormal.
Wearethusenabledtoseethatwhenmoralobliquityarisingfromorreinforcedbynaturalcauses,adventitiouscircumstances,orpersonal
environment,issuesinpersistent,wilfulwrongdoing,itbecomesorisresolvedintoguilt,andinvolvespunishmentwhichisguilts
inseparableaccompaniment.IntheOTtheideasofsin,guilt,andpunishmentaresoinextricablyinterwoventhatitisimpossibletotreatof
onewithoutinsomewaydealingwiththeothertwo,andthewordforeachisusedinterchangeablyfortheothers(seeSchultz,OTTheol.ii.p.
306).AnexampleofthisisfoundinCainsdespairingcomplaint,wherethewordpunishment(Gn4:13EV)includesboththesin
committedandtheguiltattachingthereto(cf.Lv26:41).
2.Inspeakingoftheguiltoftheraceoroftheindividual,someknowledgeofalawgoverningmoralactionsmustbepresupposed(cf.Jn
9:41,15:22,24).ItiswhenthehumanwillentersintoconsciousantagonismtotheDivinewillthatguiltemergesintoobjectiveexistenceand
crystallizes(seeMartensen,ChristianDogmatics,Eng.tr.p.203ff.).Aneducativeprocessisthusrequiredinordertobringhometothe
humanracethatsenseofguiltwithoutwhichprogressisimpossible(cf.Ro3:20,7:7).Assoon,however,asthisconsciousnessisestablished,
thefirststepontheroadtorebellionagainstsinistaken,andthesinnersrelationtoGodcommencestobecomefundamentallyalteredfrom
whatitwas.Acaseinpoint,illustrativeofthisinchoatestage,isaffordedbyJosephsbrothersintheirtardyrecognitionofaguiltwhich
seemstohavebeenlatentinadegree,sofarastheirconsciousnesswasconcerned,uptotheperiodofthreatenedconsequences(Gn42:21cf.
forasimilarexampleofstrangemoralblindness,onthepartofDavid,2S12:1ff.).Theirsubsequentconductwascharacterizedbyclumsy
attemptstoundothemischiefofwhichtheyhadbeentheauthors.AlikefeatureisobservableintheattitudeofthePhilistineswhenrestoring
thesacredarkofthecovenanttotheoffendedJehovah.Aguiltofferinghadtobesentasarestitutionforthewrongdone(1S6:3,cf.2K
12:16).ThisnaturalinstinctwasdevelopedandguidedintheLeviticalinstitutionsbyformalceremonyandreligiousrite,whichwere
calculatedtodeepenstillfurtherthefeelingofguiltandfearofDivinewrath.Evenwhentheoffencewascommittedinignorance,assoonas
itscharacterwasrevealedtotheoffender,hebecamethereuponliabletopunishment,andhadtoexpiatehisguiltbyrestitutionandsacrifice,
orbyaguiltoffering(AVtrespassoffering,Lv5:15ff.,6:1ff.).Tothisafine,amountingtoonefifthofthevalueofthewrongdoneinthe
caseofaneighbour,wasaddedandgiventotheinjuredparty(6:5,Nu5:6f.).Howwidelydiffusedthisspecialritehadbecomeisevidenced
bythenumerousincidentalreferencesofEzekiel(40:39,42:13,44:29,46:20)whileperhapsthemostremarkableallusiontothisserviceof
restitutionoccursinthelaterIsaiah,wheretheidealServantofJehovahisdescribedasaguiltoffering(53:10).
3.Asmightbeexpected,theuniversalityofhumanguiltisnowheremoreinsistentlydweltonormorefullyrealizedthaninthePsalms
(cf.Ps14:2and53:2,wheretheexpressionthesonsofmenrevealsthescopeofthepoetsthoughtseealsoPs36withitsantithesisthe
universallongsufferingofGodandtheuniversalcorruptionofmen).Inwhateverwayweinterpretcertainpassages(e.g.Ps69:28,109:7ff.)
inthesocalledimprecatoryPsalms,onethoughtatleastclearlyemerges,thatwilfulandpersistentsincanneverbeseparatedfromguiltiness
inthesightofGod,orfromconsequentpunishment.Theyrevealinthewritersasenseofmoralearnestness,ofrighteousindignation,of
burningzealforthecauseofGod(seeKirkpatrick,PsalmsinCambr.BibleforSchoolsandColleges,p.lxxv.).Thesamespiritistobe
observedinJeremiahsrepeatedprayersforvengeanceonthosewhospenttheirtimeindevisingmeanstodestroyhimandhiswork(cf.
11:18ff.,18:19ff.,20:11ff.etc.).Indeed,thepropheticbooksoftheOTtestifygenerallytotheforceofthisfeelingamongstthemostpowerful
religiousthinkersofancienttimes,andareapermanentwitnesstothevalidityoftheeducativefunctionswhichitfelltothelotofthesemoral
teacherstodischarge(cf.e.g.Hos10:2ff.,Jl1:4ff.,Am4:9ff.,Mic3:4ff.,Hag2:21f.,Zec5:2ff.etc.).
4.ThefinalactinthisgreatformativeprocessishistoricallyconnectedwiththelifeandworkofJesusChrist.Thedoctrineofthe
Atonement,howeverinterpretedorsystematized,involvesbeliefin,andtherealizationof,theguiltoftheentirehumanrace.Thesymbolic
LeviticalriteinwhichthegoatforAzazelboretheguilt(EViniquities,Lv16:22)andthepunishmentofthenation,shadowsforthclearly
andunmistakablythenatureoftheburdenlaidonJesus,astheSonofMan.Involved,asaresultoftheIncarnation,inthelimitationsandfate
ofthehumanrace,Heinaprofoundlyrealwayenteredintotheconditionsofitspresentlife(seeIs53:12,wherethesufferingServantissaid
tobeartheconsequencesofmanspresentpositioninregardtoGodcf.1P2:24).TakingthenatureofAdamsrace,Hebecameinvolved,so
tospeak,inamysticbutnonethelessrealsense,initsguilt,whileGethsemaneandCalvaryareeternalwitnessestothetremendousload
willinglybornebyJesus(Jn10:18)asthepriceoftheworldsguilt,atthehandsofajustandholybutalovingandmercifulGod(Jn3:16f., 80/82
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willinglybornebyJesus(Jn10:18)asthepriceoftheworldsguilt,atthehandsofajustandholybutalovingandmercifulGod(Jn3:16f.,
Ro5:8,Eph2:3f.,1Th1:10,Rev15:1cf.Ex34:7).
BysubmittingtotheawfulexperiencewhichforcedfromHimthecry,MyGod,myGod,whyhastThouforsakenMe?andbythe
Deathwhichfollowed,HemadeourrealrelationtoGodHisown,whileretainingand,intheveryactofsubmittingtothepenaltyofsin,
revealinginthehighestformtheabsoluteperfectionofHismorallifeandthesteadfastnessofHiseternalunionwiththeFather(Dale,The
Atonement,p.425).
ItisonlyinthelifeofJesusthatweareabletomeasuretheguiltofthehumanraceasitexistsinthesightofGod,andatthesametimeto
learnsomewhat,fromthemeansbywhichHewilledtobringithometotheconsciousnessofmen,ofthefullmeaningofitscharacterasan
awfulbutobjectivereality.ManspositioninregardtoGod,lookedonastheresultofsin,istheextentandthemeasureofhisguilt.
OnlyHe,whoknewinHimselfthemeasureoftheholinessofGod,couldrealizealso,inthehumannaturewhichHehadmadeHisown,
thefulldepthofthealienationofsinfromGod,therealcharacterofthepenalavertingofGodsface.OnlyHe,whosoundedthedepthsof
humanconsciousnessinregardtosin,could,inthepowerofHisowninherentrighteousness,condemnandcrushsinintheflesh.The
sufferinginvolvedinthisisnot,inHim,punishmentortheterrorofpunishmentbutitisthefullrealizing,inthepersonalconsciousness,of
thetruthofsin,andthedisciplinarypainoftheconquestofsinitisthatfullselfidentificationofhumannature,withinrangeofsins
challengeandsinsscourge,withholinessastheDivinecondemnationofsin,whichwasatoncethenecessityandtheimpossibilityof
humanpenitence.Thenearestandyethowdistant!anapproachtoitinourexperiencewerecognize,notinthewildsinterrifiedcryofthe
guilty,butratherinthosewhoseprofoundselfidentificationwiththeguiltyovershadowsthemwithadarknessandashame,vitalindeedto
theirbeing,yetathearttranquil,becauseitisnotconfusedwiththeblurringconsciousnessofapersonalsin(Moberly,Atonementand
Personality,p.130).
5.TheclearestandmostemphaticexpositionofthefruitsoftheIncarnation,withrespecttohumanguilt,istobefoundinthepartly
systematizedChristologyofSt.Paul,wherelifeintheSpiritisassertedtobethenormofChristianactivity(Ro8:9ff.).Thereistherefore
nownocondemnationtothemthatareinChrist
Jesus(8:1)isareversaloftheverdictofGuiltyagainsttherace(cf.Col3:6f.,1
Th2:16),insofarasmanacceptstheconditionsoftheChristianlife(cf.Gal5:17f.).Wheretheconditionsarenotfulfilled,heisnotincluded
intheneworder,forifanymanhathnottheSpiritofChrist,heisnoneofhis.Hisguiltisaggravatedbyneglectingsogreatsalvation(He
2:3cf.Jn15:22,24,Mt11:20ff.),andthesentencepronouncedagainstthedisobedienceoftheenlightenedis,humanlyspeakingatleast,
irreversible(He6:4ff.,10:29ff.).
J.R.WILLIS.GUILTOFFERING.SeeSACRIFICEANDOFFERING.
GULF.TheonlyinstanceoftheuseofthiswordintheBibleoccursintheparableofDivesandLazarus(Lk16:26cf.Nu16:30where
thewordpitisthetranslationofHadesorSheol).SomecommentatorshavediscoveredinJesusemploymentofthisterm(chasm),aswell
asinHisassertionofthepossibilityofconversation,anapprovalingeneraltermsofacurrentRabbinicalbeliefthatthesoulsoftherighteous
andofthewickedexistafterdeathindifferentcompartmentsofthesameunderworld(seeJ.Lightfoot,Hor.Heb.iii.p.175).Itisnot
possible,however,toconstructatheoryofJesusbeliefastotheintermediatestatefromevidencesoscanty.Indeed,signsarenotlackingthat
onthisoccasionHeemploysthelanguageofmetaphorinordertoguardagainstplacingHisimprimaturonuselessandmaterialistic
speculations.Theexpressionsfromafar(v.23)andagreatgulf(v.26)donotharmonizewiththeideaofholdingaconversationandit
seemsplainthattheyformbutsubsidiaryportionsofaparablebywhichHemeanstoteachalessonofpurelyethicalimport.Thereis,
moreover,anevidentimplicationinthecontextthatthegulfisnotconfinedtotheworldbeyondthegrave.HavingremindedtheRichManof
thecontrastbetweenhisconditionandthatofLazarusintheirearthlylives,andofitsreversalintheirrespectiveconditionsatpresent,
Abrahamismadetosay,Inallthesethings(seeRVm)therehasbeenandremainsfixedagreatchasm(cf.PlummerSt.LukeinICC,ad 81/82
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Abrahamismadetosay,Inallthesethings(seeRVm)therehasbeenandremainsfixedagreatchasm(cf.PlummerSt.LukeinICC,ad
loc.).Thechasmisnotonlybetweentheconditionsofthetwomenslivesithasitsfoundationintheircharacters,modified,nodoubt,and
influencedbythecircumstancesinwhicheachlived.Theimpassablenatureofthechasmcanbeexplainedonlyonthegroundthatitisthe
greatmoraldivisionseparatingtwofundamentallydifferentclassesofmen.
J.R.WILLIS.
GUNI.1.TheeponymofaNaphtalitefamily,Gn46:24=1Ch7:13(cf.Nu
26:48wherethegentilicGunitesoccurs).2.AGaditechief(1Ch5:15).Probably
weshouldalsoreadtheGuniteforJonathanin2S23:32andfortheGizonitein1Ch11:34.
GUR.AnascentbyIbleamandBethhaggan(2K9:27).PossiblythesetwoarethemodernYeblaandBeitJenn.ButseeIBLEAM.
GURBAAL(dwellingofBaal).Anunknownlocalitynamedin2Ch26:7.
GUTTER.SeeHOUSE,5.

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