Department of Multisource Propulsion Systems

Institute of Construction Machinery Engineering

Faculty of Automotive and Construction Machinery Engineering
Warsaw University of Technology

Laboratory of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Measurements of basic DC and AC electrical quantities

Instruction

Warsaw, 2015
Contents
1. The purpose and scope of the exercise
2. Related theoretical knowledge
2.1 Basic elements of electrical circuits;
2.2 DC circuits
2.3 AC circuits
2.4 Measuring instruments
2.5 The technical method for measuring electrical quantities (R,L,C,Z)
2.6 Exercises and questions
3. References

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1 The Purpose and Scope of the Exercise

The purpose of this exercise is to know well:

Methods of calculating DC and AC circuits ;
Basic features of magnetoelectric and electromagnetic meters for measuring current and
voltage;
Methods of the measurement range and scaling measurers;
The technical method of measurement R, L, C, Z.
In the theoretical part it describes the classification of elements constituting the circuit, including
ideal and actual elements.

2 Related Theoretical Knowledge

An electric current is a flow of electric charge. In electric circuits this charge is often carried
by moving electrons in a wire. It can also be carried by ions in an electrolyte, or by both ions and
electrons such as in a plasma.
The SI unit for measuring an electric current is the ampere (A), which is the flow of electric
charge across a surface at the rate of one coulomb per second. Electric current is measured using a
device called an ammeter
Q
I (1)
t
Direct current (DC) is the unidirectional flow of electric charge. Direct current is produced
by sources such as batteries, thermocouples, solar cells, and commutator-type electric machines of
the dynamo type. Direct current may flow in a conductor such as a wire, but can also flow through
semiconductors, insulators, or even through a vacuum as in electron or ion beams. The electric charge
flows in a constant direction, distinguishing it from alternating current (AC). A term formerly used
for direct current was galvanic current
Voltage or electric potential tension (denoted V or U and measured in units of electric
potential: volts, or joules per coulomb) is the electric energy charge difference of electric potential
energy transported between two points. Voltage is equal to the work done per unit of charge against
a static electric field to move the charge between two points. The SI unit of voltage is volt (V)

2.1 Basic Elements of Electrical Circuits

Electric circuit has many elements like resistor, capacitor, inductor, battery etc. Circuit
analysis is the process by which voltage or current is measured across the element. In a complete
circuit there are two types of elements found active elements and passive elements.

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 Fig.1.Active elements

The active elements generate energy. Batteries, generators, operational amplifiers etc are active
elements. The passive elements cannot generate energy, they drop energy. Resistor, capacitor,
inductor etc are passive elements because they take energy from circuit.

Fig.2.Passive elements

2.1.1 Ideal Passive Elements

Resistor
The resistor is a passive component that opposes the flow of electrical current through it. The
amount of opposition to the flow of current is called the resistance of the resistor and is denoted by
the symbol R. Resistance is a measure of how easily or how difficult electrons can flow through a
particular path in an electrical circuit and is expressed as a value in units called Ohms ().
The resistance R in ohms () of a resistor is equal to the resistivity in ohm-meters (m)
times the resistor's length l in meters (m) divided by the resistors cross sectional area S in square
meters (m2):
l l
R (2)
S S
Where: l - the resistor's length [m]; S -the resistor's cross sectional area; -the resistivity of
the resistor's material [m]; - the conductivity of the resistor's material [S/m].
The energy consumed by a resistor is represented by:
WR RI 2 t (3)
Where: WR - thermal energy consumed by the resistor [J, Ws], R- the resistance [], I- the
current flowing through the resistor [A], t-time [s]
An ideal resistor will dissipate electrical energy without storing it as electric charge or as
magnetic energy. The graphic symbol of a resistor see Fig.3.
R

Fig.3. the graphic symbol of a resistor

Inductor
Inductance which has the symbol L and is measured in Henries (H), is the element used for
the storage of energy in the form of an electromagnetic field. Electromagnetic energy is stored within
the turns of a coil as long as a time varying current i(t) keeps flowing through the inductor. Self-
inductance, L is the property of an inductor which opposes any changes in the current as defined by
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the constant of proportionality with the voltage generated in the coil being proportional to the rate of
change of current flowing through it with respect to time.
Self-inductance is given by the following equation which depends on the dimensions and
magnetic properties of the solenoid coil:
z2S
L= (4)
l
Where: - The permeability of the solenoid coil [H/m]; z - the number of turns; S-the cross-sectional
area of the coil [m2]; l - the length of the coil [m].
Then we can define inductance, L as the measure of an inductors resistance to the change
of current with the larger the value of L, the lower the rate of change of current. Like resistance,
inductance is always a positive value. The energy stored in the magnetic field of the solenoid coil
is defined by the following equation:
LI 2
WL (5)
2
Where: WL - The energy stored in the magnetic field of the solenoid coil [J, Ws]; L - Self-
inductance [H]; I - The current through the solenoid coil [A].
An inductor is another passive device that can store or deliver energy but cannot generate it.
An ideal inductor is lossless, meaning that it can store energy indefinitely as no energy is lost as heat.
Inductors present a low impedance path to DC current and a high impedance path to AC current. The
impedance of an inductor called inductive reactance varies with frequency and in an ideal inductor
the current of the AC sine wave lags the voltage by 90o. The graphic symbol of a inductor see Fig.4.
L

Fig.4. the graphic symbol of a inductor

Capacitor
The final passive device is the capacitor. Unlike the inductor which stores its energy
magnetically, a capacitor stores its energy electrostatically as a charge across its plates. A capacitor
is made up of two or more conducting plates which are separated by a dielectric material. Capacitance,
C is the property of a capacitor which opposes any changes in the voltage across it as defined by
the constant of proportionality as the current flowing through it is proportional to the rate of change
of voltage across it with respect to time.
The capacitance of a capacitor depends on its dimensions and the dielectric properties of its
material:
S
C
d (6)
Where: C-The capacitance [F]; - The dielectric constant of the material [F/m]; S - The overlapping
surface area of the plates [m2]; d - the distance between the plates [m].
The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is the ratio of the amount of charge, Q stored on
its plates to the voltage, V across its plates and is measured in Farads, symbol (C), i.e., C=Q/V.
Capacitors present a low impedance path to AC signals but will block DC. The impedance of a
capacitor called capacitive reactance varies with frequency and in an ideal capacitor the voltage of
the AC sine wave lags the current by 90o. Like resistance, capacitance is always a positive value. The
energy stored electrostatically in a flat-plate capacitor is:
CU 2
WC (7)
2
Where: WC - The electrostatic energy stored in a capacitor [J, Ws]; C - The capacitance [F]; U - The
voltage across the capacitor [v].
The graphic symbol of a capacitor sees Fig.5.
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 C

Fig.5. the graphic symbol of a capacito

2.1.2 Actual Passive Elements

In practice, there are no real ideal passive elements. Each passive element has its own
dominant property with the side features of other passive elements. Actual passive elements are
shown in Fig. 6.
a). b). c).

CR CL RC

LR L RL C LC
R
Fig. 6. Actual passive elements: a) resistor, b) inductor, c) capacitor
a resistor or a capacitor can be treated as an ideal element, but every inductor has the feature
of both inductance L and resistance RL.

2.1.3 Active Elements

Those devices or elements which produce energy in the form of Voltage or Current are called
as Active Elements
Some examples for active devices which can produce DC current or voltage are battery, DC
motor, etc., and an example for active elements which can produce AC current or voltage is
synchronous machine.
The actual voltage source is described as the electromotive force (EMF) with internal
resistance Rw. When the voltage source is ideal, then Rw = 0.
The actual current source is described as the current source Is with internal conductance Gi.
When the current source is ideal, then Gi = 0.

2.2 DC Circuits
In DC circuits, the relationship between the current, voltage and resistance may be resolved
with the aid of the following 3 Laws:
1. Ohm's Law, Ohm's law defines the relationship between voltage and current in an ideal
conductor. This relationship states that: The potential difference (voltage) across an ideal
conductor is proportional to the current through it.
U RI (8)
2. Kirchhoff's First Law (The Current Law) , states that the total current or charge
entering a node or node is exactly equal to the charge leaving the node as it has no other
place to go except to leave, as no charge is lost within the node"
I 0 (9)
In other words, the algebraic sum of all currents entering and exiting a node must equal
zero.
3. Kirchhoff's Second Law (The Voltage Law), states that in any closed loop network,
the total voltage (or EMF) around the loop is equal to the sum of all the voltage drops
within the same loop. In other words, the algebraic sum of all voltages within the loop
must be equal to zero.

E RI (10)
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 Resistors can be connected in series; that is, the current flows through them one after another.
The circuit in Figure 7 shows three resistors connected in series, and the direction of current is
indicated by the arrow. Note since there is only one path for the current to travel, the current through
each of the resistors is the same.
R1 R2 R3
I

Fig. 7. Resistors connected in series

In general, the equivalent resistance of resistors connected in series is the sum of their
resistances:
Rz R . (11)
Resistors can be connected such that they branch out from a single point (known as a node),
and join up again somewhere else in the circuit. This is known as a parallel connection. Each of the
three resistors in Figure 8 is another path for current to travel between points A and B. Note that the
node does not have to physically be a single point; as long as the current has several alternate paths
to follow, then that part of the circuit is considered to be parallel
R1
I1

R2
I I2
A B
I3 R3

Fig. 8. Resistors connected in parallel

Any number of resistors connected in parallel can be generalized to the following equation:
1 1 (12)

Rz R
There are more passive circuits known as combination circuits, which combine both series
circuits and parallel circuits. They can be reduced to simply a parallel or series circuit and the resistors
can generally be reduced to a single equivalent resistor.
Kirchhoff's laws usually are used to calculate active circuits. For a loop circuit, we can assume
the clockwise direction is positive (It is important to maintain the same direction either clockwise or
anti-clockwise), then
E1, Rw1 R1

I R2

R3 E2, Rw2

Fig.9. Example of a loop circuit

All EMF and currents are positive with the clockwise direction, and negative with the opposite
direction. Therefore according to Kirchhoff's Second Law, the following equations can be obtained
based on Fig.9:
E1 E2 Rw1 R1 R2 Rw2 R3 I , (13)
Where:

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 E E 1 E2 ; R I R w1 R1 R2 Rw 2 R3 I (14-15)
Then:
I
E . (16)
R
The branch circuit in Fig. 10 has 4 nodes (A, B, C and D) and 2 independent loops
I7
I6 E3 R3
A I3 D

I1
I4 II
R1
R4
I
E1 R5
E2 R2 I2
I8 I5
B C

Fig.10. Active branch circuit

Using Kirchhoffs Current Law, the equations are given as
At node A: I1 I 3 I 6 I 4 I 7 0 (17)
At node B and C:
I8 I1 I 2 0 I2 I4 I5 0 (18-19)
Using Kirchhoffs Voltage Law, the equations are given as:
Loop I:
E1 E2 R1 I1 R2 I 2 R4 I 4 (20)
Loop II:
E3 R3 I 3 R4 I 4 R5 I 5 . (21)
The branch current method

To analyze a circuit using the branch-current method involves three steps:

1. Label the current and the current direction in each branch. Sometimes it's hard to tell which
direction is the correct for the current in a particular loop. That does NOT matter. Simply
pick a direction. If you guess wrong, you'll get a negative value. The value is correct, and
the negative sign means that the current direction is opposite to the way you guessed. You
should use the negative sign in your calculations, however.
2. Use Kirchhoffs First Law to write down current equations for each node that gives you a
different equation. For a circuit with two inner loops and two nodes, one current equation is
enough because both nodes give you the same equation.
3. Use Kirchhoffs second rule to write down loop equations for as many loops as it takes to
include each branch at least once. To write down a loop equation, you choose a starting
point, and then walk around the loop in one direction until you get back to the starting point.
As you cross batteries and resistors, write down each voltage change. Add these voltage
gains and losses up and set them equal to zero.

When you cross a battery from the - side to the + side, that's a positive change. Going the other
way gives you a drop in potential, so that's a negative change.

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 When you cross a resistor in the same direction as the current, if that's also a drop in potential,
so it's a negative change in potential. Crossing a resistor in the opposite direction as the current gives
you a positive change in potential.
There are two different methods for analyzing circuits. The standard method in physics is the
branch current method which is described above. There is another method called the loop current
method.

2.3 AC Circuits
Alternating current describes the flow of charge that changes direction periodically. As a
result, the voltage level also reverses along with the current. One cycle of a wave is one complete
evolution of its shape until the point that it is ready to repeat itself. The period of a wave is the amount
of time it takes to complete one cycle (T). Frequency is the number of complete cycles that a wave
completes in a given amount of time. Usually its measured in Hertz (Hz), 1 Hz being equal to one
complete wave cycle per second.
1
f (22)
T
The most common AC waveform is a sine (or sinusoidal) waveform (See fig.11).
i

I m

T/2 t
0 2 t
i

Fig.11. Graph of AC current over time (in the sine wave)

A sinusoidal function of time in the form:
i( t ) I msin ( t i ) (23)
Voltage:
u( t ) Umsin( t u ) (24)
Where:Um, Im - peak value of voltage and current (amplitude)
2
- is the angular frequency, 2f
T
- the initial phase angle (t = 0)
u i - the phase difference between the voltage and current
AC current can be defined by different quantities:
- RMS I: In mathematics, the root mean square (abbreviated RMS or rms), also known as the
quadratic mean, is a statistical measure of the magnitude of a varying quantity. In the field of electrical
engineering, the RMS value of a periodic current is equal to the direct current (DC) that delivers the
same average power to a resistor as the periodic current:
T
1 2 Im
T 0
I i (t )dt -for AC current in sine wave: I (25)
2
- Average Current Ir can be described by:

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 1
T
2
2 2
I r
T i ( t ) dt
0
- for AC current in sine wave: I r

I m 0,637 I m (26)

The relations between the maximum, average and RMS value can be expressed by different
coefficients. The ratio of the maximum to RMS value is called the crest factor
Im
ks (27)
I
The RMS to the average value is called the aspect ratio:
I
kk (28)
I r
The above terms are also used for describing voltage quantity.
The following laws can be used to calculating AC circuits:
1. Ohm's Law in AC circuits can be described as:
U Z I (29)
U, I - the instantaneous RMS value of voltage and current; Z - the instantaneous impedance
This is the AC analog of Ohm's Law for DC circuits. It looks similar to Ohm's Law for DC
circuits, but now the phases of I, U, and Z must be taken into account. Since they have both a
magnitude and a phase, then it is clear that U, I, and Z are all vectors. In addition, I and U can be time
dependent (in general Z is not) and so U and I may be better represented as U and I, and Equation 29
is better written as
U Z I (30)
Where: U, I - the complex RMS value of voltage and current; Z - the complex impedance
The total of resistances and reactance in a circuit or a branch is called the impedance Z.
Impedance in AC circuits is the equivalent resistance in DC circuits. The method of its determination
for different cases is presented in Table 1.

2. Kirchhoff's First Law for AC circuits: "The algebraic sum of currents in a network of
conductors meeting at a point is zero"
n (31)
i
k 1
k 0

Using complex numbers to reflect the vector nature of circuit parameters results in the
following formulation of Kirchhoff's First law for AC circuits:
n (32)
I
k 1
k 0

Where: now it is a vector sum.

3. Kirchhoff's Second Law for AC circuits: "the algebraic sum of the potential drops on all
elements R,L,C in any closed loop is equivalent to the sum of the emfs in that loop"
n n

u Rk u Lk
k 1
u Ck e k
k 1
(33)

Where: uRk, uLk, uCk - instantaneous values of voltage drops respectively on resistance,
inductive reactance and capacitive reactance in the kth loop.
Using complex numbers to reflect the vector nature of circuit parameters results in the
following formulation of Kirchhoff's Second law for AC circuits:
n n

U
k 1
Rk U Lk U Ck E k
k 1
(34)

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 n
1 n
Or: Rk jLk j
k 1 C k
I k E k (35)
k 1

Where: it is a vector sum as well.

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Table 1. Complex impedance and diagrams of elements R, L, C and their combinations
Elemnet(s) Circuit diagram Complex impedance Impedance module Phasor diagram Timing diagram

Resistor R
ZR
ZR 0

Coil L
Z jL Z XL

jX L
2

Capacitor C 1
Z j Z XC
C

jX C
2

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Series RL
Circuit Z R jL Z R 2 X L2
X L L XL
arc tg
R

Series RC
Circuit Z R jX C Z R 2 X C2
1 XC
XC arc tg
C R

G BL G 2 B L2
Parallel RL Z j Z
Circuit Y2 Y2 Y2
1 1 B
G ; BL arc tg L
R L G
Y G jBL

G BC G 2 B C2
Parallel RC Z j Z
Circuit Y2 Y2 Y2
1 BC
G ; BC C arc tg
R G
Y G jBC

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 2.4 Measuring instruments
A meter is any device built to accurately detect and display an electrical quantity in a form
readable by a human being. Usually this "readable form" is visual: motion of a pointer on a scale, a
series of lights arranged to form a "bargraph," or some sort of display composed of numerical figures.
In the analysis and testing of circuits, there are meters designed to accurately measure the basic
quantities of voltage, current, and resistance.
Most modern meters are "digital" in design, meaning that their readable display is in the form
of numerical digits. Older designs of meters are mechanical in nature, using some kind of pointer
device to show quantity of measurement. In either case, the principles applied in adapting a display
unit to the measurement of (relatively) large quantities of voltage, current, or resistance are the same.
The display mechanism of a meter is often referred to as a movement, borrowing from its
mechanical nature to move a pointer along a scale so that a measured value may be read. Most
mechanical movements are based on the principle of electromagnetism: that electric current through
a conductor produces a magnetic field perpendicular to the axis of electron flow. The greater the
electric current, the stronger the magnetic field produced. If the magnetic field formed by the
conductor is allowed to interact with another magnetic field, a physical force will be generated
between the two sources of fields. If one of these sources is free to move with respect to the other, it
will do so as current is conducted through the wire, the motion (usually against the resistance of a
spring) being proportional to strength of current.

2.4.1 The accuracy of meters

The absolute error (error) is the difference between the value Ww indicated by the meter
and the real value W r of the measured quantity
Ww Wr (36)
The absolute error can be either positive or negative.
The ratio of the absolute error to the nominal value of the measuring range is called the relative
error.
W Wr
w (37)
Wmax Wmax
The accuracy of a meter is the degree of closeness of the measurement of a quantity to that
quantity's actual (real) value. It's determined by the largest permissible relative error of the meter
max , which is also called the error band of a meter. The accuracy is expressed in percentage ratio of
the largest absolute error max in the measurement range to the rated (nominal) value Wmax .
max
max % 100% (38)
Wmax
The error band is used to classify different accuracy rate of measurements: 0.1; 0.2; 0.5; 1;
1.5; 2.5; 5. For example, for a meter with accuracy rate 0.1, it means the maximum error max is
0.1% etc. The accuracy class is the characteristic of the meter, but cannot directly determine the
accuracy of the measurements made in the meter.
The relative deviation error p of measurements caused by the deviation of a meter can be
described by:
W
p max (39)
Wr Wr

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 This formula indicates that the smaller the value measured in relation to the measuring range,
the greater the measurement error resulting from this lower accuracy, as the most accurate indication
shall be above 2/3 scale.

2.4.2 The constant of a scaled meter

The constant of a scaled meter for a particular range is the ratio of the nominal value of range
Wmax to the number of scale divisions n
Wmax
C (40)
n
The meter's constant is the inverse of the sensitivity of the instrument:
1 dW (41)
C
S d

2.4.3 The sensitivity of meters

The sensitivity of an instrument is its ability to detect small changes in the quantity that is
being measured. It is numerically equal to the ratio of the deviation change of the pointer to the change
of the measured quantity:
d
S (42)
dW
Where: -The deviation of the moving part; W - The measured quantity.
If the relation f (W ) is linear, then S =const.

2.4.4 Changing the range of meters

2.4.4.1 Changing the range of magnetoelectric meters
Magnetoelectric meters are used to measure DC current or voltage. The moving of the
movable part in magnetoelectric meters results from the interaction of the magnetic field produced
by the permanent magnet and the magnetic field generated in the coil by the flowing current in the
circuit.
The equivalent resistance of a meter (the internal resistance) Rwe is the sum of the coil
resistance of the measuring system and the spring resistance
The way how to connect the respective resistance with the measuring circuit determines if the
electromagnetic meter is used as ammeter or voltmeter
Ammeter
A simplest ammeter is a galvanometer with direct measuring range up to 25 mA, connected
with the measuring circuit in series.
In order to increase the measuring range of an ammeter, a known shunt resistor should be
connected with the ammeter. The scheme of a ammeter connected with a shunt resistor is shown in
Fig.12.

Fig.12. widening an ammeter range

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Where: Rwe - the equivalent resistance of the galvanometer, Id - the permissible current flowing into
the galvanometer, Ip - measured current, Rb - the shunt resistor, Ib - the shunt current
The shunt resistance is determined by the relation: Rb = Rwe , Where n = Ip/Id (43)
n1

Voltmeter
When an electromagnetic meter is connected in parallel to the measuring circuit, it is used to
measure DC voltage. A simplest voltmeter is only a galvanometer with limited range. In order to
increase the measuring range of a voltmeter, its necessary to increase its resistance an additional
resistor should be connected to the galvanometer in serials. The scheme of a voltmeter connected
with an additional resistor in serials is shown in Fig.13.

Rwe - the equivalent resistance of the meter;

Ud the permissible voltage drop on the
equivalent resistance;
Up measured voltage;
Rd additional resistance

Fig.13. widening a voltmeter range

The additional resistance is determined by the relation:

Rd = Rwe (m 1), where: m = Up/Ud (44)

2.4.4.2 Changing the range of electromagnetic meters

Electromagnetic meters are used to measure RMS currents or voltages in AC circuit.
Ammeters can perform multi-scale by using double measuring coil, coil windings or a transformer.
Measured current is calculated from the formula:
I kI I A (45)
Where:IA - current measured by the meter,
kI - the ratio of current transformer
Electromagnetic voltmeters are used to measure AC voltage. Voltmeters can perform multi-
scale by using additional resistances, measuring transformers or double coils.
Measured voltage is calculated from the formula:
U kUUV (46)
Where: UV - voltage measured by the meter, kU - the ratio of voltage transformer.
Transformers are used in measurement systems to fit the measured voltage and current ranges
for standard voltmeters, ammeters, wattmeter or watt hour meter. Examples of transformer terminals
are shown in Fig. 14, 15, where terminals of primary winding are in capital letters and terminals of
the secondary winding are in lower-case letters.
Voltage transformers are usually designed to extend the voltage ranges of voltmeters,
wattmeters and voltage relays, etc. The ratio of voltage transformers is approximately equal to the
windings ratio. The voltage transformer in Fig. 14 is made so that at the rated voltage of the primary
winding, the voltage of the secondary winding can reach 100 V.
Current transformers are usually designed to extend the current ranges of ammeters,
wattmeters, counters, current relays, etc. The ratio of current transformers is approximately equal to
the current ratio. The current transformer in Fig. 15 is made so at the rated current in the primary
winding, the current in the secondary winding can reach 5 A.

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 Fig.14. the method of connecting the voltage Fig.15. the method of connecting the voltage
transformer transformer; 1 - primary winding

2.5 The technical method of measuring quantities of R, L, C, Z

The technical method is an indirect measurement, which is based on the direct measurement
of some quantities and relevant calculations

2.5.1 The technical method of measuring resistance R

The technical method of measuring resistance need measure voltage and current (properly
connected to the measuring circuit powered by a DC or AC resource), and then make relevant
calculations
The way to connect the devices with the circuit which can measure the resistance is shown in
Fig.16.
a) IA b) IA UA
+ A + A
IR IV
RA
RX RV V V RX
UV UV UR

- -
Fig.16. layout of measuring resistance in DC current circuit

The layout shown in Fig.16a is used to measure very small resistance that is when RV RX .
In this case the resistance can be calculated based on the equation:
UV
RX (47)
IA
Where UV i IA are read from voltmeter and ammeter. The calculation value RX in this way includes
some error resulting from the ignored current IV flowing through the voltmeter. The error is always
negative, which means the calculated resistance is always less than the real value.
The calculated resistance can be corrected based on following equations:
UV U UV U V2
R X' V ; R X' pV ; pV (48-50)
I A IV IR IA I A RV I A U V
Where: pV means the correction factor to reflect the current flowing through the voltmeter
The layout shown in Fig.16b is used to measure big resistance, which means when R A R X
. In this case the resistance can be calculated based on the equation 47. The calculation value RX in
this way includes some error resulting from the ignored voltage drop across the ammeter. The
calculated resistance can be corrected based on following equations:

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 UV U A U
R X' ; R X' V p A ; p A RA (51-53)
IA IA
Where: pA means the correction factor to reflect the voltage drop across the ammeter.

2.5.2 The technical method of measuring inductance and capacitance

The measurement of capacitance
The technical method of measuring capacitance need directly measure the voltage and current
in AC circuit, and then make some relevant calculations. The scheme for measuring capacitance is
shown in Fig.17
When measuring the capacitance, wattmeter is unnecessary since the idea is to ignore the
resistance of the capacitor:
U
Z XC (54)
I
1
Where: XC - the reactance of the capacitor is described by the equation: XC =
2fC
And then:
1 1 I
C= [F] (55)
2fX C 2fZ 2fU
Where: f the frequency of AC current; XC - the reactance of the capacitor.
The calculation should take the technical frequency f = 50Hz

The measurement of inductance

The inductor is a real element which practically is (as shown in Fig. 6b.) the series connection
of inductive reactance XL and resistance RL.
The technical method of measuring inductance need directly measure the voltage and current
in AC circuit, and then make some relevant calculations. The scheme for measuring inductance is
shown in Fig.17.
a) b)
A W W A

~U V Z ~U V Z

Fig.17. Circuit layout of measuring reactance

By measuring U, I and P, based on the relations of three quantities, the inductance of the
inductor is determined as following:
1
L= Z 2 RL
2
(56)
2f
U U
Where: the impedance of the inductor Z = ; the resistance of the inductor RL = Z cos = cos.
I I
P U P P
Here: cos = , to: RL = = 2 (57)
UI I UI I
Finally: L= 1 U 2 P2 [H] (58)
4
2f I2 I
The calculation should take the technical frequency f = 50Hz.

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 The resistance RL of the inductor can also be measured in DC circuit by the method described
in 2.5.1. However, because the coil (inductor) is winded on a ferromagnetic core (nonlinear
coefficient - depending on the electric current), the method shown in Fig. 17 is used here.

2.6 Exercises and questions

15 V
5

I2 I3 I4
R2 25 V 15 V 40
R1
R3
10 V
U 30 I I5
6

R4
R5 20 V
I1
Fig.20 Layout of elements R,
Fig.18 Layout of resistors Fig.19 Layout of combined X connection
connection elements
Exercise 1
Calculate the equivalent resistance of the circuit shown in Figure 18, analysing the
connections of resistors and using appropriate characteristic of different connections: parallel and
series, R1 = 40, R2 = 5 R3 = 10, R4 = 4, R5 = 6. If U = 80V, please calculate the current.
Exercise 2
Calculate the currents (I1, I2I6) in the circuit shown in Fig.19 by using the branch-current
method.
Exercise 3
The voltage waveform is u2(t)=100sin(t+20o) in the circuit shown in Fig.20. If R1 = 6, R2
= 6 X1 = 10, X2 = 8, X3 = 7, please calculate and determine the supplied voltage u
Questions:
1. What's the passive and active elements in electric circuits?
2. What's the difference of ideal and actual passive elements? In practice, which passive elements
can be treated as ideal, which cannot?
3. What's the technical method of measuring resistance?
4. What's the technical method of measuring capacitance?
5. What's the technical method of measuring inductance?
6. What's the difference of magnetoelectric and electromagnetic meters?
7. How to construct an ammeter by galvanometer?
8. How to construct a voltmeter by galvanometer?
9. What's RMS and average value in AC circuit? Usually which value we measure in AC circuit?
10. How to extend the measuring range of electromagnetic meters in AC circuit?

3 Reference
1) The instruction of Polish version " Pomiary podstawowych wielkoci elektrycznych
prdu staego i przemiennego";
2) http://www.engineersblogsite.com/define-active-and-passive-circuit-elements.html
3) http://www.zen22142.zen.co.uk/adt.htm;
4) http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/dccircuits/dcp_1.html;
5) http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Electric_Circuit_Analysis/Kirchhoff%27s_Voltage_Law
;
6) http://www.facstaff.bucknell.edu/mastascu/eLessonsHTML/Basic/Basic5Kv.html
7) http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/semester2/c20_AC.html

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Editor: dr in. Yuhua Chang

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