Timber Design

Structural Design 2
History of Timber as Construction Material
Wood is one of the longest standing building materials in existence, with evidence showing homes built over
10,000 years ago used timber as a primary source for construction materials.

Europe's Neolithic long house--a long, narrow timber dwelling built in 6000 BC-- is an excellent example.

Since then, the discovery of different elements such as bronze and steel have changed and improved the way
wood is applied to building construction.

Wood continues to be used to create both modest buildings such as the log cabin, and impressive structures
such as Chinese temples.

Boasting its environmentally friendly, renewable and extremely durable features, wood remains an extremely
popular choice for both buildings and furnishings

Trees have played a crucial part in the development of construction; their wood has provided protection from
the elements in every single civilization throughout history.

As more materials were found throughout the ages, woodwork skills became more enhanced and so did the
structures which were built.
 TIMBER, WOOD & LUMBER
Timber - The wood which is suitable or fit for engineering construction or engineering purpose is called timber.

Wood - The organic matter obtained from trees is called wood.

Lumber - The sawed wood meant for construction in the form of boards is called lumber.

Trees are classified into two groups depending upon growth pattern.
(1) Endogenous Trees:
The trees which grow inwards in longitudinal fibrous mass are called endogenous trees.
(2) Exogenous tress :
The trees which grow in out wards across horizontal section of stem are called exogenous trees.
These trees are only fit for engineering construction. Exogenous trees are again subdivided in to two types.
Conifers:
They give soft wood. They have pointed leaves.
Example: Pine
Deciduous:
These have hard wood. These have broad leaves.
Example: Paper Tree
SEASONING OF TIMBER
As fresh timber which is obtained from trees contains about 30 to 40 % sap or moisture. This sap is very
harmful for the life of a timber. Therefore, it is necessary to remove that sap by applying some special
methods. All those methods which are used for removing the sap from timber are collectively termed as
seasoning of timber.
Advantages of seasoned timber: It has resistance to decay or rot,
It has reduced weight, It is easier to work,
It is strong and durable, Its life is more.
Types of Timber Seasoning:
The main types of timber seasoning are as under.
Natural Seasoning,
Artificial Seasoning,
(a) Kiln Seasoning, (e) Boiling
(b) Chemical Seasoning,
(c) Electric Seasoning,
Water Seasoning
NATURAL SEASONING
(1) Natural Seasoning:
In the air seasoning or natural seasoning or natural drying, seasoning of timber, timber is dried by direct action of air,
wind and sun. In this method, the timber logs are arranged one over the other, keeping some space or distance between
them for air circulation of fresh air.
Generally this type of seasoning requires few months to over a year, this is very slow process.
ARTIFICIAL SEASONING
(a) Kiln Seasoning:
In kiln seasoning timber is placed in a chamber with some special heating arrangement.
In this process one thing should be kept in mind that heating system should be under control, other wise timber will be
crack or wrap. The time required for this seasoning is 3 to 12 days. This is quick process.
(b) Chemical Seasoning:
This is also known as the salt seasoning.
In this method, the timber is immersed in a solution of suitable salt. It is then taken out and seasoned in the ordinary way.
The interior surface of timber dries in advance of exterior one and chances of formation of external cracks are reduced.
This ensures uniform seasoning. The time required for this seasoning is 30 to 40 days.
(c) Electric Seasoning:
In this method, the use is made of high frequency alternating currents. The timber, when it is green, offers less resistance
to the flow of electric current. The resistance increases as the wood dries internally which also results in the production of
heat. This is the most rapid method of seasoning. But the initial and maintenance costs are so high that it becomes
uneconomical to season timber on commercial base by this method.
(e) Boiling:
In this method of artificial seasoning, the timber is immersed in water and water is then boiled. This is a very quick
method. The timber is thus boiled with water for about three to four hours. It is then dried very slowly under a shed. The
periods of seasoning and shrinkage are reduced by this method, but it affects the elasticity and strength of wood. In place
of boiling water, the timber may be exposed to the action of hot steam. This method of seasoning proves
to be costly.
WATER SEASONING
(3) Water Seasoning:
In water seasoning, timber logs are kept immersed whole in the flowing water. The sap present in timber is washed away.
After that logs are taken out from water and are kept in open air, so water present in timber would be dried by air. The
time required for this type of seasoning is 2 to 4 weeks.

Timber is used in:

1.Building construction,
2.Construction of house posts,
3.Construction of beams,
4.Construction of rafters,
5.Construction of bridges,
6.Construction of piles, poles and railway sleepers,
7. For furniture making,
8. For light packing cases,
9. For high packing cases (for machinery and similar stores),
10. For manufacturing of agricultural implements,
11. For making toys, etc.
12. For manufacturing of veneers and ply woods.
VENEER:
Thin sheet of uniform thickness of wood is called veneer. The thickness of veneers varies from 0.40 mm to 6 mm or more.
They are obtained -by rotating a log of wood against a sharp knife of rotary cutter or saw as shown later. The veneers
after being removed are dried in kilns to remove moisture.
PLYWOOD:
The meaning of term ply is a thin layer. The plywoods are boards which are prepared from thin layers of wood or veneers.
The three or more veneers in odd numbers are placed one above the other with the direction of grains of successive layers
at right angles to each other. They are held in position by application of suitable adhesives.
DEFECTS IN TIMBER
Most common defects in timber are:
1. Heart Shakes 2. Star Shakes
3. Cup Shakes 4. Radial Shakes
5. Rind Galls 6. Wind Cracks
7. Knots 8. Dead Wood
Heart Shakes
These are splits occurring in the centre of the tree and running from the pith (inner most part) to
wards the sap wood from the medullary (vascular tissues) rays.
In some timbers, these splits are hardly visible and in some timbers these are quite permanent.
Heart shakes are caused due to shrinkage of interior parts due to age. A heart shake straight
across the trunk is not a serious defect.
Star Shakes
These are splits which radiate from the centre of the timber or from the bark (outer
side), running in the planes of medullary rays.
These occur due to severe frost or scorching heat of the sun.

Cup Shakes
These are curved splits which separate the whole or part of one annual ring from an
other. These are caused due to the unequal growth of the timber.
Radial Shakes
These are similar to the star shakes and occur
in felled timber when exposed to the sun during seasoning.
Radial shakes are generally irregular, fine and numerous.
In this many splits are appeared.

Rind Galls
These are typical enlarged swellings and
occur due to branches cut-off.
Wind Cracks
These are shakes or splits on the sides of a bark of timber due to shrinkage of
exterior surface exposed to atmospheric influence.

Knots
These are the roots of the small
branches of the tree. These are not harmful.

Dead Wood
It is the deficient in strength and weight and is the result of trees
being felled after maturity.

DETERIORATION OF TIMBER OR DECAY OF TIMBER:

There are so many agencies which may cause decay of timber. But there are three main harmful agencies which cause
timber decay.
Decay or Rot:
Decay or rot of timber is the result of the activity of various bacterias and fungi, which utilize various portions of
timber as food; they require both oxygen and excess moisture. Hence timber having moisture content below 25 % will not
rot easily.
Insects:
There are so many insects which attack the wood, out of them termites (white ants) are the main insects which are very
dangerous for timber. Termites of one class live under ground and eat wood and forms tubes or tunnels inside it.
Fire:
Fire is also the damaging factor for timber. As timber has tendency to burn, so
fire can damage it easily.
PRESERVATION OF TIMBER
There are two main classes of timber preservatives.
Oily substances insoluble in water, Water soluble salts
Oily substances insoluble in water:
Coal tar oil is the best known and widely used preservative material of this class. It is obtained during the
destructive distillation of bituminous coal. It is available in many grades and types. It has high degree of penetration. It
has highly toxic effect to wood destroying fungi.
Water soluble salts:
Zinc chloride is the most extensively used preservative of this type. It is clean and odourless.
ADVANTAGES OF TIMBER CONSTRUCTION
(1) It can be easily handled and can be planed, sawn and joined with ordinary tools of the carpenter.
(2) It can be used either for load bearing members or for non-load bearing members.
(3) It combines light weight with strength and hence it is generally preferred for the buildings in the earthquake-prone
regions.
(4) It is easy to provide connections in the timber construction.
(5) It is economical and cheap. This is due to the fact that the smallest piece of wood can be put to one or other use and
the wastage of material is thereby considerably minimized.
(6) It is possible to realise some value even after timber construction has completed its useful life.
(7) It is used to prepare furniture of decent appearance and comfortable design.
(8) The heavy timber construction presents a massive appearance.
(9) The houses with timber construction are found to be cool in summer and warm in winter. This is due to the fact that
the wood is a non-conductor of heat
(10) The other forms of present-day such as plywoods, fibreboards, etc. have made timber construction to match with the
present-day requirements.
(11) The timber construction is quite durable, if properly protected against moisture, rain, wind, etc.
(12) The additions, alterations and repairs to the timber constructions can be carried out easily.
(13) It is found to be superior to the cement concrete and steel in respect of thermal insulation, sound absorption and
electrical
resistance. For instance, the thermal insulation of wood is 15 times better than concrete, 6 times better than bricks and
1770 times better than aluminum.
(14) It is also highly energy efficient. The amount of electricity or its equivalent required for the production of one unit of
timber is nearly 6.25 times less than that required for steel and about 40 times less than that required for aluminum.
(15) It is easily available and can be speedily transported by simple means of communication.
DISADVANTAGES OF TIMBER CONSTRUCTION
(1) It is likely to crack, warp and decay, if not properly seasoned
and not treated with the preservatives.
(2) It is not suitable for cyclonic weather and for places subjected to the natural calamities.
(3) It requires careful regular maintenance.
(4) It is subjected to the risk of fire.
(5) If not locally available, it proves to be costly.