V 3 Si 3

19th
2 Days International Conference
on
Hydraulics, Water Resources, Coastal and Environmental

Engineering( HYDRO 2014 International)
December 18-20, 2014
Organized by
Department of Civil Engineering, MANIT Bhopal
Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology Bhopal
(Madhya Pradesh) India Pin -462051
Web : www.manit.ac.in
In association with
International journal of scientific engineering and

Technology (ISSN : 2277-1581)
Website : www.ijset.com and email : editor@ijset.com
International journal of Engineering Research

ISSN:2319-6890)(online),2347-5013(print)
Website : www.ijer.in and email : editor@ijer.in
Indexing of journals : google scholar, DOAJ, endnote, OALIB and

many more
S. N. Title & Authors Names Page
Assessment Of Hydropower Potential In Nethravathi River Basin Using Swat

1. Model 1
M P Shobhita, Santosh Babar, H Ramesh
Water And Sediment Yield Modeling For Micro Watershed
2. 4
Nagargoje Sonali R, D G Regulwar
Approaches To Hydrological Modeling Of The Heterogeneous Catchment Of
3. The Dal Lakes 7
Raazia, R Khosa
Probability Analysis For Estimation Of Annual One Day Maximum Rainfall
4. Of Devgarhbaria Station Of Panam Catchment Area 11
Kapil Shah, T M V Suryanarayana
Theme: Hydraulics Of Spillway And Energy Dissipators
Experimental And Three Dimensional Numerical Studies For A Sluice 15

5. Spillway
A Kulhare, M R Bhajantri
Physical Model Study For Energy Dissipation Arrangements To The Pick Up
6. Weir Across Pachaiyar River In Tamilnadu 19
C Prabakar, P K Suresh, T Ravindrababu , A Parthiban, A Muralitharan
Theme: Hydraulic Structures
Experimental Investigations For Estimation Of The Height Of Training Wall

7. Of Convergent Stepped Spillway 23
P J Wadhai, N V Deshpande, A D Ghar
Studies For Location Of Bridges In The Vicinity Of Existing Hydraulic
8. Structures 27
B Raghuram Singh, R G Patil, M N Singh
Study Of Sharp-Crested Triangular Weir
9. 31
M Shaheer Ali, Talib Mansoor
Study Of Elliptically Shaped Sharp Crested Weirs

10. 35
N P Singh, R Singh
Turbulence Characteristics Of Flow Past Submerged Vanes

11. 38
H Sharma , Z Ahmad
Hydraulic Design Aspects Of Stilling Basin With Sloping Apron
12. 42
V S Rama Rao, K T More, M R Bhajantri, V V Bhosekar
Hydraulic Design Of Barrage In Montane Terrains

13. 46
Rajendra Chalisgaonkar , Mukesh Mohan, Manish S Sant, Pratibha S Sant.
50
Optimal Design Of Intake Upstream Of A Weir A Case Study
14.
Kuldeep Malik, R G Patil, M N Singh
Study Of Effect On The Stresses & Safety Of Gravity Dam With Changes In
15. Width Parameter 55
B S Ruprai, A D Vasudeo
Theme: Integrated Watershed Management
Assessment Of Environmentally Stressed Areas For Soil Conservation

16. Measures Using Usped Model 58
Bikram Prasad, R K Jaiswal, H L Tiwari.
A Novel Optimisation Model Applied To Godavari River Basin
17. R B Katiyar, Balaji Dhopte, Tejeswi Ramprasad, Shashank Tiwari, Anil 63
Kumar, K R Gota
The Effect Of Parthenium Hysterophorus Weed On Basin Hydrology
18.
Soham Adla,Shivam Tripathi
Runoff And Sediment Yield Modeling Of An Agricultural Hilly Watershed
19. Using Wepp Model 66
Saroj Das, Laxmi Narayan Sethi, R K Singh
Prioritization Of A Watershed Based On Spatially Distributed Parameters
20. 70
C D Mishra, R K Jaiswal, A K Nema
Theme: Rehabilitation Of Dams
Stability Assessment Of Chang Dam After Rehabilitation

21.
R Singh, D Roy
Rehabilitation And Improvement Of Sher Tank Project

22.
Vishnu Arya.
Theme: Reservoir Operation And Irrigation Management

Water Balance Assessment Of Krishna River Basin Through System
23. Simulation
N S R Krishna Reddy, S K Jain.
Minimization Of Conveyance Losses For Nashik Left Bank Canal [Nlbc] By
24. Closed Conduit Irrigation [Cci] 76
Gayatri R Gadekar, Sunil Kute, N J Sathe.
Methods For Estimation Of Crop Evapotranspiration Using Climate Data: A
25. Review 81
Gopal H Bhatti, H M Patel
Estimation Of Deep Percolation From Rice Paddy Field Using Lysimeter
26. Experiments On Sandy Loam Soil 86
Hatiye Samuel D, K S Hari Prasad, C S P Ojha, G S Kaushika.
Reservoir Modelling In Bearma Basin By Using Mike Basin
27. 92
Shikha Sachan, T Thomas, R M Singh, Pushpendra Kumar
Replacement Of Field Channels With Pressurized Irrigation Systems: In Ssp
28. Command Area 96
Sahita I Waikhom, Monali Patel, P G Agnihotri
Reservoir Operation Based On Real Time Flow Data For Flood Control And
29. Incremental Power Generation 99
Rameshwar Prasad Pathak
Theme: Reservoir Sedimentation And Irrigation Management
Effect Of Conservation Works On Soil Erosion-A Case Study Of Punegaon

30. Reservoir Catchment Area 103
M B Nakil, M Vkhire.
107
Sediment Trap Efficiency Of Porcupine Systems For Riverbank Protection
31.
Mohd Aamir, Nayan Sharma
Sedimentation Assessment In Nath Sagar Reservoir (Jayakwadi Project) Of
32. Maharashtra By Remote Sensing Technique A Case Study 112
Prakash Bhamare, Manoj Bendre, Ravindra Shrigiriwar, Mahendra Nakil,
Sudhir Kalvit..
Theme: Risk Reliability Analysis And Design
Hydrological Data Modelling Using Wavelet, Neural Network And Ar Models

33. 115
G.Khadanga, B.Krishna.
Improved Neuro-Wavelet Model For Reservoir Inflow Forecast

34. 118
B.Krishna, Y R Satyaji Rao, R.Venkata Ramana.
Application Of Particle Swarm Optimization In Multiobjective Irrigation
35. Planning 121
D V Morankar, K Srinivasa Raju, A Vasan, L Ashoka Vardhan
Artificial Neural Network Model For Design Of Air Vessel For Controlling
36. 126
The Water Hammer Pressures N Mowlali, E Venkata Rathnam
Monthly Inflow Prediction Using Wavelet Neural Network

37. 131
Rutuja Patil, J N Patel, S M Yadav, D G Regulwar.
Improving Location Specific Wave Forecast Using Using Soft Computing
38. Techniques 134
S N Londhe, P R Dixit, B Nair T M, A Nherakkol
Discrete Wavelet Support Vector Conjuction Model For Significant Wave
39. Height Time Series Forecasting 139
Paresh Chandra Deka, Y N Suryadatta.
Potential Impact Of Soft Computing Techniques In Water Resources
40. Engineering 143
Satish Kumar Jain, R K Shrivastava
Theme: Water And Waste Water Management
Typologies For Successful Operation And Maintenance Of Horizontal Sub-

41. Surface Flow Constructed Wetlands 147
Lohith Reddy D, Dinesh Kumar, Shyam R Asolekar.
A Mini Review On Fixed Film Reactor For Wastewater Treatment
42. 155
Saraswati Rana, S Suresh
43. 8 Technological Utilization Of Parthenium Hysterophorus-A Review

159
S.Arisutha, R.B. Katiyar And S. Suresh
Theme: Water Quality Assessment And Modeling
Water Quality And Flow Simulation Along River

44. 160
Amarsinh B. Landage..
Assessment Of Groundwater Quality Of Bah Block, Agra, India

45. 165
Azmatullah Noor,Dr. Izharul Haq Farooqi
Changing Water Quality Scenarios Of Tank Cascade System And Its
46. Implications 171
J Hemamalini, B V Mudgal, J D Sophia.
Booster Chlorination Strategy For Managing Chlorine Disinfection In
47. Drinking Water Distribution System A Review 175
Roopali V Goyal, H M Patel
Hydrogeochemical Stuidies Of Groundwater In And Around Metropolitan
48. City Vadodara, Gujarat, India 180
M K Sharma, C K Jain
Evaluation Of Various Objectives In Multi-Objective Sensor Placements In
49. 185
Water Distribution Systems S Rathi, R Gupta
Water Quality Assessment Of Dal Lake, Kashmir, J&K

50. 191
Shabina Masoodi.
Spatial Water Quality Analysis Of Nagalamadike Watershed Of Pavagada
51. Taluk, Tumkur District Karanataka Using Geo Informatic Tools 196
Nandeesha, C Ravindranath, T Gangadaraiah, S G Swamy
Water Pollution In Ganga River
52. Susmita Saha 203
Theme: Water Resource And Hydrology
Flood Frequency Analysis Using A Novel Mathematical Approach

53. 209
Bidroha Basu,V V Srinivas
Performance Comparative Of Wavelets And
54. Savitzky-Golay Filter On Bathymetry Survey Data 213
M.Selva Balan1 Arnab Das2
Simulation Study On Performance Of Household
55. Rainwater Harvesting Systems 219
P.G. Jairaj1 P. Athulya2
COMMUNITY-BASED WATER RESOURCE
56. MANAGEMENT, STUDY AREA NAWLI VILLAGE, 222
MEWAT DISTRICT, HARYANA
Amit Kumar
SIMPLE Dogra1
MODEL TO Nitin Singh2SOIL WATER
ESTIMATE
57. RETENTION LIMITS OF CHATTISGARH STATE 227
N.G.Pandey1, B. Chakravorty1, Sanjay Kumar2 & P. Mani1
Land Cover Classification By Ls-Svm With
58. Landsat Satellite Imagery 230
Shilpi1 R.M. Singh2
Assessing Impacts Of Landuse/Landcover Change
On Surface Runoff For Kadalundi River Basin: A
59. 234
Watershed Modeling Approach
Sinha R. K.1, Eldho T. I.2, Ghosh S.2
Impact Of Land-Use Land-Cover Changes On
60. Runoff Generation In A Bangalore Urban 238
Catchment
R. L. Gouri1
Change V. V. Srinivas2
Detection In Land Use/Land Cover Using
61. Remote Sensing And Gis A Case Study For Ur 243
Basin In Tikamgarh District
S. Karwariya1*
Multi ObjectiveS.Optimization
Goyal2 V. C. Goyal3 T. Thomas4
Of Cropping
62. Pattern In A Canal Command Area 247
Paritosh Srivastava1 and Raj Mohan Sing
Urban Watershed Rainfall Forecast Of Chennai
63. City 252
R. Venkata Ramana, B Krishna,Y. R. S. Rao and
V.S.Jayakanthan
Agriculture Water Consumption In Madhya
64. Pradesh An Analysis From Virtual Water 257
Perspective
Vivek K. Bhatt1Of
Development Dr.Generalized
J.S. Chouhan2Neural Network
65. Based Eto Models From Limited Climatic Data 261
For Different Agro-Ecological Regions In India
Sirisha Adamala1
Estimating FloodN.S. Raghuwanshi2
Inundation Using Ashok Mishra3
Hec-Ras And
66. Regression Models 267
R.S. Meena1 R. Jha2 and K.K.
Khatua3 Analysis Of Penman Monteith
Sensitivity
67. Method For Estimation Of Evapotranspiration 272
Ch.V.S.S. Sudheer1 Dr.G.K.Viswanadh2 Dr.G.Venkata
Ramana3 In Sediment Size Of Two Sub-
Variability
68. 1Asst. Professor,
Catchment AreasGRIET, Hyderabad
Of Ganga Basin, Western 277
Himalayas
M.Y.A. Khan* S.Study
Comparative Panwar Of Double Ring And Tension
69. Infiltrometers To Measure Infiltration Properties 281
And Hydraulic Conductivity
B. Ghosh1P.
Spatial AndSreeja2
Temporal Distribution Of Rainfall
70. Trends In Bist-Doab Region Of Punjab (1901 285
2010)
M. K.Radiation
Net Nema1 S. K. Jain1 P.K. From
Estimation Mishra1
A Remotely
71. Sensed Data Using Sebal Model 291
M.V.S.S.Giridhar1 and P. Suneel2
Low Flow Analysis In Bina River Basin Of
72. Madhya Pradesh 295
V.K. Chandola1*, Sunil Kumar Yadav1, R.V. Galkate3, Palak
Mehata4
International Journal of Engineering Research ISSN:2319-6890)(online),2347-5013(print)
Issue Special3 18-19, Dec. 2014
Assessment of Hydropower Potential in significantly. Hydropower is a renewable energy sources that do

Nethravathi River Basin Using Swat Model not emit the carbon dioxide and other flue gases that
contaminate the environment.
Shobhita M. P1, Santosh Babar2, H. Ramesh3 It has the least adverse environmental impact (i.e. greenhouse
1
Lecturer, Dept. Civil Engineering, JSS Academy of Technical gas, SO2, NOx emission) and has the most energy payback ratio
Education, Mauritius when compared among all electricity generation systems. One
2
Research Scholar, Dept. of Applied Mechanics and Hydraulics, Gega Watt of electricity produced by small hydropower means a
National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal, reduction of CO2emissions by 480 tons (Kusre et.al., 2010).
Mangalore-575025, India Hydropower is an indigenously available, clean and renewable
3
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Applied Mechanics and source of energy. The broad application of GIS and remote
Hydraulics, National Institute of Technology Karnataka, sensing technology for digital mapping, river morphology
Surathkal, Mangalore-575025, India studies, terrain analysis, the integration of socio-economic
Email: santoshbabar4@gmail.com, variables and for modeling and simulation play very crucial roles
shobitha_prasad@yahoo.co.in, ramesh.hgowda@gmail.com, in hydropower development (Pathak Mahesh., 2008). The
hydropower development shows the advantages based on
Abstract: Hydropower plants have the advantage of producing economic, environmental and social front as the reliable service,
renewable and clean power, the renewable and reliable energy long life (50 to 100 years), no atmospheric pollutants, can create
source that serves national environmental and energy policy a new freshwater ecosystem with increased productivity, often
objectives. Therefore, the development of hydropower plant provides flood protection and it helps in sustainable
and improvements of water management have essential in development(Nguyen Trung Dung., 2009).
contributing to sustainable growth and energy reduction in The Indian economy uses a variety of energy sources, both
developing countries like India. The present study is concerned commercial and non-commercial. Fuel wood, animal waste and
with the development of methodology and assessment of hydro agricultural residue are the traditional or non commercial
power potential in Nethravathi River Basin with the help of sources of energy that continues to meet the bulk of the rural
Remote Sensing and GIS. The catchment area covers 3200 energy requirements even today. However, the share of these
km2, where most of the land cover is dominated by forest. The fuels in the primary energy supply has declined from over 70%
basin was divided into six sub-basins based on hydrology and in the early 50's with a little over 30% as of today. The Ministry
topography using GIS tools. The climate over the basin is of Power has set on the objective of providing "Power for all by
coastal, humid tropical and receives an average annual 2012". This will entail electrification of all villages by 2007 and
rainfall of about 4000 mm. sub-basin discharges were of all households by 2012. It is also a known fact that electricity
estimated using SCS curve number method. To ensure the total is one of the key infrastructure elements for the economic
discharge from six sub-basins computed from SCS curve growth of the country.
number method, the flows were routed and simulated at the The existing power deficit and a rapid growing demand have
outlet using Soil and Water Assessment Tool necessitated a large scale capacity power addition programme.
(SWAT).Streamflow calibration was carried out at monthly Severe power shortage is one of the greatest obstacles to any
time steps for the period of 19982001, and validated for 2002 countrys development. Power the most important need in the
2003. Flow-duration curves (FDC) were generated for modern world. Hydropower development needs integrated
individual sub-basins. The results have shown a good approaches to analyzing natural resources, physiographic setting
agreement between observed and the simulated flows. The and the socio-economic indicators. GIS is also used to input,
available discharge at 75%, 80% and 90% of time for each store, retrieve, manipulate, analyze and output geographically
sub-basin were extracted from the FDC. This information was referenced data or geospatial data, in order to support decision
used to calculate the hydro power potential in all five sub- making for planning and management of land use, natural
basins at Q75, Q80 and Q90, by integrating thematic layers using resources, environment, transportation, urban facilities, and
ArcSWAT. other administrative records (Dudhani S, 2006). The many
Keywords: Flow Duration Curve, GIS, Hydropower, studies on hydropower location and hydropower potential has
Nethravathi Basin, Remote Sensing, SWAT model been carried out using GIS and remote sensing methodology
1. INTRODUCTION (Arun et al; 1995, Pannathat et al; 1998, Balance et al; 2000,
Energy supply is an important key parameter in the economic Kupakrapinyo and Chaisomphob 2003, Santasmita Das and
development of a country. Hydroelectric Power is a form of Paul, P.K. 2006, Choong-Sung et al; 2010, Vani 2010, Shobitha
energy, a renewable resource. There are several sources of 2012).The scope of the present study is in development of
energy that is being used by human beings, such as thermal, SWAT (Soil and Water Assessment Tool) model which will help
nuclear, geothermal. One of them is hydro power which is one of to evaluate the hydropower potential within watershed.
the oldest and the most reliable and environment friendly source 2. STUDY AREA
of all renewable energy. The use of fossil energy sources Nethravathi River is one of the major west flowing rivers in
contributes to environmental problems such as global warming, Karnataka. The geographical location of the Nethravathi river
acid rain, and desertification. Under these circumstances, basin lies between 1229'11" to 131111" N latitudes and
demands for the development of non-fossil energy sources grow 744908" to 754753" E longitudes as shown in figure 1. The
HYDRO 2014 International MANIT Bhopal Page 1

Nethravathi River originates in the south of Samse village, at an SW = The final soil water content (mm), SW = The water
t 0
altitude of approximately 1200 meters from mean sea level in
content available for plant uptake, defined as the initial soil
the Western Ghats of Karnataka. The river flows towards
water content minus the permanent wilting point water content
westward for about 103 kilometers with a drainage area of 3657
(mm), t = Time in days, R = Rainfall (mm), Q = Surface
km2 (Shobitha, 2012) and empties into the Arabian Sea at day surf
Mangalore city. The river is joined by Mundaja Neriya, Shishla runoff (mm), E = Evapotranspiration (mm), w = Percolation
Uppar, Kumaradhara and Beltangady nallas from either side. a seep
Average annual rainfall in the region is about 3930 mm with (mm) and Q = Return flow (mm)
gw
90% of the rainfall contribution from South west monsoon (June 3.3 Model calibration and validation
September) alone and rest during pre and post monsoon. Understanding the model processes, checking the various
Nethravathi River provides water supply for Mangalore city, components such as rainfall to runoff ratio, ET, base flow
industries, hydropower production and agricultural activities in contribution, etc. are very important. To make sure all the major
the basin. components are represented well for a watershed before
3. MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY attempting either manual or auto-calibration. The model contains
3.1 Data used both manual and auto-calibration tools. In this study, model
Daily rainfall data were collected for six years from nine rain parameters will calibrate using the observed daily flow.
gauge stations. The Daily gridded climate record for a period of Sensitivity analysis will be conducted for the SWAT model to
six years (1998-2003) including precipitation and temperature guide calibration process. Figure 2 represents the detailed
were obtained from IMD (India Meteorological Department), methodology which was used during the research work.
land use land cover of year 2003, soil data, DEM (topography 3.4 Estimating power output
data).
3.2 SWAT model development Figure 2. Methodol ogy Flowchart
SWAT is a river basin scale model that operates on a daily,
monthly time-step. It was developed at the University of Texas,
USA. Major components of the SWAT model include
hydrology, weather, erosion, soil temperature, crop growth,
nutrients, pesticides, and agricultural management (Neitsch et al;
2001b).
Figure 1. Location map of study area
The computation of hydrologic processes operates in five

phases: (1) precipitation, interception, (2) surface runoff, (3) soil
and root zone infiltration, (4) evapotranspiration and soil and
snow evaporation, and (5) groundwater flow. A water balance
equation calculates the change in soil water content (SWt) as:
(1)
where:

3.4.1 Head variability is through flow-duration curves. The flow-duration

The head is the vertical distance that waterfall. It is usually curve of a stream is based on daily mean discharges (not peak
measured in meters. The higher head consumes less water to flows) and shows the percentage of time that a given daily mean
produce a given amount of power, and can use smaller, less discharge is equalled or exceeded. A flow-duration curve is a
expensive equipment. Low head refers to a change in elevation plot of discharge against the percent of time the flow has
of less than 10 feet (3 meters). When determining head, both equalled or exceeded. Flow-duration curves are extremely useful
gross head and net head need to be considered. The gross head is in evaluating various dependable flows in the planning of water
found by considering the difference of head between weir and resources engineering projects, the characteristic of the
power house. Net head equals gross head minus losses due to hydropower potential of a river. The stream flow data are
friction and turbulence in the piping. Hydraulic power can be arranged in a descending order of discharges, using class
captured wherever a flow of water falls from a higher level to a intervals. The data can be daily, weekly or monthly values.
lower level. The vertical fall of the water, known as the head, Chiang et al. (2002) stated that monthly stream flow data satisfy
is essential for hydropower generation; fast-flowing water on its the basic data requirement for water resource projects. If N
own does not contain sufficient energy for useful power numbers of data points are used in this listing, the plotting
production except on a very large scale. Hence two quantities are position of any discharge Q is
required: a flow rate of water (Q), and head (H). It is generally
better to have more head than more flow, since this keeps the (2)
equipment smaller.
The Gross head (H) is the maximum available vertical fall in the
water, from the upstream level to the downstream level. The Where,
actual head seen by a turbine will be slightly less than the gross Pp = percentage of probability of the flow magnitude being
head due to losses incurred when transferring the water into and equalled or exceeded, m = the order number of the discharge, N
away from the machine. This reduced head is known as the net = Total count (Number of data)
head as shown in figure 3. 3.4.4 Estimating power output
3.4.2 Identification of sites having a suitable head The dependable flows (Q90, Q80,Q75) and head substitute in the
The possible potential sites for power houses along power equation to determine the power output from each sub-
streams based on the gross head were located at the basin.
intersection points of contour lines and streams. P=QgH (3)
For this purpose a set of contour lines with intervals of Where,
6, 10 and 20 m were generated from ASTER DEM. P = mechanical power produced at the turbine shaft
The flow accumulation map has been created by using (Watts), = hydraulic efficiency of the turbine, = density of
the flow direction map. The flow accumulation function water (1000 kg/m3), g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2),
calculates accumulated flow, as the accumulated weight Q = volume flow rate passing through the turbine (m3/s), H =
of all cells flowing into each down slope cell in the head of water across the turbine (m).
output raster. 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Suitable sites were identified by using the DEM and
the flow accumulation map. From figure 3 represents sub-basin wise monthly average flow
The flow accumulation map was used to locate weir during the months of June to January. It can be observed that
and powerhouse on the high flow accumulated stream. sub-basin 3 has the highest amount of discharge compared to the
rest of the sub-basins. This is due to the presence of C group of
HSG soil, which are moderately high runoff potential soil type
and very high rainfall. Sub-basin 4 has the lowest amount of
discharge. This is due to the presence of A group of HSG, which
are low runoff potential soil type
Figure 3. Measurement of head (Sale Michael et al., 2006)
3.4.3 Flow-Duration Curves (FDC)
It is well known that the stream flow varies over a water year. Figure 4. Monthly average flow (cms) Sub-basin wise
One of the popular methods of studying the stream flow

4.1 Flow duration curves (FDC) little discharge during the months of November and December
The stream flow data are arranged in a descending order of and January.
discharges, using class intervals. The data used can be daily, 6. REFERENCES
weekly or monthly values. If N numbers of data points are used i. Arun K.S (1995) GIS in small hydro planning resource
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which are derived from flow duration curves. Table.1 shows the ii. Ballance, D, Stephenson, R.A, Chapman, Muller, J (2000) A
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Surathkal.
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hydropower potential. Water and Sediment Yield Modeling for Micro
Sub-basin - 3 leads to the highest amount of average Watershed
monthly discharge during June to January months about 3000 m3 Nagargoje Sonali R1 & D.G.Regulwar2
/s when compared to the remaining sub-basins. This is mainly 1. Research scholar, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Govt.
due to presence of C group of HSG soil, which are moderately college of engineering, Aurangabad, Maharashtra state
high runoff potential soil type and very high rainfall. India
Using the flow duration curve, it is possible to estimate 2. Associate Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Govt.
the percentage of time that a specified flow is equalled to or college of engineering, Aurangabad, Maharashtra state
exceeded, once we know the amount of discharge that will be India
available for 90% of the time from the flow duration curve, we Email: 1. sonalinagargoje@gmail.com 2.
can calculate the power that can be produced. regulwar@gmail.com
SWAT model was calibrated and validated, the R2 ABSTRACT: Land is the most important natural resource,
(coefficient of correlation) in calibration equal to 0.91 and in which embodies soil, water and associated flora and fauna
validation equal to 0.92. The discharge of June, July and involving the total ecosystem. Now a days degradation of land
gradually reduces towards August, September and October, with from water-induced soil erosion is becoming a serious global

problem, which is not only eroding the top fertile soil but is Survey of India topographic sheet No. 47 I/13 and 47 M/1 on 1:
also responsible for swelling of river beds and reservoirs 50,000 scale.
thereby causing floods and reduction in the life span of costly
reservoirs and dams. Reliable estimates of soil erosion,
sediment and water yield are, therefore, required for design of
efficient erosion control measures, reservoir sedimentation
assessment, and evaluation of watershed management
strategies. Watershed parameters such as channel network,
location of drainage divides, water and sediment yield of the
catchment etc are obtained from maps or field surveys
traditionally. Since last two decades this information has been
increasingly derived directly from digital representations of the
topography. Measurement of sediment yield on a number of
watersheds is operationally difficult, expensive, time
consuming, and tedious. Therefore modeling is carried out for
generating the sediment yield data base. Present study explores Fig.1: Location Map of Study Area
development of sediment and water yield model for micro
watershed (627 ha) located in Khuldabad village of 2.2. MODEL INPUT
Aurangabad District, Maharashtra state India. For this The spatially distributed data (GIS input) needed for the Arc
topographical features such as LULC, soil map and DEM are SWAT interface include the Digital Elevation Model (DEM)s
prepared under GIS environment and meteorological data like 2.2.1 Digital Elevation Model
temperature and rainfall has been made in gridded format. Topography was defined by a DEM that describes the elevation
SWAT divided watershed into HRUs by merging digital of any point in a given area at a specific spatial resolution. A 90
elevation model land use and soil pattern. Annual average m by 90 m resolution DEM (Fig. 2) was downloaded from
basin value for water and sediment yield for present study are SRTM (Shuttle Radar Topography Mission). The DEM was
24.96 mm and 1.035 T/ha respectively. The study reveals the used to delineate the watershed and to analyze the drainage
values and areas of sediment sources from the watershed patterns of the land surface terrain. Sub basin parameters such as
which helps in adopting suitable soil conservation practices in slope gradient, slope length of the terrain, and the stream
basin. network characteristics such as channel slope, length, and width
Keywords: Land use/ Land cover, Digital Elevation Model, Soil were derived from the DEM.
and Water assessment tool, Hydrological response units
1. INTRODUCTION
Soil erosion/sedimentation is an immense problem that has
threatened water resources development in all over the world.
An insight into soil erosion/sedimentation mechanisms and
mitigation methods plays an imperative role for the sustainable
water resources development. This paper presents daily sediment
yield and water yield simulations in micro watershed under
different Best Management Practice (BMP) scenarios. The Soil
and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) was used to model soil
erosion, identify soil erosion prone areas and assess the impact
of BMPs on sediment reduction. For the existing conditions
scenario, the model results showed a satisfactory agreement
between daily observed and simulated sediment concentrations
as indicated by Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency greater than 0.83.
Fig.2. DEM of Study Area (Source: SRTM)
However, a precise interpretation of the quantitative results may
not be appropriate because some physical processes are not well 2.2.2 Land Use/ Land cover Map and Soil Map
represented in the SWAT model. Literature review shows there Detailed classification of land use /land cover is shown in fig.
are many catchment models that include the soil 3.Database of LULC collected from Bhuvan (NRSC) .
erosion/sedimentation processes and simulate the effect of Distribution of various soil types among the study area is shown
mitigation measures. in fig.No.4.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 Description of study area
Location of case study Watershed GV-41 is a significant
drainage system contributing to river Godavari. The watershed
lies between longitude 74 58' 55 and 75 07' 24 East and
latitude 19 53' 33 and 19 45' 27 North. It is included in

soil temperature, crop growth, pesticides agricultural

management and stream routing. The model predicts the
hydrology at each HRU using the water balance equation, which
includes daily precipitation runoff, evapotranspiration, and
percolation and return flow components. The surface runoff is
estimated in the model using two options (i) the Natural
Resources Conservation Service Curve Number (CN) method
(USDA-SCS, 1972) and (ii) the Green and Ampt method (Green
and Ampt, 1911). The percolation through each soil layer is
predicted using storage routing techniques combined with crack-
flow model (Arnold et al., 1995). The evapotranspiration is
estimated in SWAT using three options (i) Priestley-Taylor
(Priestley and Taylor, 1972), (ii) Penman-Monteith (Monteith,
1965) and (iii) Hargreaves (Hargreaves and Riley, 1985). The
Fig.3. Detailed LULC classification of study area flow routing in the river channels is computed using the variable
storage coefficient method (Williams, 1969), or Muskingum
method (Chow, 1959). The SWAT model uses the Modified
Universal Soil Loss Equations (MUSLE) to compute HRU-level
soil erosion. It uses runoff energy to detach and transport
sediment (Williams and Berndt, 1977). The sediment routing in
the channel (Arnold et al., 1995) consists of channel degradation
using stream power (Williams, 1980) and deposition in channel
using fall velocity. Channel degradation is adjusted using USLE
soil erodibility and channel cover factors.
2.4 SWAT model setup

The SWAT model inputs are Digital Elevation Model (DEM),
land use map, soil map, and weather data, which is shown in
Table 1. The ArcGIS interface of the SWAT2005 version was
used to discretize a watershed and extract the SWAT model
input files. The DEM was used to delineate the catchment and
Fig.4. Classification of Soil in Study area provide topographic parameters such as overland slope and slope
length for each sub basin. The land use map of the Global Land
Table No. 1 Spatial model input data for the Watershed. Cover Characterization (GLCC) was used to estimate vegetation
and their parameters input to the model. The GLCC is part of the
United States Geological Survey (USGS) database, with a spatial
resolution of 1 km and 24 classes of land use representation. The
parameterization of the land use classes is based on the available
SWAT land use classes. The soil types of the study area were
extracted from the soil map obtained from NBSS database.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Using above materials and models SWAT model is performed.
DEM and LULC,soil map having 8 classification each taken as
input. Output is obtained for each subbasin in delineated
watershed of study area. Whole SWAT procedure is followed
using SWAT Manual 2005. Results of the present study are as
shown in Table No.2.
Table No.2 Average monthly basin output
2.3 SWAT model description
The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) is a physical Water Yield Sediment Yield
Month
process based model to simulate continuous-time landscape (mm) (T/Ha)
processes at a catchment scale (Arnold et al., 1998; Neitsch et 01 30.36 0.19
al., 2005). The catchment is divided into hydrological response 02 32.61 0.29
units (HRUs) based on soil type, land use and slope classes that 03 33.86 0.21
allows a high level of spatial detail simulation. The major model 04 43.18 0.43
components include hydrology, weather, soil erosion, nutrients, 05 60.56 0.18

06 47.07 0.02 S. Raazia1 R. Khosa2

1
07 22.86 0.00 Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology
08 10.15 0.00 Delhi, New Delhi, 110016, India
2
09 12.90 0.01 Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology
Delhi, New Delhi, 110016, India
10 19.70 0.08
Email: syeedahraazia.sr@gmail.com
11 27.63 0.18
12 27.59 0.16 ABSTRACT: Dal Lake situated in the state of J&K along with
SWAT gives the average monthly basin values of water and its associated wetland system, forms a highly complex and
sediment yield in mm and Tonnes/Hector respectively. From the vulnerable hydrological system. The lake catchment comprises
output it seems easier to estimate sediment yield using of gently to steeply sloping mountains on three sides and a low
hydrological model i.e. SWAT. Using this model identification relief, highly urbanized landscape on one side. Owing to these
of the soil erosion area becomes easier from which management differences in physical features of the landscape, the
of sediment yield can be done. Thus SWAT gives each basin catchment exhibits a spatially varying hydrological behaviour.
values present in watershed through which Soil and Water The study identifies the catchment components with dissimilar
conservation practices can be done for sustainable development hydrological response and, in recognition of these distinct but
of water resources. dominant hydrological features, has proposed similarly distinct
4. CONCLUSIONS: approaches to hydrological modeling for these appropriately
ARC-SWAT is powerful hydrological model to identify erosion designated sub areas of the overall catchment. Briefly, the
prone areas and it is also useful for watershed prioritization. entire catchment was divided into 3 subbasins namely (i) Dara-
Using hydrological models identification and solution of such Dachhigam subbasin with a mild to steep mountainous relief
critical soil erosion areas is in water resources engineering can and a prominent network of drainage channels, (ii) Zabarwan
be achieved for sustainable development. subbasin with gently sloping foothills along the lake shore
5. REFERENCES having a backdrop of highly steep mountains further from the
i. Chen,B. (2012) Development of an integrated adaptive lake, and (iii) the urban subbasin consisting of a nearly plain
resonance theory mapping classification system for supporting watershed
hydrological modeling Journal of Hydrologic Engineering, ASCE, vol. 17, pp urbanized area and wetlands spread over an undulating
679-693 topography. In the Dara-Dachhigam subbasin, runoff
ii. Gabriel, G., 2008 Fitting of time series models to generation has been modeled in accordance with the
forecast stream flow and groundwater using simulated data from SWAT, Hortonian mechanism using the hydrological model SWAT.
Journal of Hydrologic Engineering, ASCE, pp: 554-562.
iii. Gong Y., 2010 Effect of watershed subdivision on SWAT The hydrology of the Zabarwan basin is characterized by
modelling with consideration of parameter uncertainty, Journal of Hydrologic saturated foothills and presence of springs in the lower
Engineering, ASCE, December, pp: 1070- 1074. reaches. Presence of preferential flow paths is likely on the
iv. Kim, N.W., 2012 Assessment of flow regulation effects forested peaks. A dual porosity hillslope runoff model that
by dams in the Han River, Korea, on the downstream flow regimes using
SWAT, Journal of water resources planning and management, ASCE, pp: 24- quantifies Hortonian overland flow, saturation overland flow
35. and lateral subsurface flow as well as extent of foothill
v. Kirby, J.T. and Durrans, S.R., 2007 Modelling the saturation was used to simulate the hydrology of this region.
combine effect of forests and agriculture on water availability, Journal of The urban subbasin, having historically been a wetland, has a
Hydrologic Engineering, ASCE, pp: 319-326.
vi. Mishra A. and Kar S., 2012 Modelling hydrologic shallow water table with high surface water-groundwater
processes and NPS pollution in a small watershed in sub humid subtropics interactions and, accordingly, the region was modeled using
using SWAT, Journal of Hydrologic Engineering, ASCE, pp: 445- 454. hydrological model MIKE SHE.
vii. Pikounis M. (2003) Application of the SWAT model in Keywords: Heterogeneous catchment hydrology, hydrological
the Pinios river basin under different land-use scenarios 8th International
Conference on Environmental Science and Technology, Vol 5, pp 71-79 modeling, Dal Lake catchment
viii. Sang, X., and Chen Q, 2010 Development of SWAT tool 1. INTRODUCTION
model on human water use and application in the area of high human The Dal Lake is s shallow, fresh water lake situated in the
activities, Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering ASCE, pp: 23-30. summer capital Srinagar, of the state of Jammu and Kashmir.
ix. Setegn, S. G. (2008) Hydrological modeling in the Lake
Tana Basin, Ethiopia using SWAT model Journal of Hydrology, ASCE, vol.2, The lake catchment extends over an area of 336 square
pp. 49-62 kilometres including the area of the wetland system which is
about 24 square kilometers. The catchment is located between
34002 and 34013 N latitudes and 74048 and 75009 E
longitudes. The lake is situated at an altitude of 1583 m with the
highest point in the catchment at 4390 m height above the mean
sea level. The lake forms the central body of a complex wetland
system and is connected to a number of smaller water bodies
through numerous water channels. This urban lake along with its
associated wetland system forms a highly complex and
Approaches to Hydrological Modeling of the vulnerable hydrological system. The lake is surrounded by
Heterogeneous Catchment of the Dal Lake gentle to steep sloping mountains on three sides and a nearly

plain urbanized area of mild topography meshed with wetlands Figure 2. (a)Land use land cover (2005) map of the Dal
spread over an undulating topography on the west. Floating catchment (b) Map showing soil types in the Dal catchment
gardens along the west shore of the lake are among the unique (Badar et al., 2013)
features of this lake. The spatial diversity in the landscape of the 2.2 Delineation of the Catchment
catchment surrounding this lake adds to the complexity of this
system. Landscape heterogeneity results in spatial variability of The catchment of the Dal Lake was delineated using ASTER
hydrological states and incomplete process understanding (Troch DEM of 30 m resolution using the Automatic Watershed
et al., 2008). Delineator of the hydrological model ArcSWAT. Based on the
Catchment morphology often acts as a dominant control on visually observed differences in the physical features of the
water flow paths and may be used as a clue to understand the landscape and thereby in the hydrological response, the
catchment hydrological response (Beven et al., 1988). The catchment was broadly divided into three subbasins (Figure 3).
present study identifies the catchment components with The Dara-Dachhigam subbasin comprises of the mountains on
dissimilar hydrological response based on the physical features the north of the lake and those extending far in the east behind
of the landscape. In recognition of these distinct but dominant the Zabarwan hills. The subbasin constitutes nearly 74 per cent
hydrological features, the study has proposed similarly distinct of the total catchment area. The Zabarwan subbasin comprises of
approaches to hydrological modeling for these appropriately the steep slopes of the Zabarwan hills lying along the entire east
designated sub areas of the overall Dal catchment. coast of the lake. The urban subbasin on the west comprises of
2. MATERIAL AND METHODS wetlands, floating gardens and urban settlements.
2.1 Data For Hydrological Modeling
Data most relevant to hydrological modeling includes
meteorological data such as precipitation, wind speed and
temperature, and catchment characteristics such as topography,
soil types and land use. For the present study, meteorological
data including daily accumulated precipitation, daily minimum
and maximum temperatures and daily wind speed was obtained
from the weather observatory of Sher i Kashmir University of
Agricultural Sciences and Technology, Kashmir situated within
the catchment. Information about the terrain was obtained from
the ASTER Global Digital Elevation Model (ASTER GDEM) of
resolution 30 m (Figure 1). Information regarding land use land
cover (Figure 2a) and soil types (Figure 2b) were taken from the Figure 3. Subbasins of the Dal catchment
available literature. 2.3 Hydrological characterization and selection of modeling
approach
The Dara-Dacchigam subbasin is characterised by mountains
with slopes in the range of 6 per cent to 50 per cent drained by a
very prominent network of drainage channels, the main channel
being initiated by a glacial lake known as the Marsar Lake. The
drainage pattern is dendritic in the north region of this subbasin
whereas it is of trellis type in the east region as shown in Figure
3 (Badar et al., 2013). In this subbasin, runoff generation has
been modeled in accordance with the Hortonian mechanism.
This runoff concentrates towards the drainage channels
wherefrom it is carried to the lake through a number of streams
Figure 1. DEM of the Dal Lake catchment dominated by the Telbal creek (nallah). The outflow hydrograph
for this feature constitutes mainly of the surface runoff and with
an added component, though small, of return flow from lateral
subsurface flow. Hydrological model SWAT (Soil Water
Assessment Tool) was used to model the hydrology of this
subbasin. The model incorporates an algorithm capable of
generating stream network from the topographic information.
The SCS curve number method was used to model runoff
generation. SWAT uses kinematic storage model (Sloan et al.,
1983) to compute return flow.
The Zabarwan subbasin consists of gently sloping foothills near
the lake shore that make up nearly 25 per cent of the subbasin
(a) (b) followed by steeply sloping mountains having upto 68 percent
slope with forested peaks as we go further from the lake shore.

This subbasin is devoid of any prominent drainage network and The subbasin was divided into two regions, steeply sloping
therefore, runoff flows mostly in diffused form towards the lake. mountains with upto 68 percent slope constituting nearly 75
Another notable hydrological characteristic of this subbasin is percent of the total subbasin area and foothills with slopes upto 9
that the foothills are wet and remain inundated at many places percent to be modeled separately. The model was setup to
for a considerable part of the year. This can be attributed to the calculate water table fluctuation and thereby, the length of
saturation of the soil upto ground level at the lower end of the foothill saturation besides total outflow from the subbasin.
hillslope caused as a result of vertical percolation and lateral The urban subbasin along the west coast of the lake comprises of
subsurface flows from the higher reaches (Dunne, 1978). floating gardens, small wetlands with undulating topography and
Saturation of soil profile upto ground surface is also evident urban setups. The subbasin has been historically a large wetland.
from the presence of springs in this region. Further addition of The subbasin has a shallow water table with the depth to water
subsurface flow to the saturated profile causes water to seep table varying in the range of 1.1 to 1.5 m below the ground
through the surface and flow as overland flow, and is known as surface (Jeelani et al., 2013). High groundwater-surface water
the return flow (Pilgrim et al., 1978; Corbett, 1979; Mosley, interactions exist in this region. Owing to the undulating
1979). Moreover, the saturated soil profile does not allow any topography, there are pockets of specific flow directions.
further infiltration and therefore, these regions act as source Accordingly, the region was modeled using the hydrological
areas for generating runoff by the mechanism known as model MIKE SHE. MIKE SHE is a 3 dimensional hydrological
saturation excess overland flow (Dunne and Black, 1970; model having capabilities of modeling unsaturated and saturated
Hewlett and Hibbert, 1963). High levels of saturation at the zone flows together with the surface flows.
foothills also points to high amounts of lateral subsurface flow. 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
It can be postulated that secondary porosity of the forest covered The outflow hydrograph for the Dara-Dachhigam subbasin is
peaks plays a major role in conducting water as subsurface flow shown in Figure 4. The hydrograph indicates that the subbasin
(Mosley, 1979; Beven and Germann, 1982). The hydrologic shows a direct response to precipitation. Peak flows occur
behaviour of such regions can be modeled by appropriately mostly during the rainy months of March and April. Occurrence
superimposing a macroporosity on the natural hydraulic of zero flows during the months of December and January
conductivity of the soil (Shakya and Chander, 1995; Jain et al; indicates that the flows are intermittent.
2013).
A physically based lumped parameter hillslope runoff model that
calculates unsaturated zone flow in dual porosity domain was
used to model the hydrology of this subbasin. The model
incorporates a modified form of the Horton's infiltration model
which is the original Horton's infiltration equation corrected for
lesser actual antecedent infiltration than infiltration at capacity
rate and recovery of infiltration capacity. The model considers
the macropore domain to be comprised of only two size pores.
Flow in the smallest size pores is assumed to be laminar and
calculated using Stokes law. For the largest size macropores, Figure 4. Outflow hydrograph of the Dara-Dachhigam subbasin
Mannings equation is used to quantify flow of water assuming Hydrological modeling of the Zabarwan subbasin revealed that
turbulent flow (Equation 1). the entire precipitation falling on the unsaturated length of the
hillslope is either absorbed by the soil matrix or bypassed
(1)
through the macropores, leaving zero amount of precipitation to
flow as surface runoff.
where Qm is the total flow through the macrpores, r min and rmax
are the radii of minimum and maximum size macropores,
respectively, g is the acceleration due to gravity, A m is the total
area of the macropores and isthe kinematic viscosity of water.
The model also takes into account the transaction through the
walls of the macropore into the soil matrix which is quantified
using Philip's absorption equation. Preciptation in excess of the
combined capacity of the soil matrix and the macropores flows
as surface runoff. The return flow is quantified using the
kinematic storage model of Sloan et al. (1983). To account for
catchment storage effects (lagged and attenuated response), the
model routes the surface runoff through a non linear reservoir of Figure 5. Saturated slope length in the steep region of Zabarwan
the form given in equation 2. subbasin for different initial conditions of water table (Ls1:
(2) Initial length of saturation, H1: Initial height of water table
where S is the storage, Q is the outflow and k and n are non- above the impervious bed in the soil profile, equal to depth to the
linear reservoir parameters. impervious bed if Ls1> 0)

For a number of initial conditions of the water table, it was

observed that nearly 100 m slope length (out of an average slope
length of 2300 m) at the lower end of the steep zone always
remains saturated (Figure 5), whereas the entire length of the
foothills remains wet during all seasons (Figure 6). The same is
also evident from the presence of a number of springs in the
foothill region of this subbasin.
Figure 6. Saturated slope length in the foothills of the Zabarwan

subbasin
The entire overland flow component (appearing as peaks) in the
outflow hydrograph of the steep region (Figure 7) is due to
saturation excess overland flow occurring at the saturated lower
end of the slope. The outflow hydrograph of the foothills which
also represents the outflow of the entire subbasin (Figure 8) has
a constant return flow component and peaks due to overland
flow during precipitation events.
Figure 9. (a) Overland flow depth and (b) infiltration in the urban subbasin
Figure 7. Outflow hydrograph at the lower end of the steep

region of Zabarwan subbasin
Figure 8. Total outflow from the Zabarwan subbasin

The urban subbasin exhibits a highly complex hydrology. The
hydrological response is a result of a number of factors like land
cover, soil type and depth of water table below the ground
surface. Results
Figure 10. Overland flows in (a) x and (b) y directions in the urban subbasin

show that the overland flow depths are dominantly affected by Probability Analysis for Estimation of Annual One
the infiltration rate of the soil (Figures 9a and 9b). Existence of Day Maximum Ainfall of Devgarhbaria Station of
positive as well as negative values of overland flows in x and y
directions (Figure 10a and 10b) shows that there are pockets of Panam Catchment Area
specific flow direction in this region. Kapil Shah 1 T.M.V. Suryanarayana 2
1
4. CONCLUSIONS PG Student, Water Resources Engineering and Management
Different regions of the catchment of the Dal Lake exhibit Institute, Faculty of Technology and Engineering, The M.S.
hydrological behaviours which are markedly different from each University of Baroda, Samiala-391410, Vadodara, Gujarat,
other. This varied response is mainly on account of the diverse India
2
landscape across the catchment. Therefore, a single modeling Associate Professor, Water Resources Engineering and
approach is not appropriate to model the hydrology of the entire Management Institute, Faculty of Technology and Engineering,
system. In the present study, an attempt was made to understand The M.S. University of Baroda, Samiala-391410, Vadodara,
the hydrological response in various regions of the Dal Lake Gujarat, India
catchment and the physics underlying that response. Based on Email: tmvkiran@yahool.com
this understanding, appropriate modeling approaches were
selected and used to model the hydrology of the system. Suitably ABSTRACT: Daily rainfall data of 30 years (1961-1990) were
chosen approaches could closely represent the observed analyzed to determine the annual one day maximum rainfall of
hydrological phenomena in the three subbasins of the catchment. devgarhbaria situated near panam dam, Gujarat, India. The
More such attempts are necessary to precisely understand and study area receives mean annual rainfall 903.13 mm which is
model the hydrology of heterogeneous catchments. distributed in 45 rainy days. The observed values were
REFERENCES estimated by Weibull's plotting position and expected values
i. Badar B, Romshoo SA, Khan MA (2013) Modelling catchment were estimated by four well known probability distribution
hydrological responses in a Himalayan Lake as a function of changing land use
and land cover. Journal of Earth System Science 122(2): 433-449 functions viz., normal, log-normal, log-Pearson type-III and
ii. Beven K, Germann P (1982) Macropores and water flow in soils. Gumbel. The expected values were compared with the observed
Water Resources Research 18(5): 1311-1325 values and goodness of fit was determined by chi-square test.
iii. Beven K, Wood EF, Sivapalan M (1988) On hydrological The results showed that the log-Pearson type-III distribution
heterogeneity, catchment morphology and catchment response. Journal of
Hydrology 100: 353-375. was the best fit probability distribution to forecast annual one
iv. Corbett ES (1979) Hydrologic evaluation of the storm flow day maximum rainfall for different return periods. Based on
generation processes on a forested watershed. Report: PB80-129133 National the best fit probability distribution, the minimum rainfall of
Technology Information Service, Springfield 42.69 mm in a day can be expected to occur with 99 per cent
v. Dunne T, Black RD (1970) Partial area contributions to storm runoff
in a small New England watershed. Water Resources Research 6(5): 1296-1311 probability and one year return period and maximum Of
vi. Dunne T (1978) Field study of hillslope flow processes. In: Hillslope 481.32 mm rainfall can be received with one per cent
Hydrology, John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, U. K. probability and 100 year return period.
vii. Hewlett JD, Hibbert AR (1963) Moisture and energy conditions Keywords: recurrence interval, frequency, AODMR,
within a sloping soil mass during drainage. Journal of Geophysical Research 68:
1081-87 probability distribution
viii. Jain L, Haldar R, Khosa R (2014) Hillslope runoff processes and
modelling. International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering 7(1): 193- 1. INTRODUCTION
201
ix. Jeelani G, Shah RA, Hussain A (2013) Hydrogeochemical assessment A good understanding of the pattern and distribution of rainfall
of groundwater in Kashmir Valley, India. Published manuscript:
http://www.ias.ac.in/jess/forthcoming/JESS-D-13-00128.pdf
is important for water resource management of a country.
x. Mosley MP (1979) Streamflow generation in a forested watershed, Rainfall is one of the most important natural input resources to
New Zealand. Water Resources Research 15(4): 795-806 crop production and its occurrence and distribution is erratic,
xi. Pilgrim DH, Huff DD, Steele TD (1978) A field evaluation of temporal and spatial variations in nature. Most of the
subsurface and surface runoff, II, Runoff processes. Journal of Hydrology 28:
319-341
hydrological events occurring as natural phenomena are
xii. Shakya NM, Chander S (1998) Modeling of hillslope runoff observed only once. One of the important problem in hydrology
processes. Environmental Geology 35: 115-123 deals with the interpreting past records of hydrological event in
xiii. Sloan PG, Moore ID, Coltharpa GB, Eigel JD (1983) Modeling terms of future probabilities of occurrence. The design and
surface and subsurface stormflow on steeply sloping forested watersheds. Report
142: 167 Water Resources Institute, University of Kenya, Lexington Kenya
construction of certain projects, such as dams and urban
xiv. Troch PA, Carrillo GA., drainage systems, the management of water resources, and the
Heidbchel I, Rajagopal S, Switanek M, Volkmann TH, Yaeger M (2008) prevention of flood damage require an adequate knowledge of
Dealing with landscape heterogeneity in watershed hydrology: A review of extreme events of high return periods.
recent progress toward new hydrological theory. Geography Compass 2:
10.1111/j.1749-8198.2008.00186.x
In most cases, the return periods of interest exceed usually the
periods of available records and could not be extracted directly
from the recorded data. Therefore, in current engineering
practice, the estimation of extreme rainfalls is accomplished
based on statistical frequency analysis of maximum precipitation
records where available sample data could be used to calculate
the parameters of a selected frequency distribution. The fitted

distribution is then used to estimate event magnitudes observed rainfall. The distribution of one day maximum rainfall
corresponding to return periods greater than or less than those of received during different months in a year is presented in Fig. 1.
the recorded events, hence accurate estimation of extreme
rainfall could help to alleviate the damage caused by storms and
can help to achieve more efficient design of hydraulic structures.
The specific objective shall include the following: 1) To analyse
maximum one day rainfall in every year. And 2) To compute
severity of rainfall by various return period.
2. MATERIAL AND METHODS
Daily rainfall data of devgrhbaria raingauge station has been
used for the present investigation. Time series rainfall records
for the period of 30 years (1961 to 1990) have been collected
from State Water Data Centre, Government of Gujarat, and
Gandhinagar. Devgarhbaria is situated in the catchment area of
panam dam in the panchmahal district of Gujarat state at 22 0 41'
N latitude and 730 55 E longitude with survey of india(SOI)
Fig. 1: AODMR in different months
toposheeet (1.4 miles), no. 46/F,46/j and 46/E. The mean annual
Annual one day maximum rainfall was sorted out from the data
rainfall was 903.1287 mm. Area receives 85 per cent of annual
collected and using statistical techniques for data analysis. The
of the rainfall during south-west monsoon i.e. from June to
statistical behavior of any hydrological series can be described
September. The study area is mostly hilly and covered with
on the basis of certain parameters. The statistical tests were
forests except near the Panam dam site where it is relatively
carried out in accordance with the procedure. The computation
flatter. It has the expansion of Soils of the derived from rocks
of statistical parameters includes mean, standard deviation;
like quartzites, schists and phyllites. Deep soils cover about 79%
coefficient of variation and coefficient of skewness were taken
of the culturable and is watered dominantly by Mahi River. The
as measures of variability of hydrological series. All the
area experiences three marked seasons summer (Mar-May),
parameters have been used to describe the variability of rainfall
Monsoon (June-Sep) & winter (Oct-Feb). Project area
in the present study.
experiences tropical climate with minimum temperature of 12C
2.1 Return period
in January and maximum temperature of 39C in May.
Return period or recurrence interval is the average interval of
Table 1: One day maximum daily rainfall for the period of
time within which any extreme event of given magnitude will be
1961 to 1990
equaled or exceeded at least once. Return period was calculated
by Weibull's plotting position formula (Chow, 1964) by
arranging one day maximum daily rainfall in descending order
giving their respective rank as:
T= (1)
Where, N - the total number of years of record and R- the rank

of observed rainfall values arranged in descending order.
Weibull's plotting position formula was used for computation of
observed AODMR amounts at the return periods of 1.01, 1.05,
1.11, 1.25, 2, 4, 5, 10, 20 and 40 years.
2.2 Frequency analysis using frequency factors
Values of Annual one day maximum rainfall can be estimated
statistically through the use of the Chow (1951) general
The daily rainfall data are sorted out and filtered to compute frequency formula. The formula expresses the frequency of
annual one day maximum. The maximum (189.1 mm) and occurrence of an event in terms of a frequency factor, KT, which
minimum (54.8 mm) annual one day maximum depends upon the distribution of particular event investigated.
rainfall(AODMR) was recorded during the year 20 th Sep 1962 Chow (1951) has shown that many frequencies analyses can be
and 26th August 1981, respectively. The mean value of AODMR reduced to the form
was found to be 134.77 mm with coefficient of variation as XT= (1+CVKT) (2)
0.5281. The coefficient of skewness was observed to be 1.3464. Where, is the mean, CV is the coefficient of variation, is the
August month received the highest amount of one day maximum frequency magnitude of a factor and XT is the event having a
rainfall (53%) followed by September (17%) and July (13%). it return period T. KT is the frequency factor which depends upon
can be observed that the estimated annual AODMR for different the return period T and the assumed frequency distribution. The
probability distributions are following the same trend of expected value of annual maximum daily rainfall for the same
return periods were computed for determining the best

probability distributions. Calculations of frequency factor of the square value (Agrawal et al. 1995). If > 2 for (N - k -
four distributions namely normal, log-normal, log-Pearson type- 1) degrees of freedom. Then the difference between observed
III and Gumbel are discussed as and expected values is considered to be significant.
2.2.1 Normal distribution 2.4 Regression model
The normal distribution, a two parameter distribution, has been Regression models were developed for estimating the AODMR
identified as the most important distribution of continuous to return periods in the present study and found the coefficient of
variables applied to symmetrically distributed data. The determination (R2).
probability density function is given by: 3. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
(3)
The average, standard deviation, coefficient of variation and
skewness of Annual One Day Maximum Rainfall for 30 years
Where, is the standard deviation and is the mean of the
and their respective formulas are given in Table 2. These
sample.
statistical parameters can be used to find the estimated one day
2.2.2 Log normal distribution
maximum rainfall from different probability distribution
A random variable x is said to follow a lognormal distribution if
functions. The variation of standard deviation over the mean is
the logarithm (usually natural logarithm) of is normally
shown in Fig. 2. It was also observed that 10 years (33.3%)
distributed. The probability density functions of such a variable
received one day maximum daily rainfall above the average.
y=ln x: 0 x
Table 2:- Computation of statistical parameters of
(4) annual one day maximum rainfall
Where, y is the standard deviation and y is the mean of y = ln x Statistical
Formula
Computed
Parameter Value
2.2.3 Log-Pearson type-III
Mean x = x / n 134.77
In log-Pearson type-III distribution, the value of variate 'X'
(rainfall) is transformed to logarithm (base 10). The expected x=L0+
Median 106.95
value of rainfall 'XT' can be obtained by the following formulae
XT = Antilog X
Log X = M + KTS (5) 152.4
Mode
where, 'M' is the mean of logarithmic values of observed rainfall
and 'S' is the standard deviation of these values. Frequency
factor KT is taken from Benson (1968) corresponding to
coefficient of skewness (Cs) of transformed variate as Standard
71.179
deviation
(6)
2.2.4Gumbel distribution
Coefficient
In Gumbel distribution, the expected rainfall 'XT ' is computed by 0.5281
of variance
the formula given by Chow in equation (2) KT - frequency factor
which is calculated by the formula given by Gumbel (1958) as
KT= - (7) Coefficient
1.3464
of skewness
2.3 Testing the goodness of fit
The expected values of maximum rainfall were calculated by
four well known probability distributions, viz., normal, log-
normal, log-Pearson type-III and Gumbel distribution at
different selected probabilities i.e. 99, 95, 90, 80, 50, 25, 20, 10,
5, 2.5, 2, 1 and 0.5 per cent levels. Among these four
distributions, the best fit distributions decided by chi-square test
for goodness of fit to observed values. The chi-square test
statistic is given by the equation
2 = (8)
Where, Oi is the observed rainfall and Ei is the expected rainfall

and will have chi-square distribution with (N - k -1) degree of
freedom (d.f.). The best probability distribution function was
determined by comparing Chi square values obtained from each Fig 2:- Standard Deviation Variation over the mean
distribution and selecting the function that gives smallest chi-

The AODMR for the period of 30 years was plotted against value determined the best probability distribution function. The
return period in years which was calculated from Weibull's chi-square values (Table 4) for normal, log-normal, log-Pearson
method and presented in Fig. 3. Observed rainfall were found for type-III and Gumbel distributions were 2.38,-0.04, 0.20 and
various return periods of 1.01, 1.05, 1.11, 1.25, 2, 4, 5, 10, 20 2.25, respectively. Log-Pearson type-III distribution gave the
and 40 year and for different probability distributions such as lowest calculated chi-square value that is selected among the
normal, log-normal, log-Pearson type-III and Gumbel were four probability distributions. Hence, log- Pearson type-III has
calculated and presented in Table 3. It is generally recommended been found the best probability distribution for predicting
that 2 to 100 years is sufficient return period for soil and water AODMR for Devagarhbaria station of panam catchment area.
conservation measures, construction of dams, irrigation and
drainage works (Bhakar et al., 2006).
It was observed that all the three probability distribution Table 4: Chi-square values at different probability levels for
functions fitted significantly i.e. null hypothesis accepted except different distributions
normal distribution. Log-Pearson type-III distribution was found
to be the best fitted to AODMR data by Chi-square test for
goodness of fit. A maximum of 116.84 mm rainfall is expected
to occur at every 2 years and 50 per cent probability which is
nearer to the mean AODMR. For a return period of 5,10,20,50
and 100 years the AODMR, annual one day maximum rainfall is
178.98 mm, 226.77 mm, 277.73 mm, 351.68 mm and 413.58
mm which including other return periods are shown in Table 3.
Table 3: Observed and expected one day maximum

rainfall at different probability levels
The expected AODMR for different probabilities are graphically

represented in Fig. 4.Regression models were developed from
the observed AODMR against different return period by using
Weibull's method. The trend analysis (Fig. 4.) for prediction of
one day maximum rainfall for different return period was carried
out and it is found that the exponential trend line gives better
coefficient of determination (R2) = 0.9342 and the equation is: Y
= 79.95X0.428 where Y is AODMR in mm and X is Return
period in Years.
Fig. 3:- Predicted AODMR with different probability

distribution vs return period
From the figure, it can be observed that the estimated annual

AODMR for different probability distributions are following the
same trend of observed rainfall. All four probability distribution
functions were compared by chi-square test of goodness of fit Fig.4:- Annual One Day Maximum Rainfall with various return
and then selecting the function that gave the smallest chi-square period
4. CONCLUSIONS

The mean value of AODMR was found to be 134.77 mm with Experimental and three Dimensional Numerical
standard deviation and coefficient of variation of 71.179 and Studies for A Sluice Spillway
0.5281, respectively. The coefficient of skewness was observed Kulhare, A.1 Bhajantri, M.R.2
to be 1.3464. The frequency analysis of AODMR for identifying 1
Research Officer, Central Water & Power Research Station,
the best fit probability distribution was studied for four Pune - 411024, INDIA
probability distributions such as normal, log-normal, log- 2
Dr., Chief Research Officer, Central Water & Power Research
Pearson type-III and Gumbel by using Chi-square goodness of Station, Pune - 411024, INDIA
fit test. It was observed that all the three probability distribution Email: akulhare@live.com
functions fitted significantly i.e. null hypothesis accepted except
normal distribution. Log-Pearson type-III distribution was found ABSTRACT:Hydraulic modelling of spillways can be done
to be the best fitted to AODMR data by Chi-square test for through physical modelling or computer based numerical
goodness of fit. Based on the best fit probability distribution, the modelling. Experimental investigation through physical model
minimum rainfall of 42.69 mm in a day can be expected to occur studies is widely adopted common practice to optimize the
with 99 per cent probability & one year return period and design of spillway components. The advent of high-speed and
maximum of 413.58 mm rainfall can be received with one per large-memory computers has enabled to obtain numerical
cent probability & 100 year return period. This study gives an solutions to many complicated hydraulic problems of spillways.
idea about the prediction of Annual One Day Maximum Rainfall Numerical simulation has become a viable complementary tool
to design the small and medium hydraulic and soil and water for physical modelling of spillways. In the present work,
conservation structures, irrigation, drainage works, vegetative hydraulic model tests were carried out on a 1:45 scale 2-D
waterways and field diversions. This study also helps in sectional model. In numerical studies, a Computational Fluid
developing cropping plan and estimating design flow rate for Dynamics (CFD) software 'FLUENT' was used which runs on
maximizing crop production. a Finite Volume method for simulation. The results of the
numerical model in respect of discharging capacity, pressures
5. REFERENCES:
i. Adegboye, O.S and Ipinyomi, R.A (1995) Statistical tables for class at different locations over spillway profile and sluice roof
work and Examination. Tertiary publications Nigeria Limited, Ilorin, Nigeria, pp. profile were compared with the physical model results. The
5 11 1765 1776. numerical results obtained by simulating the system as two
ii. Agarwal, M. C., Katiyar, K.S. and Ram Babu (1988). Probability phase problem showed close agreement with the results
analysis of annual maximum daily rainfall of U. P., Himalaya. Indian Journal of
Soil Conservation, 16(1): 35-42. obtained from physical model studies.
iii. Barkotulla, M. A. B., Rahman, M. S. and Rahman, M. M. (2009). Keywords: Computational Fluid Dynamics; FLUENT; VOF;
Characterization and frequency analysis of consecutive days maximum rainfall. at Sluice spillway; Ski-jump bucket; Discharge capacity
Boalia, Rajshahi and Bangladesh. Journal of Development and Agricultural
Economics, 1: 121-126.
iv. Benson, M. A. (1968). Uniform flood frequency estimating methods 1. INTRODUCTION
for federal agencies. Water Resources Research, 4(5): 891-908. Innovative designs of spillways have been evolved based on the
v. Bhakar, S. R., Bansal, A. N., Chhajed, N. and Purohit, R. C. (2006). concept of flushing. The design of spillway is required to
Frequency analysis of consecutive days maximum rainfall at Banswara, Rajasthan, perform the dual function of flushing of the reservoir as well as
India. ARPN Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, 1(3) : 64-67.
vi. Bhim Singh, Deepak Rajpurohit, Amol Vasishth and Jitendra Singh passing of the flood discharge. Low level Breastwall/Sluice
(2012). Probability analysis for estimation of annual one day maximum rainfall of spillways (also called Orifice spillway) combine the advantage
jhalarapatan area of rajasthan,india. Plant Archives Vol. 12 No. 2, 2012 pp. 1093- of greater depth of flow over the crest and moderately sized
1100 gates. Orifice spillways have been widely recognized as the most
vii. Chowdhury, J.U. and Stedinger, J.R. (1991) Goodness of fit tests for
regional generalized extreme value flood distributions. Water Resource. Res., 27(7) appropriate, especially for run-of-the-river projects for handling
: both flood releases and flushing of sediment. Orifice spillway is
viii. Chow, V. T. (1951). A general formula for hydrologic frequency an effective hydraulic structure for keeping the reservoir clean
analysis. Transactions American Geophysical Union, 32: 231237. from the sediments along with the advantage of reduced gate
ix. Chow, V. T. (1964). Hand book of applied hydrology. McGraw-
Hill Book Company, New York. height and reduced overflow crest length. Though the provision
x. Introduction To Probability and Statistics In Hydrology a Book By of breast wall or sluice has many advantages, there is no specific
Dr. Miguel A. Medina design method for its configuration.
xi. Murray, R.S and Larry, J.S (2000) Theory and problems of Spillway designs have been investigated through physical as
statistics Tata Mc Graw Hill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi, pp. 314
316, Third edition. well as numerical modelling. The drawback of physical model
xii. Olofintoye, O.O, Sule, B.F and Salami, A.W (2009). Bestfit studies of spillways are the cost of construction, delay in time
Probability distribution model for peak daily rainfall of selected Cities in Nigeria. for fabrication and construction of model parts and conducting
New York Science Journal, 2009, 2(3), ISSN 1554-0200 experiments and difficulty in changing structural details of
xiii. Salami, A.W (2004). Prediction of the annual flow regime along Asa
River using probability distribution models. AMSE periodical, Lyon, France. various components of spillway while doing parametric studies.
Modeling C- 2004, 65 (2), 41-56. (http://www.amse- Numerical simulation has become a feasible complementary tool
modeling.org/content_amse2004.htm) New York Science Journal, 2009, 2(3), ISSN to physical modelling of spillways. The data obtained from the
1554-0200 http://www.sciencepub.net/newyork, sciencepub@gmail.com physical model studies can be used for model calibration and
xiv. Singh, R. K. (2001). Probability analysis for prediction of annual
maximum rainfall of Eastern Himalaya (Sikkim mid hills). Indian Journal of Soil
validation of the numerical models. To simulate the actual flow
Conservation, 29: 263-265. by providing an alternative cost-effective means of fluid

dynamics, CFD complements experimental and theoretical

analysis. However, the utility of a numerical model depends on
the validity of the governing equations and numerical methods.
CFD design tool as a more reliable and in order to become
acceptable, numerical studies should be carefully validated with
experimental results. Hydraulic design of spillways with CFD is
a new application, it requires especially careful verification.
Many researchers have conducted numerical modelling
experiments on different types of spillways. But most of the
investigations have been done for the Ogee crested overflow
spillway. Savage and Johnson, Bijan Dargahi, Unami et al. and
Ho et al. have done some recent work in field of overflow
spillway and they found reasonable agreement with experimental
data. Hu Cheng Yi et al. have studied the configuration of the
spillway with breastwall and based on physical and numerical Figure 1. Section of spillway
modelling they suggested some design configuration, which has
a greater discharging capacity, less negative pressures on
profiles and having a simpler configuration of profiles.
The main concern of the present work is to investigate the flow
phenomena over the sluice spillway and to compare the results
with 3D numerical flow simulation. A commercial CFD code
known as FLUENT was used for the present study. With the
help of a numerical model, an attempt is made to investigate
hydraulic characteristics by simulating the discharge, pressure
distribution and water surface profile over the spillway.
2. MODEL INVESTIGATION
Experiments were conducted on 1:45 scale 2-D sectional model
to optimize roof profile as well as spillway bottom profile of the
sluice spillway. In the model one full span and two half spans
on either side were fabricated in transparent Perspex sheet of 12
mm thick. The fabricated spillway was installed in a one metre Figure 2. Model view
wide flume. The discharge was measured by means of a 3. NUMERICAL MODEL SET-UP
calibrated Rehbock weir. The accepted equations for similitude, Flow over the sluice spillway was simulated with CFD software
based on Froudian criteria were used to express the FLUENT. FLUENT is a commercial computer program for
mathematical relationship between the dimensions and hydraulic modelling fluid flow and heat transfer in complex geometries.
parameters of the model and the prototype. Discharging FLUENT provides complete mesh flexibility, including the
capacity, pressures distribution over the roof profile of sluice ability to solve flow problems using unstructured meshes that
and spillway profile were measured for the head of 26 m over can be generated about complex geometries with relative ease. It
the crest of the spillway. The measurements were taken along solves the full three dimensional equations of fluid motion in
the centre line section of the spillway span as well as along the general orthogonal curvilinear coordinates for both laminar and
side of the pier. The pressures were measured at 21 different turbulent flows.
locations over the spillway profile and at 12 locations over the 3.1 Computational DomainThe geometry of the spillway is
roof profile of sluice. Pressures on the spillway were measured prepared with prototype dimensions by using GAMBIT
using a piezometer board with plastic tubes vented to the software. For building the domain for upstream of the spillway
atmosphere. The piezometer board was leveled with respect to dam axis, reservoir length of 100 m chainage was taken for inlet
the spillway elevations. The piezometer board readings provided of flow and in the downstream side, domain was extended upto
the average pressure readings at each pressure tab location. 240 m chainage with pressure outlet. The domain height is
Measurements on the piezometer board were readable to within chosen around 32.5 m above the crest at spillway surface so that
0.045 m. Detailed measurements of water surface profiles the water level can be attained in tank as well as interface with
normal to the flow were made in the centre line of the spillway air can be captured properly. The domain sufficiently extended
span. A pointer gauge was used to measure the free water in the downstream region around distance of 180 m from the end
surface profile over the spillway structure. Figure 1 and 2 show of spillway structure. The objective of the extension of the
the section the spillway and model view of the spillway domain in downstream is to capture the water behaviour after
respectively. leaving the spillway and where the water hits the bottom surface
of the domain. Figure 3 shows the Section of the domain.

Air was defined as a primary phase and water as a secondary

phase. For the calculation of air water interface i.e. free water
surface, volume of fluid (VOF) model was used. For simulation
of spillway flow, two inlets were needed to define the water
inflow to domain and air inflow over the top of domain. Water
inflow was defined as a pressure inlet with the initial water level
and initial velocity at the inlet face. Also the air inflow over the
domain upstream and downstream of the spillway was defined as
pressure inlet boundary condition. The water outflow at the end
of domain was defined as a pressure outflow boundary
Figure 3. Section of the domain condition. All the solid boundaries including side walls, Sluice
walls, piers and spillway bottom were defined as wall
3.2 Grid Generation boundaries with no slip condition. Figure 5 shows boundary
Three dimensional grid was developed in Gambit software itself. conditions of the numerical domain.
The 3-D mesh generation consists of the geometry generation
and 3-D grid development over the spillway geometry, water
tank upstream for reservoir and downstream region. The
objective behind this grid generation is to provide the mesh to
simulate flow through two spans, mixing of flows coming out of
two spans and the flow over spillways. The full domain is
decomposed into the smaller volumes, so that they can be
meshed by structured mesh. The cells have been clustered near
the sluice roof profile and spillway surface to capture wall
bounded effects and predict the wall pressures in the flow
simulation. The grid is made finer in those regions where the
water and air have interface. Minimum height of the grid cell is Figure 5. Boundary conditions of the domain
0.1 m and maximum height of the grid cell is 0.9 m in the 4. SOLUTION PROCEDURE
domain. The hexahedral cells are used for grid generation with
the cell count 885261. The surface grid is shown in Figure 4. The numerical model of sluice spillway was run with unsteady
free surface calculations with pressure based solver, which
enables the pressure-based Navier-Stokes solution algorithm.
The VOF method was used to capture the interface between
water and air and governing equations are solved by the Finite
volume method. For the VOF - method the Body force weighted
scheme is used for pressure interpolation as the gravity force is
high and the modified HRIC scheme is used for the volume
fraction equations in order to improve the sharpness of the
interface between the two phases i.e. water and air. Second order
upwind scheme is used for momentum and pressure equations.
The k- turbulence model was used to simulate the three-
Figure 4. Meshing of the domain dimensional turbulent flow. Figure 6 shows simulated flow after
3.3 Boundary Conditions run of 27.36 seconds.
They are the critical components of simulations and it is

important that they are specified appropriately. When solving the
Navier-Stokes equation and continuity equation, appropriate
initial conditions and boundary conditions need to be applied.
Setting the appropriate boundary conditions can have a major
impact on whether the numerical model results are reflecting the
actual simulation one is trying to simulate. Poorly defined
boundary conditions can have a significant impact on the
solution. A set of boundary conditions such as pressure inlet,
mass flow inlet, velocity inlet, pressure outlet, outflow, wall
boundaries etc. are available in FLUENT. It is significant that
the boundary conditions accurately represent what is actual
physics occurring, to simulate a given flow close to real. Figure 6. Simulated flow over the spillway

found satisfactory and having a good agreement between the

5. SIMULATION RESULTS AND ANALYSIS both the studies in most of the locations. Figure 9 shows the
There is an unlimited level of details of the results in the pressure contour near the sluice profile obtained from the
numerical model analysis. Observations and analysis can be numerical model. It shows the low pressure zone in the
made very minutely for each and every component of model in downstream portion of the sluice surface as observed in the
respect of fluid properties such as velocity, pressure, and water physical model.
surface profiles etc., also the forces on the various locations. In
this numerical study the main concern to obtain discharging
capacity of sluice spillway, pressure distribution over the sluice
profile and spillway profile and free water surface profile for for
26 m head over the crest.
It was found from the physical model studies that the design
maximum discharge of 2983 m3/s could be passed through two
sluices fully open with the reservoir water level (RWL) El. 26 m
above the crest. Also in the numerical model, the discharging
capacity of the spillway was found adequate to the passing
discharge of 3030 m3/s at RWL El. 26 m, which is 1.6% higher
than what we found from physical model studies. Also the
coefficient of discharge is coming around 0.63 which is closer to
Figure 8. Pressures over the sluice profile
0.62 that was obtained by experimental studies. The result shows
the good agreement between physical and numerical values in
respect of discharge values.
Water surface profile have been measured over the spillway
surface on the physical model and compared with the numerical
solution. Figure 7 shows the plot of both the water
surface profile elevations. It has been observed in the numerical
model study that after the lip of the ski-jump bucket, the water
surface elevations obtained lower than what obtained in the
physical model. Numerical model was solved with prototype
dimensions and in the prototype, the jet after ski-jump bucket
has been thrown out fully into the air downstream of the
spillway structure. There may be more interaction of air and
water because there will be free surface from either side of jet.
This may be the reason of the deviation in elevation values after
Figure 9. Pressures contour near the sluice profile
the spillway structure.
Figure 10 shows the plots for pressure values of experimental
and numerical modelling results over the spillway surface. The
plot shows good agreement between both the values except some
locations near the entrance. Due to absence of upstream curve
the separation of flow is observed at the crest of the spillway
near entrance of the sluice. Flow at the entrance of spillway in
the numerical model and the physical model are shown in Figure
11 in the form of velocity vectors. It shows the separation of
velocity vectors near the entrance, so that the pressures on the
spillway surface in this zone are reduced compared to other
locations. Whereas in the physical model the velocity
components cannot be minutely observed and also due to the
wide river valley in the model the vertical component of velocity
Figure 7. Water surface profile vectors was dominated by the horizontal components of velocity
Pressure distribution were computed over the sluice bottom vectors. Because of this reason the pressure distribution is not
profile for numerical studies and compared with the physical following the same trend in this region in both the cases of
model results. In both the studies water surface follow the sluice centre line as well as side of pier.
profile and corresponding pressures having same trend over the
profile. Figure 8 shows the plots for pressure values of
experimental and numerical modelling results over the sluice
surface for comparison. It shows the good agreement between
both the values. Pressure distribution over the sluice profile were

ii. Cheng, Xiangju, Yongcan, Chen and Lin, Luo. (2006), Numerical
Simulation of Air-Water Two-Phase Flow over Stepped Spillways. Science in
China Series E: Technological Sciences, Volume 49, Number 6, 674-684.
iii. Dargahi B. (2006), Experimental Study and 3-D Numerical
Simulations for a Free-Overflow Spillway. Jour-nal of Hydraulic Engineering,
ASCE 132-9,899-907.
iv. Fluent Manual ver. 6.3
v. Gadge,P.P., Kulhare,A. and BhosekarV.V., Application of
Computational Fluid Dynamics in Hydraulic Structures, National Conference on
Hydraulics and Water Resources, HYDRO -2011, Dec 29-30, at SVNIT, Surat,
Gujarat.
vi. Hu, C. Y., Wei, Y., and Zheng, Z. P. (1990), Study on Configuration of
Overflow Dams with Breast Wall. 7th Congress APD-IAHR.
vii. Savage, B. M., and Johnson, M. C. (2001), Flow over Ogee Spillway:
Physical and Numerical Model Case Study. International Journal of Hydraulic
Figure 10. Pressures over the spillway profile Engineering, ASCE 127-8, 640-649.
viii. Unami, K., Kawachi, T, Munir, Baber M., Itagaki, H, (1999), Two
Dimensional Numerical Model of Spillway Flow, Journal of Hydrol. Engg.
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ix. Versteeg, H. K., and Malalasekera, W. (1995), An Introduction to
Computational Fluid Dynamics-The Finite Volume Method. Longmaon Scientic
&Technical, England.
Physical Model Study for Energy Dissipation

Arrangements to the Pick up Weir Across
Figure 11. Velocity vectors at the entrance of spillway
Pachaiyar River in Tamilnadu
C. Prabakar1 P. K. Suresh2 T. Ravindrababu3 A.
4. CONCLUSION
Parthiban4 A. Muralitharan5
In this paper, a finite volume-based CFD software FLUENT was 1
Assistant Engineer, Institute of Hydraulics & Hydrology
used to investigate the hydraulic characteristics of flow through
sluice spillway. The water surface profile, pressure distribution Poondi 602 023, India
2
and discharge characteristics of the chosen spillway were Research Head, Centre of Excellence for Change, P W D
computed and compared with existing physical model data. The Campus, Chepauk, Chennai 600 005, India
3
computed and experimental values of the coefficient of Assistant Director, Institute of Hydraulics & Hydrology Poondi
602 023, India
discharge were 063 and 062, the computed value being 1.6 % 4
higher than the experimental value observed on the physical Assistant Director, Institute of Hydraulics & Hydrology Poondi
model. As seen from the figures depicting pressure values and 602 023, India
5
water surface elevations, it shows the good matching trend and Assistant Engineer, Institute of Hydraulics & Hydrology Poondi
values in case of breastwall bottom profile for both numerical as 602 023, India
well as experimental studies. The upstream slope was not Email: cprabakar76@gmail.com
guiding the flow over the crest properly, as a result of which a
mild separation zone was seen forming over the horizontal crest ABSTRACT: The Agricultural development in Tamil Nadu
in the numerical model as depicted in the figure of velocity mainly depends upon the surface irrigation as well as lift
vectors, which was not predicted by physical model. Except the irrigation. But the state has almost utilized its surface water
entrance the pressure distribution was found good agreement potential and ground water potentials. Hence, the further
between the physical and numerical results. Reasonable expansion of irrigation and agriculture in Tamilnadu depends
agreement is observed with the numerical and physical model on inter-linking of rivers by utilizing the surplus flood water
results, showing the applicability of the CFD software for the which flows into the sea as unused. This scheme is proposed
numerical simulation of real case study of spillway. Further for interlinking of rivers Tamirabarani, Karumeniyar, and
refinement in mesh generation and cell count may improve the Nambiyar by connecting surplus water from Tamirabarani
results of the simulation of flow through a sluice spillway. through kanadian channel and a new flood carrier canal for a
length of 73km. The diversion of surplus water of
REFERENCES Tamirabarani basin to its sub basin of Pachaiyar and
adjoining basin of Nambiyar and Karumeniyar will be a
i. Bhajantri, M.R., Eldho T.I, Deolalikar P.B. (2006), Hydrodynamic milestone for linking the south flowing rivers. Under the
Modelling of Flow over a Spillway using a Two-Dimensional Finite Volume- Formation of Flood carrier canal with a carrying capacity of
Based Numerical Model. Sadhana, Vol.31, part 6, 743-754. 3200 cusecs crosses the river Pachaiyar. At the place of canal
crossing the river Pachaiyar, to utilise the river water of
pachaiyar to divert in the flood carrier canal the Pickup weir is

proposed to be constructed across Pachaiyar for a length of The River Thamirabarani originates from eastern slope of
250m to pass the Maximum flood discharge of 31664 cusecs Western Ghats and traverse to a length of 120 kms and it is More
safely. The physical model study for the energy dissipation Or Less Perennial River. There are 12 numbers of tributaries
arrangements for the stilling basin of the proposed weir and confluences with this river on its length of traverse. The
the scour vents is studied in this Institute and a 6 numbers of following reservoirs were constructed across Thamirabarani
trials were conducted to evolve efficient Energy dissipation River and its tributaries.
arrangements for the proposed pick up weir and scour vents. 1. Papanasam Reservoir
Various energy dissipation structures were introduced in the 2. Manimuthar Reservoir
above 6 trials and the optimal performance is ascertained in 3. Servalaru Reservoir
the model studies and suggested for the stilling basin is given 4. Gadana Reservir
in this report in detail. 5. Ramanadhi Reservoir
Keywords: Physical model, Energy dissipation, Friction blocks 6. Gundar Reservoir
1. INTRODUCTION: 7. Karuppanathi Reservoir
The Agricultural development in Tamil Nadu mainly depends 8. Adavinainarkoil Reservoir
upon the surface irrigation as well as lift irrigation. But the state 9. Vadakku Pachaiyar Reservoir
has almost utilized its surface water potential. Hence, the further The following anicuts were constructed across
expansion of irrigation and agriculture in Tamilnadu depends on Thamirabarani River and its tributaries.
inter-linking of rivers and their tributaries by utilizing the 1. Kodaimelazhagian Anicut
surplus flood water which flows into the sea as unused. 2. Nathiyunni Anicut
This scheme is proposed for interlinking of rivers Tamirabarani, 3. Kanndain Anicut
Karumeniyar, and Nambiyar by diverting water from 4. Ariyanayagipuram Anicut
Tamirabarani through the existing Kannadian Channel by 5. Suthamalli Anicut
increasing the carrying capacity and excavating a new flood
6. Pazavoor Anicut
carrier from LS 6.50km of existing Kannadian Channel through
drought prone areas of Sathankulam, Thisayanvilai in 7. Maruthur anicut
Tirunelveli and Thoothukudi Districts respectively for a length 8. Srivaikundam Anicut.
of 73km after fulfilling the needs existing Kannadian Channel. The pickup weir and scour vents were proposed to construct
The diversion of surplus flood water from Tamirabarani across the River Pachaiyar located at LS 20599 to LS 20690m of
basin will be effectively utilized in the farther most gross the proposed flood carrier canal. The Chief Engineer, PWD,
command area but also in the adjoining basins of Pachaiyar, WRO, Design Research & Construction Support has given the
Nambiar and Karumeniyar rivers. The flood carrier canal will approved drawing for the proposed pick up weir and scour vents.
be operated only in the time of flash flood when the surplus flow 2.0 OBJECTIVE OF STUDY
of Tamirabarani water through the last anicut namely 1. To evolve efficient Energy dissipation arrangements for
Srivaikundam anicut goes into the sea after meeting out the full the proposed pick up weir and scour vents to pass the
demand of Tamirabarani basin. The diversion of surplus water of Maximum flood discharge of 31664 cusecs safely.
Tamirabarani basin to its sub basin of Pachaiyar and adjoining 2. To evolve good flow performance on stilling basin and
basin of Nambiyar and Karumeniyar will be a milestone for surplus course.
inter-linking the south flowing rivers. 3.0 HYDRAULIC PARTICULARS
The Director, Institute of Water studies, Chennai formulated a 1 Maximum Flood Discharge 31664 Cusecs
proposal from tail end of Kanadian channel (nearby Melaseval) 2 Front maximum flood level + 60.175m
by using remote sensing and GIS taking into consideration of the 3 Rear maximum flood level +53.45m
existing Kanadian channel alignment. It is proposed to excavate 4 Crest level 58.745m
a flood carrier canal from Kannadian Channel at LS 6.50 km to 5 Length of the structure 240m
ML theru for a length of 73 km. The carrying capacity of the
flood carrier at LS 0m is 3200 cusecs (90.61 Cumecs). Pick up weir
On its length of run the new flood carrier crosses the river 1 Discharge through Weir 29773 cusecs
Pachaiyar and Karumeniyar. At the place of crossing the river 2 Length of Weir 226.80m
Pachaiyar, a Pickup weir was proposed to be constructed at LS 3 Crest level 58.745m
20599 to LS 20690m of flood carrier canal. The design and 4 Downstream bed level +52.00m
drawing was prepared by the Superintending Engineer, Designs 5 Stilling basin length 18.80m
Circle. Chennai-05, it was suggested in the design that the
energy dissipation arrangements proposed for the weir and scour 6 Stilling basin level 50.60m
vents are only tentative and should be finalized based on the 7 Rock level/Foundation level +48.80m
rock level available at the downstream side during execution and
conducting model studies at Institute of Hydraulics and
Hydrology, Poondi. Scour vents
1.1 LOCATION 1 Discharge through Scour vents 1901 cusecs

2 Sill level +53.00m Trial II

3 Number of vents 4 nos In this trial the downstream of the river bed below the stilling
4 Size of vents 2.1m x 0.9m basin is regarded to a bed slope of 1 in 400 up to a length of
500m along the river, keeping the SE/Designs proposal of
5 Basin level at Left side scour +52.00
hydraulic components.
vents
Observation
6 Basin level at Right side scour 49.50m
The hydraulic jump was found satisfactory; the flow spreads
vents
uniform to the entire width of the river. The velocity in the
7 Top of operating platform +61.175m
range was of 3.5 to4.0 m/sec on the downstream. The left side
8 Foundation level @ Right side +49.00m scour vent baffle wall top has a level of +54.00m and after
9 Foundation level @ Left side +50.50m regarding the downstream bed level of the river course from the
stilling basin of the river course is +52.00m to a slope of 1 in
4.0 MODEL SET UP 400. The water from the left side scour vents experience a fall of
A comprehensive rigid bed, geometrically similar physical 2m and water plunges in the downstream with an impact. With
model with a scale of 1:50 is selected and the model discharge is this condition the river bed will experience a heavy scour, which
calculated. Model discharge of the river was allowed through 'V' can damage the hydraulic structures. This trial needs additional
notch. Necessary gauge well have been constructed for alterations and requires suggestions from the Design wing.
measuring the water levels for the required maximum flood Trial III
discharge. The site officials informed that the downstream portion consists
of hard rock so that water can be allowed in the downstream bed
4.1 Rigid Bed Model of the left side scour vents. To assess the site condition the site
The model was constructed with the hydraulic components as was inspected and it is found that left side scour vents portion
per the design drawings and the downstream bed levels given by has hard rock up to a level of +53.00m; hence it was suggested
the Field officials. that the Stilling basin of Left side scour vent can be kept as
+52.80m and baffle wall top as +54.00m. The fall of 2m in left
Right scour vents
scour vent portion to the river portion can be provided with
necessary water cushion arrangements by extending the wing
Spillway wall and divide wall of the scour vent which can be fixed after
Stilling basin conducting the model trial. The design shall be got revised from
the designs wing.
Left scour vents The model trial was done with the suggestions made by the
officials as above with a ramp to negotiate the fall and the
Observed velocity on the left scour vents is 4.5 m/sec. Hence
this trial needs further alterations.
Trial IV
The Designs wing has revised the drawing and based on the
Figure- 1. Dry Model of Pachaiyar Spillway details, the trial was done and the velocity is in the range of 1.5
to 2.0 m/sec in the weir portion and 7.3m/sec in the left side
5. MODEL RUN scour vent portion and 3.7m/sec in the right side scour vent
Maximum flood discharge of 31664 Cusecs for Pachaiyar River portion.
is taken and the model discharge was computed and allowed In order to reduce the velocity further, trial was
through "V" notch to arrive the energy dissipation arrangements conducted by introducing friction blocks of size 4mx1mx1m in
in the stilling basin. the entire river width on the downstream side of the baffle wall
Trial I with two rows in zig zag arrangement, the velocity is in the
After incorporating the SE/Designs proposal and downstream range of 1.0 to 2.0m/sec at the weir portion and 6.0 m/sec at the
bed levels furnished by the field officials with embankments on left side scour sluice. This trial needs alteration.
both sides of the river width, the model was run with the Trial V
maximum flood discharge. In this trial the following alteration were done as follows
Observation 1. Downstream of the river is provided with a reverse
The hydraulic jump was found satisfactory, the flow slope arrangements keeping the level as +52.00m at LS 30M
concentrates on the central portion of the river since the banks of and +53.00m at LS 60m and continuing the level of +53.00m up
the river has high bed level ranging from +54.00 to +55.00m. to a distance of LS 170m on the river course.
The velocity ranges to 4.0 to 4.5m/sec. Cross flow was observed 2. Reducing the stilling basin level of Left side scour
in the Left and Right scour vents since the bed level in the vent portion to +51.50m and baffle wall top as +.52.00m.
downstream of scour vents is in higher level, when comparing to The trial was conducted and the velocity ranges from 1.98 to
the stilling basin. The flow of the left side scour vent tends to 2.90m/sec, hydraulic jump in the stilling basin is satisfactory but
move towards the stilling basin of the weir. This trial needs during initial period the cross flow of water is observed from the
alterations.

left and right side scour vents and concentrate on the weir
portion.
Trial VI
The Designs wing visited the site of the Pachaiyar and had
discussion with the field engineer about the re grading of the
river. They have finalized that the river can be re graded to the
entire width of the river as only weathered rock and soft
disintegrated rock are available in the river course portion. The
Designs wing has request to conduct the model study for the
regraded section of the river for the entire width as suggested in
the approved design and to maintain the computed Rear Water
Level(RWL) +53.45M @50m downstream of the weir Figure 2. & 3. Running Model of Pachaiyar River
alignment. The running model trial was inspected by
Designs wing and the model was run with the maximum flood
discharge.
Observation
The hydraulic jump formed in the stilling basin is found
satisfactory and velocity on the downstream of the weir portion
is in the range of 1.0 to 2.0 m/sec is within the permissible
range. But the downstream of left side scour vent portion
measured a velocity of 4.0 m/sec. To reduce the velocity further
in the left side scour vent, friction blocks of size 1.0x1.0x1.0m is
introduced 3 rows with 3 numbers in the first and second rows Figure 4. View of Left side scour vents Figure 5.
and 2 nos in the second row. Thus making zig zag arrangements Hydraulic Jump at stilling basin
in the left side scour vent portion. By introducing the baffle
blocks the velocity got reduced to 3.28 m/sec. Thus this trial is CONCLUSION
giving satisfactory performance in the stilling basin and also The spillway and scour vents design approved by the Designs
velocity is got reduced to the permissible range. The Velocity wing is functioning satisfactorily for the given maximum flood
observed in the model trial is furnished below. This can be taken discharge and the following alteration is to be made in the
as the final trial and the following recommendation has been surplus course and the stilling basin portion.
given to incorporate in the construction of the weir at the site. 1. Introducing friction blocks on the downstream left side scour
Table No.1 Statement showing the observed velocity in Trial vent portion with three rows of friction block of size
No. VI 1.0x1.0x1.0m with 3 numbers in the first and third rows and 2
LS Observed Velocity in m/sec nos in the second row as shown in the sketch.
Chainage 2. Raising the Right downstream divide wall between stilling
from the basin weir portion and the Right side scour vent portion to a
SL NO
axis of LEFT CENTRE RIGHT
spillway in level of +54.00m.
"m" ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
1 40 3.28 2.21 2.80 The authors acknowledge the services of Designs Wing, PWD,
2 50 2.21 1.98 1.98 WRO, Chennai and the field engineers for collection of field
3 75 1.38 1.71 1.71 data and suggestions during the course of model studies.
4 100 1.71 1.40 1.71
5 125 1.98 1.40 1.40 REFERENCES
6 150 0.99 1.40 0.50 i. Allen. J Scale Models in Hydraulic Engineering
7 175 1.40 1.40 0.50 ii. Chow, V.T. (1959), Open Channel Hydraulics, McGraw-Hill,
8 200 0.99 1.40 0.50
New York, NY
9 225 0.99 1.40 1.40
iii. Elevators Key, Hydraulic Energy Dissipation.
10 250 0.99 1.40 0.99
11 275 0.99 1.40 0.99
12 300 1.40 1.40 0.99
13 325 0.99 1.40 0.99
14 350 0.99 0.90 0.99
15 375 0.99 1.40 0.99
16 400 1.40 0.99 0.99
17 425 1.40 0.99 0.99
18 450 0.99 0.99 0.99
19 475 1.40 0.99 1.40
20 500 1.40 0.99 0.99

Experimental Investigations For Estimation of the Cavitation risk resulting from excessive sub-pressures decreases
Height of Training Wall of Convergent Stepped due to lower flow velocities and occurrence of high amount of
air entrainment. But, this aeration produces flow bulking and
Spillway therefore the spillway requires higher side walls. The effect of
P. J. Wadhai 1 N. V. Deshpande 2 A. D. Ghare 31 Associate
convergence enhances this effect due to shock waves and taller
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, G. H. Raisoni College of training walls are required. In the present study, it is proposed to
Engineering, C.R.P.F. Gate No. 3, Hingna Road, Digdoh Hills, Nagpur experimentally determine the effect of converging training walls
- 440 016, Maharashtra, India., on flow characteristics of stepped spillway. Literature survey
reveals that a limited literature is available on stepped spillways
Email: prafull.wadhai@yahoo.com with convergent training walls as compared to stepped spillways
2
Principal, Guru Nanak Institute of Engineering & Technology, having straight training walls. In due course of time, many of the
Kalmeshwar Road, Dahegaon, Nagpur - 441 501, stepped spillways are expected to be made with convergent
Maharashtra, India,
training walls because of the geological or topographical
Email: narendravdeshpande@gmail.com
3
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Visvesvaraya constraints or due to limited scope for right-of-way caused by
National Institute of Technology, Nagpur - 440 010, urbanization.
Maharashtra, India, (Corresponding Author),
Email: adghare@yahoo.co.in Sorensen (1985), Peyras et al. (1992), Christodoulou (1993),
Chanson (1994), Chamani and Rajaratnam (1999), Barani et al.
ABSTRACT: Amongst hydraulic engineers worldwide, there is (2005), Chanson (2006), Chinnarasri and Wongwises (2006),
enough interest generated for the construction of stepped chutes. Ease and others focused on study of stepped spillways. Hunt et al.
of construction and enhanced energy dissipation of flow over the (2008) conducted a study utilizing a three-dimensional, 1:22
control structure itself, are the primary reasons for its growing scale physical model to evaluate the flow characteristics over a
popularity. There are a good number of literature references available sloping stepped chute ( 3H: 1V) with varying training wall
for the design of stepped spillways with straight side walls, but a very convergence angles. It was found that the required training wall
limited literature is available on the design of stepped spillways with
convergent training walls. This paper presents the experimental
height varied from critical depth for 15o convergence angle to
findings carried out on a 45o stepped spillway set up having 1:1 thrice the critical depth at 52o convergence angle. As a follow up
convergent training walls. The step height variation is accounted for, work, a major reference on training wall height requirements of
in the proposed expressions which can be used for assessment of the convergent stepped spillway was presented by Hunt et al.
flow bulking and the requirements of the height of training walls, in (2012), wherein a simplified expression was developed to
convergent stepped spillways. predict the vertical height of training wall as a function of
centerline depth of flow. This expression was developed on the
Keywords : Stepped spillways, convergence angle, step height basis of simplified control volume momentum analysis and
ratio hence can be supposed to be a generalized one. However, more
testing of this expression was warranted, due to requirement of
1. INTRODUCTION : an empirical adjustment associated with the force term during
A stepped spillway has conventional ogee spillway profile. the derivation of the proposed expression. In background of this,
However, it is provided with steps from just below the crest up it was felt necessary to conduct the experiments to develop an
to the toe of the spillway. The provision of steps on the expression for estimation of height of training wall for 45o
downstream face of the spillway chute increases the rate of convergent stepped spillways.
energy dissipation and in turn, reduces the size of energy
dissipater downstream. A typical cross section of stepped 2. EXPERIMENTAL FACILITY :
spillway is indicated in Figure 1. Thus a stepped chute not only Experimental setup consists of a convergent stepped spillway of
significantly increases the dissipation energy rate but also ogee type 2.66 m long crested weir with stepped chute of ( =
decreases the construction costs of the downstream stilling basin. 45 i.e. 1:1) and a toe channel of 0.5 m wide and 10 m long. The
h1 = Flow depth measured vertically above the extreme corner of each step along the training wall
side wall of the stepped spillway converges from point of
Hd = Head
Y = Minimum depth of flow immediate after the toe tangency to down the chute with a convergence angle = 45 o .
over crest of
the spillway
D = Point of tangency
E = Toe of spillway
A storage reservoir having 9 square meter plan area and1.75 m
C = Crest
h = Normal size step height depth constructed on the upstream side of the convergent
D
stepped spillway crest. Stepped spillway experimental set up
Up
Down followed by arrangement of water recirculation system
stream
stream
side
side consisting of a pump of capacity 10 HP connected with G.I.
H
h H = Drop height suction and delivery pipe of 150 mm diameter. The pump fetch
h1 the water from underground sump which in turn discharged in to
Crest
axis an upstream reservoir through delivery pipe provided with an
arrangement for venturimeter with U-tube manometer for flow

E Y rate measurement.
Figure 1. Indicative cross section of stepped spillway

Experimental testing was done for model step height (h) of 0.12 maximum depth of flow observed along the converging training
m, 0.06 m, 0.03 m and 0.015 m which in turn corresponds to walls in dimensionless form and the regime of flow (nappe or
respective step height ratios { H* = (H/ h) }of 10, 20, 40 and skimming) for the different experimental runs.
80. Water from upstream reservoir flow over the convergent Table 1. Experimental observations and computations for =
stepped spillway which further allowed to flows freely through a 45, = 45 and H* = 10
toe channel. For volumetric measurement the flow from toe
channel empties in to a collecting tank of plan area 5.31 m2. For
measurement of different values of rate of flow in the range of
0.02 m3/sec to 0.064 m3/sec, head over crest of spillway was
measured at a distance of 0.15 m upstream of the crest. For
measurement of water surface levels along and across the steps
and also for measurement of flow depths at other locations
vernier type point gauges were used with a sensitivity of 0.1
mm.
Figure 2 shows the photographs of convergent stepped spillway

Table 2. Experimental observations and computations for =
experimental setup constructed at G. H. Raisoni College of
45, = 45 and H* = 20
Engineering, Nagpur in collaboration with VNIT, Nagpur,
Maharashtra State, India. Dimensionl
Discharge ess
Critical
per unit Step discharge,
Discha depth of
width at height, Flow
rge, Q, flow, hmax /h
crest, h, regime
cumec Yc,
q, m
m
cumec/m
0.025 0.00940 0.020735 0.06 71.31 2.1583 Partly

Skimming
0.032 0.01203 0.024444 0.06 60.08 2.3733 Partly

Skimming
0.040 0.01504 0.028365 0.06 51.61 2.5867 Partly
Skimming
0.051 0.01917 0.033352 0.06 44.07 2.8017 Skimming
0.060 0.02255 0.037168 0.06 39.75 3.0167 Skimming
Table 3. Experimental observations and computations for =

45, = 45 and H* = 40
Dim
Disch ensi
arge onle
per ss
Disc Critical
unit Step disc
harg depth of
width height, harg Flow
e, Q, flow, hmax /h
at h, e, regime
cum Yc,
crest, m
ec m
q,
cumec
/m
0.02 0.009 0.020178 0.03 72.7 3.7467 Skimming

Figure 2. Photographs of convergent stepped spillway 4 02 0
experimental setup during experimental runs 0.03 0.013 0.025949 0.03 56.6 3.8533 Skimming
5 16 2
0.04 0.015 0.029302 0.03 50.2 4.0300 Skimming
Training walls of convergent stepped spillway and side walls of 2 79 3
0.05 0.019 0.033786 0.03 43.4 4.2133 Skimming
toe channel were fabricated with acrylic sheets for visibility of 2 55 5
flow. Prior to begin with the experimentation, calibration of 0.06 0.023 0.038397 0.03 38.1 4.4933 Skimming
3 68 3
venturimeter and a triangular was done by the volumetric
measurements using a collecting tank. Table 4. Experimental observations and computations for =
45, = 45 and H* = 80
3. EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATIONS AND
COMPUTATIONS : Dimensionle
Discharge
All the data sets of observations and computations for the per unit
Critical ss discharge,
Discharge, Q, depth of Step
experimental runs for the different step height ratios (H*) and width at Flow
Cumec flow, height, h, hmax /h
crest, regime
Yc, m
also for smooth ogee spillway are presented in Table 1, Table 2, q,
m
cumec/m
Table 3, Table 4 and Table 5. These tables also show the

0.025 0.009398 0.020735 0.015 70.77 3.9867 Skimming

These expressions are proposed to be used for computation of
0.033 0.012406 0.024951 0.015 58.39 4.4467 Skimming training wall height of convergent stepped spillway with
convergence angle of 45o and chute slope of 1:1.
0.041 0.015414 0.028835 0.015 51.33 4.7067 Skimming
0.051 0.019173 0.033352 0.015 44.07 5.1867 Skimming The maximum flow depths along wall depths were compared
with the corresponding critical depths. For H*=80, the maximum
0.064 0.024060 0.038802 0.015 37.90 5.8000 Skimming
flow depth was found to be between 2.25Yc to 2.9Yc, for H*=
Table 5. Experimental observations and computations for = 40, the maximum flow depth was found to between 3.5Y c to
45, = 45 and smooth ogee chute 5.6Yc, for H*= 20, the maximum flow depth was found to lie
between 4.85Yc to 6.25Yc whereas for H*= 10, the maximum
Dimensionles depth of flow was observed to be in the range of 5.35Y c to
Discharge
Critical s discharge,
Discharge,
per unit
depth of Step height,
7.6Yc.
width at hmax , Flow
Q, flow, h,
crest, m regime
cumec Yc, m 1.4000
q,
m
cumec/m
1.2000
0.026 0.00977 0.021284 0 69.72 0.0526 Skimmi
ng Stepped Spillway
1.0000 Profile
0.035 0.01316 0.025949 0 56.28 0.0596 Skimmi
ng
0.042 0.01579 0.029302 0 50.23 0.0624 Skimmi 0.8000
ng H* = 40, Q1 = 0.024
0.052 0.01955 0.033786 0 43.65 0.0664 Skimmi 0.6000 Cumec
ng
Elevation, m
0.063 0.02368 0.03840 0 38.13 0.0726 Skimmi 0.4000
ng
0.2000
4. ANALYSIS OF EXPERIMENTAL DATA : 0.0000

Due to convergence of the chute walls, the required training wall -0.50 0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50
height is governed by the flow run- up. Visual observations Station, m

indicated that there were no transverse waves for any of the step
height ratios and the air entrainment occurred for nearly all the Figure 3 (a). Water surface profiles along the side wall of
observations. Experimental data has been collected for plotting spillway for step height ratio, H* = 40, Q1 = 0.024 cumec.
the water surface profiles along the centerline of the spillway
1.4000
and also along the convergent walls. As anticipated, the flow
depths near the wall were more than those at the centerline of the 1.2000
spillway. The flow depths along wall shall form the basis for 1.0000
Stepped Spillway
Profile
deciding the minimum training wall height requirement so that
0.8000
the flow does not overtop the convergent training walls
0.6000 H* = 40, Q2 = 0.035
endangering the safety of the structure. Figure (3) illustrates the Cumec
Elevation, m
observed water surface profiles along the wall for different 0.4000
discharge for a step height ratio H* = 40. As the maximum depth 0.2000
of flow along the wall (hmax) would determine the training wall
0.0000
height, a dimensionless plot showing its variation with -0.50 0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50
dimensionless discharge is presented in Figure (4). The Station, m
regression equations have been obtained and are as follows.
Figure 3 (b). Water surface profiles along the side wall of
spillway for step height ratio, H* = 40, Q2 = 0.035 cumec.
(1)
1.4000
1.2000
Stepped Spillway
1.0000
(2) Profile
0.8000
H* = 40, Q3 = 0.042
0.6000
Cumec
Elevation, m
0.4000 (3)
0.2000
0.0000
-0.50 0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50
Station, m
(4) Figure 3 (c). Water surface profiles along the side wall of
spillway for step height ratio, H* = 40, Q3 = 0.042 cumec.

1.4000
5. CONCLUSIONS :
1.2000
Stepped spillways with convergent training walls will have to be
Stepped Spillway
1.0000
Profile employed when there is limited space available for spillway
0.8000 rehabilitation work. Only a few guidelines are available in the
0.6000 H* = 40, Q4 = 0.052
Cumec
literature for design of convergent stepped spillways, a three
dimensional experimental study has been carried out on 45 o
Elevation, m
0.4000
convergent stepped spillway having 1:1 chute slope and different
0.2000
step heights. The flow over the convergent stepped spillway was
0.0000
-0.50 0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50
observed to be air entrained and more bulked as compared to
Station, m ogee spillway. With increase in dimensionless discharge, the
maximum flow depth at the convergent training wall normalized
Figure 3 (d). Water surface profiles along the side wall of by the step height, was found to decrease. Based on the
spillway for step height ratio, H* = 40, Q4 = 0.052 cumec. experimental observations and its analysis, the regression
equations for maximum depth of flow near the converging walls
1.4000
{ Eq. (1) to (4)} have been proposed. A high value of coefficient
1.2000
of determination for all the regression equations indicated that
Stepped Spillway
1.0000
Profile the correlation was good. In general, the maximum flow depth
0.8000 near the convergent training wall was found to lie between 2.25
0.6000
H* = 40, Q5 = 0.063 to 7.6 times of the critical depth of flow, depending up on the
Cumec
step height ratio. The regression equations presented in this
Elevation, m
0.4000
paper, may be useful for the hydraulic designers engaged in
0.2000
estimation for deciding the appropriate training wall height for
0.0000
-0.50 0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50
convergent stepped spillways. However, more experimental
Station, m
studies with different convergence angles shall be required, to
formulate more generalized expressions for estimation of
Figure 3 (e). Water surface profiles along the side wall of requirement of adequate training wall heights for convergent
spillway for step height ratio, H* = 40, Q5 = 0.063 cumec. stepped spillways.
1.4000 6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS :
1.2000
The research presented in this paper is based on a research
H* = 40, Q1 = 0.024
Cumec project funded by Raisoni Group of Institutions, India, which is
1.0000
H* = 40, Q2 = 0.035
Cumec gratefully acknowledged.
0.8000
H* = 40, Q3 = 0.042
Cumec
7. NOTATION :
0.6000
H* = 40, Q4 = 0.052
Cumec
0.4000
H* = 40, Q5 = 0.063
The following symbols are used in this paper :
Cumec
A = L * Hd = Area of flow at crest of spillway;
Elevation, m
0.2000
0.0000
A1 = B * Y = Area of flow at toe of spillway;
-0.40 -0.20 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40
B = Width of flow channel;
Station, m
C = Discharge coefficient;
Figure 3. Water surface profiles along the side wall of spillway Er = E / Eo = Relative energy dissipation;
for step height ratio H*= 40 with varying discharge i.e. Q1 = Eo = H + 1.5 Yc = Energy at crest of spillway;
0.024 cumec, Q2 = 0.035 cumec, Q3 = 0.042 cumec, Q4 = Et = Y + (V12/ 2.g ) = Energy at toe of spillway;
0.052 cumec, Q5 = 0.063 cumec. g = Acceleration due to gravity;
h = Normal size step height;
hmax = Maximum depth of flow observed along the converging
Dimensionless Maximum Depth of Flow along the Side Wall , hmax / h
7.0000
H* = 10 training wall;
H* = 20
6.0000
H* = 40
h1 = Depth of flow observed along the converging training
5.0000
H* = 80 wall;
4.0000 y = 9.455x-0.48
R = 0.978
H = Datum head measured from toe up to crest of Spillway;
3.0000
y = 20.56x-0.52
R = 0.988
Hd = Head over crest of spillway;
2.0000
y = 12.21x-0.28
R = 0.929
H' = Drop height;
1.0000
y = 48.87x-0.59 H* = H' / h = Step height ratio;
0.0000 R = 0.992
0.00 20.00 40.00 60.00 80.00 100.00 L = Length of crest;
Dimensionless Discharge , Q / (Hd5/2.g1/2) Lr = Lp /Lm = Scale ratio;
n = Number of regular size steps;
Figure 4. Dimensionless maximum depth of flow along the side q = Q / L = Intensity of Discharge;
wall versus dimensionless discharge Q = C * L * (Hd)1.5 = Rate of flow i.e. Discharge over crest
of spillway;

R = Hydraulic radius; construction, the passage of flood and silt gets modified near
V = Q / A = Velocity of flow at crest of spillway; these bridges and creates problems to these hydraulic
V1 = Q / A1= Velocity of flow; structures over a long period, reflecting either afflux or
Y = Depth of flow; drawdown. The objective of the present study is to decide the
Yc = Critical depth of flow; suitable location of the proposed bridge in the close vicinity of
E = Eo - Et = Energy loss due to stepped spillway; existing bridge and a barrage. The studies were conducted on a
= Convergence angle; composite model with a horizontal scale of 1:300 and vertical
= Chute angle; scale of 1:60 constructed at CWPRS, Pune. Series of studies
8. REFERENCES : were conducted to assess the movement of sediment through
i. Sorensen, R. M. (1985). Stepped spillway hydraulic the reach by changing the location of the proposed bridge. The
model investigation. J. of Hydraul Eng., 111(12), 1461 - 1472.
ii. Peyras, L., Royet, P. and Degoutte, G. (1992). Flow and
results and findings of the same are presented in this paper.
energy dissipation over stepped gabion weirs. J. of Hydraul Eng., 118(5), 707- Keywords: bridge pier, velocity, discharge intensity, water level
717. 1. INTRODUCTION
iii. Christodoulou, G. C. (1993). Energy dissipation on Present day New Delhi, national capital of India was original
stepped spillways. J. of Hydraul Eng., 119(5), 644 - 649.
situated on the western bank of River Yamuna. After the
iv. Chanson, H. (1994). Hydraulics of skimming flow over
stepped channels and spillways. J. of Hydraul Res., 32(3), 445 - 460. independence and receiving tremendous impetus, New Delhi has
v. Chanson, H. (1994 a ). Comparison of energy dissipation developed into a populous city extending on either banks of
between nappe and skimming flow regime on stepped chutes. J. of Hydraul River Yamuna. Being national capital region (NCT),
Eng., Res., IAIHR, 32(2), 213 - 218.
Government of India, the state of Delhi and adjoining states have
vi. Chamani, M. R. and Rajaratnam, N. (1999).
Characteristics of skimming flow over stepped spillways. J. of Hydraul Eng., accorded high priority for the infrastructure development to
125(4), 361 - 368. connect the satellite cities around the city of Delhi. This
vii. Barani, G. A., Rahnama M. B. and Sohrabipoor, N. envisage construction of bridge across the River Yamuna in
(2005). Investigation of flow energy dissipation over different stepped
addition to the existing barrages and bridges.
spillways. American Journal of Applied Sciences., ISSN 1546-9239, 2 (6):
1101- 1105. The River Yamuna which drains the southern Himalaya region,
viii. Chanson, H. (2006). Hydraulics of skimming flow on originates in Yamunotri and flows through the gangetic plain
stepped chutes : The effects of inflow conditions. J. of Hydraul., Res., 44(1), beyond Yamuna nagar, enters the state of Delhi at Palla and
51 - 60.
leaves it after traversing a distance of about 50 km near the
ix. Chinnarasri, C. and Wongwises, S. (2006). Flow pattern
and energy dissipation over various stepped chutes. J. of Irrig. Drain. Eng., village of Jaitpur. The sediment being very fine the river is
132 (1), 70 - 76. alluvial in nature. The Yamuna joins the Ganga at Allahabad.
x. Sherry L. Hunt, Kem C. Kadavy, Steven R., and Darrel The huge pressure of development has forced the authorities to
M. Temple (2008). Impact of converging chute walls for roller compacted
construct roads and bridges to connect the areas on either banks
concrete stepped spillways. J. of Hydraul Eng., ASCE, 134 (7), 1000 - 1003.
xi. Sherry L. Hunt, Darrel M. Temple, Steven R., Kem C. of the river Yamuna at Delhi. These bridges are being proposed
Kadavy, and Greg Hanson. (2012). Converging stepped spillways: simplified to be constructed adjacent to existing barrages and bridges. The
momentum analysis approach. J. of Hydraul Eng., ASCE, 138 (9), 796 - 802. water way and alignment automatically gets fixed up due to the
existing structures. However, the afflux gets accumulated and
possibly may lead to additional resistance to the flow. Afflux
may affect adversely the sensitive flooding conditions existing
on the upstream areas of Delhi. In addition the reduction in
velocities over the length of the river due to increase in depth
(Afflux) of flow may accentuate the sediment deposition, which
Studies For Location of Bridges in the Vicinity of over a long period may lead to aggradation of river bed and
Existing Hydraulic Structures increase in the flood levels. These issues need to be assessed
B. Raghuram Singh1 , Dr. R. G. Patil2 , M. N. Singh3 before construction of bridge and avoid any such difficult
1
Research Officer, CWPRS, Pune, India; situation.
Email:banothuraghu@yahoo.com Model studies were conducted at CWPRS on a comprehensive
2
Chief Research Officer, CWPRS, Pune, India; model of River Yamuna at Delhi built to a scale of 1:300
Email:rsrgp@rediffmail.com horizontal and 1:60 vertical for a proposed bridge to be
3
Joint Director, CWPRS, Pune, India; constructed between Okhla barrage and DMRC bridge. The
Email:mns19542003@yahoo.co.in. existing two structures were at a distance of around 85 m and it
was proposed to insert one more road bridge between these two
ABSTRACT: The rapid urbanization and increased traffic structure or adjacent to them based on the model studies.
volume has forced the planners to construct additional bridges
to cross the river passing through cities. These bridges are 2. PHYSICAL MODEL
being constructed at increased interval, adjacent to the existing The existing mobile bed model of river Yamuna constructed to a
bridges, and barrages. The case being discussed here is the horizontal scale (L) of 1:300 and a vertical scale (D) of 1:60
River Yamuna at Delhi. The river in this reach is constricted covering a river reach from Palla to Jaitpur was utilized for
with the construction of series of bridges. Due to this present model studies.

Figure 3. Model prototype conformity ( Q= 7022 m3/s )
Figure 1. Plan of River Yamuna at Delhi 4.0 MODEL STUDIES

Studies were carried out to examine the following aspects of
In order to reproduce proper bed movement and roughness, the design
model bed was made mobile by laying sand having a mean (i) Suitable location of the proposed bridge.
diameter (D50) of 0.34 mm. Figure 2 shows the grain size (ii) Effect of water levels and velocities on the
distribution of sand used. In order to establish flood slope and to proposed bridge.
observe water levels at various locations, gauges were installed (iii) Flow conditions in the vicinity of the bridge.
on the right side upstream and downstream of Wazirabad The model studies were carried out for the following discharges.
barrage, upstream of ISBT road bridge and upstream of (a) 7,022 m3/s (2.48 lakh cusec) (maximum
Indraprastha barrage and on the left side at Kailashnagar discharge observed in 1988 at
downstream of old rail-cum-road bridge, near Okhla weir and at Wazirabad Barrage)
the proposed road bridge site. (b) 9,910 m3/s (3.5 lakh cusec) (design discharge
considered for ISBT bridge and
bridge proposed subsequently on Yamuna)
(c) 12,750 m3/s (4.5 lakh cusec) (check flood for
substructures, foundation and protection works
suggested by Central Water Commission)
Bridge location:
The project authorities were interested in locating the proposed
road bridge between the Okhla barrage and the under
construction DMRC bridge spaced about 85 m apart. This
helped in connecting the road bridge with the approach road on
either banks of the river. However, insertion of bridge between
the two existing structures would entail introduction of
additional resistance to the flow which could pose difficulties in
Figure 2. Grain size distribution curve for the sand used in the general movement of sediment from the Okhla barrage. This
model difficulty in a long run can pose aggradation of bed on upstream
3. PROVING STUDIES: which in turn can increase the flood level. To avoid this, it was
decided to study the effect of the bridge insertion at various
The maximum flood discharge of 7,022 m3/s occurred in possible locations which were decided after discussion with the
Yamuna at Delhi in the year 1988. Discharge equivalent to 7,022 project engineers.Model studies were carried out for the bridge
m3/s was let into the model and by controlling the gauge alignment at the following locations.
upstream of the Indraprastha barrage as per the gauge discharge Alignment - 1: Studies for the proposed road bridge
curve, water levels were observed at various gauge locations. approximately 57.5 m downstream of Okhla
Figure 3, shows the comparison of the water levels observed on barrage (i.e. 27.5 m upstream of proposed DMRC
the model. These are in close agreement with the prototype bridge).
values. In view of this, the model was considered as "proved" Alignment - 2: Studies for the proposed road bridge
approximately 185 m downstream of Okhla
barrage (i.e. 100 m downstream of proposed
DMRC bridge).
Alignment - 3: Studies for the proposed road bridge
barrage (i.e. 35 m upstream of Proposed DMRC
bridge).
Alignment - 4: Studies for the proposed road bridge


barrage (i.e. 35 m downstream of Proposed
DMRC bridge).
4.1 Model studies with existing condition
The preliminary model studies include, assessing and
understanding the flow conditions existing in and around the
structures to be introduced. This study is conducted by passing
the predecided
Alignm
ent-
1&3 Alignm
Figure 6. Flow pattern in the vicinity of pattern in the vicinity of proposed bridge with Q = 12,750 m3/s
ent-2 (Alignment 1)
Figure7. Flow proposed bridge with Q=12,750m3/s (Alignment 2)
Alignm
ent-4
Figure 4. Model set-up with existing conditions Figure 5. Flow pattern in the vicinity of proposed
bridge with Q = 12750 m3/s (Alignment-1)
discharge through the model, but the structure of the proposed Figure 8. Flow pattern in the vicinity of pattern in the vicinity of proposed bridge with q = 12,750 m3/s
( Alignment 3)
bridge is not inserted. However, to help recognize the structure, Figure 9. Flow proposed bridge with q = 12,750 m3/s (Alignment 4)
position and alignments are marked in such a way that it does
not affect the flow conditions. In this case all four alignments are Table 1. Maximum water levels and velocities observed during
marked on the model as shown in Fig 4. And the experiments model studies
were conducted for above referred three discharges. The flow Na Case 1. 27.5 m upstream of proposed DMRC bridge (Alignment -1)
conditions were observed. The water surface elevation, and me Q= 7022 m3 /s Q= 9910 m3 /s Q= 12750 m3 /s
of Without With Without With Without With
velocities at critical points were measured. These data would be the Bridge Bridge Bridge Bridge Bridge Bridg
used to compute the discharge intensities and afflux later. The Str e
uct
measured values are presented in Table. 1. Fig. 5 depicts flow ure
WL V WL V W V W V WL V W V
(m) ( (m) (m) L (m) L (m) (m) ( L
pattern along the proposed bridge under existing condition with m (m) (m) m ( (
river discharge of 12,750 m3/s (Alignment 1). ) ) m m
) )
4.2 Model studies with proposed road bridge Ok 203 2. 203 2.0 20 2.9 20 2.9 204 3. 2 3
The road bridge was proposed to cross the river Yamuna hla .19 0 .3 2 4.3 0 4.4 5 .58 4 0 .
downstream of Okhla barrage, however its exact location was Bar 0 8 6 4. 5
rag 9 4
not decided. It was thought to be located between the Okhla e 2
barrage and the under construction DMRC railway bridge. The Pro 203 3. 203 3.0 20 3.8 20 3.8 204 4. 2 4
pos .14 0 .6 3 4.1 0 4.3 5 .41 5 0 .
space available between these two structures was only 85 m. In ed 5 4 4. 5
view of this, four alignments (Alignment-1, 2 , 3 and 4 as Roa 7 6
discussed above) were studied on the model separately to decide d 6
Bri
the location of bridge and its effect on the overall functioning of dge
barrage and movement of sediment downstream through various Case 2. 100 m downstream of proposed DMRC bridge (Alignment -2)
Ok 203 3. 203 3.1 20 3.8 20 3.8 204 4. 2 4
structures. hla .18 0 .23 0 4.2 2 4.4 5 .57 5 0 .
Bar 5 8 4 5 4. 6
The road bridge along the alignments 1 to 4 were separately rag 8
e 0
inserted on the model and the studies were conducted. The Pro 203 3. 203 3.0 20 3.8 20 3.8 204 4. 2 4
measurements such as water levels and velocities at critical pos .12 0 .18 1 4.1 4.3 2 .41 5 0 .
ed 5 3 0 4. 5
points were taken. General flow conditions and its effect on the DM 6 3
river behavior was also assessed. The data in respect of velocity RC 6
Bri
and water surface elevation is presented in Table 1. Fig 6, 7, 8 dge
and 9 show the variations of flow pattern for four alignments Pro 202 2. 203 2.9 20 3.6 20 3.6 204 4. 2 4
from alignment-1 to 4 respectively. pos .98 9 .06 4 4.0 4.2 5 .25 0 0 .
ed 1 5 5 4. 1
Roa 5 0
d 2
Bri

dge 6. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

Case 3. 35 m upstream of proposed DMRC bridge (Alignment -3)
Ok 203 2. 203 2.0 20 2.9 20 2.9 204 3. 2 3
hla .19 0 .28 3 4.2 1 4.4 7 .59 4 0 . Okhla barrage, under construction metro rail bridge and
Bar 2 9 5 5 4. 5
rag 9 5
proposed road bridge are closely located in river reach of about
e 0 85 m. These structures with a waterway of 552 m of barrage and
Pro 203 3. 203 3.1 20 3.8 20 3.8 204 4. 2 4 574 m for bridges hold the river to a fixed course at their
pos .14 0 .25 0 4.1 2 4.3 5 .41 5 0 .
ed 5 5 3 1 4. 5 locations and therefore there is no possibility of any meandering.
Roa 7 5 The river is about a kilometer wide in this reach and has already
d 4
Bri
been constricted to about 552 m due to the construction of
dge barrage and its guide bunds.
Case 4. 35 m downstream of proposed DMRC bridge (Alignment -4) For the alignment 1, the maximum water levels observed at the
Ok 203 3. 203 3.1 20 3.8 20 3.8 204 4. 2 4
hla .18 0 .24 2 4.2 1 4.4 5 .57 5 0 . proposed road bridge and Okhla barrage under existing
Bar 2 8 3 2 4. 5 conditions was 204.41 m and 204.58 m respectively with a
rag
e
8
1
8
discharge of 12750 m3/s. With the proposed road bridge in
Pro 203 3. 203 3.1 20 3.8 20 3.8 204 4. 2 4 position, the maximum water levels observed at the bridge axis
pos .12 0 .19 5 4.1 2 4.3 7 .43 5 0 . and Okhla barrage was 204.76 m and 204.92 m with a discharge
ed 5 4 1 1 4. 5
DM 6 5 of 12750 m3/s. This indicates to an afflux of about 35 cm near
RC 9 the proposed bridge axis and 34 cm at Okhla barrage.
Bri
dge The water levels observed at the proposed road bridge
Pro 203 3. 203 3.1 20 3.6 20 3.7 204 4. 2 4 (Alignment-2) and Okhla barrage without and with the bridge
pos .03 0 .11 0 4.0 2 4.2 1 .27 0 0 . were 204.25 m and 204.52 m and 204.57 m and 204.80 m
ed 2 8 6 2 4. 1
Roa 5 5 respectively with the discharge of 12750 m3/s. This indicates to
d 5 an afflux of 27 cm near the proposed road bridge and 23 cm near
Bri
dge the Okhla barrage.
5. QUALITATIVE STUDIES For alignment -3, the maximum water levels observed at the
Model studies were conducted with four alternate alignments proposed road bridge and Okhla barrage under existing
with and without the proposed road bridge. During model conditions was 204.41 m and 204.74 m respectively with a
studies of alignment -1 and alignment -3, it was observed that discharge of 12750 m3/s. With the proposed road bridge in
the sediment was depositing at the upstream of Okhla barrage position, the maximum water levels observed at the bridge axis
and in between the Okhla barrage and under construction DMRC and Okhla barrage was 204.59 m and 204.90 m with a discharge
bridge. In view of this, to assess the effect of sediment of 12750 m3/s. This indicates to an afflux of about 33 cm near
movement through the Okhla barrage and downstream bridge the proposed bridge axis and 31 cm at Okhla barrage.
qualitative studies were conducted by feeding particular quantity The water levels observed at the proposed road bridge
of sediment in to the flow about a kilometer upstream of the (Alignment - 4) and at the Okhla barrage without and with the
barrage. The movement of sediment with proposed road bridge bridge of waterway 574 m were 204.27 m and 204.55 m and
at about 35 m upstream (Alignment -3) and 35 m downstream 204.57 m and 204.81 respectively with the discharge of 12750
(Alignment 4) of proposed DMRC bridge was studied by the m3/s. This indicates to an afflux of 28 cm near the proposed road
silt injection. In case of studies with alignment-3, it was bridge and 24 cm at Okhla barrage.
observed that relatively large quantity of sediment was The studies conducted with alignment 3 & 4, by feeding
depositing on the upstream and through the spillway bays as equivalent sediment on the upstream of Okhla barrage, indicated
shown in Fig.10 compared with the aggradation seen in respect that comparatively higher deposition of sediment on upstream of
of alignment -4 as shown in Fig. 11. Okhla barrage and through the road bridge DMRC bridge in
case of alignment-3 when compared with alignment-4.
The afflux measured at the Okhla barrage due to the bridge
alignment-3 was 31 cm and due to bridge alignment 4, it was 24
cm. In view of this the alignment-4 is performing better than the
alignment-3.
7. CONCLUSIONS
From the studies carried out with river discharges of 7022 m3/s,
9910 m3/s and 12750 m3/s following important conclusions were
made :
The site for the proposed road bridge 35 m downstream of
proposed DMRC bridge (Alignment 4) was satisfactory as
Figure 10. A view of proposed road bridge 35 Figure 11. A view of proposed road bridge 35
u/s of DMRC bridge (alignment - 3) d/s of DMRC bridge (alignment -4) revealed by model experiments from the hydraulic point of view
and silt flow conditions.

The waterway of 574 m (14 spans of 41 m centre to centre each) conducted on triangular weir indicate that the discharge
for the proposed bridge 35 m downstream (Alignment -4) of coefficient related to head or head to weir height ratio
DMRC bridge didnt cause any undesirable flow conditions at covering a limited range of head and vertex angles. Further,
the proposed bridge axis and at the Okhla barrage. no generalized equation proposed to compute either
The movement of sediment with proposed road bridge at about discharge coefficient or discharge for any head and vertex
35 m upstream (Alignment -3) and 35 m downstream angle. In this study, a total of 65 experimental runs were
(Alignment -4) of proposed DMRC bridge was studied by the taken for five weir vertex angles (from 30 to 90) at apex
silt injection. It was seen that there was qualitatively large elevation of 20cm. Using the general formula for triangular
quantity of sediment deposition on upstream of barrage, through weir dimensionless discharge and dimensionless head has
the spillway bays and at proposed road bridge in the model for been defined that helps in merging all the data points of five
Alignment -3 rather than for the Alignment-4. This will cause angles to one single curve. A generalized equation between
aggradations of river bed near proposed road bridge. In view of dimensionless discharge and dimensionless head has been
this, the proposed road bridge in between the barrage and under obtained. The maximum error obtained in the discharge
construction DMRC bridge was not recommended. computed from this equation is 5%. This equation also
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT validates the data of previous study (Wahaj, 1999).
Keywords:Weir vertex angle, Discharge coefficient,
We wish to express our deep sense of gratitude to Shri. S. Dimensionless discharge, Dimensionless head, generalized
Govindan, Director, CWPRS for constant encouragement and equation.
valuable suggestions during the course of this studies and kind
permission given for publishing this paper. 1. INTRODUCTION
A weir is built across a river (or stream) in order to raise the
REFERENCES level of water on the upstream side and to allow the excess
water to flow over its entire length to the downstream side. Thus
i. CWPRS Technical Report No.5092 of July 2013, Hydraulic a weir is similar to a small dam constructed across a river, with
model studies for the proposed road bridge downstream of Okhla the difference that a dam allows excess water to flow to the
barrage across river Yamuna at New Delhi. downstream side, only through a small portion called spillway,
ii. Engelund.F.(1996).Hydraulic Resistance of Alluvial streams,
Journal Hydraulic Division, ASCE, March . PP 315-327.
whereas a weir makes the excess water to flow over its entire
iii. K.G.Ranga Raju, R.J.Garde and H.S.Yadav (1996) Modelling length. Weirs have been mostly used for flow measurement in
Bed level variations in Alluvial Streams, ISH, Vol. 2, PP 28-43. open channels. Since 1500 A.D. weirs have been a subject of
iv. S. B Kulkarni and V. M. Wakalkar (1998) Hydraulic Model interest for the mankind. In 1885, the investigations of Francis
Studies for Improvement of flow conditions at Samal Barrage, ISH, led to the application of weirs for accurate discharge
Vol.4, PP 24-33. measurements. Investigations of Thomson (1858) and Bazin
v. SMITH D.W., (1977). Why do Bridges fail?, Civil (1888-1898) promoted the use of weirs.
Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers. The triangular weir is used widely for measuring the flow of
liquids in flumes and open channels. It is inexpensive, easy to
use and maintain.Several assumptions are made to obtain a
definite relationship between the actual discharge through the
weir and the head obtained on the weir. These structures have
been very often used in laboratories and in fields to know the
nature of flow, nappe profiles and to determine the coefficient of
discharge (Cd). The discharge coefficient takes into account the
effects which are ignored in the derivation of the discharge
equation for a triangular weir such as capillary action of water,
viscosity, surface tension, approach velocity and influence of
Study of Sharp-Crested Triangular Weir weir contraction on the nappe profiles. Thomson (1858)
M. Shaheer Ali1Talib Mansoor2 recommended Cd = 0.593 and 0.617 for the 90 o and 127o notch
1
P. G. Student, Department of Civil Engineering, A.M.U. angles respectively. Barr (1910) concluded that the coefficient
Aligarh was increased by roughness and projections on the upstream face
2
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, A.M.U. of the weir. Barralso concluded that the coefficient was
Aligarh independent of channel width if the width was at least eight
E-mail: md.shaheer.ali@gmail.com times the head. For channel widths less than 8h, the coefficient
increased asthe width decreased. Strickland (1910) quoted
ABSTRACT : Triangular weir is a simple form of weir best formula for 90-notch weirs on the basis of Barr's experiments as
suited for low discharge and is free from aeration difficulties. .
It is mostly used in various branches of engineering like
hydraulics, environmental, chemical and irrigation for the Cone (1916) gave the followi ng for mula:
purpose of discharge measurement. Earlier studies ,

Where, S = side slope of the notch, expressed decimally, and

. WhereQ is the discharge (m3/s); is the notch angle; h is the
head above the crest (m); Cdis the discharge coefficient
Greve (1932) gave the following formula:
(dimensionless).
2. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:
The experiments were conducted in a horizontal, rectangular (75
Lenz (1943) gave the formula: cm wide and 53 cm deep), prismatic glass walled channel having
cement plastered bottom (Photo 1). Weirs were made of G.I.
sheets. Weirs were installed at a distance of 8.5 m from the
upstream end of the channel. Water was supplied through an
inflow pipe from laboratory overhead tank provided with an
overflow arrangement to maintain the constant head. A sharp-
WhereN, are functions of notch angle. Kindsvater-Shen
(1980) developed a formula for the discharge over a triangular crested triangular weir was installed at a desired angle, and
weir with angles notch angles between 20o and 100o, given apex height p. Discharge was controlled by means of a control
valve. The flow was allowed in the set-up to fill the upstream
by , channel up to the apex level of the triangular weir. The apex
level was recorded with a point gauge of accuracy 0.1 mm. The
WhereCe: coefficient of discharge, he: effective head (= h +kh), discharge was allowed to flow in the channel and become steady
and then the head difference in the two limbs of differential
Ceis a function of three variables, i.e. Ce = f (h/p, p/B, ) where, manometer attached to the bend meter mounted on the supply
kh is an experimentally determined quantity in metre which pipe was measured. The discharge flowing in the channel was
accounts for the combined effects of viscosity and surface computed using an accurate Calibration curve prepared for bend
tension .Capetillo et. al (2013) developed a discharge meter. Under the same steady state flow conditions point gauge
coefficient equation for sharp crested triangular weirs on the reading at the free surface was recorded near the center of the
basis of free vortex theory as described by Bagheri and channel at 1 m upstream of the weir to avoid the curvature effect
Heidarpour (2010); and measurement of the upper and lower of water surface (Photo 2). Five such readings were taken and
nappe profiles using an adaptation of the low-speed averaged to obtain a precise value of gauge reading. Head over
photographic technique proposed by Salvador et al. (2009). The the apex was obtained by subtracting the apex level from
equation is given by: averaged free surface reading. The discharge was changed by
means of the control valve and a number of runs were taken to
cover a wide range of h/p.
Where Vb: lower nappe velocity at the maximum elevation The entire procedure was repeated for other weirs having
section of the lower nappe (m/s); Rb: radius of the streamline different apex angles. Table - 1 gives an account of the
curvature at the lower nappe of the profile (m); k: non- different parameters of the triangular weir taken into
concentricity coefficient; Y: the flow depth at the maximum consideration in this study. A total of 65 experimental runs
elevation section of the lower nappe (m). were taken.
From the literature surveyed above, it is clear that the
coefficient of discharge is given for individual angles and most
of the investigators related Cd with h and some of them related it
with the wetted perimeter, Reynolds number, and Weber
number. No generalized equation exists to compute discharge
for all angles of the triangular notch. In the present study, an
attempt has been made to compute discharge covering a wide
range of notch angles and heads.
The objective of the present study is to develop a generalized
equation for the discharge through a triangular weir and to
establish a relationship between the discharge coefficient, notch
angle, h/p and p/B using an experimental data and regression
analysis.
1.1 Governing equation:

Fig. 1: Experimental Setup
The discharge through a triangular weir is given by:
(1)

Fig. 2: Q v/s h
Following best fit equations for Q hhave been obtained:
= 30, R2 = 0.9999 (2)

Photo 1: Upstreamview of the channel 2
= 45, R = 0.9999 (3)
2
= 60, R = 0.9987 (4)
2
= 75, R = 0.9818 (5)
= 90, R2 = 0.9968 (6)
These graphs show that there is an increasing trend for the
discharge Q with increase in head above the crest.Further the
discharge curve for 90o weir lies at the top while for 30o weir lies
at the bottom. It is obvious from this figure that for a particular
head discharge over 30o weir will be the least whereas discharge
through 90o weir will be the highest. In other words, for a
particular discharge, the head above the apex will be less in 90 o
weir and more in 30o weir.
Eqs (2) (6) can be written as
Q= Ahn
Photo 2: Point Gauge
A generalized equation in the above form could not be obtained
due a large scatter in the values of coefficients A and n and
Table -1: Range of parameters for the triangular weir
hence a large % error in the computed discharge.
Notch p h Qo Fr No.
angle (cm) (m) (m3/s) of 3.2 Variation of Cd v/s h/p:
( , 0) runs
30 20 0.177- 0.0051- 0.0028- 8 Using Eq (1) Cd was computed and plotted against h/p as shown
0.2605 0.013 0.0053 in Fig. 3
45 20 0.1718- 0.0076- 0.0045- 9
0.2466 0.0184 0.0093
60 20 0.148- 0.007- 0.0139- `11
0.2355 0.022 0.0304
75 20 0.1305- 0.0075- 0.0151- 21
0.2469 0.033 0.0452
90 20 0.108- 0.0065- 0.0204- 16
0.2233 0.0356 0.0531
3. ANALYSIS AND RESULTS:

3.1 Variation of discharge with head:
The variation of discharge with head for five triangular weirs

tested in the present study is shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 3: Cd v/s h/p

The above graphs show that the value of Cd decreases as the

angle is changed from 30o to 45o. If the value of notch angle is
further increased from 60o to 90o, the values of Cd starts
increasing. This variation is noticeable in the lower range of h/p
(i.e., 0.5 to 1). In the higher range of h/p, the variation in Cd is
insignificant.
The variation of Cd with h/p shows a decreasing trend for angles
30, 45and 60 and an increasing trend for angles 75 o and 90o.
However, the RMSE values for the best fit curves are small
enough. So a generalized equation of the form
could not be obtained as the trend of A and B shows a large
scatter and the percentage error in the discharge computed with
this equation is high.
3.3 Generalized equation Fig. 4: Qn v/s Hn
Therefore an attempt has been made to make the discharge and The resulting discharge equation is . The
head dimensionless in order to obtain a generalized equation for agreement diagram in Fig. 8 shows that the computed
the discharge over a triangular weir. discharge lies within an error band of 5 %
Rewriting Eq. (1) as:
Dividing both sides by p5/2,
Thus, both sides are changed to dimensionless quantities and can

be expressed as:
Fig. 5: Qov/s Qc
Where,
SYMBOLS USED:
A = flow area
Cd = discharge coefficient
Hn = h/p Ce = effective discharge coefficient
The data obtained from the experimental work is converted in Fr = Froude number
the form of above mentioned dimensionless discharge Qn and g = gravitational acceleration
dimensionless head Hn and graph plotted between Qn and Hn as Q = discharge over weir
shown in fig. 7: p = weir height
h = head above crest
B = channel width
= included angle at the apex of the triangle
Qno = observed non-dimensional discharge
Qnc= computed non-dimensional discharge
REFERENCES
i. Bengtson H.H. (), Sharp Crested Weirs for Open Channel Flow
Measurement.
ii. Bos (1989), Discharge measurement structures.
iii. Capetillo Et.al (), Discharge coefficient analysis for triangular sharp-
crested weirs using low-speed photographic technique.
iv. Chow V.T. (), Open channel flow.

v. Hager W. H. (), Discharge measurement structures by polynomials of order n. He has described three different sharp
vi. Horton R.E. (1907), Weir experiments, coefficients, and formulas
crested weirs following the fourth order polynomial geometry,
(Revision of paper no. 150, Department of the Interior United States
Geological Survey). but each having their own head discharge equation so that for the
vii. Jain A.K.(), Fluid mechanics. same head each weir gives different discharges.
viii. Jiwani R., Steffen P. E. (), Methods of Flow Measurement for Water Curve sectioned sharp crested weirs such as circular or elliptical
and Wastewater.
shaped weirs have an advantage that they do not have a
ix. King h.w.(1996), Handbook of hydraulics.
x. Larsen D.C. (1992), Water measurement. horizontal edge to be leveled. More over the circular shape can
xi. MasoudGhodsian (),Stage discharge relationships for triangular easily be cut and fabricated on electrically operated lathe
weir.Rao N.S. (), Theory of weirs. machines. The ellipse is a curve drawn around two axes of
xii. Smith E.S., Providence, R. I. (),The v-notch weir for hot water.
unequal length. A circle is a special case of an ellipse where the
two axes become equal in length. In fact if the eccentricity of the
ellipse tends to become equal to zero the shape tends to resemble
a circle whereas as the eccentricity of the ellipse tends to value
one it assumes the shape of a straight line. The analytical
solution of the discharge equation involves solution of similar
kind of elliptical integrals for elliptical as well as circular weirs.
Study of Elliptically Shaped Sharp Crested Weirs For an ellipse behaving as a sharp crested weir for its major axis
N.P. Singh1 R. Singh2 placed horizontal, Sommerfeld et al. (1996) have proposed the
1
Ujjain Engineering College, Ujjain, Sanwer road Ujjain (MP), following equation for theoretical discharge:
Pin 456010, India
g ab3 / 2 21 k 2 k 4 E k 2 k 2 1 k 2 K k
2
Govt. Engineering College, Ahmadabad, Gujarat, Pin 380001, 32
Qt (1)
India 15
Email: raghvendr@gmail.com h
where k and is called the modulus of the integral,
2b
ABSTRACT : This is a study about behavior of elliptically
shaped sharp crested weirs placed across open channels and K k and E k are the elliptical integral of the first and
used as flow measuring devises. Effects of surface tension and second kind respectively.
viscosity on coefficient of discharge are studied for values of The intention of this work is to study the characteristics for
Channel Reynolds Number less than 2000. Value of coefficient elliptical shaped sharp crested weirs.
of discharge is established for Channel Reynolds Number
greater than 2000. Suitability of elliptically shaped sharp 2. THEORITICAL BACK GROUND AND FLOW
crested weirs as flow measuring devices are analyzed. The COMPUTATIONS
study has generated experimental data for a new shape and a The theoretical discharges are computed as per the analysis
less studied flow regime. given below:
Keywords: Sharp crested weir, coefficient of discharge, head The equation 2 for an ellipse having semi major and minor axis
discharge characteristics a and b respectively is given by:
x2 y 2
1. INTRODUCTION 1 (2)
Sharp crested weirs are commonly used devices for flow a 2 b2
measurement in open channels. Their advantage lies in the fact Where a and b are the major and the minor axes respectively
that they are cheaper as compared to electronic flow devices. In of the ellipse.
fact they become part of the same hydraulic structure in which The discharge equation for a shape sharp crested weir is
they are installed. The accuracy of discharge measurement obtained by summing up the discharge through a small strip at a
depends upon several factors such as the accuracy of fabrication distance x from the vertex and of thickness dx, the width of
of the device, accuracy of measurement of the head, the the strip is obtained by the use of the equation 2. The area of the
sensitivity of the device and also how well the control section is strip is thus obtained by multiplying the chord length by the
maintained. thickness dx of the strip. The velocity at the elemental area is
The triangular and the rectangular weirs are commonly used obtained by the use of the Torricellis formula in equation 3:
flow measuring devices. They are easy to fabricate. However,
use of curvilinear weirs becomes incidental in many cases. v 2 g h x (3)
Parabolic weir has the distinction that in this weir the discharge
varies with the second power of head (Igathinanathane et al.
The discharge through the elemental strip is given by the product
2007). This makes the calculation work easier and this also
of the area and the velocity at the elemental strip. The discharge
becomes the unique feature of the parabolic shaped weir. On the
other hand the discharge in case of a triangular and rectangular for a head h is obtained by summing up the discharges dq
weir varies as the 2.5th and 1.5th power of the head respectively. through all such elemental strips in the range 0 to h which is
Baddour (2008) has described a method to determine the head given by:
discharge equation of sharp crested weirs with openings defined

Qth 2 g h x dA , where dA is the area of the small there was no leakage through the weir section. White cement and
m-seal were used for sealing the joints. It was thus ensured that
elemental strip. The definition sketch is shown as per Figure1. the flow occurred only through the weir opening. To overcome
The discharge for an ellipse with its major axis vertical yields accidental errors and each discharge was measured twice so as to
the following equation for the theoretical discharge: make sure that there could be only one discharge corresponding

h h
2b to any particular value of head. To overcome systematic errors
Qth dq 2 g 2ax x 2 h x dx (4)
0 a 0 head values were measured once while discharges were
increasing and once when the discharges were made to decrease.
Water surface profile was determined by taking readings of the
free surface of water in the open channel upstream of the weir
section and it was observed that the flow in the channel was a
uniform flow. The minimum distance of the vertex from the
channel bottom was kept equal to 0.1 m or 10 cm.
4. THEORITICAL ANALYSIS
The Guassian Quadrature technique is used for solving the

discharge equation of the ellipse as represented by equation 3
iteration accuracy till 5 places of decimal was achieved. A
Figure 1. Elliptical section of wier program was prepared in the Fortran environment to implement
In the present study the above definite integral is solved by using the scheme of the Gaussian Quadrature technique. Heads of
the Gaussian Quadrature technique so that estimates are made flows are used as input to get the theoretical discharges. The
till five places of decimals. The solution of the above integral is programme gives the coefficient of discharge as the output. The
also checked by finding the elliptical integrals of the first and the first set of the experiments are performed for low discharges so
second kind as per equation 1. The experimental discharges are that the resulting flows are in the laminar transient zone for the
calculated by taking actual observations in the experimental open channel so that the Reynolds Number was less than 2000.
channel. The coefficient of discharge can thus be calculated. The h / P ratio is varied from in between 0.25 to 0.54. To study
the variation of coefficient of discharge with head, Cd is plotted
3. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND METHODOLGY against a dimensionless parameter h / P where P is the distance
of the weir vertex from the channel bottom.
Experiments were performed in a masonry channel 5 m long,
0.97m wide and 0.4 m deep. Flow was made to circulate into the 5. RESULTS
channel by means of a 10 horse power pump. Flow from the The merit of a sharp crested weir is its simplicity of procedures
pump entered into the channel through a stilling basin and a for the discharge measurement. Once the head is measured the
baffle wall so that the water that entered the approach channel discharge can be read out from the calibration curves. While
became quiescent and without any wave formation in the measuring the head over the vertex of the sharp crested weir care
vicinity of the head measurement. At the other end of the is to be taken that the head has stabilized and it is not rising or
channel at the test section a metal frame was installed falling when the reading is being taken. According to Falve
perpendicular to longitudinal axis of the channel in which the (2003), with the change of discharges in the channel it may take
elliptical shaped sharp crested weirs of different sizes could be many minutes for the head to stabilize in the channel. To
mounted by nut bolting. It was insured that the weirs were truly overcome this difficulty they suggested to take the head
in plumb and perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the flume. measurement with increasing as well decreasing discharges so as
A vernier point gauge was mounted on the channel which could to eliminate the systematic errors. Therefore keeping this in
take readings up to one tenth of an mm. The point gauge was mind the head measurements for the present study are done for
placed along the centre line of the channel and at a distance of once while the discharges are being increased and once while the
five times the maximum head measured on the upstream of the discharges are being decreased. However, a stabilizing time of
weir section. Downstream of the weir section led to a two minutes was also permitted while taking reading in either
rectangular measuring tank 0.97 m long 0.47 m wide and 0.7 direction. The semi elliptical sections chosen are installed to
meter deep. The discharge from the measuring tank drained into work as sharp crested weirs with semi major axis in each case
an underground sump which was also the source of water to be 0.25 meter and vertical minor axis of each section as 0.26 m,
supplied into the channel. The discharge measurements were 0.30 meter and 0.34 meter with corresponding internal angles as
done by finding the rise in water level in the measuring tank in 54.94o, 61.927o and 68.431o and corresponding eccentricities
given time. A stop watch that could measure time up to 1/100th 0.854, 0.800 and 0.733 respectively. The lower value of the
of a second was used for measuring time. Streamlined entry and eccentricity is an indicator of flatness of slope of the elliptical
exit were ensured into the channel. It was ensured that the head curve. As such the eccentricity of the ellipse tends to zero for the
measurements were not affected by any kind of local turbulences flattest ellipse when the ellipse tends to assume the shape of the
in the vicinity of the control section. It was also made sure that circle.

Head discharge variations are plotted as shown in Figures 2 for

Channel Reynolds number from 635 to 1837 which is the
laminar transition zone. The computed head discharge curve lies
above the experimental curve as expected. However in the given
range of flow and Reynolds number it is further observed that
the two curves have not remained parallel. With increasing
Reynolds number the gap between the two curves of computed
and experimental discharges goes on widening which means that
the ratio of experimental discharge to the theoretical discharge
and therefore the coefficient of discharge goes on reducing for
the given range of Reynolds Number .
Figure 4. Variation of Cd with surface tension
Figure 2. Variation of Cd with Reynolds Number

It is observed on comparing the experimental discharges for the
three different weir sections that for lower eccentricity of ellipse
that is for the highest value of minor axis of 0.34 m the
discharges for the same and similar heads are higher.
Figure 5. Variation of Cd with head
6. CONCLUSIONS
The properties of the elliptical section as a weir are studied.
Discharge sensitivity of elliptically shaped weir section is found
to be more than the rectangular section. In fact its sensitivity lies
between that of a rectangular and parabolic weir section.
Figure 3. Variation of Cd with viscosity The carrying capacity of a semi elliptical section is inscribed in a
It is concluded that for the same head and similar hydraulic rectangle is found to be 18.28% more than that of a parabolic
conditions a wider section is capable of handling higher weir inscribed in the same rectangle and under same hydraulic
discharge. This is due to the fact that for same head the flow conditions. The carrying capacity of elliptical section is 57.7%
velocity remains same, but the area of cross section is more for a more than that of an inscribed triangle the carrying capacity of
wider section resulting into higher flows. Due to this reason the the section is however less and is only 78.8% of the
ellipse subtending an angle of 90 degree at the vertex gives the circumscribing rectangle.
highest discharge as compared to elliptical sections having the The dependence of Cd on surface tension parameter and
same major axis and lesser value of the minor axis. After viscosity parameters is studied. Their effect on Cd is more
experimental results, the relationship between Cd and viscosity pronounced for low depths and discharges. From the present
and surface tension is presented in Figure 3 and Figure 4 study it is concluded and reinforced that that coefficient of
respectively. Variation of Cd with head is also presented in discharge becomes independent of surface tension parameter at a
Figure 5. much lower depth while viscosity parameter still continues to
control Cd for higher depths.

generates the excess turbulence in form of helical flow

The values of coefficient of discharges are recorded for Re less structure in the flow due to pressure difference between
h approaching flow side and downstream side of vane.
than 2000. It is concluded that the Cd value decreases with Experiments were performed in a recirculating concrete flume
P of width 1.0 m, 0.3 m depth and of 19 m length to observe flow
ratio. The rate of decrease is faster in the laminar zone for and pattern around submerged vane rows. It was observed that in
h the presence of submerged vanes all the turbulence quantities
lesser values of .The Cd values tended to approach a value
P were observed to increase. It was also observed that optimum
h amount of flow was diverted with one vane row rather than
0.62 for the corresponding Reynolds number of 1837 and utilizing multiple vane rows.
P
ratio 0.54. INTRODUCTION
The Cd values are also recorded for higher Reynolds numbers Submerged vane is basically an aerofoil structure, which
generates the excess turbulence in form of helical flow structure
with Re varying between 2064 and 9369 in the turbulent regime in the flow due to pressure difference between approaching flow
of open channel flow. For the three sections with = 30, 45 and side and downstream side of vane (Odgaard and Spoljaric, 1986;
60o the average value of coefficient of discharge is found to be Odgaard and Mosconi, 1987; Odgaard and Wang, 1991; Wang
0.45. The average value coefficient of discharge value for = and Odgaard, 1993). These vanes are in general placed at certain
90o which is actually a circular shape is found to be 0.53. angle with respect to the flow directions which is usually in
It is concluded that the general value of Cd = 0.6 cannot be used between, 10o 40o (Fig. 1.). Submerged vane differs from the
under all circumstances for all shapes ,but will depend upon the traditional methods like groins, dikes, etc., which are usually
weir geometry, the weir dimensions in comparison to channel placed normally to the flow and produce flow distribution by
dimension and the upstream flow conditions. drag force and are not so much efficient in controlling the
Apart from being of academic importance the knowledge of sediment transport. Submerged vanes utilize vorticity to
elliptically shaped weir will become handy when its use minimize the drag and produce flow redistribution in the flow
becomes incidental. such that longitudinal flow is compelled to get diverted towards
the transverse direction (Wang and Odgaard, 1993). Many
REFERENCES: investigators like Odgaard and Wang (1991a), Wang and
Odgaard (1993), Marelius and Sinha (1998), Tan et al. (2005),
i. Baddour RE (2008). Head discharge equation for sharp Ouyang et al. (2008) have studied analytically and
crested polynomial weir. Journal of Irrigation and Drainage experimentally the flow structure of the submerged vane. This
Engineering, 134(2), 260-262 paper presents the study of flow pattern around rows of
ii. Falvey TH (2003). Hydraulic Design of Labyrinth Weir, submerged vanes.
ASCE Publications. A BRIEF REVIEW OF LITERATURE OF FLOW
iii. Igathinanathane C, Srikant K, Prakash B, Ramesh AR (2007). AROUND SUBMERGED VANES
Development of parabolic weirs for simplified discharge measurements. Odgaard and Kennedy (1983) calculated by using Kutta-
Journal of Biosystem Engineering, 96(2), 111-119 Joukowski theorem and verified by physical modeling the
iv. Sommerfeld JT, Michael P (1996). Journal of Environment
utilization of submerged vane as bend protector. Odgaard and
Science Health, 31(4), 905-912
Wang (1991a) studied the flow pattern around the submerged
vane by including various factors which can possibly affect the
flow pattern and developed a formula to calculate lift and drag
coefficient. Wang and Odgaard (1993) critically analyzed the
theory of tip vortex and utilized method of images for two vanes
and for multiple vane arrays they proposed a differential
equation. Marelius and Sinha (1998) observed the flow pattern
Turbulence Characteristics of Flow Past around the vane for > 30o and also obtained the optimum angle
Submerged Vanes of attack. Tan et al. (2005) studied the flow pattern around the
vane and optimized the vane parameter so that vane can act as
Sharma, H., Research scholar, Department of Civil sediment manager. Ouyang et al. (2008) obtained an interaction
Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, model of vane by putting up the fact that vane interaction field
Uttarakhand, India-247667. E-mail: smile4anshu@gmail.com associated with multiple vane array is different for different vane
Ahmad, Z., Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian in the system in contradiction to the theory put forward by Wang
Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India- and Odgaard (1991a). Han et al. (2011) experimentally studied
247667. E-mail: zulfifce@gmail.com. the effect of submerged vanes on the flow characteristics of 90 o
channel bend.
ABSTRACT : Submerged vane is basically an aerofoil
structure placed at certain angle with respect to the flow
directions which is usually in between, 10o 40o, which

8H and 20H from the last vane row. Velocity was measured
initially for four vane rows and after measuring the flow pattern
around submerged vane, a vane row was removed and process
was repeated and finally the final flow pattern was measured for
plane shear flow condition.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

From the Fig. 4, it can be seen that in the presence of vanes, flow
near to the vane is highly unstable and chaotic. The turbulence is
Fig. 1. Submerged vane induced transverse irculations clearly having heterogeneity as going up in vertical direction
from bed towards the flow surface turbulence quantities decrease
EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF FLOW PATTERN usually but in the presence of submerged vanes all the
AROUND SUBMERGED VANE turbulence quantities varied having a peak. This peak signifies
Experiments were performed in Hydraulic Engineering the area of separation and high shear stress. It was also seen that
Laboratory of Civil Engineering Department, Indian Institute of this peak occur at z/h 0.4.
Technology, Roorkee. Experiments were performed in a
recirculating concrete flume of width 1.0 m, 0.3 m depth and of
19 m length (Fig.2.) The bed slope of flume was measured to be
6.32 10-4. The water was supplied to the flume through an
overhead tank in which the level of water was kept constant to
have constant discharge for a particular opening of the valve
fitted in delivery pipe of the tank. After the experimentation the
used water was taken to sump from where by the centrifugal
pump water again sent back to the overhead tank. Flow
strengtheners and wooden wave suppressors were provide to kill
the surfacial disturbances and for straightening of the flow. A
tail gate was provided at the end of the flume in order to
maintain the uniform flow into the flume. An orificemeter was
also provided in the delivery pipeline from overhead tank for the
measurement of discharge. Four rows of submerged vanes were
attached to the bed so as to perform experimentations of flow
pattern around submerged vanes.
Fig.2. Line sketch of experimental setup
Fig.3. Experimental set up with submerged vanes (H = 6 cm and

L = 12 cm)
Vanes used in experimentations were viz. 6cm x 12cm whose
lateral spacing respectively was 12.5 cm (Fig. 3.). In order to
measure the velocity mini ADV was used over sections x = 3H,

Fig.4. Variation of various turbulence quantities and velocity

profile for x = 3H for four vane rows
Fig.5. Variation of various turbulence quantities and velocity

profile for x = 3H for no vane row.

When observed this point comes out to be z = 0.83 times height

of vane. According to observations of Odgaard and Wang (1991
a) and Wang and Odgaard (1993) the point of origin of vortice
was 0.8 times the vane height and present observation was very
near to their observation. In case of Fig. 5, it can be clearly seen
that variation of all turbulence characteristics was same in all
direction and was nearly overlapping each other. It signifies that
turbulence in case of without vanes was homogeneous in nature.
Also, the turbulence quantities varied in accordance with the
observations of Nezu and Nakagawa (1993).
0.6
b)
0.6
0.5
a)
0.5
0.4
0.4
z/H
0.3
z/H
0.3 0.2
no vanes
1 vane row
2 vane rows
0.2 0.1
3 vane rows
no vanes 4 vane rows
1 vane row
0.1 2 vane rows 0.0
3 vane rows -4 -2 0 2 4
4 vane rows
v/u*
0.0
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
v/u*
0.6
0.6 c)
b)
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.4
z/H 0.3
z/H
0.3
0.2
0.2 no vanes
no vane 1 vane row
1 vane row 2 vane rows
0.1
2 vane rows 3 vane rows
0.1
3 vane rows 4 vane rows
4 vane rows
0.0
0.0 -4 -2 0 2 4
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
v/u*
v/u*
Fig. 7. Variation of transverse velocity with and without vane

0.6 row for a) y = 0.45 m; b) y = 0.5 m and c) y = 0.55 m for x = 20h
c)
0.5
(h = vane height).
0.4 CONCLUSIONS
It can thus be concluded from the experimental study that in the
z/H
0.3
presence of submerged vanes all the turbulence quantities were

0.2
no vanes
1 vane row
observed to increased. It was also observed in the variation of
0.1
2 vane rows
3 vane rows
4 vane rows
turbulence quantities a peak was observed to occur at z/h 0.4.
0.0 This represented the core of vortex having maximum turbulence.
-4 -2 0 2 4
v/u*
Height of core of vortex was observed to be z = 0.83 times
height of vane which was close to value quoted in literature. It
Fig. 6. Variation of transverse velocity with and without vane was also observed that with one vane row more flow was
rows for a) y = 0.45 m; b) y = 0.5 m and c) y = 0.55 m for x = 8h diverted in the transverse direction then two, three and four vane
(h = vane height). rows. Hence, it signified the fact that by placing one vane row
optimum diversion of flow can be done while other vane rows
It was seen from Figs. 6 and 7 that with one vane row more flow did not produced effective diversion as was expected.
was diverted in the transverse direction as transverse velocity REFERENCES
then two, three and four vane rows. Hence, it signifies the fact
i. Marelius, F., and, Sinha, S.K. 1998. Experimental analysis of flow
by placing one vane row optimum diversion of flow can be done past submerged vanes. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE, 124 (5), 542-
while other vane rows did not produced effective diversion as 545.
was expected. ii. Nezu, I., and Nakagawa, N. 1993. Turbulence in open channel flows.
IAHR, AA Balkema, Delft, Netherlands.
iii. Odgaard, A.J., and, Kennedy, J.F. 1983. River bend bank protection
by submerged vanes. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE, 109 (8), 1161-
1173.

iv. Odgaard, A.J., and, Spoljaric, A. 1986. Sediment control by on Garudeshwar weir in CWPRS. Numerical modelling was
submerged vanes. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE, 112 (12), 1164-
1181.
also carried out for the weir and the results were found in good
v. Odgaard, A.J., and, Mosconi, C.E. 1987. Streambank protection by agreement with results from physical model studies.
submerged vanes. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE, 113 (4), 520-536. Key Words: Horizontal apron, Sloping apron, initial depth,
vi. Odgaard, A.J., and, Wang, Y. 1991 a. Sediment management with sequent depth, end sill, downstream apron, maximum water
submerged vanes. Theory: I. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE, 117 (3),
267-283.
level, crest elevation.
vii. Ouyang, H.T., Lai, J.S., Yu,H., and, Lu, C.H. 2008. Interaction
between submerged vanes for sediment management. Journal of Hydraulic 1.0 INTRODUCTION
research, IAHR, 46 (5), 620-627.
viii. Tan, S.K., Guoliang, Y., Lim, S.Y., and, Ong, M.C. 2005. Flow
Energy dissipaters for spillways are required to dissipate the
structure and sediment motion around submerged vanes in open channel.
Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Engineering, ASCE, 131 (3), excessive energy generated by impounding water when gets
132-136. released down. The huge amount of potential energy is
ix. Wang, Y., and, Odgaard, A.J. 1993. Flow control with vorticity., converted into kinetic energy due to steep slope of glacis of
Journal of Hydraulic Research, IAHR, 31 (4), 549-562.
spillway. This energy may cause serious erosion which depends
x. Han, S.S., Biron, P.M., and Ramamurthy, A.S. 2011. Three
dimensional modeling of flow in sharp bends with vanes. Journal of Hydraulic largely on the rate of discharge, head causing flow and
Research, IAHR, 49 (1), 64-72. credibility of the river bed material and surrounding geological
area on the proximity of the dam and cause problems to the
downstream of spillways and sometimes create threat to the dam
complex itself. The energy of released flows can cause problems
in the following ways:
Erosion of banks and spillway undermining
Sedimentation problems
submergence of downstream areas
To avoid the above mentioned problems the excess energy is to
Hydraulic Design Aspects of Stilling Basin with be dissipated to an allowable limit. The various structures which
Sloping Apron are required for this are called energy dissipators. The design of
V.S. Rama Rao1 K.T.More2 Dr. energy dissipator plays an important role in the dam safety issue.
M.R.Bhajantri 3
Dr. V.V.Bhosekar4 The common types of energy dissipators are stilling basin with
sramaraov@gmail.com , kiran.t.more@gmail.com horizontal and sloping aprons, ski jump type buckets and solid/
slotted roller buckets.
bhajan_mr@rediffmail.com , vvbhosekar@yahoo.co.in
Central Water & Power Research Station, Khadakwasla, Pune-
411 024 2.0 STILLING BASINS AND SLOPING APRONS
Stilling basins are the most popular type of energy dissipators
ABSTRACT: Stilling basins are very popular type of energy provided for spillways. When the Tail Water Rating curve
dissipators provided for high head / low head spillways, weirs, matches with the Jump Height Curve, Stilling Basin is the
suitable form of energy dissipation arrangement. For spillways
culverts and channels. Energy dissipation by stilling basins is
on weak rock conditions and weirs and barrages on sand or loose
governed by various factors like intensity of discharge, head
gravel, hydraulic jump stilling basins are recommended. Design
causing flow, Froude number and tail water depth. When the
tail water levels are sufficient to cope up with the sequent depth of stilling basins involves calculation of invert level of basin,
of hydraulic jump, stilling basins with horizontal apron are length of basin and appurtenances provided for basin. When Tail
provided. If the tail water levels are higher than the required water is too high as compared to the sequent depth, the jet left at
the natural ground level would continue to go as a strong current
for sequent depth, sloping aprons are provided to contain the
near the bed forming a drowned jump which is harmful to river
jump within the spillway glacis to avoid encroachment of jump
bed. In such a case, a hydraulic jump type stilling basin with
further upstream. The design of sloping apron involves fixing
of slope of apron, calculation of length of apron and provision sloping apron should be preferred as it would allow an efficient
of appurtenances like endsill. The slope of the apron has jump to be formed at suitable level on sloping apron. Figure 1
shows a typical sloping stilling basin with endsill.
influence on the tail water depth and thereby the length of the
jump and its location on the apron. The end sill is constructed
at the downstream end of the stilling basin, whether solid or 3.0 HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF SLOPING APRON
dentate and has function of reducing the length of the Stilling basin with sloping apron can be considered for high head
hydraulic jump and controlling scour. It is not possible to spillways when tail water depth is more to achieve economy.
standardize design procedures for sloping aprons as for the The hydraulic jump may occur in different ways on sloping
apron as shown in Figure 2. Type B jump forms at toe of slope
horizontal aprons. The slope of the apron must be determined
and ends on horizontal apron, type C forms on slope and ends at
from economic considerations and the length must be judged
junction of slope and horizontal apron, and type D forms entirely
by the type and soundness of the riverbed downstream. In this
paper various aspects relating to sloping stilling basins are on slope. The length of apron required may range from 40 80
discussed with reference to hydraulic model studies conducted % of length of jump. When good rock is available downstream,

that rock is supposed to act as apron. Figures 3 and 4 show

length of jump in terms of conjugate depth D2 and ratio of
conjugate depth D2 to D1 (IS: 4997- 1968).
Extensive studies were done on sloping apron stilling basins
(Hager, 1974) by Kindsvater (1944), USBR (1948), Bradley and
Peterka (1957), Ariyemma (1958), Bunyan (1958), Smith
(1959), Van Beesten (1962), Rajaratnam (1963), Mahmood
(1964) and Mura Hari (1973). Procedure adopted for designing
sloping apron is given as under (Peterka, 1984):
1. Determine an apron arrangement which will give the Figure 3. Length of jump in terms of conjugate depth D2 (IS:
greatest economy for the maximum discharge condition. This is 4997- 1968)
a governing factor and the only justification for using a sloping
apron.
2. These stilling basins are provided for spillways/ weirs
whose heads are less than 15 m and intensity of flow less than 30
m3/s/m.
3. Position the apron so that the front of the jump will
form at the upstream end of the slope for the maximum
discharge and tail water condition. Several trials will usually be
required before the slope and location of the apron are
compatible with the hydraulic requirement. It may be necessary
to raise or lower the apron, or change the original slope entirely. Figure 4. Ratio of conjugate depth D2 to D1(IS: 4997- 1968)
4. With the apron design properly for the maximum 4.0 HYDRAULIC MODEL STUDIES ON
discharge condition, it should then be determined that the tail GARUDESHWAR WEIR
water depth and length of basin available for energy dissipation
are sufficient for, say,1/4,1/2 and 3/4 capacity. Garudeshwar weir is located about 12 km downstream of Sardar
Sarovar Dam in Gujarat. The reservoir created by the weir would
function as the lower reservoir for reversible operation of the
turbines of river bed power house of Sardar Sarovar Dam. Total
length of the weir is 1137 m which includes 339 m long rockfill
dam and non overflow blocks of length 189 m. The ungated
overflow portion is 609 m long. It has an ogee profile with crest
at El. 31.75 m. The design discharge is 62,807 m3/s and the high
flood level is El. 44.65 m. The FRL and MDDL are at El. 31.5 m
and El. 25.91 m respectively. The original design of weir
consisted of roller bucket as an energy dissipater with a 40 m
long apron downstream of bucket and since the solid roller
Figure 1. Typical Sloping Stilling Basin with end sill bucket was not functioning satisfactorily for the entire range of
discharges, the design was changed to 95 m long Stilling basin
with horizontal apron as energy dissipator. As the horizontal
stilling basin was not performing satisfactorily, it was provided
with the sloping apron with dentate end sill.
Figure 2. Hydraulic jump on sloping apron and the relationship

between D2 and D1 (Peterka, 1964)
Figure 5. Location plan of proposed Garudeshwar weir.

Hydraulic model studies have been considered as best tool for

assessment of suitability of spillways and energy dissipators. For
Garudeshwar weir project, 1:55 scale 2-D sectional model was
built in a glass sided flume. 55 m length of the weir and stilling
basin with sloping apron as energy dissipator were constructed
in brick masonry and the surface was plastered in smooth
cement and painted with enamel paint. The upstream and
downstream beds were reproduced rigid at El. 12 m. Piezometers
were provided along the surface of the weir with sloping apron
for hydrostatic pressure measurement. Necessary arrangements
were made for measurement of discharge, water levels and Figure 6. Tail Water Rating Curve and Jump Height Curves
pressures. The accepted relationship of hydraulic similitude, for different aprons of Stilling Basin.
based on Froudian criteria were used to express the
mathematical relation between the dimension and hydraulic
quantities of the model and the prototype. The general relation
expressed in terms of model scale is as given in Table 1.
Table 1. Model Scale Relation for Various Dimensions
Dimensions Scale Relation

Length 1 : 55
Area 1 : 3025
Velocity 1 : 7.42
Discharge 1 : 22434
Time 1:7.42 Figure 7. Pressures on profile of Sloping Stilling Basin for the
Pressure in m of water 1 : 55 discharge of 15,700 m3/s
head
Mannings n 1: 1.95
5.0 STUDIES WITH SLOPING APRON (CWPRS T.R.No.

5027, 2012)
5.1 Studies with dentated end sill
The performance of 60 m long stilling basin with sloping apron

with dentate endsill was observed for the entire range of
discharges up to the maximum discharge of 62,807 m3/s. The
hydraulic jump on sloping basin is subjected to varied tail water Figure 8. Water surface profiles on Sloping Stilling Basin for
levels for different discharges. Studies indicated that weak jump the discharge of 15,700 m3/s
was forming for higher discharges above 31,400 m3/s but for
discharges ranging from 31,400 m3/s (50%) up to 15,700 m3/s
(25%), a clearly defined hydraulic jump was forming in the
stilling basin but slightly encroaching upstream on the rear slope
of the weir. Tail water rating curve versus jump height curve
shows that tail water levels are 0 to 5 m higher than jump heights
for entire range of discharges (Figure 6). The energy dissipation
seems satisfactory for the given tail water levels. For discharges
below 10,000 m3/s, the front of jump shifted downwards and
showed tendency of further shift for 10 % retrograded tail water
levels. The studies for pressures indicated that the pressures Photo 1. Performance of stilling basin with horizontal apron
were positive on the surface of the weir and stilling basin for the with dentated endsill for discharge of 15,700 m3/s
entire range of discharges. Velocities observed downstream of 5.2 Studies with Solid end sill
sloping apron are of the order of 1.1 m/s. Figures 7 and 8 show The end sill, either dentated or solid, located at the downstream
pressure and water surface profiles on Sloping Stilling Basin for end of the stilling basin reduces the length of the stilling basin
the discharge of 15,700 m3/s with dentated endsill. by creating additional tail water depth. It also deflects the flow
along the stilling basin floor upward and away from the bed of
the downstream channel and protects it from scour. The end sill
also serves to hold the hydraulic jump in equilibrium within the

basin resulting in improved efficiency. To allow a shift of toe of upstream and downstream. There is an initial time gap, for
jump further upstream for lower discharges, the existing which the hydraulic jump, still is not stabilised and
dentated endsill was converted into solid endsill and studies characteristics flow parameters presents a great time fluctuation.
were carried out. From the model studies, it was observed that When the jump becomes stable, these values have a small
the front of the jump shifted slightly towards toe with the fluctuation around an average value. Simulation was carried out
provision of solid end sill as compared to the jump with dentated for 15,700 m3/s (25% of design discharge). Figure 9 shows
end sill, though it did not form at the toe of the weir. But for numerical simulation in Flow- 3D for Garudeshwar weir for
discharge of 15,700 m3/s, jump was forming exactly at the toe discharge of 15,700 m3/s with solid endsill.
without showing any tendency of shifting down as shown in
photo 3. Velocities observed downstream of sloping apron are of
the order of 1.5 m/s and were slightly more than the one with
dentated endsill as shown in Table 2.
Figure 9: Numerical Simulation in Flow-3D for Garudeshwar

Photo 3. Performance of Stilling Basin with solid weir for discharge of 15,700 m3/s.
endsill for discharge of 15,700 m3/s
7.0 COMPARISION OF RESULTS OF PHYSICAL AND
Table 2. Velocities observed downstream of sloping apron NUMERICAL MODELS.
Type of profile Discharge, Q Maximum 8.0
(m3/s) observed velocity
d/s of end sill @ The results obtained from numerical simulation were compared
Ch. 90 m (m/s) with the results obtained from experimental (physical) model
60 m long sloping 15700 1.17 studies.
apron with
dentate endsill
8.1 Average Pressure
Pressure at pre-defined points were measured from numerical
60 m long sloping 15700 1.51
apron with solid simulation at 85 seconds, corresponds to occurrence of stable
endsill hydraulic jump. Figures 10 and 11 show results from numerical
simulation and comparison of results for pressures obtained from
numerical simulation and experimental studies for discharge of
6.0 NUMERICAL MODELLING 15,700 m3/s, respectively. The results are in general agreement at
The commercial software Flow-3D, developed by Flow Science,
most location.
was used for the numerical modeling of the flow. The Flow-3D
uses finite-volume method to solve the Reynolds-averaged 8.2 Average Water Profile
Navier Stokes (RANS) equations over computational domain Water surface profile over surface of weir measured from
(Amorim et al, 2004). Tracking of free surface is performed numerical simulation at 85 s, corresponds to occurrence of stable
using Volume-of-Fluid method. The numerical modelling of the hydraulic jump. Figures 12 and 13 show results from numerical
flow inside the stilling basin is much complex due to the high simulation and comparison of results for water surface
intensity of the turbulence and the recirculation that is associated elevations obtained from numerical simulation and experimental
with the hydraulic jump. To represent these characteristics of the studies with a discharge of 15,700 m3/s, respectively. The results
flow, Re-normalized Group (RNG) turbulence model was used. are in general agreement at most location with minor
During simulation, upstream boundary was set as a Volume differences.
Flow rate and downstream boundary as a Pressure Outlet. The
extent of the mesh in the upstream X-direction was adjusted
until any further increases had negligible effect on the discharge,
while the downstream boundary was placed past the energy
dissipator to cover tail water level conditions. The simulation
was run for 85 seconds which was found to be enough for the
hydraulic jump stabilisation. During the simulation, flow starts
from the rest and is settled by water level difference between

Figure 13. Comparision of Water surface profile for discharge

of 15,700 m3/s.
8.0 CONCLUSIONS
The sloping apron stilling basin is adopted when the tail water
levels are higher than the sequent depths of horizontal apron.
The design involves calculation of economical slope of stilling
basin suited to frequent disposable floods. Though codal
provisions mentioned the applicability of these for heads less
than 15 m and intensities less than 30 m3/s/m, while designing
these basins for other conditions, hydraulic model studies are
necessary for verifying its performance. Garudeshwar weir of
Sardar Sarovar Project, Gujarat was designed with sloping apron
stilling basin after testing various alternatives through hydraulic
Figure 10. Average mean Pressure from Numerical Simulation model studies. The studies indicated that the length of apron is
for discharge of 15,700 m3/s. sufficient for containing the jump in the sloping basin. By
carrying out numerical modelling, water surface and pressure
profile were compared with results of physical model studies and
were found in good agreement. Thus, it is inferred that the
numerical modelling can be used as a complementary tool to
physical modelling for studying various alternatives. However,
final designs needs to be studied on physical model.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are thankful to Shri S Govindan, Director CWPRS
for his encouragement in writing the paper. The authors are also
grateful to staff of SED Division, CWPRS for their help in
preparation of this paper.
Nomenclature
Figure 11. Comparision of average mean Pressure for discharge
D1 = Depth of flow at the beginning of the jump
of 15,700 m3/s.
D2 = Depth conjugate to D1 for horizontal apron
D2 = Depth conjugate to D1 for sloping apron
hs = Height of endsill
L j = Length of hydraulic jump
L b = Length of basin
V1 = Velocity of flow at the beginning of the jump
V2 = Velocity of flow at the end of the jump
= Angle of sloping apron with horizontal
F1 = Froude Number of flow at the beginning of the jump
REFERNCES
i. Amorim, J. C., Rodrigues, R.C., Marques, M. G., (2004) A
Numerical and Experimental Study of Hydraulic Jump Stilling Basin - Advances
Figure 12. Water surface profile from Numerical Simulation for in Hydro-science and Engineering, Volume VI.
discharge of 15,700 m3/s. ii. CWPRS Technical Report No. 5027 of Nov 2012 Hydraulic model
studies for Garudeshwar Weir with sloping apron of Sardar Sarovar Narmada
Project, Gujarat, 1:55 Scale 2-D Sectional Model.
iii. Hager. W.H. (1992) Energy Dissipators and Hydraulic Jump.
Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Netherlands.
iv. IS: 4997- 1968 Indian Standard Criteria for Design of Hydraulic
Jump Type Stilling Basins with Horizontal and Sloping Apron
v. Peterka A. J. (1984) Hydraulic Design of Stilling Basins and Energy
Dissipators, Engineering Monograph No. 25, United States Department of the
Interior Bureau Of Reclamation, Water Resources Technical Publication, Denver,
Colorado.
Hydraulic Design of Barrage in Montane Terrains

Rajendra Chalisgaonkar 1, Mukesh Mohan1, Manish S. Sant2 and characterized by supercritical flow for the major portion of its
Pratibha S. Sant2 length till it reaches the plains where the river runs at sub-critical
1
Superintending Engineer, Irrigation Department, Dehradun- stage. The river bed comprises of boulders, cobbles, gravels, etc.
248001, Uttarakhand. with a mean sediment size ranging from 10cm to 30 cm or more.
2
Assistant Engineer, Irrigation Department, Roorkee-247667, Fig. 1 gives an idea of rivers flowing in bouldery reaches with
Uttarakhand. steep gradient and carrying large size boulders.
E-mail: chalisgaonkar@yahoo.com In fact, current IS code on Guidelines for Hydraulic Design of
Barrages and Weirs: Part I, Alluvial reaches (IS: 6966 Part
ABSTRACT:The bouldery reach of river is characterized by I, 1989) and other related codes by Bureau of Indian Standards
supercritical flow for the major portion of its length till it (BIS) are applicable for barrages on alluvial reaches of rivers
reaches the plains where the river runs at sub-critical stage. with fine and medium size sediments. The Engineers and other
The river bed comprises of boulders, cobbles, gravels, etc. with design consultants are still using the Guidelines available for
a mean sediment size ranging from 10cm to 30 cm or more. Design of Barrages in alluvial reaches due to non-availability of
The approach of planning and design of diversion structures sufficient literature and guidelines of Bureau of Indian
for irrigation, drinking water or power generation in upper Standards. However, the Indian rivers of large magnitude,
bouldery reaches of rivers having steep gradient and deep flowing over gravelly and bouldery beds in the Himalayan and
pervious foundation are entirely different from the design sub-Himalayan regions, need more accurate studies and analysis
principles followed for structures in mild sloping lower reaches as the planning and designing of these structures are entirely
of rivers with flat and plain terrains flowing in fine alluvial different from the design principles followed for structures in
soils and as such the existing guidelines by Bureau of Indian mild sloping lower reaches of rivers with flat and plain terrains
Standards for design of weirs and barrages do not apply to the flowing in fine alluvial soils.
planning and design issues of structures in bouldery reaches. The paper describes in detail the hydraulic design of barrage
In this paper, authors have described in detail the hydraulic carried out by the prevalent BIS guidelines and the formulae
design of barrage carried out by the prevalent BIS guidelines developed by many researchers for hydraulic design of barrage
and the formulae developed by many researchers for hydraulic in montane regions.
design of barrage in montane regions and presented a
comparison.
Key words: Diversion structure, Bouldery River, Supercritical

flow, Sediment size, Impervious apron, Cut-off
Depths
1.0 INTRODUCTION
A barrage, by a definition, is a weir fitted with a gated structure
to regulate the water levels in the pool behind in order to divert
water through canal. The importance of weirs or barrages to
divert river water through a canal system for irrigation and other
useful purposes in tropical and subtropical countries needs no
emphasis. Outwardly, it would appear a comparatively Figure 1. Typical River in Bouldery Reach
straightforward task to divert water from perennial rivers. By
following the general guidelines, the location and alignment of 2.0 DESIGN OF BARRAGE IN MONTANE REGION
barrage axis and that of the canal head works may be decided From the literature survey, it has been observed by the authors
but the other details like the width of barrage and head works, that mainly the researchers have developed rational formulae for
levels of weir crests, length of weir floors, river training works, estimating the water way and scour depth in montane region.
pond level etc. have to be finalized based on the hydraulic Therefore in the succeeding paragraphs, only the formulae
conditions and geologic characteristics of the river bed and suggested by researchers for estimating water way and scour
banks of the site. However, it poses a considerable challenge to depth have been described.
hydraulic engineers to devise a safe and economical way of
tapping the mighty rivers of the Indian subcontinent, with their 3.0 WATERWAY
highly variable flow over the year in montane terrains. A barrage 3.1 Alluvial Rivers
is a costly structure involving an expenditure of several hundred To minimize shoal formations in meandering alluvial rivers, the
million rupees. Any approach to reduce the cost of a barrage following looseness factor, suggested by IS 6966(Part 1):1989,
satisfying the design criteria would be appreciated as an shall be applied to Laceys waterway for determining the
innovative step. primary value of the waterway:
Silt Factor Looseness Factor
Generally 15m to 20m high barrage type diversion structure are
constructed in bouldery reaches of a river with steep gradient Less than 1 1.2 to 1
and narrow cross section. The bouldery reach of river is

1 to 1.5 1 to 0.6 (7), R depth of scour below the highest flood level in m; Q is
high flood discharge in the river in m3/s; q is intensity of flood
Laceys waterway is given by
discharge in m3/s per m width; and f is silt factor which may be
P 4.83 Q (1)
calculated from the relationship f 1.76 d50 (8)
Where, Q is design flood discharge in cumec.
The IS 6966(Part 1):1989 also suggests that for deciding the 4.2 Bouldery Rivers
final waterway, the following additional considerations may also For calculating the regime depth of flow in gravelly or bouldery
be taken into account: (a) Cost of protection works and cutoffs, rivers, different formulae have been developed. For average
(b) Repairable damages for floods of higher magnitudes, and (c) diameter of bed material upto 0.4m(400 mm) the following
Afflux constraints as determined by model studies. formulae may be used:
3.2 Bouldery Rivers
For deciding the preliminary waterway (P) of the barrage in (a) For design discharge upto 500cumec R. D. Hey(1986)
Bouldery River, the following formulae developed by
R 0.22Q 0.37 d 0.11 (9)
different researchers may be used as guidance.
a) Using formula developed by P.Sen(1997) (b) For design discharge above 500cumec P.Sen(1997)
P Q/q R 0.2q 0.855 d 0.3 (10)
(2) where in Eqs. (9) and (10), R is regime depth below the HFL in
Where, q is intensity of the discharge which is given by Eq. (3) m, Q is a total discharge in the river in cumec, d is median size
as q 6.56 D1.17 d 50 0.354 (3) of bed material in mm and q is the intensity of discharge in the
Where, D is total depth of flow (regime depth), and d50 is river in cumec/m. The Scour depths around a barrage
average diameter of the stone in the bed. constructed on mobile gravel or bouldery bed will vary from
b) Using formula developed by R.Garde(2000) point to point due to various factors affecting the flow condition
at each point.
P
3.872Qn 0.396 (4)
d50 4.0 EXAMPLE OF BARRAGE DESIGN
Where, Qn is Non dimensional quantity, may be called as In order to compare the changes in the design of barrage, due to
stream power which is defined by Eq. (5) as the formulae developed for montane regions, an example has
been presented in the paper to illustrate the effects on the various
Qn Q / d50 2
g S gb
1)(d50 ) S

(5)
parameters of barrage design. 138m long barrage has been
designed in the montane regions using the standard guidelines
available for barrage design in alluvial regions and the formulae
Where, P is waterway required, d50 is median size of bed described in the preceding paragraphs. The basic data adopted
material, Q is design flood discharge in cumec, Sgb is Specific for the detailed design are shown in Table 1.
gravity of bed material and S is average bed slope of the river at
the location of the proposed structure. It should be noted that 5.0 COMPARISON OF METHODS OF BARRAGE
Laceys equation is applicable in the alluvium reach of the river. DESIGN
The perusal of detailed design of various elements of barrage,
SCOUR DEPTH carried out by Laceys and P. Sen method, given in Table 2
4.1 Alluvial Rivers indicates that
5.1 Detailed Design
River scour is likely to occur in erodible soils, such as clay, silt,
sand and shingle. In non-cohesive soils, the depth of scour may Design parameters or elements of design obtained from the
be calculated from the Laceys formula which is as follows: formulae suggested by Lacey, Sen and Garde have described in
1/ 3 Table 2.
Q
R 0.473 (applicable when looseness factor is more
f
than 1) (6)
or
1/ 3
q2
R 1.35 (applicable when looseness factor is less
f
than 1) (7) where, in the Eqs. (6) and

Hence, downstream
cutoff level
viii corresponding a 899.78m 873.73m
discharge of 9829
cumec
Assuming
ix downstream cutoff 899.00m 874.00m
level to be
Calculation for
5.1.4
Length of floor
Maximum staic Head
I 21.00m 21.00m
'H' = 929.5 -908.5
GEC= (S-1)(1-n),
where 'S' is specific
Ii - 0.99
gravity and 'n' is
porosity
Safe exit gradient
iii 1 in 5 1 in 4
GE
According to Bligh's
iv Creep Theory, Total 105.00m 84.00m
Table 2 Summary of Design of Barrage Elements Length of floor
Taking depth of
5.1.1 Fixation of crest levels vi downstream cutoff 10.00m 35.00m
Crest Level of d to be
i 909.50m
Undersluice bay Length of sloping
vii 18.00m 18.00m
Crest Level of the glacis
ii 911.00m
other barrage bays
viii Length of trough 65.00m 65.00m
If the total
Water way downstream slope
5.1.2
Calculation floor length is 95 m,
Lace P. ix 908.26m 908.26m
level of the floor at
y's Sen R. Garde the d/s with a river
Parameters
form form formula slope of 0.0131
ula ula Assuming level of
Water way (using 478.8 139. the floor at the d/s
i 67.7m x 908.25m 908.25m
Eqs. (1), (2) and (4)) m 9m with a river slope of
ii No. of bays 8 8 8 0.0131 to be
15.0 15.0 Length of
iii Length of each bay 15.0m downstream slope
m m xi 6.50m 6.50m
Total overall water 140.5 140. from 905.00 to
iv 140.50m 908.25
way Provided 0m 50m
Taking 2m horizontal
v Looseness Factor 0.29 1.0 2.1 length beyond
downstream slope &
1.5m length of weir
xii 93.00m 93.00m
Calculation for crest downstream of
5.1.3 the gate, total
Depth of Cutoffs
Lacey's essential downstream
Parameters P. Sen formula length
formula
Length of intake
Design Flood works on the
I 9829cumec 9829cumec xiii 32.00m 32.00m
Discharge upstream side
ii Discharge Intensity 85.47cumec/m 85.47cumec/m abutments
iii Scour depth 12.16m 25.19m Provide total length
of upstream side
Upstream water level (since the total
corresponding a length of upstream
iv 926.50m 926.50m
discharge of 9829 side comes negative
cumec xiv 117.00m 38.00m
using P. Sen formula
Upstream cutoff level hence providing
corresponding a minimum length 1.5
V 908.26m 888.72m
discharge of 9829 scour depth for P.
cumec Sen)
Assuming upstream
vi 907.25m 889.00m xv Total length of floor 210.00m 131.00m
cutoff level to be
Downstream water
level corresponding a
vii 924.10m 924.10m 6.0 CONCLUSION
discharge of 9829
cumec

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prevailing Laceys technique and formulae suggested by mobile gravel beds. J. Hydraul. Div., 112(8), 671689.
researchers P. Sen and others has been described in detail in the iii. Khosla, M.N., Bose, K.K.and Taylor, M.T. (1954) Design of
paper and the results have been illustrated in the Tables 1 to 2. Weirs on Permeable Foundation, Publication No.12, Central Board of
Irrigation and Power, Malcha Marg, New Delhi.
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improvement in looseness factor, as compared to Laceys water Institution of Engineers, Paper No. 4736, 229.
way, in fixing the water way of the barrage. Also for a given v. Mazumder, S.K. (2004) Scour in Bouldery Bed Proposed
discharge as the average size of bed material increases, the scour Formula, Written discussion on Paper No. 508 by R. K. Dhiman,
depth and depth of cut offs increases substantially. However, it Journal of Indian Roads Congress, Vol 65(3).
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when formulae developed for montane terrains by researchers Scour in Bridge Piers on Alluvial Non- Cohesive Soil by different
are adopted. It has also come to the notice of the authors that the methods, IRC Highway Research Bulletin. Oct., 2006.
Bureau of Indian Standards is planning to formulate Guidelines vii. Sen, P. (1997) Depth of scour in gravelly and bouldery
rivers, Journal of the Institution of Engineers (India), Civil
for the Design of Barrage in hilly terrains and therefore it is also Engineering Division, Vol. 77, pp. 209-214.
recommended that some more studies be conducted in the viii. (1989) Guidelines for Hydraulic Design of Barrages and
montane regions before finalizing the draft of the proposed Weirs, Part 1-Alluvial Reaches (First revision), IS:6966, Bureau of
Guidelines for Hydraulic Design of Barrages and Weirs, Part 2- Indian Standards, Manak Bhawan, New Delhi.
Bouldery Reaches by the Bureau of Indian Standards, New ix. (1989) Guidelines for Operation and Maintenance of
Delhi so that the results obtained from the formulae are Barrages and Weirs, IS:7349 (First Revision), Bureau of Indian
authenticated. Standards, Manak Bhawan, NewDelhi.
6.1 Waterway x. (1991) Criteria for Investigation, planning and Layout of
Length of waterway, L is equal to the regime perimeter, P. In Barrages and Weirs, IS:7720, Bureau of Indian Standards, Manak
Bhawan, New Delhi
boulder reaches of the river, it would be economical to reduce xi. Guidelines for Hydraulic Design of Barrages and
the waterway to about (0.6 - 0.8) times Lacey's waterway. From Weirs(DRAFT), Part 2-Bouldery Reaches, IS 6966: Part-2, Under
the calculations, it is observed that the length of waterway, formulation, Bureau of Indian Standards, Manak Bhawan, New
according to R. Garde formula is 0.14 times the Laceys Delhi(Unpublished).
formula. Moreover the length of waterway, according to P. Sen
formula is 0.29 times the Laceys formula which is in the
acceptable range for boulder reaches.
6.2 Looseness factor

The ratio of waterway actually provided to waterway computed
is known as looseness factor. Generally the overall width of
barrage actually provided may be more or less as has been
computed theoretically. The perusal of Table 2 indicates that the
looseness factor computed by Lacey, P. Sen and R. Garde
formulae are 0.29, 1.0 and 2.1 respectively.
6.3 Scour Depth
Optimal Design of Intake Upstream of A Weir A
It is obseved from Table 2 that the scour depth computed by Case Study
Lacey and P. Sen formulae are 12.16m and 25.19m respectively
for the same discharge and silt factor. It indicates that the Scour Kuldeep Malik1, Dr. R. G. Patil2 and M.N.Singh3
depth calculated by P. Sen formula is almost two times the scour 1 Research Officer, Central Water and Power Research Station,
depth, what has been estimated by Laceys formula and Khadakwasla, Pune 411 024, India,
therefore the formula suggested by P. Sen has to be validated Email: kuldeep.cwprs@gmail.com
with further studies before using it. 2 Chief Research Officer, Central Water and Power Research
6.4 Total Length of Floor Station, Khadakwasla, Pune 411 024, India,
The perusal of Table 2 indicates that the the total floor length in Email: rsrgp@rediffmail.com
montane terrains shall be less as compared to the alluvial 3 Joint Director, Central Water and Power Research Station,
regions, if formulae suggested for montane terrains are used. The Khadakwasla, Pune 411 024, India,
total floor length obtained from Lacey and P. Sen formulae are Email: mns19542003@yahoo.co.in
210m and 131m respectively.
ABSTRACT: Intake is a very vital component in every power
7.0 REFERENCES project, which facilitate drawal of sufficient uninterrupted raw
water from the available water body in the vicinity. Locating
i. Garde, R.J. and RangaRaju, K.G. (2000) Mechanics of intake is a unique exercise for every project because the kind
Sediment Transport and Alluvial Stream Problems 3rd Ed. New Age and nature of water body differ in individual projects. An
Int. Pub. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. intake for Rourkela Power Plant for drawing 0.425 m 3/s water
was to be located in the backwaters of Tarkera weir across

river Brahmani 100 to 150 m upstream of existing intakes of

Rourkela Steel Plant near left bank. The desk studies were
conducted, in CWPRS, to locate the intake and decide various
hydraulic design parameters. Mandira
Koel river
Reservoir
The location of intake was decided on the
basis of morphological analysis using Topo-sheet of 1970 and
satellite imageries of the years 1989, 2000 and 2012. The same Shankh river
was confirmed by the analysis of river cross-section data in the
upstream of Tarkera weir. The G-Q data at upstream gauging
site and 1 in 100 year flood of 15,700 m 3/s was used to workout
expected water levels at proposed intake site using 1-D
mathematical model HEC-RAS. The maximum scour level for Brahmni river
the intake well of 8.0 m diameter was worked out and
foundation level was recommended considering the grip
length. To draw required quantity of water and to minimize the Proposed
entry of sediment, size of the openings of the intake structure Intake Tarkera
were decided by limiting drawal velocity to 0.2 m/s so as to Location Weir
ensure minimal disturbance in the surrounding flow field.
Orientation of the openings were decided in such a manner
that drawal of sediment in the intake system is minimum and
maximum portion of sediment travels in the down stream Figure 1 : Index plan of Intake site
direction along with flow. The crest level of the opening was The intake design is mainly dependent on the river morphology
decided below LWL for 90% dependability. Openings in the adjacent to the intake. Since the intake is to be located upstream
intake well were suggested at two levels, one to draw surface Figure 1 : Index Plan
of a weir, the reservoir is subjected to sedimentation and the
water during floods and another from the bottom layer during river tries to change its planform continuously. This change is
lean flow to minimize entry of sediment into the intake system. due to the movement and deposition of sediment with respect to
Formation / Pump floor level was decided considering the flow passing downstream of the weir. To assist in proper
sufficient free board above the expected 1 in 100 year flood location of the intake, morphological studies were conducted
level. Various intricacies involved in locating an Intake well with the help of topo-sheet of 1970, Satellite Imageries for the
upstream of a weir and its design are discussed in the paper. years1989, 2000 and 2012 (Fig.2). In addition hydrographic
survey data of Brahmani river, hydraulic data and observations
Keywords: Bridge; minimum water level; power plant; made during site visit were used to locate the intake.
river morphology; satellite imageries ; weir.
INTRODUCTION
Koel River
Tarkera weir was constructed across Brahmani river near

Rourkela about 50 years back to facilitate the assured supply of Toposheet of 1970
raw water for Rourkela Steel Plant (RSP), Orissa. Two intakes
Imagery of 1989
have been constructed near the left bank just upstream of
Brahmani River
Tarkera weir. M/s. NSPCL has now proposed to construct an Imagery of 2000 South Eastern Railway Bridge
Panposh
additional intake adjacent to existing intakes to cater raw water Imagery of 2012
requirement of 0.425 m3/s needed for the expansion of Rourkela
Power Plant (Fig.1). The river Sankh and Koel join at Vedvyas
to form river Brahmani and the confluence is about 5.6 km
upstream of Tarkera weir. Mandira dam with a storage reservoir
capacity of 326 MCM supply regular water for diversion to the
intakes throughout the year.
The first intake built upstream of Tarkera weir is working nicely, Figure 2 : Brahmani river courses for past years
however, the functioning of second intake is not upto the mark.
The second intake has siltation problem because of limitations in STUDY OF TOPO-SHEETS AND SATELLITE
the opening levels. In view of this the project authorities were IMAGERIES
apprehensive of the design of third intake and wanted to The toposheet of the year 1970 (73 B ), showing Brahmani river
properly design this intake to avoid future complications. from the confluence of Sankh and Koel rivers to the upstream of
proposed Intake location, was compared with satellite imageries
for years 1989 (IRS 1A), 2000 (IRS 1C) and 2012 (IRS P6) to
study the changes in the deep channel courses of river Brahmni
in the vicinity of proposed Intake site upstream of Tarkera weir.

Figure 2 shows comparison of the river reach near proposed locate Intake about 70 to 80 m upstream of existing Intake.
Intake location as well as in its upstream and downstream during
years 1970, 1989, 2000 and 2012. It could be seen from the
toposheet of year 1970 and satellite images of later period that
there is very minimal change in the course of Brahmni river
from its origin i.e. confluence of Sankh and Koel rivers to the
Tarkera weir (near proposed Intake location). Although several
changes have been observed in the past images in upstream
reach of both rivers before the confluence, the river channel is
quite stable at the proposed intake site. In the upstream of
Tarkera weir deep channel portion is well spread from left bank
to right bank, there are some rock exposures in the centre of
channel also. In the reach under consideration, the deep channel
is along left bank for more than last 40 years. The left bank
upstream of Tarkera weir is on outer curve, therefore, deep
channel has been following it. There were several rock
exposures near right bank about 2 km upstream of Tarkera weir
acting as a nodal point, it deflects the river course towards left
bank. Afterwards river follows concave path and flows in wider
area, one channel follows left bank and another along the right
side upto Tarkera weir. Siltation between the channels is also
noticed in an area of about 600 m long and 200 m wide, about
Brahmani River
150 m upstream of existing intakes. A close view of satellite

images ( Figure 3) shows presence of deep channel upstream of
Tarkera weir well spread over the width of river.
Fig. 4 : River cross-sections 180 and 235 m upstream of Nalla

confluence
EXAMINATION OF GROUND REALITY
To get familiarize with the site conditions or to know the ground
truths, it is also necessary for the designers to carry out site
inspection before finalizing the design. With this view site
Toposheet of 1970
inspection was also carried out. The Brahmani river reach from
confluence of Sankh and Koel rivers i.e. 5.8 km upstream of
Imagery of 1989
Tarkera weir (Photo 1) to 600 m downstream of proposed intake
Imagery of 2000 location was inspected along both of the banks of river. It was
Imagery of 2012
noticed that deep channel of river was along left bank in most of
the portion. Within the reach under study, the river flow is
between well defined & firm high banks. There existed solid
rock exposures along river bed at number of places including
Fig. 3 : A close view of Satellite images for past 40 years vicinity of the proposed Intake location. It was observed that a
very deep pool of water was present from Tarkera weir to about
STUDY OF RIVER CROSS-SECTION DATA 500m upstream and deep channel was towards left side of the
The cross-section data was utilized to review and finalize the river (Photo 2). Two Intakes were already constructed by RSP
location of proposed Intake, considering location of deep just upstream of Tarkera weir to fulfill its requirement (Photo 1).
channel, river bed levels and bank slope at different locations Out of these two Intakes, the old one had multiple level openings
etc. From the cross-sections upstream of Tarkera weir, it was and is working satisfactorily. Whereas, the new intake was
observed that deepest bed level near the left bank upstream of provided with only one lower level opening. Therefore, it was
existing intake varied from RL 190 m to 190.5 m at a distance of facing severe siltation problem during monsoon.
80 m to 100 m from left bank (Fig. 4) and the deep channel is
about 60-70 m wide. Whereas, further upstream, river is
showing tendency of shoal formation. Deep bed levels are more
than RL 191.3 m and width of deep channel near the left bank is
also very less. Therefore, it is considered more appropriate to

GQ PANPOSN
208
206
204
WATER LEVEL IN M
202
200
198
196
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000
DISCHRGE
Figure 5 : Gauge Discharge relation at Panposh gauging site

From the Gumble extreme value analysis of the gauge-discharge
data of Panposh gauging site for 26 years, it was revealed that
for 50 years frequency, maximum discharge would be 14,138
m3/s and minimum discharge would be 7.8 m3/s. The maximum
discharge with hundred year frequency was found to be 15,700
m3/s, which is considered for design of foundation level of
Intake structure. The project authority informed that they had
never faced shortage of water supply at Tarkera Pump house for
last 40 years due to regular releases from Mandira dam in the
upstream. The Mandira dam having storage capacity of 326
million cubic meter was solely constructed for RSP and the
releases from the dam are governed by the requirement at
Tarkera weir. The requirement of water for NSPCL intake is
only 0.425m3/s, for which availability is ensured on the basis of
above data.
For deciding the sill level of the opening of the Intake well, a
realistic assessment of minimum water level is necessary. The
FINALISING DIFFERENT WATER LEVELS sill level of the lowest opening should therefore be such that it is
Daily discharge and corresponding water-level data from June sufficiently below the lowest minimum water level satisfying the
1996 to May 2010 at Panposh gauging station about 4km criteria of submergence. Generally the concentration of sediment
upstream of Tarkera weir (Fig. 5) and daily discharge and near the bed is more. For minimizing the sediment entry into the
corresponding water-level data from June 1972 to June 1996 at Intake, the sill level of the opening should be provided with
Bolani gauging station about 40 km downstream of Tarkera weir openings at different levels depending upon variation in water
was utilized to decide minimum and maximum expected water level with the arrangement to close bottom openings at the time
levels at the Intake and thereby to decide various levels of of high flood. Also the area of Intake openings should be such
opening and pump floor level. Statistical analysis of discharge that at minimum water level the velocities at opening / entry
data by gumble extreme value distribution for minimum yearly should preferably be below the standard drawl velocity of 0.2
flow was used to ensure availability of required discharge in the m/s for drawl of required discharge with least disturbance to the
river. It was informed by the project authority that the total water surrounding area.
requirement for the project would be about 0.425 m3/s i.e. 15 cfs After study of the hydraulic data and results of 1-D
and sufficient water was available in the pool behind Tarkera mathematical model studies provision of lowest level opening in
weir due to regular releases from the Mandira dam, about 22 km the Intake has been considered at about 3 m above the river bed
upstream of Tarkera weir. It was informed by project authority level in the vicinity of Intake i.e. at RL 193.0 m. As per standard
that Rourkela Steel Plant has assured water drawal from the drawl velocity of 0.2 m/s, one opening of size 2.2 m wide x 1.0
pondage created by Tarkera weir. The maximum flood discharge m high would be required at each of the levels at RL 193.0 m
and corresponding water levels in Brahmni river were available and RL 199.0 m as shown in Fig. 6. During high flood period
at Panposh gauging site about 4 km upstream of Tarkera weir, water should be drawn from gates at higher level and lower level
which are used to workout scour and the foundation level of gates should be kept closed, otherwise high silt concentration
Intake. bed load may enter the Intake system and clog the pump-sump.
During the lean period flow with low sediment load, water can
be drawn from low level openings. For the proper gate
operation, openings at different level should be staggered. Intake

openings should neither be provided facing upstream nor facing for a discharge of 14000 m3/s, water level and velocity were RL
downstream, but these should be provided at the sides making an 206.32 m and 2.40 m/s respectively. Considering the water level
angle of 30 to 400 to the flow direction. for flood of 17,500 m3/s, the pump floor level is provided above
RL 209.04 m taking into account free-board of 2.0 m.
Table-1
Normal Depth (0.000224)
Chainage Bed Level
Q=14000m 3 /s Q=15700m 3 /s Remark
(m) (m)
WL( m) Vel (m/s) WL( m) Vel (m/s)
6762.38 194.21 207.49 2.55 208.28 2.68 Panposh Gauging Station
5774.49 193.47 207.36 1.97 208.16 2.07
4812.92 190.53 206.98 2.63 207.75 2.79
4678.78 190.13 206.97 2.53 207.73 2.68
4523.36 189.95 206.94 2.45 207.70 2.60
4418.34 188.91 206.88 2.56 207.64 2.71
4315.33 189.12 206.82 2.68 207.57 2.84
4212.22 189.17 206.76 2.77 207.51 2.94
4089.69 190.24 206.66 2.95 207.40 3.12
3986.56 187.60 206.61 3.00 207.34 3.18
3890.89 186.77 206.59 2.91 207.32 3.09
3793.38 185.10 206.57 2.85 207.30 3.03
3704.22 188.46 206.57 2.70 207.31 2.85
3609.84 187.70 206.63 2.21 207.38 2.34
3506.16 189.44 206.59 2.29 207.33 2.42
3368.44 190.02 206.59 2.08 207.34 2.19
3268.76 189.89 206.57 2.11 207.32 2.21
3163.12 189.98 206.55 2.11 207.30 2.21
3062.24 189.99 206.50 2.19 207.25 2.31
2984.19 189.61 206.48 2.23 207.21 2.36
2902.72 189.48 206.44 2.28 207.18 2.41
2805.54 190.24 206.43 2.22 207.17 2.35
2696.16 190.22 206.40 2.28 207.13 2.41
2507.88 190.23 206.32 2.40 207.04 2.55 cs 0 @ 236m U/S of Tarkera weir
2452.09 190.48 206.25 2.58 206.97 2.74 cs 27 @ 180m U/S of Tarkera weir
2255.78 190.07 206.23 2.41 206.95 2.57 cs 28 @ 16m D/S of Tarkera weir
2058.92 191.26 206.16 2.49 206.88 2.63
1907.94 190.41 206.18 2.14 206.91 2.25
1805.92 190.95 206.15 2.15 206.88 2.25
1639.82 190.91 206.09 2.26 206.80 2.40
1534.96 190.34 206.05 2.33 206.76 2.48
1432.23 190.63 206.04 2.23 206.75 2.36
1304.86 190.80 206.00 2.25 206.72 2.39
1204.36 190.65 205.99 2.18 206.71 2.29
1075.39 190.44 205.96 2.20 206.67 2.31
973.22 190.05 205.92 2.26 206.62 2.40
0.00 190.18 205.75 1.95 206.46 2.04
PREDICTION OF FLOW PARAMETERS AND

HYDRAULIC DESIGN
The one dimensional mathematical model HEC-RAS was used
to predict water levels and velocities at the proposed Intake site.
The Water level and corresponding discharge data available at
Panposh gauging site of CWC about 4 km upstream of proposed
Intake site was utilised for model calibration. For different
discharges, the flow simulations were carried out by providing
normal depth condition at the downstream boundary, for which
the bed slope of river was taken as 1 in 4464 (as per available
survey drawings) and about 1 in 2460 m in downstream of
Tarkera weir. Discharges were used as the upstream boundary,
and n value was taken as 0.04. The n value was decided
considering lot of rock exposures in bed in this reach. It was
seen from the extrapolated gauge discharge data at Panposh Fig. 7 : Water Surface Profiles along Brahmani River
that the water level was about RL 207.2 m for the discharge of
14,000 m3/s and matches well with the water level obtained by The general scour was worked out considering maximum
Mathematical model for this discharge (RL 207.49 m). Similarly discharge of 15,700 m3/s and silt factor of 0.9799 for D50 = 0.31
water level at Panposh for discharge of 12,000 m3/s was RL mm of bed material (sand). Considering 450 m river width
206.60 m from the G-Q curve and RL 206.50 m from the during high flood stage (as per the cross-section data), average
mathematical model, which shows a very good conformity. discharge intensity would be 34.88 m3/s/m and increasing it by
The high flood of 15,700 m3/s was also simulated by providing 40% for flow concentration, the maximum intensity of discharge
normal depth as the downstream boundary condition and has been considered as 48.84 m3/s/m. Taking into account local
discharge at the upstream boundary. The Table-1 shows the scour for 8.0 m diameter of Intake well, the maximum Scour
water levels and velocities worked out with HEC-RAS at levels were worked out on the basis of criterion laid down by the
different locations. From this table, it was seen that at proposed various investigators like Sir Claude Inglis, Dr. H.W. Shen etc.
Intake site, water levels and velocities for flood of 15,700 m3/s Considering the HFL of RL 207.0 m with the two different
were RL 207.04 m (Fig.7) and 2.55 m/s respectively, whereas criterion, the maximum Scour levels were at RL 170.96 m and
RL 183.88 m respectively. The foundation level is to be decided

1
considering sufficient grip length below this level. Foundation Research scholar, Department of Civil Engineering,
level may however be restricted at higher level in case good Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology,
quality rock is encountered above this level. Nagpur, 440 010, India, Email: balbirr@yahoo.com
2
Table-2 Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
Maximum Scour level at Intake considering different Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology,
approaches Nagpur, 440 010, India, Email: avasudeo@yahoo.com
Sl.No. Scientific General Scour Well Maximu
Approac Diamete m Scour ABSRACT: Dams are critical flood control devices and a
h r level
1
major source of electric power, irrigation etc. An effort has
been made in this paper to optimized the parameter of dam as
1 Inglis
q 2
3
DL 1.34 HFL- 2
DL
even a small variation in the length or width of the dam can
f 8m
= 170.96
overall reduce the tremendous cost of the structure. An excel
= 18.02 m m sheet has been prepared for this purpose with procedure
Water depth available at followed by Indian Standard Code IS 6512 Criteria for the
HFL=17m design of the gravity dam in which the parameter of the dam
1 like length; width has been change to get the optimized
2 Shen Q 3 parameter with the permissible stresses within the safe limit as
D 0.473 = HFL- D
1.4b per the standards of code for the hydraulic structure.
f 8m
= 183.88 Keywords: Gravity Dam, Design, Optimization parameter,
11.92 m m
Water depth available at Critical values, Safety limits criteria, stresses.
HFL=17m
1. INTRODUCTION:
CONCLUSIONS
Morphological and one dimensional mathematical model studies Hydraulic Structures are important components of Water
were carried out for deciding intake location in Brahmani river. Resources Engineering systems. Hydraulic structures such as
The analysis of Topo sheet, satellite imageries and cross-sections dams, weirs, spillways, stilling basins, energy dissipaters etc
of river Brahmni revealed that the course of river Brahmni is constitute major components of water resources projects. These
stable at proposed Intake location for more than 60 years. Hence, are the main components of the system and the primary focus of
the proposed location of intake well about 70 m upstream of analysis. Conventionally these structures are designed using
existing RSP intake and at 80 m from left bank in deep channel standard methods and codes. The design methods adopted are
of Brahmni river was hydraulically satisfactory. The founding also well established. But still it has been documented by many
level of RL 170.96 m for the 8 m outer diameter Intake well was of the researchers that the structures do not perform well during
considered necessary from maximum scour depth analysis and the design life. It has also been observed in standard literature
adequate provision of grip length. Intake shall be provided with that these structures fail without prior warning which leads to
one opening of size 2.2 m X 1.0 m at each of levels at RL 193.0 catastrophic events.
m and 199.0 m and could be operated effectively during
The hydraulic and structural analysis and methods adopted in
monsoon period to minimise the sediment entry into the intake
designing of these structures are very complex. Even a small
well. The formation level / pump floor level could be kept at
saving in the height or width of the dam without affecting the
least 2.0 m above the HFL i.e. at RL 209.0 m at Intake location.
safety of the structure can give a lot of saving to the structure.
The construction / sinking of intake well is to be undertaken in
The present study is aimed at proposing a research methodology
such a manner that the river flow conditions are least disturbed
for the design of big Water Resources Engineering systems. In
and cofferdams / sheet piles etc. provided during sinking should
India specific design codes are available which document step
be removed as early as possible before the monsoon flood.
wise procedure for the design of Dams, Spillways, Conveyance
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
channel etc. However these components of the water resources
Authors express deep sense of gratitude to Shri S. Govindan,
systems are treated in isolation. An algorithm is prepared to
Director, CWPRS for constant encouragement and valuable
optimize the parameter of the design of the gravity dam in the
suggestions during preparation of papers and consent to publish
present case. The design procedure is adopted by Indian
this paper. The co-operation extended by all the CWPRS staff
Standard IS-6512:1984, Criteria for the design of solid
members in conducting studies is great- fully acknowledged.
gravity dam. To make the optimization procedure more
REFERENCES
i. CWPRS Technical report No. 5095, August 2013, Water
understandable, a Microsoft Excel Sheet program is prepared to
Availability and Intake Studies for Expansion of Rourkela analyze the effects of varying dimensions and the factors on
Power Plant of NSPCL, Odisha. which the design is dependent. The sheet provides a good tool to
check the permissible stresses and stability of the dam against
Study of Effect on the Stresses & Safety of Gravity sliding and overturning and safety within the permissible limits
Dam with Changes in Width Parameter prescribed in the IS Code.
B.S. Ruprai1 A.D Vasudeo2 2. MATERIAL AND METHOD:

By varying the width of dam on both the upstream side and the than that. In our case the slope is not directly started from the top
downstream side the stresses are studied for all the different width from optimization point of the view and hence to reduce
cases of the dam which are discussed in brief in result and the amount of concrete the slope is kept less as that of the
discussion. The Design constant taken is the height of the dam upstream height and the downstream height is kept H c as shown
which will depend on water level and free board. Design in the Figure No. 1 from the economy point of the view.
variables are the sloping projection of height on the upstream Mathematically the equation can be written as given below:
side of the dam considered as X1, width of the dam on the 0.6Hc2 X3 0 &X3 0.8Hc2 0
upstream side of the dam is taken as X2 and width of the dam on
Or (4)
the downstream side of the dam is considered as X3. A typical;
Diagram Showing these parameters is in Figure No : 1. Thus by varying the above values the optimized width is
obtained as in this paper a parameter on the downstream side of
the width is only reduced as there is significant saving in the
concrete and their by directly affecting the cost of the dam is
studied which are discussed in the results. As there is not
considerable saving in the dam if the parameter of X 2 is reduced
because already taken very steeper as they play less importance
in the stability of the dam as majority of the dam is have higher
width on the downstream side only.
For case 1, the dam is checked for the reservoir empty
conditions in which the eccentricity is less than < b/6 means no
tension will be developed and vertical stresses are checked at toe
and heel and are within the permissible limits. Also the stability
is checked by the formula as stated in Indian Standard Code IS
Figure No. 1 : Typical diagram showing the parameters of dam 6512:1984 as under:
By observing the Figure No. 1, it is evident that the upstream ( w u ) tan CA
and downstream slopes have a great impact on the values of X2
F Fo (5)
and X3 which in turn will govern the total base with of the dam. F
P
Whereas X1 remains unaffected as it is the Height which already F=Factor of safety,
is assumed to be constant. w=total mass of the dam,
By varying the slope the decrease in any of the above parameter u=total uplift force,
tan = coefficient of internal friction of the material
can directly change the dimensions of the dam and in either case
reduce or increase the total size and will affect the stresses and
stability. The above equation for design variables can be C=cohesion of the material at the plane considered
mathematically written as: A= area under consideration for cohesion
X = f [x1, x2, x3]T (1) F =partial factor of safety in respect of friction,
As for the geometric constraints if we consider the Y axis of the Fo=partial factor of safety in respect of cohesion, and
dam, the design variables X1 which limit from the geometry of P= total horizontal force
the gravity dam can be studied from the figure no. 1 with the Also the stability is checked for the overturning moment and
minimum level of the dam ie origin to the maximum level of the given by the formula as under:
dam ie total height H of the dam and can be mathematically Factor of safety against overturning = Resisting
written in the form of equation as given below: Moment/Overturning Moment and should be less than the IS
(2) code permissible limit.
Similarly the stresses and stability are checked considering the
Similarly, the second design variable if we follow the X axis of reservoir full condition, considering uplift for case 2, reservoir
the dam which will be the upstream side slope of the gravity full condition, considering no uplift for case 3 and reservoir full
dam is kept to the steeper limiting angle because in the angle is condition with drains chocked for case 4 which are discussed in
reduced the width will increase on the upstream side of the dam details in result and conclusion by adopting the above algorithm
which is not advise due to less contribution to the safety and for the programming.
stability of the dam and also create the hindrance of the storage
capacity of the dam. Hence the slope is steeper from the above 3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION:
point of the view and its limit can expressed in the mathematical
from as given below: Form the standard literature a generalized dam section is
optimized by changing the width of the dam; stresses and
(3)
stability are checked to satisfy the Indian Standard Code. The
Regarding the third design variable which is also along the X- result and discussion are given below and by reviewing the
axis of the Figure No. 1 that will be the downstream side slope graphs, it can be studied that there is very small change in the
of the gravity dam and it will depend on the engineers decision stresses as the width is reduced by 0.1m from 51m to 50m after
whether to start the slope from the top width of the dam or lower

which their the dam is not safe in sliding criteria. The detailed
discussion of the result is as under.
Figure No. 4: Variation of Parameter of dam & Stresses with change in the
width of toe for reservoir full condition with no uplift
Consider case 3 of dam for reservoir full condition with no uplift

Figure No. 2: Variation of Parameter of dam & Stresses with in which with the variation in parameter of dam & stresses are
change in the width of toe for reservoir Empty Case studied with change in the width of toe and as from the above
Consider Case 1 for reservoir empty condition in which with the Figure 4, the various parameter of dam like eccentricity, various
variation in parameter of dam & stresses are studied with change stresses are checked for reservoir full condition with uplift case
in the width of toe and as from the above Figure No. 2, the and the width of the dam at toe is reduced from 51m to 50m with
various parameter of dam like eccentricity, various stresses are height constant and the stresses are safe for this condition, but if
checked for reservoir empty condition and the width of the dam we reduce further the width the stresses does not remain safe as
at toe is reduced from 51m to 50m with height constant and the per the Indian Standards. The factor of Safety against Sliding
stresses are safe for this condition, but if we reduce further the and Overturning satisfy the safety criteria for this case.
width the stresses does not remain safe as per the Indian
Standards. The factor of Safety against Sliding and Overturning
satisfy the safety criteria for this case.
Figure No. 5: Variation of Parameter of dam & Stresses with change in the width
of toe for reservoir full condition drains chocked
Figure No. 3: Variation of Parameter of dam & Stresses with
change in the width of toe for reservoir full condition with uplift Consider case 4 of dam for reservoir full condition with no uplift
Consider case 2 of dam for reservoir full condition with uplift in in which with the variation in parameter of dam & stresses are
which with the variation in parameter of dam & stresses are studied with change in the width of toe and as from the above
studied with change in the width of toe and as from the above Figure 4, the various parameter of dam like eccentricity, various
Figure 3, the various parameter of dam like eccentricity, various stresses are checked for reservoir full condition with uplift case
stresses are checked for reservoir full condition with uplift case and the width of the dam at toe is reduced from 51m to 50m with
and the width of the dam at toe is reduced from 51m to 50m with height constant and the stresses are safe for this condition, but if
height constant and the stresses are safe for this condition, but if we reduce further the width the stresses does not remain safe as
we reduce further the width the stresses does not remain safe as per the Indian Standards. The factor of Safety against Sliding is
per the Indian Standards. The factor of Safety against Sliding the only component which is not safe while the overturning
and Overturning satisfy the safety criteria for this case. criteria satisfy safety for this case. Thus by providing Sliding
key of small size the sliding criteria can also be satisfied.
4. CONCLUSION:
The economy can be further achieved by reducing the width of

the dam as the stresses are within the safety limit. Just by

decreasing the width of the dam by just one meter and satisfying ABSTRACT: A balanced ecosystem consisting of soil, water,
the stress and stability a considerable saving in the cost is and vegetation is essential for the Survival and welfare of
achieved. As the constraints of the width of the dam which human. However, over-exploitation of natural resources
cannot be reduced further due to sliding of the gravity dam is not created disturbances in ecosystems and induces natural
within the permissible limit, but if we consider the structural hazards. Erosion and Sedimentation are major issues in
aspect by provision of shear key the width of the dam can be disrupted ecosystems. Soil erosion is a major environmental
further reduced to get more economy. As our limitation of the and agricultural problem worldwide. The loss of soil from
research is to have normal gravity dam without shear key hence farmland may be reflected in reduced crop production
the economy of the width can be optimized upto certain limit potential, lower surface water quality and damaged drainage
only. networks. We have studied the environmentally stressed area in
a catchment using USPED model. In this attempt my study
5. APPENDIX I area is The Kodar reservoir, constructed across river Kodar,
Consider the example in which the dam is design for the below a tributary of river Mahanadi. The dam is constructed on
mentioned case which is safe in all the design aspect as taken Raipur Sambalpur national highway at a distance of 65
from standard literature, but if applying the algorithm stated km from Raipur near village Kowajhar in Mahasamund
above the width of the heel is reduced to 60m without affecting district. We studied the soil stresses area of the Kodar
the safety their by achieving considerable saving in the concrete reservoir using USPED model. This model is built on the
and hence the overall economy. backbone of the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) and the
Total Width of the dam = 61m Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) models.. It
Width of the heel = 51m depends on Rainfall erosivity factor, Soil erodibility factor,
Width of the toe = 10m Topographic index, Cover and management factor and
Height of the dam = 65m Support practice factor. It predicts the spatial distribution of
erosion and deposition rates for a steady state overland flow
6. REFRENCES: associated with a given rainfall input. We have generated the
thematic layers in GIS for development of USPED modelBy
i. Cohn, M. Z. and Dinovitzer, A. S., (1994). Application of structural
optimization, Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 120(2): 617650. using the method we have given the priorities and divided sub-
ii. E.J. Haug and J.S Arora, 1979. Applied optimal design, Wiley- watersheds as very high, high, moderate, low and very low
Interscience, New York. priority. We have concluded that out of 67 sub-watershed 8 sub
iii. F. Gonzlez-Vidosa, V. Yepes, J. Alcal, M. Carrera, C. Perea and I.
Pay-Zaforteza., (2000). Optimization of Reinforced Concrete Structures by
watershed comes under very high, 2 under high, 3 under
Simulated Annealing, School of Civil Engineering,Universidad Politcnica moderate and rest under low and very low priority.
Valencia, Spain. Keywords: USPED, Watershed, soil erodibility.
iv. IS 6512: Indian Standard Code of practice for design of gravity dam,
2010.
v. Kirsch, U., (1997), How to optimize prestressed concrete beams,
1. INTRODUCTION
Guide to structural optimization. Edited by J.S. Arora. ASCE Manuals and Sediments deposited in the reservoir can be transported into the
Reports on Engineering Practice No. 90, American Society of Civil Engineers, headrace tunnel and can lead to the wearing of mechanical parts
New York. pp. 7592. of the Power station units such as buckets and the needle valves.
vi. Lazan, B. J., (1959). Energy dissipation mechanisms in structures The silting of reservoir can reduce the storage capacity of
with particular reference tomaterial damping, in Structural Dynamics, edited by J.
E. Ruzcka, ASME Annual Meeting, Atlantic City, N. J. reservoir and high level of sediment deposited in the dam can
vii. S.S. Rao., 1977. Optimization theory and applications (Second also raise concern for the stability of the dam. Soil Erosion and
Edition), 1977 Wilsey Eastern Limited, New Delhi. sedimentation are the major environmental and agricultural
viii. U. Kirsch, 1981. Optimum Structural Design, McGraw Hill, New
problem worldwide. A balanced ecosystem consisting of soil,
York.
ix. Zienkiewicz, O. C. and Taylor, R. L., (1991). The Finite Element water and vegetation is necessary for the survival and fortunes of
Method, McGraw-Hill, London, Fourth edition. human being. Nearly 12106 ha of available land are destroyed
annually and to adequately feed people a diverse diet about 0.5
ha of arable land per capita is needed but only 0.27 ha per capita
is available. The world population is increasing and there is
continuously degradation of land by erosion resulting in food
shortages and malnutrition. However, over-exploitation of
Assessment of environmentally stressed areas for natural resources created disturbances in ecosystems and induces
soil conservation measures using usped model. natural hazards. Although the erosion has occurred throughout
the history of agriculture it has intensified in the recent years.
Bikram Prasad1, R K Jaiswal2 and Dr H.L Tiwari3 Hence in this study we will identify the erosion affected area and
1.
Ph.D Scholar MANIT, Bhopal will conclude some preventive measures to minimize the soil
2
Scientist, National Instiute of Hydrology Bhopal loss.
3
Assistant Professor, MANIT Bhopal. 1.1 Soil erosion by water
Email: bikram2010@gmail.com Soil erosion is a naturally occurring process and is the wearing
of a field's top soil by the natural physical forces of water and

wind or through forces associated with farming activities such as (3)

tillage. Soil erosion is a slow process that continues relatively
unnoticed, or it may occur at an alarming rate causing serious Where, a represents the aspect of the terrain (the direction of
loss of topsoil. The loss of soil from agricultural land can lead to maximum hill slope gradient in the horizontal plane in degrees).
reduction in crop production potential, lower surface water 3.1.1 Rainfall erosivity factor (R)
quality and damaged drainage networks. It depends upon various The R factor is calculated by rainfall and the energy imparted to
factors such as rainfall erosivity factor, soil erodibility the land surface by the impact of rain drop. Rainfall erosion
topographic factor vegetation and tillage practices index implies a numerical evaluation of a rainstorm which
2. STUDY AREA describes its capacity to erode soil from an unprotected field. It
The Kodar reservoir which is constructed on river Kodar, a is a function of intensity and duration of rainfall and mass,
tributary of river Mahanadi has been selected for the systematic diameter, and velocity of the rain drop.
and scientific study of reservoir sedimentation, sediment yield Annual R factor, Ra 79 0.363 * PA (4)
from catchment areas and prioritization of catchment for soil
where, PA is the annual rainfall in mm and Ra are annual R-
conservation measures.
factor in MJ mmha-1yr-1. The theissen map (Fig. 1) of Kodar
3. METHODOLOGY
catchment has been prepared using the ILWIS 3.0 software and
3.1. USPED
it observed that Kodar catchment is affected by Kodar,
This model is developed on the backbone of the Universal Soil
Bagbahara and Bartunga R.G. stations. The weights and R-factor
Loss Equation (USLE) and the Revised Universal Soil Loss
for different RG stations have been presented in The value of
Equation (RUSLE) models. The USPED model considers
annual and seasonal R-factor for Kodar reservoir catchment has
divergence and convergence of slope by modelling, in a
been obtained as 429.39 MJmmha-1hr-1 and 402.94 MJmmha-1hr-
geographic information system environment, the entire upslope 1
respectively. The weights of Kodar, Bagbahara and Bartunga
area that contributes to the overland flow of water across every
RG stations have been computed as 0.50, 0.48 and 0.02
point in the landscape. The model more fully accounts for
respectively. The rainfall in the study area concentrated mainly in
topographic complexity by considering both in the downhill
the month of July, August and September. By using the operation
direction and the perpendicular to the downhill direction. It
attribute map input as thessien polygon and table as R value
computes both soil erosion and sediment deposition as the
output Rmap is generated is shown Fig 2.
change in sediment transport capacity in the direction of flow.
This paper attempts to identify the spatial patterns of soil erosion
within the catchment area on river Kodar, a tributary of river
Mahanadi in Raipur. Maps of erosion and deposition were
derived for catchment area of river Kodar, a tributary of river
Mahanadi and its individual sub-basins by implementing the
USPED model. The USPED model employs a stream power-
based sediment transport model with an expression of mass
conservation to simulate soil erosion and deposition. The model
departs from the RUSLE annual average soil loss equation
expressed by E (tons/acre/year).
(1)
Where R represents the rainfall erosivity index, K the soil Fig 1: Thessien polygon map of the study area
erodibility factor, LS the slope length and steepness, C the land
cover management factor, and P represents the support practices
factor.
The USPED model assumes that sediment transport rates are
determined by the erosional strength of flowing water, and never
limited by the supply of transportable soil particles. Thus it is
assumed that the sediment transport rate (capacity) is given by:
(2)
where b represents the local surface slope (degrees), m and n are
constants depending on the type of flow and soil properties,
where the constants m and n have the values 1.6 and 1.3
respectively for prevailing rill erosion and 1 for prevailing sheet
erosion. The results of the USPED model represent relative
magnitudes of the soil erosion and deposition rates rather
specific soil loss values traditionally expressed in tons/acre/year.
The net rate of soil erosion or deposition (ED) is given by the
two-dimensional (horizontal plane) divergence of the sediment
flux that expresses mass conservation:

Fig 2: Rmap for the Kodar catchment Fig. 3: Kmap for the Kodar catchment
3.1.3 Topographic index ( )
3.1.2 Soil erodibility factor (K) The topographic index was calculated using the Digital
Elevation Model which has been generated using contour map
The soil erodibility factor relates the rate at which different soils and point elevation map obtained from the seamless data
erode. K is expressed as soil loss per unit of area per unit of R distribution database. The use of DEM has been documented by
from a standard plot (a plot of 22.3m long with a uniform slope Mitasova et al (1996) to be the most reliable elevation data when
of 9% under continuous fallow and tilled parallel to the slope. In higher resolution data is unavailable because it allows for lower
case of USLE, the standard levels of systematic errors and artifacts of analysis compared to
100 K 2.1M 1Kodar
.14
(10 4 )(12 a ) 3.25(b 2) 2.5( c 3) (5) the lower resolution DEMs that are available. The interpolation
Bagbahar
where, M is the percent of a silt, very fine sand and clay [(% of for contour map and rasterize operation for point elevation has
Bar t unga
very fine sand+% of silt)*(100-% of clay)], a is the organic been performed to get two separate raster maps. The iff
matter, b is the structure of the soil (very fine granular=1, fine statement of ILWIS has been used to combine both the raster
granular=2, coarse granular=3, lattic or massive=4) and c is the maps to get the DEM. The points defining the flow line are
permeability of the soil (fast=1, fast to moderately fast=2, computed as the points of intersection of a line constructed in the
moderately fast =3, moderately fast to slow=4, slow=5, very flow direction given by aspect angle a: and a grid cell edge. The
slow=6). For determination of organic matter from organic Map Calculation option of raster operation in ILWIS has been
carbon a factor 1.724 has been used (BUB, 2007; Wayne et al, used to determine topographic factor map (Fig. 4).
2003). The soil map of the study area has been taken from the
soil map of National Bureau of Soil Survey & Land Use
Planning (NBSS&LUP). By using the operation attribute map
and feeding the table as Kvalue, Kmap has been generated in
the ILWIS 3.0 software (Table 1 & Fig. 3).
Table 1: Computation of K-factor for soils in the study area 573.63

515.99
Nomencl % % Silt % M a b c K 458.35
ature Fine Clay Fact 400.72
sand or 343.08
657 2668. 1.6 285.44
&670 11.03 11.32 1.80 59 2 3 1 0.15

12.2 2850. 2.0
689 8.60 23.87 2 38 3 3 1 0.20
Fig 4: Digital elevation model for Kodar catchment
1171. 1.6
710 6.30 5.41 0.00 00 2 3 3 0.09 3.1.4 Cover and management factor (C)
1819. 1.2 The main role of vegetation cover in the interception of the rain
733 4.47 14.12 2.14 22 1 3 3 0.15 drops is that their kinetic energy is dissipated by them. The crop
2910. 1.9 management factor is the expected ratio of soil loss from land
746 3.20 26.87 3.22 32 7 3 2 0.20
cropped under specified conditions to soil loss from clean, tilled
3086. 0.8
747 10.03 19.83 0.00 00 6 3 2 0.24 fallow or identical soil and slope and under the same rainfall.
Available soil loss data from undisturbed land were not
sufficient to derive C values by direct comparison of measured
soil loss rates, as was done for the development of C values for
cropland. The following equation suggested by Van der et al.
1999, 2000 has been used for estimation of C factor.

NDVI conservation measures. The histogram of the resultant map has

C exp NDVI (6) been used to estimate the rate of soil erosion from the catchment.
The -value of 2 and -value of 1 gave good results ( Ioannis et The land use classification of the study area has been taken from
al, 2009) have been used in the study. It has been observed that IRS LISS IV data. Using spectral signatures of various land
some values of C-factor may be reached to value greater than the uses, sample sets for different land uses have been prepared. The
limiting value of 1.0 and hence a scaling factor Z was used to maximum likelihood technique of classification has been used
keep the C-factor within the range of 0 to 1 (Mokua, 2009). The for generation of land use map of Kodar catchment. From the
equation 3.6 can be written as: analysis, it has been observed that the Kodar catchment is an
agriculture watershed covering nearly eighty percent of
NDVI watershed with dense forest on the ridges only. Several small

NDVI
C Z exp (7) water bodies in the form of village tanks have been found in
For computation of value of Z, a scalar graph can be plotted Kodar catchment which is used for bathing, cattle, recreation and
between NDVI and C-factor and value of Z has been determined other house hold work.
by iterations to scale the values of C-factors from 0 to 1.
NDVI has been calculated from the equation
RED NIR (8)

NDVI
RED NIR
RED is Band III and NIR is Band IV of IRS satellites (IRS ID
and P6). For determination of C-factor map of the study area, the
NDVI image of LISS III data for the study area has been
generated. The C-factor-map using equation 7 has been prepared
and a graph between NDVI and C-factor values has been plotted.
From the analysis of graph, it has been observed that the some of
the C-factor values were going above the limiting value of C-
factor. Therefore, a correction factor of 0.6246 has been applied Fig 6: P map for the Kodar catchment
to keep all the values between 0 and 1 (Fig. 5). 4. ANALYSIS AND RESULT
The map of all the factors responsible for developing the
USPED model is generated. The sediment flux is than calculated
by multiplication of all the maps separately for both rill and
sheet. The directional derivative of the sediment transport
capacity is than computed using the command Mapfilter. Finally
using the Map slicing command the Erosional Depositional map
for sheet and rill is generated.
Fig 3.5 C map for the Kodar catchment

3.1.5 Support practice factor (P)
Conservation practice conditions consist mainly in the methods
of land use and tillage, and the agro technology. The amount of
soil loss from a given land is influenced by the land management
practice adopted. The value of P ranges from 1.0 for up and
down cultivation to 0.25 for contour strip cropping of gentle
slope. In case of USPED model, the agricultural area of
catchment has been divided in different slope ranges and
according to slope, the values of P-factor have been assigned
(Fig. 6). For other land uses, standard values considering no
conservation measures have been given. All the thematic maps
have been generated in ILWIS GIS for USPED model. After
multiplication of thematic maps R, K, LS, C and P-factors, the
annual and seasonal soil loss maps giving spatial distribution of
soil losses have been generated. It has been observed from the
field visits that presently no conservation measures are being
implemented in study area, P-factor map has been generated
using P-factor values for different land uses with no

SW-29 SW-30
SW-31 SW-34
SW-35 SW-36
SW-37 SW-39
SW-40 SW-41
SW-42 SW-43
SW-47 SW-51
SW-52 SW53
SW-54 SW-55
SW-56 SW-58
SW-59
Total 307.71
Fig 7: Sheet and Rill Erosion and Deposition after map slicing in
Kodar catchment.
4.1 Watershed prioritization using usped model :
From the histogram all the erosional value for the sub-watershed
has been taken and mean average value is calculated. Both the
sheet and rill erosion value has been taken and the erosional
value has been sorted0 between 0 and 1. The priorities of sub-
watersheds have been divided in the various ranges i.e. more
than 0.50 as very high, 0.50 to 0.30 as high, 0.30 to 0.20 as
moderate, 0.20 to 0.10 as low and less than 0.10 as very low
priority.
4.2 Overall prioritization: Fig 8: Overall Prioritization of Watershed
The overall priority has been evaluated by taking the mean of the 5. CONCLUSION
sheet and rill value. The final priorities of sub-watersheds have Intensified pressures on the land and an improved understanding
been divided in the various ranges i.e. more than 0.50 as very of human impacts on the environment are leading to profound
high, 0.50 to 0.30 as high, 0.30 to 0.20 as moderate, 0.20 to 0.10 changes in land management. This trend has a significant impact
as low and less than 0.10 as very low priority, so that on the development of supporting GIS and modelling tools. In
environmentally stressed areas can be identified for soil this paper, a soil erosion model at Kodar catchment with the
conservation measures integration of USPED (Unit Stream Power Erosion and
Table 4.1 Overall Prioritization of Sub Watershed Deposition) and GIS tools has been developed to estimate the
annual soil loss. Different components of USPED were modelled
S.N. Priority Range No. of Sub-Watershed Total using various mathematical formulae to explore the relationship
Class of final watershed area between Rainfall emissivity, Soil erodibilty, Topographic factor,
priority (sq.
km) Crop factor and Practice factor maps. The USPED model was
1. V. high Up to 08 SW-2, SW-38, implemented in geographic information system (GIS) for
0.50 SW-44. SW-45, predicting the spatial patterns of soil erosion risk required for
SW -46, SW-48, soil conservation planning From the analysis of the Kodar
SW-49 and SW-
63 24.29
catchment using USPED model it has been observed that 52.22
2. High 0.50 to 02 SW-61 and SW- km2 area has been subjected to sheet erosion, while the eroded
0.3 64 9.93 material may deposit in 42.48 km2 area of Kodar reservoir. The
3. Moderate 0.30 to 03 SW-60, SW-62 areas affected by sheet erosion may be treated with agronomic
0.20 and SW-65 23.65 measures of soil conservation such as contour farming, contour
4. Low 0.20 to 07 SW-1, SW-5,
0.10 SW-32, SW-50, bunding, bench terracing etc on cropped land and afforestation,
SW-57, SW-66 agro- forestry on degraded forest and barren lands. Similarly,
and SW-67 41.08 55.25 km2 areas of Kodar reservoir may be affected by rill
5. V. low Less 47 SW-3, SW-4, erosion where suitable mechanical soil conservation measures in
than SW-6, SW-7,
0.10 SW-8 SW-9, the form check dams, gully plugs etc. may be constructed.
SW-10, SW-11, According to this model, approximately in 67.8 % of the basin
SW-12 SW-14 has very low erosion risk and 13.38 percent has low erosion risk
SW-15 SW-16 7.77 percent area has moderate risk. But erosion risk is high on
SW-17 SW-18
SW-19 SW-20 3.3% and Very High on 7.89% of the basin. In general, it is clear
SW-21 SW-22 from the results of this study that the developed model is
SW-23 SW-24 beneficial for the rapid assessment of soil erosion.
SW-25 SW-26 REFERENCES
SW-27 SW-28 208.76

i. Alejandra, Puerto, Rico., Gonzlez, M, Rojas.,(2008) Soil erosion includes the management of ground and surface water
calculation using remote sensing and GIS in ro grande de arecibo watershed,
Annual Conference Portland, Oregon.
sources, water treatment and distribution systems, human
ii. Bhattarai, Rabin., & Dutta, Dushmata., (2006) Estimation of Soil demands, wastewater treatment and collection systems, water
Erosion and Sediment Yield Using GIS at Catchment Scale Springer Science reuse facilities, non potable water distribution infrastructure,
Business Media B.V.. aquifer storage and recharge facilities, storm water, and land
iii. Jones, S, David., Kowalski, G, David., and Shaw, B, Robert., (1996)
Calculating Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) Estimates on
use. The model was formulated as a linear program and
Department of Defense Lands: A Review of RUSLE Factors and U.S. Army Land applied to Godavari basin in India. Results according to the
Condition-Trend Analysis (LCTA) Data Gaps. study carried out demonstrate the merits of integrated
iv. Kumar, Suresh., and Kushwaha, SPS., Modeling Soil Erosion Risk watershed management by showing the relative effectiveness
based on RUSLE-3D using GIS in a Shivalik sub-watershed.
v. Liu, Jinxun., Liu, Shuguang., Tieszen L. Larry and Chen, (2014)
and economic efficiency of undervalued management options ,
Mingshi Estimating Soil Erosion Using the USPED Model and Conservation the value of management strategies that provide several
Remotely Sensed Land Cover Observations functions such as the benefits of increased infiltration for
vi. May, Linda., and Place, Chris., (2005) GIS-based model of soil meeting both storm water and water supply management
erosion and transport Freshwater Forum
vii. Mitasova, H. and Mitas, L., (1999) Erosion/deposition modeling with
objectives and that both human and environmental water
USPED using GIS. http://www2.gis.uiuc.edu:2280/modviz/erosion/usped.html. needs can be met by simultaneously implementing multiple
viii. Mitasova, Helena., Hofierka, Jaroslav., Zlocha, Maros., & Iverson, diverse management tools, which in this case study led to
R, Louis., (1996) Modelling topographic potential for erosion and deposition using achieving 60-65% of the recommended in-stream flow with
GIS, International Journal of Geographical Information Systems, , VOL 10, NO 5,
629-641.
only 25% decrease in net benefits.
ix. Nearing, M.A., Jetten, V. , Baffaut, C., Cerdan, Couturierd, A., Keywords: Optimization models; Integrated systems; Water
Hernandeza, M., Le Bissonnaise, Y., Nicholsa, H, M., Nunesf, P, J., Renschlerg, supply; Watersheds; Water management; Storm water
C.S., V. Souche`reh,. Oost, van, K., (2005) Modeling response of soil erosion and management; Land management; Wastewater management;
runoff to changes in precipitation and cover.
x. Paige, Ginger., and Zygmunt, Jennifer.,(2012) The science behind
Groundwater recharge
wildfire effects on water quality and erosion.
xi. Pistocchi, A., Cassani, G., and Zani, O., (2009) Use of the USPED 1. INTRODUCTION
model for mapping soil erosion and managing best land conservation practices,
47100 Forl, Italy practices
xii. Pricope, G, Narcisa., (2009) Assessment of Spatial Patterns of Water is an important resource which is used in each and every
Sediment Transport and Delivery for Soil and Water Conservation Programs, industrial sector. But the increasing demand on water from the
Journal of Spatial Hydrology Vol.9, No.1 Spring. sectors emphasizes the need of integrated watershed. It therefore
xiii. Wordofa, Gossa., (2011) Soil erosion modelling using GIS and
becomes necessary to understand what is a watershed, the
RUSLE on the EURAJOKI watershed FINLAND.
various kinds of interactions in a watershed, the side effects of
degradation of a watershed and basic approach on how to
implement a watershed management plan for a water source.
(USEPA publication.,2013)
A watershed is the area of land that delivers runoff water,

A Novel Optimisation Model Applied to Godavari sediment and dissolved substances to a river. It a unit which
River Basin collects, stores and releases water through the networks to the
R.B.Katiyar2,Balaji Dhopte1, Tejeswi Ramprasad1, Shashank main river. It is an integration of flora, fauna, land, water and
Tiwari2, Anil Kumar2, K.R.Gota2 their interacting elements.
1
Department of Chemical Engineering, Jawaharlal Nehru
Engineering College, Aurangabad-431003 It is quite clear that in order to study the integrated watershed
1
Department of Chemical Engineering, Maulana Azad National management we need to have a basic knowledge of the
Institute of Technology, Bhopal-462051 hydrological principles which govern the occurrence,
Email: shashanktiwari619@gmail.com, distribution, movement and properties of the water. The
katiyarphd2013@gmail.com hydrological cycle describes the various paths water may take
during its continuous circulation from ocean to atmosphere to
ABSTRACT: Integrated water resources management (IWRM) earth and back to ocean. Water is temporarily stored in streams,
is a rapidly developing field encompassing many disciplines in lakes, in the soil and as groundwater. The basic watershed
including ecology, engineering, economics, and policy. equation is given as:
Generic integrated watershed management optimization model P=I + F + E + T+ Q S
is developed to study efficiently a broad range of technical, Where, P is precipitation, I is interception, F is filtration, E is
economic, and policy management options within a watershed evaporation, T is plant transportation, Q is runoff and S is
system framework and choose the optimum combination of storage.
management strategies and associated water allocations for
designing a sustainable watershed management plan at Atmospheric moisture is one of the smallest storage volumes of
minimum cost. The watershed management model integrates the earths water, yet it is the most vital source of freshwater for
both natural and human elements of a watershed system and humankind. The distribution and amount of precipitation (P)

depends on air mass circulation patterns, distance and direction

from large water bodies and local topography. Precipitation may
be intercepted or captured by leaves, twigs, stems and soil
surface organic matter and returned to the atmosphere as water
vapour. This process known as interception (I) does not help to
recharge soil moisture or generate stream flow in fact it lessens
the impact of the raindrop on the soil surface and the danger of
soil erosion. When water reaches the ground surface, a portion
of it is absorbed by the soil. Infiltration (F) is the process of
water seeping into the soil and is controlled by surface soil
conditions, such as soil texture, vegetation type and land use. For
the purpose of integrated watershed management, necessity is to
develop models which focus on developing comprehensive
watershed management models as opposed to the existing
redundant hydrologic models. Such models are referred to as
integrated watershed management models. Two of these models
which are the most common models in practice are Water
Evaluation and Planning (WEAP) (Yates et.al, 2005) and Water BMPs- Best Management Practices,
Ware (Jamieson and Fedra., 1996) SW Surface Water
GW- Ground Water
2. MODEL FORMULATION WTP Water Treatment Plant
P use Potable use
The model introduced here is a generic lumped parameter model NP use Non Potable use
that combines the principles of the hydrologic cycle, human ASR Aquifer Storage and Recharge
water system and a wide range of management options. The WWTP Waste Water Treatment Plan
natural components of the watershed system are depicted with
white backgrounds. These include land use, runoff, percolation, 3. BACKGROUND
surface water, groundwater and external surface water, and
ground water. Run off and percolation is specified as unit values The river Godavari is the second largest river in the country and
of flow per land area for each land use type for a hydrologic the largest in Southern India. It raises in the Sahyadri hills at an
design condition. The land use component specifies the existing altitude of about 1067 m near Triambakeswar in the Nasik
area of each land use type. Surface water, representing rivers and district of Maharashtra State and flows across the Deccan
other landscape sources of water is assumed to have negligible plateau from the Western Ghats to Eastern Ghats. Rising in the
channel storage and hence empties completely within each time Western Ghats about 80 km from the shore of the Arabian sea, it
step. The underground water is the only natural watershed flows for a total length of about 1465 km in a general South-
component with a large storage capacity. The human Eastern direction through the States of Maharashtra and Andhra
components of the watershed system are depicted with gray and Pradesh before joining the Bay of Bengal at about 97 km south
black backgrounds. Gray is used for components that exist and of Rajahmundry in Andhra Pradesh.
are managed by water and waste water utilities. The human
system includes a reservoir, potable water treatment plant, The major tributaries joining the Godavari are the Pravara, the
potable distribution system, wastewater treatment plant, Purna, the Manjra, the Maner, the Pranhita, the Penganga, the
wastewater collection system, water reuse facility, non potable Wardha, the Wainganga, the Indravati and the Sabari. The
distribution system, septic systems, and aquifer storage and Godavari basin extends over an area of 312813 km2, which is
recharge facility. The reservoir may be a single reservoir or the nearly 10% of the total geographical area of the country. The
sum of many reservoirs assumed to be operated together as a basin comprises areas in the States of Maharashtra, Madhya
single reservoir system. The potable water treatment plant treats Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Orissa.
water from surface water, reservoir, or groundwater sources to
drinking water standards. The wastewater treatment plant The State-wise distribution of the areas is given in table below:
provides secondary wastewater treatment to meet surface water
discharge quality standards. Its effluent may be further treated Table 1: Distribution of Godavari river
by tertiary wastewater treatment at the water reuse facility.
(Zoltay, et.al. 2010) Sr. Name of the Drainage Percentage of the
No. state are total
Fig.1 : Schematic representation of the integrated watershed (km2) basin drainage area
management model 1. Maharashtra 152199 48.6
2. Madhya Pradesh 26168 8.4
3. Chhattisgarh 39087 12.5
4. Andhra Pradesh 73201 23.4

5. Karnataka 4406 1.4 hydrological observations at 48 stations have been under

6. Orissa 17752 5.7 operation. Out of these, 7 stations are on the main Godavari and
Total 312813 100.0 the remaining 41 are on its tributaries. In addition to gauge and
discharge observations, sediment load at 16 stations and water
quality monitoring at 18 stations are also being done. There are
Except for the hills forming the watershed around the basin, the 32 water quality measurement sites on the basin and as many as
entire drainage basin of the river Godavari comprises of 25 of them are for sediment measurements also. In addition,
undulating country, a series of ridges and valleys interspersed there are 24 gauge discharge observation stations in the basin.
with low hill ranges. Large flat areas which are characteristic of
the Indo-Gangetic plains are scarce except in the delta. The 4. IMPLEMENTATION OF MANAGEMENT OPTIONS
Sahyadri ranges of Western Ghats form the Western edge of the
basin. The interior of the basin is a plateau divided into a series The different ways by which the available water resources can
of valleys sloping generally towards East. The Eastern Ghats, be managed is by the effective application of judicious methods.
which form the Eastern boundary, are not so well defined as the This is where the management options come into picture. Once
Sahyadri range on the West. The Northern boundary of the basin the above model is applied we get the following management
comprises of tablelands with varying elevation. Large stretches options which are listed in the table : (Zoltay, et.al.,2010)
of plains interspersed by hill ranges lie to the South. Important
tributaries of Godavari is given the following table : (Integrated Table 3: Management options
Hydrological Data Book.,2006)
Module Management options
Storm water run off More bio retention units should be installed
Table 2: Tributaries of Godavari river Usage of land Forest land and cover should be preserved
More land should be purchased depending on
Sr. Name of Elevation Length Catchment Average need
No. the river of source of tributary Area annual Surface water pumping
(km) (sq.km.) Rainfall Groundwater pumping
(mm) Supply of water and Treatment of water
1 Upper 1,067 675 33502 770 treatment Surface storage
Godavari Repair of leakages in the distribution system
2 Pravara 1,050 208 6537 606 Demand management Increasing revenues for water and wastewater
3 Purna 838 373 15579 797 services
4 Manjira 823 724 30844 846 Secondary treatment
5 Middle 323 328 17205 955 Wastewater treatment Reuse by treating with tertiary methods
Godavari Distribution system for non potable water
6 Maner 533 225 13106 932 Repair in filtration into collection system
7 Penganga 686 676 23898 960 Aquifer storage Replenish ground water with water from
8 Wardha 777 483 24087 1055 reservoirs
9 Pranhita 640 721 61093 1363 Inter basin transfer Import potable water
10 Lower 107 462 24869 1208 Export waste water
Godavari
11 Indravati 914 535 41665 1588
12 Sabari 1,372 418 20427 1433 5. RESULTS OF WATER SHED MANAGEMENT MODEL
The water resources potential in Godavari basin has been The main storage capacity is in groundwater aquifers, which
assessed to be 110.54 km3.The utilisable surface water is about were used through ASR and bio retention units. Another
76.3 km3 ,the replenish able ground water is about 45 km3. There interesting aspect of these results is that both bio retention units
is a vast potential for irrigation development and hydropower and ASR were recommended even though they serve similar
generation in the basin. Prior to Independence only a few functions of recharging groundwater.The utilization of the bio
irrigation projects were constructed in Godavari basin. retention facility and the ASR facility highlights the need to
Important among these are Godavari delta system (with increase the ground water recharge in the basin. ASR is more
Dowlaiswaram weir as head works), Nizamsagar reservoir, effective and versatile than the bio retention units in terms of
Kadana dam and Pravara dam. After independence, under source of recharge water and the quantity of water flow.
various five year plans a large number of multipurpose and Although the repair of leaks in distribution infrastructure is
irrigation projects have been taken up. Themost important increasingly common, repairing sewer pipes to prevent the
among them are the Jaikwadi, Sriramsagar, Kadam, Upper infiltration of groundwater is generally considered too costly
Indravati, Singur and Godavari Barrage (by modernising the because of the deeper and larger diameter pipes.
existing gated weir at Dowlaiswaram). Since the mid1960's, the
Central Water Commission is conducting hydrological 6. CONCLUSION
observations in Godavari basin. Hydrological observation
stations have been established on main Godavari River as well An integrated watershed management optimization model to
as on all the important tributaries. During the year 2008-09, support informed decision making was introduced and used to
evaluate a wide range of management options including land-use

management to simultaneously address numerous watershed hilly watershed (Mawpun, Meghalaya) in North Eastern of India.
management objectives, which are traditionally modelled The watershed covers around 57.17 ha and falls under high
independently. The model demonstrated that with an increasing rainfall and high land slope conditions. For quantification of
diversity of management options, net benefits of watershed runoff, sediment yield from areas of different land uses and
management can increase. In addition, our results indicated that conservation practices of the watershed a physically based Water
demand management through price changes and the repair of Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP) model was used. The WEPP
leakage in water distribution and wastewater collection systems model was calibrated using meteorological data (2002 to 2004)
are effective management options as they were selected in all and most sensitive soil related parameters (namely, rill erodibility,
scenarios where they were available. The recommendation for interrill erodibility, effective hydraulic conductivity and critical
the joint implementation of ASR and bio retention units shear stress) of the small treated watershed (Mawpun watershed)
demonstrated that complex interactions among components of a and validated using data of 2005 and 2006 monsoon season. The
watershed necessitate the evaluation of management options performance of the model was also evaluated by estimating the
within a systems framework in order to realize the full impact of daily runoff and sediment yield using the monsoon season data of
management decisions and to enable informed decision making. different years. Coefficient of determination (R2) (0.720.96),
NashSutcliffe simulation model efficiency (0.710.95), and
REFERENCES: percent deviation values (16.4-21.2) indicate resonable simulation
accuracy of runoff from the watershed. High value of coefficient
i. Integrated Hydrological Data Book, Water Planning & Projects of determination (R2) (0.730.94), NashSutcliffe simulation
Wing Central Water Commission, New Delhi, September, 2006, pp 15-16
model efficiency (0.550.89) and percent deviation values (16.1
ii. Jamieson, D. G., and Fedra, K..,The Waterware Decisionsupport
System For River-Basin Planning. 1: Conceptual Design .,1996., pp 163175 19.3) for sediment yield indicate that the WEPP model can be
iii. UNEPA Publication,. A Quick Guide To Developing Watershed Plans successfully used in the Mawpun watershed, India.
To Restore And Protect Our Waters, May 2013
iv. Viktoria I. Zoltay, Richard M. Vogel,Paul H. Kirshen,Kirk S.
Keywords: Runoff, Sediment yield, Watershed Management,
Westphal., Integrated Watershed Management Modeling: Generic Optimization
Model Applied to the Ipswich River Basin, Journal Of Water Resources Planning WEPP Model.
And Management ., September/October 2010, Pp 566-575
v. Yates, D, Sieber, J., Purkey, D, and Huber-Lee, A.,WEAP21-A 1. INTRODUCTION:
demand-, priority-, and preference-driven water planning model, Part 1: Model
characteristics. Water Int., 2005., pp 487500
Land and water are the most precious natural resources, the
importance of which in human civilization needs no elaboration.
The overexploitation of these natural resources causes natural
imbalance of the ecosystem and environment degradation. Soil
erosion is one of the main reasons for degradation of soil and
Runoff and Sediment Yield Modeling of an water quality ultimately adversely affecting the environment.
Agricultural Hilly Watershed Using Wepp Model
About 99.7% of the food consumed by human beings comes
1 2
Saroj Das , Laxmi Narayan Sethi and R. K. Singh 3 from the land (Pimentel and Pimentel, 2003) and about 1964.4
1. M. Tech. Student, Department of Agricultural million ha area which is 12% of the worlds total land surface
Engineering, Triguna Sen School of Technology, suffers from degradation problems (Koohafkan, 2000).
Assam University, Silchar-788011 Therefore, to combat the problem of resource degradation and
2. Associate Professor, Department of Agricultural ecological imbalance, appropriate management practices were
Engineering, Triguna Sen School of Technology, the most efficient factor for long term agricultural sustainability.
Assam University, Silchar-788011
3. Principal Scientist & Head, Agricultural Engineering With these facts in mind the present study was conducted to
Division, ICAR Research Complex for NEH evaluate the WEPP model for quantification of runoff and
Region, Barapani (Umiam), Meghalaya-793 103 sediment yield from areas under different land uses and
Email:sarojdas197@gmail.com conservation practices.
ABSTRACT: Soil erosion rates caused by water are highest in 2. MATERIAL AND METHODS:
agro systems located in hilly or mountainous regions of Asia,
Africa and Southern America, especially in less developed 2.1 Study area:
countries. Each year about 10 million ha of cropland are lost due
to soil erosion, thus reducing the cropland available for food The study site (Mawpun Watershed) is located at 250 41 N
production. The loss of cropland is a serious problem. So, a good latitude, 910 55 E longitudes and at an altitude of 1010 m in Ri-
management practice to protect the soil from erosion to sustain Bhoi district of Meghalaya state of India. The location of the
long-term productivity is imperative for meeting the worlds study site is shown in Figure 3.1.The study area is a part of the
future demand for food and fiber. Thus, the present study was eastern Himalayan range is made up mostly of Precambrian
undertaken to develop the best management practices for a small metamorphic and igneous rocks. The study area is mainly hilly

with steep slope that ranges between 0 to 30 % and the 2.5 Model performance evaluation:
maximum slope of some hilly portion is nearly 100%.
The hydrological model was evaluated through a pair wise
2.2 Meteorological and hydrological data: comparison of the observed and simulated data to determine the
closeness of their match. Split sample calibration approach was
adopted for models performance evaluation. Five-year data set
pertaining to 2002 through 2006 was split into two parts. The
data of 2002-2004 were used for model calibration and that of
2005-2006 for model validation. The manual calibration based
on trial-and-error procedure (Sorooshian and Gupta, 1995) was
used in the study. Singh et al. (2011) reported that soil related
parameters namely; rill erodibility, interrill erodibility, effective
hydraulic conductivity and critical shear stress were most
sensitive in Meghalaya conditions. Therefore, only these
parameters were considered for calibration. The calibrated
values of these parameters reported by Singh et al. (2011) were
taken as base value and fine tuned for the Mawpun watershed.
The weather data such as daily rainfall, maximum and minimum

temperature, morning and evening relative humidity, wind
speed, pan evaporation and sun shine hours for a period of 5
years (20022006) were collected from the Agricultural
Engineering Division, ICAR Research Complex for North East
Hill Region and analyzed for making the model input files. The
observed hydrological data such and daily sediment yield for the
periods of five years (2002 to 2006) were collected from the
Agricultural Engineering division, ICAR Research Complex for
NEH Region and analyzed for making model input file.
2.3 Topographic data and soil properties:
Topographic information pertaining to the Mawpun watershed in

the form boundary map, contour map, drainage map, soil map,
and land use/land cover maps were collected from the Figure-1: Location map of Mawpun watershed
Agricultural Engineering Division, ICAR Research Complex for
North Eastern Hill Region, Barapani and used for delineation of
watershed. Physical and chemical properties of soil for the study
watershed were collected from Agricultural Engineering
Division, Indian Council of Agricultural Research Complex for
NEH Region.
2.4 WEPP model:
The USDA WEPP (Water Erosion Prediction Project) Hillslope

is a physically based, distributed parameters model based on
fundamentals of stochastic weather generation, infiltration theory,
hydrology, soil physics, plant science, hydraulics and erosion
mechanics. Date, amount, intensity and duration of rainfall,
minimum and maximum temperatures, wind velocity and direction
at 8 and 14 h of the day, daily values of radiation and dew point Figure-2: Delineated hillslopes and channels of the Mawpun
temperatures for the period of 20022006 were used as input to Watershed using WEPP model
create climate input files for WEPP model using Break Point
Climatic Data Generator (BPCDG). The delineation of watershed (Martinec and Rango, 1989), Nash and Sutcliffe (1970)
using WEPP model was presented in Fig. 2. Slope and soil files simulation coefficient (ENS) and coefficient of determination
were created using slope and soil file builder within the WEPP (R2) were determined. Performance of the model was evaluated
interface. The management input file was built using file builder for runoff as well as sediment yield simulations. The under-
within the model interface. prediction/over-prediction by the model within or equal to 25%

of observed values were considered acceptable level of accuracy

for the simulations as suggested by Bingner et al. (1989).
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS:

3.1 Simulation of runoff and sediment yield:
The daily observed runoff and sediment yield hydrographs for

the calibration (MayOctober) 2002 to 2004 and the validation
periods (MayOctober) 2005 and 2006 are shown in Figure-3 Figure-5: Observed and simulated daily runoff hydrograph of
through Figure-7 and Figure-8 through Figure-12, respectively. Mawpun watershed during model calibration for the
It is observed that the trend of the simulated values closely period of May to October 2004.
matches the trend of the measured values for calibration periods
and validation periods. However, the measured daily runoff and
sediment yield of higher magnitude is under-predicted by the
model during simulations for calibration periods and validation
periods. Based on the goodness-of-fit test statistics (Table-1,
Table-2, Table-3 and Table-4), it can be concluded that the
WEPP model simulates daily runoff from the Mawpun
watershed with acceptable accuracy.
Figure-6: Observed and simulated daily runoff hydrograph of

Mawpun watershed during model validation for the
period of May to October 2005.

Mawpun watershed during model calibration for the
Mawpun watershed during model validation for the

Mawpun watershed during model calibration for the
Figure-8: Observed and simulated daily sediment yield of
Mawpun watershed during model calibration for
the period of May to October 2002.

parameter Obser Sim Obs Sim Obser Simulat

ved ulate erve ulate ved ed
20 2 d d d 2004
Mean 02
5.00 0 5.81 4.16 4.87 4.24 4.91
0
Std.Dev. 5.04 3 4.70 7.49 6.29 5.08 4.93
Maximum 33.2 20.1 46.3 30.1 30.3 25.0
Total 465.5 541. 437. 512. 382.2 442.3
0 2 2
No 90 90 93 93 102 102
ofevents
Figure-9: Observed and simulated daily sediment yield of %Dv - - -15.7
16 1
Mawpun watershed during model calibration for R2 0.
.2
0.
7.
0.76
the period of May to October 2003. 60 92
ENS 0. 0. 0.74
0
70 8
8
Table-2: Goodness-of-fit statistics of observed and simulated daily runoff

simulation during validation periods 2005 and 2006 (May to October).
Statisti Sediment yield(t/ha)

cal
parame Ob Simulated Observ Simu Observed S
ter ser ed lated i
ved 2002 2003 2004 m
Mean 0.2 0.24 0.16 0.19 0.19 0. u
0 2 l
Std.De 0.3 0.27 0.31 0.29 0.31 0.
2 a
Figure-10: Observed and simulated daily sediment yield of v. 1 2 t
Maxim 2 1.11 1.99 1.65 2.0 1.
8
Mawpun watershed during model calibration um 2 e
Total 19. 22.7 17.2 20.1 16.8 12 d
for the period of May to October 2004. 5 9.
No 90 90 93 93 102 16
ofevent 0
%Dv
s -16.4 -16.8 -16.7 2
R2 0.81 0.79 0.74
ENS 0.55 0.76 0.73
Table-3: Goodness-of-fit statistics of observed and simulated daily sediment

yield simulation during calibration periods 2002 through
2004 (May to October).
Figure-11: Observed and simulated daily sediment yield of Stati Runoff (mm)
Mawpun watershed during model validation for stical
para Observe Simulated Observed Simula
the period of May to October 2005. mete d ted
2005 2006
r
Mea 3.31 3.90 2.42 2.83
n
Std. 4.36 3.76 4.06 3.76
Dev.
Maxi 32.2 18.0 23.1 17.0
mum
Total 337.7 398.3 247.5 289.5
No 105 105 102 102
ofeve
%Dv -17.9 -17.0
nts
R2 0.67 0.80
ENS 0.73 0.80
Figure-12: Observed and simulated daily sediment yield of
Mawpun watershed during model validation for
the period of May to October 2006. Table-4: Goodness-of-fit statistics of observed and simulated
daily sediment yield simulation during validation
Table-1: Goodness-of-fit statistics of observed and simulated periods 2005 and 2006 (May to October).
daily runoff simulation during calibration periods 2002
through 2004 (May to October). Statistical Sediment yield(t/ha)
Statistical Runoff (mm)

parameter Obse Simulated Obser Sim v. Pimentel, D., Pimentel, M., 2003. World population, food, natural
resources and survival. World Future, Vol. 59(3-4); 145-167.
rved 2005 ved 2006ulat vi. Singh, R.K., Panda, R.K., Satapathy, K.K., Ngachan, S.V., 2011.
ed Simulation of runoff and sediment yield from a hilly watershed in the eastern
Mean 0.11 0.13 0.09 0.1
Himalaya, India using the WEPP model. Journal of Hydrology, Vol. 405(3-4);
Std.Dev. 0.17 0.16 0.17 10.1 261-276.
60.9 vii. Sorooshian, S., Gupta, V.K., 1995. Model calibration. In: Singh, V.P.
Maximum 1 0.7 1.00 (Ed.), Computer Models of Watershed Hydrology. Water Resources
Total 11.5 13.9 9.4 4
11. Publication, Highlands Ranch, Colorado, USA; 2368.
No 105 105 102 2102
ofevents
%Dv -20.9 -19.1
R2 0.69 0.80
Prioritization of a Watershed Based on Spatially
ENS 0.62 0.57
Distributed Parameters
4. CONCLUSSIONS: C. D. Mishra1, R.K. Jaiswal2, A. K. Nema1
1
Institute of Agriculture Sciences, Banaras Hindu University
In the present study, we tested the WEPP model for its efficacy Varanasi (U.P.) -221005
2
to predict runoff and sediment yield in high rainfall and steep National Institute of Hydrology, Regional Center, Bhopal
slope conditions of eastern Himalaya. The model was used to (M.P.) 462001
develop vegetative and structural control measures to enhance Email: puneet.cdm@gmail.com
agricultural sustainability in the Mawpun watershed. Based on
results of the study the following conclusions were drawn: Abstract: Identification of erosion prone and runoff generation
areas of a watershed is essential for the effective and efficient
1. The WEPP model simulates runoff and sediment yield implementation of best management practices for conserving the
satisfactorily in high rainfall and high slope conditions of natural resource in favour of sustainable development. In this
Meghalaya with NashSutcliffe coefficients > 0.50 and percent study, an effort has been made to identify critical erosion-prone
deviations < 25.0. Comparison between WEPPsimulated and areas of the Nagwan watershed (89.44 km2) of Upper Damodar
measured values of runoff and sediment yield revealed that the Valley situated in Hazaribagh District in Jharkhand state India,
model tends to under-predict the values of higher magnitude. using the spatially distributed parameters responsible for hazard
of erosion. A geographical information system and remote
2. Toposequential cropping on hill slope with graded sensing was used for generating these parameters including
bunding and terracing at appropriate locations reduced the slope factor, soil erodibility factor of Universal Soil Loss
sediment yield by 52%. Equation (USLE), stream power index, sediment transport index
and curve number (CN) value, topographic wetness index for
3. Crops cultivation in mild sloped and valley lands with water conservation. Using supervised classification method with
graded bunding, crop cultivation in bench terraces in medium to a maximum likelihood (ML) technique was applied to three
high slope up to 30%, horticultural fruit crops from 30 to 60% multi-spectral bands to generate the land use/cover map from
slope and forest or timber farming on land slope above 60% IRS-P6 (LISS-IV) satellite data and found six land use classes
yielded sediment at the rate of 9.4 t/ha. such as agricultural land (55.78 km2), dense forest (1.47 km2),
open forest (11.63 km2), barren land (0.25 km2), water body
4. Thus topo-sequential land use reinforced with graded (1.26 km2), shrubs land (3.46 km2) and built up land (4.76 km2).
bunding and terraces at appropriate locations will bring the The soil erodibility factor map was prepared from the soil map,
sediment yield within the safe limit enhancing the sustainability and K factor values from a soil survey data. The Watershed
and profitability of agricultural system in hilly ecosystem. priorities have been divided in four categorizes namely very
high, high, moderate, and low priority. From the analysis, 13.45
5. REFERENCES: km2 and 22.81 km2 have been found under very high and high
priority classes respectively where immediate attention for soil
i. Bingner, R.L., Murphee, C.E., Mutchler, C.K., 1989. Comparison of and water conservation measures are required.
sediment yield models on various watershed in Mississippi.Trans, ASAE, Vol.
32 (2); 529534.
Keywords: GIS, remote sensing, wetness index, stream power
ii. Koohafkan, A.P., 2000. Land resources potential and sustainable index, sediment transport index, Watershed prioritization
land management- An overview. Lead paper of the International conference on
Land Resource Management for Food, Employment and Environmental 1. INTRODUCTION
Security during November 9-13, New Delhi(India); 1-22.
iii. Martinec J, Rango A (1989) Merits of statistical criteria for the
performance of hydrologic models. Water Resour Bull AWRA, Vol. 25; 421 Watershed is an ideal unit for management of natural resources
432. that also supports land and water resource management for
iv. Nash, J.E., Sutcliffe, J.V., 1970. River flow forecasting through achieving sustainable development. The significant factor for the
conceptual models Part 1-A discussion of principals. J. Hydrol. 10 (3), 282
290.
planning and development of a watershed are its physiography,
drainage, geomorphology, soil, land use/land cover and available

water resources. The concept of watershed management reported where remotely sensed data had been used for the
recognizes inter-relationship among land use, soil, water and the assessment of soil degradation to devise cost effective methods
linked between uplands and downstream areas (Tideman, 1996). for soil conservation (Jain and Kothyari 2000; Jain et al. 2001;
The deterioration occurs generally in terms of forest loss and Baba and Yusof 2001; Fistikoglu and Harmancioglu 2002;
land degradation by soil erosion. Among several factors, the Sekhar and Rao 2002; Chowdary et al. 2004; Pandey et al.
major one is deforestation followed by unsuitable agricultural 2007).
practices. Watershed characteristics, such as land use/land cover,
slope, and soil attributes, affect hydrologic and water quality Digital elevation models (DEMs) are already widely used and
processes and hence regulate sediment and chemical play an increasing important role in geomorphology, hydrology,
concentration (Basnyat et al. 2000). Knowledge of the basic soil erosion and many related geoanalysis fields (Moore et al.,
hydrologic processes occurring in watersheds give a better 1991; Goodchild et al., 1993; Wise, 2000). Topography is a first-
understanding of land use impacts on soil and water resources. order control on spatial variation of hydrological conditions. It
Change in land use/land cover is considered as an important affects the spatial distribution of soil moisture, and groundwater
hydrologic factor affecting storm runoff generation and sediment flow often follows surface topography (Burt and Butcher, 1986;
yield (Calder 1992; Naef et al. 2002; Bakker et al. 2005). This is Seibert et al., 1997; Rodhe and Seibert, 1999; Zinko et al.,
especially true for humid and sub-humid subtropical areas in 2005). The TWI is usually calculated from gridded elevation
India which are affected by heavy monsoon rains during four to data. Different algorithms are used for these calculations; the
five rainy months (Sharma et al. 2001). With reference to non- main differences are the way the accumulated upslope area is
point source (NPS) pollution, the critical areas are those areas routed downwards, how creeks are represented, and which
where either soil erosion exceeds the soil loss tolerance limit or measure of slope is used (Quinn et al., 1995; Wolock and
where the maximum improvement in the quality of water McCabe, 1995; Tarboton, 1997; Guntner et al., 2004). The
resources can be attained with the minimum capital investment topographic wetness index (TWI) has been used to describe the
through best management practices (Mass et al. 1985). Land and spatial soil moisture patterns and zones of saturation or variable
water are the two basic natural resources for the survival of sources for runoff generation is obtained (Beven and Kirkby,
living systems. These two resources have been interacting with 1979; Wilson and Gallant, 2000) and also used to study spatial
each other in various phases of their respective cycles. The scale effects on hydrological processes (Beven et al., 1988;
future of the nation depends largely on the effective utilization, Famiglietti and Wood, 1991; Sivapalan and Wood, 1987;
management and development of these resources in an Siviapalan et al., 1990) moreover to identify hydrological flow
integrated and comprehensive manner. paths for geochemical modelling (Robson et al., 1992) as well as
to characterize biological processes such as annual net primary
Soil erosion has been accepted as a serious problem arising from production (White and Running, 1994), vegetation patterns
agricultural intensification, land degradation and possibly due to (Moore et al., 1993; Zinko et al., 2005), and forest site quality
global climatic change (Yang et al.,2003). Accelerated soil (Holmgren, 1994a). The locations of higher TWI host more
erosion has been globally recognized as a serious problem since favorable conditions for landslide formation (Conoscenti et al.,
people took up agriculture (Renschler et al., 1999). In India, 2008). The stream power index could be used to identify the
annual soil erosion (displacement of soil) rate is about 5334 erosive effects of concentrated surface runoff (Wilson and
million tones out of which about 1572 million tones is carried Gallant, 2000), to identify suitable locations for soil
away by the river systems into the sea and 9% of total annual conservation measures and reduce the effect of concentrated
soil erosion i.e. about 480 million tones is deposited in the surface runoff. The sediment transport index accounts for the
various reservoirs reducing their carrying capacity (Dhruva effect of topography on erosion. The two-dimensional catchment
Narayan and Ram Babu,1983). Under Indian conditions, an area is used instead of the one-dimensional slope length factor as
average soil loss value of 16.4 t/ha-yr (Narayana 1993) may be in the Universal Soil Loss Equation.
considered as the limit for identifying critical watershed areas
(Singh et al. 1992). 2. Description of the study area
Satellite based remote sensing technology meets both the Nagwan watershed (89.44 km2) is located the Upper Damodar
requirements of reliability and speed and is an ideal tool for Valley, situated in Hazaribagh district of Jharkhand, India, the
generating spatial information needs. However, the use of second most seriously eroded area in the world (EI-swaify et al.
remote sensing technology involves large amount of spatial data 1982), was selected for the study. The watershed lies between
management and requires an efficient system to handle such 8501641 and 8502350 E longitudes and between 2305933
data. Thus, blending of remote sensing and GIS technologies has and 240537 N latitudes. Location map of the study area is
proved to be an efficient tool and have been successfully used by shown in Figure 1. The test watershed is just 7 km from the soil
various investigators for water resources development and conservation department of Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC)
management projects as well as for watershed characterization at Hazaribagh, Jharkhand; is well connected by road/rail
and prioritization (Chalam et al. 1996; Chaudhary and Sharma network. Geologically, the area is quite complex, having rocks
1998; Kumar et al. 2001;Ali and Singh 2002; Singh et al. 2003; of varying composition. The soils of the area are mainly of clay
Pandey et al. 2004; Suresh et al. 2004). A few more studies are loam and silty loam type. The topography of the watershed is

undulating and maximum and the minimum elevations of the 3.2 Generation of GIS data base
area are 667 m and 560 m, respectively. The area experiences
sub-humid sub-tropical monsoon type of climate, characterized For the generation of GIS data base of their spatial distribution
by hot summers (40C) and mild winters (4C). The watershed different thematic maps such as base map, digital elevation
receives an average annual rainfall of 1256 mm, out of which model map, delineation of watersheds, soil group map,
more than 80% rainfall contributes during monsoon season topographic wetness index map, stream power index map,
(JuneOctober). The average storm intensity, by considering sediment transport index map and land use map are prepared
storms of more than 30 min duration, is about 10 cm/hr. The with the help of GIS based software ILWIS (3.6). A base map
daily mean relative humidity varies from a minimum of 40% in has been generated by digitizing the Survey of India (SOI)
the month of April to a maximum of 85% in the month of July. toposheet as reference map for all other purposes. The watershed
The main agricultural crops grown during kharif season are covered by 1:50,000 scale SOI topographic maps NO.72H8 and
paddy and maize and in rabi season are wheat, gram and 73E5. The watershed boundary was marked on the basis of the
mustard. The agriculture is mostly rainfed as only 20% irrigation contours and the drainage lines available on the SOI topographic
is available in the area through sources other than rain and the map and also using the procedure described by Jenson and
cropping intensity is also quite low at 98%. The irrigation is Domingue (1988).
received mainly by wells. Prevalence of conventional cultivation
practices, characterized by conventional tillage or no tillage; low 3. 2. 1 Slope map
fertilizer/manure consumption and local varieties of the crops is
mainly responsible for the low crop productivity in the area. All Generation of slope map, the contour map and point elevation
this information on the test area was obtained through secondary map of study area has been used. Using the GIS based software
sources such as Directorate of Economics and Statistics, ILWIS (3.6), the slope map for the region is generated.
Ministry of Agriculture; Directorate of Census (data Center);
DVC, Hazaribagh officials and Sadar block office of Hazaribagh 3. 2. 2 Digital elevation model (DEM)
district.
The contour map (20 m interval) and spot height map of the area
are merged together and a composite map having information
about contours as well as spot height is formed. This combined
map is further interpolated at 20-metre pixel resolution using
map interpolation function available in Integrated Land and
Water Information System (ILWIS) to generate a DEM of the
area. Slope map was calculated using contour line map using
script function available in ILWIS 3.6.
3. 2. 3 Soil erodibility factor (k) map
The soil maps of the study area in the scale of 1:250,000 were
traced, scanned and exported to ILWIS 3.6..The scanned maps
were loaded in ILWIS 3.6. and georeferenced. Boundaries of
different soil textures as per the soil conservation service soil
classification system were digitized and the polygons
representing various soil categories were assigned with different
Figure 1. Location map of Nagwan watershed. colours for identification. This information is then transferred on
to the base map for preparation of the soil map and assign the K
3. MATERIALS AND METHODS factor values from a Soil Survey data which is given in table 1.
3.1 Data used Table: 1. Soil texture of Nagwan watershed
Topographic maps at 1 : 50 000 scale from the Survey of India, Map Taxonomy* K
Calcutta and soil resources data from Damodar Valley unit* value
Corporation (DVC), Hazaribagh were used in this study for Fine, mixed, hyperthermic Typic
digitization of contour lines, construction of Digital Elevation Haplustalfs
Model (DEM). IRS-P6 (LISS IV ) satellite data having sensor 16 0.19
Loamy, mixed, hyperthermic Lithic
scenes 23.5 m resolution(Path-105 and Row-55), with pass dates Ustorthents
of 22 December 2012, were used for land-use/land-cover
Fine loamy, mixed, hyperthermic
classification maps. soil map collected from National Bureau of
Typic Paleustalfs
Soil Survey and Land use Planning (NBSS&LUP), Government 32 0.33
Fine-loamy, mixed, hyperthermic
of India for identification of soil types of the study area. Typic Rhodustalfs

*Department of Agriculture & Cane Development, Govt. of (Burroughet al., 1998). The sediment transport index is defined
Jharkhand by the equation below.
3. 2. 4 Land use map
LU/LC map was developed by supervised classification (3)

techniques with maximum likelihood algorithm were used for
the classification of digital data of an IRS-P6 (LISS IV ) satellite 3. 3 Priority assessment
in which an area or group of pixels that belongs to one or more
categories of specific land use and land cover was classified. The For the determination of priority of the critical erosion-prone
land uses were classified into five classes namely agriculture, areas in the watershed values of the parameters are normalized in
water, dense forest, fallow land and urban settlement and assign a standard scale such as 0 to 1. The following equation has been
the standard curve curve number (CN) value numbersfor the used to normalize all the parameters on the 0 to 1.
Indian conditions(ministry of agricultural, Govt. of india 1972).
3. 2. 5 Topographic Wetness Index Map

(4)
The topographic wetness index (TWI), also known as the
compound topographic index (CTI), is a steady state wetness
Where, is the Normalized value of a parameter for
index. It is commonly used to quantify topographic control
on hydrological processes (Sorensen, 2006) The index is a parameter, ia the Upper value in the standard scale
function of both the slope and the upstream contributing area per (1), is the Lower value in the standard scale (0), is
unit width orthogonal to the flow direction. The index was
the Maximum value of the parameters, is the Minimum
designed for hill slope catenas. Accumulation numbers in flat
areas will be very large, so TWI will not be a relevant variable. value of the parameters respectively and is the Observed
The index is highly correlated with several soil attributes such value of parameters for parameter. After computing the
as horizon depth, silt percentage, organic matter content, normalized values of different parameters and then getting
and phosphorus (Moore, 1993) wetness index map prepared by average of parameters for the final priority. After determining
using ILWIS 3.6 software with DEM raster map. The WI is the final priority critical area it has been grouped in four classes
defined as of priority namely very high, high, moderate and low on the
basis of priority ranking.
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

(1)
4. 1 Development of thematic map
where As is the contributing area draining to the grid cell per unit
length of a side of the grid cell (m2/m) and is the slope angle The thematic map of Nagwan watershed has been prepared
of the cell (degrees). Slope values of zero were substituted with using satellite image, toposheets and soil map in GIS. These are
a value of 0.001 to avoid returning an undefined index value. discussed below:
3. 2. 6 Stream power index (SPI) 4. 2. 1 Slope factor
Using ILWIS 3.6 software with raster map of wetness index The factors of slope steepness (S) are in the present study area
generate the stream power index map. it is reflect the erosive varied from 0.06 to 1.0 as shown in a Figure 2.
power of the stream terrain (moore, 1993). it is defined as:
4. 1. 2 Topographic wetness index (TWI)

(2)
In the analysis found maximum area 3.88 km2 with value of
3. 2. 7 Sediment transport index (STI) TWI is 11.28. The maximum, minimum, average and standard
deviation of TWI is 21.68,5.74, 13.72 and 4.27 respectively.
The Sediment Transport Index characterizes the process of The DEM and flow accumulation map have been used as inputs
erosion and deposition. it reflect erosive power of the overland and STI map was prepared in ILWIS (3.6) for the watershed as
flow. Unlike the length-slope factor in the Universal Soil Loss shown an in Figure 3.
Equation (USLE) it is applicable to three-dimensional surface

Supervised classification techniques with maximum likelihood

classifier were used for the land use classification with average
accuracy 89.98 %, average reliability 85.09 % and overall
Accuracy 90.78 %. Seven major land use categories namely
agriculture land (with & without crop and grass land), barren
land, builtup land, dense forest, open forest, scrubs, water bodies
were identified and then assign CN value . The land use map of
the watershed is shown in Figure 7 and the land use details are
shown in Table 2.
Figure 2. Slope map of the Nagwan watershed Figure 3. TWI map of the Nagwan watershed
4. 1. 3 Stream power index

The stream power index are calculated by using the eq. 2, the
value are varies 0.70 to 50. SPI map was generated by ILWIS
(3.6) for the watershed and shown an in Figure 4.
4. 1. 4 Soil erodibility (K) factor

The soil map of the catchment area was used to prepare the
digitized soil map. The predominant soil textural classes were Figure 6. STI map of the Nagwan watershed Figure 7. Land use map of nagwan watershed.
clay loam and silty loam type, found in the watershed. Soil
group of the study area shown in Figure 5 and soil erodibility Table 2. Land use pattern of nagwan watershed.
value given by Table 1.
Land use Area in km2 Curve
number
Agricultural land (with 27.40 95
crop)
Agricultural land (with 28.39 95
no crop)
Barren land 0.26 85
Built up land 4.74 91
Dense forest 1.47 58
Grass land 10.84 79
Open forest 11.63 60
Shrubs 3.46 64
Water body 1.26 100
4. 2. Final priority map
Not all watershed contribute erosion and at same rate. the

identification of erosion prone area within the watershed which
contribute maximum sediment yield obviously should determine
our priority to go forward appropriates conservation
management strategy for maximum benefit. Also prioritization
Figure 4. SPI map of the Nagwan watershed Figure 5. Soil erodibility map of Nagwan watershed.
is required for proper planning and management of natural
resources for catchment area treatment plan in the watershed.
4. 1. 5 Sediment transport index Determination of priority for the watersheds have been
determined and normalized and give weight. The final priorities
The sediment transport index was calculated for watersheds of spatially based for watershed are determined and priorities of
using the Eqn.3. These values ranged from 0.03 to 5. STI map critical erosion prone area for watersheds are grouped in four
was prepared in ILWIS (3.6) for the watershed as shown an in categories as shown in Table 3 and spatially depicted in Figure
Figure 6. 8
4. 1. 6 Land use/ land cover based on curve number

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ABSTRACT:The present paper focuses on the minimization of 2. CASE STUDY OF NASHIK LEFT BANK CANAL
conveyance losses for Nashik Left Bank Canal [NLBC] [NLBC]
originating from Gangapur dam of Nashik District of
Maharashtra state located at 20 38 Lattitude and 73 19 2.1 Study area
Longitude. This is an unlined canal of 64 km stretch having
design discharge 8.92 cumecss. NLBC has conveyance losses of Nashik district of Maharashtra state is one of the leading districts
about 57% and 55% in rabi and hot weather season, in the field of agriculture. The new experiments and use of
respectively. To minimize these conveyance losses of NLBC, advanced technology have empowered the farmers to increase
Closed Conduit Irrigation [CCI] system has been suggested and export of agro based products. Gangapur Dam is most important
analysed in this paper. This CCI system will consist of a conduit and the oldest earthen dam in Nashik. It was constructed in 1965
line of 1.82m diameter of Glass Fibre Reinforced Pipe [GFRP] on Godavari River. Two canals namely Nashik Right Bank Canal
running as an open channel i.e. under atmospheric pressure for [NRBC] and Nashik Left Bank Canal [NLBC] take off from the
total 64 km length of the canal with longitudinal slope of dam. The GRBC is closed due to high civilization in the area.
1:4000. The CCI system of NLBC with free board of 0.5m has The present paper focuses on the case study of Nashik Left Bank
3.02m of head losses for the entire length of the canal. For the Canal of Nashik district, Maharashtra state which is located at
Full Supply Depth [y] of 1.32m in GFRP of , the 20 38 Lattitude and 73 19 Longitude. The reach of this canal
is 64 km which is running open to atmosphere. The alignment of
Froude number [Fr] of flow is 0.4149; which indicates canal and its command area is shown in Figure 1.
Subcritical flow for CCI. The CCI for NLBC will save of about
15.55 Mm3 of irrigation water which constitutes a part of
conveyance loss for the present Open Canal Irrigation [OCI]
system of NLBC for the entire canal length.
Keywords- Open Canal Irrigation [OCI], Conveyance losses,

Hydraulic Design of Conduit, Closed Conduit Irrigation [CCI],
Glass Fibre Reinforced Pipe [GFRP].
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Open canals are used to convey the water from storage
reservoir to the agricultural land for irrigation. Water has to travel
from its head to fulfill the needs of agriculture; irrigation
channels with poor maintenance causes heavy losses during its
conveyance phase. It is observed that the losses due to Figure 1: Command Area of Nashik Left Bank Canal [NLBC]
evaporation, infiltration, percolation and water thefts in open Source: Nasik Irrigation Departmen
canal reduce the efficiency and yield of irrigation. Therefore, it is
necessary to check these conveyance losses in case of irrigation TABLE I: General Information of NLBC [6]
canals. Discharge of water through the canals is utilized for Sr.
Description Data
irrigation purposes only. During its passage from canal head up No.
2.44 m X 2.44
to the agriculture land, there are various types of losses 1 Cross-Section
m
occurring; these losses are termed as conveyance losses. Major 2 Shape Trapezoidal
amount of irrigation water is lost during this conveyance phase. 3 Canal Bed Level [CBL] 589.94 m
4 Design Discharge 8.92 cumecss
1.2 Many researchers have tried to quantify these conveyance 5 Chainage [Location] 801.83 m
losses. Kolhe, P. S. (2012), in his paper has suggested the 6 Bed Width 3m
Pressurized Pipe Distribution Network [PDN] for Nagthana-II for 7 Bed Gradient 1:4000
optimal utilization of Irrigation Water. Ghazaw,Y.M. (2010) has 8 Length 64 km
developed the design charts and computer programme to 9 Full Supply Depth 1.65 m
facilitate the design of optimal water loss section. Burt, C.M. 10 Type Unlined
et.al. (2008) have given the solution for reduction in canal 11 Canal Top Width 4.67m
seepage by in place compaction of canal banks and bed. Swamee, 12 Depth of Canal 2m
P.K. et.al. (2002) have given the minimum water loss canal 13 Side Slopes 1:0.5
sections that have been obtained using the explicit equations for
seepage loss and evaporation equation for flowing channels.

2.2 Design of NLBC 2.3 Crop water requirement for NLBC
The data for the case study is collected from Nashik Irrigation
Department [NID]. The general information of NLBC is given in In Table II, the yearly crop water requirement is calculated as
Table-I wherein Table -II represents the crop pattern and crop V= 24.5 Mm3. This is the crop water requirement for base period
water requirement details for NLBC. of 72 days.
Therefore, Discharge in cumecs corresponding to volume of 24.5

Mm3
= [24.5 * 106] / [72 *24*60*60] = 3.96 cumecs. From Table II, it

is clear that the crop water requirement in cumecs for NLBC is
3.96 cumecs.
2.4 Conveyance losses and Diameter of Conduit of NLBC
The conveyance losses for NLBC are calculated by applying the

general water budget equation to the open canal for rabi and hot
weather season. The values of the conveyance losses and
efficiency for the rabi and hot weather season are represented in
Table III.
TABLE II: Crop Pattern and Crop Water Requirement Details

for NLBC [6]
Water
Crop Area
Season Requirement
Pattern [Ha]
Mm3 Cumecs
Grapes 965.10 5.76 0.93
Rabi Sugarcane 137.04 4.201 0.68
[54 Vegetables 86.02 1.28 0.21
Days] Wheat 81.03 0.888 0.14
Others 304.03 3.641 0.59
Hot Grapes 1125.07 7.88 1.27
Weather
[18 Sugarcane 162.15 0.85 0.14
Days]
A= W=
V=
2860.44 3.96
24.5
Ha Cumecs
Mm3
It can be seen from the Table III, that there are huge conveyance
losses for the NLBC. NLBC has yearly conveyance loss of 15.55
Mm3, in which rabi season has the conveyance loss of 10.69 Mm3
and conveyance loss of 4.862 Mm3 has observed in hot weather
season. It is clear from the Table III that the conveyance loss for
NLBC is more than 55 %, which is very huge. The efficiency is
calculated from the details of conveyance losses for rabi and hot
weather season. The efficiency of NLBC is 43.02 % for rabi
season wherein 44.71% for hot weather season.
S Seas Area No. of Quan Quan Conve Efficiency
r. on under Days tity of tity of yance
N Crop water water water Losse [%]
o. [Ha] suppli suppli used s
ed ed at [Mm3
head ] Mm3
of %
canal
[Mm3
]

1 Yea 2860. 72 27.55 12.00 15.55 56.44 43 = 1.82 0.5

rly 44
.5 = 1.32 m
6
2 Rab 1573. 54 18.76 8.073 10.69 56.98 43
i 22 1
.0
2
3 Hot 1287. 18 8.793 3.931 4.862 55.29 44
Wea 22
ther .7
1
Table III: Actual Details of Conveyance Losses and Efficiency

for NLBC [6]
Therefore, the actual discharge [QActual] required in NLBC can
be calculated by considering the designed discharge [QD] and
efficiency of NLBC.
Figure 2: Closed Circular Conduit [GRP]
Actual Discharge [QActual]
= Designed discharge [QD] X Efficiency [ ]
= 8.92 X 0.4356 = 3.886cumecs. 2.6 Velocity and Type of Flow of NLBC
This discharge is to be supplied to the area of 2860.44ha which 1) For closed conduit irrigation of GRP 1.82m,
is under crop.
From Table I, the longitudinal slope[S] of the canal is 1:4000. Velocity [V] of flow through GRP 1.82m [5] = CRS
The conduit to be used for NLBC irrigation has to be designed V = C {[D/4] S}
for the Actual Discharge [QActual] of 3.86 cumecs. The conduit V = 140 {[1.82/4] * [1/4000]}
which will be used for NLBCs Closed Conduit Irrigation [CCI] V = 1.493 m/s
needs to be durable and strong. Hence, for NLBC, the Glass
Fibre Reinforced Pipe [GRP] is recommended as it has working Froude Number [Fr] of flow for GRP 1.82m [5] = V/ [gy]
life of about 70 years, its C value is 140, it is light weight and Fr = 1.493 / [9.81 * 1.32]
the Glass Fibres structure increases its strength to a great extent Fr = 0.4149 < 1 Subcritical flow.
[7]. The diameter [D] of GRP conduit section is obtained with
the relation of discharge [Q], area [A] and velocity [V]. For the 2) For an open canal flow in NLBC,
velocity of flow, Chezys formula is used.
Therefore, Actual Discharge [Qactual]

= Area [A] X Velocity [V]
= {[ / 4] * D2} X {C X [R*S]}
Substituting the values of Qactual [3.886 cumecs], C of GRP [140]

and longitudinal slope [1:4000], and simplifying above equation,
the diameter of GRP for NLBC is calculated which comes out to
be 1.82m. This is the diameter of equivalent closed conduit
section for NLBC for supplying the discharge of 3.886cumecs.
Diameter of Equivalent GRP for CCI of NLBC = 1.82m
2.5 Freeboard for CCI of NLBC Figure 3: Open canal cross-section of NLBC
Velocity [V] of flow through open NLBC [5] = CRS
But, the closed conduit irrigation [CCI] which is suggested in
= C [A/T] S
this paper is an open channel flow i.e. the flow inside the conduit
= 40 [6.0866/4.38] * [1/4000]
will be running under atmospheric pressure. Hence sufficient
= 0.7456 m/s
free board should be available in a GRP of 1.82m diameter. The
free board for the discharge range of 1-5 cumecs is assumed as
Froude Number [Fr] of flow for open channel NLBC [5]
0.5 m.
= V/ [gy]
Full supply depth [y] through conduit of 1.82m = 0.7456 / [9.81 * 1.65]
= Diameter of GRP Freeboard
= 0.3058 < 1 Subcritical flow. Hot

Weather 4.862 3.13 3.31 1592.08
For open canal NLBC, the velocity is 0.7456 m/s whereas for [18 days]
GRP 1.82m, it is 1.493 m/s. The Froude Number for open
channel NLBC is 0.3058 whereas for GRP 1.82m it is 0.4149. 3. ADVANTAGES OF CLOSED CONDUIT
IRRIGATION [CCI] OVER OPEN CANAL
IRRIGATION [OCI] FOR NLBC
2.7 Head losses of NLBC for GRP
I. NLBC has conveyance losses of about 15.55 Mm3. Due
In a Closed Conduit Flow through 1.82m GRP, there will be to the conversion of open canal into closed conduit
the Head losses. section; these losses of water in each season will be
minimized. This can be considered as the saving of
1) For the head loss due to friction [5], water. Thus, the water saved can be utilized for
hf = [fLV2] / [2gD] improving duty.
Friction factor for GRP 1.82m [f] = 2.13 X 10-3 [7] II. As CCI increases the duty of water by 2.29 cumecs and
Now, 3.31 cumecs for rabi and hot weather
hf season,respectively. Hence, more area can be brought
= [2.13 X 10-3 * 64000* 1.49532] / [2*9.81*1.82] under irrigation for NLBC.
= 8.535m III. Conveyance losses have resulted into
Friction loss per meter [hf] =8.535/6400 = 1.33 X 10-4m decreased efficiency of canal ranging
Considering the total length of the canal i.e. 64 km, the friction from 57% in rabi and 55% in hot
head loss is very less. weather season. Hence, the use of CCI
will save 15.55 Mm3 of water, thus
2) Head loss at entry of GRP 1.82m [5] = 0.5 [V2/2g] increasing the efficiency of NLBC.
= 0.5 [1.49532 / (2*9.81)] = 0.057m IV. NLBC sites have problems like breeding of mosquitos,
fly nuisance, water logging and salinity which can be
3) Head loss at exit of GRP 1.82m [5] = [V2/2g] stopped if CCI system is implemented
= [1.49532 / (2*9.81)] = 0.114m
4. CONCLUSIONS
4) Head loss at entry of GRP 1.82m for each branch [5]
= 0.5 [V2/2g] = 0.5 [1.49532 / (2*9.81)] = 0.057m It is revealed from the hydraulic analysis, that the
Head loss at entry of GRP 1.82m for 50 branches conversion of open canal into circular closed
= 50 X 0.057 = 2.85 m conduit is technically feasible and there is impact of
Therefore, total head lost in GRP 1.82m is calculated as, water saving of 10.69 Mm3 for rabi season and
HLoss = 1.33 X 10-4 + 0.057 + 0.114+2.85 4.862 mm3 for hot weather season for improving
HLoss = 3.02m irrigation potential by reducing the conveyance
The head losses are calculated for NLBCs CCI by considering losses. In addition to saving in water, there is 50%
the loss at entry and exit of conduit, friction losses and loss at increase in the velocity of flow because of increased C-value of
entry of each branch. The head loss is 3.02m for the entire 64km GRP. A case study of Nashik Left Bank Canal [NLBC] of length
stretch of NLBC. 64 km shows that 57% losses during rabi season and 55% of
conveyance losses during hot weather can be stopped by
adopting this system. Thus, the net saving of 15.55 Mm3 can be
2.8 Saving in water of NLBC by CCI achieved by adopting CCI. The capital cost of such conversion is
justified on the basis of water saving of 15.55 Mm3 for the 64
Due to conversion of OCI into CCI, conveyance losses of 15.55 km stretch of NLBC and increased irrigation potential of 2083.2
Mm3 are saved, which can be used for improving the duty of ha and 1592.08 Ha for Rabi and Hot Weather season
water. The following table IV shows the details of improvement respectively. Hence, it is recommended to use CCI in place OCI
in the duty. to save the valuable water.
Table IV: Details of Improvement of duty
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Water Saved Extra Extra
water land that A paper of this nature calls for intellectual nourishment,
Season made can be professional help and encouragement from many quarters. I
Mm3 Cumecs available irrigated would like to extend my sincere gratitude towards the Nashik
[cumecs] [ha] Irrigation Department (NID) and Graphite India Ltd. for
Rabi [54 2083.2 providing me with the necessary authentic data required for the
10.69 2.29 2.29
days] paper.

methods which can give reasonably good accuracy. In view of

REFERENCES the recent development in data acquisitions and techniques to
model soil water crop interaction, selection of appropriate
i. Kolhe P.S. (2012) Optimal Utilization of Irrigation Water by Use of model has become very important step. The objective of the
Pipe Distribution Network (PDN) Instead Of Canal Distribution Network
(CDN) In Command Area, India Water Week 2012, New Delhi.
study is to review all the methods available to estimate first
ii. Ghazaw Y. M. (2010), Design Charts of Optimal Canal Section for reference evapotranspiration based on climate. For estimating
Minimum Water Loss. Journal of Engineering and Computer Sciences, reference evapotranspiration (ETref) various empirical
Qassim University, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 73-95 methods, radiation based equations and methods based on
iii. Burt C. M. et. al. (Nov 2008) Canal Seepage Reduction by Soil
Compaction, IA Technical Conference, ITRC Paper No. P 08-002.
radiation as well as dynamic factors are discussed. The paper
iv. Prabhata K. Swamee, Govinda C. Mishra, Bhagu R. Chahar (2002), suggests points to be considered for selection of appropriate
Design of Minimum Water-Loss Canal Sections, Journal of Hydraulic method. ASCE Standardized PM Equation and dual crop
Research, Vol. 40, 2002, No. 2. coefficient provide precise estimation of ET under varied
v. Garg S. K., (2005), Irrigation Engineering and Hydraulic
Structures 19th Edition, Khanna Publishers, Delhi, India. Pp 1141,1162.
climates.
vi. Annual Report (June 2013): Annual Water Account of Major and
Medium Projects, Nashik Irrigation Department. Pp. 7 Keywords:Evapotranspiration,Reference evapotranspiration,
vii. IS 12709: 2009, Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastics (GRP) Pipes, Penman-Monteith
Joints and Fittings for Use for Potable Water Supply Specification.
BIOGRAPHIES 1.0 INTRODUCTION:
Ms. Gayatri R. Gadekar is pursuing her post graduation in Hydraulics from The irrigated agriculture uses large chunk of water, thus a big
Sinhgad College of Engineering. Her research area includes water resources responsibility lies with irrigation managers to efficiently use the
engineering. water. The large quantity of water is lost as evaporation and
transpiration from the fields. Evaporation and transpiration
usually happen at the same time and is hard to separate the two
Dr.Sunil Kute is currently Professor of Civil Engineering. Also, he is Chairman, processes. To match the irrigation supply with demand,
Board of Studies (Civil Engineering) and member of Academic Council and estimation of the evapotranspiration is required to
Senate of University of Pune .He has experience of 23 years in teaching,
be done with appropriate methods which can give
administration and research. He is Ph.D. guide of University of Pune and North
Maharashtra University .His 60 research papers are published in journals and reasonably good accuracy. FAO presented two
conferences .His research areas are structural engineering and water resources publications to describe various model for
engineering .Currently, 6 students are pursuing Ph.D. under his guidance. estimating crop water requirements (Doorenbos
and Pruitt, 1977; Allen et al., 1998). In view of
Dr.N. J. Sathe is currently M. E. Hydraulics coordinator in civil engineering
department of Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune. . Also, he is Chairman of the recent development in data acquisitions and techniques to
Geoinformatics and Engineering Geology subjects of University of Pune. He is model soil water crop interaction selection of appropriate model
member of Board of Studies of Shivaji University. He has experience of 15 years needs the understanding of capabilities and limitations of each
in teaching and research. He is Ph.D. guide of University of Pune. His 37
available model. This paper reviews most of the widely used
research papers are published in journals and conferences. His research areas are
Geoinformatics, Engineering Geology and Water Resources Engineering. methods available to estimate reference evapotranspiration based
on climate data. The paper also suggests points to be considered
for selection of appropriate method.
2.0 EVAPOTRANSPIRATION:
Evapotranspiration is the combined process through which water

Methods for Estimation of Crop is lost by evaporation from the soil surface and from the crop by
Evapotranspiration Using Climate Data: A Review transpiration. The crops require a fixed quantity of water to
meet the water losses through evapotranspiration for bumper
Gopal H. Bhatti 1, H.M. Patel2 crop production under standard conditions. The crop
1
Research Scholar and Associate Professor, Civil Engineering evapotranspiration (ETc) under standard conditions refers to
Department, Faculty of Technology & Engg, The M.S University crops that are disease-free, well fertilized and are grown in
of Baroda, Vadodara. 390 001, Gujarat, India. large fields under optimum soil water with excellent
2
Head and Professor, Civil Engineering Department, Faculty management and environmental conditions, so as to attain full
of Technology & Engg, The M.S University of Baroda, production under the given climatic conditions Allen et al.
Vadodara. 390 001, Gujarat, India. (1998). ETc measurement is not easy and requires sophisticated,
Email: 1gbhatti@gmail.com, 2haresh_patel@yahoo.com expensive equipment and trained research personnel with varied
range of systems. Lanthaler (2004) reported measuring
ABSTRACT: As water being the limited resource, its optimum evapotranspiration using lysimeter. Evapotranspiration data
utilization is of great concern in irrigated agricultural sector as could be obtained from varied range of measurement systems
it is the largest user in most part of the world. To match the which included lysimeters, eddy covariance, Bowen ratio,
irrigation supply with demand, estimation of the scintillometry, sap flow, satellite-based remote sensing, direct
evapotranspiration is required to be done with appropriate modeling and soil water balance such as gravimetric, neutron

probes, electromagnetic types of soil sensors, time domain especially in the higher latitudes. Radiation method would be
reflectometry etc. Phene et al.,(1990); Cammalleri et al. (2010); more reliable than Blaney Criddle in equatorial regions, on small
Allen et al., (2011); and Evett et al., (2012). Direct measurement islands, or at high altitudes even if measured sunshine or
techniques are not feasible for estimating evapotranspiration in cloudiness data were available (Doorenbos and Pruitt, 1977).
large irrigated area. Mostly they are used for research purposes The empirical and temperature based methods have been used
by trained personnel. Evapotranspiration is generally estimated for estimating evapotranspiration for longer periods i.e. monthly
by using different methods which requires measurements of or weekly.
climatological parameters.
4.0 RADIATION METHODS:
3.0 EMPIRICAL AND TEMPERATURE BASED
METHODS: Evapotranspiration occurs only when energy is available and
hence estimation of solar radiation can give better estimation of
3.1 Pan Evaporation method ET by using Energy Balance equation which includes Rn
(radiation from sun and sky), G (heat to ground), H (heat to air).
Evaporation pan provided measurement of integrated effect of Makkink (1957) proposed a formula for estimating ET from air
temperature, radiation, wind and humidity on evaporation from a temperature and sunshine or cloudiness or solar radiation. The
particular open water surface. Evaporation pan data were utilized Makkink equation was the base of the subsequent FAO 24
to convert evaporation from free-water surface with pan Radiation method. Turc (1961) developed a formula based on
coefficient to estimate potential evapotranspiration (Allen et al, ten-day mean air temperature and solar radiation. The Turc
1998). Incorrect accounting for pan environment and local equation had limitation to be applied only if Tmean > 10 .
climate could cause errors in estimation of crop water use upto
Jensen-Haise (1963); Hargreaves-Samani (1985) developed a
plus or minus 40 percent (Cuenca 1989). However pan
relationships between temperature and solar radiation using the
evaporation has been one of the widely used methods due to
observations of consumptive use of water. In spite of sufficient
simplicity and minimum data requirements.
energy available, ET could be less due to aerodynamic resistance
in form of Wind speed and Humidity as for the atmospheres
3.2 Temperature based methods
ability to remove water vapour, an Aerodynamic strength also
Hedke (1924) developed a method for estimating valley plays a crucial role.
consumptive use based on heat available defined as degree-
days (number of days multiplied to temperature). Blaney and 5.0 COMBINATION METHODS:
Morin (1942); Lowry and Johnson (1942) developed a method
Penman (1948, 1963) utilized Bowen ratio principle and derived
for roughly calculating seasonal consumptive use. Blaney-Morin
term included relative humidity term which was useful index for a combination equation by coalescing two terms, one
measuring vapour transport component of evaporation process. (radiation) term which was for the energy required to uphold
evaporation from open water surface and second (wind and
Lowry and Johnson method was developed based only on
humidity) term for the atmospheres ability to remove water
temperature. Thornthwaite (1948) developed a method with an
vapour, an aerodynamic strength. Penman formula could be
assumption of an exponential relationship existing between
used for estimation of potential evapotranspiration by using a
mean monthly consumptive use and mean monthly temperature.
The formula did not take into account the wind effect which reflection coefficient (r) value of 0.25 for most crops. Monteith
could be an important factor at many places. Blaney Criddle (1965, 1981) extended Penmans basic concept to plants and
cropped areas by introducing resistance factors, including
(1950 and 1962) developed method for areas where available
surface resistance and aerodynamic resistance by clearly
climatic data covered air temperature data only. The mean air
identifying the reliance of transpiration on canopy controls
temperature was considered to be a good measure of solar
known as Penman-Monteith evapotranspiration equation.
radiation. It was considered one of the popular procedures for
estimating potential evapotranspiration due to its simplicity and Priestly and Taylor (1972) proposed a well- known
readily available temperature data. In this method monthly simplification of Penmans equation for humid environments
where the aerodynamic term was put at a constant value (0.26)
consumptive use crop coefficient k had to be developed for each
of the energy term. Doorenbos and Pruitt (1975, 1977) proposed
and every crop under the climatic condition of particular area.
a modified Penman method with a revised wind function term
Phelan (1962) developed a procedure for adjusting monthly k
and an adjustment for mean climatic data for estimating
values as a function of air temperature which is known as SCS
Blaney Criddle method. Doorenbos and Pruitt (1977) suggested reasonably accurately the reference crop ET by giving tables and
graphs to facilitate computation. Wright (1982) modified the
including other meteorological variables by using specific data
original Penman equation and adapted 1982 Kimberly-Penman
or general estimates of sunshine hours, relative humidity and
equation. Kizer et al., (1990) developed hourly
wind speed to have an improved estimate of potential
evapotranspiration prediction model by calibrating the Penman
evapotranspiration which is known as FAO Blaney-Criddle
method. Blaney Criddle method had a limitation of selecting equation for an alfalfa reference crop. Allen et al., (1998) used
percent of daytime hours instead of solar radiation as an index of the equation on hourly basis with the rs term having a constant
value of 70 s m-1 throughout the day and night. They
solar energy. It is observed that daytime hours obtained from
recommended FAO-56 Penman Monteith method as the sole
sunshine tables did not properly accounted for solar angle effects

standard method for determining reference evapotranspiration in computing reference evapotranspiration (ETo ) to those with
all climates, especially when there was availability of data. FAO Penman-Monteith in semi arid climate. Hargreaves
Allen, (2000) developed REF-ET program which provided equation tended to under estimate ETo upto twenty percent for
standardized reference evapotranspiration calculations in daily periods. Makkink and Priestly& Taylor methods clearly
different time steps for more than 15 methods commonly used under estimated the values of ETo during dry periods in
such as Pan Evaporation, Temperature methods, Radiation comparison to FAO-PM model, since values of = 1.26 and Cm
methods, Combination methods. Allen (2002) compared the = 0.61 that used are suitable for humid conditions. Artificial
seasonal ET obtained by reference evapotranspiration estimated Neural Networks (ANNs) could be a useful tool to estimate
by ASCE standardized Penman-Monteith with 1982 Kimberly reference evapotranspiration as a function of climatic elements
Penman and found the differences to be low. Walter et al., Kumar et al., 2002; Jothiprakash et al., 2002. Chauhan and
(2005) developed a standardized reference evapotranspiration Shrivastava, (2012) reported that ANNs performance when
equation which could be applied to two types of reference compared with lysimeter measured values were better than those
surfaces alfalfa and clipped grass for daily and hourly obtained from Penman-Monteith method for estimation of ET ref.
calculation time step. The ASCE Standardized Reference Ojha and Bhakar (2012) carried out the comparison between
Evapotranspiration Equation based on FAO-56 Penman- daily ETref estimated by Penman Monteith (PM) method and that
Monteith equation was developed by ASCE-EWRI task of estimated by ANNs and found the ANNs results encouraging.
committee with aforesaid purpose. The equation is also
recognized as ASCE-EWRI standardized Penman-Monteith Table1. Equation and Measured data required for ET o prediction
equation. Allen et al. (2006) reviewed the functioning of FAO- for various methods.
PM method using surface resistance parameter rs = 70 sm-1 in Name of Prediction Equation Data used
hourly time step while using a constant rs = 50 sm-1 during day Method
and rs = 200sm-1 during night for hourly period. The various Empirical and
widely used equations discussed above are depicted in Table 1. Temperature
Values for Cn and Cd in FAO-PM and ASCE-EWRI Methods
standardized PM equations are given in Table 2.
Hedke (1924) Heat available = T
Temp x days
6.0 COMPARISON STUDIES OF FEW
METHODOLOGIES Blaney and Morin PET = rf(0.45 T,SS,RH
(1942) Ta+8)(520 R1.31)/
100
Many comparison studies have been carried out worldwide
regarding the functioning of various methods to estimate Lowry and Johnson CU = 0.00185 HE+ T
reference ET. Each method has its own strengths and weakness (1942) 10.4
under the particular set of conditions. Here only few studies have Thornthwaite T,SS
been discussed to just give a brief idea about their functioning. (1948)
Hatfield and Allen (1996) compared ET estimates under Blaney and Criddle T,SS
deficient water supplies with Priestly-Taylor and Penman- (1945,1962)
Monteith equations. Penman-Monteith gave more consistent
SCS-Blaney Criddle T,SS
results, while Priestly-Taylor overestimated ETc. Dodds et al., Phelan(1962)
;
(2005) reviewed various methodologies to estimate ETref. (i)
Evaporation Class-A pan tended to be 7-8% higher than the
locally calibrated ETo values for evaporation rates < 10mm day-
1
and for values > 10mm day-1the pan overestimated the values US Weather Bureau RH,E,W
by upto 30%. (ii) Two methods of Penman combination Class A pan
Equation with certain variation in it were compared with FAO-Blaney T,SS,RH,W
lysimeter. a). Kohler-Parmele variation was with a purpose of Criddle Doorenbos
calculating the long wave radiation from the soil-plant system & Pruitt (1977)
using the air temperature instead of evaporating surface Temperature and
temperature, b) Morton gave an iterative variation of the Penman Radiation Methods
equation to calculate a suitable evaporating surface temperature;
FAO radiation T,SS,RH,W,Rs
where both methods performed well. Berengena and Gavilan (Makkink, 1957)
(2005) compared measured ETo using lysimeter with estimated
ETref in a highly advective semi arid environment. They found Turc(1961) T,RH,Rs,
that locally adjusted Penman and ASCE-PM gave the best
results; followed by FAO-PM. Hargreaves equation under
predicted for high ET values and the Priestly-Taylor equation Jensen and Haise T, Rs
(1963)
was found to be too sensitive to advection and the values
improved only after the application of correction of the Jury and Hargreaves and T, Rs,/(SS1,Ra)
Tanner. Er. Raki et al.(2010) compared three empirical Samani (1985)
methods Makkink, Priestley-Taylor and Hargreaves-Samani for

1
Combination ). = mean air temperature (o F and o
C), =
Methods -1
extraterrestrial radiation (mm d ) , = maximum and
Penman T,SS,RH,W,Rs
(1948,1963) minimum daily air temperature difference. = evaporative
-2 -1
latent heat flux (MJ m day ), = slope of saturated vapour
Penman-Monteith T, RH, Rn pressure curve ( kPa C ), Rn= net radiation flux (MJ m-2 day-1),
o -1
method (Monteith
1965)
G = sensible heat flux into the soil (MJ m-2 d-1), =
psychrometric constant ( kPa o C-1), = vapour transport of
Priestly and T, RH, Rn flux (mm d-1). = density of air ( kg m-3), = specific heat of
Taylor(1972) -1 o -1
moisture ( J kg C ), VPD = vapour pressure deficit,
Modified Penman T, W, Rn = canopy surface resistance and aerodynamic resistance ( sm-1).
method, Doorenbos W = temperature related weighting factor, = wind related
and Pruitt
(1975,1977) function, = difference between saturation vapour
pressure at mean air temperature and the mean actual vapour
1982 Kimberly T, RH, W, Rn
Penman Method, pressure of air (both in mbar), c = adjustment factor to
Wright (1982) compensate for the effect of day & night weather conditions. ETr
= reference evapotranspiration (MJ m-2d-1), = wind function.
Penman equation T, RH, W, Rn
for hourly ET for LE = mean hourly latent heat flux (Wm-2), U2 = wind speed at
alfalfa, Kizer et ; 2m (km h-1), = coefficients. = saturation vapour
al.,(1990)
pressure (k Pa), = mean actual vapour pressure (k Pa),
FAO-56 Penman- T, RH, W, Rn and = numerator constants and denominator constants
Monteith Method,
Allen et al.,(1998) respectively that change with reference type and calculation time
step
ASCE-EWRI T RH, W, Rn .
standardized -PM
method, Walter et
al., (2005) Table 2. Values for Cn and Cd in Equation for the FAO-PM and
ASCE-EWRI standardized PM equations (as reported in Allen et
al., (1998) and ASCE-EWRI (2005))
Method Calculation time Cn Cd
T = Temperature, SS = Sun shine hours, RH = Relative step
Humidity, W = Wind, E = Evaporation, Rs= Solar Radiation, Rn
= Net Radiation.. PET= Potential evapotranspiration (mm day-1),
FAO-PM 24-h 900 0.34c
Ta= Mean monthly temperature in o C, R= Mean monthly (ETo) &
Relative humidity, rf = ratio of monthly to annual radiation. Hourly 37 0.24/0.96a
CU= Annual consumptive use (inches), HE= Effective heat, in ASCE-PM
degree days above 32o F. e = unadjusted potential ET (ETo)
(cm/month)( month of 30 days each and 12 hrs daytime), t= ASCE-PM 24-h 1600 0.38
mean air temperature(o C), I = annual or seasonal heat index, = (ETr)b
an empirical exponent. = monthly consumptive use factor, T = Hourly 66 0.25/1.7a
mean monthly temperature (o F), p = monthly per cent of total
a
daytime hrs of the year. ET= Seasonal crop water requirements The first value for daytime periods (when Rn>0) and the second
(inches), = monthly Blaney Criddle coefficient , = value is for night time. b ETr is reference ET from 0.5m tall
monthly consumptive use factor , = mean temperature for alfalfa. c The Cd= 0.34 is now recommended to be changed to
month i, (o F). ETo= Reference evapotranspiration (mm day-1), 0.24 for daytime and 0.96 for night time for hourly or shorter
Kp= Pan coefficient, Epan = Pan evaporation (mm day-1). , b = time steps.
climatic calibration coefficients , = mean daily percentage of
7.0 DISCUSSION
total annual daytime hours, = mean daily temperature in o C
over the month considered. = adjustment factor depending on Irrigation is supplied to compensate the moisture deficit in soil
mean humidity and daytime wind conditions, W = function of occurred due to evapotranspiration. Hence precise estimation of
the temperature & altitude, Rs= solar radiation (mm day-1). = ET is very much required. The factors affecting potential ET are
radiation, temperature, relative humidity and wind speed. The
coefficient depending mean relative humidity, Rs= solar
measurement techniques just provide the point value of moisture
radiation (MJ m-2 day-1), = latent heat of vaporization (MJ kg- content and it cannot be used to estimate the crop water
requirement of large irrigated area with varied climate. The

empirical and temperature based methods performed suitably xii. Cuenca, R. H. (1989). Irrigation System Design an
Engineering Approach, p.122. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Englewood
under specific climatic and agronomic conditions for which they
Cliffs.
were originally developed and could not be used under different xiii. Dodds, P. E., Meyer, W. S., & Barton, A. (April, 2005). A
conditions, other than that for which they were developed. Review of Methods to Estimate Irrigated Reference Crop
Transferring these to other regions led to either under/over Evapotranspiration across Australia. Griffith: Cooperative Research
Centre for Irrigation Futures, Technical Report No.04/05, .
estimation causing substantial errors. The radiation methods
xiv. Doorenbos, J., & Pruitt, W. O. (1975). Guidelines for
which considered the radiant energy provides better estimates in predicting Crop Water Requirements, FAO- 24. In: Michael, A. M.
humid climate but were less precise in advective conditions in Irrigation theory and practice second edition, 2008. p. 497. Cochin: Vikas
arid and semi arid climates, and hence it needed adjustment or Publishing House, New Delhi.
xv. Doorenbos, J., & Pruitt, W. O. (1977). Guidelines for
correction. The combination methods take into account the
predicting Crop Water Requirements, FAO- 24 (Revised). In: Michael, A.
radiant energy term as well as aerodynamic term the ability to M. Irrigation theory and practice second. p.497 edition, 2008. Cochin:
remove water vapour hence it improved upon the ET estimation. Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.
FAO-PM was considered the sole standard method in case all xvi. Er-Raki, S., Chehbouni, A., Khabba, S., Simonneaux, V.,
Jarlan, L., Ouldbba, A., . . . Allen, R. (2010). Assessment of reference
the climate data are available. ASCE-PM method was
evapotranspiration methods in semi-arid regions: Can weather forecast
standardized for different reference crops and also for different data be used as alternate of ground meteorological parameters? Journal of
calculation time step. The ASCE- PM standardized reference ET Arid Environments, 74, 1587-1596.
equation is widely accepted for precise estimation of ET. This xvii. Evett, S. R., Schwartz, R. C., Howell, T. A., Baumhardt, R.
L., & Copeland, K. S. (2012). Can weighing lysimeter ET represent
method can provide important tool for developing decision
surrounding field ET well enough to test flux station measurements of daily
support system for irrigation scheduling. The relationship of ET and sub-daily ET? Advances in Water Resources, Article in Press.
and climate parameters is complex and hence many researchers xviii. Hargreaves, G. H., & Samani, Z. A. (1985). Reference
have resorted to data modelling such as ANN technique. crop evaporation from temperature. . Applied Engineering in Agriculture
1(2), 96-99.
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measurement accuracy. Agricultural Water Management, 98, 899-920. ET Model calibration with Eddy Flux and Energy Balance Data. Journal of
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requirements - FAO Irrigation and Drainage paper 56. Rome: United W., & Pruitt, W. O. (2002). Estimating evapotranspiration using artificial
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v. Allen, R. G., Pruitt, W. O., Wright, J. L., Howell, T. A., xxiv. Lanthaler, C. (2004). Lysimeter Stations and Soil
Ventura, F., Snyder, R., . . . Elliott, R. (2006). A recommendation on Hydrology Measuring sites in Europe Purpose, Equipment, Research
standardized surface resistance for hourly calculation of reference ETo results, Future Developments. Graz: Department for Water Resources
FAO56 Penman-Monteith method. Agricultural Water Management, 81, 1- Management, Hydrogeology and Geophysics.
22. xxv. Lowry, R. L., & Johnson, A. F. (1942). Consumptive use of
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Evapotranspiration Estimation in a Highly Advective Semiarid 107, 1243-1302.
Environment. Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, 147-163. xxvi. Makkink, G. F. (1957). Testing the Penman Formula by
vii. Blaney, H. F., & Criddle, W. D. (1950). Determining Means of Lysimeters. In Jensen, M. E. Historical evolution of ET
Water Requirements in Irrigated Areas from Climatological and Irrigation estimating methods, A Century of progress. CSU/ARS Evapotranspiration
Data. In: Jensen, M. E. Historical evolution of ET estimating methods, A Workshop, Fort Collins, CO, 12- Mar-2010, p. 8.
Century of progress. CSU/ARS Evapotranspiration Workshop, Fort xxvii. Montieth, J. L. (1965). Evaporation and Environment. In:
Collins, CO, 12- Mar-2010, p. 4. Michael, A. M. Irrigation theory and practice second edition, 2008. p. 499.
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Consumptive Use and Water Requirements. In Jensen, M. E. Historical xxviii. Montieth, J. L. (1981). Evaporation and Surface
evolution of ET estimating methods, A Century of progress. CSU/ARS Temperature. Quarterly Journal of Royal Meteorological Society 107, 1-
Workshop Evapotranspiration Workshop, Fort Collins, CO, 12-Mar-2010, 27.
p. 4. xxix. Ojha, S., & Bhakar, S. (2012). Estimation of
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consumptive use of water formulas. . American Geophysics Union of Indian Water Resources Society, Vol. 32, No. 1-2,, 13-21.
Transaction, 76-82. xxx. Penman, H. L. (1948). Natural evaporation from open
x. Cammalleri, C., Agnese, C., Ciraolo, G., Minacapilli, M., water, bare soil, and grass. Proceedings Royal Society of London, A193,
Provenzano, G., & Rallo, G. (2010). Actual evapotransporation assessment (pp. 120-146).
by means of a coupled energy/hydrologic balance model: Validation over xxxi. Penman, H. L. (1963). Vegetation and hydrology. In:
an olive grove by means of scintillometry and measurements of soil water Farhani, H. J., Howell, T. A., Shuttleworth, W. J. and Bausch, W. C.
contents. Journal of Hydrology 392, 70-82. Evapotranspiration: Progress in measurement and modeling in
xi. Chauhan, S., & Shrivastava, R. K. (2012). Estimating agriculture. American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers.
Reference Evapotranspiration using Neural computing technique. Journal Vol. 50(5), 2007, p. 1627.
of Indian Water Resources Society, Vol. 32, No. 1-2,, 22-32. xxxii. Phelan, J. T. (1962). Estimating monthly "k" values for the
Blaney-Criddle formula. In: Jensen, M. E. Historical evolution of ET

estimating methods, A Century of progress. CSU/ARS Evapotranspiration Our study proves that locally constructed lysimeters could
Workshop, Fort Collins, Co, 12-Mar-2010, p.4.
xxxiii. Phene, C. J., Reginato, R. J., Itier, B., & Tanner, B. R.
effectively be utilized in water balance study of a cropped area
(1990). Sensing Irrigation needs. In: Farhani, H. J., Howell, T. A., when used in combination with root zone soil moisture
Shuttleworth, W. J. and Bausch, W. C. Evapotranspiration: Progress in monitoring devices and can contribute to the further water
measurement and modeling in agriculture. American Society of Agricutural resources management of an irrigated field. We deduce from
and Biological Engineers. Vol. 50(5). 2007, p.1629.
xxxiv. Priestly, C. B., & Taylor, R. J. (1972). On the assessment
this study that deep percolation process is one of the most
of surface heat flux and evaporation using large-scale parameters. . important factors lowering surface method irrigation efficiency
Monthly Weather Review, 81-92. in general and rice paddy fields in particular in course
xxxv. Thornthwaite, C. W. (1948). An approach towards a textured soils. We recommend, revisit of irrigation scheduling
rational classification of climate. The Geographical Review, Vol.38, N0.1,
55-94.
options besides the already practiced water saving options in
xxxvi. Turc, L. (1961). Estimation of irrigation water water intensive crops for better utilization of water resources.
requirements, potential ET : A simple climatic formula evolved up Key words: Deep percolation, Lysimeter experiment, Rice
todate.In: Jensen, M. E. Historical evolution of ET estimating methods, A paddy, Root zone depletion, Water balance model
Century of progress. CSU/ARS Evapotranspiration Workshop, Fort
Collins, CO, 12-Mar-2010, p.8.
xxxvii. Walter, I. A., Allen, R. G., Elliott, R., Itenfisu, D., Brown, 1. INTRODUCTION
P., Jensen, M. E., . . . Wright, J. L. (2005). The ASCE Standardized
Reference Evapotranspiration Equation. USA: Task Committee on Deep percolation phenomena from frequently irrigated fields
Standardization of Reference Evapotranspiration, Environmental and
such as paddy rice seriously diminish irrigation efficiency,
Water Resources Institute of the American Society of Civil Engineers.
xxxviii. Wright, J. L. (1982). New evapotranspiration crop jeopardise proper water management and minimize water
coefficients. . Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Division. 108 (IR1), 57- productivity. This is quite sound in coarse textured soils where
74. water holding capacity is relatively less. Seepage and percolation
losses of water are major reasons behind the poor water
productivity in wetland rice (Patil et al. 2011). Percolation loss
of water from irrigated field is not only reducing irrigation
efficiency but also becoming a haphazard to an environment by
carrying agriculture-based chemicals to the surrounding water
bodies, especially to the groundwater aquifer systems (Tafteh
and Sepaskhah 2012).
Estimation of Deep Percolation from Rice Paddy Various studies were conducted to estimate deep percolation
Field Using Lysimeter Experiments on Sandy from irrigated fields. Large volume of deep percolation loss
could exist during the continuous flooding operation of rice
Loam Soil paddy, even in under puddled conditions (Kukal and Aggarwal
2002; Bouman et al. 2007; Yadav et al. 2011). Bouman and et
Hatiye, Samuel D.1, K.S.Hari Prasad 2, C.S.P. Ojha 2 and G.S.
al. (2007) reported that around 70% of input water could go for
Kaushika 3
1,3 percolation loss when groundwater depth is equal to or more
Ph.D. Scholar, Civil Engineering Department, IIT Roorkee,
than 2m. Yadav et al. (2011) observed that, about 81% of water
247667 Roorkee, India; 2Professor Department of Civil
added was drained beyond the root zone (060 cm) from
Engineering, IIT Roorkee, 247667 Roorkee, India.
continuously flooded rice field. Many factors influence
percolation phenomena through the bottom of the crop root
ABSTRACT: In this study, variation and characteristics of
zone. Ponding size, water table depth, evapotranspiration,
deep percolation from irrigated rice paddy field using drainage
antecedent soil moisture condition, soil texture and structure
type lysimeter set up has been presented. The water intensive
characteristics, shrinkage behaviour of soil and biotic activities
lowland rice paddy has been grown from July to November
in soil root zone, irrigation size and time, climatic condition,
2013. Water balance components including irrigation size,
crop type and characteristics, water management and agronomic
rainfall, soil moisture and deep percolation were monitored on
practices, puddling intensity and depth, etc (Kukal and
daily bases. It has been observed that quite a large volume of
Aggarwal 2002; Bouman 2007; Bethune et al. 2008; Selle et al.
water is returned as deep percolation flow as physically
2011). Sizable efforts have been made so far to reduce deep
demonstrated from twin lysimeter measurements. We employed
percolation from rice fields: alternate wetting and drying (AWD)
a simple tipping bucket type water balance model to validate
( de Vries, et al. 2010; Bouman et al. 2007; Belder et al. 2004;
the experimental data. The deep percolation monitored on
), aerobic rice (Nie et al. 2012), delayed application of
daily bases does not agree with the model computed value,
continuous flooding (Dunn and Gaydon 2011), puddling (Kuakal
however it agrees well on an extended time interval in an order
and Aggarwal 2002; Kukal and Sidhu 2004). However,
of seven days (weekly bases). On average more than 80% of the
consideration and effort to reduce deep percolation under non
input volume of water goes on the account of deep percolation
puddled rice paddy field was not dealt significantly.
in non puddled, continuously irrigated rice field.
There are various ways available to quantify and estimate deep
1
Corresponding Author: email: samueldagalo@gmail.com; phone +91- percolation. Drainage type lysimeters are considered to be the
8266802124 most important facilities, at field level, to measure percolation.

However, lysimeters are criticized to be costly to install, experimental conditions have been maintained inside and outside
maintain and operate; and so they often are used singly such that the lysimeters throughout the growing period of the crop.
adequate replication of measurements is not possible (Evett et al.
2012; Bethune et al. 2008; Hillel 2004). Apart from the direct Twenty one days old seedlings were transplanted in a soaked
measurement of percolation using lysimeter set up, various field. Basal doses of zinc sulphate, superphosphate and urea (N
models have also been developed to estimate deep percolation fertilizer) were applied in two equal instalments during
from agricultural areas. Deep percolation, the water that passes transplanting and 6 weeks after transplanting. Weed control has
below the crop root zone, is usually calculated based on the been undertaken manually by hand removing all the weeds from
conventional water balance equation (Peng et al. 2012; Bethune field three times during the growth period of the crop. Irrigation
et al. 2008; Huang et al. 2003). water size of 20mm to 100mm has been applied to the paddy
field during the growth stages except the final late stages when
Estimation of deep percolation from rice paddy has not the crop was matured to harvest. The soil physical and hydraulic
commonly been determined using drainage type lysimeters. The characteristics have been determined in the laboratory for three
reason may be due to the fact that drainage volume at the bottom representative spots of the plot and replicate depths from 0 to
of water intensive crops is quite large which may not be easy for 140cm following standard procedures. The soil physical
continuous monitoring. This particular study aims, therefore, to properties determined are indicated in the table below (table 1).
quantify deep percolation in continuously monitored irrigated Irrigation water was applied for a specific area by measuring
fields of paddy rice to understand and characterize deep discharge and calculating time required to provide a
percolation. The experimental data is planned to be evaluated predetermined depth of water. The soil moisture status was
using simple water balance model after FAO. In the course of monitored by using soil moisture probe (Profile Probe-2; Delta T
the exercise, we try to examine the major influencing factors of Devices, Cambridge) through access tubes installed both inside
deep percolation from cropped area employing drainage type and outside the lysimeters. The profile probe sensor which is
lysimeters in sandy loam soils. connected to HH2 meter provides soil moisture content data at
10, 20, 30, 40, 60 and 100cm depths. It enables to measure the
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS soil moisture content in volumetric bases for different soil types
ranging from clayey to sandy soils with accuracy between +0.04
The study site is located in the Utterakhand state of India, a field (after soil specific calibration) and +0.06(after generalized soil
experimental plot situated in Department of Civil Engineering, calibration in normal soils). The soil moisture was measured on
IIT Roorkee in the geometric grid of 77 o5352 East Longitude daily bases and before and after irrigation or rainfall whenever
and 29o5200 at an average altitude of 274m above mean sea these events took place.
level. The area experiences hot summer season with monsoon Deep percolation was measured twice in a day at bottom of the
rainfall and cold winter. The monthly average maximum lysimeters early in the morning (07:00 a.m.) and evening
temperature of the study area is recorded in the range of 19.33 (around 07:00 p.m.). The lysimeter rim was kept 10cm above the
(January) to 37.73oC (May) and monthly average minimum ground to avoid run-on or runoff. Tipping buckets in access
temperature in the range of 7.2(January) to 25.6 oC (July) caisson hall were used to collect the drainage water. Climatic
according to the data from National Institute of Hydrology data (temperature, relative humidity, pan evaporation, wind
(NIH) at Roorkee. The average relative humidity runs from speed and rainfall) for the growth period of the crop was
52.2% (May) to 89.7% (January). The average annual daily obtained from nearby metrological station, National Institute of
sunshine duration is 7.7hrs. The average annual rainfall of Hydrology (NIH), India located at distance of 0.8 kilometres
Roorkee is 1060 mm out of which almost 80% is recorded from the experimental site.
during the monsoon season (June to September).
Table 1. Soil physical characteristics of the experimental plot
The field experiment consisted of growing paddy rice ((Oryza
Sativa L.) , var. Surbati Basmati) from July 23 (day of Soil depth Bulk Particl San Silt Cl Soil Class Satura
(below density( e d (%) ay (USDA)3 ted
transplanting) to 02 November (day of harvest) of the 2013 GL2),cm g/cm3) densit (%) ( Water
kharif season. The area of lysimeters is 1m2 having a depth of y % conten
(g/cm3 ) t, sat
1.5m repacked soil monolith of the experimental field. The )
construction of the lysimeters took place in 2007 and hence they 0-30 1.58 2.55 73. 22.7 2. Sandy 0.38
are considered to replicate the surrounding root zone soil 40 0 9 Loam
6
environment. The soil monolith is a repacked soil material 30-60 1.55 2.57 66. 28.3 4. Sandy 0.40
consisting of the upper 1.3m filled with a sandy loam textured 89 9 0 Loam
1
soil, moderately homogeneous throughout the profile, 60-80 1.54 2.56 68. 26.5 4. Sandy 0.40
characterized by an organic content of 1.1 to 1.2%. The bottom 57 4 3 Loam
0.08m was filled with a very course gravel of size more than 3
80-100 1.54 2.58 69. 26.5 3. Sandy 0.40
3cm diameter overlain by 0.12m thick gravel of about 2cm in 10 4 8 Loam
diameter. This bottom arrangement allows drainage towards
imbedded perforated pipes which carry percolating water 2
Ground level
towards tipping buckets (Shankar 2007) (Fig 1). The same 3
USDA=United States Dept of Agriculture

4 when the root depth has grown deeper, water contents measured
100-140 1.59 2.62 68. 27.3 4. Sandy 0.39 at deeper depths has been taken into account in computation of
01 8 5 Loam
8
soil moisture deficit besides the soil water content in the surface
layer. Consequently, the deep percolation is computed as:-
3. MODEL DESCRIPTION DPi 10R j ( i 1 i ) Pi I i ETci Ri
(4)
The soil water balance is the concept, derived from the law of
Irrigation and precipitation are usually inputs to the field and
conservation of mass, used in quite many studies dealing with
obtained from actual field measurements. Evapotranspiration
water flow in the soil root zone, solute transport, groundwater
could be calculated from various models. Among the various
flow and recharge, etc.. It is dealing with quantification and
methods developed so far, the FAO Penman Monthieth approach
analysis of each inflow and outflow components while
has been applied in this study.
accounting for storage in the system environment (Kim, et al.
Evapotranspiration for standard conditions, Etc, is estimated by
2009; Chien and Fang 2012; Peng et al. 2012).
incorporating a crop coefficient, Kc,
A FAO based simple tipping bucket soil water balance model ETc K c ETo
(Allen et al. 1998) is used in this study to test the validity of field (5)
experimental observation. The lysimeter water balance can be
given by (Hillel 2004):- Where ETc for standard conditions assumes hypothetical
conditions where there is no short of water, actively growing
Di Di 1 Pi I i ETci DPi Ri disease free crops in an extensive area. However, this imaginary
condition seldom occurs in a practical field condition. Detailed
(1) procedures to estimate Kc and attached parameters are given by
FAO paper 56 (Allen et al., 1998), Rallo et al., 2012)
Where D (mm) = root zone moisture depletion; P (mm) =
precipitation; I(mm) = applied irrigation; ETc (mm) = actual
evapotranspiration; DP (mm) = deep percolation of water
moving out of the root zone; Ri(mm) is surface runoff ; i and i-1
are, respectively, considered to be the current and previous time
steps (days in this study).
The soil moisture deficit in the root zone is obtained from

monitored water contents at respective depths. It is usually
referenced with the field capacity of a given soil and may be
given by:-
Di 10 R j fc i Figure-1. Lysimeter set up details (All dimensions are in mm)

(2)
Runoff component of the water balance in lysimeter studies is
Where i is the soil moisture content (%) in the root zone depth often neglected since it is either minimal or controlled in such a
Rj (m) at the end of day i ; fc is the soil moisture content at field way that there exists no run-on and run-off. If the top level of the
capacity (%). The deep percolation is computed taking into lysimeter is constructed a slightly above the ground elevation,
account the root growth of the crops. The field observed root surface water inflow or outflow could be eliminated. However,
length has been interpolated for each day of the crop growth in certain torrential storms it is advisable to consider runoff from
period and used as an input in the computation of the soil water a lysimeter since water could overflow the lysimeter rim. Run-
balance model. In particular, the root growth has an effect on the on in our experimental site did not occur since the field
soil moisture deficit as portrayed in the following equation. surrounding is constructed of earthen bunds covered with plastic
Di Di 1 10R j ( fc i ) R j ( fc i 1 ) sheets. Therefore, surface runoff in our experimental field has
been considered only when rainfall magnitude overflows above
the lysimeter rim level according to the following algorithm:
Di Di 1 10R j ( i 1 i )
(3)
Where is the average root depth (m) in the time interval i and (6)
i-1 and other terms are as defined earlier. If the depth of root
Where Ri= runoff generated (mm); P i= rainfall (mm) and Lrh =
zone is small, < 10cm, as in the early growth stages of the the lysimeter rim height measured from ground surface inside
crops, the soil moisture content on the top layer is considered; the lysimeter (mm).


4.1. Diurnal Deep Percolation
Figure 2 shows the measured deep percolation for the day and
night times. During the period of the experimental run, the
observed deep percolation on day time (measured around 7:00
p.m. in the evening) is lower than the deep percolation occurred
during night time (measured around 7:00 a.m. in the morning).
Although we could clearly observe such variation of day and
night time percolation which took place due to the effect of
evapotranspiration during day time, the comparison of
evapotranspiration with deep percolation shows poor correlation.
The correlation coefficient between daily deep percolation and Figure 2. Deep percolation at lysimeter 1(L1) for day (broken)
actual evapotranspiration is nearly 0.13 (not shown here). The and night times (solid) lines
less dependence of percolation on ET refers that deep
percolation is more dependent on some other factors such as storm periods, the lysimeters were observed to demonstrate
input water volume (Selle et al. 2011; Bethune et al. 2008; variations in allowing percolation (fig. 2 and 3). This may be due
Ochoa et al. 2007; Smith et al. 2005), soil hydraulic to the fact that the lysimeters depict differences in preferential
characteristics (Smith et al. 2005), final infiltration rate (Selle et flow which is significant during rainy days.
al. 2011; Bethune, et al. 2008), Groundwater depth (Bouman and
4.2. Model Predicted and Measured Deep
et.al. 2007; Bethune, et al. 2008), antecedent root zone soil
Percolation
moisture condition (Ochoa et al, 2007), irrigation management
techniques (Smith et al. 2005); crop type and cropping pattern The model predicted and measured deep percolation is shown
(Smith et al. 2005). The input depth of water, antecedent soil below (fig. 6) for various time steps. The deep percolation
moisture conditions, groundwater depth and irrigation computed using the simple water balance model on daily time
management techniques have eventually influenced the deep step poorly agrees with the field measured daily deep
percolation in the experimental field.During the crop period, the percolation. This would be due to the inherent nature of the
deep percolation event was observed to follow the input water model in which it assumes the deep percolation to occur on the
pattern. Occurrence of intense storms caused high deep day of event irrigation or rainfall. However, in practical field
percolation than event irrigations (fig. 4). Irrigation could be situations deep percolation could take place starting on the day
controlled to minimize deep percolation but it is hardly possible of triggered irrigation or rainfall occurrence and in the next
to manage percolation from storm rainfall. The process of consecutive days (Liu et al. 2006; Peng et al. 2012). Peng et al.
puddling would enhance the soil water retention capacity 2012, has indicated that percolation would cease after seven
(Kuakal and Aggarwal 2002; Kukal and Sidhu 2004). days (a weekly time step). Liu et al. (2006) has shown that deep
However, effectiveness of this technique in ensuring lateral flow percolation would follow a sort of power law function. Apart
through side bunds and deep percolation thereof is being from that, till the percolating water finds way out to tipping
debatable. buckets in to the
The antecedent soil moisture condition is obviously another
factor which could characterize the deep percolation. Whenever,
the soil is at or above field capacity, the input water added would
contribute to deep percolation balance. Since, the wetting event
in this particular study was frequent (fig 4); the soil was
remained near field capacity for most of the growing period and
hence large deep percolation. Generally, the deep percolation
showed a decreasing trend from the monsoon season (July-
September) to late season stage of the crop season (October-
November). The decreasing trend would be due to the coupled Figure 3. Relation of Deep Percolation (DP) Measured in the
effects of reduced irrigation sizes, frequency and the ending of two lysimeters
monsoon rainfall season.The performance of the two lysimeters
in metering deep percolation has also been investigated. It has
been seen that the observed amount of deep percolation from
both lysimeters is fairly similar showing the repacked soil
monolith exhibit the same property in both lysimeters
particularly during the non-storm periods. During

The statistics with regard to the lumped time step deep

percolation is shown in the table below (table 2). Deep
percolation computed on weekly (7 days) time step showed very
good agreement with the measured cumulative deep percolation.
This shows that consideration of smaller time steps (in order of
few days or less than a day) would yield erroneous results
particularly in computing the deep percolation component of the
water balance from drainage type lysimeters. In fact, the storage
effect of the lysimeter monolith could not be disregarded.
However, it is only possible to construct drainage type
lysimeters whose outlets are located at certain fixed position
Figure 4. Input (Irrigation-IRR and Rainfall) water and deep
below the root zone (usually below 1m depth from ground
percolation
level).
atmosphere, there is a time lag between incidence of irrigation or
Table 2. Statistical parameters for measured and computed deep
rainfall and drainage of water. This time lag could not be
percolation
perfectly one day as assumed in the simple tipping bucket
model. In actual situations, construction of lysimeters could only Time interval, days C C A
be done for specific depth of the root zone, mostly considering O O R
the maximum depth of root lengths of major crops in an area. D V E
Therefore, whenever the root zone of a particular crop is less
than the outlet level of the lysimeter, we would expect certain 1 0 1 -
effects of storage which reasonably cause time lag for . . 0.
percolation to occur. The important thing is that the ability of the 1 0 06
lysimeter set up in monitoring deep percolation beyond the root 1 2
zone. 3
After observation of the deviations between model predicted and 0 0 -
field observed deep percolation besides the temporal . . 0.
characteristics of measured percolation, we extended time 6 3 11
interval from daily time step to 5, 7 and 10 days interval to apply 9 7
the water balance. The results of this time lumping exercise,
commencing from the day of transplanting to crop harvest,
showed that there is a good
L1=Lysimeter 1; L2 =lysimeter 2; cum = cumulative;

ETA=Actual Evapotranspiration
Figure 5. Cumulative Water Balance Components during the
crop period 5
agreement between measured and predicted deep percolation 7 0 0 0.

values. . . 01
9 3

1 2 Deep percolation from rice field has been investigated. The deep
percolation varies mainly in response to the input water depth
10 0 0 0. and frequency of application/occurrence when groundwater table
. . 04 is assumed deep. Intense and continuous storms particularly
7 2 caused high percolation rate and depth owing to the saturated
3 4 antecedent moisture conditions during and after these
incidences. Evapotranspiration is observed to have some
COD=Coefficient of determination; COV= Coefficient of influence on deep percolation as daily measurements reveal,
Variation; ARE=Average relative error although there is a weak correlation between evapotranspiration
and deep percolation.
The statistics shows that there occurs a good agreement between The FAO based simple tipping bucket water balance model
model predicted and measured values of deep percolation when poorly simulates the daily deep percolation measured at drainage
applied on extended time steps. Thus we deduce from these type lysimeters. However, the model better predicts the
results that locally constructed drainage type lysimeters could cumulative deep percolation on lumped time step of the order of
provide detailed information in characterizing deep percolation 7 days (weekly time interval). Overall, in this study it has been
phenomena in an irrigated farm. Deep percolation investigated that deep percolation is the most important process
measurements could be undertaken in the time intervals of 5 to in the water balance of irrigated paddy field diminishing
10 days in further investigation of deep percolation researches irrigation efficiency. Comparable volumes of deep percolation
unless drainage outlets are installed at very shallow depths from rice cultivated areas have been reported earlier, even under
which may, however, not be practicable. puddled root zone conditions. Therefore, it is advisable to seek
alternative irrigation scheduling strategies to minimize deep
percolation and hence increase irrigation efficiency and further
enhance the water resource utilization of a region.
(a) Time Interval = 1day (b) Time
Interval = 5days REFERENCES
(c) Time Interval = 7days (d) Time i. Allen RG, Pereira LS, Raes D, Smith M, (1998) Crop
Interval = 10days evapotranspiration: Guidelines for Computing Crop Water Requirements. Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.
ii. Belder P., Bouman BAM., Cabangon R, Lu G, Quilang, EJP, Li YH,
Spiertz, JHJ., Tuong, TP (2004) Effect of water-saving irrigation on rice yield
and water use in typical lowland conditions in Asia. Agricutural Water
Management 65 (3), 193210.
iii. Bethune MG., Selle B, Wang QJ (2008) Understanding and
predicting deep percolation under surface irrigation. Water Resources
Research, 44, W12430, doi: 10.1029/2007WR006380.
iv. Bouman BAM, Feng L, Tuong TP, Lu G, Wang H, Feng Y (2007).
Exploring options to grow rice using less water in northern China using a
modelling approach II. Quantifying yield, water balance components, and
water productivity. Agricultural Water Management 88, 13-33.
v. Bouman BAM, Lampayan RM, Tuong, TP (2007) Water Management
in Irrigated Rice: Coping with Water Scarcity. International Rice Research
Institute, Los Banos.
vi. Chien CP, Fang WT (2012) Modelling irrigation return flow for the
return flow reuse system in paddy fields. Paddy Water Environment 10,187-
196.
vii. de Vries ME, Rodenburg J, Bado BV, Sow A, Leffelaar PA, Giller KE
Figure 6. (a-d) Measured (solid lines) and model predicted (2010). Rice production with less irrigation water is possible in a Sahelian
(Dots) deep percolation environment. Field Crops Research 116, 154164.
viii. Dunn W, Gaydon DS (2011) Rice growth, yield and water
The overall share of deep percolation in the water balance is productivity responses to irrigation scheduling prior to the delayed application
of continuous ooding in south-east Australia. Agricultural Water Management
quite high. We observed that there occurred above 80% of the 98, 1799 -1807.
volume of water input goes as deep percolation. The total ix. Evett SR, Schwartz RC, Howell TA, Baumhardt, RL, Copeland, KS
amount of input water during the growing season was 3078.1mm (2012) Can weighing lysimeter ET represent surrounding field ET well enough
and the total measured deep percolation was 2506.5mm (fig. 5) to test flux station measurements of daily and sub-daily ET? Advances in Water
Resources 50, 7990.
while the model computed deep percolation was 2646.60mm. x. Hillel D (2004) Introduction to Environmental Soil Physics. Elsevier
Academic Press, Amsterdam
This shows that quite a significant volume of water is percolated xi. Kim HK, Jang TI, Im SJ, Park SW (2009) Estimation of irrigation
during frequent irrigation of the paddy growth period, although return flow from paddy fields considering the soil moisture. Agricultural Water
it could be quite possible to reduce the amount of water input by Management 96 , 875-882.
xii. Kukal SS, Aggarwal GC (2002) Percolation losses of water in
appropriate irrigation scheduling. relation to puddling intensity and depth in a sandy loam rice (Oryza sativa)
field. Agricultural Water Management 57, 49-59.
5. CONCLUSIONS

xiii. Kukal SS, Sidhu AS (2004) Percolation losses of water in relation to In the first scenario, all demands of water users on 10 daily
pre-puddling tillage and puddling intensity in a puddled sandy loam rice
(Oryza sativa L.) field. Soil & Tillage Research 78, 1-8.
basis from july 1 to November 10 are fulfilled through river
xiv. Liu Y, Pereira LS, Fernando RM (2006) Fluxes through the bottom whereas in second scenario all demands of users on 10 daily
boundary of the root zone in silty soils: Parametric approaches to estimate basis are fulfilled by river as well as from the reservoir RS
groundwater contribution and percolation. Agricultural Water Management 84 directly connected through user WU7. In the present study, the
, 27 40.
xv. Nie L, Peng S Chen, M, Shah F., Huang JK., Cui K., Xiang, J (2012).
irrigation management in the command of Bearma basin has
Aerobic rice for water-saving agriculture. A review. Agronomy and Sustainable been carried out from reservoir releases. In this study rule
Development 32, 411-418. curve reservoir method was used for addition of reservoir in
xvi. Ochoa CG, Fernald AG, Guldan SJ, Shukla MK. (2007) Deep Bearma basin. Irrigation demands for soybean crop during the
Percolation and its Effects on Shallow Groundwater Level Rise Following
Flood Irrigation. American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers
monsoon period (June to October) on a 10- daily basis for all
ISSN 00012351. Vol. 50(1): 7381. users namely WU1, WU2, WU3, WU4, WU5, WU6 and WU7
xvii. Patil MD, Das BS, Bhadoria PBS, (2011) A simple bund plugging existing in sub-basins namely SW1, SW2, SW3, SW4, SW5,
technique for improving water productivity in wetland rice. Soil & Tillage SW6 and SW7 have been computed by using CROPWAT. It
Research 112, 6675.
xviii. Peng W, Song X., Han D, Zhang Y, Zhang B (2012) Determination of
can be seen that in scenario (1) there is no provision of
evaporation, transpiration and deep percolation of summer corn and winter reservoir in the basin, user WU7 used maximum water as
wheat after irrigation. Agricultural Water Management 105, 32- 37 125.55 MCM and deficit is also maximum in this sub-basin
xix. Rallo G, Agnese C, Minacapilli M, Provenzano G (2012) Comparison with 88.48 MCM. In scenario (2) with provision of reservoir in
of SWAP and FAO Agro-Hydrological Models to Schedule Irrigation of Wine
Grapes. ASCE Journal, Irrigation and Drainage Engineering 138:581-591.
basin, it can be seen that that reservoir RS has used maximum
xx. Selle B, Minasny B, Bethune M, Thayalakumaran T, Chandra S water of 218.05 MCM and deficit of 42.41 MCM also occurs.
(2011) Applicability of Richards' equation models to predict deep percolation The performance is more noticeable that demand deficits have
under surface irrigation. Geoderma 160, 569578 greatly reduced from 88.48 MCM to 42.41 MCM for WU7 by
xxi. Shankar V (2007) Modelling of Moisture uptake by plants: a Ph.D,
Thesis. IIT Roorkee, Department of Civil Engineering, Roorkee, India.
construction of reservoir. It can be appreciated that all the
xxii. Smith RJ, Raine SR. Minkevich J (2005) Irrigation application users that have not been connected to the reservoir are facing
efficiency and deep drainage under surface irrigated cotton. Agricultural deficits of varying magnitudes under drought situation.
Water Management 71,117-30. Therefore, it will be prudent to explore additional sites for
xxiii. Tafteh A., Sepaskhah AR (2012) Application of HYDRUS-1D model
for simulating water and nitrate leaching from continuous and alternate furrow
reservoirs on different locations so that the deficits can be
irrigated rapeseed and maize fields. Agricultural Water Management 113, 19- minimised to the minimum extent possible.
29. Key words : Bearma basin, MIKE BASIN, rule curve method.
xxiv. Yadav S, Li T., Humphreys E., Gill G, Kukal SS ( 2011). Evaluation
and application of ORYZA2000 for irrigation scheduling of puddled
The Bundelkhand region was once known for its large natural
transplanted rice in North West India. Field Crops Research, 122 104117.
resources, abundant water resources including perennial streams,
large number of traditional tanks and rich forests. However,
large scale exploitation of all these resources has made the area
to be the poorest by which pressure on water resources in the
Bearma basin is likely to increase dramatically in the near future
Reservoir Modelling in Bearma Basin by Using as a result of high population growth. It is required to protect
Mike Basin rivers from degradation caused by hydrological conditions (Cui
Shikha Sachan1*, T. Thomas2, R.M. Singh3, et. al., 2010). However, the water demand is increasing whereas
Pushpendra Kumar4 water resources are expected to decrease because of climate
1
Department of Farm Engineering, Banaras Hindu University warming and the same or decreasing precipitation (Bates et. al.,
Varanasi 221005, India 2008).Climatic variability, changes and uneven distribution of
*
E-mail : shikha.6nov@gmail.com resources create water shortages and interrupt the usual water
linked activities posing serious threat to nature, quality of life
ABSTRACT: MIKE BASIN is an integrate water resource and economy (Hisdal and Tallaksen, 2003). The recurrent
management and planning computer model that integrates GIS droughts in the last decade had led to large scale migration from
with water resource modelling (DHI, 2006). The Bundelkhand the Bundelkhand due to non-availability of water for domestic
region in Central India has been in the grip of severe drought and agricultural activities. The low stream flows are indicative
in the last decade mainly due to poor, limited and untimely of rainfall situation (Galkate et. al., 2010).
rainfall and its high variability coupled with improper water
resources development and management. Bearma river is one In fact, drought is estimated to be the most costly natural disaster
of the important tributary of river Ken lies completely in in the world, wide range of detrimental effects associated with
Madhya Pradesh. In Bearma basin, Irrigation planning and precipitation deficits include: decreased crop yields, increased
management has been carried out for drought year (2002). wildfires, death of cattle and wildlife, water shortages, and rising
Study has been conducted and analysed under two different food prices (Witt, 1997) and the most complex and least
Scenarios, understood of all natural hazards, affecting more people than any
(1) : without provision of reservoir in the Bearma basin other hazard (Wilhite, 2000). Drought impacts the poorer
(2) : with provision of reservoir in the Bearma basin economies to a larger extent and may cause fatalities as
compared to developed countries. A drought is an extended
period when a region notes a deficiency in its water (Beran and

Rodier, 1985). The consequences of drought vary greatly Figure 1. Schematic representation of reservoirs and the various water users
drawing water from reservoir as well as from the river (Scenario-2)
depending on its location, timing, extent and the type of society
or societal sector impacted by the drought (Gleick, 1993).The Description of MIKE BASIN Model
different types of droughts have each their own specific
spatiotemporal characteristics (Peters et al., 2006; Tallaksen et Rivers and their main tributaries are represented by a network
al., 2009). Different types of drought are meteorological, consisting of branches and nodes in the model. The model
hydrological, agricultural and socio-economic (Hisdal and requires the entire catchment to be segmented into a series of sub
Tallaksen, 2003). Meteorological drought simply refers to the catchments. The river system is represented in model by
atmospheric conditions that result in the absence or reduction of digitized river network which can be generated directly on the
precipitation and since its definition only relies on rainfall. Due computer screen in Arc Map (DHI, 2003). A nodal
to its reliance on plant and soil conditions, agricultural drought representation of case study of Attanagalu Oya Basin, Sri Lanka
usually has a lag time in response to precipitation changes (Park was prepared using MIKE BASIN to estimate stream flow at
et al., 2005), and the impact depends greatly on the timing of the each node, (K. R. J. Perera et al., 2010).
drought in relation to crop growth.
Reservoir
In light of the grim scenario in the region, the Bearma basin is a
major tributary of the Ken river system, the life line of MIKE BASIN can accommodate multiple multi-purpose
Bundelkhand has been selected to study the drought scenario in reservoir system and individual reservoir to simulate the
the recent years and for planning to cope up with such situation performance of specified operating policies using associated
in future through reservoir modeling. The monsoon rainfall is operating rule curves. In present study rule curve reservoir
the only possible source of irrigation in Bundelkhand region of method was used for addition of reservoir in Bearma basin. Rule
semi-arid Central India. A continuous spell of poor rainfall in curve reservoir regards a single physical storage and all users are
combination with high temperature in successive years hinders drawing water from the same storage.
water availability and imparts stress on ground water resources
leading to severe drought in many parts during both, the Reservoir properties
monsoon and the non-monsoon seasons. Therefore, in present The reservoir characteristics, operating rules, upstream and
study irrigation model has been simulated especially for drought downstream connections to users and control nodes are specified
year 2002, under two different scenarios (without provision of in the reservoir properties dialog. The level-area-volume table is
dam in the main stream and with provision of dam in the stream) used to compute reservoir volume at any level in reservoir.
has been carried out to analyse irrigation deficit for soybean
crops. The model was simulated from observed flow by Reservoir operation properties
preparing Bearma basin model in MIKE BASIN software.
The most common operating rule is the rule curve (standard
Methods reservoir method). Rule curves define the desired storage
Irrigation Management Planning for Bearma basin volumes, water levels, and releases at any time as a function of
existing water level. Present study has been carried out using
For determination of suitable sites for construction of reservoirs rule curve method.
in study area, one location has been identified selected on the
main river. To develop drought mitigation strategies through Channels
scientific planning of water resources and management, MIKE
BASIN model has been developed. In the present study, the The channels are the segments that connect water users,
irrigation management in the command of Bearma basin has irrigation nodes and hydropower nodes to a river or a reservoir.
been carried out from reservoir releases; therefore, reservoir, In the present study the channel segment was used for
irrigation nodes and transfer of water through channel have been connecting water users and reservoirs.
specified.
Simulation
MIKE BASIN Model has been simulated for drought year

(2002). In first case, the model simulated after setting up all
water users without any reservoir and in second case the model
is simulated after setting up reservoir and water users. The
output time series contain water used, demand deficit, stored
volume in reservoir, water levels in reservoir, and channel flows
at given time span assigned during simulation. The schematic
representation of the reservoir and the various water users
drawing water from reservoir as well as from the river
(Scenario-2) is given in
Results and Discussion

11 323 31.70 157.70

Irrigation Management Planning for Bearma basin
Table 4. Total command area of each water user with respect to
The development of irrigation management plan depends on its total command area in each sub-basin
scientific resource action plans and their proper implementation.
Sr. No. Sub-basin Water Total Command Area
Users (km2)
Reservoir Characteristics
1 SW1 WU1 284.19
For application of MIKE BASIN model, reservoir properties 2 SW2 WU2 54.31
such as reduction level, high flood level, dead storage level, bed 3 SW3 WU3 121.26
4 SW4 WU4 121.16
level and reduction factor are required which were determined
5 SW5 WU5 356.13
using GIS and is given in Table 2. By using DEM of the study 6 SW6 WU6 25.95
area and the drainage pattern of the catchment, one suitable site 7 SW7 WU7 707.91
has been selected for construction of reservoir and incorporated
in the analysis. Reduction level for reservoir has been fixed Table 5. Water demands of all users for soybean crop in Bearma
between high flood level and dead storage level, from where a basin in different ten daily period
specified reduction from demand user node was applied by the
software, high flood level for a reservoir has been fixed and area Date WU1 WU2 WU3 WU4 WU5 WU6 WU7
below that has been extracted and histogram has been used to (m3/sec) (m3/sec) (m3/sec) (m3/sec) (m3/sec) (m3/sec) (m3/sec)
determine area elevation capacity Table. Dead Storage Level has 01- 7.57 1.45 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.73 19.91
07-
also been fixed for the reservoir because below DSL water 1995
cannot use for irrigation. 10- 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
07-
Table 2. Reservoir characteristics for reservoir RS 1995
20- 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.35 1.03 0.31 8.36
07-
S.No. Reservoir Properties 1995
31- 4.77 0.91 0.00 2.15 6.31 0.00 0.00
1 Reduction Level 316m 07-
1995
10- 7.63 1.46 7.33 0.00 0.00 1.05 28.59
2 Reduction Fraction 0.9 08-
1995
3 Dead Storage Level 314m 20- 10.26 1.96 5.09 2.93 8.61 1.38 37.53
08-
4 Bed Level 306 m 1995
31- 13.91 2.66 5.94 0.00 0.00 0.61 16.71
09-
5 High Flood Level 323m 1995
10- 8.52 1.63 5.04 0.77 2.27 0.90 24.42
The cone formula (Murthy, 1968) has been used to compute the 09-
capacities between two successive levels, which in turn gave the 1995
cumulative capacities at different levels of reservoir. The area 20- 12.63 2.41 0.94 6.30 18.51 1.35 36.79
09-
elevation capacity (AEC) table for reservoir RS has been given 1995
below in Table 3. The total command area of each user with 31- 3.45 0.66 0.79 0.00 0.00 1.20 32.61
respect to total command area in each sub-basin is given in table 10-
4. The water demands for soybean crop for each of the water 1995
10- 1.32 0.25 0.72 3.94 11.58 0.84 22.94
users on ten daily basis is given in Table 5. 11-
1995
Table 3. Area Elevation Capacity Table for reservoir RS 20- 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.20 6.47 0.41 11.31
11-
Sr. No. Reduction Cumulativ Cumulativ 1995
Level (m) e Area e Capacity
(km2) (MCM) Simulation of model under scenario-1(without reservoir)
1 306 0.51 1.25
2 309 1.42 3.96
3 312 2.95 10.34
MIKE BASIN model is simulated for all sub-basins and water
4 315 5.88 22.92 users without any reservoir during the period of July 1 to
5 317 9.88 38.37 November 10 for the drought year, 2002. The analysis has been
6 318 12.58 49.57 carried out to obtain the used water and deficit volume in
7 320 19.43 81.29 different 10-days period at all seven sub-basins. The water used
8 321 23.42 102.68
by different users and their deficit for different 10- days period
9 322 27.53 128.13
10 323 31.53 157.64 have been presented in Table 6. From the analysis it can be seen

that user WU7 used maximum water as 125.55 MCM and deficit with provision of reservoir. Table 6. Used water and Demand
is also maximum in this sub-basin with 88.48 MCM, and WU1 deficit water for all users without reservoir
user faces maximum deficit of 62.07 MCM without any water
being used. Amongst all the users, user WU3 faces a minimum
Dat De WU1 WU2 WU3 WU4 WU5 W WU7
deficit as 2.64 MCM. Other water users WU2, WU4 and WU6 e ca U
also face low demand deficits of 11.86 MCM, 16.61 MCM and de 6
Us De Us De Us De Us De Used D Use De Used D
7.86 MCM. Therefore it is imperative to harness the excess ed fici ed fici ed fici ed fici Wate efi d fici Wate efi
surface water by constructing reservoirs of larger capacity at W
ate (M
t W
ate (M
t W
ate (M
t W
ate (M
t r
(MC
cit
(
Wat
er (M
t r
(MC
cit
(
suitable locations in the basin to meet the all demands of various r C r C r C r C M) M (MC C M) M
(M M) (M M) (M M) (M M) C M) M) C
water users, so as to provide buffer storage during drought C C C C M M
situation. M) M) M) M) ) )
Simulation of model under scenario-2 (with reservoir)
In this analysis, one reservoir has been suggested and simulation 01 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.00 0. 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 00
in MIKE basin has been conducted considering supply from this 07-
reservoir also. After simulation run, with reservoir during the 200
2
period of July 1 to November 10 for all these seven users, the 10- Jul 0.0 6.5 0.0 1.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.00 0. 0.00 0.6 0.27 16
model provides used water, deficit water, reservoir volume, 07- y- 0 4 0 5 0 0 0 0 00 3 .9
200 1D 4
reservoir level. Analysis has been carried out to obtain the used 2
water and deficit volume in different 10-days periods. In the 20-
07-
Jul
y-
0.0
0
0.6
5
0.0
0
0.1
3
0.0
0
0.0
0
0.0
0
0.0
0
0.00 0.
00
0.00 0.0
6
0.09 1.
63
analysis, the water user WU7 was directly drawing water for 200 2D
2
meeting their demands from reservoir RS whereas the remaining 31- Jul 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.98 0. 0.00 0.2 2.47 5.
users WU1, WU2, WU3, WU4, WU5 and WU6 were 07- y- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 00 9 47
200 3D
simultaneously withdrawing water from the river directly to 2
10- Au 0.0 4.1 0.0 0.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.8 3.46 2. 0.00 0.0 0.12 0.
meet their demand requirements. The result of the water used 08- g- 0 2 0 9 0 0 0 9 08 3 60
and deficit for user SW7 has been presented in Table 7. From the 200 1D
2
analysis it can be seen that reservoir RS has used maximum 20- Au 0.0 6.5 0.0 1.2 3.6 2.6 0.0 0.0 0.00 0. 0.00 0.9 11.9 12
08- g- 0 9 0 6 9 4 0 0 00 1 4 .7
water of 193.95 MCM and deficit of 66.51 MCM also occurs. It 200 2D 7
can be appreciated that all the users that have not been connected 2
31- Au 0.0 9.7 0.0 1.8 4.8 0.0 0.0 2.7 8.18 0. 0.00 1.3 35.6 0.
to the reservoir are facing deficits of varying magnitudes in 08- g- 0 5 0 6 4 0 0 8 00 1 7 00
drought years and therefore, it will be prudent to explore 200
2
3D
additional sites for reservoirs on different locations of the main 10- Se 0.0 12. 0.0 2.3 5.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.00 0. 0.00 0.5 14.4 0.
09- p- 0 02 0 0 3 0 0 0 00 3 4 00
Bearma river so that the deficits can be minimised to the 200 1D
minimum extent possible. 2
20- Se 0.0 7.3 0.0 1.4 4.3 0.0 0.0 0.6 1.96 0. 0.00 0.7 21.1 0.
09- p- 0 6 0 1 5 0 0 7 00 8 0 00
200 2D
Comparison of performance between scenario (1) and scenario 2
(2) 30- Se 0.0 10. 0.0 2.0 0.8 0.0 0.0 5.4 15.4 0. 0.00 1.1 23.6 8.
09- p- 0 91 0 8 1 0 0 4 7 53 7 4 15
200 3D
Initially, when the planning is carried out for a no reservoir 2
10- Oc 0.0 2.9 0.0 0.5 0.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.00 0. 0.00 1.0 5.60 22
condition, it can be seen that all users face higher demand 10- t- 0 8 0 7 8 0 0 0 00 4 .5
200 1D 8
deficit in varying extents. The total demand deficit is 197.35 2
MCM in the drought year. The provision for constructing 20-
10-
Oc
t-
0.0
0
1.1
4
0.0
0
0.2
2
0.6
2
0.0
0
0.0
0
3.4
0
4.95 5.
06
0.00 0.7
3
3.14 16
.6
reservoirs helps to drastically reduce the demand deficit. The 200 2D 8
2
comparison of the demand deficit for water user WU7 drawing 31- Oc 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.0 5.99 0. 0.00 0.3 7.09 3.
water through reservoir RS3 reveals that there is the demand 10- t- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 16 9 66
200 3D
deficit of 42.41 MCM after the provision of the reservoir RS3. 2
10- No 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.00 0. 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.
However, when we compare the performance between Scenario- 11- v- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 00
1 (no reservoir) and Scenario-2 (with reservoir), it is seen that 200 1D
2
the maximum demand deficit of 88.48 MCM for WU7 with no To 0.0 62. 0.0 11. 20. 2.6 0.0 16. 40.9 7. 0.00 7.8 125. 88
tal 0 07 0 86 13 4 0 61 9 83 6 55 .4
reservoir scenario drastically gets reduced to 42.41 MCM with 8
the provision of reservoir RS3. The comparison of demand
deficit for both scenarios clearly demonstrates that the provision
of reservoir RS3 with the basin has greatly helped to reduce the ble 7. Water used-demand deficit for user WU7 directly
impact of drought as can be seen by the significant reduction in connected through the reservoir RS for drought year
demand deficit with the reservoir supplies for water user. The Date Decade Used Deficit Stored Reservoir
performance is more noticeable because the demand deficits Water (MCM) Volume Level
have greatly reduced from 88.48 MCM to 42.41 MCM for WU7 (MCM) (MCM) (m)
01-07- 0.00 0.00 1.25 306.00

2002 v. DHI. 2008. MIKE BASIN User Manual, Water and Environment, Inc.
10-07- July-1D 0.00 17.20 1.35 306.11 and Council of Governments.
2002 vi. Galkate, R.V., Thomas, T., Pandey, R.P., Singh, S. and Jaiswal, R.K.
20-07- July-2D 0.00 1.72 2.06 306.90 2010. Drought Study in Chhindwara District of Madhya Pradesh, India. Third
2002 International Conference on Hydrology and Watershed Management
31-07- July-3D 0.00 7.95 4.27 309.15 (ICHWAM-2010), February 3-6, 2010, JNTU, Hyderabad, India.
2002 vii. Gleick, P.H. 1993. Water in Crisis: A Guide to the Worlds Fresh
10-08- Aug-1D 0.00 0.72 10.75 312.10 Water Resources. Oxford University Press, New York, NY.
2002 viii. Hisdal, H. and Tallaksen, L. M. 2003. Estimation of Regional
20-08- Aug-2D 9.88 14.82 157.64 323.00 Meteorological and Hydrological Drought Characteristics: A case study for
2002 Denmark, Journal of Hydrology, 281,230-247.
31-08- Aug-3D 35.67 0.00 157.64 323.00 ix. K. R. J. Perera,N.T.S. Wijesekera. 2012.Potential on the use of GIS
2002 Watershed Modelling for River Basin Planning Case Study of Attanagalu Oya
10-09- Sep-1D 14.44 0.00 157.64 323.00 Basin, Sri Lanka, Vol. No.04, pp(13-22).
2002 x. Murtthy, B.N. 1968. Capacity survey of storage reservoirs, Central
board of irrigation and power, publication no. 89.
20-09- Sep-2D 21.10 0.00 157.64 323.00
xi. Park, S., Feddema, J.J., Egbert, S.L. 2005. MODIS land surface
2002
temperature composite data and their relationships with climatic water budget
30-09- Sep-3D 31.79 0.00 156.72 322.97
factors in the central Great Plains. International Journal of Remote
2002
Sensing 26 (6), 11271144.
10-10- Oct-1D 28.18 0.00 140.60 322.42 xii. Perera, K. R. J, & Wijesekera, N.T.S. 2010.Identification of the
2002 Spatial Variability of Runoff Coefficients of Three Wet Zone Watersheds of Sri
20-10- Oct-2D 28.18 0.00 122.46 321.78 Lanka for Efficient River Basin Planning. ASCE: EWRI Conference on
2002 International Perspective on Current and Future State of Water Resources and
31-10- Oct-3D 30.99 0.00 109.84 321.28 the Environment.
2002 xiii. Wilhite, D.A. 2000. Drought: A Global Assessment (2 volumes, 51
10-11- Nov-1D 17.84 0.00 96.82 320.73 chapters, 700 pages). Hazards and Disasters: A Series of Definitive
2002 Major Works (7 volume series), Routledge Publishers.
Total 218.05 42.41 xiv. Witt, J.L. 1997. National Mitigation Strategy: Partnerships for
Building Safer Communities. Federal Emergency Management Agency, p. 2.
From the results obtained, it is concluded that the demands are xv. Yodre, R.E., Odhiambo, L.O., Wright, W.C. 2005. Evaluation of
methods for estimating daily reference crop evapotranspiration at a site in the
not fully satisfied and there were demand deficit under both humid southeast United States.American Society of Agricultural Engineers
scenarios for drought year. In second scenario one reservoir was ISSN 0883-8542,Vol.21(2).pp.197-202.
planned and water was drawn from the reservoir as well as from
the river and the analysis performed. The model was run to see
the performance of the model and its ability to cope up during
droughts. The model run in Scenario-1 shows that the demand
deficits have increased significantly in all of the sub-basins as
the supply in the river was very less. The maximum deficit was
observed in sub-basin SW7.This indicates that the gravity of the
situation magnifies as seen by the abrupt increase in the demand Replacement of Field Channels with Pressurized
deficit in a drought year. Subsequently, the planning was carried
out with the provision of one reservoir and model run in a
Irrigation Systems: in Ssp Command Area
Mrs Sahita I. Waikhom1, Monali Patel2, Dr P.G Agnihotri3
drought years. Here it can be observed that the demand deficit 1
Asst. Professor, CED, Dr. S. & S. S. G.G.E.C, Surat-395001,
has reduced considerably to 42.41 MCM which was aiming to
Gujarat, India
achieve under such study. This study clearly demonstrates that 2
M.E Water Resources & Mgmt., Dr. S. & S. S. G.G.E.C, Surat-
planning for drought mitigation can be carried out by
395001, Gujarat, India
constructing small reservoir in the sub-basin to cater the 3
Asso. Professor, CED, S.V.N.I.T, Surat-395007, Gujarat, India
increased demand during periods of intermittent dry spells 1
siwgecs@gmail.com
during drought years. 2
monalipatel21@gmail.com
3
pga@ced.svnit.ac.in
References
i. Bates, B. C., Z. W. Kundzewics, S. Wu, J. P. Palutikof. 2008. Climate ABSTRACT: To irrigate the entire command area of SSP
Change and Water Technical Paper of the Intergovernmental Panel on through conventional flow irrigation is no possible. There is
Climate Change. IPCC Secretariat, Geneva, 210. Strong need for efficient and cost effective use of limited delta
ii. Beran, M.A. and Rodier, J. A. 1985. Hydrological Aspects of to cover the entire command area where optimization of water
Drought: a Contribution to the International Hydrological Programme, World
Meteorological Organization, Studies and reports on hydrology 39, Paris. use is the prime consideration. It has been recognized that use
of modern irrigation methods like drip and sprinkler irrigation
iii. Carter, D.B., Mather, J.R. 1966. Climatic classification for is the only alternative using Pressurized Irrigation Network
environmental biology. Publications in Climatology, Laboratory of System (PINS). This is primarily, a pipe network carrying
Climatology 4 (19).
iv. Cui, B. X. Li, K. Zhang. 2010. Classification of hydrological required discharge at adequate pressure, finally delivering it to
conditions to access water allocation schemes for Lake Baiyangdian in North the attached MIS network. Design of this network is suitably
China. Journal of Hydrology, 385:247-56, framed incorporating features of water distribution under the
Canal Command Area (CCA). Pressurized Irrigation Network

System (PINS) is used as a substitute for sub-minors and field 2. NECESSITY OF PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION
channels in an open canal network. NETWORK SYSTEM (PINS)
In present study, the design of PINS using Spreadsheet with To make the Micro-Irrigation System (MIS) adoption
multiple outlets at emitters with two alternatives i.e., 24 hrs technically viable in the canal command areas, a
power supply and 8 hrs power supply is carried out. The study pressurized water conduit system act as bridge by
area is selected in agro-climatic zone no.6 of SSP Command drawing water from the canal, storing in a place.
area which is situated at village Rampur. Rampur village is To minimize the land acquisition problem.
served by Dholka direct minor canal. Analysis is carried out Not possible to irrigate the entire command area of SSP
for both the alternatives using Darcy-Weisbach formula and through conventional flow irrigation. Strong need for
diameter of PINS pipe, connecting pipes, storage, pumping efficient and cost effective use of limited delta to cover
requirements and number of filters is computed using the entire command area
spreadsheet. Limited availability of water - optimization of water use
is the prime consideration
Adoption of PINS with MIS in the VSAs in the SSP area can Adverse soil characteristics in certain areas - low
assure water availability to each farmer and uneven application of water is imperative
distribution and tail end problems can be overcome. It is Flood/ flow irrigation not desirable to problematic
envisaged that where the Narmada water has reached but the areas. To restrict unregulated water lifting from canals.
sub-minors are yet to be constructed is the most preferable Conjunctive management of pipe distribution with
situation where such pilot projects can be attempted. ground water.
Keywords- PINS, Sub-minors, Command area, Sardar Sarovar
To improve overall farm efficiency.
Project (SSP), Conventional Irrigation.
2.1 Objective
1. INTRODUCTION
The objective of the study is to Design Pressurized Irrigation
Water is one of the most critical inputs for agriculture which
Network System (PINS) with 8 hours & 24 hours power supply
consumes more than 80% of the water resources of the country
to make the Micro-Irrigation System (MIS) adoption technically
(Sen, 2012). Agriculture is the largest user of water, which
viable in the canal command area.
consumes more than 80% of the countrys exploitable water
resources. The overall development of the agriculture sector and
3. SSP COMMAND AREA
the intended growth rate in GDP is largely dependent on the
judicious use of the available water resources. While the
Sardar Sarovar Project (SSP) is one of the major irrigation
irrigation projects (major and medium)have contributed to the
projects of Gujarat state of India. Sardar Sarovar (Narmada)
development of water resources, the conventional methods of
Project Phase IIA covers Culturable Command Area (C.C.A of
water conveyance and irrigation, being highly inefficient, has led
20, 42, 39 Ha) between Mahi and Surashtra Branch Canal off
not only to wastage of water but also to several ecological
taking from Narmada Main Canal. The study area is selected in
problems like water logging, salinization and soil degradation
agro-climatic zone no.6 of SSP Command area which is situated
making productive agricultural lands unproductive (MoA, 2006).
at village Rampur.
There is a strong need for efficient and cost effective use of
limited delta to cover the entire command area of SSP. It has
been recognized that use of modern irrigation methods like drip
and sprinkler irrigation is the only alternative using Pressurized
Irrigation Network System (PINS) (Carlos, 2009). Pressurized
Irrigation Network System (PINS) is substitute arrangement for
sub-minors and field channels in an open canal network
(SSNNL, 2009). This is primarily, a pipe network carrying
required discharge at adequate pressure, finally delivering it to
the attached MIS network. Design of this network is suitably
framed incorporating features of water distribution under the
Canal Command Area (CCA). In present study, the design of
PINS using Spreadsheet with multiple outlets at emitters with
two alternatives i.e. 24 hours power supply and 8 hours power
supply is carried out.
Sardar Sarovar Project (SSP) is one of the major irrigation
projects in Gujarat state of India. The main thrust of command
development activities is on the empowerment of beneficiary
farmers in sustainable water resource management (SSNNL,
2009).

Figure 1 Location of Study area in Gujarat (iii) Design of PINS pipe
Rampur Village is served by Dholka Direct Minor through They carry water at an adequate pressure, to deliver it to the
Dholka branch canal located at Dholka taluka, Ahmedabad- attached MIS network. Here in study for pressurized flow HDPE
district. The Dholka Minor is off-taking @ Ch. 52140 m of pipe is preferred.
Dholka Branch Canal having C.C.A. of 789.82 Ha. Out of which Design discharge Q = (6 / n) x [BDC x CCA 1] /2
C.C.A. of Rampur is 124 ha. Thus C.C.A of Dholka minor is (8 hrs)
divided in 19 chaks. It is divided into two chak; chak 1 & chak 2 Q = BDC x CCA1/ 2
with areas as 27.74 & 32.09 C.C.A. respectively, each of which (24hrs)
is further divided into 4 sub-chaks. Darcy-Weishbach formula is
used to carry out analysis to decide diameter of PINS pipe,
connecting pipes, storage, pumping requirements and number of
filters required by using spreadsheet. Discharge has been (iv) Pumping Efforts
computed using basic discharge co-efficient (BDC) taken as 0.65
for agro-climatic zone VI. Pump HP = (Q x H) / (75 x)
Where, Q = design discharge in lps
Presently the farmers of the proposed project area have limited H = Pressure head in m; n = no. of sub-chaks
irrigation facilities. There is only one bore well in the proposed
area of the study area. The power supply can be made available (v) Filters
by Uttar Gujarat Vij Company Limited (UGVCL).
Capacity of media filter (m3/ hr) = Design discharge of
3.1 Data Requirement PINS pipe X 3.6 (8 hrs)
Capacity of media filter (m3/ hr) = Design discharge of
The data needed to carry out design are meteorological data, PINS pipe X 3.6 (24 hrs)
region map, index map, soil map & salient features of Dholka
direct minor. 5. OUTCOME
4. METHODOLOGY FOR DESIGN OF PINS As per above steps design is carried out and result is obtained as
shown below(Table-1 & 2) for both alternatives along with
For pressurized pipe network, three types of pipes like Polyvinyl schematic (Fig. 2 & 3)
Chloride (PVC), High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) and Fiber For 8 hours Power Supply PINS Pipe designed:
Reinforced Pipe (FRP) can be used.
Table 1 Design of PINS Pipe (8hrs Power Supply)
For design of pressurized irrigation network system components Sub Pipe
Pipe Inside Dia (mm)
like connecting pipes, storage facility, PINS pipe, pumps, filters, Cha
k No
CCA
(ha)
Discharg
e (lps)
cha
k
OD
(mm
and intake well and pump house are required. Same design can No Designe
d
Available )
also be prepared for the regions which face severe water scarcity 1 117.3 127.6 140
and areas where natural water bodies exist can be identified and
2 177.15 182.6 200
PINS can be adopted there. The design for PINS at Rampur 1
27.7
13.52
4
village is carried out by following steps. In the distribution 3 165.8 182.6 200
design of PINS, storage well is considered in the start of 4 149.9 164.2 180
command area and pump house close to well. PINS design for
all chak area is prepare using Spreadsheet for 8 hours & 24 1 148.86 164.2 180
hours power supply. 32.9

2 15.93
6 2 148.86 164.2 180
(i) Connecting Pipes 3 183.8 205.4 225

4 187.3 205.4 225
Connecting pipe is an arrangement necessary to connect the
source of water to the storage with the intake well i.e. Initial
point of PINS. In our case for non-pressurized gravity flow we
prefer PVC pipe. For this, generally low pressure gravity mains
of PE 80 class of PN 2.5 (2.5 kg/cm2) would be sufficient.
(ii) Storage Facility
Facility is required for 8 hrs power supply. For practical

purpose, 1 day storage facility is to be designed.

performance and improvement in efficiencies of the irrigation

systems, it is necessary to adopt a self-sustainable system. A
modernization of canal command area is, therefore, necessary
through micro irrigation system. To bring more area under
irrigation it has become extremely necessary to introduce new
irrigation techniques like micro irrigation system for
economizing the use of water and increase productivity per unit
of water. Micro irrigation system need be promoted in a holistic
manner involving appropriate methods like PRESSURIZED
IRRIGATION NETWORK SYSTEM (PINS).
The PINS along with MIS will result in many advantages like
Figure 2 Schematic Diagram of PINS (8 hrs Power Supply) increase in crop productivity (20-30%), water saving (30-50%),
(Source: SSNNL, Gandhinagar) fertilizer savings (approximately 40%) and bringing more area
For 24 hours Power Supply PINS Pipe designed: under irrigation with the same quantity of available water, equity
in distribution of water, both spatially and temporary.
Table 2 Design of PINS Pipe (24 hrs Power Supply)
Adoption of MIS with PINS in the VSAs in the SSP area can
Pipe Inside Dia (mm) Pipe assure water availability to each farmer and uneven distribution
Chak CCA Discharge Sub chak
No (ha) (lps) No
OD
(mm)
and tail end problems can be suitably overcome. In addition to
Designed Available the above tangible financial benefits, the conversion of irrigation
method from flooding to MIS and its integration with PINS in
1 117.46 127.6 140 SSP will also have other important intangible benefits.
1 27.74 18.03 2 152.58 164.2 180 REFERENCES:

3 129.1 145.8 160
i. Carlos Estrada, Csar Gonzlez,Ricardo
4 142.7 145.8 160 Aliod, and JaraPano (2009), Improved Pressurized Pipe Network Hydraulic
Solver for Applications in Irrigation Systems, American society of Civil
1 148.3 164.2 180 Engineering.
ii. LakhdarZella, Ahmed Kettab, Gerard
2 148.3 164.2 180
Chasseriaux (2006), Design of a Micro-irrigation system based on the control
2 32.96 21.42
3 183.8 205.4 225 volume method, Biotechnology, Agron. Soc. Environment volume10
iii. Literature from Sub-division Office (FO),
4 187.3 205.4 225 SSNNL, Dholka
iv. Mamta Mehra, Devesh Sharma, Prachi
Kathuria (2012) Groundwater use dynamics: analysing performance of micro-
irrigation system - a case study of Mewat District, Haryana, International
Journal of Environmental Sciences Volume 3, no 1.
v. Micro-irrigation (drip & Sprinkler irrigation) guidelines (January
2006) by Ministry of Agriculture, Department Of Agricultre (DoA) &
Cooperation, Govt. of India.
vi. Paper on Pressurized Irrigation System by Sardar Sarovar Narmada
Nigam Limied (SSNNL 2009).
vii. Sen, Somanth Project Report, (2012), Impact
Assessment of Micro Irrigation scheme in Madhya Pradhesh.
Reservoir Operation Based on Real Time Flow

Data for Flood Control and Incremental Power
Generation
Figure 3: Schematic Diagram of PINS (24 hrs Power Supply)
(Source: SSNNL, Gandhinagar) Rameshwar Prasad Pathak
6. CONCLUSIONS B-474, Sarita Vihar,New Delhi, 110076,India
rp.pathak28@gmail.com
The country is likely to be more water stressed in the coming
years. Therefore technologies for water harvesting and storage ABSTRACT: The floods are most frequented natural disasters
and technologies for precision water application methods need to in the world. The water management and flood control shall be
be adopted (Mehta, Sharma, Kathuria, 2012). For effective on top priority in National Development plan. The monsoon

Rivers and snow melt rivers have its special features and 3. Rivers in plain region
characteristics. In all cases to meet the annual irrigation and
power requirement and also for regulation needs, water
storages of varying magnitude are created. The water 1.1 Occurrence of Flood
storages/reservoirs are also instrumental in flood moderation.
However providing additional reservoir capacity for flood In brief the floods and draught are resultant of variation of
moderation has advantages and disadvantages, but flood rainfall/snowfall in space, time and quantum and also variation
moderation by reservoir operation based on real time flow data of intensity of summer and winter seasons. The rain precipitate
is more effective method. The pragmatic approach also results in the catchment area and through Nullahs and tributaries rain
in increased power generation in downstream power projects. water flows to the main river channel, all along its length. The
The river basin planning, intercepted catchment flow, silt load, river bed is lowest contour of the area and mostly in fault zone.
available command area are amongst various factors to be Over the years, erosion and cutting by river water has shaped its
considered in deciding principle levels of reservoir which banks. Within these banks the river channel is located and most
imposes limits on reservoir operation and thereby limiting the of the time river is confined within these banks. The flood like
flood moderation. The paper also considers the elements of situation is encountered, when river overflows its banks. This so
dam safety, which are prime factor in the studies. The happens that the inflow to rivers exceeds the channel capacity
submergence of land and property and draw down cultivation and afflux is above the height of the banks. In this scenario the
are another issues relevant to the subject, while framing high afflux level obstruct the flow from Nullahs and tributaries
reservoir operation rules. During monsoon, the inflows in to and the levels in Nullahs and tributaries also rises above normal
and outflows from reservoir are not only unpredictable but are due to back water levels causing flood like situation in those
subjected to great variations, creating flood like situations. The areas also. All this causes submergence of neighboring lands of
real time data collection gives new dimension to solution to the rivers, Nullahs and tributaries. The snow melt river will have
flood moderation. The paper founded on case study and some additional issues to be considered. The storage reservoir
literature available on the subject, deals with this solution created intercepting this flow can accommodate this additional
which will help to control flood and add to power generation by quantum of water and release it in regulated manner to minimize
utilizing reservoir capacity optimally. submergence in the downstream areas. In the event reservoir
gets filled up to the level as specified by reservoir rule curve, the
Keywords: Reservoir operation, pragmatic approach, Real time gates are opened to release extra inflows and the maximum
Flow data, Forecast, Predepletion, Flood moderation, outflow that would be possible would correspond to the level
incremental generation, submergence available above the crest level. If the inflows to the reservoir
increase, the reservoir level will also build up to the required
1.0 INTRODUCTION: afflux above the crest to matching outflow is developed and
outflow shall balance the inflow. Incase inflow approaches
The rainfall and snowfall are two important elements for growth highest flood the reservoir will touch the maximum water level,
of life on this planet. But there is tremendous variation in space, by this increased capacity the quantum of downstream flood will
time and quantum of rainfall. The less rainfall in an area creates be reduced. The time required for opening the gates and also
draught condition not only affecting human being but all living uncertainty of estimation of inflows result in to excessive
creatures, flora and fauna in that area. The rivers drain surface releases from reservoir causing flood like situation in
water and even underground stream water to sea. The wishful downstream areas, may it be devoid of precipitation of that
rainfall in terms of space, time and quantum is still in dreams of magnitude. On these events critics raises eye brows against
scientists except for some very expensive methods in very construction of dams. Whereas in extreme conditions, the floods
limited way and very limited weather conditions. Consequently are inevitable, dams or no dams. Only in most exceptional case,
we have to live with it and device methods and means to face dam break can cause additional flood fury, which is disaster
such adverse situations, keeping in view human comfort. The beyond control of technology adopted or operator deployed. As
excessive rainfall creates flood like situation, inundating the area such limits of dam safety must be clearly defined.
sometime inhabited or agricultural fields or both or other
important establishments. Similarly excessive snowfalls may 2.0 AMBIT OF CONSIDERATION
paralyze life and block roads, streets and cover the affected area.
As the snowfall has variation so also snow melt has variation in With the foregoing discussions it evolves that various elements
summer and winter as per intensity of the seasons. Therefore are responsible for flood downstream of storage/reservoir. This
planning has to be done for these different categories of the is complex phenomenon, which needs in depth study by expert
rivers. In China in one of the instant the extreme summer, of the field. Broadly the inflow depends upon the characteristics
causing excessive snow melt flow in the river was followed by of upstream portion of the basin, including direct draining areas.
consecutive rain storms, which resulted in unprecedented floods Similarly the downstream portion gets affected in accordance
in the area. Geographically in India following three categories with its characteristics. Therefore the holistic approach shall be
exist: adopted, considering complete basin, and all other elements for
study of the subject. The reservoirs are control node and its
1. Rivers in hilly region of Himalayas/snow melt parameters are first elements of control, and decide flexibility in
2. Rivers in hilly region excluding in category no. 1 the system. There are other factors which add to accuracy of

control, like information about siltation of reservoir and containing interactions between aquifers, streams, reservoirs,
consequent reduction in capacity of reservoir. The information floodplains, and estuaries. Because water is transmitted through
about inflows to the reservoir both in quantum and time will faults and fractures, each surface water drainage basin or
multiply the flexibility of control available at reservoir. Even the watershed is also a ground water drainage basin or watershed.
information of downstream structure/ channel will enable the Surface and ground water are in such close hydraulic
control of upstream reservoir to be effective in mitigating interconnection that they can be considered as a single and
adverse situation downstream. This is made possible by real time inseparable system. All these elements are responsible to
flow data system. This pragmatic approach will not only reduce establish relationship between precipitation and runoff.
the fury of flood but will enable the River Bed Power plant to
generate additional power, utilizing flood water. The paper deals 3.2 Land use
with the major factors for monsoon rain fed rivers. For snow
melt river study is similar except some additional factors need to The Description of river basin gives clear understanding of what
be considered. we are dealing with in terms of physiographic details, which is
resultant of natures action, and in case of study of land use we
3.0 RIVER BASIN have to deal with what environment and life and nature we have
to protect. The urban development and rural areas have
The river basin is the expanse of land from which all surface encroached in the flood zone. The approach road, bridges,
water from rain or snow melt drains through a sequence of culverts, important structures, etc, are also very sensitive items.
streams, rivers and lakes, into the sea at the stated single river These shall be indicated on contour maps clearly indicating
mouth, estuary or delta. Apart from physiograpy and Geological populated area, agricultural fields and all other details. The
and geographical features, the land use of the basin land is very forest area, reserved forest, pilgrimage activities, sanctuary, area
important. Govt. have also constituted various agencies important for biodiversity, aquatic life, etc needs to be also
responsible for development of Basin. The developmental indicated in the contour maps for complete basin. The water
activities would include water management, planning for resource studies must include it while planning a project or
reservoirs, canals, power plants. For this developmental work the operating it. The runoff characteristics changes with such
land use may change calling for rehabilitation and resettlement developmental activities.
or environment mitigating measures.
For the present study the major River Basin Characteristics can 3.3 Hydro Meteorological features
be summarized as follows:
Three main elements of the climate that significantly affect the
Description of River basin: The Geographical and water availability and present grounds for development, use and
Physical Features and Natural Elements of the basin. conservation of this resource are air temperature, precipitation
Physiography, Geology, Geochemistry, Soils, and evapotranspiration. The orographic features reflect upon
vegetative cover, water resources, etc. these most important climatic events. Depending on variation in
Land use: Forestry, Agriculture, Biodiversity, wild life, climate, the large basin can be divided in different zone for
Aquatic life, Population, Roads, Cities, Existing convenience of studies. Its variations are the result of land and
Structures, sea distribution and closeness, as well as of various orographic
features. Considerably more precipitation
H occurs in mountainous
ydro Meteorological features: Climate, temperatures, parts of the basin than in the plains winter temperatures
humidity, rainfall, snowfall, surface and under ground (December to February) are low, while high temperatures occur
water. during the summer season (June September). Average annual
Water Management: Hydrological details, river temperatures in the region vary in a wide boundaries depending,
network, irrigation, power, flood control in the first place, on elevation. The lowest long-term annual
average temperatures at measured points take place on the
3.1 Description of River Basin mountain ridges With regard to air temperatures, it can be
roughly assessed that within-the-year variations exhibit a
The expanse of river basin from origin of river including its common pattern for majority of the catchments in plains.
tributaries to confluence to sea is defined by longitude and Dividing lines between these different zones are not sharp, due
latitude. The large river basin may be divided into sub basin to different degree of influence of various factors that determine
also. The physical characteristics of the River basin include its the climate. At high altitude the precipitation falls in form of
location, physiography, soils, climate, surface water and ground snow so that relatively long periods with snow cover are
water resources, and natural water quality. The geochemistry of common characteristic of the region. Generally there are too few
the River Basin is based primarily on stream sediment and reliable data available about impact on climate changes on
stream geochemical data. The regional geologic grouping of flows, large pressure to land use change, lack of non-structural
rocks of similar compositions, porosity, permeability, are of measures. The study should comprise collection and analyses of
greater importance in stream hydrogeochemistry. The parent data at meteorological and hydrological gauging stations at the
materials in which the soils formed, the subsoil in various depth, basin-wide level, evaluate flood characteristics and drought
the major groups of soils in the area, and other details need to be properties in meteorological and hydrological aspects, flow
studied. The River basin is a dynamic hydrological system forecasting and climate change. Precipitation amount and its

annual distribution varies widely within the basin. It, however, seepage losses, silt load, etc. Reservoir Rule Curve envelopes,
can roughly be asserted that the form of precipitation has a the Lower Rule Curve, and Upper Rule Curve, which defines the
common feature: rainfall of different duration is likely to occur range of Operating Regimes. Lower Rule Curve defines the
all over the whole catchment where low mountains, hilly terrain operation to match the flow that can be maintained through out
and plains dominate. Most precipitation occurs in summer the dry season under the lowest hydrologic condition so that the
monsoon season and part during autumn monsoon. reservoir reaches its minimum operating level. These are the
minimum elevations that the reservoir should maintain in order
3.4 Water Management: to guarantee to meet the required output. Upper Rule Curve
defines the limit of operation with the minimum spills, which
Water is renewable source. Hydrologic cycle involves the exceed the regulating capacity of the reservoir combined with
continuous circulation of water in the Earth-atmosphere system. the discharge capacity of the power plant These operations are at
Of the many processes involved in the water cycle, the most the maximum elevations that the reservoir should maintain in
important are evaporation, transpiration, condensation, order to guarantee to meet the required output and safety of
precipitation, and runoff. Although the total amount of water dam. In addition to this the priority is set in which order the
within the cycle remains essentially constant earth as unit, its various requirements are met. The downstream releases are
distribution among the various processes is continually usually on instructions of tribunal or the court and gets first
changing. The various steps involved for hydrologic evaluation priority. However drinking is basic need of Human and this gets
of details are as under: top priority, and almost at par is the downstream release,
Extension of records Industry use is second priority followed by irrigation. Power
Transferring of records release trails behind. At the same time downstream releases are
Statistical analysis of historic records through the river bed power releases. During monsoon period,
Hydrological Modeling the unpredicted quantum of rain fall adds to inflows, which add
Hydrology is not an exact science. The meteorological data to uncertainty to the operations. Excess inflows give opportunity
combined with characteristics of river basin including land use, to increase generation. However power releases are limited to
are fundamentals for analysis of hydrological details and machine discharge capacities. A pragmatic approach shall be
working out equation for rainfall and runoff relationship. A adopted using the befitting software.
typical water balance analysis will compare meteorological input
data to a measured (or transferred) set of flow data within the 6.0 REAL TIME FLOW DATA
receiving stream. The precipitation-runoff process is complex as
it involves numerous flow routing interactions in the watershed. The availablity of Real Time Flow Data, supported by extensive
Additionally, the spatial and temporal characteristics of hydro meteorological network add new dimension to the
precipitation also make the prediction of runoff a challenge. solution to the problem. Imposition of competitive water
Additionally, the spatial and temporal characteristics of charges, restriction on water releases to control fluctuation of
precipitation also make the prediction of runoff a challenge to water levels in downstream, environmental aspect, safety of fast
engineers. growing urbanization, safety of rail- road transport network,
For sustainable development of the earth water management is Safety of hydraulic Structure are many such factors which
challenge to the planners. Its scarcity or abundance both creates warrants for reservoir operation in close margins and accounting
havoc in the system. Its spatial and temporal variation leads to and monitoring of releases from reservoirs. This requires to
storage of water to meet the various requirements of society of make correct assessment of inflows and out flows from the
irrigation, drinking, industry, power, waterways, sanitation, and reservoirs. For this stream-flow data, real time information on
many such other requirements. This paper deals with the event impoundment or variation in impoundment at the reservoir
when there is heavy precipitation and runoff has flooded the projects, estimation of evaporation losses and monitoring of
channel. withdrawal from reservoir are required. This requires a strong
Hydro meteorological net work, with proper communication
4.0 STORAGE PLANNING preferably satellite communication system which will remain
operative in remote areas and in most adverse condition
There are very few reservoirs planned for flood control. Even no
additional capacity is provided in any of the reservoir for flood 6.1 Hydro meteorological net work
storage is provided (exceptions are there). Only temporary flood
storage exists between the maximum Water Level and Full In this paper it is stressed that the complete river basin planning
Reservoir Level. The spillway capacity is designed to pass the shall be done and not for a reservoir in isolation or State wise.
Highest Flood and the corresponding highest water level at crest Hydro meteorological network shall cover the complete river
shall not exceed Maximum Water Level. basin from origin to confluence covering tributaries and other
major drainage system which has come up with growing
5.0 RESERVOIR OPERATION urbanization. The cover area of rain gauge station normally
depends upon the topographic characteristics of different part of
The reservoir capacity is designed to meet various requirements basin, intensity, distribution and rainfall, storm areas, the
of drinking, industrial use, irrigation, power, downstream number of streams draining the catchment area, etc. The river
releases, etc. and to meet losses by way of evaporation losses, basin characteristics need to be considered, some of which have

been discussed in foregoing paragraphs. The spatial distribution flood control possible to an extent by pre depleting reservoir
of network would be influenced by the setting up of based on Real time Flow data, supported by strong Hydro
developmental scenario comprising of a number of artificial meteorological network, uninterrupted communication and
interceptions of flows by way of hydraulic structures or storage befitting software, and river basin characteristics are updated
and diversion. Meteorological network shall be equipped with all along with reservoir parameters, to get realistic assessment for
modern equipments and facilities specially well distributed rain incremental power generation and flood control. Such studies
gauges capable of collecting and reporting precipitation in terms and its implementation had made the reservoir projects boom to
of time and quantity of occurrence, with adequate number of the society
observatories to monitor the dew point, wind velocity,
temperature, relative humidity, radiation/sun shine hour etc. In Effect of Conservation Works on Soil Erosion-A
order to assess evaporation losses pan evaporation data shall be Case Study of Punegaon Reservoir Catchment
collected. As wind velocity, temperature, relative humidity,
radiation have parametric effects on evaporation, these data shall Area
be collected at each storage sites as well. The silt load M.B. Nakil1 M.V. Khire2
1
characteristics of stream flow are required during operation stage PhD student, CSRE, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay,
to monitor the effect of storage interception, for assessment of Powai, Mumbai 400076, India
2
realistic quantity of water stored. The hydrological observation Associate Professor, CSRE, Indian Institute of Technology
network be also equipped with all modern equipments and Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 400076, India
facilities for measuring runoff, stream velocity water levels, Email: mahendran51@gmail.com
specifically during flood. The rainfall and runoff equation be
evolved considering the watershed characteristics, and be ABSTRACT: Better analysis of the erosion causing factors,
revised on regular basis on developmental activities changing knowledge of terrain uses are necessary for implementing soil
landscape, and comparing the runoff so calculated with and water conservation practices. The researchers have carried
measurement at various hydrological observatories. out experiments to quantify the effect of conservation practices
in terms of value P used as a parameter in Revised Universal
7.0 FLOOD ABSORPTION BY PREDEPLETION AND Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE). Conventional farm management
INCREMENTAL POWER GENERATION practices implemented as per land-uses and the terrain slopes.
To these land uses appropriate values of conservation practice
Pre depletion of reservoir is not an element of consideration at factor P ranging between one and zero are assigned. Knowing
design and planning stage. But supported by strong Hydro the area occupied by various land use classes weighted mean
meteorological net work and communication system, and based (WM) value of P is calculated for micro watershed. The
on computerized realistic assessment the pre depletion of Government departments do implement erosion control works
reservoir can be safely implemented with negligible risk of loss on Government land. These works make add on effect and
of precious water and also resultant reduction of fury of flood reduce conventional values of P. The present paper deals with
otherwise endangering neighboring and downstream areas of quantification of add-on effect of major soil and water
submergence, and also for safety of hydraulic structure in case conservation works carried on Government land. The
meteorological conditions further worsen. The regulated release effectiveness of works executed can be represented in terms of
of water on account of predepletion can further be planned ratio of actual cost incurred to the estimated cost of
through power house for incremental generation. Extended time conservation works. This ratio ranges 0 to 1 as per physical
available for depletion would not only result in reduction of progress of works. Thus it has values 0 for not doing any work
intensity in downstream release but will allow more water to be and 1 for all works completed. The modification factor defined
released through power house resulting in incremental as (1-ratio) is applied to weighted mean (WM) value of P to get
generation. The depletion of reservoir would depend upon the modified value Pm. This value is used in RUSLE (A=RKLSCP)
degree of accuracy of assessment and time lag assessed. Both model, for predicting soil loss. The use of this methodology in
these factors would be governed by the detail study conducted soil loss prediction of Punegaon Reservoir catchment area
on characteristics of river basin, including river channel, and shows good result.
how authenticated rainfall and runoff equation is formulated. Keywords: Soil erosion, catchment area, RUSLE, Management
This exercise is relevant not only for reservoir but also for practice factor, Soil Conservation
natural lakes as well. In recent flooding of J&K such an
approach would have reduced the adversity to some extent 1. INTRODUCTION:
8.0 CONCLUSION: The water induced soil erosion involves detachment,

transportation and deposition of soil particles. The overall
Water is much needed commodity and it shall be conserved. But erosion process depends on six basic parameters viz. rainfall
surplus of water in terms of floods can disrupt the life killing energy, properties of soil, land topography (slope steepness and
persons and damaging the properties, submerging the area, slope length), land-use and cover, and support practices. These
causing deceases due to stagnant water. Draught and flood both parameters decide quantity and extent of soil erosion. The
are curse and reservoirs are answer to both these problems. support practices reduce the process of detachment of soil
Storage of water with hedging will help in fighting draught and particles. The effectiveness of these practices is represented by

the term P in the soil erosion prediction model. The farm The support practices are implemented by the farmers to reduce
practices are implemented by individual stakeholders. At the the soil erosion. There are various types of practices which are
same time Government agencies do implement soil and water based on soil type, terrain slope and sustainability. Mechanical
conservation works on government as well as on private lands. types like contouring, strip cropping and terracing are
These works do reduce the value of term P and reduce overall predominant in the study area. The reduction in soil loss from
soil erosion. This indirect effect has not been considered by any unity to fraction because of farm management practices is
of the earlier model. The completed works in the micro- represented by the term P. The term is quantitative indicator
watershed are considered for evaluation. This compound effect is of effect of management practices. The experiments on the
evaluated in the present case study, in the form of modified value effects of types of management practices on soil erosion have
of support practices P. This modified value is used in soil loss been carried out and the values of P are estimated through the
prediction model for estimating the erosion quantity. models. The values of P range from unity (no conservation
works) to zero (no erosion). In practice it is not possible to get
2. DETAILS OF STUDY AREA no erosion condition due to sustainability of the conservation
practices. It is thus not possible to get 100% reduction in soil
The Punegaon is medium project dam is situated in Western loss.
Ghat near Dindori town of Nashik district of Maharashtra State,
on river Unanada, a tributary of Godavari river. It was built in 4. MATERIALS
year 1995 and functioning for 19 years. The dam is having
catchment area of 63.84 km2. The area is having both hilly and The Punegaon reservoir catchment is marked topographic sheets
gentle slope terrain. The elevation ranges from 700m to from Survey of India. The Indian Satellite IRS LISS III image of
maximum 1088m. The slope varies from 0% to 80%. Most of May 2011 is used for LU/LC supervised classification. The
the rock is Deccan trap basalt. The climate of the area is image analysis is carried out using ERDAS software. The
tropically humid with three seasons of four months duration ground survey data has been used as training sets. The classes
namely rainy, winter, summer. The annual rainfall variation identified are deciduous forest, forest plantations, waste land,
ranges from 450 mm to 2500 mm. The soil depth of the area scrub land, built up land, paddy fields, fallow fields, wet lands
varies from few centimeters to over 50 cm. The soils mainly are and water bodies. The support practices are crop and terrain
clay, clay-loam, sandy clay loam, gravelly loam, sandy loam. specific. Government agencies have carried out the conservation
The Land use / Land cover classes prevailed in this area are measures on Public and private lands. The data of such
namely forest plantations, deciduous forest, waste land, scrub conservation works are collected from Government agencies.
land, built up land, paddy fields, fallow lands and wet lands and This data is in terms of amount and is with regard to total
water. Agriculture is prominent. estimate of conservation works and works actually implemented.
The data of conservation scheme is village wise so the
3. SOIL LOSS ESTIMATION MODEL computation of factor P.
The researchers through simulation have carried out the 5. METHODS

experiments to estimate soil loss on small plots. Thus various
estimation models got evolved. The model RUSLE (Renard et The erosion causing parameters namely R, K, L, S, C, P are
al., 1997) is revised Universal Soil Loss Equation model which evaluated. The methods are illustrated in following paragraphs.
was initially established by Wischmeier and Smith (1978)
through USLE. The hybrid of USLE and RUSLE model is used R symbol is used for rainfall erosivity parameter. It is having
in present case for estimating annual soil loss from study area. unit as (MJ mm ha-1 h-1). In the present case the R value is
The revision of the model is with regard to revised methods of derived as per equation (2) developed by Nakil (2014).
evaluation of factors. The RUSLE (Renard et al., 1997) is
expressed same as USLE as shown in equation (1), R (906.77 exp 0.0009 Pt
(2)
A ( R K L S C P)
(1) where Pt= average annual rainfall,
There are five rain-gauge stations near to catchment of reservoir;
where A is estimated annual soil loss (t/ha/yr). The factors however the Thiessen polygon shows only one station influences
which affect the erosion process are considered in this equation. entire area. The equation is applied to average annual rainfall of
These factors are namely R a rainfall erosivity factor, K the 35 years. The average R value is considered for analysis. The
soil erodibility factor, L the slope length factor, S the slope vector layer of catchment in GIS environment is rasterised for
steepness factor, C the land cover management factor and the average R value.
P the support practice factor. Like USLE and RUSLE many
models are in practice. These models have modified approaches The soil erodibility parameter K is expressed in units as (t ha-1
in evaluating the affecting factors. MJ-1 mm-1 ha h). The K value is evaluated by following equation
(3) as given by Wischmeier & Smith (1978).

K 1.313 * [((2.1 10 4 M 1.14 (12 a)) ((3.25 (b 2)) ((2.5 (c 3))] 1000 LU/LC. These values and prevailing farm support practices are
considered while assigning the P values to the LU/LC fields in
(3) the present case. The weighted mean value of parameter P is
calculated for each micro watershed. It is denoted as Pw
where M=[(% silt + very fine sand) x (100-% clay)], a=%
organic matter, b= soil structure code number and c= 6.2 Deriving modification factor
permeability class number. The relevant properties of soil are
used in the equation (3) to get value of K for each class. The The Government funding is cost-estimated to execute all soil and
soil classs areas are vectorized and then rasterised around K water conservation works in a micro-watershed. The details of
values. such overall cost estimate and the actual amount spent on works
are made available. The % effectiveness of the works executed is
The slope length parameter L is evaluated by equation (4) and calculated in terms of the ratio of expenditure done to the
the slope steepness parameter S is evaluated by equation (5). estimated cost of overall works. This ratio of works Rw and
These equations are given by Wischmeier & Smith (1978). the modification factor Mf for these works are calculated for
each micro-water-shed using equations (6) & (7) respectively.
L ( 22.13) m
(4) Rw (Cw Ew)
(6)
S (0.0065 s 0.045 s 0.065)
2
(5) Where Rw=Ratio of works, Cw= Cost of executed works, Ew=

Estimated cost of works
where , m=exponent, s=% slope, = slope length= 23.5m
adopted pixel size in GIS Mf (1 Rw)
The value of m adopted are 0.5 for slope >= 5%, 0.4 for
(7)
slope= 5% to 3.5%, 0.3 for slope= 3.5% to 1%, 0.2 for slope= <
1%. These values have been suggested by Wischmeier & Smith
Where Mf= Modification factor, Rw =Ratio of works
(1978). The values of factor L thus are derived using equation
Ideally when all proposed works in a catchment are executed
(4) out and are assigned in GIS environment to respective slope
(that is when expenditure on works is equal to estimated cost) it
classes.
can be assumed that soil conservation is achieved fully for that
catchment (the ratio of works Rw is one and modification
The contours are digitized using topographic sheets and are
factor Mf is zero). However such situation occurs
converted to percentage raster map as percentage value of s.
occasionally. When no works are carried out, the ratio of works
This percentage slope raster for s is used in equation (5) to get
is zero and modification factor becomes (1-0=1). Thus the value
rater map for S parameter.
of modification factor ranges between one to zero.
The researchers have assigned the values of cover management
6.3 Deriving modified parameter
parameter C as per land use and land cover (LU/LC), after due
experimentation. The values range in between 0 to 1. These
The weighted mean value of conservation practice parameter
values are assigned to respective matching LU/LC units.
Pw derived in 6.1, is multiplied by the modification factor
Mf, as per equation (8), to account for compounded effect of
6. ANALYSIS OF CONSERVATION PARAMETER
Government conservation works.
Large numbers of micro conservation works are carried out
using Government funding in a catchment area. Each funded Pm ( Pw Mf )
work is executed fully in a season, once it is commenced. Thus (8)
if funding is utilized say 30% then it means 30% number of
works are fully completed. It does not mean that all works are at where Pm= modified value of P, Pw = weighted mean value of
30% progress level. These conservation works make add-on P, Mf= Modification factor
effect and reduce soil loss from catchment. As such the add-on The modified values of conservation practice parameter are
effects result in modification of Conservation Practice parameter derived using equation (8) for each micro-water-shed. The
Pm. This modification of the parameter Pm is made as per derived values for each watershed as shown in Table 1 are
following procedure as given by Nakil (2014). vectorized and rasterised in GIS environment.
6.1 Deriving weighted value Pw 6. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In a micro water-shed the farmers adopt different practices as per The Hybrid model of RUSLE and USLE are used in the present
land form and as per LU/LC. The researchers after due case to estimate the soil erosion of a reservoir catchment. The
experimentation have assigned the P values according to parameters namely R, K, L, S, C and P derived are integrated in
the model. The model is run in GIS for conservation practice

parameter P and for modified conservation practice parameter Nakil M.B. (2014), Analysis of parameters causing water
Pm. The map of erosion rates A derived for study area is induced soil erosion, annual progress seminar Indian Institute of
shown in Figure1 while the raster maps for the parameters R, K, Technology Bombay,
L, S, C, P are shown in Figure 2. The integration of parameters
in both the cases resulted in following erosion rates.
Sedimentation rate with conventional conservation practice

factor P=0.072 Million tons per year
Sedimentation rate with modified conservation practice factor
Pm =0.065 Million tons per year
The observed average rate of sedimentation for this catchment
=0.048 Million tons per year.
The results reveal that the sedimentation rate estimated using

conventional P is 50% higher than the observed value. While
the estimated sedimentation rate using modified Pm is 35%
higher than the observed value. The evolved method has helped
to quantify the use of the soil conservation works executed
through Government funding. It is seen here that the prediction Figure 1. Erosion rates of Punegaon Catchment
of soil loss associated with modified conservation parameter
Pm is reduced by 15%. The revised value of predicted soil loss
is nearer to the observed value. While the soil loss estimation by
using unrevised value of P results in over-prediction. The
higher prediction even after using modified value Pm attracts
refinement in other parameters of model.
7. CONCLUSIONS
The soil & water conservation works carried on Government /

common lands in the watershed modify the conservation practice
parameter used in soil loss equation model. These public works
reduce the conservation parameter P. The methodology is
evolved here to derive the modified parameter Pm. Normally
it is examined that the soil loss estimated for catchment area
using soil loss equation model is on higher side. The use of
modified conservation practice parameter Pm, in-place of
conventional value P helps to overcome this over-estimation.
This approach can make the soil loss equation more accurate and
thus acceptable particularly for large catchment area. Here the
refinement and accuracy in quantification of soil loss estimation
in view of public conservation works helps to correctly assess
the reservoir sedimentation. The methodology can be used for
any soil loss prediction model.
REFERENCES:
i. Feb. 2014: 42
ii. Renard, K.G., Foster G.R., Weesies G.A., Mc Cool
Figure 2. Erosion causing parameters R, K, L, S, C, P
D.K., and Yoder D.C. (1997) Predicting Soil Erosion by
of Punegaon reservoir catchment
Water: A Guide to Conservation Planning with the Revised
Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE). Agriculture
Handbook No. 703, U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Agriculture Research Service, Washington, District of Table 1. calculation of values of Pm on the basis of LU/LC
Columbia, USA.
iii. Wischmeier, W.H. and Smith, D.D., (1978),
Predicting Rainfall erosion losses- A guide to conservation
planning, Agricultural Handbook number 537, USDA,
Science and Education Administration, washington, District
Columbia, USA

E
f Sediment Management in Reservoir of
f
e Hydroelectric Power Projects - Numerical
R
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t Simulation Studies for Punatsangchhu I, Bhutan
T
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Neena Isaac1 T.I. Eldho2 S.B. Tayade3
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ABSTRACT: Run-of-the-river hydroelectric power projects in
) the Himalayan Region are developed on the principle of
1 1
1 2
3
4 5 6 7 8
9
0 11 12 3 14 sustaining reservoir life by sediment management. Sediment
K management is generally achieved by sluicing or drawdown
ar 1
a up 6
64
0 flushing through low level outlets during peak flows. The
nj - Ve 72. 0. 1 0. . 0.
1
k to get 75 73 .
.8
40 6 44 sedimentation in reservoirs depends on various factors such as
5
h 25 atio 7 0 reservoir geometry, flow and sediment characteristics and
e n/cr 0. 4
d op 25 6 15 reservoir operation schedule. Hence, design and operation of
fall 0. 13.
ow 15 9 5 such projects is highly site specific and simulation using
Wa numerical and physical models is essential for optimizing the
ste/ 0.
scr 7 33. design during planning stage. One dimensional numerical
ub 45 5 75
model is useful for predicting long term sediment deposition
for
est 15
0.
7
10.
5
pattern in elongated reservoirs. In this paper, reservoir
Pi
2
sedimentation studies carried out using numerical model
n
g
up
Ve
7
30
0 simulations the run-of-the-river Punatsangchhu- I Hydro
- 71. 0. 8 0. . 0.
2 al
to
get
75 72 .
.7
11 8 64 Electric Project (1200 MW) located on Punatsangchhu river in
w atio 6
80 8 9 Wangdue District, Bhutan is presented. Simulations using one
a n/cr 0.
6
di op 25 6 15
fall 0. 13.
dimensional model HEC-RAS 4.1 were carried out to predict
ow 15 9 5 the sedimentation profiles along the reservoir covering a reach
Wa
ste/ 0. of about 18.5 km upstream of dam. Sediment rating curve was
scr 7 18. developed from available suspended sediment data.
ub 25 5 75
for 0. 24. Simulations were carried out to predict the sedimentation
est 35 7 5
B profile after various duration of reservoir operation. It was
1
il
> 0. 0. . 0. observed that sedimentation in the reach from about 10.5km to
3 w 70 1 0
5 70 00 0 70 12.5km upstream of dam axis is very high. Simulations were
a for 0.
0
di est 100 7 70
C 2
continued for reservoir operating at MDDL till the sediment
h U Ve 7
30
0 deposition at dam reached the spillway crest level. Hydraulic
a p- get 70. 0. 8 0. . 0.
4
us to atio 2 70 .
.7
6
11 8 62 flushing is proposed to restore the reservoir capacity.
al 5 n/cr 0. 22. 8 9
e op 37 6 2 6
Keywords: Run-of-the-river, sediment management, numerical
Wa model, reservoir sedimentation, Punatsangchhu- I H.E.
ste/ 0.
scr 7 22. Project
ub 30 5 5
for 0. 10.
est 15 7 5 1. INTRODUCTION:
fall 0. 13.
ow 15 9 5
buil 0.
t up 3 5 1.5
Hydropower projects in Himalayan region are nowadays
developed as run-of-the river schemes. The rivers in this region
carry huge quantity of sediment load during monsoon season and
the reservoirs gets silted up within a few years of operation. The
life of such projects can be sustained by proper sediment
management. Sediment management is generally achieved by
sluicing or drawdown flushing through low level outlets during
peak flows. The choice of the most efficient method depends on
various factors such as reservoir geometry, flow and sediment

characteristics and reservoir operation schedule. Run-of-the-river Himalayan ranges in the North-West Bhutan at an elevation of
hydropower projects are generally developed at head reaches of about 7000m and join at Punakha to form the river
perennial rivers by diverting available water to utilize the high Punatsangchhu. The Punatsangchhu River has a total length of
elevation difference for power generation. Since sediment about 320 km from its source in Bhutan to its confluence point
concentration is generally very high during peak flow season, with Brahmaputra in Assam. Its course in Bhutan has a length of
these reservoirs are operated at MDDL by sluicing during about 250 km. The catchment area of Punatsangchhu river upto
monsoon. Since sedimentation problems of such projects are dam site extends from latitude 27015N to 28030N and
highly site specific, design of various components and operation longitude 89015 E to 90030 E. The total Catchment area upto
schedule required to be optimized by hydraulic model studies the project site is 6390 km2 out of which 3115 km2 is snowfed
area and the remaining 3275 km2 is rainfed area.
Sediment deposition pattern in reservoirs can be estimated using
mathematical models. Many such models have been developed
and are being applied to simulate sediment deposition in
reservoirs. One dimensional (1D) numerical model can be
applied to predict long term deposition in reservoirs. A detailed
description of 1D modelling and review of some of the available
sediment models were presented by Morris and Fan (1997).
Detailed review of the reservoir sedimentation and flushing
processes including case studies, numerical, and physical models
are reported by Batuca and Jordan (2000). Guidelines for
predicting long term reservoir sedimentation and description
with representative case studies of 1D and 2D sediment transport
models were presented by Basson (2007). Mike 11(1D),
RESSASS (1D), GSTARS (Quasi 2D), Mike 21(2D) (Quasi 3D)
and a 3D model applied to the sedimentation studies of Three
Gorges Project, China were described (Basson, 2007). Jungkyu
Ahn and C T Yang (2010) studied the reservoir sedimentation Figure 1. The location plan for Punatsangchhu-I H. E. Project is
and flushing processes of Xiaolangdi Reservoir on the Yellow presented in.
River in China using GSTARS3 model. Nils Reidar B. Olsen The project complex consists of a 136 m high (from deepest
and Stefan Haun (2010) reported application of a 3D numerical foundation level) concrete gravity dam, 7 numbers of sluice
model with an adaptive grid for flushing of the Kali Gandaki spillways (8 m width and 14.65 m height with crest at El.1166
reservoir in Nepal. Seyed Hossein Ghoreishi, et.al (2010) m), 4 intakes with crest at El. 1182 m, 300 m long desilting
simulated the process of sediment flushing by a three basins and 9 km long and 10m diameter circular Head Race
dimensional numerical model based on Reynolds Averaged Tunnel (HRT). The sluice spillways are designed for the
Navier-Stokes (RANS) equations. Application of a 2D Probable Maximum Flood (PMF) of 11500 m3/s and 4300 m3/s
numerical model (CCHE-2D) to simulate the sedimentation GLOF. The reservoir is to be operated between Full Reservoir
along a 150 km reach of the Aswan High Dam Reservoir, Egypt, Level (FRL) of El.1202 m and Minimum Draw Down Level
was presented by Ahmed and Ahmed (2013). Isaac et al. (2013) (MDDL) of El. 1195 m. The gross storage capacity of the
reported application of 1D numerical model for predicting the reservoir is 25 Mm3 and live storage is 16 Mm3 with
reservoir sedimentation and geometrically similar scale physical
model for hydraulic flushing of sediment from reservoir of 3. NUMERICAL MODEL:
Chamera-II reservoir, India.
Sediment transport and deposition in reservoirs are three
In this paper, 1D numerical model based on HEC-RAS used to dimensional in nature. The physical processes are very complex
simulate the reservoir sedimentation of Punatsangchhu I H. E. and could be simulated using three dimensional (3D), two
project on Punatsangchhu river, Bhutan is presented. The project dimensional (2D) or one dimensional (1D) numerical model. A
has been proposed as a run-of-the-river project with the number of such commercial or free models are available. The
provision for annual flushing of reservoir through low level selection of the model depends on the objectives of the study,
sluice spillways to remove deposited sediment. The project site availability of data and computational resources. 3D numerical
is in the Himalayan ranges where the sediment load in rivers is models are essential to reproduce complex flow patterns and
generally high during monsoon season. 1 D numerical model has flow near hydraulic structures. However, simplification with 1D
been used to predict the long term sedimentation profiles. approach is well suited for narrow and gorge type reservoirs
where longitudinal processes are prevailing and if long periods
2. STUDY AREA DESCRIPTION: need to be simulated. Based on the above criteria, the one
dimensional model, HEC-RAS 4.1 (USACE, 2010) developed
The Punatsangchhu I project is located on Punatsangchhu river, by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers at the Armys Hydrologic
between 8 km and 16 km downstream of Wangdue Bridge, Engineering Centre was selected in the present study to simulate
Bhutan. The dam site is about 80 km from Thimphu. The rivers
Phochhu and Mochhu rises from the snow covered peaks of the

the sediment deposition in the reservoir of Punatsangchhu I

H.E. project.
The sediment transport module of HEC-RAS simulates

streambed profile changes resulting from varying river flow and
tail water conditions. The model is based on 1D gradually varied
flow hydraulics and sediment transport theory. Water surface
profiles and other hydraulic parameters such as water velocity,
hydraulic depth, hydraulic roughness, energy slope, and width at
each cross section are computed from one cross section to the
next by standard step method according to the energy equation. Figure 2. River system schematic
If water surface profiles are rapidly varied, momentum equation
is applied. HEC-RAS uses the quasi-unsteady flow approach for For hydraulic computations, the roughness coefficient was
sediment transport simulation. The continuous flow hydrograph simulated by Mannings n. In the present study, steady flow
is approximated with a series of discrete steady flows of specific computations were carried out for calibrating the model by
durations. Hydrodynamic computations are performed for each adjusting the n value. Water levels observed during flood on
of these steady flows and transport parameters are generated at 26th May 2009 and 3rd July 2010 were used for calibration of
each cross section. Flow durations are subdivided into the model. Water levels along the river reach was matched with
computational time steps, since bathymetry updates are required the model results. The results are presented in Fig. 3. Mannings
more frequently than the flow increment durations. The n was assumed as 0.048 for the channel portion.
geometry file is updated and new steady flow hydrodynamics are
computed at the beginning of each computational time step
(Gibson et. al., 2006). The sediment continuity (Exner) equation
is then solved over the control volume associated with each
cross section, computing from upstream to downstream. At the
end of each computational time step, the aggregation or
degradation is translated into a uniform bed change over the
entire wetted perimeter of the cross section. The cross sectional
station-elevation information is updated and new hydrodynamic
computations performed before the transport capacity is
computed for the next sediment routing iteration.
The main input data required for HEC-RAS include cross

sections of river reach, inflow hydrograph, grain size distribution
curve of bed material, sediment Vs discharge relation, rule curve
for reservoir operation and sediment transport equation
(USACE, 2010).
Figure 3. Observed and computed water surface profiles
4. MODEL SETUP:
4.1 Upstream boundary:
The 1D numerical model of river Punatsangchhu covering a
reach of about 18.5 km upstream of dam and 1.5 km downstream The inflow discharge hydrograph and total sediment load data
was developed using HEC-RAS. The river schematic was were specified as upstream boundary condition for the
developed as per the river plan. The river geometry was simulations.
reproduced in the model using the river schematic and the cross
section data. Cross sections data was available at 35 m interval Daily observed discharge data was available at the Wangdue
near the dam axis and at 500m interval in the remaining reaches. rapid gauging site for the period from July 1992 to July 2009.
Fig. 2 gives the river schematic with the locations of cross The above daily discharge hydrograph after correcting errors and
sections. filling the gaps was used as the upstream boundary in the
simulation runs. The inflow hydrograph was repeated for longer
duration simulations. The inflow hydrograph is presented in Fig.
4.

material gradation curves (Fig.6) at five locations upstream of

dam axis were available and hence used in the simulations.
Figure 4. Inflow hydrograph Figure 6. Bed material gradation curve
Suspended sediment concentration along with corresponding 5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

discharge observations were made at the Wangdue rapid gauging
site for the period from July 1992 to July 2009. Using the above Simulations were carried out to predict the sedimentation profile
data sediment rating curve was developed and the same is after different durations of reservoir operation. Initially, the
presented as Fig.5. The sediment rating curve was verified with sediment rating curve developed from observed data at Wangdue
the sediment data available from gauge site at 1.5 km upstream rapid gauging site was used as the upstream boundary for
of dam axis established by M/s WAPCOS. Sediment data from sedimentation runs. Since no measured data was available, the
January 2010 to June 2010 was available and used for bed load was assumed as 20% of the suspended load and the
verification. total load was specified at the upstream boundary. The gauging
site was located at the pool area just upstream of the rapid such
that most of the incoming sediment settles in the reaches
immediately upstream. Hence the sediment concentration
measured at the gauging site was observed to be less. In order to
account for the unmeasured sediment load, the observed values
were increased by 4 times and the rating curve was modified.
Simulations were conducted for reservoir operating at FRL and
MDDL.
It was observed from the sedimentation profile obtained after 5

years of reservoir operation that deposition takes place in the
reaches between 4km to 6km and 9km to 13 km from dam axis.
The river slope is mild and the cross sections are comparatively
wider in the upstream reaches. Hence sedimentation in the above
reach was observed to be high. The area near the dam and
intakes remains clear of sediment deposition.
Figure 5. Sediment rating curve
To get the pattern of bed profile near dam and intake area,
4.2 Downstream boundary: simulation runs were carried out by specifying equilibrium
sediment load condition at the upstream boundary. The bed
The reservoir operation level at dam was specified as profiles obtained by the simulation of daily hydrograph for a
downstream boundary in simulations. Simulations were carried period from January 1992 to July 2025 (about 33 years), and
out by maintaining the reservoir water level at the FRL of El. reservoir operating at MDDL is presented in Fig. 7. It was
1202 m and at the MDDL of El.1195 m. observed that the sedimentation level at the dam axis reached
about the spillway crest level of El.1166 m. The delta deposition
4.3 Bed material gradation curve: in the pool area between 1.5 km and 5.5km was progressing. The
cross section of river in the reach from about 10.5km to 12.5km
In HEC-RAS, the sediment continuity equation is solved upstream of dam axis is very wide compared to the sections just
separately for each grain size and material is added or removed upstream and downstream. Hence sedimentation in the above
to the active layer. Hence it is required to specify the initial grain reach was observed to be very high.
size distribution of the bed material. In the present study, bed

load at upstream boundary indicated that sediment deposition

will reach the dam and spillway crest level after about 33 years
of reservoir operation without annual flushing. Simulations with
annual flushing indicated that sediment deposition will move
from upstream towards the dam during drawdown flushing. It
was observed from the results of simulation that due to the flatter
bed slope and wider river sections, sedimentation is high in the
upstream reaches of reservoir.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS:
Kind permission given by Shri. S. Govindan, Director CWPRS,

Pune for publishing the paper is acknowledged with thanks.
Support and input given by Dr.(Mrs.) V. V. Bhosekar, Joint
director, CWPRS, officials of WAPCOS India and PHPA,
Figure 7. Bed Profiles after different years with reservoir at Bhutan are thankfully acknowledged. Authors also express
MDDL thanks to officers and staff members of HAPT division,
CWPRS, Shri. P. S. Kunjeer, and Shri. S.A. Kamble, Research
Sediment management in the reservoir of Punatsangchhu I Officers for their co-operation and support in conducting the
project is proposed by drawdown flushing during monsoon when studies.
the sediment concentration exceeds the design value of desilting
basins. Hence in order to obtain the sedimentation profile with
REFERENCES:
annual flushing, simulations were carried out by lowering the i. Ahmed Moustafa, Ahmed Moussa (2013). Predicting the deposition in
water level at dam axis during annual peak flows. The bed the Aswan High Dam Reservoir using a 2-D model. Ain Shams Engineering
profiles obtained after 5 years with and without annual flushing Journal 4, 143153.
are presented in Fig. 8. It was observed that during flushing, the ii. Basson, G. (2007). Mathematical Modelling of Sediment Transport
and deposition in Reservoirs, Guidelines and Case Studies. ICOLD Bulletin
sediment deposition from the area around 5 km is moving No.140. International Commission on Large dams, 61,avnue Kleber, 75116,
downstream towards the dam axis. Paris.
iii. Basson, G. (2009). Sedimentation and sustainable Use of Reservoirs
and river Systems. ICOLD Bulletin No.147. International Commission on Large
dams, 61,avnue Kleber, 75116, Paris.
iv. Batuca, D.G., and Jordan, J.M. (2000). Silting and desilting of
reservoirs, A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam.
v. Gibson, S., Brunner, G., Piper, S., and Jensen, M. (2006). Sediment
Transport Computations with HEC- RAS, Proceedings of the Eighth Federal
Interagency Sedimentation Conference (8thFISC), April2-6, 2006, Reno, NV,
USA.
vi. Isaac, N., Eldho, T. I., Gupta, I. D. (2013). Numerical and physical
model studies for hydraulic flushing of sediment from Chamera-II reservoir,
Himachal Pradesh, India, ISH Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, DOI:
10.1080/09715010.2013.821788.
vii. Jungkyu Ahn, Chih Ted Yang, (2010). Simulation of Xiaolangdi
Reservoir Sedimentation and Flushing Processes, 2nd Joint Federal Interagency
Conference, Las Vegas, NV, June 27 - July 1.
viii. Morris, G.L., and Fan, Jiahua (1997). Reservoir sedimentation hand
book. McGraw-Hill Book, New York.
ix. Nils Reidar B. Olsen & Stefan Haun (2010). Free surface algorithms
for 3D numerical modelling of reservoir flushing. River Flow 2010 - pp 1105-
Figure 8. Bed Profiles after 5 years with and without drawdown 1110.
flushing x. Seyed Hossein Ghoreishi, Mohammad Reza Majdzadeh Tabatabai
(2010). Model study reservoir flushing. Journal of Water Sciences Research,
ISSN: 2008-5338 Vol.2, No.1, Fall 2010, 1-8, JWSR.
6. CONCLUSIONS: xi. Sonam Choden (2009).Sediment Transport Studies in Punatsangchu
River, Bhutan. Water Resources Engineering, Department of Building and
The Punatsangchhu I H. E. project is planned as a run-of-the Environmental Technology, Lund University, P.O.Box 118, SE-221 00 Lund
river scheme. Sediment management in the reservoir is proposed xii. USACE. (1993). Scour and deposition in river and reservoirs: HEC 6
Users manual. US Army Corps of Eng., Hydrol. Eng. Center, 690 Second
by annual drawdown flushing during peak flow and sluicing Street, Davis, CA, 956164687.
during monsoon by operating the reservoir at MDDL. In this xiii. USACE. (2010). HEC-RAS River analysis system Hydraulic
study, one dimensional numerical model was used to obtain the reference manual and users manual. US Army Corps of Eng., Hydrol. Eng.
sedimentation profile of reservoir under different operating Center, 690 second street, Davis, CA, 95616.
xiv. USBR. (2006). Erosion and sedimentation manual. US Department of
conditions. Simulations with the measured sediment inflow rate the Interior Bureau of Reclamation.
indicated very low deposition when the reservoir was operated at
FRL and MDDL. No sediment deposition was observed near the
dam and intake area. Simulations with equilibrium sediment

Sedimentation Assessment in Nath Sagar siltation in reservoirs does not have uniform pattern everywhere.
Reservoir (Jayakwadi Project) of Maharashtra by It is obvious because climatic and topographical conditions and
the land use pattern in the catchment area are different in
Remote Sensing Technique A Case Study different regions of the state. Periodic reservoir capacity
Prakash Bhamare1 Manoj Bendre2 Ravindra assessment surveys provide useful information about storage
Shrigiriwar Mahendra Nakil4 Sudhir Kalvit5*
3
availability at different levels in different periods which is
Maharashtra Engineering Research Institute important scheduling the water use effectively. Remote sensing
Dindori Road, Nashik 422004, Maharashtra, India based reservoir sedimentation surveys are essentially based on
Phone 0253-2534676 mapping of water-spread areas at the time of satellite over pass.
E mail sudhirkalvit@yahoo.com It uses the fact that water-spread area of the reservoir reduces
*Corresponding Author with the sedimentation at different levels. The water-spread area
and the elevation information are used to calculate the volume of
ABSTRACT: Jayakwadi irrigation project is a major project water stored between different levels. These capacity values are
in Maharashtra State constructed on the river Godavari in the then compared with the previously calculated capacity values to
year 1975-76 with a gross and live storage potential of 2909 find out change in capacity between different levels.
Mm3 and 2171 Mm3 respectively. The reservoir has been
named as Nath Sagar reservoir after well known Marathi Saint The Maharashtra Engineering Research Institute which is the
Eknath of the 16th Century. The project has been instrumental Research Wing of the States Water Resources Department has
in the economic development of Marathwada region of the done substantial work in the field of reservoir sedimentation
State. However, since last few years, due to vagaries of assessment. First sedimentation assessment survey of Nath Sagar
monsoon and inadequate run off from the catchment, the reservoir was conducted by Maharashtra Engineering Research
reservoir has been facing shortage of water. The reservoir was Institute, Nashik by satellite remote sensing technique using
filled up to F.R.L. hardly three to four times in last decade. digital images of IRS 1B satellite with LISS II sensor (36 m
More over sedimentation in this reservoir has been another spatial resolution) for the period between years 1994 - 1997.
issue before the reservoir management authority. Inadequacy The next survey of Nath Sagar reservoir was conducted using
of water storage and the reduction in storage potential of the most of the digital images of RESOURCESAT 1 satellite with
reservoir on account of sedimentation have forced the LISS III sensor (24 m spatial resolution) for the period between
reservoir authority to conduct sedimentation assessment survey years 2011-2013. Temporal sedimentation assessment surveys
of this reservoir for assessing the net storage available in the are useful to keep the content table of reservoir updated which is
live storage zone. The sedimentation assessment survey was a pre requisite for realistic planning of reservoir storage.
entrusted to Maharashtra Engineering Research Institute
(M.E.R.I.) Nashik by Jayakwadi reservoir authorities. In April 2.0 OBJECTIVES OF THE SURVEY
2014, M.E.R.I., conducted the survey by satellite remote
sensing technique using IRS LISS III images, and the present The sedimentation assessment study was conducted with the
live storage capacity between Full Reservoir Level (FRL) and following objectives
Minimum Draw Down Level (M.D.D.L.) had been estimated. A
To estimate the present live storage capacity of
revised Elevation Area Capacity table at 0.10 meter interval
reservoir
had been prepared for the live storage zone which can be very
To update Elevation-Capacity curve for the live storage
useful for the reservoir management authority while operating
zone of reservoir.
the reservoir.
(Key words Dead Storage, Live storage, D.G.P.S., M.D.D.L, To estimate storage capacity loss in reservoir since its
bathymetry.) first impounding.
To update the content table of the reservoir for live
1.0 INTRODUCTION storage zone.
Apart from the hydrological factors, deforestation, rapid 3.0 STUDY AREA
urbanization, developmental activities in the catchment area
such as construction of roads, railway lines, land leveling and The Nath Sagar reservoir lies between Latitude 19 0: 19: 13 and
terracing excessive quarries and mining etc are some other 190: 41: 46 N and Longitude 740: 49: 23 and 750: 24: 22 E.
important factors responsible for rapid erosion of the land in the The reservoir is constructed on river Godavari, near village
catchments of reservoirs. The soil erosion in the catchment Jayakwadi in Paithan Taluka of Aurangabad district. The project
accelerates the process of sedimentation in reservoirs. The comprises earthen dam of nearly 10.5 Km in length. Total
sedimentation results in reduction of storage capacity of catchment area of the reservoir is 21750 sq. km. The designed
reservoirs. Many lakes and reservoirs, which are important fresh gross storage capacity of the reservoir at FRL 463.906 m is 2909
water resources, are under the threat of sedimentation today. The Mm3 and live storage capacity between FRL & MDDL is
reduction in water storage potential of the multipurpose 2170.92 Mm3. The MDDL of the reservoir is at R.L. 455.524 m.
reservoirs affects the entire irrigation and domestic water Designed dead storage capacity is 738.08 Mm3. The reservoir
planning. Therefore, sedimentation is a matter of concern for the was first impounded in the year 1975-76.
reservoirs in the context of their utility and useful life. The

RESOUR LISS III 16 Dec 2007 462.8

4.0 DATA USED FOR THE PRESENT STUDY CESAT 1 97
RESOUR LISS III 22 Nov 2007 463.3

(A) Field Data CESAT 1 27
RESOUR LISS III 23 Oct 008 463.7

CESAT 1 9
Following field data required for this survey was obtained from
Jayakwadi Project authority. RESOUR
CESAT 1
LISS III 5 Oct 2007 463.9
06
i) Reservoir Levels for given dates of the satellite pass
ii) Reservoir F.R.L. and M.D.D.L.
iii) First year of reservoir impounding. 5.0 METHODOLOGY
(B) Satellite Data The satellite images procured from National Remote Sensing
Centre were already rectified (geo-referenced). Hence
NRSC website was browsed and a list of cloud free dates of preprocessing of images was not necessary. The images were
RESOURCESAT 1 and RESOURCESAT 2 satellite pass over analysed digitally using standard image analysis software.
Nath Sagar reservoir was prepared for the period between Year Classification technique was adopted for the analysis and the
2011 and 2013. The selection of the satellite images was done water spread areas of the reservoir in all the images were
after studying the draw down pattern of the lake levels and measured.
selected satellite data was procured from the NRSC Hyderabad. The following flow chart describes the methodology in brief.
In all, total 19 images of RESOURCESAT 1 and
RESOURCESAT 2 satellites together, with LISS III sensor
having a spatial resolution of 24 m are used for this survey.
These satellite images were of different water levels between
R.L.455.066 m to F.R.L 463.906 m. Out of these, 14 images
were of period between Oct 2011 to Jan 2014 and 5 images were
of the year 2007-08. Since Nath Sagar reservoir did not have full
storage in last 6-7 years, the images of old period (year 2007-08)
had to be used to cover the study up to F.R.L. avoiding
extrapolation of result. Thus the present study covered 100% of
live storage zone. Table 1 gives the dates of satellite passes with
respective water levels.
Table- 1.Details of Satellite pass, sensor, path and row and water levels
Satellite Sensor Date of Pass Elev
ation
m
RESOUR LISS III 06 May 2013 455.0 Table 2 shows the Water Spread Areas (WSA) of Nath Sagar
CESAT 1 66
reservoir in all the images corresponding to their water levels
RESOUR LISS III 12 Apr 2013 455.3
CESAT 1 59 Table 2. Water spread areas estimated from satellite data
Date Elevation in Area in
RESOUR LISS III 19 Nov 2012 455.9 of m. Mm2
CESAT 2 45 pass
06
455.066 112.54
May
RESOUR LISS III 11 Feb 2013 456.1
122013
Apr
CESAT 2 24 455.359 124.47
2013
RESOUR LISS III 30 Jan 2013 456.2 19
455.945 137.84
CESAT 1 80 Nov
2012
11
RESOUR LISS III 13 Dec 2012 456.7 456.124 141.78
Feb
CESAT 1 60 302013
Jan
456.280 147.72
2013
RESOUR LISS III 05 Apr 2012 457.7
13
CESAT 2 91 456.760 160.81
Dec
RESOUR LISS III 24 Mar 2012 457.9 052012
Apr
457.791 182.38
CESAT 2 44 2012
24
RESOUR LISS III 1 Jan 2014 458.6 457.944 185.46
Mar
CESAT 1 94 12012
Jan
458.694 202.97
2014
RESOUR LISS III 21 Oct 2013 459.2
21 Oct
CESAT 1 67 459.267 223.05
2013
RESOUR LISS III 24 Jan 2012 459.4 24 Jan
459.459 231.34
CESAT 2 59 2012
19
460.288 248.71
RESOUR LISS III 19 Dec 2011 460.2 Dec
CESAT 1 88 2011
13
461.162 271.05
Nov
RESOUR LISS III 13 Nov 2011 461.1 82011
Oct
CESAT 2 62 461.700 290.2
2011
RESOUR LISS III 8 Oct 2011 461.7 9 Jan
462.395 311.89
CESAT 1 00 2008
16
462.897 325.31
RESOUR LISS III 9 Jan 2008 462.3 Dec
CESAT 1 95 2007

22
463.327 343.27 Figure -2 Satellite images of Nath Sagar Reservoir of different dates in order of
Nov
2007
23 Oct
reducing water levelimage
463.79 367.52
008
5 Oct
463.906 371.69 Jayakwadi Project (Nathsagar reservoir)
2007 Satellite Remote Sensing based Elevation Vs revised area curve for live storage zone
400
Third order polynomia equation for best fit

Interpolation of Water spread area (WSA) at Regular 350 curve for the graph is as below
y = 0.1776x3 - 1.6011x2 + 29.146x + 111.87
Interval 300
R2 = 0.9991
where R = Coefficient of co-relation

x = elevation measured above R.L. 455.00 m
Revised Area in Mm2 ---->

250 y = revised water spread areas
For the present survey cloud free satellite images of 200
different water levels for the reservoir portion between R.L.

150
455.066 m and F.R.L. 463.906 m were available. Water
levels on the date of satellite pass for selected satellite data 100
were not at regular interval. To get WSA values at regular 50
elevation interval, a curve was plotted between Elevation 0

0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00
and the Revised Area and a best fit polynomial equation of Elevation measured above R.L. 455.00 m considering R.L. 455.00 m as datum ----->
third order was derived for the graph. The best fit equation
is as follows. Figure -3 Graph between R.L. and respective water spread areas (estimated from
y = 0.1776x3 - 1.6011x2 + satell
29.146x + 111.87
R2 = 0.9991 (R = Coefficient
of co-relation)
where x = Elevation difference in meters (measured above
R.L. 455.00 m)
y = Water spread area in Mm2
Using this equation, the Water Spread Areas at regular
interval of elevation between R. L. 455.00 m and F.R.L.
463.906 m have been worked out.
Calculation of Reservoir Capacity
Computation of reservoir capacity at different elevations has

been done using following prismoidal formula. Figure -4Graph showing comparison of Live storage capacity as per different
V = h/3*(A1 + A2 + SQRT (A1 * A2)). surveys
Where V- Reservoir capacity between two successive Revised Revised
elevations h1 and h2 live Live
h- Elevation difference (h2 h1) Sr. Original storage storage
A1 and A2 are areas of reservoir water spread at elevation h 1 No Elevation Capacity capacity Capacity
as per as per
and h2.
1994-96 2012-13
in meters survey survey
1 2 3 4 5
1 455.524 0 0 0
2 455.600 11.171 10.288 9.711
3 456.000 75.559 66.305 63.379
4 456.499 157.896 140.744 136.247
5 456.999 240.234 220.658 215.655
6 457.499 333.743 306.180 301.294
7 457.999 434.51 397.586 393.064
8 458.499 535.377 495.150 490.930
9 458.999 648.323 599.149 594.924
10 459.499 771.203 709.857 705.144
11 459.998 894.082 827.308 821.516
12 460.499 1028.98 952.504 944.992
13 460.998 1178.431 1084.722 1074.884
14 461.498 1327.038 1225.008 1212.315
15 461.997 1486.624 1373.075 1357.167
16 462.498 1659.565 1530.115 1510.833
17 463.000 1833.561 1696.166 1673.649
18 463.500 2013.35 1870.487 1845.251

their prediction have become an important process in the part

19 463.906 2170.935 2018.782 1991.987 of a hydrologist. In recent years various models like
autoregressive (AR) integrated with Moving Average (MA),
6.0 RESULT AND DISCUSSION Neural Network (NN), Fuzzy Theory, Genetic Algorithm (GA),
The result of the present survey and its comparison with Support Vector machines (SVM) and Wavelet Transformation
original survey and year 1994-96 survey are given in have been used in analysis and prediction of the hydrological
following table. data. These models were not only used individually for analysis
Table 3 showing the comparison of original live storage capacity with that of the data, but also a combination of these models were used
of year 1996 survey and year 2012-13 survey for better representation of the data and subsequent
predictions. The models can be developed using the standard
Table 3 software packages as available and with R/Matlab. In this
Description As per original As per survey of year As per survey of paper the ARIMA, ANN and the Wavelet combined with ANN
survey year 1975- 1994-96 year 2012-13
76 was analyzed for better performance and validated with the
Live storage data as available for the catchment. The model efficiency was
capacity 2170.935 2018.782
1991.987 also reported in various parameters like root mean square
in Mm3 error (RMSE), coefficient of correlation (R) and other model
Average ------- 0.35 0.23
Annual % specific parameters.
loss
Keywords: Wavelet, Neural Network, Autoregressive Model

Revised content table for the live storage zone has been
prepared at 0.1 m contour interval which can be of great use 1. INTRODUCTION:
for the reservoir management authority during reservoir
operation. Revised Live storage capacity of Nath Sagar A time series is a sequence of observations that are arranged
reservoir between M.D.D.L. 455.524 m and FRL 463.906 m according to the time of their outcome. In time series the
is estimated to be 1991.987 Mm3 for the year 2012-13 as physical quantity and the sequence and the order of the data
against Original Live storage capacity of 2170.935 Mm3 collection is very important. Meteorology records like hourly
between these levels, with a loss of 178.948 Mm3 (8.24 %). wind speeds, daily maximum and minimum temperatures, daily
The average annual percent loss in live storage for the monthly and annual rainfall, discharge data of a river or dam are
period of 36 years between 1976 and 2012 works out to few examples of the time series data. Various statistical
0.23% which is not severe. Sedimentation in the dead approaches like regression, auto regression, auto regressive
storage zone i.e. below M.D.D.L. 455.52 m could not be integrated moving average time series modeling, stochastic
estimated by remote sensing method. For this, a approaches, machine learning, data mining, ANN, fuzzy set,
hydrographic survey is necessary. neuro fuzzy, support vector machine, fourier transform, wavelet
combines with ANN have been used to model the time series
data. The analysis of the nonlinear behavior and raise the
7.0 REFERENCES forecast precision and lengthen the forecasted time are a
challenging task in time series modeling. In this paper the
i. Technical Report on revised storage capacity assessment of ARIMA model is explored with the sample data using R as
Jayakwadi reservoir by satellite remote sensing technique. (year 2014),
Maharashtra Engineering Research Institute, Nashik 4 modeling tool. Then the other modeling tools like ANN,
Wavelet and combined with ANN are used for the rainfall data
analysis and the models output was interpreted.
ii. Figure -3 Graph between R.L. and respective water spread areas
(estimated from satellite images
1.1 Arima Model in R:
The acronym ARIMA(p,d,q) stands for "Auto-Regressive

Integrated Moving Average." Lags of the differenced series
appearing in the forecasting equation are called "auto-
Hydrological Data Modelling Using Wavelet, regressive" terms, lags of the forecast errors are called "moving
average" terms, and a time series which needs to be differenced
Neural Network And Ar Models to be made stationary is said to be an "integrated" version of a -
stationary series. In ARIMA the p is the number of
G.Khadanga1, B.Krishna2 autoregressive terms, d is the degree of first differencing, and q
1
Scientist, National Informatics Centre, CGO Complex, New is the order of the moving average part.
Delhi
2
Scientist, NIH, Kakinada, Deltaic Regional Center, Kakinada The auto.arima() function of R (open source software package
Email: ganesh@nic.in for statistical modeling) uses the Hyndman and Khandakar
algorithm which combines the unit root tests, minimization of
ABSTRACT: Hydrological data like rainfall, runoff, the AICs (Akaikes Information Criterion) and MLE to obtain
evapotranspiration, water table, reservoir water level etc. and the ARIMA model. The daily rainfall data of the test location is

ACF
collected for 10 years and the plot of the data and the 1st
difference is shown in fig1. The decomposition of the daily time
Daily Rainfall in MM
0.8
series data is shown in fig2. The auto correlation and the partial
auto correlation is shown in fig3. As the ACF is dropping to zero
0.4
the time series is stationary. The PACF is exponentially
decaying and sinusoidal and there is a significant spike at lag 2
0.0
in ACF, but none beyond lag 2. 0 10 20 30
Days
PACF
Daily Rainfall in MM
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0 10 20 30
Days
Figure 4. The ACF and PACF of the Rainfall Data

Forecasts from ARIMA(2,0,3) with non-zero mean
Figure 1. Daily Rainfall Data of the series with 1st difference
30
200
data
20
50 100
0
10
10
seasonal
0
0
8
-10
trend
6
4
2
200
7600 7620 7640 7660 7680 7700

remainder
50 100
Figure 5. The forecast of the rainfall data using auto.arima R

0
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 function

time
Figure 2. Decomposition of the Daily Rainfall Data

2. Artificial Neural Network (ANN)
The summary of the fit is shown below: The Artificial neural network (ANN) offers a quick and flexible
Coef ar1 ar2 ma1 ma2 ma3 intercept means of modeling hydrologic data analysis and prediction.
-0.0727 0.6202 0.4345 -0.5172 -0.1872 3.1970 ANN tolerate imprecise or incomplete data, approximate results
s.e. 0.1570 0.0920 0.1579 0.1183 0.0378 0.1823 and are less vulnerable to outliers. The ANNs can be described
sigma^2 estimated as 97.96: log likelihood=-28465.15, either as a mathematical and computational model for non-linear
AIC=56944.29 AICc=56944.31 BIC=56992.91 relationship, data classification, clustering and regression or as
simulations of the behavior of collections of the biological
Figure 3. The summary of the fitness of the ARIMA Model neutrons.
The feed-forward multilayer perceptron (MLP) is the most

commonly used ANN in hydrological applications. The first step
in back propagation learning is the initialization of the network.
The structure of the network is first defined. In the network,
activation functions are chosen and the network parameters,
weights and biases, are initialized. The parameters associated
with the training algorithm like error goal, maximum number of
epochs (iterations), etc, are defined. Then the training algorithm
is called. After the neural network has been determined, the
result is first tested by simulating the output of the neural
network with the measured input data. This is compared with the
measured outputs. Final validation is carried out with

independent data. The input values were normalized before use

in the ANN. The result of the training using the feed forward
network is shown in the table.
The first two year daily data was taken for training and one year
data was taken for validation. The regression coefficient is found
out to be 0.397 (Fig6) after lots of trial with different models.
The model with 4 input layer, one hidden layer found with
highest regression coefficient. The result is not very encouraging
however moderate predictions can be taken up with this model.
As the result is not very encouraging an attempt is made for
analyzing the data using both wavelet and neural network. Figure 7. Original data set is broken into wavelets
3. Wavelet
The wavelet analysis has been used as alternative to Fourier

transform. The fourier transform mainly concentrate on the
frequency domain where as the wavelet analysis can provide the
exact locality of any changes in the dynamic patterns of the
sequences. Wavelet analysis is the breaking of a signal into
shifted and scaled version of the original data. Sometimes it is
also called as multi resolution analysis.
The original signal is passed through loss pass and high pass
filters and emerges as two signals as Approximations (A) and
Details (D). The approximations as lowscale and high
Figure 8. Forecast & correlation coeff.
frequency components of the signal. The details are the high-
scale and low frequency components. The Daibechies and
Morlet wavelet transforms are more frequently used for
hydrological time series data.
The Decomposed details (D) and approximations (A) are taken

as inputs into a neural network and then resultant wavelets were
combined to form the original data. Optimal structure of the
neural network (input layers, number of hidden, optimal
parameters of the neural network for train, transfer functions)
nodes was used to get the best performance. The output node is
taken as one step ahead of the original time step.
3. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

Figure 9. Training data and model output data
The daily rainfall data for the first two year is taken as the
calibration data and one year data is taken as validation data.
The original time series data is decomposed in to details and
approximate components using the wavelet transform algorithms
(DB5, D1, D2, D3, A4). The original timeseries and
decomposed parts are shown in fig 7.
Figure 6. Regression coeff in ANN
Table 1. Staistics of WNN and ANN for Calibration and

Validation period
Model Validation
x(t)=f(x[t-1],x[t- Calibration
2],x[t-3],x[x-4]) RMSE R RMSE R
WNN 20.05 0.697 13.79 0.734
ANN 13.79 0.419 8.918 0.197

model. Several hybrid models have been developed to forecast

the inflow into Malaprabha reservoir in one day advance. The
4. CONCLUSIONS calibration and validation performance of the developed
models is evaluated with appropriate global statistics. The
The performance of the model were experimented with various results were compared with the standard models with
combinations and the best performance is found with regression undecomposed data. The application of wavelet based neural
coefficient 0.985 (Fig7). This is much better than the ANN case. network models were found to be more effective as its
The observed and model output is shown in the fig 9. The table 1 prediction efficiency is more and its peak value is closer to
shows the various statistical parameters for the ANN and the observed value.
WNN case. The coefficient of correlation is better in WNN. Keywords: Inflow, Neural Networks, Training, Wavelet
From the figure it is observed that the peak rainfall data is Decomposition
predicted with minimum errors. The forecasted values are well
fitted to the 45 degree line. It was concluded that the best
predication of the data is possible with WNN model. 1. INTRODUCTION:
REFERENCES:
Inflow is an important data for an optimal reservoir operation.
i. Box, G. E. P. and G. M. Jenkins,(1976), Time Series analysis, The importance of an accurate flow forecast, especially in flood-
forecasting and control Holden day, Oakland, California. prone areas, has increased significantly over the last few years as
ii. Goel N.K., Stochastic Modeling of Hydrological Process, Training extreme events have become more frequent and more severe due
Course on Integrated Catchment Modelling, NIH, Roorkee, Nov. 2013.
iii. Haykin, S. (1994), Neural Network: a comprehensive foundation. to climate change and anthropogenic factors. Data based
MacMillan, New York. forecasting methods are becoming increasingly popular in flood
iv. J.S. Yang, S.P. Yu, and G.-M. Liu., Multi-step-ahead predictor forecasting applications due to their rapid development times,
design for effective long-term forecast of hydrological signals using a novel minimum information requirements, and ease of real-time
wavelet neural network hybrid model, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 17, 49814993,
2013. implementation. Using hybrid model or combining several
v. Kottegoda N.T.(1979), Stochastic Water Resources Technology, John models has become a common practice to improve the
Wiley and Sons New York. forecasting accuracy. The combination of forecasts from more
vi. Nayak, P.C., Sudheer, K.P., and Ramasastri, K.S.( 2004a) A Neuro- than one model often leads to improved forecasting
fuzzy Computing Techniques for modeling Hydrological Time Series:, Journal of
Hydrology, 291(102):52-66. performance. An attempt has been made to find an alternative
vii. Shumway, H. Robert., Stoffer S. David., Time Series Analysis and its method for accurate prediction of inflow by combining the
Applications with R Examples, Third Edition, Springer, 2011. wavelet technique with Artificial Neural Networks (WNN).
viii. Yevjevich, V., Stochastic Processes in Hydrology, May 1971.
Artificial Neural Network (ANN) is widely applied in hydrology
and water resource studies as a forecasting tool. In ANN, feed
forward backpropagation (BP) network models are common to
Improved Neuro-Wavelet Model for Reservoir
engineers. It has proved that BP network model with three-layer
Inflow Forecast is satisfied for the forecasting and simulating in any engineering
problem. Three-layered feed forward neural networks (FFNNs),
B.Krishna, Y.R.Satyaji Rao and R.Venkata Ramana
which have been usually used in forecasting hydrologic time
Scientists, Deltaic Regional Center, National Institute of series, provide a general framework for representing nonlinear
Hydrology, Siddartha Nagar, Kakinada-3, Andhra Pradesh. E- functional mapping between a set of input and output variables.
mail: krishna_nih@rediffmail.com Although ANN had been used extensively as useful tools for
prediction of hydrological variables, it has also many drawbacks
ABSTRACT : There is a need for forecasts of reservoir inflow to deal with non-stationary data (Cannas et al., 2006).
events in order to: a basin wide consistency in management
operations based on a thorough knowledge of variation in Wavelet analysis is a useful tool for non-stationary processes
inflows, an improved capability for predicting and monitoring such as hydrological time series (Rajaee et al., 2011). Wavelet
flood events. Using hybrid model or combining several models transform, which is a pre-processing decomposed technique,
has become a common practice to improve the forecasting showed successful performance in hydrological applications.
accuracy. The combination of forecasts from more than one Several studies have been published that developed hybrid
model often leads to improved forecasting performance. An waveletANN models. Wang and Lee (1998) developed a hybrid
attempt has been made to find an improved method for waveletANN model to forecast rainfallrunoff in China. Rajaee
accurate prediction of inflow by combining the wavelet et al., (2011) applied wavelet combined with neuro-fuzzy and
technique with Artificial Neural Networks (WNN). Wavelet ANN for sediment load prediction, Cannas et al. (2005)
analysis effectively decomposes the main signal and diagnoses developed a hybrid model for rainfallrunoff forecasting. Okkan
its main frequency component and abstract local information. (2012) developed different models as Wavelet Neural Network
The observed time series is decomposed into sub-series using (WNN) in combination with Discrete Wavelet Transform
discrete wavelet transform and then appropriate sub-series is (DWT) and Levenberg-Marquardt based Feed Forward Neural
used as an independent variable for the Neural Network

Networks (FFNN) and Wavelet Multiple linear Regression approximations are part of low pass filter, high-scale and low
(WREG) for monthly reservoir inflow forecasting. frequency components of the signal. The details are part of high
pass filter, low-scale, and high frequency components.
2. WAVELET ANALYSIS Normally, the low frequency content of the signal
(approximation, A) is the most important part. It demonstrates
The wavelet transform is the tool of choice when signals are the signal identity. The high-frequency component (detail, D) is
characterized by localized high frequency events or when signals nuance. The decomposition process can be iterated, with
are characterized by a large numbers of scale-variable processes. successive approximations being decomposed in turn, so that
Because of its localization properties in both time and scale, the one signal is broken down into many lower resolution
wavelet transform allows for tracking the time evolution components (Figure 1). Thus, DWT allows one to study different
processes at different scales in the signal. The continuous investigating behaviours in different time scales independently
wavelet transform of a time series f (t) is defined as (Rajaee et al., 2011).

1 t b Decomposition level is generally based on signal characteristics
f (a, b)
a

f (t ) (
a
)dt and experiences to selection. Mohammad, (2012) used int[lgn]
as resolution level number, where n is the length of daily stream
(1) flow sequences and lg denotes the logarithm to base 10. The P
may be selected from the range of 2 and int[lgn], that is, 2 P
Where (t ) is the basic wavelet with effective length (t) that is
int[lgn]. Based on this concept, three decomposition levels were
used in this study. In this study, wavelet function derived from
usually much shorter than the target time series f (t). The the family of Daubechies wavelets with order 5 (db5) used for
variables are a and b, where a is the scale or dilation factor that the selection of best architectures of ANN.
determines the characteristic frequency so that its variation gives
rise to a `spectrum'; and b is the translation in time so that its Based on the physical knowledge of the problem and statistical
variation represents the `sliding' of the wavelet over f(t). The analysis, different combinations of antecedent values of the
wavelet spectrum is thus customarily displayed in time- inflow, rainfall and stream flow time series were considered as
frequency domain. For low scales i.e. when |a| << 1, the wavelet input nodes. The output node is the inflow data to be predicted in
function is highly concentrated (shrunken compressed) with one step ahead. The time series data of all variables was
frequency contents mostly in the higher frequency bands. standardized for zero mean and unit variation, and then
Inversely, when |a| >> 1, the wavelet is stretched and contains normalized into 0 to 1. The activation function used for the
mostly low frequencies. For small scales, thus a more detailed hidden and output layer was logarithmic sigmoidal and pure
view of the signal (known also as a higher resolution) whereas linear function respectively. For deciding the optimal hidden
for larger scales a more general view of the signal structure can neurons, a trial and error procedure started with two hidden
be expected. However, in practical the hydrologic time series neurons initially, and the number of hidden neurons was
does not have a continuous time signal process but rather a increased up to 10 with a step size of 1 in each trial.
discrete time signal. The Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT)
is to calculate the wavelet coefficients on discrete dyadic scales 2.1 Method of combining wavelet analysis with ANN
and positions in time. Discrete wavelet functions have the form
The decomposed details (D) and approximation (A) were taken
by choosing and in equation (1). The as inputs to neural network structure as shown in Figure 2. To
Eq. (1) has takes the form obtain the optimal weights (parameters) of the neural network
structure, LevenbergMarquardt (LM) back-propagation
t n b0 a0
m algorithm has been used to train the network. A standard MLP
1
g (t ) g( m
) with a logarithmic sigmoidal transfer function for the hidden
m, n m
a 0 a o
layer and linear transfer function for the output layer were used
in the analysis. The number of hidden nodes was determined by
(2) trial and error procedure. The output node will be the original
value at one step ahead.
where m and n are integers that control the wavelet dilation and
translation respectively; is a specified fined dilation step 3. STUDY AREA AND DATA
greater than 1; and is the location parameter and must be
In the present study, the daily data of rainfall, stream flow at
greater than zero. The appropriate choices for and depend Khanapur gauging station and reservoir inflow for 11 years
on the wavelet function. A common choice for them is =2, (from 1986 to 1996) were used to forecast the inflow in
Malaprabha reservoir. The model was calibrated using 7 years of
=1. data from 1986 to 1992 and validated by using the remaining 4
years of data from 1993 to 1996.The input vectors to models are
The original signal X(n) passes through two complementary selected based on the procedure described by Sudheer et al.
filters (low pass and high pass filters) and emerges as two (2002). The following data sets identified as input neurons to
signals as Approximations (A) and Details (D). The ANN and WNN model were examined (i) daily inflow (at t 0 and

t0-1), daily rainfall (at t0) and daily stream flow at Khanapur inflow values of Malaprabha reservoir. Daily rainfall, antecedent
gauging station (at t0) [4 input nodes] (ii) daily inflow (at t 0 and inflow values and stream flow data at upstream gauging station
t0-1), daily rainfall (at t0) and daily stream flow at Khanapur used in this study. The observed time series are decomposed into
gauging station (at t0 and t0-1) [5 input nodes] (iii) daily inflow sub-series using discrete wavelet transform and then appropriate
(at t0, t0-1and t0-2), daily rainfall (at t0) and daily stream flow at sub-series is used as inputs to the neural network and regression
Khanapur gauging station (at t0 and t0-1) [6 input nodes]. models for forecasting the reservoir inflow. Model parameters
are calibrated using 7 years of data and rest of the data is used
4. MODEL EVALUATION for model validation. The results were compared with the
standard ANN. From this analysis, it was found that efficiency
To find out the optimal model developed in estimating reservoir index is more than 97% for Wavelet based NN and regression
inflow, different statistical indices are introduced. The indices models whereas it is 88% and 86% for ANN and regression
employed are the coefficient of correlation (R), root-mean- models respectively. It may be noted that hydrological data used
square error (RMSE) between the observed and forecasted in the WNN model has been decomposed in details and
values and the coefficient of efficiency (Nash-Sutcliffe) (COE). approximation, which may lead to better capturing the rainfall
and runoff processes.
Table 1. The performance statistics for the calibration and
For the above application, the data is divided into training and validation period
testing data sets. In this application, the first 7 year daily data
(from 1986 to 1992) are used for training and the remaining 4 D No.
at of Calibration Validation
year (from 1993 to 1996) are used for testing. The standardized Mo
a Hid
del
observed data was taken as input to ANN. ANN was trained se
t
den
neu
RMSE COE( R CO
(cumecs R %) M R E(
using backpropagation (BP) with LM and Radial basis (RB) ron ) S %)
s
neural network algorithms. The optimal number of hidden AN i 3 19.78 0.962 92.60 29E 0.953 88.2
N- (4 .2 2
neurons were determined by trial and error procedure. Table 1 BP ) 6(c
6 18.21 0.968 93.73 0.955
shows the performance of ANN models for different datasets of WN i 4 9.21 0.992 98.39 18u 0.978 95.4
88.0
N- (1
ii .1
29m 84
inputs in calibration and validation periods. The decomposed BP 6)
(5
3
3
18.86
9.81
0.966
0.991
93.27
98.18
ec
3.4 0.951
0.978
data of different datasets of inputs was taken as input to ANN ) 9s) 95.5
88.1
ii 18 17
which makes the WNN. The number of hidden nodes were (2
iii
3 8.57 0.993 98.61
.0
29
0.974
determined by trial and error procedure and the performance of 0)

Table 2. Statistical moments of the observed and modeled
(6 94.2 7.3
) 0 2
these were shown in Table 1. From this table, the best performed inflow during validation period
Iii 20
architectures of WNN (20-3-1) was selected. (2 .5
4) 4
Parameter Year Observed WNN ANN
An analysis to assess the potential of each of the model to
preserve the statistical properties of the observed inflow series 1993 35.98 34.82 30.64
was carried out for each year of validation period and shown in 1994 60.84 56.54 46.32
Table 2. From Table 2, it was revealed that inflow series Mean
computed by WNN model with dataset (iii) reproduces the first 1995 24.42 22.84 21.37
three statistical moments (i.e. mean, standard deviation and
skewness) better than that computed by the other models. The 1996 24.23 22.96 21.79
maximum value in the testing period is fairly well estimated by
1993 78.45 75.40 64.96
the WMLR method. Table 2 shows that the percentage error in
annual peak flow estimates for the validation period for all 1994 126.63 121.17 99.94
Standard
models and found that the WNN model improves the annual Deviation
peak flow estimation and the error was limited to 13.4%. It was 1995 58.05 50.49 50.37
also observed that the peak flow estimation by wavelet based
1996 51.71 47.65 44.41
models is much better (% error is less than 21) than ANN. The
error plots for these models in validation period are shown in 1993 4.22 4.73 4.58
figure 3. From Figure 3, it is obviously seen that the peaks could
be estimated closely by the WNN model. From this analysis, it 1994 3.83 4.28 4.05
was worth to mention that the performance of wavelet based skewness
1995 5.22 4.81 5.18
WNN models was much better than ANN models in forecasting
the reservoir inflow in one-day advance. 1996 3.48 3.35 3.67
6. SUMMARY 1993 669.58 -11.5 1.1

% Error in
The main purpose of the study presented is to examine the 1994 1016.00 -1.1 25.3
Peak
applicability and generalization capability of the wavelet based
1995 567.53 21.5 18.3
neural networks with back propagation for forecasting the

1996 382.90 18.7 10.4
Figure 3. Distribution of error plots along the magnitude of flow during

validation period
REFERENCES:
Figure 1. Diagram of multiresolution analysis of signal i. Cannas, B., Fanni, A., Sias, G., Tronei, S., Zedda, M.K., 2005. River
flow forecasting using neural networks and wavelet analysis. In: EGU 2005,
European Geosciences Union, Vienna, Austria, 2429 April, 2005.
ii. Cannas, B., Fanni, A., See, L. & Sias, G. (2006). Data preprocessing
for river flow forecasting using neural networks: Wavelet transforms and data
partitioning. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, PartsA/B/C, 31(18): 1164-
1171.
iii. Mohammad Nakhaei and Amir Saberi Nasr, (2012). A combined
Wavelet- Artificial Neural Network model and its application to the prediction of
groundwater level fluctuations JGeope 2 (2), 2012, P. 77-91
iv. Okkan, U. (2012) Wavelet neural network model for reservoir
inflow prediction, Scientia Iranica, 19(6), pp.1445-1455.
v. Rajaee, T., Nourani, V., Mohammad, Z.K. and Kisi, O. (2011). River
suspended sediment load prediction: application of ANN and wavelet
conjunction model, Journal of Hydrologic Engineering, 16(8): 613-627.
vi. Sudheer, K.P., Gosain, A.K., Rangan, D.M, Saheb SM. 2002.
Modeling evaporation using an artificial neural network algorithm.
Hydrological Processes 16: 31893202.
Figure 2. Wavelet based multilayer perceptron (MLP) neural network
Application of Particle Swarm Optimization in

Multiobjective Irrigation Planning
D V Morankar1 , K Srinivasa Raju2 , A Vasan3, L
Ashoka Vardhan4
1
Faculty of Civl Engineering, College of Military Engineering,
CME(PO) Pune 411031
2,3,4
Centre of Excellence in Water Resources Management,
Department of Civil Engineering
Birla Institute of Technology and Sciences, Pilani Hyderabad
Campus, Hyderabad-500078
Email: dineshmorankar@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) is applied to

the case study of Khadakwasla Complex reservoir system,

Maharashtra, India in multiobjective irrigation planning analytical step method to find the best compromise solution. It
environment. Three objectives, namely, Annual Net Benefits was concluded that the interactive approach allows improving
(ANB), Annual Crop Production (APD) and Annual Labour the performance of the reservoir. Deep et al. (2009) developed
Employment (ALE) are considered in maximization fuzzy interactive method for efficient management of
perspective for 90% dependable inflow level scenario with multipurpose multireservoir problems and applied to a realistic
groundwater. Uncertainty in objectives is tackled through multipurpose multireservoir. Two objectives, namely, irrigation
nonlinear membership functions which are also used as the and hydropower generation were considered in fuzzy
basis to formulate the problem in multiobjective environment. environment. These objectives were combined into a single
It is observed from result analysis that ANB, APD, ALE in objective using the product operator and nonlinear optimization
multiobjective environment respectively are `1458.12 Million, was adopted using Genetic Algorithm. It was concluded that the
1.30 Million tons, 4.74 Million man-days with degree of interactive approach was found to be satisfactory. Yang and
satisfaction 0.26.Various combinations of PSO parameters Yang (2010) applied an interactive fuzzy satisfying method to
such as randomness amplitude of roaming particles ( ), solve multiobjective optimization problem for the case study of
speed of convergence ( ), randomness control parameter Yellow River Delta, China. Mirajkar and Patel (2013) applied
( ), inertia (), penalty value and population of particles were multiobjective fuzzy linear programming approach to a case
tried and the optimal set of , , respectively are arrived at study of Ukai irrigation project Gujarat, India. Four objectives
were considered. The model was solved for four situations of
0.10, 1.17, 0.28. Sensitivity analysis is performed to study the 90%, 85%, and 75% and 60% exceedance probability. It was
influence of population size, number of iterations, penalty concluded that probable inflow corresponding to 75%
value on ANB, APD, ALE, degree of satisfaction, , , and exceedance probability was marginally sufficient to meet the
CPU Run Time (CPURT). It is observed that CPURT requirements of the study area.
increases with increase in population, number of iterations,
while it is almost constant with increase in penalty. ANB shows No efforts have been made till now to explore Particle Swarm
no appreciable change with increase in population, with Optimization in multiobjective fuzzy irrigation planning
increase in number of iterations however, it decreases with environment for a real world environment. Keeping this in view,
increase in penalty. present study adopts nonlinear membership function in PSO
environment to deal with uncertainty aspects in objective
Keywords: PSO, Optimization, reservoir system, irrigation functions. The main outcome from solution methodology is
planning, membership function. reservoir operating policy, cropping pattern, ANB, APD, ALE in
compromise solution and degree of satisfaction. Following
1. INTRODUCTION sections/subsections describes particle swarm optimization,
mathematical modeling followed by results and discussion
Irrigation planning is becoming complex due to increase in which includes sensitivity analysis.
irrigation, municipal and industrial demands and dwindling
supplies. The problem becomes aggravated in multiobjective
1.1 Particle Swarm Optimization and Nonlinear
situations where more than one objective is to be satisfied Membership Function
simultaneously. An optimization approach is thus essential to
achieve efficient cropping pattern, reservoir operating policies in Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) is a metaheuristic
the multiobjective framework. On the other hand, Particle computational procedure (Kennedy and Eberhart, 1995;
Swarm Optimization (PSO) is gaining familiarity in Morankar, 2014) which simulates the locomotion of swarm
multiobjective environment due to its flexibility and handling based organisms. PSO iteratively tries to improve a solution by
practical problems (Morankar, 2014). Numerous authors studied moving the potential solutions called particles, through the
irrigation planning in multiobjective environment. Some of the solution space by directing them towards the present iterations
studies are as follows: optima and global optima throughout all iterations. Here, the
particles keep track of their past coordinates thus keeping track
Raju and Nagesh Kumar (2000) analyzed the irrigation planning of the swarms best solution (fitness) achieved so far and use this
problem in multiobjective framework with net benefits, for altering direction and speed in the next iteration. The
agricultural production and labour employment as objectives for swarms best position in the entire search domain is assumed to
the case study of Sri Ram Sagar Project, India. Objectives were be gbest and last generations best position is pbest. In every
considered as fuzzy in nature. Sahoo et al. (2006) developed iteration, each particle location is altered based on its current
linear programming and fuzzy optimization models for planning position (x), velocity (v), distance between itself and pbest, and
and management of available land-water-crop system of the distance between itself and gbest which can be summarized
Mahanadi-Kathajodi delta in eastern India. The models were by the following equation:
used to optimize the economic return, production and labour
utilization, and to arrive at the related cropping pattern. Consoli
et al. (2008) proposed minimization of reservoir release deficit vijk 1 vijk n1 ( pijk xijk ) n2 ( gijk xijk ) n3
to meet the irrigation demands and the maximization of net (1)
benefits from Pozzillo reservoir, Eastern Sicily. They used
nonlinear programming, constraint method and interactive

xijk 1 xijk vijk 1 complex project has three storage reservoirs, Panshet,
Warasgaon, and Temghar with the gross storage of 871Mm3,
(2) New Mutha Right Bank Canal (NMRBC) serving 62146 ha
command area (of length 202 km), Janai-Sirsai Lift Irrigation
Where, i = number of particles, j = number of decision variables, Scheme (JSLIS) (14080 ha command area), Purandar Lift
k = iteration count, g = gbest particle, p= pbest particle, = Irrigation Scheme (PLIS) (25100 ha command area) (refer Fig
inertia, n q where q=1, 2, 3 is Gaussian distributed random 2.)
variable ranged between 0 and 1, = randomness amplitude of
roaming particles, = speed of convergence, = randomness
control parameter.
The inertia factor is used for refining the swarms behavior

towards the magnitude of the search domain. The velocity of the
particles is directly proportional to inertia; larger values of
inertia increases the search domain while smaller values of
inertia narrow the scope of search. The velocity of all the
particles significantly reduces as the iteration count increases
resulting in initial rapid search for optima in the beginning
followed by a convergence towards the end. Number of
iterations was specified as termination criteria.
Figure 1. Nonlinear Membership Function Figure 2. Schematic diagram of Khadakwasla Com
Nonlinear membership function for any objective function Z can The Pune city generates around 451 Million Liter per Day
be expressed as (Fig 1): (MLD) of sewage. Pimpri-Chinchwad city generates 287 MLD
0 for Z ZL of sewage (Tirthakar et al., 2009). At present, 68% of the total

sewage generated by PMC and 63% sewage generated by Pimpri
Z Z L Chinchwad Municipal Corporation (PCMC) is treated before
Z X for Z L Z Z U being discharged into the rivers. This water is proposed to be
Z U Z L used for irrigation through pumping in existing canal system and
1 for Z ZU an independent lift irrigation scheme, PLIS. The model
developed adopts conjunctive use concept; in addition it also
(3) uses treated waste water as a supplement to irrigation water.
3. MATHEMATICAL MODELING
Where provides the basis for desired shape of membership
function (=1 for linear; >1 and <1 for nonlinear) and Z U, ZL Three objectives are considered in the present study. The first
are maximum and minimum acceptable levels of the objective. objective of the model is to maximize the Annual Net Benefits
Introducing a new variable , the problem in multiobjective (ANB) from the Khadakwasla, JSLIS and PLIS, after meeting
environment is stated as (Raju and Nagesh Kumar, 2014): the cost of groundwater. The Annual Net Benefits include
irrigation benefits, revenue generated from domestic water
Maximize supply to PMC and water supplied to industries. Annual Net
Subject to Benefits are expressed in ` as:
GJ (X )

for each objective function j =1,2,..,n 36 12 12 12
(4) ANB Bi Ai PGW GWt PDW DWt PIND INDt
0 1 i 1 t 1 t 1 t 1
(5)
and all other existing bounds and constraints. Here G J
represents the membership functions for objective. Higher The second objective is to maximize Annual Crop Production
value is desirable. Morankar et al.(2013) and Morankar (2014) (APD) of crops under Khadakwasla, JSLIS and PLIS and
discussed nonlinear membership function in detail. expressed (in tons) as:
2. CASE STUDY 36
APD PDi Ai
Khadakwasla project is meant for providing irrigation facility to i 1
the scarcity areas of Pune district as well as drinking water (6)
supply to Pune Municipal Corporation (PMC), Pune
Cantonment, Daund Nagar Palika and surrounding villages The third objective is to maximize Annual Labour Employment
(Water Resources Department, 2008). The water stored is also (ALE) so that the employment generated can minimize the
utilized for industries in and around Pune. The Khadakwasla

migration. Annual labour employment (in man-days) is

expressed as: Typical results are presented in the form of graphs. Figures 3, 4,
5 give cropping pattern suggested by the PSO solution for
36 Khadakwasla, JSLIS and PLIS. It is observed that:
ALE LEi Ai Area under each crop is less than the corresponding
i 1 area in existing cropping pattern, except for Groundnut (HW).
(7) Area under crop for Khadakwasla command is 44671
ha, and the intensity of irrigation is 43.93%, which is 17.18%
Ai = Area irrigated under ith crop (i=1,2,3,36; crops are listed less than the existing irrigation intensity of 61.11%.
in figures 3, 4, 5 respectively for Khadakwasla, JSLIS and Area under crop for JSLIS command is 17231 ha,
PLIS); t = Index of the month in water year, t = 1,..,12; indicating 8.84% increase in existing intensity of irrigation of
(1=June,..,12=May); PGW Cost of groundwater pumping 78.6%. There is increase in command even in case of drought
situation.
(`/Mm3); PDW , PIND Revenue from drinking water (domestic
PLIS command shows decrease in intensity of irrigation
water supply) and industrial water supply respectively (`/Mm3); by 36.74 % with crop area and intensity of irrigation as 10595 ha
Ai Area of ith crop in ha; Bi Return from crop i (cost of (26.38%). Existing intensity of irrigation is 63.12%.
seed, fertilizer, pesticides, labour charges, implements, interest Overall intensity of irrigation is observed to be 44.88%
on capital is considered in working out the benefit Bi for the with total irrigable area as 72497 ha. This shows decrease in
crop i) ( ` / ha); DWt , INDt Domestic and industrial water intensity of irrigation by 18.86% over existing intensity of
supply in Mm3 for the month t (22.93 and 1.18); irrigation of 63.74%. This decrease is in expected lines as
amount of surface water is less.
PDi Production of crop i (tons/ha); LEi Labour The annual net benefits, annual crop production and
employment of crop i ( man-days/ha);. GWt Groundwater use annual labour employment is `1458.12 Million, 1.30 Million
in Mm3 for the month t. Seasons in which these crops grown are tons, 4.74 Million man-days with corresponding degree of
Kharif (K), Rabi (R), Hot Weather (HW), Two Season (TS). satisfaction value of 0.26.
The model is subjected to the constraints representing limitations Figures 6, 7 and 8 shows monthly irrigation water use policy for
of the project resources and the relation within various Khadakwasla and JSLIS, monthly groundwater use policy for
parameters. This includes mass balance equation on monthly Khadakwasla and Treated Waste Water use policy for
basis, land requirements of crop, water requirements of crop, Khadakwasla/JSLIS and PLIS respectively. It is observed that,
canal capacity, minimum and maximum reservoir storage, total water requirement of crops in command area is 423.05
groundwater withdrawal, etc. Mathematical expressions of the Mm3. Of the total demand, only 33.77 % (142.9 Mm3) is
constraints are not presented due to space limitations. satisfied by canal water, 39.36 % (166.52 Mm3) is satisfied by
treated waste water and 26.85 % (113.63 Mm3) is satisfied by
4. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS groundwater. This outcome clearly suggests lesser availability of
irrigation water, which is compensated partially by treated waste
A scenario of 90% dependent inflow with groundwater is water and groundwater.
developed as water scarcity scenario (drought situation), using
nonlinear membership function (equations 3 and 4) for three 4.1 Sensitivity Analysis
objectives ANB, APD and ALE for PSO (from now termed as Sensitivity analysis is performed to study the influence of
PSO-NM). Initially the mathematical model is solved, population size, number of iterations, and penalty value on
independently for three objectives using linear programming ANB, APD, ALE and , randomness amplitude of roaming
approach which gives the upper and lower bound for the particles (), speed of convergence () and the weighting
respective objective functions. These bounds are used in forming function (inertia), CPU Run Time (CPURT). Population size
nonlinear membership function for each objective. A computer chosen for sensitivity analysis is 100, 200, 500, 1000, 1500 and
program is developed in MATLAB (www.mathworks.com) 2000 whereas these are 500, 1000, 2000, 5000, 7000 and 10000
environment for the solution of PSO problem. The optimal set of in case of number of iterations and 500, 1000, 2000,5000,10000
parameters governing PSO has been established after numerous and 20000 in case of penalty values. Each time only one
trials, discussion with experts and referring to the available parameter was changed keeping the other two values constant.
literature. Swarm size of 1000 particles, number of iterations of However, selected combinations of population size, number of
5000, penalty function value of 2000 and randomness control iterations and penalty are studied and discussed in Table 1. Table
parameter () value of 0.005 are chosen after such process. 1 shows the outcome of sensitivity runs. Important observations
Randomness amplitude of roaming particles (), speed of emanated are:
convergence () and inertia are assigned values randomly from
0 to 5 and are iterated for about 100 runs. The output (, ,
Variations in population size show a random trend of
inertia) with best fitness was averaged and values of , , inertia
change in . increases with increase in number of
arrived after such process are 0.10, 1.17, and 0.28. These
iterations and decreases with increase in penalty.
parameters were used for further process.

CPURT increases with increase in population, number

of iterations, while it is almost constant with increase in
penalty. There is substantial increase in CPURT with
increase in number of iterations.
Figure 6. Monthly Irrigation Water Use Policy

Figure 7. Monthly Groundwater Use Policy
Figure-3.KhadakwaslCroppingPattern Figure 8.Monthly Treated Waste Water Use Policy
Figure 4. JSLIS Cropping Patter
*K, R, TS, HW, P, TP denotes Kharif, Rabi, Two Seasonal, Hot

Weather, Perennial seasons and Transplanted respectively
Table 1. Influence of Population Size, Number of
Iterations and Penalty value on , , , Inertia ,
ANB,APD and ALE value has minimum variation in between 0.08 and
0.13.
Figure.5. PLIS Cropping Pattern There is no definite trend of variation of with
population, number of iterations and penalty value. The
overall range of variation of value is small (0.06).
Inertia value varies in a small range of 0.26 and 0.32,
with a change in population, number of iterations and
penalty value.

ANB shows no appreciable change with increase in Artificial Neural Network Model for Design of Air
population and iterations, while it decreases with Vessel for Controlling the Water Hammer
increase in penalty.
Pressures
APD and ALE shows no specific trend with change in
N.Mowlali1, E.Venkata Rathnam2
population, iteration and penalty. 1
M. Tech Student, Water Resources Engineering, National
Institute of Technology, Warangal
5 CONCLUSIONS 2
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, National
Institute of Technology, Warangal
Irrigation intensity reduces by 18.86% as compared to existing
Email:nmowlali@gmail.com
intensity of 63.74%. This stresses the need of integrated water
resources management in water scarce situations. There should
ABSTRACT: Air vessels, surge tanks, pressure relief valves,
be reduction in irrigable command at annual irrigation planning
are some of the mostly used devices for controlling the water
stages itself in drought situation, so that the farmers at later stage
hammer pressures which may causes from sudden change in
do not face the water crisis. PSO parameters need to be
velocity due to sudden operation of gate valves in hydroelectric
established with more runs in high dimensional environment.
power schemes and or tripping of power to pumps in hydraulic
The model developed is generalized in nature and any given
conveyance systems. Graphical and other heuristic methods
situation can be extended with minor modifications.
are available in the literature for the design of air vessels
which are generally installed on the downstream of pumps.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The air vessel design variables include initial air volume, total
volume of water and total air vessel volume. The paper
Authors are grateful to all the officials of Pune Irrigation Circle,
presents a regression based artificial neural network (ANN)
Pune, GSDA, Pune and Agriculture Directorate, Pune Division
model for investigating optimised values of air volume and
for providing necessary data, practical inputs and encouragement
vessel volumes from the system parameters viz., pipeline
for the study and thankful to professors and officials at Mahatma
length, pipe diameter, flow velocity, friction factor, wave
Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri, Maharashtra for providing
celerity, maximum and minimum pressure heads. The system
valuable inputs.
parameters were used as input variables and the corresponding
air vessel volume as output variable to train the neural network
REFERENCES
model. The training has been done by feed forward back
i. Consoli S, Matarazzo B, Pappalardo N (2008) Operating rules of an propagation algorithm. The ANN model developed in the study
irrigation purposes reservoir using multiobjective optimization.Water has one input layer (8 system parameters), ten hidden layers
Resources Management 22(5):551-564 (log sigmaoid function) and one output layer (air vessel
ii. Deep K, Singh KP, Kansal ML, Mohan C (2009) Management of volume). The trained neural network model was applied to
multipurpose multi-reservoir using fuzzy interactive method.Water Resources
Management 23(14): 2987-3003
large conveyance system (Pumping main of Devadula Lift
iii. Kennedy J, Eberhart R (1995) Particle swarm optimization. Irrigation Project) to obtain optimal air vessel volume. The
Proceedings of IEEE International Conference on Neural Networks. IV:1942 neural network model predictions were compared with the sizes
1948 obtained from application of software, SAP2 (Surge Analysis
iv. Mirajkar AB,Patel PL (2013) Planning with multi-objective fuzzy
linear programming for ukaikakrapar irrigation project, Gujarat, India. Package version2.0) and observed that ANN models provides
Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering 40(7): 663-673 economical sizes.
v. Morankar DV, Srinivasa Raju K, Nagesh Kumar D (2013) Integrated Key words: water hammer, air vessel, ANN, regression, system
sustainable irrigation planning with multiobjective fuzzy optimization parameters
approach. Water Resource Management 27(11):3981-4004
vi. Morankar DV(2014) Fuzzy based approach for integrated planning
and performance evaluation of an irrigation system. PhD thesis, Birla Institute 1.0 INTRODUCTION
of Technology and Science, Pilani, India.
vii. Raju KS,Nagesh Kumar D (2000) Irrigation planning of sri ram Transient protection of water conveyance systems may require
sagar project using multiobjective fuzzy linear programming. Indian Society of
Hydraulics 6(1):55-63
use of devices such as open surge tanks, air vessels, air/vacuum
viii. Raju KS,Nagesh Kumar D (2014) Multi-criterion analysis in valves, pressure relief valves etc. Selection and design of
engineering and management. PHI learning private limited, New Delhi. suitable transient protection devices is dictated by the severity of
ix. Sahoo B, Lohani AK, Sahu RK (2006) Fuzzy multiobjective and linear transient causing events. Design of transient protection systems
programming based management models for optimal land-water-crop system
planning. Water Resources Management 20(6): 931-948
is a challenging problem and selection, installation, and
x. Tirthakar SN, Deshpande MS,Nirbhawane PS (2009) Master plan operation of these hydraulic devices depend on the layout,
2025 of pune municipal corporation for sewage treatment and disposal. alignment, pipe and pump characteristics and flow rates. Air
Institution of Public Health Engineers 2(2):13-19 vessels, also known as closed surge tanks, are effective in
xi. Water Resources Department (2008) Khadakwasla complex project
note, Government of Maharashtra
protecting the pipe system against negative as well as positive
xii. Yang W,Yang Z (2010) An interactive fuzzy satisfying approach for pressures (Stephenson 2002). Typical arrangement of an air
sustainable water management in the yellow river delta, china. Water vessel, shown in Figure 1 consists of three components (i) the
Resources Management 24(7): 1273-128 vessel (ii) the connector pipe and (ii) inlet and outlet orifices
controlling flow to and from air vessel. Decision variables
associated with optimal sizing of air vessels are total volume of

air vessel, initial gas volume, inflow resistance, outflow required. As a tool to determine such a volume, it represents an
resistance, and a polytrophic exponent. The resistance (R) is important time saving aid for users. For the training of the neural
defined as network, the input data taken are representative patterns of the
above mentioned parameters, together with the suitable volumes
R H / Q 2 (1)
obtained following the trial and error process mentioned above.
Where, H = head drop in m; Q = flow rate in m3/s. The 1.1 WATER HAMMER EQUATIONS
resistance (R) is correspond to the orifice sizes (and pipe
diameters) that are provided for inflow and outflow from pipe Equations (2) and (3) shown below are two basic water hammer
system to air vessel. Inflow resistance governs the rate of flow equations (Wood et al. 2005, Almeida and Koelle 1992, Wylie
into the pipe system where as outflow resistance governs the rate and Streeter 1993).
of flow into the air vessel. Value of polytrophic exponent or the Continuity equation
gas expansion constant has significant influence on the required
H a 2 Q
air vessel size. The air vessel design problem can be stated as a 0 (2)
constrained optimization problem in which objective is to find t gA x
total volume of air vessel and initial air volume and the Momentum equation
constraints to be considered as range of negative and positive
H 1 Q
water hammer pressures. For a typical cylindrical and f (Q) (3)
vertically mounted vessel the design variables are vessel x gA t
volume C = hS, and initial air volume, which can be given by the Where Q = flow rate, H = pressure head, f(Q) = friction slope
initial height of air into the vessel(ZR). The typical sketch of air expressed as a function of flow rate, A = pipe flow area, a =
vessel is shown in Fig.1. The following physical, functional and pipe celerity or wave speed, g = gravitational acceleration, x and
fluid parameters dictate the size (volume) of air vessel for a t the space-time coordinates. Advective terms are neglected in
given problem. (i) Physical parameters of the pipe: static or the above equations as they are negligibly small for most water
geometric elevation to overcome (H),Length(L), diameter(D), distribution problems of practical importance. Solution of
friction factor(f); (ii) Fluid-pipe mixed parameters: celerity of Equations (1) and (2) with appropriate boundary conditions will
the pressure waves (a); (iii) Parameters related to the steady- yield head (H) and flow (Q) values in both spatial and temporal
state: velocity(VR); (iv)Functional parameters that represent the coordinates for any transient analysis problem. The above
extreme piezometric heads or pressures desirable at the upstream equations are first order hyperbolic partial differential equations
(without loss of generality) end: Hmax and Hmin. in two independent variables (space and time) and two
dependent variables (head and flow).
2.0 Study Area
J. Chokka Rao Godavari Lift Irrigation scheme has been

envisaged to lift 14m3/s of Godavari water to EL. 308 m &
partly up to EL. 540 m to irrigate approximately 2.85 Lacks
Acres of Command area. Project Envisages Lifting of water
from Godavari River at Gangaram village, Eturnagaram,
Warangal District in Telangana state in 7 stages with for water
conductor system 200.340 Kms approximately, long steel
pipelines connecting 8 Nos. of existing tanks (i) intake to
Dharmasagar via., Bhimghanpur, Salivagu (ii) from R.S.
Ghanpur to Chittakodur via., Aswaraopalli, (iii) from
Dharmasagar to Tapashpally via., Gandiramaram, Bommakur.
Fig.1. Schematic sketch of Air Vessel (Source: Stephension, 2002) The hydraulic details of the lift irrigation project are provided in
table1. The transmission line alignment and steady state
There is no explicit and direct relationship between these
hydraulic gradient line for the pumping discharge of 14m3/s is
parameters and the size of air vessel required. Sever approaches
shown in Fig.2.
based on different tests and heuristic criteria can be found in the
literature. However, professionals find that air vessel
Table1. Transmission line and Pump details
optimization is usually a trial and error process, generally Design discharge of transmission 14 m3/s
performed the transient simulation using surge software that, line
eventually, provides the minimum air vessel volume required so Length of transmission line 38252m
that the maximum and minimum developed pressures at the Diameter and thickness of Diameter=3m,
pumping station do not exceed Hmax and Hmin respectively. A transmission line Thickness=16mm
Pipe material Steel
neural network that encapsulates this unknown trial and error Internal lining material Epoxy
process from a relevant number of cases, already solved, that External coating/guniting thickness 25mm
allows to directly obtaining the minimum air vessel volume Low water level and minimum RL 71.0m and RL

water level at intake 93.5m non-linear), called transfer or activation function, such as a
Discharge level at upper reservoir RL 166.94m sigmoid or a hyperbolic tangent, etc.
Number of parallel pumps 2
Pump rated head and rated Head=131m,
discharge discharge=7m3/s The most frequent learning method for the multilayer
perceptron is called generalized delta rule or back
Table2. Transient Pressures and size of Air Vessel from propagation of error. This type of learning is called
results of SAP2.0 supervised since to be performed it is necessary to provide
Location Diameter Transmission Transient Air the network with the correct answer that the output layer has
(mm) line Pressures vessel to produce for a number of cases already solved. For the
chainage Hmax(m) Hmin(m) network to learn correctly, the output ZK produced by the
(m) volume
(m3) network should be close to the correct response, t K, called
Pump1 2000 0 210.06 97.33 target, which will be provided to the network during the learning
delivery 360.4 phase. This is achieved by adjusting the weights associated to
Pump2 2000 0 210.06 97.33 the links (synapses) between units (neurons) and the links
delivery 368.2 between certain inputs in the units called biases. We will call wJI
Transmission 3000 35.8 210.02 94.89
line 368.2
the weights of the hidden layer and w , those of the output
Transmission 3000 4972.8 204.45 136.36 layer. The biases will be, . The performance of the
line 384.7 network can thus be expressed by equation(4).
Transmission 3000 9945.5 198.53 139.87
line 378.7
Transmission 3000 15109.5 191.99 140.82
Being the activation function of a sigmoid, such as the
line 372.3
Transmission 3000 20273.6 184.24 137.25 following:
line 355.6 1
Transmission 3000 25246.3 178.18 159.09 f ( x) orf ( x) tanh(x) (4)
line 349.9 1 e x
Transmission 3000 30984.1 173.22 168.91
line 340.3 The generalized delta rule performs the adjustment of the
Transmission 3000 35765.6 169.09 165.01 weights by calculating the value of the error for a specific
line 328
Transmission 3000 38252 166.94 166.94 input and then transfers it, by back propagation (BP), to
line 308.2 previous layers, so that each unit adjusts its associated weights to
minimize an error function These steps are repeated for each
input pattern of the so-called training set, what is known as
online learning. Alternatively, if the updating of the weights is
performed upon presenting all the training patterns to the
network, the process is known as batch learning. In any case, the
error function decreases gradually and the network learns.
Given an input pattern xV(v =1,..., p), the components of the

network output, zv are given by.If tv is the target, the correct
output, corresponding to xv , the function to be minimized.
The mean square error
1
E (Wij , j ,WKJ , K ) (tv Z r )2
2 v K
(5)
The minimization can be performed by means of different

algorithms, which range from simple gradient descent
Fig 2. Longitudinal alignment of pipeline and HGL algorithms, to conjugate gradient methods, second order
3.0 NEURAL NETWORKS Newton, which do not require the Hessian matrix, and the
Newton method itself . The next section describes the methods
The multilayer perceptron (MLP) is one of the most widely used and their capabilities to solve the problem under study.
used feed forward artificial neural networks. This network There are several error minimization algorithms (2) that allow
consists of a layer (input layer) of inputs, xi, another layer the progressive adjustment of the weights in the learning
(output layer) of outputs, zK, and one or more intermediate layers process. For this work, we have used some of the functions of
(hidden layers). Figure 2 which takes into consideration only Matlab Toolbox, nnet. The convergence rate of the dierent
one hidden layer with outputs noted by y J, and only one algorithms depends on the technique used and it is closely
unit (neuron) in the output layer. Each unit of the hidden related to the mathematical foundations it is based on network
and output layers has a function assigned, f, (which may be design.

recorded, and other 150 simulations specifically performed to

net=newff(minmax(Pn[nn1,nn2,1],{tansig,tasig,purelin},trainlm) cover cases not taken into consideration in those cases. On the
; other hand, the set of data has been completed with another
net.trainparam.show =50; 150 patterns obtained from the Graze and Horlachers charts.
net.trainparam.epoches =2000; These data have been shuffled and distributed into three parts:
net.trainparam.goal =1e-5; training, validation and test data. The networks response can be
for i =1:2; assessed to a certain extent by the errors provided by the test
net.layers{i}.initFcn =initwb; data. The response for the test data has been perfect, as stated
net.biases{i}.nitFcn =rands; above. Nevertheless, it is interesting to study with more detail
end; the network s response. One possibility is to carry out a
regression analysis to assess such response. All the training,
Once the training data have been correctly loaded in the working validation and test data have been used and a regression
space, any of the functions implemented by Mat lab must be fed analysis between the values used and the network s output
with a number of parameters defining; (a) The design of the performed. The Matlab toolbox nnet also provides an
network structure and (b) The training algorithm. A typical set appropriate tool: the postreg function.
of commands to perform these tasks is shown above. The rst
command creates the neural network ready to be trained within a) Before doing the ANN the entire input and target data are
the object net.In the example corresponding to the gure, the normalised in between 0 and 1
network is created with three layers; the rst one has nn1 using the following equation.
neurons, the second nn2 and the third 1. Vector minmax(Pn) ( R Rb )*( P A)
contains the maximum and minimum values of each one of the Pa a Rb (6)
input data. The transfer functions are tansig in the rst two ( B A)
layers and linear (the identity functions) in the output layer. The Where; Pa is a matrix of normalized data; Ra is 0.9 and Rb is 0.1;
training function used in the example, trainlm, implements the P is a matrix of raw data; A is minimum value of
LevenbergMarquardt algorithm. matrix P; B is maximum value of matrix P.
b) ANN is performed by using MATLAB. In this 75% of the
Once the network structure has been created, some parameters data has been used as training
associated to the training function are initialized., in particular, and 30% data used as testing and validation data.
denes the number, show, of iterations between two consecutive c) In the present study feed forward back propagation network is
displays of the training status; the total number of iterations, used.
epochs, which will be performed in the process; and a level, d) MATLAB provides built-in transfer functions which are used
goal, of the error function value (2) to drop below. The two latter in this study; linar (purelin),
are mechanisms to stop the learning process.Next, it is Hyperbolic Tangent Sigmoid (logig) and Logistic Sigmoid
performed the initialization of the network weights to random (tansig).
values ranging from -1 to 1. Different initializations were
performed and very close behaviours of the network were 4.0 Regression Based ANN Model
obtained. Finally, the training function, train, is called by passing
to it the object net, which defines the network, and the matrices A model has been developed based on the input data used for the
that contain the inputs, Pn, and the targets, Kn, which will be training of neural network model.In this model grid (8 0x 2030)
used to carry out the learning. According to this basic procedure, based key parameters has been used as input. It is normalized by
several trials have been performed with different networks, using the following normalizing factor, The neural network
changing the number of layers, the number of neurons per layer toolbox in Matlab 7.0 is used for training. The Neural Network
and the training function. model is three layered network with eight inputs, one hidden
layer, the hidden layer consist of ten neurons to that of one in the
With regard to the training function, the best results have been output layer as shown in fig 3. The training has been done by
obtained, as would be reasonably expected, with some functions feed forward backpropogation algorithm. Backpeopagation
that implement the most powerful optimization techniques. As algorithm updates the network weights and biases in the
far as rst order methods concern, the conjugate gradient in its direction in which the performance function decreases most
PolakRibiere version (traincgp) has shown excellent rapidly. One iteration of this algorithm can be written as
performance. As for second order methods, the Levenberg
Marquardt (trainlm), which allows quadratic approach, and
X k 1 X k k g k (7)
therefore is a QuasiNewton method,although it does not require Where XK is a vector of current weights and biases, gk is the
the calculation of the Hessian matrix, presents also an excellent current gradient, and a is the learning rate. There are two
behaviour. different ways in which this gradient descent algorithm can be
implemented incremental mode and batch mode. In the
3.1 Data Analysis incremental mode, the gradient is computed and the weights are
updated after each input is applied to the network. In the batch
As mentioned above, to train the network we have used a set of mode all of the inputs are applied to the network before the eight
data from almost 150 real cases previously studied that had been are updated.
Tr Input Input 2 In Inp Input Inp Input7 Input 8 Out

ans 1 pu ut 4 5 ut 6 put
TRAINLM is used as training function for the network; mi t3
TRAINLM is a training function that updates weights and bias ssi Elevat Transi Di frict Wav Vel Hmax (m) Hmin Opt
on ion missio a ion e ocit (m) ima
values according to backpropagation. Trainlm can train any lin (m) n m fact celeri y, l
network as long as its weight, net input, and transfer functions e length ete or ty, C, V airv
have derivative functions. Backpropagaton is used to calculate Ch (m) r (f) (m/s) (m/ esse
ain (m s) l
derivatives of performance with respect to the weight and bias ag ) vol
variables X. Each variable is adjusted according to the following e um
(m e
) (m3
dX deltaX * sign(gX) (8) )
0 134.5 38252 3 0.0 837.6 1.9 210.06 97.33 377
Where the elements of deltaX are all initialized to delta0 and gX 1 4 8 .9
is the gradient. At each iteration the elements of deltaX are 0 132 38252 3 0.0 837.6 1.9 210.06 97.33 375
modified. If an element of gX changes signs from one iteration 1 4 8 .7
35. 132 38252 3 0.0 837.6 1.9 210.02 94.89 375
to the next, then the corresponding element of deltaX is 8 1 4 8 .7
decreased by delta dec. If element of gX maintains the same sign 49 118.7 38252 3 0.0 837.6 1.9 204.45 136.36 371
frm one iteration to the next, then the corresponding element of 72. 1 4 8 .9
8
deltaX is increased by delta Inc. Log-Sigmoid transfer is used by 99 116.1 38252 3 0.0 837.6 1.9 198.53 139.87 359
the neurons to generate the output. The function log sigmoid 45. 1 4 8 .4
5
generates output between 0 and as the neuron net input goes 15 117.6 38252 3 0.0 837.6 1.9 191.99 140.82 341
from negative to positive infinity. 10 1 4 8 .9
9.5
20 123.3 38252 3 0.0 837.6 1.9 184.24 137.25 323
The performance of training data is compared by using sum 27 1 4 8 .0
squared error. The targeted error is set to zero. The network is 3.6
25 118.5 38252 3 0.0 837.6 1.9 178.18 159.09 307
simulated by using testing data and the generated data is 24 1 4 8 .9
compared to observed data at each location by calculating 6.3
Regression coefficient. Now the network is ready to be trained. 30 115.0 38252 3 0.0 837.6 1.9 173.22 168.91 294
98 1 4 8 .0
The samples are automatically divided into training, validation 4.1
and test sets. The training set is used to teach the network. 35 114.7 38252 3 0.0 837.6 1.9 169.09 165.01 281
76 1 4 8 .6
Training continues as long as the network continues improving 5.6
on the validation set. The test set provides a completely 38 118.2 38252 3 0.0 837.6 1.9 166.94 166.94 270
independent measure of network accuracy. The NN Training 25 1 4 8 .7
2
Tool shows the network being trained and the algorithms used to
train it. It also displays the training state during training and the
criteria which stopped training will be highlighted in green. The
buttons at the bottom open useful plots which can be opened
during and after training. Links next to the algorithm names and
plot buttons open documentation on those subjects.To see how
the network's performance improved during training, either click
the"Performance" button in the training tool, or call
PLOTPERFORM. Performance is measured in terms of mean
squared error, and shown in log scale fig 4. It rapidly decreased
as the network was trained. Performance is shown for each of
the training, validation and test sets. The version of the network
that did best on the validation set is was after training.
Another measure of how well the neural network has fit the data
is the regression plot. Here the regression is plotted across all
samples. The regression plot shows the actual network outputs Fig 3 . Three layered Neural Network model
plotted in terms of the associated target values. If the network
has learned to fit the data well, the linear fit to this output-target
relationship should closely intersect the bottom left and top-right
corners of the plot. If this is not the case then further training, or
training a network with more hidden neurons, would be
advisable. The sample data for ANN model is provided in table
3.
Table 3. Sample Data for ANN Model

i. Chandramouli, V., Lingireddy, S., and Brion, G.M. (2007) A Robust

Training Terminating Criterion for Neural Network Modeling of Small
Datasets, ASCE Jl.of Computing in Civil Engineering.
ii. Combes, G. and Borot, R. (1952). New graph for the calculation of
air reservoirs account being taken of the losses of head. La Houille Blanche,
Grenoble, France, October-November.
iii. Stephenson, D (2002).Simple guide for design of air vessels for
water hammer protection on pumping lines, J. Hydr. Eng., ASCE 128 (8) 792
797.
iv. Di Santo, A.R., Fratino, U., Lacobellis, V. and Piccinni, A.f. (2002).
Effects of free outflow in rising mains with air chamber. Journal of Hydraulic
Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, 128(11), 992-1001.
v. Graze, H.R. and Forrest, J.A. (1974). New design charts for air
chambers. Fifth Australasian Conference on Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics,
December.
vi. Jung, B.S., and Karney, B.W. (2006) Hydraulic optimization of
transient protection devices using GA and PSO approaches, ACSE Jl. of Water
Resources Planning and Management.
vii. Kim, C.Y., Bae, G.J., Hong, S.W., Park, C.H., Moon, H.K. and Shin,
H.S. (2001). Neural network based prediction of ground surface settlements
due to tunneling. Computers and Geotechnics, 28, 517-547.
Fig4. Performance plot
Monthly Inflow Prediction Using Wavelet Neural

Network
Rutuja Patil 1 Dr. J. N. Patel 2 Dr. S. M. Yadav3
4
Dr. D.G.Regulwar
1
Research Scholor, Civil Engg. Dept.,SVNIT, Surat, India,
rutuja_c1@yahoo.co.in
2
Proffessor, Civil Engg, Dept., SVNIT, Surat, India,
jnp@ced.svnit.ac.in
3
Proffessor,Civil Engg. Dept., SVNIT, Surat, India,
smy@ced.svnit.ac.in
4
Asso. Prof, Civil Engg. Dept., Govt. College of Engineering,
Aurangabad, India, dgreulwar@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: Prediction of accurate inflow is very important in

optimal reservoir operation and planning. In this paper study
has been carried out for developing Wavelet Neural Network
for predicting one month ahead inflow using different time
Fig.5 Regression Plot
lags for reservoir inflows. For illustration of WNN technique
the model has been developed using monthly inflow data of
5.0 CONCLUSIONS
Jayakwadi Reservoir stage I, Paithan, Maharashta. Wavelet
Surge protection devices like Air vessels are necessary for the neural network is an improved hybrid model which combine
pumping mains. Mathematical formulation of water hammer the benefit of discrete wavelet transform and artificial neural
equations and boundary conditions of air vessel are presented. network model. For Wavelet Neural Network model the input
A regression based ANN model is demonstrated for sizing the signal have been decomposed into sub series using discrete
economical air vessel. A case study of pumping main of Reach-1 wavelet transform up to three resolution level by Daubechies 5
in Phase-I of JCR Devadual Lift irrigation project of Telangana (DB5) wavelet. Summation of detail and approximation of
state is considered. The information on ranges of water hammer signal is considered as input to typical three layer feed forward
pressures occurs while tripping of power to pumps was obtained neural network. Levenberg-Marquardt back propagation
using SAP2.0. These system parameters are used to train the algorithm is used for training the network in which seventy
neural network model. The neural network model predictions percent is used for training and thirty percent data is used for
were compared with the sizes obtained from application of testing. The number of hidden neuron has been fixed to five
software, SAP2 (Surge Analysis Package version2.0) and for better result by trial and error procedure. The accuracy of
observed that ANN models provides economical sizes. WNN model has been compared with conventional Feed
Forward Neural Network model. When statistical based
evaluation criterion has been observed it was found that WNN
References
model performed better than ANN model and WNN model can

be used as successful tool for predicting monthly reservoir neurons. The neural network maps input layer to output layer
inflow. with the help of connecting weights between nodes. For ANN
Keywords: Neural Network, Wavelet, Inflow Prediction, model identification of number of factors such as model
Discrete Wavelet Transform structure, training algorithm, training data set, data
standardization, number of training iterations, play an important
1. INTRODUCTION role.
Reservoir prediction plays very important role in optimal

reservoir operation and management. Different methods have
been used for this purpose which includes physical and
conceptual models also. In last decade many data driven
techniques such as Artificial Neural Networks have been
successfully applied for forecasting various hydrological events.
S. K Jain et. al (1999) have studied applicability of ANN in
inflow prediction and reservoir operation. Ahmed El-Shiefie et.
al (2009) have forecasted inflow at Aswan high dam using radial
basis neural network with the use of upstream data. Different
learning algorithms have been used successfully for prediction
of inflow. Ozgur Kisi (2009) have compared different algorithm Figure-1: Feed Forward Neural Network
such as back propagation, conjugate gradient and cascade
correlation for prediction of one month ahead inflow of In recent study Multilayered Feed Forward Neural Network
reservoir. Flipea Prada et. al (2009) have linked the (FFNN) Back Propagation learning algorithm is used. In FFNN
geomorphologic conditions of basin to weights of ANN the signal is passed in forward direction from input layer to
architecture to improve the prediction accuracy. All these studies output layer. FFNN are simple to build and requires less
were carried out taken into consideration of only time domain computational time than recurrent networks. (Jain et. al. 1999)
content of signal. But many times the useful information is An optimal FFNN is the one which gives the minimum model
hidden in frequency content of signal. So it is necessary that error. For this determining optimal number of hidden neuron is
along with time domain the frequency domain should be taken most essential task. A trial and error procedure have been
into account for better prediction. Due to ability of wavelet to adopted for the same though some algorithms have been
provide time frequency information, in recent years many proposed to do this. (Shouke Wei et. al. 2013)
studies have been carried out combining wavelet transform with
Artificial Neural Network for prediction of hydrologic events. Many different learning algorithms are used to train ANN,
Wang and Ding (2003) has studied the wavelet network model among which Back Propagation is widely used because of its
and its different application to prediction in hydrology. They robustness BP calculates the error between targeted and actual
developed a hybrid WNN model for short term and long term output and propagates error back to input layer. The weights of
hydrological predictions. Ozgur kisi (2008) have applied a neuron are again adjusted to minimize the model error.
neuro-wavelet technique for modeling monthly stream flows on
Canakdere River and Isakoy Station on Goksudere River, in the 2.2 Wavelet Neural Network
Eastern Black Sea region of Turkey. Ozgur Kisi (2011) has
investigated the accuracy of the wavelet regression (WR) model Wavelets are the waves of zero mean and are effectively for
in monthly stage forecasting for same study area. Venkata short duration. Wavelet analysis used shifting windowing
Ramana et al. (2013) have predicted monthly rainfall by technique with various scale. Long time interval gives low
combining wavelet technique with Artificial Neural Network frequency information where as short time interval gives high
(ANN). Umut Okkan and Zafer Ali Serbs (2013) have combined frequency information.
wavelet transform with different black box models in reservoir
inflow modeling. It have been suggested that DWT FFNN and There are two types of wavelet transform: Continuous wavelet
DWT LSSVM models can be used as successful tools for Transform (CWT) and Discrete wavelet transform (DWT)
modeling inflow of Demirkopru dam.
In practical applications in hydrology researchers have access to
In present study comparison between Artificial Neural Network a discrete time signal rather than continuous time signal.
and Wavelet Neural Network has been done for forecasting Therefore in present study Discrete Wavelet Transform has been
monthly inflow of Jayakwadi Reservoir Stage - 1 used. The discrete wavelet transform (DWT), provides sufficient
information both for analysis and synthesis of the original signal,
2. METHODOLOGY with a significant reduction in the computation time.
2.1 Artificial Neural Network In discrete wavelet transform the time series xt is defined as:
An ANN is a structure of simple interconnected operating

elements known as nodes; these are inspired from biological

(1)
(5)
Where t is integer time step, j and k are integers that control
scale and time respectively, Wj,k is wavelet coefficient for scale Where Qp is predicted inflow
factor 2j and time factor Qt is targeted inflow
There are many algorithms used for discrete wavelet transform. These statistical parameters are calculated using total predicted
In present study Mallat algorithm is used. and observed data from WNN and ANN models. The model
which will give minimum value RMSE and Maximum value R
can be selected as best model.
(2)
In present study the hybrid model was formed combining

(3) discrete wavelet transform and feed forward neural network.
Comparative study has been performed between ANN and WNN
model for one month ahead inflow prediction. For WNN model
development the input data was decomposed into different
subseries up to three resolution levels. After decomposition the
reconstructed series that is summation of all details and one
approximation signal were used as input to feed forward neural
network. Other important issue in wavelet analysis is to choose
the wavelet type. Daubechies wavelets are one of the widely
used wavelet family, which is written as dbN, where db is
surname and N is order of wavelet. We have used Daubechies
wavelet 5 (db5).
Figure-2: Decomposition till resolution level 3
The results of WNN model was compared with conventional
In discrete wavelet analysis the signal is passed through high ANN model which are presented in Table 1.
pass and low pass filters to analyze high frequency and low Table-1: Comparison between ANN and WNN Model
frequency without losing information. Mother wavelet giving the
detail coefficients represents low scale and high frequency Training Testing
components. Father wavelet giving approximation coefficients RMSE R RMSE R
represents high scale and low frequency components. In general ANN 177.0042 0.9273 350.2433 0.8565
the resolution level of decomposition is decided by formulae WNN 166.5624 0.9018 194.3533 0.9499
INT (log n), where n is length if time series and INT is integer
number, log is normal Logarithm (Wang and Ding 2003).
Figure- 4: Expected and Predicted Inflow for ANN Model for
2.3 Model Evaluation Testing Period
Appropriate model evaluation methods are essential because the

developed models can be used in management and planning.
Two performance evaluation criteria used in this study are
computed as in the following section.
Coefficient of correlation (R):
(4)
Root mean square error (RMSE): Figure- 5: Expected and Predicted Inflow for WNN Model for
Testing Period
4. CONCLUSIONS

Improving location specific wave forecast using

The main purpose of this study is to compare the results of ANN Soft computing techniques
and WNN model for one month ahead inflow prediction. The S.N. Londhe1, P.R. Dixit2, B. Nair T.M3, A. Nherakkol4
comparison of two graphs show that ANN model has failed to 1.
Professor, Civil Engineering, Vishwakarma Institute of
predict peak inflows where as WNN model has fairly predicted Information Technology, Pune, India
the peak inflows but has failed to predict low inflows. (Tel: 9126932300, Fax: 912026932500, email:
snlondhe@gmail.com) Member IAHR
Based on evaluating statistical parameters it can be said that 2.
Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering, Vishwakarma Institute
WNN model perform better than ANN model. The study shows of Information Technology,
that for peak inflow prediction which is necessary for flood Pune, India (Tel: 9126932300, Fax: 912026932500 email:
management can be effectively predicted by a hybrid WNN prdxt11@gmail.com)
model. 3.
Scientist E and Head Information Services and Ocean Sciences
Group (ISG), Indian National
This study has been carried out for one month flow prediction. Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS), Ocean Valley,
For future the work can be extended for daily or hourly inflow Pragathi Nagar, Hyderabad,
prediction using different wavelets other than Daubechies such India (Tel: 040-23886007, Fax: 040-23895001 email:
as Haar wavelet. bala@incois.gov.in)
Also by combining with different neural networks such recurrent 4.
Scientist: Information Services and Ocean Sciences Group
neural network, time lagged networks with wavelet transform. (ISG), Indian National
Along with inflow as input other hydrological data such as Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS), Ocean Valley,
rainfall, evaporation can be used for improving the results. Pragathi Nagar, Hyderabad,
India (Tel: 040-23886007, Fax: 040-23895001 email:
REFERENCES arun@incois.gov.in)
i. Ahmed El-Shafi, Alaa E. Abdin Aboelmagd Noureldi and Mohd R.
Taha (2009) "Enhancing Inflow Forecasting Model at Aswan High Dam
Utilizing Radial Basis Neural network and Upstream Monitoring Stations ABSTRACT: Presently Indian National Centre for Ocean
Measurements" J. Water Resource Management, Springer, (l23), 22892315. Information Services (INCOIS) provides wave forecasts on
ii. Felipe Prada-Sarmiento and Nelson Obregn-Neira (2009)
Forecasting of Monthly Stream flows Based on Artificial Neural Networks", J. regional and local level ranging from 3 hours to 7 days
Hydrologic Engg, ASCE , 1390- 1396 ahead using numerical models (www.incois.res.in). It is
iii. Ozgur Kisi (2007) "Stream flow forecasting with different Artificial evident from real time observations that the predicted
neural network algorithm." J. Hydrologic Engg, ASCE, (12), 532-539 SWHs by a physics based model vary randomly and have
iv. Ozgur Kisi (2009) Wavelet regression model as an alternative to
neural networks for monthly stream flow forecasting J. Hydrological Process, non-linear relationship with observed values due to many
(23), 35833597 reasons. Consequently predicted and actual values deviate
v. Ozgur Kisi 2011. Wavelet Regression Model as an Alternative to significantly from each other with an error which has to
Neural Network for River Stage Forecasting J. Water Resource management, be removed to cater the needs of safe and secure lives
(25), 579 600.
vi. R. Venkata Ramana, B. Krishna, S.R. Kumar, N.G. Pandey.( 2013). residing along Indian coastline. Present work aims in
Monthly Rainfall Prediction Using Wavelet Neural Network Analysis. J. reducing this error in numerical wave forecast made by
Water Resource management, (27), 3697 -3711 INCOIS at Pondicherry station. For this error between
vii. Robi Polikar, The Wavelet Tutorial , Part 1-4, forecasted and observed waves at current and previous
http://users.rowan.edu/~polikar/WAVELETS/WTpart4.html
viii. S. K. Jain, A. Das and D. K. Srivastava. (1999). Application of ANN time steps were taken as input to predict the error at 24 to
for Reservoir Inflow Prediction and Operation. J. Water Resour. Plng. and 48 hr ahead lead time in advance using a hybrid Neuro
Mgmt., ASCE, 125(5), 263-271. Wavelet Technique. Separate neural networks were
ix. Shouke Wei, Hong Yang, Jinxi Song, Karim Abbaspour, Zongxue Xu, trained with approximate and detail wavelet coefficients
(2013) A wavelet-neural network hybrid modeling approach for estimating and
predicting river monthly flows Hydrological Science Journal, 58 (2), Pg. no. and the output of networks were reconstructed back using
374 389 inverse DWT. This predicted error was then added or
x. Umut Okkan, Zafer Ali Serbes, (2013) The combined use of wavelet subtracted from numerical wave forecast to improve the
transform and black box models in reservoir inflow modeling. J. Hydrol, prediction accuracy. It is observed that numerical model
Hydromech, (61), 112-119
xi. Wang and Ding, (2003) Wavelet Network Model and Its Application forecast improved considerably when the predicted error
to the Prediction of hydrology Nature and Science, 1(1), 67- 71 was added or subtracted from it. It will add to the
usefulness of the wave forecasts given by INCOIS to its
stake holders. The performance of improved wave heights
is judged by correlation coefficient and other error
measures like RMSE, MAE and CE, the details of which
are provided in the paper.
Key words: Wave forecasting, Numerical model of wave
forecast, Wavelet Transform, Neuro Wavelet Technique
(NWT).

1. INTRODUCTION: to be carried out seeing that the research work mentioned above
have shown that the soft tools of ANN and GP can forecast the
As more than a quarter of the countrys population residing oceanic parameters reasonably well but not with highest
along the coastlines of India, estimation and prediction of all precision. Present work aims in reducing the error of numerical
oceanographic parameters is of the utmost importance to cater wave forecast made by INCOIS at Pondicherry station. For this
the needs of safe and secure life . Consequently accurate error between forecasted waves (by numerical model) and
forecasting of significant wave heights is at the most priority and observed waves, at current and previous time steps are taken as
is of vital importance in all oceanographic activities as almost all input to predict the error at 24 to 48 hr ahead lead time in
ocean engineering applications inevitably depends on it. advance using a hybrid Neuro Wavelet Technique (NWT). The
Presently Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services Neuro Wavelet Technique (NWT) is in fact a combination of
(INCOIS) provides wave forecasts on regional and local level two methods, Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT) and Artificial
ranging from 3 hours to 7 days ahead using numerical models Neural networks (ANNs). The predicted error by NWT is then
(www.incois.gov.in). It is clear from the results of numerical added or subtracted from the numerical wave forecast to
model forecast that the predicted significant wave heights by a improve the prediction accuracy. Thus the improved predictions
physics based wave model vary randomly and have non-linear are then compared with the observed wave heights to see that
relationship with the observed values. There are many known whether the hybrid Neuro Wavelet Technique can suffice the use
and unknown reasons like malfunctioning of the wave rider of it in improving the prediction accuracy or not.
buoy, dismantling of rider buoy due severe wind conditions
because of which the predicted and actual wave heights deviate The outline of the paper is as follows. Details of study Area and
from each other. As the numerical model requires exogenous Data are described in the next section followed by the brief
data inputs and works on larger grid size making it the major information about both ANN and Wavelet techniques. The
impediment in employing it particularly for location specific methodology for model formulation by Neuro- Wavelet
forecasts even though it works reasonably well for regional level Technique is described in next section followed by results and
and it is apparent that as the error modeling could not be discussions. Concluding remarks are presented at the end.
effectively done without the complete knowledge of these
random processes, other alternative methods are welcome to 2. STUDY AREA AND DATA:
bring this error down.
The soft computing techniques which do not require a priori Present study is done at Pondicherry Station (1156' N 7953' E)
knowledge of the underlying phenomenon and give meaningful in Tamil Nadu, India which is owned and maintained by Indian
solutions by using the readily available measured data and their National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) of
antecedent values, can be employed to bridge the gap between India. For this, 24hr and 48 hr ahead numerically forecasted
these wave forecasts and observed values by developing a wave values of significant wave heights (provided by INCOIS) and the
forecast improving model using the observed and forecasted previously measured significant wave heights at the same time
waves. The technique of ANN is now an established technique steps of 24hr and 48hr for 3 years from 2011 to 2013 at
in the field of Hydraulic Engineering as well as coastal and Pondicherry station were used. The difference between
Ocean Engineering as evident from a plethora of publications in measured and forecasted wave heights is the error and that of
the journals of international repute. Jain and Deo (2006) only to be minimized. A time series of this error is used as
presented a comprehensive review of these applications. Some input to calibrate and test the models for forecasting the error at
of the researchers have used ANN in single form (Deo and 24hr and 48hr in advance at the same location. Readers are
Naidu (1999), Deo et al. (2001), Makarynskyy (2004), Londhe referred to http://www. incois.gov.in for more details.
and Panchang (2006)) while others have done so in combination
with numerical approaches to increase the accuracy of the latter.
The works aimed at improving the power of numerical models
include those of Kazeminezhad et al. (2011),Makarynskyy and
Makarynskaa (2006), Zhang et al. (2006), Zamani et al. (2008),
Mahjoobi et al. (2008), and Gunaydin (2008). Jain and Deo
(2007), Kambekar and Deo (2010, 2012) and Londhe (2008)
employed Genetic Programming (GP) for wave modeling.
Londhe (2008) in his work on estimation of missing wave
heights had shown that GP performs better than the numerical
model WAVEWATCH III.
It can be seen from the above citations that many of the research Figure 1: Location Map of Pondicherry Station.
workers are from India and to the authors best knowledge none
of them have worked on reducing the above mentioned error in 3. ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK
between the observed and forecasted waves but all of them have
tried to improve the forecast only by applying different soft It is a systematic arrangement of systems causative variable
computing techniques either sole or in combination with one or (input neurons) and the output variables (output neurons) mostly
two. And it therefore forms a strong case for the present work

connected by one or more hidden layers with neurons which transformation is classified under two heads; continuous wavelet
works similar to the biological neural network in the human transformation (CWT) and discrete wavelet transformation
brain. The mapping of input and output to the required accuracy (DWT). As the scope of the present work is limited to the use of
is done by using an iterative procedure for minimizing the error discrete wavelet transform, it is briefly explained below.
between the observed and network predicted variables (outputs).
The calibration (training as per ANN terminology) is done on a 4.1 Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT): The Discrete
set of data using a training algorithm which minimizes the error Wavelet Transform (DWT) is presented as in Eq.1
and makes the network ready to face the unseen data kept aside k
for testing the model. The ANN was first introduced and
applied in last decade of the twentieth century, and is now an
2

kl t 2 2k t l
(1)
established technique in modeling water flows and therefore
now a days readers are well versed with the terminology,
where is mother wavelet.
working of ANN. Hence detail information about working of
Here the scale is represented in terms of the 2 k and the
ANN, its component is avoided in the current paper. The readers
translation in terms of 2k l. The coefficients of the DWT
can refer text books like Bose and Liang (1996), Wassarman
represent the projection of the signal over a set of basic functions
(1993) and research papers by The ASCE Task Committee
generated as translation and dilatation of a prototype function,
(2000), Maier and Dandy (2000) and Dawson and Wilby (2001)
called mother wavelet. There are several mother wavelets like
for understanding the preliminary concepts and working of
Haar, Debauchies (db), symlets, biorthogonal etc. In the present
ANN.
study Debauchies (db) wavelet types (1 to 35) are used. Readers
are referred to Mallat (1998) or Labat et al. (2000) for further
4. WAVELET TRANSFORM
details.
As wave series is non stationary, highly complex and time
5. MODEL FORMULATION
dependent phenomenon, its analysis is to be done using time and
frequency domain. For the analysis of such time varying signals,
As mentioned above, the data of significant wave heights
these signals are often transformed into frequency domain.
forecasted by numerical model (Provided by INCOIS) and the
Using Fourier transformation, the signal is decomposed into
measured wave heights from 2011 and 2013 (3 years) at
different frequencies, but this transform only presents the signal
Pondicherry station was used in the present work. The difference
frequencies and not the time instance at which particular
between the observed and forecasted wave height is the error
frequency occurs. Another drawback of Fourier transform is that
which is necessarily to be minimized to improve the location
it works better with stationary signals.
specific wave forecast at Pondicherry. As maximum as the
reduction in this error, the maximum accuracy can be achieved
This frequency localization problem is overcome by Short Time
in forecasting the waves. To improve the numerical model
Fourier Transform (STFT), in which the signal is analyzed in
prediction at a particular lead time, this error necessarily
particular time interval taking Fourier transform in that interval.
predicted for that particular lead time should be used. In the
For analysis of the low frequency signal the time interval should
same regards , time series of calculated errors was used to
be large and for high frequency it should be small. Thus, for
predict the corresponding error at particular lead time ( 24hr and
decomposing the time interval, scale must be varied. This
48 hr ahead lead times). Thus to improve the numerical model
problem of analysis with different time intervals is overcome by
forecasts at 24hr and 48hr ahead lead time the corresponding
Wavelets.
errors at 24 hr , 48 hr ahead respectively must be predicted.
This is achieved by developing a hybrid Neuro Wavelet
A Wavelet transformation is a signal processing tool with the
technique (NWT). Figure 2 explains the working principle of
ability of analyzing both stationary as well as non-stationary data
NWT, where the discrete wavelet transform decomposes time
series, and to produce both time and frequency information with
series of error into low (approximate) and high (detail)
a higher (more than one) resolution, which is not available from
frequency components. In the present study the decomposition
the traditional transformation; Fourier and Short Term Fourier
of approximate is carried out further up to fifth level in order to
Transform (Deka et al (2012). It decomposes the signal using a
provide more detail and approximate components which
small wave like function called as Mother Wavelet, which is
provides relatively smooth varying amplitude series. For the
translated over the signal with different scales to obtain
further details of multi level decomposition technique readers
decomposed signals. Thus the wavelet transform breaks the
are referred to www.mathworks.com. The neural network is then
signal into its wavelets (small wave) which are scaled and
trained with decorrelated approximate and detail wavelet
shifted versions of the original wavelet (mother wavelet). Here
coefficients. The outputs of networks during testing are
the Scaling function of the wavelet and wavelet function serves
reconstructed back using inverse DWT. Thus the effect of
as low and high pass filters respectively. Thus the signal is
autocorrelation mentioned earlier by Vos and Rientjes (2005)
passed through the low and high pass filters, and sub - sampled
was removed by the use of Neuro Wavelet Technique.
to separate low (approximation) and high (detail) frequencies.
The low frequency can further passed through Low and high
pass filter to get more resolution in the analysis. This analysis is
called as Multi- resolution analysis (MRA). The wavelet

coefficient of efficiency (CE) as suggested by The ASCE Task

Committee (2000) between the observed and improvised wave
heights were also calculated. Readers are referred to Dawson and
Wilby (2001) for their formulae. Table 3 presents the model
assessment done using RMSE, MAE and CE. Figures 3 and 4
shows wave plots for 24 hr and 48 hr ahead forecasts
respectively by both numerical model and by improvised wave
forecasts after application of NWT for Pondicherry station while
figure 5 shows scatter plots for 48 hr forecasts. It is clear form
Table 2 that for all the forecasting intervals the correlation
coefficient r values of Improvised SWHs are superior to the
numerical model predictions (r24 hr:0.82 of Improvised
forecast as against 0.78 of numerical model) . Also it can be
observed that even at higher lead times of 48 hr r is increased
from 0.74 to 0.80 which is significant achievement in the
Figure 2: Algorithm of NWT forecasting of wave at higher lead times. Table 3 indicates that
the Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE) values of Improvised
Development of these models to predict the errors at 24hr, 48hr models are at lower end than the numerical model. High values
ahead lead times, the current and previous errors at current time of coefficient of efficiencies (CE) than the CE values of
step and previous time steps upto 24hr, 48hr back respectively numerical model confirm the superiority of newly improvised
were used as inputs. 70% of the data from the total data set of SWHs over the original waves. The wave plots presented in
errors was used to train the model while remaining 30% data figures 3, 4 demonstrated the clear attainment of the exercise of
was used for validation (15%) and testing (15%) to develop each forecasting of the errors at the particular lead time by using
model. Separate models were developed to predict error at 24 hr NWT to improve the forecast made by the numerical model at
& 48hr ahead lead time. Table 1 presents the input- output and that particular lead time. It is manifested from the newly
architectural details of these models. improvised SWH series that the values of peaks and troughs are
Table 1: Model details for prediction of errors imprisoned well due to the correction made by the adding or
subtracting the forecasted errors from the original forecasts of
Model Input Output Architecture of numerical model.
for detail & approx
24 hr t-24, t-21, t-18, t- t+24 (24hr ahead 9:2:1 LM, 0-1, Table 2: Correlation coefficients
ahead 15, t-12, t-9, t-6, t- predicted error) mse, logsig-
3, t (total 9 inputs) purelin, 30
Sr. Forecast r Correlation Coefficient
epochs
No Interval
48 hr t-48, t-45, t- t+48 (24hr ahead 17:5:1 LM, 0-1,
ahead 42,,t-9, t-6, predicted error) mse, logsig- Observed Observed
t-3, t (total 17 purelin, 40 and and
inputs) epochs Numerical Improvised
model
1 24 hr 0.78 0.82
These predicted errors were then added or subtracted from the 2 48 hr 0.74 0.80
numerical model forecasts of respective lead times and forecasts
done by numerical models for 24hr and 48hr ahead lead times
were improvised. Subsequently these improvised forecasts were Table 3: Model Assessment
compared with the observed wave heights to perceive the model
competency and the results of which are discussed in next Sr. Fo RMSE CE MAE
section. No re
ca
st Observ Obs Observ Obs Obs O
6 RESULTS Int ed and erv ed and erv erv bs
er Numer ed Numer ed ed er
val ical and ical and and ve
All the models were tested with unseen inputs and the errors model Im model Im Nu d
were forecasted for the respective lead times. The numerical pro pro mer an
model forecasts were then improvised by using these predicted vise vise ical d
errors as mentioned in model formulation. The accuracy in d d mo Im
del pr
forecasting the significant wave heights was then judged by the
24 0.21 0.04 0.65 0.98 ovi
correlation coefficient (r) between the observed and improvised 1
hr se
wave heights, scatter plots between the same and the wave plots. d
The correlation coefficients between the observed and 2
48 0.20 0.18 0.58 0.74
improvised wave heights for the developed models are given in hr
Table 2. Additionally other error measures such as root mean
squared error (RMSE), Mean absolute error (MAE) and

It is evident from the above mentioned results that there is an

elevated improvement in the 24hr, 48 hr forecast and hence it
can be said that the use of NWT is worthwhile in similar kind of
research works in improvising the forecasting accuracy. The
forecast done by newly improvised SWHs is more superior than
the original numerical model wave forecasts for both the lead
times of 24 hr and 48 hr which indicates that for higher lead
times greater than 12 hr also (for 24hr and 48 hr) , the exercise
of forecasting the error for particular lead time to improve the
numerical model wave forecast gives the considerable results.
To the authors best knowledge, as this is the first kind of effort
to improve the wave prediction done by the numerical model by
improvising the errors specifically, It will definitely an
significant addition to the usefulness for the wave forecasts to
Figure 3: Wave plot of 24 hr ahead forecast INCOIS and its stake holders. High correlation coefficient (r)
and coefficient of efficiency (CE) values and low RMSE values
proves the proficiency of new hybrid technique of NWT and
hence it is pretty clear that this technique can be explored further
in analogous class of research area.
7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would also like to thank INCOIS, Hyderabad

(Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services,
Ministry of earth sciences, Govt. of India.) for funding the
research project under the Ocean State forecasts Scheme (OSF).
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Ocean Research 30: 2836 1. INTRODUCTION
xviii. Makarynsky
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xix. Makarynskyy O, Makarynskaa (2006) Neural pattern recognition and that falls under time series category in a real scenario is much
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via Elsevier
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Hydrology I: Preliminary Concepts. Journal of Hydrologic Engineering 5(2): programming (GP),Support vector machine(SVM) etc. were
115-123 used efficiently in time series prediction to improve the
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xxvi. Wasserman P D., (1993). Advanced Methods in Neural Computing, time series significant wave heights for multiple lead times (Deo
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xxvii. Zhang Z, Li C W, Qi Y, Li Y S (2006) Incorporation of Artificial and Deo, 2007; Gaur and Deo, 2008). Even though reliability of
Neural Networks and Data Assimilation Techniques into A Third-Generation
these models some times lacks in satisfactory performance, that
WindWave Model for Wave Forecasting. Journal of Hydroinformatics 8.1: 65-
76. is may be due to high non linearity and non-stationarity in the
xxviii. Zamani A, Solomatine D, Azimian A and Heemink A (2008) Learning data or may be due to gaps within the data set. In this context,
from data for windwave forecasting. Ocean Engineering 35: 953962 data normalisation techniques has been attempted to reduce the
statistical variations in the data in recent few years to improve
the performance of existing models though these techniques
seems to be time consuming and trial and error based methods.
Apart from this, to improve the model performance,
Discrete Wavelet Support Vector Conjuction hybridisation of different models has been carried out from the
Model for Significant Wave Height Time Series different authors (Kim and Valdes, 2003; Deka and Prahlada,
2012).
Forecasting
Paresh Chandra Deka1 & Suryadatta Y N 2
1 Recently, support vector machines (SVMs) which is one of the
Associate Professor, National Institute of Technology
soft computational techniques has been successfully used in
Karnataka,Surathkal-575025,India
2 different research areas (Smola, 1996; Vapnik et al., 1997; Gao
M.Tech student, National Institute of Technology
et al., 2001; Yoon et al., 2004; McNamara et al., 2005; Awad et
Karnataka,Surathkal-575025,India
al., 2007; Kaheil et al., 2008). In the last decade, wavelet
Email: pareshdeka@yahoo.com
transform has become an useful technique for analysing
variations, periodicities, and trends in time series. In the past,
ABSTRACT: In this study, a hybrid model of wavelet and SVM
hybridisation of wavelet transformation with other models has
(WSVM) has been developed to forecast significant wave-
been reported in different fields. Chen et al. (2007) used the
height for different wavelet transformations namely
same combination to forecast tides around Taiwan and South
Daubechies 2, 3& 4 with decomposition levels 5,6 &7. The
China Sea, and concluded that the proposed model can
whole process was carried out at station SW4 (Mangalore port)
prominently improve the prediction quality. Recently, Ozger
at west coast of India near Mangalore for 3 hour leadtime.
(2010) used Wavelet-fuzzy model to forecast significant wave
Here the wavelet transformation is used to decompose the
height and average wave period for higher lead times up to 48 h
original significant wave height (Hs) data into its sub signals
and results were satisfactory. Deka et al. (2010) used hybrid
in the form of approximation and detail coefficients. Further,
Wavelet-ANN model to forecast significant wave height of
these coefficients were fed to SVM as inputs and targets and
station near marmugaoport, Arabian Sea, and the results
the results obtained from the hybrid model are then
obtained for two steps ahead prediction was satisfactory. Kisi
reconstructed to obtain the predicted significant wave heights.
&Cimen. (2011). used a wavelet & support vector conjunction
The predicted results from the proposed model were compared
model in monthly stream-flow forecasting. They obtained the
with the single SVM results. It was shown that the proposed
conjunction model by combining the two methods discrete
model, WSVM that makes use of multiresolution time series as
wavelet transforms & support vector machine and compared
input, allows for more accurate and consistent predictions with
with the single support vector machine. The test results were
respect to the SVM models.
compared with the single support vector regression model. The
comparison results showed that the discrete wavelet transforms

could significantly increase the accuracy of the SVR model in In the WSVM model, the raw signals (significant wave height
forecasting monthly stream-flows. time series) must be decomposed into multi-scale sub signals
before proceeding to the SVM. From this point of view, the Hs
In this study, a hybridisation of Wavelet and SVM has attempted signals are first decomposed into sub signals with different
to make the model perform in a better way in terms of scales (decomposition levels), i.e., a large scale sub signal and
consistency and accuracy. several small-scale sub signals in order to obtain temporal
characteristics of the input time series. For a given time series,
2. MATERIAL AND METHODS the time series corresponding to a(t) is the approximation sub
signal (large scale) of original signal and the i-th detailed sub
2.1Wavelet theory signal (small scale) is identified by i where i is the
decomposition level of significant wave heights time series.
A Wavelet transformation is a signal processing tool like Fourier
transformation with the ability of analysing both stationary as Thereby, the number of input variables for the SVM
well as non stationary data, and to produce both time and model is determined as i+1 because the model uses 1 variable
frequency information with a higher resolution, which is not and the time series is decomposed into i+1 sub signals. In this
available from the traditional transformation.The wavelet structure, the annual or seasonal data are decomposed into large-
transform breaks the signal into its wavelets (small wave) which scale sub signals and the small periods such as daily, monthly
are scaled and shifted versions of the original wavelet (mother and weekly data are decomposed into detailed sub signals.
wavelet).There are many wavelet functions are available for
wavelet analysis such as Haar wavelet, Daubechies wavelets,
Coiflet wavelets, Morlet wavelet, etc. and all these wavelets are
slightly differ in their shape properties.
In the Discrete wavelet transform (DWT), filters of different

cutoff frequencies are used to analyse the signal at different
scales. The signal x (t) is passed through a series of high pass
filters and low pass filters and down sampled (i.e. throwing
away every second data point) to analyse the high frequencies
and low frequencies respectively . The output from the high pass
and low pass filters are the approximation coefficients (A1, A2
An) and detail coefficients (D1, D2Dn) respectively. The
process of decomposing a signal into its sub-bands or sub signals
is also termed as multi resolution signal decomposition.
2.2 SVM theory
The support vector machines are developed based on statistical

learning theory and are derived from the structural risk
minimization hypotheses to minimize both empirical risk and the
confidence interval of the learning machine in order to achieve a Fig 1 Schematic Structure of WSVM Model
good generalization capability.SVM is simple enough to
understand and found better than neural networks, decision trees. In the present work only significant wave height (Hs) of
The basic idea behind SVM is to map the original data sets from previous time steps were used as predictors. Here, wave height
the input space to a high dimensional, or even infinite values up to previous 12hour were taken into consideration as
dimensional feature space so that classification problems predictor variables to predict Hs (t+n) where Hs (t+n) is the
become simpler in the feature space. The main advantage of future significant wave height and n denotes the lead times in
SVM is that, it uses kernel trick to build expert knowledge about hours with t as current significant wave height. Only 3hr lead
a problem so that model complexity and prediction error are time datasets were used.
simultaneously minimised.
The data used in the current study is processed significant wave
2.3 WSVM Model height (Hs) of the station SW4 (Latitude 1256 31and
longitude 744358) located near west coast of India which
The wavelet-support vector machines (WSVM) model combines was collected from New Mangalore Port Trust (NMPT) during
the strengths of discrete wavelet transform and SVM processing the year 2003 from January 1st to December 31st. The frequency
to achieve powerful nonlinear approximation ability. Thus, the of the data was 3 hourly significant wave heights. The statistical
WSVM approach can be applied as a forecasting model. The properties of dataset presented in Table 1.
schematic structure of WSVM model is illustrated in Figure1
below. Table 1 Statistical properties of the data for station SW4

Standard figure 3 and figure 4 for reference check with observed value.
Min(m) Max(m) Mean(m) Skewness Curtosis
deviation(m) WSVM model was closely following the observed value as
compared to SVM model. The scattered plot also clearly reflects
0.24 3.06 1.015 0.77 0.4864 0.6278
the better performance of WSVM model in figure 5 as compared
to SVM model in figure 6.
Table 2 Performance of WSVM & SVM models
The results obtained from the both single WSVM model and
single SVM model are presented in the form of various
performance indices like R, RMSE, Scatter, Bias etc. through Wavelet R RMSE SCATTER BIAS
tables, and various graphs. Figure 2 shows the representative
decomposition of signal of significant wave height for mother Db2L5 0.9959 0.0515 0.0502 1.002
wavelet Daubechies of order 2 with level of decomposition Db2L6 0.9960 0.0515 0.0502 1.002
5.The subseries of decomposed time series in the shape of Db2L7 0.9963 0.0515 0.0502 1.002
approximations and detail coefficients are with single series s Db3L5 0.9966 0.0499 0.049 1.001
can be clearly understood from the figure 2. Db3L6 0.9967 0.05 0.049 1.001
Db3L7 0.9970 0.0501 0.049 1.001
Db4L5 0.9969 0.0499 0.0487 1.001
Db4L6 0.9969 0.05 0.049 1.002
Db4L7 0.9969 0.04 0.049 1.002
SVM 0.9714 0.151 0.1474 1.0135
Fig 3 Time Series Plot of WSVM of Db2, Decomposition

Level 5
Fig .2 Decomposition of signal using mother wavelet db2 and Fig 4 Time Series Plot of SVM
L5
The model testing results are presented in the table 2.The

various WSVM hybrid model linked with various mother
wavelet db of order 2,3 and 4 with various decomposition level
such as 5,6 and 7 are shown in the same table.It was observed
that the single SVM model perform poorly compared to all
different WSVM model considering various statistical
performance indices.The correlation coefficient close to 1 with
low RMSE values confirms the higher forecasting accuracy of
WSVM models compared to SVM model.Also,scatter index
nearer to zero and bias value close to 1 are the performance
indicator which reflects better forecasting accuracy for WSVM
model.
The Db wavelet with various order and various levels shows
Fig 5 Scatter Plot of Observed vs WSVM Prediction of Db2
insignificant contribution to the forecasting accuracy as appeared
Level 5
in the table 2 considering various performance criteria.
The graphical representation of time series forecasting for

WSVM (best model) and SVM models are also presented in

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Potential Impact of Soft Computing Techniques in

Water Resources Engineering Artificial Neural Networks are very much inspired by the
biological neuron system. These are massively parallel
Satish Kumar Jain1 R. K. Shrivastava2 distributed processing system which is highly inter-connected
1
Research Scholar, RGPV and A.P., UIT, RGPV, Bhopal (M.P.), neural computing elements which have learning ability that can
462036, India be used. This learning process is termed as training of the
2
Professor, SGSITS, Indore (M.P.), 452003, India. network. After training the network is validated and then tested
Email: satishjainrgpv@gmail.com over other set of data. Fixed rules have not been framed for
development of ANN model. Trial and error approach is applied
ABSTRACT: Soft computing techniques like Artificial Neural for optimization of the appropriate network.
Network (ANN), Fuzzy Logic and Genetic Programming (GP)
etc. which drawn their inherent characteristic from biological 1.1 Fuzzy logic
system are very competent in prediction of most of the
variables of Water Resources Engineering (WRE), which are Fuzzy set theory suggested by Lotfi A. Zadh (1965) is the base
highly nonlinear in nature due to spatial and temporal of fuzzy logic. Fuzzy logic try to capture the logic as humans do
variations. Problems of sedimentation discharge, flood for real world knowledge in the face of uncertainty raised due to
forecasting, draught prediction, power generation, irrigation, generality, ambiguity, vagueness, chance or incomplete
society development etc. cannot be understand effectively knowledge or any other reason. Fuzzy sets support a range of
because of nonlinear nature of these variables. Soft computing membership of elements to a set. Fuzzy sets express the gradual
techniques are being used widely now a day in prediction of transition from membership to non membership and vice versa
behaviors of rainfall, runoff, sediment discharge, and water and this capability is used widely. The important characteristics
quality etc. These variables are directly associated with the of fuzzy logic approach are ability to learn and generalize ability
problems of water resources engineering. This paper has to cope up with noise, the distributed processing which
examined some of the important studies on use of soft maintains robustness.
computing techniques in water resources engineering
published in high impact journals since 2002-2013. Soft 1.2 Genetic programming
computing techniques are based on modeling the input output
variables. These models learn from a set of examples and then Genetic Programming (GP) is evolutionary computation based
train themselves for predicting the required results more technique. Evolutionary computation forms a group of
effectively to any other conventional method. Further these techniques which are inspired by natural process and also
results obtained from soft computing techniques have been emulate them. All varieties of organisms present on the earth
used in planning and designing the infrastructure in water have resulted out of these evolutionary natural processes.
resources engineering to resolve the problems and satisfactory However GP is chiefly used for mathematical optimization of
results have been found. complex nonlinear problems and desired solution of input-
Key Words: Soft computing techniques, Artificial Neural output relationship. An initial population of randomly generated
Network, Fuzzy logic, Genetic programming. programme is considered by GP which is derived from random
combination of input variables, random numbers and functions
1. INTRODUCTION including arithmetic operators (+, -, *, /) mathematical functions
(Sin, Cos, exp, log), logical functions (or, and) etc. This
In last two decades soft computing techniques such as Artificial population is then operated through evolutionary process and the
Neural Network, Fuzzy Logic and Genetic Programming etc. fitness measure of formed programme is evaluated. The best fit
have emerged as very popular tools for prediction and estimation model is then selected from initial population. GP performs over
of various parameters in all fields of science and technology. symbolic expression or formula rather than over numbers which
Water resources engineering is also very much influenced by use represent the candidate solutions. For developing the time series
of these techniques. Many problems of water resources forecast simple models, GP is considered suitable than ANN.
engineering which were not being solved precisely by use of Also capability of GP about parsimonious selection of the
conventional empirical methods due to non linearity and short variables for model development from the potential inputs helps
data length are presently being solved by use of these soft to prevent redundancy in model development (Sreekanth and
computing techniques. The prediction and estimation of rainfall, Datta, 2011).
runoff, sediment yield, permeability, water quality etc. is very
important in management of water resources projects and REVIEW OF LITERATURE
problems such as life of reservoir, flood control, draught This paper presents review of various important studies
management, irrigation and water quality etc. Earlier the conducted in field of water resources engineering since 2005-
solution of these problems was based on conventional methods 2013 which used ANN, GP and Fuzzy Logic soft computing
but now use of soft computing techniques is giving encouraging techniques.
results.
Feyzolhpour et al. (2012) used neural differential evolution
Artificial neutral network (NED), multilayer perceptron (MLP), and radial basis function
(RBF) models for prediction of daily suspended sediment

concentration in Givi Chay River in the northwest of Iran. Input Shamsudin et al. (2013) estimated the long term phosphorous
parameters were available discharge and sedimentation loading rates using Vollenweider model and evaluated
concentration. For training testing of networks, wet period data eutrophication status using MATLAB fuzzy logic toolbox. The
from January to June 2009 and January to June 2010 were used uncertainty of phosphorous loading rates was also demonstrated
respectively. In NDE, various input combinations were used. using MATLAB fuzzy logic Simulation for detention pond at
Programme code was written in MATLAB language. Different Kolam Tadahar 1 located within University Teknologi Malaysia
NDE architectures were tried and after testing results were (UTM) South Branch Campus, S Kudai. Fifteen water samples
compared on the basis of values of root mean square error were collected in three visits of study field. Annual hydraulic
(RMSE) and determination coefficient (R2). In artificial neural loadings with other parameters such as twelve year rainfall data
network (ANN) also different architectures were tried and best since 2000 to 2012, annual runoff coefficient and drainage area
models were determined. In RBF model, the number of units for and temporate data were collected. Identification of unit
single hidden layer and the spread parameter value with 17 and hydrographs and components flows from rainfalls, Evaporation
0.39 provided the best testing performance. In MLP, 4 numbers and stream flow data (IHACRES) model was used to refined
of hidden nodes were found appropriate after employing trial runoff inflowing discharge, hydraulic loadings and pond storage
and error method. These results were compared and it was found volume. The value of coefficient of determination R2 was found
that NDE model (1-3-1) performs better than ANN models. The very close to 1. In evaluation of eutrophication status Fuzzy
results were also compared with sediment rating curves (SRC) Interface System (FIS) editor in fuzzy logic tool box was
and it was concluded that, ANN performance was better than updated to define new names as Part Per Billion (PPB) and
SRC. Hydraulic Residence Time (HRT) as input and Trophic state for
output. Total 16 rules were created for each variable in triangular
Mustfa et al. (2012) applied ANN in prediction of suspended membership function. Thus the study initiated the use of
element discharge in Pari River at Slibin in Peninsular Malaysia. MATLAB fuzzy logic in detention pond uncertainty.
MLP feed forward neural network was adopted with Gradient
Decent (GD), Gradient Decent with momentum (GDM), Scaled Bhist et al. (2013) used ANN and fuzzy Logic soft computing
Congugate Gradient (SCG) and Levenberg Marquardt (LM) techniques in for forecasting of water table elevation in region of
algorithms for training purpose. Five years daily data of Budaun district of Uttar Pradesh in India. Five ANN models
discharge and suspended sediment were used as input and output with one hidden layer and five ANN models with two hidden
parameters in 3-3-1 ANN model. Input discharge parameter was layers were developed with ground water recharge, ground water
divided in present, first and second antecedent times discharge. discharge, and water table elevation for previous year as input
Statistical measures as mean, standard deviation and coefficient parameters with different combinations for all five types but
of variance were found higher for training than testing. This similar for one and two hidden layer models. Output parameter
indicated that training data contain more complexity and was water table elevation in all models. Five fuzzy models were
variability. Learning rate for GD and GDM was kept 0.01 and also developed in the study. For fuzzy models recharge and
0.03. Epochs for LM, SCG, GD, and GDM were 24, 585, 5000 discharge with specified time legs were as input parameters and
and 5000 respectively. The error measures RMSE, R2, Mean water table elevation was output parameter. Results were
Squared Relative Error (MSRE) were estimated for different compared with observed data on the basis of estimation of
algorithms and it was concluded that SCG and LM performed statistical measures such as Coefficient of correlation (R),
better than GD and GDM. The performance of SCG and LM Coefficient of Determination (R2), Mean Absolute Deviation
was similar however LM was faster (1/7 of SCG convergence (MAD) and Root Mean Square Error (RSME). It was concluded
time). that Fuzzy model 2 is the best model among all with values 0.99,
0.98, 0.26 and 0.31 of R, R2, MAD and RMSE respectively. It
Adhikari et al. (2012) proposed a Fuzzy Logic Controller (FLC) was also found that ANN works better with more inputs while
method based on fuzzy control for hydropower generation and fuzzy works well with fewer inputs are available.
reservoir operating system in dams for safe and efficient
performance in Himalayan region in India. In this method, Sreekanth and Datta (2011) (ref C1) Compared GP and ANN
spillway gates were opted for safe reservoir control of dams. predictive modeling techniques by developing models for
Input parameters were taken as water level and flow rate while saltwater intrusion levels in eleven ground water pumping wells.
output parameter was turbine valve openness. All models used The pumping rates with three stress periods were taken as inputs
Tabu Search Algorithm (TSA), Fuzzy Delphi method and and salinity levels as output. Training and validation data was
Mamdani Interface method to evaluate for evaluation by manual generated by three dimensioned coupled flow and transport
C.O.G. Defuzzi-friction and MATLAB FIS editor validation. simulation model FEMWATER which was used to train GP and
Initially the various variables, membership functions and rule ANN models. Training and validation sets were random for both
base were defined randomly then TSA was used to choose the GP and ANN. Neuroshell software was used to develop ANN
most appropriate parameters values charactering the fuzzy model using feed forward back propagation algorithm.
membership function. It was concluded that fuzzy model Minimization of RMSE of prediction was taken as objection
performs well and drawbacks of the human based control function for training in both GP and ANN. In ANN models
systems do not appear in this method. sigmoid transfer function and 0.1 learning rate were used. The
ANN architecture was optimized by trial and error. GP models
were developed with 500 population size and frequencies of

mutation and cross over were 95 and 50 respectively. Initially ANN models was assessed in three ungauged catchment
addition and subtraction operators were added alone and later representative (UCR) before their use for prediction of monthly
multiplication, arithmetic and data transfer operators were suspended sediment load. Data mainly used in this study was
added. The preference of GP and ANN models was evaluated on suspended sediment load (SSL), discharge (Q), rainfall (R) and
the basis of estimation of R and minimized RMSE values. It was digital elevation map (DEM). Total suspended sediment load
concluded that GP models are simpler with less inputs for (SSLt) was also predicted to check the model performance on
simpler prediction than ANN models. the basis of determination R2. RMSE, mean absolute error
(MAE) and absolute percentage bias (APBIAS). It was
Selle and Muttil (2010) developed GP models to predict the deep concluded that models of this study can be used for estimating
percolation responses under surface irrigated pastures with SSLM and SSLt of ungauged catchments with an accuracy of
different soils, water table levels and water ponding durations 0.61 in terms of R2 and 34.06 in terms of APBIAS respectively.
for surface irrigation. Data was obtained by lysimeter
experiments. The aim of this study was to test the compatibility Garg and Jothprakash (2010) estimated trap efficiency (Te) of
of different structures of GP models in comparison to conceptual Pong Reservoir on Beas River in Kangra district of Himanchal
models in field of hydrology. It was concluded that GP models Prades in India by using ANN model. The annual rainfall,
give comparable results. The recurrence of developed models in annual inflow and age of the reservoir were the input variables
multiple runs was also investigated and it was found that these since 1980 2006, while Te was single output. Te was estimated
models consistently come up with same model complexity but as by multi-layered perceptron (MLP) ANN model with one hidden
the level of complexity increases the recurrence of generated layer of four neurons. This appropriate ANN model was selected
models vary. on the basis of trial and error approach. The sigmoid and
hyperbolic Tangent (tan h) transfer functions were used. Back
Kalteh (2008) adopted feed-forword multilayer perceptron propagation algorithm was used for training of 70% data length
(MLP) ANN to develop a model for rainfallrunoff relationship with Momentum, Conjugate Gradient (CG) and Levenberg
in Northern Watershed in Iran. Input variables rainfall and Marquardt (LM) as learning rules. The statistical measures such
temperature of five station points and output was runoff at as Coefficient of correlation (R), Mean Square Error (MSE),
station situated at downstream to the above five stations. Time Root Mean Square Error (RMSE), Mean Absolute Error (MAE)
span of data was fifteen years. Developed model contained one and Nash Sutcliff Efficiency (E) were estimate to evaluate the
hidden layer with six neurons. Back propagation algorithm was performance of the models. It was concluded that the 3-4-1 feed
used for training purpose. RMSE and R values were estimated to forward BPANN model estimated Te very well with sigmoid
define the performance of network and these values were found activation function, 0.7 as momentum factor and 1.0 as learning
quite satisfactory. Kalteh also described the mechanism of rate. The results of ANN models very well matched with results
learning process of ANN model by Neural Interpretation obtained from empirical methods.
Diagram (DIM), Garsons algorithm and randomization
approach and results were very encouraging. Garg and Jothiprakash (2010) applied ANN and Genetic
programming (GP) approaches in estimating trap efficiency (Te)
Chouhan and Shrivastava (2009) predicted reference of Govind Sagar Reservioir at Satluj River in Bilaspur district of
evapotranspiration (ETo) for Mahanadi Reservoir project Himanchal Pradesh in India. Input variables as annual rainfall
Chhattisgarh State in India through application of Levenberg (Rt), annual inflow (It), annual sediment yield (St) and age of the
Marquardt (LM), Quasi Newton (QN) and Back Propagation reservoir (at) of 32 years were taken for single output Te in
with adaptive learning rate algorithms for training a feed- development of ANN models. MLP, Elman Recurrence Neural
forward ANN model. One hidden layer network models with Network (RNN) and Radial Basis Function (RBF) ANN were
different combinations of input variables were made and their tried in MATLAB environment. A RBF 4-4-1 architecture
performance was checked for above three training algorithms. model was found best in all three types ANN models at spread =
The average monthly max and minimum temperature , relative 0.8 and R = 0.955. This model was generalized for data of 10
humidity , wind speed and sunshine data since January 1986 to years of Pong Reservoir on Satluj River in Himanchal Pradesh in
December 2005 was used in this study. Average monthly India. In GP modeling, population size was provided 500. The
reference evepotranspiration data were estimated by FAO statistical parameters estimated shown that with short length
Penman Monteith (p-m) method and compared with output of data, the GP models perform well than ANN model.
produced by ANN. Statistical measures Mean Square Error
(MSE), Raw Standard Error of Estimates (RSEE), Standard Agrawal et al. (2009) forecasted daily and weekly runoff and
Error of Estimates (SEE)and Correlation coefficient (R) were sediment yield by using ANN. Ten years data consists of
estimated for performance evaluation. It was concluded that a 3- rainfall, runoff and sediment yield of Vamsadhara River Basin in
9-1 model trained with QN algorithm performed accurately with South India. In forecasting runoff, the single input linear transfer
model efficiency 93%. function (SI-LTF) models, multi-input linear transfer function
(MI-LTF) models and ANN models were developed. In runoff
Hang and Suetsugi (2013) estimated sediment load in ungauged forecasting, SI-LTF models, rainfall (R) - runoff (Q) models
catchments of Tonel Sap River Basin in Combodia. Monthly were developed for daily and weekly time pass, while in MI-
average standard sediment load (SSLm) of four catchments has LTF modeling MI-LTF models, rainfall values of all rain gauge
been simulated in this study. Also the applicability of trained stations were considered. In ANN modeling for runoff

forecasting for daily and weekly basis, sigmoid function by selected and trained with back propagation algorithm. Well logs
pattern learning were subjected to maximum 5000 iterations. data of two exploration wells and their 103 core permeability
The learning rate () and momentum rate () were taken as measurements in both horizontal and vertical directions were
constant as 0.5 for error convergence. Data from 1984 to 1987 used with input variables as Gama ray log, Bulk Density log,
was used in testing and cross validation. Daily model was found sonic log, Neutron log, Deep Induction log and output variable
better than weekly model. It was concluded that ANN model as log horizontal permeability and log vertical permeability. First
with three hidden layers performed best with nodes twice in data was normalized then 60% of normalized data was trained
hidden layer to nodes in input layer and less 5000iterations. For while 20% data was used for testing and remaining 20% data
forecasting sediment yield, all models SI-LTF, MI-LTF and was used for validation. The best network architecture was
ANN performed equally well. selected on trial and error basis. A three layered network was
opted with 20 neurons in hidden layer. The logistic sigmoid
Muhammadi et al. (20120 used ANNand neural fuzzy activation function was used in hidden layer and linear activation
inference system for estimation of suspended sediment function was used in output layer. The performance of network
concentration in Karaj River in north west of Tehran. The was tested by values of R2. The R2 for predicted vertical and
Input parameters as water temperature, base and flow discharge horizontal permeability was 0.86 and 0.90 respectively. It was
of 40 years were considered. Sediment density was single concluded that ANN can be used effectively for prediction of
output. Input data was normalized between 0.1 and 0.9. MLP permeability.
three layered network was used with LM learning rule. In
MATLAB environment, coding system was performed to design 3. CONCLUSIONS
Artificial Neural Fuzzy System. Fuzzy inference system was
generated by genfis 2 (datin, datout, r) order. Cluster radius After thorough review of various important researches in field of
varied between 0 and 1. The performance criteria of model were water resources engineering during time since 2005-2013, it
R and RMSE. It was found in the study that accuracy of neural may be concluded that soft computing techniques such as ANN,
fuzzy inference system is much more than the accuracy of GP and fuzzy logic have been used successfully for solutions of
sediment rating curve or any other methods. various problems. MLP neural network trained with back
propagation algorithm has been most suitable in most of the
Haghizadeh et al. (2010) proposed an ANN model for estimation problems. Some studies have revealed that fuzzy logic and GP
of yield sediment at Sorkhab River in upstream DEZ basin in models perform better than ANN models. If the input variables
Iran. The MLP with feed forward back propagation (FFBP) are less in number then preference can be given to GP in place of
approach was adopted in the present study. The input data was ANN.
standardized between ranges 0-1. Performance of the model was
evaluated by values of R2, E, MAE, RMSE and Theils REFERENCES:
inequality coefficient (U). Analysis of the results revealed that
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of Reservoir Trap Efficiency. Journal of Hydrologic Engineering, 15(12), 1001-
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1015.
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of Yield Sediment Using Artificial Neural Network at Basin Scale. Australian
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Basin, Cambodia. J. of Water Resource and Protection, 5, 111-123.
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Performance of the models was checked on the basis of RMSE, vii. Mustafa, M. R., Rezaur, R. B., and Isa, M. H. (2012). River
MAE and R2 and best model was decided with values 19.27, Suspended Sediment Prediction Using Various Multilayer Perceptron Neural
Network Training Algorithms- A Case Study in Malaysia. Water Resour
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with values obtained from rating curves and it was concluded viii. Ref Sreekanth, J., and Datta, B. (2011). Comparative evaluation of
that performance of ANN models is far better than rating curves Genetic Programming and Neural Networks as potential surrogate models for
for prediction of daily suspended sediment yield. coastal aquifer management. Journal of Water Resources Management, 25,
3201- 3218.
ix. Selle, B., and Muttil, N. (2010). Testing the structure of a
Handhel (2009) predicted reservoir permeability through ANN hydrological model using genetic programming. Journal of hydrology, 397 (1-
in horizontal and vertical directions of Mishrif lime store 2), 1-9.
reservoir at Nasyria oil field in south of Iraq. A MLP model was

x. Shabani, M., and Shabani, N. (2012). Estimation of Daily climatic variations by changing the operational patterns are
Suspended Sediment Yield Using Artificial Neural Network and Sediment Rating
Curve in Kharestan Watershed, Iran. Australian J. of Basic and Applied
also briefly discussed.
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xi. Shamsudin, S., Rahman, A., Haron, Z., and Ahmed, A. A. P. (2013). Keywords: Wastewater Treatment and Reuse, Constructed
Detention Pond Phosphorous Loadings Uncertainty Using Fuzzy Logic. Int Wetlands, Natural Treatment Systems, Clogging,
Journal of Soft Computing and Engineering, 3(2), 1-5.
Biofilm
1. INTRODUCTION:
Increase in population and urbanization, there is a rampant

increase in wastewater generation. Wastewater treatment
facilities are not developed at the same place especially in
developing nations like India. According to CPCB reports
(2008), about 38,254 Million Liters per Day (MLD) of sewage is
Typologies for Successful Operation and generated from class I and class II Towns in India. However,
Maintenance of Horizontal Sub-Surface Flow waste treatment facility is limited to 12,000 MLD, which is
Constructed Wetlands merely 30% of total generation. Therefore large volume of
wastewater runs into natural water bodies leasing to pollution of
Lohith Reddy D, Dinesh Kumar* and Shyam R coastal zones and ground drinking water. CPCB (2009)
Asolekar calculated the economic value of municipal wastewater in terms
Centre for Environmental Science and Engineering, of nutrient value to land for agriculture and realized that
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, 400076, India fertilizers along with wastewater worth Rs 1091.20 million are
*Corresponding author: dinesh.poswal0197@gmail.com discharged in to the coastal waters from coastal cities and towns
annually. In the recent years, Natural Treatment Systems (NTSs)
ABSTRACT: This paper reviews the current trends of have been accepted as distinct treatment technologies with low
technical and operational limitations of sub-surface flow construction and operation and maintenance cost. NTSs have
constructed wetlands for treating domestic wastewaters. been proven a better alternative of wastewater treatment
Considering the long-term effectiveness of constructed worldwide because it has minimum energy requirement, reduced
wetlands, aging contributes to decrease in contaminant maintenance and higher degree of treatment as compared to
removal rates over time. Also, temperature fluctuations conventional treatment systems for sanitation of small
especially given in the Indian conditions affect the constructed communities. The different types of NTSs are available and the
wetland efficiency and functioning over time (Vymazal, 2010). most common include hyacinth and duckweed ponds, Lemna
Fluctuations in inflow due to wide range of changes in Ponds, Waste Stabilization Ponds, Oxidation Ponds and Lagoons
precipitation magnitude lead to reduction in treatment and Algal-bacterial Ponds etc. The wastewater treated from
efficiency of the system. Colder conditions affect the rate at NTSs, especially from constructed wetlands (CWs) gives a
which the contaminants get metabolized. Heavy influent flow substantially good quality treated water interims pollution
results in overload to the system and driving it to perform indicator like BOD, COD, TSS and coliforms (Vymazal, 2007).
inefficiently. On the other hand, lower flow (dry conditions)
damages plants and hence severely limits the system A large volume of wastewater continues to be discharged into
performance (Pedescoll et al., 2009). The most commonly natural watercourses leading to pollution of the coastal zones
observed operational problem in constructed wetland is the and drinking water reservoirs in India (Asolekar, 2001).
clogging of the wetland media. The clogging affects the Disposal of partially treated and mostly untreated effluents into
infiltration capacity of the filter media which resulted in rivers and lakes and runoff from urban and agricultural areas are
inefficient use of the system. Also, clogging cause the the two main reasons responsible for deterioration of drinking
deterioration of hydraulic conductivity inside the system water resources. In addition, excessive withdrawal of water for
(Knowles et al., 2009). The clogging can be minimized by agricultural and municipal utilities as well as use of rivers and
implementation of efficient pre-treatment process and units lakes for religious and social practices, and perpetual droughts
before the wastewater enter into the wetland (Varga et al., limits the capacity of river for dilution of wastes (Asolekar,
2013). The other methods for reducing the rate of clogging 2002). The other sources of pollution which is also responsible
include washing the clogged medium and replacing it back, for pollution of ground water and surface water resources are
exposing the clogged medium to oxidizing agents like H 2O2, diffused pollution. The diffuse pollution generally occurs when
anaerobic pre-treatment, flow direction reciprocation, potentially polluting substances leach into surface waters and
minimization of inlet cross sectional area, and implementation groundwater because of rainfall, soil infiltration, and surface
of step-feeding etc. The important issues of successful O&M of runoff (Vymazal, 2008). The typical examples of diffuse
constructed wetlands and there remedial measures have been pollution include application of fertilizers in agricultural
discussed in this paper which are the highlights of this paper. activities and forestry, use of pesticides in wide range of land
Also the effect of climate change on wetland efficiency and uses, contaminant pollution from roads and paved areas,
strategies to be implemented for effective tackling of the atmospheric deposition of contaminants from industrial activity,
etc. (References Needed)

Constructed wetlands (CWs), also called as reed beds, are

artificially engineered eco-systems designed and constructed to
maintain and manipulate physico-chemical and biological
processes within a semi-controlled natural environment
(Vymazal, 2010). These systems are robust, have low external
energy requirements (especially when compared with
conventional wastewater treatment technologies like activated
sludge process), and are easy to operate and maintain which
makes them suitable for decentralized wastewater treatment in
areas that do not have public sewage systems (Wu et al., 2014).
Contaminant removal processes in CWs are very complex and
depend on various interrelated physico-chemical and biological
processes such as sedimentation, filtration, precipitation,
volatilization, adsorption, plant uptake etc. (Vymazal, 2007).
These processes are again indirectly or directly affected by
different loading rates, temperatures, soil types, operation
strategies and redox conditions in wetlands. The present trends
in urbanization make it difficult for intensive use of CWs due to
large area requirements but considering the fact that the wide
range of pollutant removing ability of CWs including nitrogen,
phosphorous, organics, solids, metals and coliforms makes it the
most sought after technique of wastewater treatment in recent
days.
Based on the experienced gained during India wide survey of

operating CWs systems as well as the state of the art of the
current knowledge, the article has been constructed to
summarize the various affecting operating parameters and
environmental conditions that affect the performance of CWs.
The prime objectives that were focused during this study are as
follows:
1. Strategies need to be implemented in alteration of operating

patterns of CW in order to reduce the problem of clogging,
2. To understand and study the effect of tidal operation (flow) in
wetlands treatment efficiency,
3. Study of changes in wetland media and treatment efficiency in
response to artificial aeration.
2. Classification of constructed wetlands
CWs may be classified according to the type of macrophyte

community dominating into free-floating, floating leaved, rooted
emergent and submerged macrophytes. Also division can be
made on basis of wetland hydrology and also flow direction
(Vymazal 2010).

transformation if the incoming

Table 1. Typologies of classification of wetland systems water is rich with organic
nitrogen. It is an energy
releasing, complex biochemical
S. Type of process where amino acids are
System Description
No. Macrophyte subjected to oxidative
(A) Classification of wetlands based on type of vegetation deamination producing ammonia
1 Emergent Emergent macrophytes usually growing in (Saeed and Sun, 2012)
saturated soil, and can grow in water depth of 0.5m (C) Biological processes
or more 1 Bacterial Soluble organic matter is
2 Submerged Macrophytes having their photosynthetic tissue metabolism degraded aerobically by
submersed by water, can grow well in oxygenated heterotrophic bacteria. Also,
water ammonifying bacteria help in
3 Floating Macrophytes rooted in submersed sediments removal of nitrogen by
leaved having water depth of 0.5-3.0m and having slightly degrading organics with
aerial leaves nitrogenunder aerobic
4 Free Macrophytes freely floating on the surface of water environment.(Vymazal 2010)
floating 2 Plant Plants generally help in removal
(B) Classification of wetlands based on their hydrology inside the system metabolism of nutrient by providing the
1 Free water Similar to natural wetlands with shallow flow of substrate (rhizomes and roots)
surface flow wastewater (which is less than 60cm deep) over which help in bacterial growth
saturated soil substrate (Saeed and sun, 2012) as well as nutrient uptake.
2 Sub-Surface Mostly employ gravel as main media, wastewater 3 Plant uptake Plant uptake represents only
flow comes in contact with microorganism growing on temporary storage since the
plat roots and substrate allowing pollutant removal absorbed nutrients are returned
from bulk liquid (Saeed and sun, 2012) back to system after plant die-off
i) Vertical flow systems
ii) Horizontal flow systems
iii) Hybrid flow systems Processing of pollutants inside the CWs
Table 2. Mechanisms and process in pollutant removals in CWs The various processes taking place in CWs includes, physical,
chemical and biological which takes places through the
S.No. Process parameter Mechanism involved combined actions of all the wetland components. The various
(A) Physical processes crucial process taken places during the course of treatment of
1 Sedimentation Involved during precipitation of wastewater are surmises in Table 2.
suspended particulate matter in
the matrices of CW system
which later on processed by Nutrients removals in CWs systems
microorganisms and root
systems. Design and operation The major nutrient in domestic wastewater includes nitrogen and
of CWs for the treatment of
precipitation water heavily phosphorus which are being removed through various
depends on extent of mechanisms summarized in table 2. Phosphorous in wetlands
sedimentation. treating is generally removed by precipitation and adsorption (by
2 Filtration Media used for plant growth act media, generally soil). Precipitation is generally a stimulated
as a conventional filtration unit
in removing pollutants.
condition whereas adsorption occurs naturally under conditions
Suspended solids are filtered by prevailing in wetland. Phosphorus sorption capacities of soils are
plant roots and voids that present directly proportional to the amount of amorphous forms of
in between gravel and sand. aluminium and iron content in the soil (Reddy et al., 1998; Axt
Pebbles, gravel, plants help to
stabilize flow and slow down
and Walbridge, 1999). Sorption is reported to be higherin
water velocity. aerobic soil/sediment conditions than anaerobic conditions (Ann
3 Adsorption Adsorption (apart from and Delfino, 2000). However, fluctuating aerobic and anaerobic
precipitation) plays a vital role conditions of soils and sediments can also cause transformation
in removal of most of the
phosphorous from the
of crystalline Al and Fe compounds to more amorphous forms
wastewater. under anaerobic conditions, which have greater surface areas for
(B) Chemical processes phosphorous sorption reactions to occur. Nitrogen content in
1 Precipitation Accounts for removal of wastewater and influent treated by wetland is basically removed
phosphorous, inorganic by denitrification. The coexistence of aerobic and anoxic layers
pollutants and also heavy metals
from the industrial and domestic facilitates biological nitrogen removal via the coupling of
wastewater.(Qi et al., 2014) nitrification and denitrification reactions. This process involves
2 Chemical Involved in breaking down of the carbonand nitrogen cycles inCWs as the denitrifying bacteria
decomposition complex chemical compounds obtainenergy from organiccompounds at the same time, as
into simpler forms which can be
removed by other process.
nitrate and nitrite is used as an e-acceptor. Denitrification
3 Ammonification If the incoming water is rich occurred through heterotrophic aerobic facultative bacteria that
with organic nitrogen, are able to use nitrate and nitrite as an e- acceptor under anoxic
Ammonification initiates the conditions. These bacteria use oxygen preferentiallyover nitrate
first step of nitrogen

as an e- acceptor when it is available in thesurrounding observed between 16-32C. Denitrification attains

environment. Significant denitrification rates areobserved in maximum rate between 20-25C (U.S EPA, 1975).
Higher temperatures during summer showed
depleted oxygen environments only. (Garcia et al, 2010). considerable increase in nitrification-denitrification
rates compared to winters.
Potential technological intervention (2) Operational factors
1 Organic Organic carbon availability is the factor governing
carbon nitrogen removal mechanisms. In case of absence
Apart from numerous benefits offered by the constructed availabili of organic carbon, external carbon source is
wetland technology, it also has several limitations for successful ty generally added to the Horizontal flow wetland
operation and maintenance which needs to be highlight to make system. A C/N ratio of 2.5 was found to have
technology successfully projected at large scale of highest total nitrogen removal (Zhao et al., 2010).
Denitrification rates are also influenced (improved)
implementation for wastewater treatment and reuse. The primary by external carbon addition. Rustige and Nolde
factors which affect the performance of the system may be (2007) proposed that addition of acetic acid
included under environmental factors and operational issues achieved denitrification rates of around 75% with a
(summarized in Table 3). C/N ratio varying from 0.1-0.8 in case of landfill
leachate.
2 Hydrauli Greater hydraulic loading does not ensure required
During the operation of CWs based systems some common c contact time for proper nitrogen removal and hence
problems have been observed world-wide which ultimately Loading reduces the treatment efficiency. Trang et al., 2010
affect the performance and acceptability of systems by the noticed the reduction in both organics and nitrogen
removal when the HL was increased by 300%
designers for long-term operation. The most commonly observed attributing it to overland flow resulting from high
operational problem in constructed wetland is the clogging of the HL.
wetland media. Clogging can be defined as a process of 3 Feed The various feed modes in practice across the
accumulation of solids of different types basically found in mode world include batch, intermittent, step and tidal
dissolved or suspended form in the influent to be treated by feed modes. Each have their own advantages and
disadvantages but amongst them tidal mode
wetland which results in progressive loss of initial hydraulic showed efficient performance at higher organic
characteristics, mainly porosity and hydraulic conductivity. The loading and hence advisable for treatment of
main disadvantage of clogging is it eventually leads to reduction wastewater with high organic loads (Saeed and
in the infiltration capacity of the filter media. Also this results in Sun, 2012)
4 Retentio Higher retention times usually increase the
deterioration of hydraulic conductivity over time (Knowles et n time nitrogen removal as more contact period ensures
al., 2009). The indicators of clogging of wetland media include, efficient nitrification and denitrification cycles
solids accumulation in between the pores, reduction in drainage taking place inside the wetland matrix
porosity, saturated hydraulic conductivity, appearance of water
on surface of medium near the inlet zone, formation of bad/foul The degree of clogging may be assessed by the traditional
smells (Turon et al., 2009), presence of mosquitoes (Turon et al., methods which comprise of tracer testing and chemical analysis
2009), etc.The clogged CW bed resulted in various effects of composition of clog matter. Now a days the recent methods
including, decrease the hydraulic conductivity and porosity, are being employed for assessing the degree of clogging are the
causes preferential water flows along the wetland, formation of constant-head permeameter tests and falling-head permeameter
dead zones and short circuits (Pedescoll et al., 2009), ponding of tests. These in-situ tests provide valuable insight on the
wastewater on surface of the system (Knowles et al., 2010), assessment and evaluation of the extent of clogging (Nivala et
diminishment of hydraulic retention times (HRT) (Morales et al., al., 2011). Further, accuracy in the results may be achieved by
2014), poor plant growth and weed infestation (Knowles et al., adopting even more sophisticated methods like the finite element
2009), reduction in treatment efficiency of the wetland (Turon et analysis models (Knowles and Davis, 2011). Being non-
al., 2009) etc. The indicative parameters and their effects on the cohesive, gravel samples cannot be extracted non-destructively
clogging of CW system have been summarised in Table 4. to use for analysis by standard laboratory tests (Ranieri, 2003).
Table 3: Factors effecting wetland performance of constructed Hence the need for advanced non-conventional methods arises.
wetland systems The quantity of TCOD and BOD5 indirectly account for
clogging as this will result in solids accumulation through
S. Causativ Effect of influencing factor on overall performance microbial growth. Wastewater containing soluble organic
No. e factor of system biodegradable constituents account for most of the TCOD and
(1) Environmental factors
BOD5.
1 pH Since nitrification consumes alkalinity and results
in drop of pH it indirectly affects denitrification. Theoretically several models of clogging in sub-surface flow
An optimum pH between 6-8 with a highest rate of treatment wetlands have been proposed for by many researchers.
denitrification at pH between 7.0-7.5 is reported Some of these models include reactive-transport model. (Samso
(U.S EPA, 1975) et al., 2013) which mimics the working of HSSF constructed
2 Dissolve Lack of oxygen inhibits denitrification and it can
d oxygen be overcome by employing forced aeration into the wetland which is most preferred natural wastewater treatment
wetland matrix (Zhang et al., 2010) but on the technology in use. HSSF constructed wetlands are generally
flipside this can account for little extra operational simulated by considering the wastewater flow saturation. And
costs for smaller wetland systems. for describing the hydraulics taking place in the wetland system,
3 Tempera Temperature affects nirtrification as well as
ture denitrification with peak denitrification rates
we generally adopt a continuously stirred tank reactor network
(Mthembu et al., 2013). However, the purification process of

wetlands is quite difficult to understand and hence limits the fluctuations conditions affect the wetland 2010
wide scale application of these models. However, CWs are efficiency and functioning
3 Fluctuations in The wide range of changes in Saeed and
known to be complex systems, the behavior of which depends on inflow precipitation magnitude lead to Sun
various physical as well as chemical factors. To understand the reduction in treatment efficiency (2012)
effect of all these factors on the functioning of CWs, further of constructed wetland
iterations and studies have to be conducted. 4 Colder conditions Affects the rate at which the Claudiane
contaminants are broken down et al, 2006
5 Heavy influent Results in overload to the Saeed and
Table 4: Indicative parameters and their effect on clogging of flow wetland driving it to perform Sun
CW systems inefficiently (2012)
6 Dry flow damage Dry flow damages plants and Pedescoll
Indicative hence severely limits the et al.,
S. wetland function. Also 2009
Parameter of Description of Causative Effect Reference
No. intervenes with the growth cycle
Clogging
1 Accumulation Similar to flocculation where the Caselles- of plants as it takes considerable
of wastewater transport mechanism results in Osorio and amount of time for the plants to
solids and collision between the particles and Garca(20 grow back and function at full
vegetal debris the particles adhere onto the 06) potential.
in the CW medium upon impact with it. The
media retention of particles on the media Strategies for minimization of clogging
is due to the electrochemical effect
of adsorption i.e. the summation of
electrical double layer interactions The most widely found functional limitation of constructed
and Van der waals forces. wetland-clogging can be minimized by adopting various
2 Growth of bio The microbes follow the same Caselles- approaches during operation and maintenance practices of CW
film on CW principles of transport and Osorio and systems which have been summarized in Table 6.
medium attachment followed by the Garca(20
suspended solids. Biofilm clogging 06)
reduced the inlet hydraulic Table 6.Strategies in minimization of clogging of CW systems
conductivity as much as 64% when
compared to the outler hydraulic S.
Potential activity to minimize the clogging References
conductivity. No.
3 Rhizomes and Root growth would counteract the Kickuth 1 Implementation of efficient pre-treatment Varga et al.,
roots clogging phenomenon contrary to andKnem process and units before the wastewater enters 2013
the normal belief. Macro-porous ann, the wetland
network of flow is provided by the (1988), 2 Washing the clogged medium and replacing it Pedescoll et al.,
roots due to their tubular structure Kadlec back in the wetland 2009
which could reduce clogging. Root and 3 Partially or completely replacing the clogging Pedescoll et al.,
material contributed to sub surface Wallace medium with new one. This has to be adopted 2009, Turon et
clogging whereas leaf litter-fall (20009) only when the degree of obstruction is al., 2009
contributed to surface clogging. considerable (> 75% stagnancy)
4 Chemical Processes like physico-chemical Wallace 4 Exposing the clogged medium to oxidising Pedescoll et al.,
processes adsorption associated with removal and agents like H2O2 2009
of metals and phosphorous and Knight, 5 High TSS removal in anaerobic pre- Varga et al.,
deposition of chemical precipitates 2006 treatmentwould effectively reduce or avoid 2012
contribute to clogging. the wetland clogging problem by a
5 Hydraulic This can also be considered as one Knowles considerable extent
overloading of the contributing factors for et al., 2010 6 Changes in operation strategies (resulting in Saeed and Sun
clogging. Hydaulic overloading performance intensification) like flow (2012)
basicallyresults in reduced direction reciprocation which results in
detention timeswhich results in effective prevention of organic matter
partial degradation of organics and accumulation were effectively implemented
also hydraulic overloading leads to by Shen et al.,2010 with in-situ application of
increased rate of TSS inflow into flow direction reciprocation.
the wetland ultimately resulting in 7 Minimization of inlet cross sectional area Munoz et al.,
faster rate of clogging.o which reduces the cross sectional loading 2006, Nivala et
would also result in minimization of the al., 2011
clogging considerably but has its own effects
The potential interventions which found mainly responsible in on the design modifications that result in
depriving the systems have been listed in Table 5. reduction of overall treatment efficiency
8 Implementation of step-feeding can also Wu et al., 2014
Table 5. Potential interventions in deprived performance of CW avoid clogging since the organic load and
suspended solids would be distributed along a
systems greater section of the wetland
9 Increasing the granulometry of filler materials Morales et al.,
S. Causative factor by gradual increment in the size of the stones 2014
Description of Causative Effect Reference
No. for clogging of the bed along the length of the bed
1 Age effect Aging contributes to decrease in Vymazal, 10 Implementing structural modifications in Wu et al., 2014
contaminant removal rates over 2005 water distribution channel
time 11 Raking: Scraping the initial length of the bed Turon et al.,2009
2 Temperature Especially given in Indian Vymazal, with a small rack proves to be advantageous

in removing accumulated solids layer and had an effect on the mass removal rate of TSS. This may be
improving the hydraulic conductivity of the linked to an increase of water retention time caused by increase
matrix
in water loss inthe warm season (Duek et al., 2008). Climatic
variations had a clear effect on NH4 mass removal rate efficiency
Potential modifications to improve the overall system
which shows that NH4 removal mechanisms are temperature
performance
dependent. NH4 removal efficiencies were very poor in winter
and in fact negative in some cases. This meant that the NH4
The long-term effectiveness of CW systemremains a problem
concentrations increased from inlet to the outlet indicating
which can be improved by adopting various corrective measures.
activity of methanogenic bacteria (Duek et al., 2008); due to
which nitrogen mineralization occurs, increasing NH4
Application of designed pollution load during course of
concentration. Finally it can be summarized that biological
treatment
processes depend on climate and temperature,and winter
removal performances of horizontal subsurface flow constructed
The wetland cells which are having size to deal with heavy
wetland for nitrogenand soluble organic matter, which are
rainfall conditions, will be subjected to insufficient water during
completely driven by biologicalactivity, may be reduced (Kadlec
the summer and spring seasons to maintain plant growth and
and Reddy, 2001).
microbialactivity in the wetland (Suliman et al., 2005) which
eventuallycause wetland becomes dry and microbes will be lost.
Anti-clogging design of wetland bed
This type of situation reduced the performance of the treatment
system due to lack of microbes and it again need time to re-
Since porosity will significantly affect the hydraulic conductivity
establish the system microorganisms (Suliman et al., 2005).This
of the wetland medium, it will be illogical to keep a constant
kind of problem can be dealt by constructing a water storage
grain size throughout the medium (Morales et al., 2014). An
facility at the upstream of the wetland (so that flow occurs due to
increase in 45% of porosity has resulted in a corresponding
gravity). This also allows for wastewater to be collected during
decrease upto 60% hydraulic conductivity (Morales et al., 2014).
monsoon period of the year when wetland system cannot provide
Also since the aeration of system is necessary, it must be made
a high level of treatment. This stored water can be utilized
sure that the wetland must have simple operation that will attain
during the summer which supports excellent plant and microbial
natural aeration so as to avoid clogging as a result of anaerobic
growth and hence enhances the treatment efficiency to a
activities and simultaneously ensure aerobic processes on the
considerable extent.
surface so as to account for degradation of organic matter
(Morales et al., 2014).
Design and operation of CW systems according to the
climatic conditions
Generally the major process that is responsible for natural
exchange of gases like hydrogen sulphide and oxygen is the gas-
Constructed wetland performance is either studied in a
liquid mass exchange between the water and the atmosphere.
Mediterranean climate or in a continental climate. Generally,
The amount of aeration happening by this process is generally
there are no studies comparing CW performance of two or more
not enough to maintain aerobic conditions if DO of the influent
systems in different climates in any part of the world (Garfi et
is very less. So in order to ensure these pre-requisite conditions
al., 2012). Also, there prevails a general assumption that CWs
for an efficient wetland performance we must adopt a dynamic
are more suitable in tropical areas than in temperate conditions,
and anti-clogging stone layout which will not only avoid
because in warm conditions there is continuous plant growth and
clogging to a maximum extent, but also creates natural forced
biological activity throughout the year, which indirectly results
aeration along the entire length of the wetland media (Morales et
in increased efficiency which is not possible in colder climates.
al.,2014). Morales et al (2014) has analyzed the effect of stone
The results obtained by Garfi et al., 2012 clearly show that for
layout by testing and comparing the operation of two wetland
both tropical and temperate climatic conditions, horizontal
beds, one with normal rolled-edge stones with no layout
subsurface flow constructed wet lands serve as a successful
organization having an effective porosity of 14.9% throughout
technology. However, efficiencies can be increased in colder
all cross sections., and other wetland bed consisting of sharp
climates also by changing the operating conditions like
stones with organized layout with an effective porosity of
increasing the hydraulic retention time and also decreasing the
51.46% at the input and 23.57 at the output section. He found
pollutant mass loading rates (Akratos et al., 2008; Garfi et al.,
out that the later setup had experienced negligible clogging
2012). Increasing the HRT reduces the differences in efficiency
compared to the former setup.
between cold and warm periods to be less than 10% for all
parameters. Hence the wetland is not utilized to its full potential
(Wu et al., 2014).
Installation of primary treatment units
It has been observed that climatic variations do not have a
Anaerobic pre-treatment generally involves the treatment of
considerable effect on removal of TSS. This is because TSS
primary wastewater by anaerobic digesters before allowing it for
removal occurs in CWs mainly due to physical processes like
treatment by CW. The major contributor of clogging is the TSS,
sedimentation and filtration which are not sensitive to season or
soluble organic matter which are biodegradable also result in
temperature. However, according to Garfi et al., 2008, season
clogging due to microbial growth (Varga et al., 2013). Since

these two contributors can easily be avoided by effective pre- this aspect. The main reason for low nitrogen removal rates in
treatment of influent wastewater, this method is of utmost the wetlands is short hydraulic retention time. For this the
significance for successful abatement of clogging. The wetland is divided into two stages wherein the first stage in
combination of constructed wetland and anaerobic digester characterized by implementation of low retention time for BOD
proves to be very effective since both these operations are eco- removal. After considerable amount of organic load is degraded
friendly, sustainable and cost-effective, considering the low in the first stage, the wastewater is recirculated into the second
construction and maintenance costs of the same (Pedescoll et al., stage wherein the hydraulic retention time is increased to
2011). The combination of these two technologies work on a approximately 3.5 days. Recirculation of wastewater effluent
complimentary basis considering the fact that anaerobic pre- basically dilutes the concentration of incoming wastewater and
treatment removes considerable amount of suspended solids and increases the contact time of the wastewater with the biofilms in
on the other hand CW contributes towards ensuring better the substrate and hence improves the denitrification process in
effluent quality (Alvarez et al., 2008). the presence of organic matter (Saeed and Sun, 2012). As a
result increased nitrogen removal takes place due to higher NO 3-
Reversing clogging by H2O2 treatment N reduction attaining higher N- removal efficiencies of the
wetland. This method can be fruitful when applied for horizontal
Most part of the treatment operation by CWs is done by the subsurface flow wetlands receiving high strength wastewater.
wetland bed or so called filter media of the wetland. But as time On the other hand it has its own limitations. Some of them
passes, the wetland bed gets clogged eventually and reduces the include increased operational costs, reduced pollutant removal
overall treatment efficiency of wetland. The conventional for wetlands receiving medium to low strength waste water (Wu
method of handling this situation is by removing the clogged et al., 2014).
material and replacing it or renewing it with fresh material. This
method is advisable if the size of the wetland is comparatively Step feeding: Step feeding in simpler terms means introducing
small. But for treatment on a large scale this method does not the wastewater inflow at number of input points along the length
serve the purpose of reversing clogging and proves to be very of the wetland bed. In order to ensure uniform distribution of
costly as well. In recent years, others methods such as flow, the inlet and outlet structures must be designed properly
implementing resting period for each wetland cell to restore the especially for wetland systems with small L:Wratio (Stefanakis
clogged pores and gaining back the hydraulic conductivity, have et al., 2010). Hence introducing more number of inlet points will
been proposed. But this method also proves to be impractical for theoretically increase the L:W ratio and hence uniform
small systems (Nivala and Rousseau, 2009). Studies conducted distribution of influent into the wetland is ensured. Stefanakis et
by Nivala et al., 2009 shows that replenishing the clogged al. (2010) has conducted experiments for 3 years with
wetland bed by oxidising agents such as H2O2was promising introduction of step feeding in last year of wetland operation. He
enough to be implemented on a regular basis since it did not found out that instead of uniform step feed hydraulic loading, the
have any long term effect on the wetland plants and biofilms. It gradual decreasing pattern in the flow at 3 step feeds has given
was observed that H2O2acts as an oxidising agent and liberates more supporting results, where in the organic and nitrogen
the particulate biomass accumulated in the bed by chemical removal improved significantly. Phosphorous also shown
oxidation. This also resulted in increased TSS content in the increasing trend in removal. This successful step feed
effluent for a small period of time due to chemical oxidation by distribution was reported to be as 60%, 25%, and 15% of the
H2O2 and physical process like heat and bubbling that generally total influent volume.
occurs due to H2O2 application.
Flow direction reciprocation: This method can be adopted
Changes in operating patterns provided the wetland is temporarily divided into 2 or more parts
each connected in series and having a cyclic configuration.
Tidal Flow: This is a recently developed practice in which the According to Behrends, 1999, in this method adjacent cells
flow into the wetland is controlled so as to maintain aerobic as sequentially and continuously drained and filled in order to
well anaerobic zones in the wetland media facilitating achieve aerobic, anoxic and anaerobic conditions necessary for
simultaneous nitrification and denitrification. Nitrification sufficient removal of BOD, TAN (total ammonia nitrogen), and
occurs when the aerobic conditions are prevailing in the media total phosphorus. This cyclic process of draining and filling the
which is achieved by draining the wetland cells allowing oxygen wastewater in reciprocation is achieved by using gravity, pumps
to enter the media pores, while denitrification along with or a combination of both. The physical parameters
sulphate reduction is achieved when the anoxic conditions are corresponding to this setup like detention time, depth of filter
maintained by flooding the wetland cells with influent until bed, and reciprocation frequency depend on the effluent quality
saturation is achieved(Sun et al., 2005; Wu et al., 2011). This required, type of wastewater treated, land availability and
methodhas observed to be cost effective, efficient as well as hydraulic loading rate. Behrends (1999) suggested that the
robust but requires skilled manpower to cater for complicated retention time should be significantly longer that the cycle time
operational demands. of reciprocation. In case of domestic wastewater treatment the
retention time is advisable to be kept between 0.5 to 15 days.
Effluent recirculation: Considering the fact of low nitrogen Accordingly the reciprocation cycle time must be restricted to
removal rates of CW compared to other treatment technologies, fluctuate anywhere between six times an hour to twice a day.
there is a need for operational modifications of the wetland in

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research 57 (2014) 40-55. Dye, Pharmaceutical, Refinery, Distillery industries are
xxvii. Suliman, F., French, H. K., Haugen, L.E., Svik, A. K. (2005) Change major contributors to worldwide industrial pollution and creates
in flow and transport patterns in horizontal sub-surface flow constructed
an adverse effect eco-system/human being (Suresh and
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133. Rameshraja 2011). Effluent of these industries represents on
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L.A., Brix, H. (2010) Kinetics of pollutant removal from domestic wastewater in turbid, suspended solids, presence of synthetic dyes of complex
a tropical horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetland system: effects of
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A proposal for the integration andreuse of existing knowledge. Ecological recalcitrant for degradation these wastes require appropriate and
Engineering 35 (2009):17101718. comprehensive management approach environmental regulatory
xxx. Varga, D. De. La. Daz, M. A., Ruiz, I., Soto, M. (2013) Avoiding
agencies are setting strict criteria for discharge of wastewaters
clogging in constructed wetlands by using anaerobicdigesters as pre-treatment.
Ecological Engineering 52 (2013): 262 269. from industries (Suresh et al., 2011). Colour from dye/textile
xxxi. Zhang, D. Q., Jinadasa, K. B. S. N., Gersberg, R. M., Liu, Y., Wun industry causes a reduction of sunlight penetration in rivers
Jern Ng. (2014) Soon Keat Tan Application of constructed wetlands for because of this decreases both photosynthetic activity and
wastewater treatment indeveloping countries - A review of recent
dissolved oxygen concentration causing harm to aquatic life
developments(2000-2013). Journal of Environmental Management 141, 116-131.
(Suresh and Kumar, 2013).
The wastewater generally treated with primary,
secondary and advance treatment methods. The primary
treatment includes neutralization, equalization, sedimentation,
screening, etc. whereas the secondary treatment process includes
the biological and chemical treatment process (Metcalf and
Eddy, 2004). The advanced treatment method are carbon
adsorption, denitrification, ion exchange, reverse osmosis,
A Mini Review on Fixed Film Reactor for electrodialysis etc. and the biological treatment process such as
Wastewater Treatment activated sludge process, trickling filter, oxidation ditch,
sequential batch reactor, rotating biological contactor etc
Saraswati Rana and S. Suresh* (Metcalf and Eddy, 2004; Suresh et al., 2011).All the treatment
method have its own advantage and disadvantages, due to eco-
Department of Chemical Engineering, Maulana Azad National friendly, more stability and high interfacial area, low
Institute of Technology Bhopal-462 051 maintenance and power consumption throughout the process,
*Corresponding Author's E-mail: sureshpecchem@gmail.com RBC is the have addition advantages over other treatment
method (Ghawi and Kris, 2009; Waskar et al, 2012). Biological
ABSTRACT: This paper reviews on presents rotating wastewater Treatment process can be divided into types-attached
biological contactor (RBC) treatment method for dye/textile, growth process and suspended growth process. Attached growth
pharmaceutical, refinery and distillery industrial effluents and process is more stable than suspended growth process because of
their applications. Wastewater from these industries is most its capacity to endure fluctuations in flow rate and organic
difficult to treat due to the presence of complex aromatic matter.
chemical structure, which makes them highly stable and hence A rotating biological contactor is an aerobic and
recalcitrant for degradation. Physico-chemical treatment anaerobic fixed film biological treatment. This treatment method
methods are costly due to high price or large quantity of is generally used as secondary treatment of industrial and
consume chemicals and equipments, and excessive amounts of domestic wastewater. In rotating biological contactor, disc
sludge production. Thus, RBC is the biological methods which biomass is liable for the degradation of organic materials (Ghawi
preferred due to simple, cheap, process stability and eco- and Kris, 2009). Rotating biological contactor consist a different
friendly operations and also offers high interfacial area size glass container called reactor and a series of circular disks
generated in the rotating disc to establish good contact between of polymer materials like polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride,
the microbial species and pollutants. In this mini-review, polyethylene, acrylic plastic. These discs are submerged in
summarized the performance of RBC in industries like in wastewater and rotated through it. These discs are mounted on
petroleum refinery, COD removal is 42%, in dye/textile horizontal shaft and rotated by a variable-speed electric motor.

RBC consist single or multiple stage (shown in Fig. 1). There are 250
many parameters affecting RBCs performance like organic

loading, hydraulic loading, biomass, rotational speed,
Percent removal of Phenol

200
wastewater temperature, staging, RBC media, Dissolved oxygen
levels, medium submergence. Co (mg/l)
150 160
180
200
100 220
50
0
0 10 20 30 40
Time (h)
Figure 2. Effect of phenol concentration on rotating biological
reactor (Pradeep et al. 2011).
Kapdan and Kargi (2002) investigated the role of C.

versicolor, white-rot fungi on decolorization efficiency of a
textile industry wastewater and concluded that removal
Figure 1. Three stage Fixed film Biological Contactor. efficiency depends on biofilm thickness, rotational speed and
concentration of carbon source or glucose. For better growth of
This mini review focus on various discussions on fungi and higher decolorization efficiency, optimum glucose
performance for treatment of wastewater from dye, distillery, concentration was 10g/l compare to 5g/l, with the decreases of
pharmaceutical and refinery industries by using Fixed bed glucose concentration color removal efficiency also decreased
reactor. due to loss of fungal activity. Color removal efficiency found
77% with 5 g/l glucose concentration. It was found that
2. LITERATURE DISSCUSSIONS rotational speed also played important role in color removal
Pradeep et al. (2011) studied on phenol degradation efficiency. Decolorization increased with the increasing of
with the using of rotating biological contactor which consisted of rotational speed such as 35% efficiency found at 10-20 rpm and
six polymethacrylate discs, each of diameter was 18 cm, was 75% at 30-40 rpm because with the increases of rpm Dissolved
covered with polyester cloth. A 10 litres working capacity tank oxygen also increased TOC removal efficiency found 65% at 20
was made by glass. Different phenol concentrations were studied rpm and 80% at 40 rpm. Total decolorization efficiency obtained
from 160 to 220 mg/l phenol with an increment of 20mg/l. For 33% with 500 mg/l dye concentration and 80% with 50-100 mg/l
every increase in phenol concentration the removal efficiency of dye concentration. At high concentration of dye decolorization
phenol and the residence time were examined. The time profile efficiency decreased due to the adverse effect of dye on fungi.
of phenol removal is as shown in Fig.2. It was observed that the Goyal et al. (2010) studied the four stage model of RBC
phenol removal was 99 % for concentrations from 40 to 180 for treatment of textile wastewater. Material used for RBC
mg/l. At the concentration of 200 mg/l, decrease in removal compartments was stainless steel, number of disks in each stage
efficiency was observed. When reactor was fed with the was 4, disks made by polystyrene. The synthetic wastewater
concentration of 220 mg/l, the phenol degradation rate and contained a mixture of three commercially available reactive
phenol removal efficiency dropped significantly as the dyes- procion brilliant yellow, procion brilliant blue and procion
microorganisms were acclimatized till 200 mg/l of phenol. brilliant red. As the concentrations of glucose decreased
Alemzadeh et al (2002) obtained 99% phenol removal using gradually from 3.0 to 1.0 g/l, the color removal efficiency varied
RBC at an initial phenol concentration of 100 mg/l. from 95% to 85%. The color and COD removal efficiency of the
Pakshirajan et al. (2009) investigated that treatment of RBC system decreased sharply (15% and 40%, respectively) as
decolourising of azo dye containing synthetic wastewater in the glucose concentration was further decreased (from 1.0 to 0.5
continuously operated RBC reactor. Initial dye concentration g/l and then to 0.0 g/l). It indicated that 1.0 g/l is the minimum
was varied between 50mg/l and 100mg/l and the disc rotation concentration of glucose, which is required for the RBC system
speed ranged varied from 5 rpm to 11 rpm. Results revealed that to effect color (905%) and COD (953%) removal. At the
containing synthetic wastewater by a mixed culture in RBC optimized dose (1.0g/l) of glucose media, at 12 h retention time,
reactor was more than 92% at all experimental conditions. dye concentration was increased from 25 to 125 ppm. The result
Initial dye concentration showed significant negative effect as shows that the efficiency of color and COD removal was varied
compared to disc rotation speed on decolourisation efficiency of from 87% to 97% and 70% to 96%, respectively, when the dye
RBC. concentration was increased 25 to 100 ppm. The treatment
efficiency for color and COD removal fell down immediately as
the dye concentration was further increased (from 100 to
125ppm). So, it was observed that the 1.0 g/l of glucose

concentration and 100 ppm dye concentration in the textile decolourization efficiency was 64% at the end of 2 day, which
wastewater are the optimum dosage for the best treatment however further reduce to 53% at the end of this operation stage.
efficiency of the RBC system in terms of color and COD This reduction in decolourization efficiency correlated with the
removal. enzyme activity profiles which shows that LiP (Lignin
Emerenshiya et al. (2011) reported that treatment of peroxidise) and MnP (manganese peroxidise) activities were
distillery wastewater using RBCs. They found that dissolved high at the beginning of the stage with lower values towards the
oxygen (DO) level is nearly enhanced 40% which is end of the stage. The initial value of the COD removal efficiency
contradictory of normal treatment that DO concentrations drop of the wastewater was 73% at the end of two days and it reduced
during the experiment. This indicated that treatment with RBC to 57% at the end of the stage. In wastewater was diluted with
reduces the organic load after secondary treatment. The COD media (no glucose) and it was feed to the bioreactor. Results
values showed nearly 60% reduction after treating with RBCs revealed that low decolourization efficiency (52.49%) was
and the effluents was suitable to be reused. Guimaraes et al. achieved but COD removal was slightly higher (65%) than the
(2005) investigated that rotating biological contactor (RBC) first stage. They found that media containing glucose < 5g/l, the
containing P. chrysosporium immobilized on PUF disks with decolourization efficiency value was low due to low MnP
optimized decolourization medium (basal medium without both activity. Maximum decolourization efficiency 83% was achieved
thiamine and exogenous nitrogen) in continuous mode with a when 10g/l of glucose was used in the media for dilution.
residence time of 3 days. The RBC reactor was monitored to Decolourization achieved 80% at 5g/l glucose in the media.
determine the active life of the biocatalyst (Fig. 3). During the Molasses at 4g/l was used in the media, it could seen that
initial 17 days an average decolourization of 54% and an although COD removal was very high, due to complete
average total phenols reduction of 62% were observed. From the mineralization of highly oxidisable substances present in the
17th day of continuous operation, a progressive decrease in molasses decolourization of the wastewater was quite low due to
colour removal was observed while the reduction of total insufficient enzyme activities. Results indicated that costly
phenols was reasonably stable. Minimum values of 27 and 56% carbon source glucose in the decolourization media with the
were recorded on the 24th day, for colour and total phenols more cheap molasses, however, revealed very high COD
reduction, respectively. Guimaraes et al. (2011) suggested that, removal efficiency, but low decolourization efficiency of the
the decrease in efficiency with the increase in the treatment industry wastewater. Malandra et al. (2003) investigated that
period recorded was probably due to the loss of mycelial treatment of winery wastewater using RBC. It was observed that
activity, primarily in the first stage, caused by diffusion extensive bio film developed on the RBC discs and contained a
limitations. number of yeast and bacterial species that displayed a dynamic
70 population shift during the evaluation period. The COD
reduction attained 43% with a retention time of 1 hour. It
60 reported that one of the yeast isolates MEA5 was able to reduce
COD from synthetic wastewater by 95% and 46% within 24
50 hours under aerated and non-aerated conditions respectively.
Percent removal
Coetzee et al. (2004) studied two stage model of RBC for the
40
treatment of the winery wastewater. RBC compartment was
stainless steel, media dimension was 23cm and disks were made
30
by Polyurethane material with discs rotated at 6 rpm with 40%
20 Colour discs submerged. Result revealed that after retention time of 1
Total Phenols
hour COD reduction was attained 23 % (from 3828mg/l to
10 2910mg/l).
Deshpande et al. (2012) investigated that treatment of a
0 pharmaceutical wastewater which pretreated in a first stage by
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 electrocoagulation (EC), using an anaerobic fixed-film fixed-bed
Time (day) reactor. The reactor was operated at an organic loading rate
Figure 3. Colour and total phenols removal performance of (OLR) ranging from 0.6 to 7.0 kg COD/(m3 d) at an HRT of 13
continuous RBC reactor operated in one way feeding mode d, and the resulting experimental data is shown in Fig. 4. Under
(Guimaraes et al., 2005). these operating conditions, best removal efficiencies were
Pakshirajan and Kheria (2012) studied that obtained at OLRs ranging from 0.6 to 4.0 kg COD/(m3 d) and an
decolourization of synthetic wastewater by using two stage RBC HRT of 2 d, at which COD removals were in the range of 80%
reactor with made of polymethyl methacrylate. Reactor was to 90%. Further increases in OLR to 5.0, 6.0 and 7.0 kg
operated at a temperature 30 2C, disc speed 6 rpm with 48h COD/(m3 d) resulted in a drastic reduction in COD removal
hydraulic retention time. Further experiments were performed efficiency to 72.6%, 64.0% and 46.0%, respectively.
with the wastewater containing no glucose and glucose at Vasiliadou et al. (2014) studied on RBC for removal of
different concentrations (1-10g/l) and glucose in the media was pharmaceutical compounds under continuous operation. A two-
replaced by molasses (4g/l) and mixed with the wastewater (1:1) stage RBC was used, providing a total surface area of 1.41m2.
in order to evaluated its utility as a cheaper carbon source than Four pharmaceuticals of different therapeutic classes; caffeine,
glucose in treating the wastewater. Results revealed that sulfamethoxazole, ran-itidine and carbamazepine were studied.
The different conditions resulted to different solid retention

times (SRT: 721 d) in each scenario. The increase of SRT due 100
Percent removal of VOC (MEK, MIBK, Toluene mixture)

to variations of the operating conditions seemed to has a positive
effect on pharmaceuticals removal and negative correlation was 95
observed between substrates loading and pharmaceuticals

90
removal. An increase of initial pharmaceuticals concentration
resulted to decrease of SRT and pharmaceuticals removal, 85
suggested that toxic effect to the biofilm. The maximum

removals achieved were greater than 85% for all 80
pharmaceuticals. The model predicted the contribution of 75

sorption and biodegradation on pharmaceuticals elimination
taking into account the diffusion of pharmaceuticals inside 70
160 170 180 190 200 210
biofilm.
Time (day)
Figure 5.. Removal efficiency of VOC (MEK, MIBK, Toulene mixture) in the
100 rotating biological contactor (Datta and Philip, 2014).
90
80 CONCLUSION
Percent removal of COD
Fixed film reactor/RBCs have been widely used by various

70
investigators for the treatment of industrial wastewater
60 especially from dye/textile, pharmaceutical, distillery and
50 refinery. Numbers of studies have been done by varying the
40 various controlling parameters like organic loading, hydraulic
30
retention time, speed of rotation, dissolve oxygen, staging,
temperature, submergence etc. From the literature discussion and
20
results showed that Fixed film reactor is effectively used for
10 treatment of wastewater of even at very high organic. Fixed film
0 reactor does not require recirculation of secondary sludge and its
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 hydraulic retention time is low is an important advantage when
Time (day) compared with other biological treatments like activated sludge
Figure 4. Performance of rotating biological reactor for treating processes, trickling filter and other treatment methods.
electro-coagulation pretreated substrate (Deshpande et al., 2012).
Tyagi et al. (1993) investigated that treatment of the REFERENCES
petroleum refinery wastewater in fabricated four stage RBC i. A. M. Deshpande, S. Satyanarayan and Ramakant (2011), Kinetic
analysis of an anaerobic fixed-film fixed bed-reactor treating wastewater arising
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0.04m3/m2.d. After treatment with these values the COD 2011.
removal rate was 87.5%, 84.9%, 81.5% and 80.2% for respective iv. Suresh S, Ravi Kant Tripathi and M. N. Gernal Rana. Review On
Treatment Of Industrial Wastewater Using Sequential Batch Reactor. Int. J. Sci.
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g/m2.d). Datta and Philip (2014) studied on removal of complex v. Suresh S, Sachin Kumar, Removal of Dyes from Textile Wastewater
mixture of VOCs commonly found in surface coating using Photo-Oxidation: A review paper on current technology. BS publication
manufacturing and application facilities in the RBC. Methyl (ISBN: 978-81-7800-286-6) 5nd chapter, Vol. 1, 2013.
vi. Metcalf and Eddy, 2004 Wastewater Engineering, Tata McGraw-Hill
ethyl ketone (MEK), methyl iso-butyl ketone (MIBK), Publishing, Fourth Edition.
ethylbenzene, o-xylene and toluene (T) were taken as model vii. A.H.Ghawi and J.Kris 2009 Use of rotating biological contactor for
pollutants. Overall removal efficiency dropped to 88.1% for a appropriate technology wastewater treatment. Slovak Journal of Civil
total mixture of 672 g/m3/h (Fig. 5). The elimination capacity Engineering,
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was hundred percent initially with increasing individual as well Application and Performance of Rotating Biological Contactor (RBC),
as total ILR, however, with further increase of ILR, the total International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, ISSN
elimination capacity decreased (Fig. S5). The concentration 2250-3153
profile of these three compounds along the length of the reactor ix. L. Malandra, G. Coetzee, Marinda-Bloom (2003), Microbiology of a
Rotating Biological Contactor for Winery Wastewater Effluent, water research,
showed that while MEK and MIBK was biodegraded mostly in Vol.37, pp: 4125-4134
the first 18 cm of the RBC, biodegradation of toluene took place x. Guimaraes, P. Porto, R. Oliveira, M. Motab (2005), Continuous
along the entire length of the RBC. decolourization of a Sugar Refinery Wastewater in a Modified Rotating
Biological Contactor with phanerochaete Chrysosporium Immobilized On
Polyurethane Foam Disks, Process Biochemistry, Vol.40 pp:535-540
xi. K. Pakshirajan, E.R. Rene, and T. Swaminathan (2009),
Decolourisation of azo dye containing synthetic wastewater in a Rotating

Biological Contactor reactor: a factorial design study, International Journal of technology for utilization of parthenium hysterophorous.
Environment and Pollution.Vol. 5, pp: 266-275
xii. R. A. Emerenshiya, S.Kalavathy and R.Rajendran (2011), Analysis of
From the literature point of view, methane content of gas
Physico-Chemical Parameters of WashWater from Distillery before and after varied between 62 to 70 % and sorptive removal of Cd(II)
treatment using rotating biological contactor. Journal of Plant Sciences Feed, and Ni was found to be 99.7% and 97.54% respectively on
Vol.10, pp: 183-185 to parthenium hysterophorous ash. Seeds germinations and
xiii. K. Pakshirajan, Kheria S., (2012), Continuous treatment of coloured
industry wastewater using immobilized Phanerochaete chrysosporium in a
radical growth were inhibited by parthenium solids and also
rotating biological contactor reactor, Journal of Environmental Management, decreases biogas production.
Vol. 101, pp: 118-123
xiv. Goyal R., T.R. Sreekrishnan, M. Khare, S. Yadav, and M. Chaturvedi Keywords: Parthenium hystophorous, compost, biogas,
(2010) Experimental Study on Color Removal from Textile Industry Wastewater
Using the Rotating Biological Contactor, Journal of Practice Periodical of
biosorption, heavy metals.
Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste Management, Vol. 14, pp: 240-245
xv. I.A. Vasiliadou, R. Molina, F. Martinez, J.A. Melero (2014), LITERATURE DISCUSSIONS
Experimental and modelling study on removal of pharmaceutically active
compounds in rotating biological contactors, Journal of Hazardous Materials,
By accidentally parthenium hysterophorus introduced into India
Vol.274, pp:473-482
xvi. G. Coetzee, L Malandra, GM Wolfaardt and M Viljoen-Bloom through PL480 food grains from USA two decades ago.
(2004), Dynamics of a microbial biofilm in a rotating biological contactor for Agriculture chemist found that parthenium hysterophorus is a
the treatment of winery effluent, Water SA, Vol. 30 weed came by imparted food grains which affecting food, fodder
xvii. R.D.Tyagi, F.T. Traiq and A. K. M. M. Chowdhury (1993),
crops and causes serious problem to humans/animals such as
Biodegradation Of Petroleum Refinery Wastewater in a Modified Rotating
Biological Contactor With Polyurethane Foam Attached to the Discs, Water allergic, asthama, bronchilis etc (Hausen,1978; Narasimhan et al.
Research, Vol. 27, pp: 91-99 1977; Gunaseelam, 1987; 1997). Rajan(1973) reported growth of
xviii. S. Cortez, P. Teixeira, R. Oliveira, M. Mota (2008), Rotating seminal roots and coleoltiles in wheat seeding inhibited by P.
biological contactors: a review on main factors affecting performance, Rev
hysterophorus weed. Parthenium is reported to have insecticidal
Environ Sci Biotechnol 7: 155-172
xix. K. Stalin (2014), Performance of Rotating Biological Contactor in hematicidal and herbicidal properties and used for producing
Wastewater Treatment- A Review, International Journal of Scientific & biogas, paper and compost (Gunaseelam, 1987; Katiyar, 2014).
Engineering Research, Volume5, ISSN 2229-5518, pp: 520-524
xx. I. K. Kapdan, F. Kargi (2002), Biological decolorization of textile
In recent years, energy generation from animal waste/weeds/leaf
dyestuff containing wastewater by Coriolus versicolor in a rotating biological
contactor, Enzyme and Microbial Technology 30, 195-199 litters by anaerobic digestion have attracted because of the oil
xxi. N.V. Pradeep, Anupama, U.S. Hampannavar (2011), Biodegradation crisis (Kumar et al., 2013; Arisutha et al., 2014a-b). Gunaseelan
of phenol using Rotating Biological Contactor, International Journal of (1997) reviewed that hand- and mechanically-sorted municipal
Environmental Sciences, Volume 2, 105-113
solid waste and nearly 100 genera of fruit and vegetable solid
wastes, leaves, grasses, woods, weeds, marine and freshwater
biomass for anaerobic digestion to methane. Adsorption is the
one of promising technology for removal of organic pollutant
onto activated carbon but it is costly and requires high cost to
regenerated (Suresh et al., 2013). Therefore, these is need for
Technological Utilization of Parthenium development of low cost and easily available material, which
can absorb organic pollutants.
Hysterophorus-A Review
S.Arisutha1, R.B. Katiyar2 and S. Suresh* Gas production from the mixture of P. hyserophorus with cattle
1
Department of Energy, Maulana Azad National Institute of dung shown in Fig.1. Gas production was started only from the
Technology Bhopal- 462 051 sixth week. Maximum production was found to be 2.4 litre per
*Department of Chemical Engineering, Maulana Azad National week. During the five week fermentation period, the reductions
Institute of Technology Bhopal- 462 051 of total solid and organic carbon were 15.4% and 18.4%
2
Department of Chemistry, Govt. Motilal Vigyan Mahavidyalaya, respectively.
Bhopal 2.5
*Corresponding authors E-mail: sureshpecchem@gmail.com
Total gas production (L/week)
2
ABSTRACT: Parthenium hysterophorous is a terrestrial
weed and growing wild in many parts of India creating 1.5
agricultural and health hazards. Currently, parthenium
hysterophorous is used for different purposes like 1
composting, vermi-composting, biogas production and
sorption of heavy metals etc. Toxins (parthenin) and other 0.5
phenolic acids such as vanillic acids, chlorogenic acid, caffeic
acid, anisic acid, parahydrobenzoic acid were major 0
0 2 4 6 8
components of parthenium hysterophorous. It causes Time (Weeks)
asthmas, bronchilis, dermatitas etc in humans and animals. Figure 1. Total gas production during anaerobic
Generally, this weed uprooted and destroyed by burning in digestion of P. hyserophorus (adopted from Gunaseelan (1987)
air without any use. This reviews focuses on different

and dried mass of parthenium in the form of powder may be

Gunaseelam (1995) investigated that effect of inoculam size and added in soil to request heavy metal and pollutants
pretreatments on methane production from parthenium weed in
2L fermentes at 261 oC temperature. Maximum yield of
methane was observed (15215ml/gVS). Fresh parthenium at REFERENCES
1000ml cattle manure slurry (inoculums) for 21 days conditions i. Abbasi S.A, Nipaney P.C Biogas production from the aquatic weed
Pistia (Pistia stratiotes), Bioresource Technology, 37(3), 1991, 211-214
and 1408ml of methane per g of V s as dried parthenium weed.
ii. Abbasi S.A, Nipaney P.C, Sahaumberg, G.D. Bioenergy potential of
The methane yields from HCl and NaOH treated parthenium eight common aquatic weeds. Biological waste, 34(4), 1990, 359-366.
were 45 and 69% respectively, higher than untreated iii. Arisutha S., Suresh S., Prashant Baredar, D.M. Deshpande,
parthenium. Gunaseelam (1994) reported that 23% of volatile Evaluation of Methane from Sisal Leaf Residue and Palash Leaf Litter. Journal
of The Institution of Engineers (India): Series E., Springler, In press, 2014b.
solid in terms of lignin content and should be pre-treated before
iv. Arisutha S., Suresh S., Prashant Baredar, D.M. Deshpande, R.B.
use as feed stock for methane production. Abbasi et al (1990) Katiyar, R. Nithyanandam, M. H. Nassir. Utilizing Earthworm Eisenia Fetida in
investigated eight common aquatic weeds such as Salvinia Vermicomposting of Biogas Slurry with Mixed Crop Litter. Procedia
molesta, Hydrilla verticillates, Nymphala stellata, Azolla Engineering, 2014a (In press).
v. Gunaseelan V.N. Impact of Anaerobic Digestion on Inhibition
pinnata, Ceratopteris sp. Scirpus sp. Cyperus sp. and
Potential of Parthenium Solids. Biomass and Bioenergy 14, 2, 179-184, 1998.
Utricularia reticulate for production of energy. They found vi. Gunaseelan V.N. Anaerobic Digestion of Biomass for Methane
methane yield in the order of 108 Kcal per ha per year as in Production: A Review. Biomass and Bioenergy Vol. 13, Nos. l/2, pp. 833114,
Salvinia weed. Abbasi and Nipaney (1991) studied biogas 1997
vii. Gunaseelan V.N., Parthenium as an Additive with Cattle Manure in
production from Pistia stratiotes weed and found 58-68 %
Biogas Production. Biological Wastes 21 (1987) 195-202.
average methane content in the 10 days period. They also viii. Gunaseelan, V. N., Effect of inoculum/substrate ratio and
observed different chemicals such as propionic acid, butyric, pretreatments on methane yield from Parthenium, Biomass and Bioenergy, 1995,
isobutyric, valeric acid along with biogas production. 8, 39-44.
ix. Gunaseelan, V. N., Methane production from Parthenium
Gunaseelan (1987) investigated methane yield on the
hysterophorus L., a terrestrial weed in semi-continuous fermenters, Biomass and
parthenium hysterophorus weeds mixed with cattle manure Bioenergy, 1994, 6, 391-398.
(10% v/v) at 30 10C in 3L batch digesters. They found methane x. Hausen B.M, Parthenium hysterophorus allergy. A weed problem in
content of the gas varied between 60% and 70%. Nizani et.al India, Derm Beruf Umwelt. 1978; 26(4):115-20.
xi. Katiyar R.B., Optimization of engineering and process parameters for
(2009) reviewed grass biomethane process with multiple stages.
vermicomposting. PhD Thesis, Department of Chemical Engineering, MANIT
One ton of volatile solid produces 300m3 of methane when mass Bhopal, India. p. xx + 187 (2014).
of volatile solids in the grass as a feedstock. xii. Kumar S, Suresh S, Arisutha S., Production of Renewable Natural
4.93 100 Gas from Waste Biomass. J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. E (2013) 94:55-59.
xiii. Narasimhan, T. R., Ananth, M., Narayanaswami, M., Rajendrababu,
4.92 98 M., Mangala, A. & Subba Rao, P. V. (1977). Toxicity of Parthenium
hysterophorus. Current Science, 46, 15.
Cd (II) adsorbed (mg/g)
96 xiv. Nizami,A-S, Korres,N.E and Murphy, J.D. Review of the integrated

Percent removal of Ni (II)
4.91
process for the production of grass bio-methane. Environmental science and
Cd (II) adsorbed (mg/g) 94
4.9 technology, 43(22), 2009, 8497-8508.
Percent removal of Ni (II) xv. Rajan, L., Growth inhibitor(s) from Parthenium hysterophorus L,
92
4.89 Current Sci., 1973, 42, 729.
90 xvi. Suresh S, Srivastava V.C., Mishra I.M. Studies of Adsorption
4.88
Kinetics And Regeneration Of Aniline, Phenol, 4-Chlorophenol And 4-
88 Nitrophenol By Activated Carbon. Chem Ind. Chem. Eng. Q. 2013, 19 (2)
195212
4.87
86
4.86 84
4.85 82
0 20 40 60 80 100
Time(min) Water Quality and Flow Simulation along River
Figure 2. Effect of time on the sorption of Ni (II) on P. Prof. Amarsinh B. Landage1
hysterophorus ash (Singh et al., 2009) and Cd (II) removal onto 1
Assistant Professor, Government College of Engineering,
P. hysterophorus (Ajmal et al., 2006). Karad, Maharashtra, 415 124, India
Email: amarlandage@yahoo.co.in
Fig. 2 shows effect of time on the adsorption of Ni(II) maximum
value at 50 min attained ( 97.54 %) (Singh et al., 2009). The ABSTRACT: Many rivers are the primary source of water. In
effect of contact time on the adsorption of Cd(II) at 50 mg/l the last few decades there is a serious problem of deterioration
initial Cd(II) concentration is shown in Fig. 2. The rate of of water quality. River water quality models need to represent
adsorption is very fast initially and maximum removal of Cd(II) the physical, chemical, and biological transformations, which
occurs with 20 min (Ajmal et al. 2006). occur within a river such as bacterial biodegradation, chemical
hydrolysis, physical sedimentation etc. The water quality
P. hysteophorous ash has shown great potential for the removal control can be possible if know biochemical oxygen demand
of Ni (II)/Cd (II) from aqueous solution. P. hysteophorous is a BOD, chemical oxygen demand COD, dissolved oxygen, total
problem creating weed. Instead of burning, they may be dried

phosphorous, toxic substances etc. at different location and applies. Gour-tsyh yeh & Fan Jhang developed a model to
time. For estimating these water quality variables we solve the simulate reactive chemical transport in river network. Through
mass transport equation by finite difference method, but for the decomposition of the system of species, transport equations
unsteady nonuniform channel we dont have the depth of flow via Gauss Jourdan column reduction of the reaction network.
at different cross sections therefore we use the Saint Venant Kachiashvili, Gordeziani, Lazarov and Melikdzhanian developed
Equation solution by finite difference method for water depth mathematical modeling and computer simulation of diffusion
at various cross sections and thus by measuring the water and transport of chemicals in rivers. They developed these
depth at various sections of a river we solve the mass transport models in terms of time-dependent convection-diffusion-reaction
equation for same for estimating different water quality differential equations and solve these equations by finite
measures. Thus simulate the dynamic behavior of flow in a difference method.
river. Water quality both within the river reaches and at the For the solution of saint Venant equation we use the
outflow can be determined for a given set of inputs. The finite implicit finite difference method and for unsteady case we need
difference method for solving the mass balance equation of initial boundary conditions so we solve the these equations first
dissolved oxygen (DO) and BOD. However numerical solution for steady case then for unsteady case. The matrix formed by
does not give the results as compare to analytical solution but these nonlinear algebraic equations, which is solved by Newton-
the system is very complicated for unsteady nonuniform river Raphson method.
and including each term in mass balance of DO and BOD so
our purpose of this project is that the results should be very 2. METHODOLOGY:
close to analytical solution and practical. A mathematical
model for estimating the different water quality measures 2.1 Mass transport equation:
along a river at different cross sections by using MATLAB for
simulation of these measures. The governing equation for mass transport in a river as:
Keywords: Water Quality, BOD, DO, MATLAB simulation
A x, t C x, t A x, t V x, t C x, t A x, t DL C x, t
t x x x
1. INTRODUCTION: K A x, t C x, t Cl x, t A x, t CD
(1)
Numerous researchers developed water quality models mostly Where, x and t represent space and time respectively, A = cross
they assume uniform channel and steady case or they used sectional area, C = contaminant concentration, V = velocity of
empirical relationship however due to complex system of flow, DL = longitudinal dispersion coefficient, K = decay rate,
processes in water flow in a river it is difficult to estimate the 1 dQ

water quality measures along a river at different sections but we A dx , C l = concentration in the infiltrating flow, C D =
can analyze biochemical oxygen demand BOD, chemical distributed sources or sinks.
oxygen demand COD, dissolved oxygen, total phosphorous,
toxic substances etc along a river by solving the mass transport 2.2 Saint Venant equation:
equation using finite difference method and for estimating the
water depth at different cross sections we can use the solution of The continuity and momentum equations of Saint-Venant
saint Venant equation using finite difference method. Various equation can be expressed as follows:
models also developed such as QUASAR, QUALE2E, CE-
QUAL-RIV1, etc. A Q
ql
A combined flow and process based river water quality t x
model is QUASAR. In this model six classes of river-quality (2)
problems are defined. This model was originally developed for Q Q y 2
application to the Bedford use to simulate the dynamic behavior gA gAS f gAS0 qvx
t x A x
of flow and water quality along the river system (Whitehead et
al., 1979; Whitehead et al., 1981). Initial application involved (3)
the use of the model within a real time forecasting scheme Where t = Time, x = Longitudinal distances, =momentum
collating telemetered data and providing forecasts at key correction factor Q = Discharge, y = water depth, A = Cross
abstraction sites along the river (Whitehead et al., 1984). sectional area, B = Free surface width, S0 = bed slope, Sf =
QUAL2E water quality model is applicable to well mixed Friction slope and g = Acceleration due to gravity, ql = lateral
dendritic streams. It simulates reactions of nutrient cycles, algal flow.
production, benthic and carbonaceous demand, atmospheric
rearation and their effects on dissolved oxygen demand balance. The friction slope term Sf can be estimated using Mannings
In this model implicit finite difference method is used. This equation for different nodes
model is used only steady state stream flow and contaminant n 2Q Q
Sf
loading conditions. In CE-QUAL-RIV1 model the A2 R 4 / 3
hydrodynamic portion is solving the Saint Venant equation by (4)
four point finite difference method. This model does not allow Where n is Mannings roughness coefficient and R is hydraulic
for super critical flow. The transport equation is solved using radius.
Holly-Preissmen scheme, the courant number restriction still

2.3 Finite difference scheme: ( ql v x ) i ( ql v x ) i 1

0
2
Implicit finite difference scheme is used for solving the Saint- (10)
Venant equation. The Preissmann Scheme, which has been used
extensively since early 1960s will be used here. Its a four point In the matrix form the equation (9) & (10) can be represented as
weighted implicit difference approximation which is used to X Y 0
i i i
transform the nonlinear partial differential equations of Saint- (11)

Venant equation into a nonlinear algebraic equations. The partial Where
derivatives and other coefficients are approximated as follows. 0 1 0 1

X g Ai A(i 1) 1 Q gn 2 Q g Ai A(i 1) 1 Q gn 2 Q
i

x 4/ 3
x A (i 1) 2 AR 4/ 3
x A i 2 AR i x
f fi j11 fi j fi j1
j 1 2 2
( i 1)
f

i
t 2t
qi qi 1
(5) 2
Y
i
Ai A( i 1) 1
g s qv x i qv x i 1

2
fi 1 j 1 fi j 1 1 fi 1 j fi j
0
2
f

x x x
i
Where is an array of nodal variables

(6)
yi , Qi , yi 1 , Qi 1 Matrix T
X is of size of 2 x 4 and Y is
i
f f i j 1 f i j11 1 f i j f i j1
i
1 1
2 2 of size 2 x 1.
(7) On combining the equation for subsequent reaches the complete
The subscript i designates position on x axis and the subscript j equation of the river is obtained as follows.
denotes position on the time axis. where is weighting X Y 0
coefficient. The scheme is stable provided >0.5 i.e. the flow (12)
variables are weighted towards the j+1 time level. An is the vector having 2N nodal variables for that particular
unconditional stability means that there no restriction on the size river and the matrix
of x and t for stability or in general the scheme is stable for [ X] of size 2n x 2n and [Y] of size 2n x 1. [X] And [Y] being
0.55 < 1, this scheme can be made totally implicit by taking
non-linear function of so the equation (12) is solved by

= 1 and explicit by taking = 0.
Newton Raphson method discussed later.
2.4 Boundary conditions:
2.6 Unsteady state formulation of Saint Venant equation:
Q o Qi ql L
The finite difference form of unsteady state Saint Venant
(8) equations is derived from equations 2 & 3 using four point
Q weighted finite difference Preismenn scheme.
From this equation we can take o discharge at downstream as
known value and depth at upstream is also known value or input
value. ( Ai j 11 Ai j 1 ) ( Ai j 1 Ai j )

2t
2.5 Steady state formulation of Saint Venant equation:
(Qi j 11 Qi j 1 ) (1 )(Qi j 1 Qi j ) qli qli 1

For solving Saint Venant equation for unsteady state condition x 2 (13)
we require an initial steady state solution corresponding to the
initial condition. The steady state equations are derived using
(Qi j 11 Qi j 1 ) (Qi j 1 Qi j )
equation (2) & (3), after neglecting time derivatives.
Q( i 1) Q( i ) q l ( i ) q l ( i 1) 2t

x 2 {[ (Qi j 11 ) 2 / Ai j 11 ] [ (Qi j 1 ) 2 / Ai j 1 ]}

(9) x
{[ (Qi 1 ) 2 / Ai 1 ] [ (Qi ) 2 / Ai ]} {[ (Qi j 1 ) 2 / Ai j 1 ] [ (Qi j ) 2 / Ai j ]}
x (1 )
( Ai 1 Ai ) ( y i 1 y i ) x
g
2 x ( Ai j 11 Ai j 1 ) ( y ij11 y ij 1 )
g
( Ai 1 Ai ) ( S f ) i 1 ( S f ) i 2 x
g
2 2 ( Ai j 1 Ai j ) ( y ij1 y ij )
g (1 )
2 x
j 1 j 1
i 1 ( S f ) i
j 1 j 1
( Ai 1 Ai ) ( S 0 ) i 1 ( S 0 ) i ( Ai 1 Ai ) ( S )
g
f
g
2 2 2 2

( Ai j 1 Ai j ) ( S f ) i 1 ( S f ) i
j j
Where T= temperature in degree Celsius, = 1.024 for oxygen
g (1 )
2 2 reaeration, =1.047 for BOD decomposition, =1.08 for
( Ai j 11 j 1 j 1
Ai ) ( S 0 ) i 1 ( S 0 ) i j 1
sediment oxygen demand (SOD)
g
2 2 2.8 Finite difference formulation:
( Ai j 1 Ai j ) ( S 0 ) ij1 ( S 0 ) ij ( ql v x ) i ( ql v x ) i 1
g (1 ) 0
2 2 2 Finite Difference formulation of dissolved equation for steady
(14) state and unsteady state condition is derived from equation () by
( 4 / 3)
n 2 Qi Qi Pi four point finite difference scheme as:
(S f ) i (10 / 3)
Where Ai Steady state:
2.7 Newton Raphson method: (vi 1 vi ) (Ci 1 Ci ) ( DL (i ) DL (i 1) DL (i 2) ) (Ci 2 2Ci 1 Ci )

2 x 3 x 2
The computational procedure at any time starts form assigning (( K d ) L) i (( K d ) L) i 1 (( K a )C s ) i 1 (( K a )C s ) i
the trial values to the 2p unknowns at that time. The trial values
2 2
may be the values known from initial conditions or from
( K a ( ) i ( K a ) i 1 (Ci 1 Ci ) Pa (i ) Pa (i 1) Ri Ri 1 S B (i ) ' S ' B (i 1)
calculated values from the previous time steps in case of 0
unsteady flow problems. Using this trial values we determine the 2 2 2 2 2 ...
i , j (20)
residuals or corrections such that
(1)
i, j (0)
i, j i, j
Unsteady state:
(15)
(C i j 1 C i j11 C i j C i j1 ) (vij11 vij 1 ) (C i j11 C i j 1 )
(1)i, j
Where is the better estimate for the flow depth at section 2t 2 x
(1) j 1 j 1 j 1
( D DL i 1 DL i 2 ) (C i 2 2C i 1 C i ) (( K d ) L) ij 1 (( K d ) L) ij11
j 1 j 1 j 1
(i,j) and i, j
(j=1,2p/2) are the initial estimates for the Li
variables (depth and discharge) , the subscript in the parentheses 3 x 2 2
indicates number of iterations. The solution is obtained by (( K a )C s ) i 1 (( K a )C s ) i (( K a ) i ( K a ) i 1 ) (C i j11 C i j 1 )
j 1 j 1 j 1 j 1

finding values for the unknowns y and Q such that the residuals 2 2 2
are forced to approach very close to aero or less than prescribed j 1 j 1
P Pa i 1 Ri Ri 1 S ' B i S ' B i 1
j 1 j 1 j 1 j 1
values. Following is the algorithm of Newton-Raphson method. ai 0

2 2 2
J F (21)
(16)
Denoting eq (7) as
f ( ) 0 the Jacobian matrix [J] and the 2.9 Mass Balance equation for BOD
column vector [F] is formed as
Mass balances for BOD in natural rivers can be written as:
f
J L L 2L
y v DL ( K r ) L C D
(17) t x x 2
(22)
F f ( )
(18) where L = Concentration of BOD (mg/l)
3.8 Mass Balance Equation for Dissolved Oxygen: Kr = Ks + Kd
Mass balances for dissolved oxygen in natural river can be Ks = effective loss rate due to settling (per day)
written as:
Finite Difference formulation of BOD for steady state and
C C 2C
v DL 2 ( K d ) L ( K a )(C s C ) Pa R S B' C D unsteady state condition is derived from equation () by four
t x x (19) point finite difference scheme as:
where C = Concentration of dissolved oxygen (mg/l), v = Steady state:
Velocity of flow (m/day), DL= Longitudinal dispersion (square
meter/day), Kd = Deoxygenating rate(per day), Ka = Aeration
(vi 1 vi ) ( Li 1 Li ) ( DL (i ) DL ( i 1) DL (i 2 ) ) ( Li 2 2 Li 1 Li )
rate (per day), Cs = Concentration of saturated DO (mg/l), Pa =
Average gross photosynthetic production of DO (mg DO/l.day), 2 x 3 x 2
R = Respiration by plants (mg DO/l.day), SB = (SB / y) ( K L) ( K r L) i 1 (L) i (L) i 1 C Di C Di1
r i 0
(mg/l.day), SB = Sediment oxygen demand (g/square metre.day) 2 2 2
Temperature effect on reaction kinetics: (23)
K (T ) K (20 ) (T 20)
Unsteady state:

( Lij 1 Lij11 Lij Lij1 ) (vij11 vij 1 ) ( Lij11 Lij 1 ) BOD VS DISTANCE

2t 2 x 18
16
j 1 j 1 j 1
( D DL i 1 DL i 2 ) ( Li 2 2 Li 1 Li ) ( K r L) ij 1 ( K r L) ij11
j 1 j 1 j 1 14
Li 12
x 2
BOD (mg/l)
3 2 10 Numerical solution
(L) i (L) i 1 C Di C Di1

8 Analytical solution
0 6
2 2 4
(24)
2
3. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS: 0 20000 40000 60000

Distance (m)
80000 100000 120000
Figure 1. BOD Vs Distance

For verification of the results hypothetical problem solved by
finite difference method and determined the depth and discharge
at various nodes by using the Saint Venant equation. The
problem solved by numerical method and compares it by
analytical solution. We have no data for unsteady state problem,
so compared unsteady state solution to the steady state solution.
Problem: A river receives a sewage treatment plant effluent at
kilometer point (KP 100) and a tributary inflow at KP 60. The
channel is trapezoidal. The deoxygenation rate for BOD is equal
to 0.5 per day at 20 degree Celsius. For 20 KM downstream
from the treatment plant, there is a BOD settling removal rate of
0.25 per day. Figure 2. Distance Vs BOD
Parameter KP > 100 KP 100-80 KP 80-60 KP <60
DO Variation along a channel
T (0C) 20 20.59 20.59 19.72
DO Sat.(mg/l) 9.092 8.987 8.987 9.143 9
Ka (per day) 1.902 1.842 1.842 1.494 8
Kr (per day) 0.5 0.764 0.514 0.494 7

Kd (per day) 0.5 0.514 0.514 0.494 6
Channel slope 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.00018
DO (mg/l)
5 DO from analytical soln

Side slope 2 2 2 2 DO from numerical soln
4
Bottom width 10 10 10 10
3
BOD (mg/l) 2 200 at 100 5 at 60 KP
2
KP
1
DO (mg/l) 7.5 2 at 100 KP 9 at 60 KP
Discharge 500000 540000 540000 640000 0
0 20000 40000 60000 80000 100000 120000
m3/d Distance (m)
Boundary conditions: Figure 3. DO Vs Distance

1. For Saint Venant Equation I used the discharge at downstream
as downstream boundary condition, and depth at upstream as
upstream boundary condition. 2. For mass transport equation I
used the constant boundary condition at upstream and Saint Venant Equation, mass transport equation for BOD and
downstream both. DO solved by finite difference method and compares with
Solution and graphical representation of results analytical solution. The results are found closed to analytical
solution. The dispersion term is in mass transport equation
Total no. of nodes N = 10 whereas in analytical solution dispersion term is not included.
Width of channel B = 10m Thus results obtained by this methodology for BOD and DO
Total length of channel L = 100 Km mass transport equation along a channel could be used at field
Space increment x = 10000 m with boundary conditions.
Time interval t = 0.1 day
Manning roughness factor n = 0.035 4. CONCLUSIONS:
For first point source
The mass transport equation for DO and BOD solved by finite
Depth on upstream side 1 = 1.24m h
difference implicit scheme and the Saint Venant Equation for
Channel longitudinal bottom slope So = 0.0002 depth and discharge at various nodes is also solved by finite
For second point source difference scheme which used in solving of mass transport
h equation. On the basis of results it is observed that there is no
Depth on upstream side 1 = 1.42m
problem of Courant condition and it gives very good results.
Channel longitudinal bottom slope So = 0.00018
Dispersion is not much significant for steady state problems but
it has significance for unsteady state condition. Thus we prepare

a mathematical model for estimating the different water quality constituents and their quantities in ground water. All data were
measures along a river at different cross sections by using statistically analyzed by SPSS package for mean, median,
MATLAB for simulation of these measures. By estimating these mode and standard deviation. The Pearson correlation was
measures by using this model we can control the water quality at also established between physico-chemical parameters of
different cross section along a river as required. groundwater. The mean value for pH-8.1098, alkalinity-455.70
mg/l, total hardness-439.94 mg/l, electrical conductivity-
1541.68 (S/cm), turbidity-5.86 NTU, iron-.5166 mg/l,
REFERENCES: fluoride-1.5672 mg/l, chloride-336.5269 mg/l, nitrate-5.4703
mg/l, total dissolved solid- 737.38 mg/l, and dissolved oxygen-
i. Brown LC & Barnwell TO (1987) The enhanced stream water quality 4.4342 mg/l. When Pearson correlation was established it was
models QUAL2E and QUAL2E-UNCAS: Documentation and User Manual,
Report PA/600/3-87/007, U.S. EPA, Athens, GA, USA.
seen that thereare positive correlation of conductivity with
ii. Cox BA (2003) A review of currently available in-stream water- dissolve oxygen, fluoride, iron, total hardness, alkalinity,total
quality models and their applicability for simulating dissolved oxygen in lowland dissolved solid, and chloride. The correlation of fluoride with
rivers. Science of the Total Environment 314: 335-377. iron, total hardness, alkalinity, total dissolved solid, nitrate,
iii. Downer CW and Ogden FL, 2004, GSSHA: A model for simulating
diverse stream flow generating processes, J. Hydrol. Engrg., 9(3):161-174.
and chloride is also positive. The result so obtained reveals that
iv. Effler SW, Brooks CM, Whitehead K., Wagner B., Doerr SM, Perkins the groundwater is contaminated because of penetration of
M, Siegfried CA, Walrath L & Canale RP (1996) Impact of zebra mussel chemicals from river Yamuna which is passing along Bah
invasion on river water quality. Water Environment Research 68(2): 205-214. block.
v. Giri, BS, Karimi IA & Ray MB (2001) Modeling and Monte Carlo
simulation of TCDD transport in a river. Water Research 35(5): 1263-1279.
Keywords: Groundwater, physico-chemical parameters, SPSS,
vi. Guitjens JC, Ayars JE, Grismer ME & Willardson LS (1997) Agra, Bah.
Drainage design for water quality management: overview. Journal of Irrigation
and Drainage Engineering ASCE 123(3): 148-153. 1. INTRODUCTION
vii. Horn AL, Rueda FJ, Hormann G & Fohrer N (2004) Implementing
river water quality modelling issues in mesoscale watershed models for water
policy demands an overview on current concepts, deficits and future tasks. Groundwater is important for human water supply and, in Asia
Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 29(11-12): 725- 737. alone, about one billion people are directly dependent upon this
viii. Lindenschmidt KE, Rauberg J & Hesser F (2005) Extending resource (Foster SSD., 1995). The groundwater resources play a
uncertainty analysis of a hydrodynamic water quality modeling system using
very significant role in meeting the ever increasing demands of
High Level Architecture (HLA). Water Quality Research Journal of Canada
40(1): 59-70. the agriculture, industry and domestic sectors (Saleem R., 2007).
ix. Mujumdar PP (2002) Mathematical tools for irrigation water India supports more than 16% of the worlds population with
management an overview. Water International 27(1): 47-57. only 4% of the worlds fresh water resources (Singh AK., 2003).
x. Supriyasilp T, Graettinger AJ & Durrans SR (2003) Quantitatively
The potable nature of groundwater is mainly based on the
directed sampling for main channel and hyporheic zone water-quality modelling.
Advances in Water Resources 26: 1029-1037. physico-chemical characteristics of the water sample. The
impact of industrial effluents is also responsible for the
deterioration of the physico-chemical and bio-chemical
Assessment of groundwater quality of bah block, parameters of groundwater.In a reporton "Status of groundwater
agra, india. quality in India part-1"by (Center Pollution Control Board,
2006-2007) it is mentioned thatin Agra there are 73 industries
Azmatullah Noor1Dr. Izharul Haq Farooqi2 and 2 industrial clusters, which discharges their effluent into the
1 river. Of these industries, only 64 industries have effluent
Assistant Professor, Vivekananda College of Technology and
Management, Mathura Bye pass, Near Khair road, Aligarh- treatment plants.Other industries which discharge their effluent
202002, U.P., India. directly into the river, playsvital role in groundwater
2 contamination.The wide range of contamination sources is one
Associate Professor, ZakirHussain College of Engg. & Tech.,
A.M.U, Aligarh-202002, U.P., India. of the many factors contributing to the complexity of
Email:1azmatullahn@gmail.com, groundwater assessment. It is important to know the geo-
chemistry of the chemical-soil-groundwater interactions in order
ABSTRACT:The study was conducted in the month of May to assess the fate and impact of pollutant discharged on to the
and June 2012, to evaluate the water quality in the rural areas ground. Pollutants move through several different hydrologic
of Agra. A total of 60 groundwater samples from 28 locations zones as they migrate through the soil to the water table. The
which comprises of villages of Bah block. The samples were serious implications of this problem necessitate an integrated
collected from tube wells, bore wells, and hand pumps with approach in explicit terms to undertake ground water pollution
recording the position of sampling point, by Global Positioning monitoring and abatement programs.
System (GPS) device. The samples were examined for physico-
chemical parameters of water such as pH, alkalinity, total The intensive use of natural resources and the large production
hardness, electrical conductivity, turbidity, iron, fluoride, of wastes in modern society often pose a threat to ground water
chloride, nitrate, total dissolved solid, and dissolved oxygen. quality and have already resulted in many incidents of ground
The main objective of the study was to get information on the water contamination. Pollutants are being added to the ground
distribution of water quality on a regional scale as well as to water system through human activities and natural processes.
create a background data bank of different chemical Solid waste from industrial units is being dumped near the
factories, which is subjected to reaction with percolating rain

water and reaches the ground water level. The percolating water Table 1. List of panchayats of study area
picks up a large amount of dissolved constituents and reaches
the aquifer system and contaminates the ground water. The S.No. Panchayat Station
problem of ground water pollution in several parts of the country 1. Derak I
has become so acute that unless urgent steps for detailed 2. Kenjra II
identification and abatement are taken, extensive groundwater 3. Dodapura III
resources may be damaged. 4. Badous IV
5. Veri V
1.1 Objective and scope of study: 6. Bitholi VI
The main objective of present study was to carry out ground

water quality monitoring of 60 groundwater samples from 28
locations which comprises villages of Bah block inAgra and to
get information on the distribution of water quality on a regional
scale as well as to create a background data bank of different
chemical constituents and their quantities in ground water. One
of the main objectives of the ground water quality monitoring
was to assess the suitability of ground water for drinking
purposes. The physical and chemical quality of ground water is
important in deciding its suitability for drinking purposes.
2. MATERIAL AND METHOD
2.1 Collection of sample:
To study the physical and chemical quality of ground water of Figure 1.Map of study area with sampling points.
the area for deciding its suitability for drinking purposes. A
survey of villages of Bah was conducted in the month of May 2.3 Analytical methodology:
and June, 2012 by collecting 60 samples of groundwater from 28
villages. The groundwater samples were collected by grab The groundwater samples were analyzed for total hardness, total
sampling after flushing hand pumps for 5 to 10 minutes. The alkalinity, chloride using(APHA,1995) procedure, and suggested
samples were collected in 1litre plastic bottle. Groundwater precautions were taken to avoid contamination. The electrical
samples were immediately transferred to the laboratory and were conductivity, pH, dissolve oxygen, total dissolve solids were
stored at 4C to avoid any major chemical alteration. determined by LDO probe (HACH) and turbidity by Digital
Nephlometer. The fluoride, iron, nitrate were determined by
2.2 Study area: Spectrophotometry (DR 5000- HACH).
Agra district occupies the southwestern part of the state of Uttar 2.4 Statistical analysis:
Pradesh (India) and is bounded by the state of Rajasthan in the
west and the state of Madhya Pradesh in the south. Bah Tehsil is The observed data of physico-chemical parameters were
the easternmost part of Agra district and belongs to both the analyzed by SPSS 19.0 software to measure its central tendency,
marginal and central alluvial plain (Ganga Plain). The Bah and deviation of the values from its mean i.e., standard
Tehsil area is situated between 2645' and 27 0'N latitudes and deviation. The Pearson correlation was also established among
between 7810' and 7850'E longitudes at approximately 178 m them to identify their relation with each other.
above sea level. The study area has a semi-arid to arid climate
with an average monthly temperature varying between 38C and 3. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
46C in the summer and between 25C and 32C in the winter.
The average weather conditions allow recognizing six well The result obtained after the analysis of physico-chemical
marked traditional seasons, i.e. spring (MarchApril), summer characteristics of groundwater sampleare tabulated below from
(MayJune), monsoon (JulyAugust), sharada (September Table 2a to Table 2f.
October), hemanta (NovemberDecember) and winter (January The number of samples which are exceeding IS: 10500 (2003)
February). The average annual rainfall variation is between 600 for physico-chemical parameters are mentioned in Table 3.
and 650 mm(Misra, A. K. et al. 2007). In present study, samples
of groundwater were taken from six panchayats, which are Station I
mentioned in Table 1. From each station 10 samples were
collected. The coordinate position of sampling point is located The fluoride concentration is exceeding the limit as per IS:
by GPS device, which is further plotted by ArcGIS 10 on the 10500 (2003) in six samples of groundwater out of ten samples.
map of study area as shown in Figure 1. Total alkalinity and turbidity is in excess in three samples. The

EC is exceeding the limit in all samples of the station. In this Ganga Plain. The main characteristics of soil horizons of the
station the correlation between TH and TDS is significant which area are the high content of carbonate, distributed throughout the
indicates the concentration of Ca2+ and Mg2+ salts in depth of the profile. In addition, the study area shows frequent
groundwater. TDS is also correlated with Fe and TA. The alternations of mud and clay layers in the subsurface lithology
correlation between TA and TH is in significance which and has very low hydraulic conductivity (Misra 2005). These
indicates the presence of carbonate and bicarbonate salts of Ca 2+ factors together constitute a favourable condition for the
and Mg2+. Significant correlation of turbidity with pH and F, TH maximum absorption of Na+, K+, and by the clay
with Fe, and pH with D.O. has also been noticed. minerals in the soil of shallow and intermediate
aquifers.Generally, Na+, K+, and are added to the soil
Station II
from several anthropogenic sources both directlythrough
In this station eight samples are having higher concentration of phosphate fertilizers, and indirectly, through atmospheric
fluoride. The groundwater is brackish in taste which is indicated pollution from industries and burning of fossil fuels (Drury et al.
by the range of EC lying between 1000 to 1500 micro 1980).
mhos/cm.The correlation of D.O. with turbidity and Cl is
significant. Table 2a.Physico-chemical characteristics of groundwater of
Station I.
Station III
In this station TA is correlated with pH which indicates that

groundwater is alkaline in nature.
The correlation of nitrate with Fe, TDS and EC is the indication
of presence of nitrate salts of iron.
Consequently, the correlation between EC and TDS has been
noticed.
Station IV
The correlation of nitrate with TDS and EC has been noticed in
this station and EC with TDS which is the sign of presence of
nitrate salts. Table 2b.Physico-chemical characteristics of groundwater of
Station II.
Station V
About 80% of the sample is contaminated with fluoride in this

station. The salts of chloride are present in the groundwater of
this station which is indicated by the correlation of chloride with
EC and TDS. Trace of nitrate salts of iron is present in this
station.
Station VI
There is noteworthy relation of F with Cl, D.O. and EC.

Turbidity is caused mainly due to nitrate concentration in Table 2c.Physico-chemical characteristics of groundwater of
groundwater at this station. The correlation matrix also shows Station III.
the relation of TDS with Cl, turbidity, pH, and EC.
The maximum and minimum values, standard deviation and

central tendencies are tabulated in Table 4a to 4f. Karl Pearson
correlation was established among all the parameters, it was
observed that TDS and EC are having positive correlation
coefficient, except in Station II. The correlations of all
parameters have been given in Table 5a to 5f.
The groundwater of the study area are characterized by a high

concentration of Na+, K+, , and TDS in shallow and
intermediate aquifers due to some factors which is postulated Table 2d.Physico-chemical characteristics of groundwater of
that salt-rich geological formations have contributed to these Station IV.
alluvial deposits (Kumar et al. 1993, 1995; Kumar 1998) of the

Table 2e.Physico-chemical characteristics of groundwater of

Station V.
Table 4a.Statistical data of physico-chemical parameters of

Station I.
Table 2f.Physico-chemical characteristics of groundwater of

Station VI.
Table 4b.Statistical data of physico-chemical parameters of

Station II.
F-Fluoride, Fe-Iron, N- Nitrate, TH-Total hardness, TA-Total

alkalinity, TDS-Total dissolve solid, Cl-Chloride, D.O.-Dissolve
oxygen, EC-Electrical conductivity.
Table 3.Number of samples exceeding IS: 10500 (2003) limit in

all stations.

Table 4c.Statistical data of physico-chemical parameters of

Station III.
Table 5a. Pearson correlationmatrix for physico-chemical

parameters of Station I.
Table 4d.Statistical data of physico-chemical parameters of

Station IV. Table 5b. Pearson correlationmatrixfor physico-chemical
parameters of Station II.
Table 4e.Statistical data of physico-chemical parameters of

Station V.
Table 5c. Pearson correlationmatrix for physico-chemical
parameters of Station III.
Table 4f.Statistical data of physico-chemical parameters of

Station VI.

ii. Bhargava GP, Abrol IP, Kapoor BS, Goswami SC (1981)

Characteristics and genesis of some sodic soils in the Indo- Gangetic alluvial
plains of Haryana and Uttar Pradesh. J Indian Soc Soil Sci 29(1):6170
iii. BIS Bureau of Indian Standards Drinking water-specification (2003)
IS:10500, New Delhi
iv. Central pollution control board, Report on Status of groundwater
quality in India part-1. Groundwater quality series:Gwqs/ 09/2006-2007
v. Drury JS, Ensminger JT, Hammonds AS, Hollem JW, Lewis EB,
Elemental and mineralogical composition of the coarse Environmental effects of
Pollutants, IX Flouride. US Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, 549 p
vi. Foster SSD., 1995 Groundwater quality, 17th Special Report.
Chapman and Hall, London
vii. Kruawal, K., Sacher, F., Werner, A., Muller, J., &Knepper, T.P.
(2005). Chemical water quality in Thailand and its impacts on the drinking
water production in Thailand. The Science of the Total Environment, 340, 57
70. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2004.08.008.
viii. Kumar R (1998) Role of Himalayan Orogeny in the formation of salt
affected soils of the Indian sub-continent. In: Proceedings of 16th World
Congress of Soil Science, held at Montpellier, August 2026, 1998. Symposium:
Table 5e. Pearson correlationmatrix for physico-chemical 15 Reg No: 277
parameters of Station V. ix. Kumar R, Ghabru SK, Ahuja RL, Singh NT, Jassal HS (1993) Clay
minerals in the alkali soils of Ghaggar river basin of SatlujYamuna divide in
North-West. Clay Res 12:4351
x. Kumar R, Ghabru SK, Ahuja RL, Singh NT, Jassal HS (1995)
Elemental and mineralogical composition of the coarse fraction of the normal
and alkali soils of the SatlujYamuna divide of North-West India. Clay Res
14:2948
xi. Misra AK (2005) Integrated water resource management and
planning for its sustainable development, using remote sensing and GIS
techniques in dark areas of Agra and Mathura districts of Uttar Pradesh.
Dissertation. University of Lucknow
xii. Misra, A. K. and Mishra, A., (2007). Escalation of salinity levels in
the quaternary aquifers of the Ganga alluvial plain, India. Environ. Earth Sci.
Journal. 53(1), 47.
xiii. Mor, S., Ravindra, K., &Bishnoi, N. R. (2007). Adsorption of
chromium from aqueous solution by activated alumina and activated charcoal.
Bio resource Technology, 98, 954957.
Table 5f. Pearson correlationmatrix for physico-chemical xiv. Ravindra, K., &Garg, V. K. (2007). Hydro-chemical survey of
parameters of Station VI. groundwater of Hisar city and assessment of defluoridation methods used in
India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 132, 3343. doi:
10.1007/s10661-006-9500-6.
xv. Robins, N. S. (2002). Groundwater quality in Scotland: Major ion
chemistry of the key groundwater bodies. The Science of the Total Environment,
294, 4156. Doi: 10.1016/S0048-9697(02)00051-7.
xvi. Saleem R., (2007) Groundwater managementemerging challenges.
Water Digest
xvii. Singh AK., (2003) In: National symposium on emerging trends in
agricultural physics, 2224 April 2003. Indian Society of Agro physics, New
Delhi.
xviii. World Health Organization (WHO). (2006). Guidelines for Drinking-
water Quality. Third Edition. 1st Addendum to Vol. 1. WHO Press, 20 Avenue
4. CONCLUSION Appia, 1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland.
(http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/gdwq0506.pdf).
The quality of the groundwater of the study area is critical due
to , and TDS contamination from; dissolve salts in
rainwater, the canal network, low precipitation and high
evaporation due to arid climatic conditions. Among all the
station, the groundwater of station III is slightly potable and rest
of samples are having higher concentration of fluoride which can
cause skeletal fluorosis to the human life of that area. The
electrical conductivity of almost all samples is having higher
values which indicate the level of salinity in groundwater.
REFERENCES:
i. APHA. (1995). Standard methods for the examination of water and

wastewater (19th ed., pp. 1467). Washington, DC: American Public Health
Association.

CHANGING WATER QUALITY SCENARIOS OF TANK utilization compared to the groundwater system or even the
CASCADE SYSTEM AND ITS IMPLICATIONS major irrigation projects. (Lenin B 2006).The cascade approach
should be followed in restoring tanks if the full benefits of
J.HEMAMALINI 1, B.V.MUDGAL2 , J.D.SOPHIA 3 harvesting the runoff from a micro watershed and effective
1
groundwater recharge are to be realized. Another concept that
Research Scholar, Centre for Water Resources, Anna can ensure the sustainability of tanks cascade system is to have
University, Chennai 600025. ecological andsocio-economic harmonywhere the village society
2
Professor, Centre for Water Resources, Anna University, and its economy can evolve and thrive on the judicious
Chennai 600025. utilization of the local resource base.The current study aims
3
Principal Scientist, M S Swaminathan Research Foundation, atinterlinking ecosystem and the tank cascades with the
Chennai 600113. following objectives
Correspondence to: jrkhemamalini@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT 1. To analyze and ascertain the suitability of surface and ground
water quality for drinking and irrigation.
The changing scenarios of tank cascade reveal that the 2. To conduct an in depth quality analysis of water used for
livelihoods of rural community and tank ecosystem are under multiple purposes in Pandravedu village.
severe threat which needs immediate attention. A cascade 3. To elicit community perceptions on the implications of
constituting four non-system tanks viz. Athimanjeri, changing water qualityand coping strategies.
Konasamudram, Podatturpet, Pandravedu located in Pallipet
Taluk of Thiruvalore district, Tamil Nadu is chosen as study
area. Water samples drawn from four tanks, bore and open wells 2. MATERIALS AND METHOD
adjacent to tanks during rainy and summer seasons was tested
for its physico-chemical and biological parameters. Water Description of study area
quality index calculated for the tanks to assess its suitability for
drinking shows that the status of four tanks is eutrophic and The study area is located in state of Tamil Nadu, India and is a
needs proper care and interventions to improve its quality. The part of Nagari watershed. It spreads out in Pallipattu block of
irrigation water quality of the four tanks, bore wells andopen Thiruvallur district. The study area comprises four non-system
wells are assessed using the irrigation water quality indices tanks in a cascade namely Athimanjeri, Konasamudram,
namely Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR), Soluble Sodium Podatturpet and Pandravedu. There are nine villages benefiting
Percentage (SSP), Magnesium Absorption Ratio (MAR) and from this tank cascade. In addition to agriculture most of the
Kellys Ratio (KR). The results indicate that in the Pandravedu villagers largely depend on non-farm activity like weaving and
tank,the change in water quality isdue to discharge of untreated dyeing. The area is generally hilly and sloppy with hard rock
sewage and dyeing unit wastewater. The community perception formations overlain by top sandy soil. Figure-1 shows the index
on changing water quality and its impact was ascertained map of the study area.
through qualitative research methods like focused group
discussion and one to one interactions which confirms that due
to water quality changes in Pandravedu tank there is reduction in
paddy yield to about 40%, the water is also not suitable for
livestock drinking as it causes diseases, noneof the fish species
are consumed since it causes vomiting and diarrhea.
KEYWORDS:Tank Cascade, Physico-chemical parameters,

water quality index, irrigation water quality indices, community
perception, focused group discussion.
1. INTRODUCTION
Tanks have been the main source of irrigation in many parts of
India for centuries. Conserving the tank eco-systems for multiple
uses such as irrigation, domestic, livestock use and groundwater
recharge is a way to provide a safety net to protect the livelihood
of millions in a semi-arid India (Sakthivadivel 2004). Tanks are
eco-friendly and proper management ensure protection and
preservation of the micro ecosystem which in turn provides Figure-1.Index map of study area
services like recycling of nutrients, purification of water,
recharge of groundwater and habitat provision for a wide variety Water quality analysis
of flora and fauna in addition to aesthetic values. Further, it
serves as flood moderators during heavy rains and serves as Water samples collected from four tanks, nearby irrigation wells
water points during drought conditions. Tank irrigation was both bore and open were tested for its physico chemical and
superior in distributing water, economical in terms of energy

bacteriological parameters for two seasons namely rainy and Vio= Ideal value for nth parameter in pure water i.e 0 for all
summer. During water sample collection it was observed that the parameters and 1.0 for pH
Pandravedu tank receives untreated wastewater generated from
the dyeing processes along with untreated domestic wastewater Sn = Standard permissible value for nth parameter
from the Podatturpet households through a lined channel. The
community expressed that in the recent years the water quality Water quality index = Wnqn / Wn(2)
of the Pandravedu tank has deteriorated which in turn affect their
livelihoods including environment. Therefore in addition to Where
water quality analysis the community perception on changing
water quality and its implication on economic uses of water, Wn = Unit weight for nth parameter
ecological functions for healthy environment as well as socio-
cultural uses was ascertained.The samples are coded as given in The water quality index obtained for the four tanks Athimanjeri,
Table-1: Konasamudram, Podatturpet and Pandravedu are 178, 1148, 151
Table-1.Abbreviations of Sampling Stations and 261 respectively. Comparison of Drinking water quality
parameters are expressed in Table-2.
Table-2. Seasonal Variation of Drinking water quality

parameters
Water quality index Water quality analysis of water samples confirm that at certain
locations the values exceeded the permissible limits of drinking
Water quality index is calculated for the four tanks using
standards. The presence of E coli in tank water and in
equations 1 and 2 as it is a useful tool to assess the present groundwater at certain places indicates that the water is polluted
drinking water quality status andto compare with the BIS with waste water. The higher values of TDS ranging between
standards (Yogendra et al, 2007). 188 mg/l to 1133 mg/l prove that water is unfit for drinking. The
total hardness and presence of chlorine is very high in the
Pandravedu tank which made unfit for domestic use and cattle
drinking. The BOD, COD and DO also exceeded the permissible
values at certain locations.
(1) Irrigation water quality indices
Where Irrigation water quality of the four tanks, bore wells and open
wells are assessed using the indices namely Sodium Absorption
qn = quality rating for nth parameter Ratio (SAR), Soluble Sodium Percentage (SSP), Magnesium
Absorption Ratio (MAR) and Kellys Ratio (KR) (Raihan et al,
Vn = Estimated value for nth parameter 2008). Comparison of irrigation water quality indices with the
standard values are expressed in Figure-2.

The SAR for all the tanks and wells fall within the range of 26
for both the seasons. All the four tanks exceeded the standard
permissible value of 40 for SSP whereas the bore wells and open
wells are found within the limit. The MAR values for all the
locations fall within the standard permissible limit of 50%. The
Kellys Ratio is found to be greater than 1 in all the tanks
whereas the well samples are within the permissible range.
(Ramesh et al, 2010). The Table-3gives the seasonal variation of
irrigation water quality indices for rainy and summer seasons.
Table-3. Seasonal Variation of Irrigation Water Quality Indices
Qualitative research method
Qualitative research methods like group discussion with farmers

and one to one interaction with the general public including
landless labourers was used to collect community perceptions. A
checklist was designed comprising of questions relating to (i)
peoples observation in changing water quality over a period of
time (ii) causes for the changes in water quality (iii) its
implications on multiple uses like agriculture, livestock,
drinking, other domestic uses and biodiversity and (iv) specific
issues affecting women due to water quality changes. The
qualitative information generated through group discussion and
one to one interaction is analyzed and presented in the
subsequent section.
Community perception on changing water quality
During group discussion with farmers they expressed that a

decade before the tank water was crystal clear in its physical
appearance and tasted very good which was directly used for
drinking, cooking, and bathing, washing and feeding animals.
However, they could observe gradual deterioration in water
quality since the year 2000 and became worst in the last five
years. Major factor attributed by the community is that in
addition to the fresh water sources the domestic and dyeing
wastewater from Podatturpet village is directly discharged into
Pandravedu tank through a drainage canal hence it is the worst
affected tank in the chain.
Cause of the problem
Figure-2. Comparison of Irrigation water quality indices They further explained that there are about 150 dyeing units in
Podatturpet village. Weaving and dyeing is one of the

predominant nonfarm activities in this village.Previously Earlier they use to rear fish in the tank water and harvest when
weaving alone was done in Podatturpet and dyeing was done in the water reduces during summer. Major varieties were Koravai
Kanchipuram which is located in a different taluk.After some (snake head), Kelluthi (cat fish), Keandai (carp) and Veral
time people started dyeing in their own units and the untreated (Murrel) but in the last few years they could harvest only tilapia
effluent was let into a barren land in Podatturpet itself. It posed and could not find other species. Tilapia is the only variety
lot of health issues therefore a lined channel of 5 km is which survives in poor quality water. Some of the farmers
constructed by the local people to fetch to discharge untreated expressed that the colour of the fish has also changed and if it is
effluent from the dyeing units to a nearby tank namely consumed it causes vomiting and diarrhea. Secondly due to
Thamaraikullam. From there effluent water goes into a small continuous availability of water, harvesting fish has become an
pond called Thangal which in turn drains into Pandravedu tank. issue therefore fish rearing is almost stopped in Pandravedu
The waste water that runs through the channel is of dark brown tank. Due to contamination of tank water, the culture of fish
colour and has bad odour. rearing and consuming is total affected.
Implications of the waste water Drinking and domestic uses
According to the farmers and general public views mixing of From the farmers and the landless agricultural laborerspoint of
wastewater into fresh water tank has various implications on viewsthe physical quality of tank water is affected because of the
productive uses of water like agriculture, livestock rearing, untreated effluent from the dyeing units.The quality of water has
fishing and other uses like ground water recharge and deteriorated due to both drainage water from houses and effluent
biodiversity which is presented below: from the dyeing unit is sent together without treatment. The taste
Agriculture of water has changed and people are not using it for drinking.
The bore wells in and around the tank is also being impacted of
There are four irrigation channels irrigating the agricultural the same problem. Panchayat erected four bore wells around the
lands. Five years back the cropping pattern was paddy, paddy tank and supplied it for drinking to the village by storing in the
followed by chilli, groundnuts, ragi and other dry crops overhead tanks and establishing a common distribution system.
depending on tank water availability. Generally the tank receives But during last year the colour and odour of the water pumped
water during monsoon and dries out in summer. In fact even the into the overhead tank was dark brown and hence the Panchayat
tank water spread area and tank bund was used by farmers to decided to change the source point.Accordingly bore hole is
grow short term vegetable crops during summer. But from last erected near Kosasthalaiyaru River and pumped to overhead and
five years due to constant flow of wastewater from upstream supplied for three days per week which is not sufficient and they
village Pandravedu tank had become perennial but with poor depend on mineral water for drinking. Even the milk gets
water quality.Therefore the farmers have no option of cultivating spoiled if the tank water is used directly. The people face
summer crops except of paddy that too very few specific irritation in their skin if they use the tank water to bath or wash
varieties like ADT 37 which is a fat type of rice.Farmers are their clothes. So they use other small fresh water ponds called as
using both surface water from tank and ground water through Thoppaiamman and Vannarakulam for washing clothes.
open and bore wells conjunctively as a coping strategy. Farmers Ground water recharge
expressed that the lands irrigated with tank water alone resulted
in stuntedcrops and the soil is also affected. Comparatively the Unlike any other tanks this tank is also recharging the
middle and tail end farmers are better as the water quality groundwater and majority of the farmers are using it for various
changes in the natural process through conveyance. Farmers feel purposes.However, water in open wells is polluted and is not
that the entire ayacut is being affected due to the polluted tank used presently for domestic purposes.Previously ground water
water and the paddy yield is also reduced from 40 bags/acre to was at 200 feet depth and it was good. But now that water is also
15 bags/acre. The worst implication is the rice grown by the polluted and farmers go in for bore for a depth of 300 feet.In
farmers is not consumed by them due to the fact that it will cause addition to groundwater recharging generally tanks also
health problems so they buy rice from outside. But earlier,a contribute for conservation of biodiversity.
portion of the produce was stored for their household Biodiversity
consumption.
Livestock Farmers expressed that a decade before this tank maintained a
very healthy environment including floral and faunal
Similarly livestock which is the secondary source of living for biodiversity but gradually it is declining due to wastewater. For
farmers and landless community, tank water was the main example there were lot of crabs in the tank as well in paddy field
source for cattle drinking and cleaning. But the farmers now after monsoon especially during November but now they could
suspect that the cattle fall sick when it drinks water directly from not find crabs in tank as well as fields. Community used crabs as
tank. Also they expressed that milk production is gradually medicine mainly to treat over cold and breathing problems.
declining but in depth studies to be done to analyze the cause Similarly they expressed that some of changes are observed in
and effect relationship. They also attributed that due to the odour floral diversity. Another important fact is that earlier when the
some livestock is not drinking it. So they are very particular and water quantity reduces during summer they maintain the system,
providing only the drinking water supplied by Panchayat. do social forestry and other activities and all these are affected
Fishing due to continuous flow of wastewater. As a result the entire
environment and ecosystem is getting affected.

4. CONCLUSION reduce the total disinfectant dose while managing minimum

residual chlorine across the system.
The water quality index shows that the water is unfit for drinking
and status of four tanks is eutrophic and needs proper care and The objective of this paper is to review the work of various
interventions to improve its quality. The values of irrigation researchers who have effectively applied the strategy of booster
water quality indices prove that the tank water quality has chlorination for managing chlorination by modeling of booster
deteriorated and has become unfit for irrigation. Untreated waste chlorination using various modeling tools. Further the available
waterfrom dyeing units is a major cause for the pollution of literature is extended to explore the work done by various
Pandravedu tank. Continuous disposal of wastewater without investigators who have applied the different optimization
proper treatment makes the tank water unfit for any use. The methods for (i) Optimal scheduling of injection rates of chlorine
wastewater before let into the tank should undergo the necessary and optimal operation of booster stations and (ii) Optimal
treatment and the industry should strictly follow the same. location of booster stations in the water distribution network. In
Urbanisation of the villages in and around the tank resulted in addition to the normal operation of booster stations a limited
discharging the sewage directly into the other three tanks. The amount of research that has explored the application of booster
sewage system in the villages should be well designed and the stations to the contamination incident problem and other
domestic sewage should be treated properly. applications is also included in this review. After reviewing the
REFERENCES: work of all researchers it is found that coupling of water quality
modeling tool with advanced optimization methods can serve as
i. Lenin Babu K and Mansi S, Estimation services of Rejuvenated important decision making tool for management of water quality
irrigation tanks. A case study in mid Godavari Basin
(http://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H042911.pdf ) in the DWDS.
ii. Ramesh K and Elango L (2011, July) Groundwater qualityand its Keywords: Booster chlorination, Drinking water distribution
suitability for domestic and agricultural use in Tondiar river basin, Tamil nadu system, Optimization methods.
India; Environmental Monitoring Assessment: DOI 10.1007/s10661-011-2231-
3/Springer Science business Media B.V.
iii. Raihan F, Alam J B (2008) Assessment of groundwater quality in 1. INTRODUCTION:
Sunamganj of Bangladesh; Iranian Journal of Environmental Health Science
and Engineering , Vol. 5, No.3, pp. 155 166. Inadequate chlorine residual in drinking water distribution
iv. Sakthivadivel R, Gomathinayagam P and Tushaar, S (2010, July 31) increases potential for the breakthrough of organisms and can
Rejuvenating Irrigation Tanks through local institutions, Economic and
political. ultimately result in public health and regulatory compliance
v. Yogendra K, Puttaiah E.T (2007) Determination of water quality problems. As chlorine is reactive, it reacts with natural organic
index and suitability of an urban water body in Shimoga Town, Karnataka and inorganic matter in water which decreases the chlorine
(Paper presented at the 12th World Lake Conference), 2007. concentration with time called chlorine decay. The long term
chlorine decay in distributed drinking water and in natural
waters receiving chlorinated discharges can be modeled by using
first order kinetics ( Johnson 1978 ; Hass and Kara 1984;
Rossman 1994; Powell et al. 2000) is given by,
Booster Chlorination Strategy For Managing C = Co e(K t)
Chlorine Disinfection In Drinking Water (1)
Distribution System A Review Where,
Roopali V. Goyal 1, Dr. H.M. Patel2 Ct= Chlorine concentration at time t, mg/l
1
Research Scholar , The M.S. University of Baroda, Vadodara , Co= Initial chlorine concentration, mg/l
Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department, Sardar T= Time ( hour)
Vallabhbhai Patel Institute of Technology Vasad, Dist . Anand K= First order reaction rate coefficient (hr -1)
388 306. Gujarat, India.
2
Head and Professor, Civil Engineering Department, Faculty As seen from the above equation the residual chlorine
of Technology & Engg, The M.S University of Baroda, concentration is the function of initial chlorine concentration,
Vadodara. 390 001, Gujarat, India. travelling time and decay coefficient. To maintain the adequate
Email: 1rvgoyal23@yahoo.co.in, 2haresh_patel@yahoo.com residual chlorine at the farthest end more amount of chlorine is
supplied at source in conventional methods to compensate the
ABSTRACT loss of chlorine. But this can generate higher disinfection by
products ( DBPs), and bring odour and taste complaints. Booster
The amount of residual chlorine in a Drinking water distribution chlorination is the best strategy to maintain the balance between
system (DWDS) is commonly used as an indicator of water lower and upper limit of the residual chlorine concentration in
quality supplied to the consumers. Adequate amount of residual which, disinfectant is applied at strategic locations within the
chlorine ensures the microbiological safety, and excess distribution system to compensate the losses that occur as it
chlorination leads to taste, odour, or by-product problems. decays over time (Boccelli et al.,1998; Tryby et al., 2002).
Compared to conventional methods that apply disinfectant only
at the source, in booster chlorination, chlorine is supplied at Many researchers have worked on the modeling of booster
strategic locations throughout the distribution network can chlorination using the water quality modeling tool for the
prediction of residual chlorine concentration in DWDS as it is

the prerequisite for the modeling of the Booster chlorination. optimization for the booster chlorination stations is divided into
Although booster disinfection is commonly practiced, a two major categories (i) Optimal scheduling of disinfectant
standardized procedure for the location and operation of booster injection and operation of Booster Station (ii) Optimal location
stations has not been adopted in the water utility community. of Booster Stations.
Booster stations are often located near areas with low levels of
disinfectant residual, and they are operated with regard to the 3. OPTIMAL SCHEDULING OF DISINFECTANT
local goals of increased residual which often ignores the system- INJECTION AND OPERATION OF BOOSTER STATION:
level interactions (Haxton et al. 2011). In area of water
distribution system analysis, Optimization models are used for The purpose of optimum scheduling of chlorine injection is to
calibration, design, and operation purpose using various kinds of minimize the total dose of chlorine at source and booster stations
algorithms. The coupling of such water quality model with at the same time to satisfy the constraint of maintaining the
advanced optimization methods can serve as an important minimum residual chlorine at all the locations of DWDS.
decision support model for the water supply authority for Boccelli et al. (1998) formulated a linear optimization model for
scheduling and mass rate application of chlorine at storage the scheduling of disinfectant injections into water distribution
reservoir for maintaining chlorine with range in DWDS at all the systems. They used EPANET water quality model to quantify
nodes. disinfectant transport and decay as a function of the booster dose
schedule using the principle of linear superposition and first-
2. MODELING AND OPTIMIZATION OF BOOSTER order reaction kinetic to avoid the computational burden of
CHLORINATION: water quality simulations during optimization and booster station
operation problem .
For the effective modeling of the Booster Chlorination station,
the accurate prediction of the residual chlorine concentration is Tryby et al. (2002) extended the linear programming (LP)
required, for which many water quality modeling tools are booster disinfection scheduling model presented by Boccelli et
available. The usability of these models was greatly improved in al. (1998) to incorporate booster station location as a decision
the 1990s with the introduction of the public domain EPANET variable within the optimization process. The formulation was
model (Rossman, 1994). The model considers first-order similar to the general, mixed-integer linear programming, fixed-
reactions of chlorine to occur both in the bulk flow and the pipe charge facility location problem, and was solved using a branch-
wall as mentioned in equation 1. It is used by most of the and-bound solution procedure using coupling the data using
researchers to find out the residual chlorine concentration in EPANET water quality simulator.
DWDS (Boccelli et al,1998; Tryby et al., 2002; Munavalli and
Kumar 2003; Prasad et al. 2004; Tryby et al. 1999; Uaner and Munavalli and Mohan Kumar (2003) formulated a optimal
Ozdemir 2003; Propato and Uber 2004a,b; Ostfeld and scheduling model in terms of a nonlinear optimization problem
Salomons 2005, 2006; Kang and Lansey 2010; Haxton et al. to determine the chlorine dosage at the water quality sources
2011). The booster stations are introduced in EPANET by water using (GA) approach in which decision variables (chlorine
quality sources nodes where the quality of external flow entering dosage) were coded as binary strings and solved by linking
the network is specified. EPANET can model the four types of EPANET with a genetic algorithm (GA). For the linear chlorine
sources. (i) A concentration source fixes the concentration of reaction kinetics (first-order reaction kinetics) the principle of
any external inflow entering the network at a node (ii) A mass linear superposition was utilized to compute dynamic chlorine
booster source adds a fixed mass flow to that entering the node concentrations without running the dynamic water quality
from other points in the network.(iii)A flow paced booster simulation model.
source adds a fixed concentration to that resulting from the
mixing of all inflow to the node from other points in the network Uaner and Ozdemir (2003) studied, the locations, injection
(iv)A set point booster source fixes the concentration of any rates and scheduling of chlorine booster stations using genetic
flow leaving the node. (EPANET users Manual, 2000). A new algorithms by coupling the hydraulic solution and chlorine
version of EPANET, the EPANET Multi-Species Extension or concentration distribution using EPANET software.
EPANET MSX (Shang et.al., 2008) which can be utilized for the
modeling of two source chlorine decay uses the same first order Prasad et al. (2004) investigated the booster facility location and
chlorine decay equation as EPANET is also utilized by different injection scheduling problem formulated as a multi objective
researchers (Carrico and Singer 2009; Parks and Van Briesen genetic algorithm optimization model using the theory of linear
2009; Ohar, Z. and Ostfeld, A. 2010, 2014; Haxton et al. 2011) super position in water quality modeling for calculating
for the prediction of residual chlorine. concentration profiles at network nodes. A multi objective
genetic algorithm called NSGA-II was used in solving the two-
There is wide application of optimization methods for various objective problem.
engineering applications including Booster Chlorination Station.
The optimization methods can be utilized for minimizing of the Ostfeld and Salomons (2004) presented the methodology and
mass rate of chlorine applied at booster station, optimization of application of a genetic algorithm (GA) scheme, tailor-made to
location of booster station and its operation with the constraint EPANET for simultaneously optimizing the scheduling of
of minimum residual chlorine at the locations of DWDS. existing pumping and booster disinfection units, as well as the
Available Literature on the application of various methods of

design of new disinfection booster chlorination stations, under carried out to find out the optimal locations of booster stations is
unsteady hydraulics. presented in the following paragraph
Propato and Uber (2004 a) formulated a linear least-squares Tryby M. and Uber J. (1999) developed a mixed integer linear
problem to determine the optimal disinfectant injection rates programming method to provide optimal locations and operating
that minimize variation in the system residual space-time data for booster disinfection stations in drinking water
distribution with assumption of known locations of booster distribution systems. The problem formulation was related to the
stations . To investigate the performance and limitations of the general fixed charge facility location problem, requiring that a
proposed LLS problem was applied on a Cherry hill/Brushy branch and bound solution procedure be used.
plains DWDS .
Constans S. et al (2000) proposed linear programming
Propato and Uber (2004b) extended their previous work to formulations to determine the optimal locations where
include the locations of the booster stations as decision variables disinfectant must be added and optimize the injection patterns.
and formulated a mixed-integer quadratic programming ( Solution of the proposed optimization problem not only gave the
MIQP) problem to locate booster stations and to identify their best booster stations locations and injection patterns, but also
dosage schedules for maintaining disinfectant residual in calculated the corresponding chlorine patterns at all the nodes of
DWDS. Solution of the problem was done via the branch-and- the network.
bound technique with quadratic programming sub problems.
Avi Ostfeld (2005) determined the optimal location of a set of
Ostfeld and Salomons (2006) presented two different
monitoring stations aimed at detecting deliberate external
optimization objectives for optimal pump operation and booster
terrorist hazard intrusions through water distribution system
disinfection. The proposed objectives were (1) minimization of nodes: sources, tanks, treatment plant intakes.The methodology
the cost of pumping and the booster stations operation and (2) implemented in a non commercial program entitled optiMQ-S
maximization of the chlorine injected in order to maximize the
linking optiGA and EPANET.
system protection. The problem was solved using a GA linked
with EPANET.
Lansey et al. (2007) assumed first-order reaction kinetics and
formulated an integer linear programming optimization problem
Gibbs et al. (2010) studied the booster disinfection dosing to determine the optimal location of booster stations as well as
problem, including daily pump scheduling, for a real system in
their injection rates. The problem was solved using a GA.
Sydney, Australia using GA to optimize the operation of the
Wang Hongxiang et al (2010) formulated an optimization model
Woronora WDS.
in the presence of partial coverage based on the maximum
covering location problem for locating optimal booster
Kang and Lansey (2010) formulated a real-time optimal valve chlorination stations in water distribution systems. A hybrid
operation coupled with booster disinfection problem as a single PSO, combined with GA algorithms, was proposed to get the
objective optimization model. The problem was solved using a
solution which was applied to a hypothetical network .
genetic algorithm (GA) linked with EPANET.
Wang Hongxiang ( 2010) introduced an optimization model to
Ohar Z and Ostfeld A. (2010) extended the authors previous
identify optimal booster chlorination stations in water
work on the usage of chlorine - TTHM multi species model for distribution systems in the presence of partial coverage based on
optimal design and operation of booster chlorination stations. An the maximum covering location programming model (MCLP).
alternative model formulation was suggested by adding
Ant Colony Optimization Algorithms was applied to optimize
constraints requiring that the concentrations of all species at the
the booster chlorination stations model. To improve the
beginning and end of the design period be the same
optimization ability of ACOAs and avoid getting in the local
optimal solution, the Max-Min ACOAs were adopted, and a
Ohar, Z. and Ostfeld, A. (2014) formulated and solved model to sensitivity-based visibility factor was applied to the ACOAs to a
set the required chlorination dose of the boosters for delivering case study .
water at acceptable residual chlorine and TTHM concentrations
for minimizing the overall cost of booster placement,
Table no 1 gives the summary of various optimization methods
construction, and operation under extended period hydraulic
used for the optimal scheduling, operation and location of
simulation conditions through utilizing a multi-species approach.
booster stations. Table no 2 gives the summary of various
The developed methodology linked a genetic algorithm with objectives proposed by different researchers.
EPANET-MSX.
Table 1. Optimization methods for optimal scheduling,
4. OPTIMAL LOCATION OF BOOSTER STATIONS: operation and location of Booster Station
Optimal Locations of the booster station is equally important as

the operations and scheduling of chlorine doses. The work

efficient and realistic than boosting on a preset schedule by

assuming that the sensor network is detecting a low
concentration of chlorine due to contamination or unpredictable
demand.
Brian Carrico and Philip C. Singer (2009) checked the effect of

conventional and booster chlorination on chlorine residuals and
Trihalomethans (THM) formation in drinking water distribution
systems using EPANET and EPANET -MSX model.
Haxton et al. (2011) studied the problem of locating booster

stations to support booster disinfection in the context of a
contamination incident with objective to locate a given number
of booster stations using two different ways of formulating a
booster station optimization. The first optimization formulation
was using multi-species EPANET-MSX software to evaluate the
Table 2. Objective functions used for the optimization methods effects of chlorine utilization and contaminant reactions. The
second optimization formulation used an algebraic model for
modeling the flow of contaminants and chlorine in the network.
Nilufar Islam et al. ( 2013) proposed an innovative scheme for

maintaining adequate residual chlorine with optimal chlorine
dosages and numbers of booster locations was established based
on a proposed WQI for The City of Kelowna , Canada water
distribution network using EPANET software and later coupled
with an optimization scheme. Table no 3 narrates the major
findings of various researchers.
Table 3. Major Findings of Various researchers by application

of Booster Chlorination
5. BOOSTER CHLORINATION RESPONDING TO A

CONTAMINATION INCIDENT AND OTHER
APPLICATIONS:
Various investigators worked on the different field to check the

effect of applications of booster chlorination towards
contaminant events and formation of disinfection by-products.
Some of the studies are mentioned here.
Propato and Uber (2004c) applied the booster chlorination

strategy to two example networks under a worst-case deliberate
intrusion scenario. Results saw that the risk of consumer
exposure is affected by the residual maintenance strategy
employed. They found that addition of a booster station at
storage tanks may improve consumer protection without
requiring excessive disinfectant.
Parks and Van Briesen (2009) tested the hypothesis that a

booster disinfection system used in conjunction with a sensor 6. DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUDING REMARK:
network boost-response system could provide substantial
protection to allow for uninterrupted high quality water service After reviewing the work of most of the researchers it is found
during an intrusion event using EPANET EPANET-MSX to that coupled water quality modeling tool with advanced
perform the water quality simulations. The hypothesis was optimization methods can serve as important decision making
evaluated that a reactive booster schedule would be more tool for the operation of booster chlorination station to manage

effective residual chlorine in the DWDS. Investigators utilized xii. Nilufar Islam, Rehan Sadiq, Manuel J. Rodriguez ( 2013) Optimizing
booster chlorination in water distribution networks: a water quality index
different methods of optimization for optimal scheduling,
approach,Journal of Environmental Monitoring and Assessment , 185( 10) ,
operation and locations of booster stations to maintain adequate 8035-8050.
levels of residual chlorine throughout the DWDS. Many xiii. Ostfeld, A., and Salomons, E. (2004).Optimal layout of early warning
researchers have linked the water quality model such as detection stations for water distribution systems security, Journal of Water
Resource Planning and Management, 130(5), 377385.
EPANET or EPANET- MSX with optimization methods to
xiv. Ostfeld, A., and Salomons, E. (2005).Securing Water Distribution
achieve the balance between the upper and lower limit of Systems Using Online Contamination Monitoring, Journal of Water Resources
residual chlorine. As seen from summary it is observed that Planning and Management, 131( 5)
linear programming model , mixed integer linear programming xv. Ostfeld, A., and Salomons, E. (2006) Conjunctive optimal scheduling
of pumping and booster chlorine injections in water distribution systems,
and Genetic Algorithm is widely used by many researchers.
Engineering Optimization, 38(3), 337-352.
Limited research papers are found with applications of xvi. Ohar, Z. and Ostfeld, A. (2010) Alternative Formulation for DBP's
evolutionary algorithms like Particle Swarm Optimization Minimization by Optimal Design of Booster Chlorination Stations, World
(PSO). The investigation carried out by various researchers Environmental and Water Resources Congress 2010: pp. 4260-4269.
xvii. Ohar, Z. and Ostfeld, A. (2014) Optimal design and operation of
suggests that the application of booster chlorination strategy can
booster chlorination stations layout in water distribution systems,Water
maintain the balance between the upper and lower limits of Research 58( 1) , 209220
residual chlorine. Studies of most of the researchers show that xviii. Parks, S. L. I., and VanBriesen, J. M. (2009)Booster Disinfection for
the booster chlorination can reduce the amount of disinfectant Response to Contamination in a Drinking Water Distribution System, Journal of
Water Resources Planning and Management, 135(6), 502-511.
required to satisfy concentration constraints, when compared to
xix. Prasad, T. D., Walters, G. A., and Savic, D. A. (2004) Booster
conventional disinfection only at the source. This reduced disinfection of water supply networks: Multiobjective approach, Journal of
concentration may help in reduction of harmful disinfection by- Water Resources Planning and Management, 130(5), 367-376.
product formation. Thus, the application of linked water quality xx. Propato, M., and Uber, J. G. (2004a) Linear least-squares
formulation for operation of booster disinfection systems, Journal of Water
and optimization model serve as the important decision
Resources Planning and Management, 130(1), 53-62.
supporting tool for the water supply mangers for effective xxi. Propato, M., and Uber, J. G. (2004b) Booster system design using
management of residual chlorine in DWDS. This will ultimately mixed-integer quadratic programming, Journal of Water Resources Planning
provide the protection against the pathogens and harmful and Management, 130(4), 348-352.
xxii. Propato, M., and Uber, J. G. (2004c) Vulnerability of water
disinfection by-products to consumers.
distribution systems to pathogen intrusion: How effective is a disinfectant
residual?, Environmental Science & Technology, 38(13), 3713-3722.
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(2000) Factors which control Bulk Chlorine Decay Rates. Water Research 34(
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L., and Polycarpou, M. M. (1998). Optimal scheduling of booster disinfection in xxiv. Rossman L.A., Robert Clark, Walter Grayman. (1994) Modeling
water distribution systems. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Chlorine Residuals in Drinking Water Distribution Systems. ASCE Journal of
Management, 124(2), 99-111. Environmental Engineering 120( 4) 803-820.
ii. Boccelli, D. L., Tryby, M. E., Uber, J. G., & Summers, R. S. (2003). A xxv. Rossman L. A. (2000). EPANET 2.0 - User Manual. United States
reactive species model for chlorine decay and THM formation under Environmental Protection Agency - EPA. Cincinnati, USA.
rechlorination conditions. Water Research, 37(11), 26542666. xxvi. Shang, F., Uber, J. G., and Rossman, L. A. (2008). EPANET multi-
iii. Brian Carrioca, Phillip C Singer(2009) Impact of Booster species extension users manual, EPA/600/S-07/021, U.S. EPA, Cincinnati.
Chlorination on Chlorine Decay and THM production: Simulated Analysis. xxvii. Tryby, M. and Uber, J. (1999) Development of a Booster
ASCE Journal of Environmental Engineering 135( 10 ), 928-935. Chlorination Design Using Distribution System Models. 29th Annual Water
iv. Constans, S., Bremond, B., and Morel, P. (2000) Using Linear Resources Planning and Management Conference, Tempe, Arizona, United
Programs to Optimize the Chlorine Concentrations in Water Distribution States,WRPMD'99: 1-9.
Networks. Building Partnerships: Joint Conference on Water Resource xxviii. Tryby, M. E., Boccelli, D. L., Uber, J. G., and Rossman, L. A. (2002)
Engineering and Water Resources Planning and Management 2000 Facility location model for booster disinfection of water supply networks,
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v. Haxton, T., Murray, R., Hart, W., Klise, K., and Phillips, C. (2011) xxix. Ucaner M.and Ozdemir (2003) Application of Genetic Algorithms for
Formulation of Chlorine and Decontamination Booster Station Optimization Booster Chlorination in Water Supply Networks, World Water & Environmental
Problem. World Environmental and Water Resources Congress, 199-205. Resources Congress , Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States: American
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Residuals in Natural Watersin Water Quality Modeling by Clark, 2012. xxx. Wang, Hongxiang ,Guo Wenxian ; Xu Jianxin ; Gu Hongmei (2010),
vii. Haas C.N., S.B. Karra (1984) Studies on Chlorine Demand A Hybrid PSO for Optimizing Locations of Booster Chlorination Stations in
Constants." Journal of WPCF 56(2) 170-173. Water Distribution Systems. International Conference on Intelligent
viii. Kang, D., and Lansey, K. (2010). Real-Time Optimal Valve Computation Technology and Automation (ICICTA), China Univ. of Water
Operation and Booster Disinfection for Water Quality in Water Distribution Resources & Electr. Power, China, Volume 1 , 126- 129
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Locating satellite booster disinfectant stations. Journal of Water Resources 170.
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x. Matthew S. Gibbs., Graeme C. Dandy., and Holger R. Maier ( 2010).
Calibration and Optimization of the Pumping and Disinfection of a Real Water
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493-501.
xi. Munavalli, G. R., and Kumar, M. S. M. (2003). Optimal scheduling of
multiple chlorine sources in water distribution systems. Journal of Water
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Hydrogeochemical Stuidies Of Groundwater In And Around drinking purpose. Groundwater situation in different parts of
Metropolitan City Vadodara, Gujarat, India India is diversified because of variation in geological,
climatological and topographic set-up. The prevalent rock
M.K. Sharma C.K. Jain formations, ranging in age from Archaean to Recent, which
National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 247667, India control occurrence and movement of groundwater, are widely
E. mail: mks@nih.ernet.in varied in composition and structure. Further, significant
variations of landforms from the rugged mountainous terrains of
ABSTRACT : Geo-environmental conditions have a marked the Himalayas, Eastern and Western Ghats to the flat alluvial
influence on the groundwater quality. Hydrogeochemical plains of the river valleys and coastal tracts, and the aeolian
studies relevant to the water quality explain the relationship of deserts of Rajasthan are also responsible non-uniform
water chemistry to aquifer lithology. Such relationship would distribution of ground water. The rainfall patterns too show
help not only to explain the origin and distribution of dissolved similar region-wise variations. The topography and rainfall
constituents but also to elucidate the factors controlling the virtually control run-off and groundwater recharge (Master Plan,
groundwater chemistry. In the present investigation, 2002).
hydrogeochemical study was carried out in and around the
metropolitan city Vadodara, Gujarat, India to identify and Growing demand of water in various sectors viz; agriculture,
delineate the important geochemical processes which were industrial and domestic sectors, has brought problems of over-
responsible for the evaluation of chemical composition of exploitation of the groundwater resource, continuously declining
groundwater. The study area is a part of Indo-gangetic Plains, groundwater levels, sea water ingress in coastal areas, and
composed of Pleistocene and subrecent alluvium. The groundwater pollution in different parts of the country. The
groundwater in the study area occurs under both the un- falling groundwater levels in various parts of the country have
confined and confined conditions. Groundwater conditions in threatened the sustainability of the groundwater resource, as
the alluvial terrains are considerably influenced by varying water levels have gone deep beyond the economic lifts of
lithology of subsurface formations. The rainfall is main pumping.
recharge source of groundwater body besides infiltration from
river, canals and return flow from irrigation. Thirty five Geo-environmental conditions have a marked influence on the
groundwater sources viz; open wells, tubewells, piezometric groundwater quality. Hydrogeochemical studies relevant to the
wells, bore wells and hand pumps in and around Vadodara city water quality explain the relationship of water chemistry to
in pre- and post-monsoon seasons during 2008 and 2009 were aquifer lithology. Such relationship would help not only to
collected and analysed for major constituents. Data has been explain the origin and distribution of dissolved constituents but
processed as using Piper Trilinear Diagram and it was also to elucidate the factors controlling the groundwater
observed that majority of the groundwater samples of the study chemistry. Kumar et al. (2006) also studied the
area belong to Ca-Mg-Cl-SO4 or Na-K-Cl-SO4 hydrochemical hydrogeochemical processes in NCT Delhi to identify the
facies in both pre- and post-monsoon seasons. Gibbs ratio plot geochemical processes and their relation with groundwater
indicate that the chemistry of groundwater in the study area is quality as well as to get an insight into the hydrochemical
controlled mainly by the chemical interaction between aquifer evaluation of groundwater and reported that salinity and nitrate
rocks and groundwater, and to some extent by processes like are two major problem from drinking point of view. The
evapo-transpiration etc. The process of evaporation might have prevailing hydrochemical processes operating in the study area
incorporated some components of sodium and chlorine ions. are simple dissolution, mixing, weathering of carbonate minerals
The scatter plots of ions show that the relatively high (kankar) and of silicate, ion exchange, and surface water
contribution of (Ca+Mg) to the total cations (TZ +) and high interaction. Limited reverse ion exchange has been noticed in a
(Ca+Mg)/(Na+K) ratio indicate that carbonate weathering is a few parts of the study area especially in post-monsoon periods.
major source of dissolved ions in the groundwater of the study Periodic seasonal switch-over has been clearly noticed in these
area. The plot of (Ca+Mg) vs HCO3 for most of the samples in hydrogeochemical processes that control groundwater quality of
study area indicates an excess of Ca+Mg over HCO3 inferring the area.
an extra source of Ca and Mg. This requires that a portion of
the (Ca+Mg) has to be balanced by other anions like SO 4 Reddy and Kumar (2010) carried out hydrogeochemical studies
and/or Cl. Plot of (Ca+Mg) vs HCO3+SO4 shows the ion in Penna-Chitravahi river basins in Southern India to identify
exchange process activated in the area, which may be due to and delineate the geochemical processes responsible for the
the excess bicarbonate. The plot of Na vs Cl indicates evolution of chemical composition of ground water and reported
contribution of silicate weathering through the release of Na. that the groundwater in general is of Na +-Cl-, Na+-HCO3-, Ca2+-
Mg2+-HCO3- and Ca2+-Mg2+-Cl- type . Na+ among cations and
Key words: Groundwater, Hydrogeochemical process, Cl- and/or HCO3- among anions dominate the water; Na+ and
Vadodara, Gibbs Plot, Scatter Plot Ca2+ are in the transitional state with Na+ replacing Ca2+ and
HCO3- Cl- due to physicochemical changes in the aquifer and
1. INTRODUCTION water rock interactions. Further, Gibbs plots indicate that the
evolution of water chemistry is influenced by water-rock
Ground water plays an important role in our life support system interaction followed by evapotranspiration process. Vijaykumar
as it is being used for different designated uses specially for et al. (2010) studied hydrogeochemistry in the part of Ariyalur

region, Perambalur district, Tamil Nadu, India and reported that infiltration from river, canals and return flow from irrigation.
Ca+Mg, SO4+Cl and HCO3+CO3 are high facies during pre- and There is no yield of water upto 50 feet, sandy aquifer was found
post-monsoon season and evaporation process dominates the from 50 to 70 feet. The principal industrial areas within
groundwater chemistry as explained by Gibbs plot. The quality Vadodara Urban areas are at Makarpura and Nandesari.
of water for irrigation was estimated by USSL classification
indicating high salinity and low sodium hazard, satisfactory for 3. MATERIAL AND METHODS
plants having moderate salt tolerance on soils.
Thirty five groundwater samples from open wells, tubewells,
Obiefuna and Orazulike (2011) characterized groundwater in piezometric wells, bore wells and hand pumps in and around
semiarid Yola area of northeastern Nigeria employing chemical Vadodara city (Fig. 1) were collected for physico-chemical
indicators and reported that alkaline earths (Ca+Mg) analysis in polypropylene bottles in pre- and post-monsoon
significantly exceed the alkali (Na+K) and week acids seasons during 2008 and 2009. All the samples were stored in
(HCO3+CO3) exceed the strong acids (Cl+SO4), suggesting sampling kits maintained at 4oC and brought to the laboratory for
dominance of carbonate weathering followed by silicate detailed chemical analysis. All general chemicals used in the
weathering. Chemical fertilizers and anthropogenic activities are study were of analytical reagent grade (Merck/BDH). De-
contributing to sulphate, nitrate and chloride concentrations in ionized water was used throughout the study. The physico-
surface and ground water of the study area. Srinivasamoorthy et chemical analysis was performed following standard methods
al. (2012) made an attempt to identify the major geochemical (APHA, 1995).Ionic balance was calculated, the error in the
process activated for controlling the ground water chemistry of ionic balance for majority of the samples was within 5%.
Sarabanga minor basin of river Cauvery, situated in Salem
district, Tamil Nadu, India and inferred that water chemistry is 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
guided by complex weathering process, ion exchange along with
influence of Cl ions from anthropogenic impact. 4.1 Physico-chemical characteristics of groundwater
In the present paper, hydrogeochemical study in and around the The hydro-chemical data of groundwater samples of pre-
metropolitan city Vadodara, Gujarat, India is carried out to monsoon, 2008 is presented in Table 1. The pH values in the
identify and delineate the important geochemical processes groundwater of metropolitan city of Vadodara mostly fall within
which were responsible for the evaluation of chemical the range 7.6 to 8.6. The pH values for most of the samples are
composition of groundwater by collecting groundwater samples well within the limits prescribed by BIS (2012) for various uses
in pre- and post-monsoon season. of water including drinking and other domestic supplies. The
electrical conductivity and dissolved salt concentrations are
2. STUDY AREA directly related to the concentration of ionized substance in
water and may also be related to problems of excessive hardness
The metropolitan city Vadodara is the graceful city of Gujarat and/or other mineral contamination. The conductivity values in
State. It is bounded by 2218 N latitude and 7316 E longitude the groundwater samples of the metropolitan city vary widely
(Fig.1). Vadodara urban agglomeration covers an area of about from 760 to 5480 S/cm with almost 80% of the samples having
140 km2. The rivers Jambua, Surya, Vishwamitri and Dhadhar, conductivity value above 1000 S/cm. The maximum
which flow through central part of the district and empty into conductivity value of 5480 S/cm was observed in the sample of
Gulf of Khambat, are also part of Mahi Basin. The climate of the Harni. In the metropolitan city of Vadodara, the values of total
metropolitan city is moderate tropical type. The temperature of dissolved solids (TDS) in the groundwater varies from 486 to
the city varies from 8C to 46C. The average annual rainfall is 3507 mg/L. Almost all the samples were found above the
recorded as 900 mm. The study area is a part of Indo-gangetic acceptable limit but within the maximum permissible limit of
Plains, composed of Pleistocene and subrecent alluvium. The 2000 mg/L and only 14% of the samples exceed the maximum
earliest geological evolution of the basement rocks, exposed in permissible limit of 2000 mg/L. Water containing more than 500
northern and eastern parts, had been controlled by the mg/L of TDS is not considered desirable for drinking water
Precambrian orogenies (Arvalli and Delhi cycles), and the older supplies, though more highly mineralized water is also used
crystalline rocks ideally shows folds, faults and magmatism where better water is not available. For this reason, 500 mg/L as
related to the two orogenies. After Precambrian orogenies, major the acceptable limit and 2000 mg/L as the maximum permissible
geological events of Vadodara district were confined to limit has been suggested for drinking water (BIS, 2012). Water
Mesozoic and Cenozoic Eras which can be related with the containing TDS more than 500 mg/L causes gastrointestinal
breaking up of the Gondwana land and the subsequent northward irritation (BIS, 2012).
drift of the Indian sub-continent, involving formation of
sediments and Deccan Trap Volcanism with uplifts and The presence of calcium and magnesium along with their
subsidence along the two major lineaments Narmada and carbonates, sulphates and chlorides are the main cause of
Cambay rift system. The groundwater in the study area occurs hardness in the water. A limit of 200 mg/L as acceptable limit
under both the un-confined and confined conditions. and 600 mg/L as permissible limit has been recommended for
Groundwater conditions in the alluvial terrains are considerably drinking water (BIS, 2012). The total hardness values in the
influenced by varying lithology of subsurface formations. The study area range from 79 to 1144 mg/L. About 20% of the
rainfall is main recharge source of groundwater body besides

samples fall within acceptable limit of 200 mg/L and 29% 45 mg/L and six samples even cross the permissible limit of 45
sample cross the permissible limit of 600 mg/L. In groundwater mg/L. In higher concentrations, nitrate may produce a disease
of the study area, the values of calcium range from 12 to 313 known as methaemoglobinaemia (blue babies) which generally
mg/L. The values of magnesium vary from 12 to 127 mg/L. The affects bottle-fed infants. The higher nitrate concentration in the
acceptable limit for calcium and magnesium for drinking water metropolitan city at few locations may be attributed due to
are 75 and 30 mg/L respectively (BIS, 2012). Further, only few combined effect of contamination from domestic sewage,
samples exceed maximum permissible limit of calcium as 200 livestock rearing landfills and runoff from fertilized fields. The
mg/L and magnesium as 100 mg/L. The concentration of sodium fluoride content in the groundwater of the study area varies from
in the study area varies from 54 to 1110 mg/L. High sodium 0.00 to 1.26 mg/L. Almost all the samples of the metropolitan
values in the city may be attributed to base-exchange phenomena city fall within the acceptable limit of 1.0 mg/L and none of the
causing sodium hazards. Such groundwater with high value of samples exceeded the maximum permissible limit of 1.5 mg/L.
sodium is not suitable for irrigation purpose. The concentration From the above discussion, it is clearly indicated that in the
of potassium in groundwater of the study area varies from 1.0 to groundwater of metropolitan city of Vadodara, the concentration
77 mg/L. As per EEC criteria, ten samples exceed the guideline of total dissolved solids exceeds the acceptable limit of 500
level of 10 mg/L. mg/L in almost all the samples but within the maximum
permissible limit of 2000 mg/L. From the hardness point of
view, about 20% of the samples fall within acceptable limit of
200 mg/L and 29% sample cross the permissible limit of 600
mg/L. The chloride content exceeds the desirable limit in more
than 40% of the pre-monsoon samples. Sulphate contents are
within the desirable limits in about 89% samples. The nitrate
content in more than 84% samples is well within the permissible
limit. The concentration of fluoride in almost all the samples is
well within the desirable limit. The violation of BIS limit could
not be ascertained for sodium and potassium as no permissible
limit for these constituents has been prescribed in BIS drinking
water specifications.
Table 1. Hydro-chemical characteristics of the Groundwater

during Pre-monsoon 2008
Parameters Mini Maxim Aver BIS (2012) Limit

mum um age Accepta Permis
ble sible
pH 7.6 8.6 8.0 6.5 8.5
Conductivity, 760 5480 2013 - -
S/cm
TDS, mg/L 486 3507 1288 500 2000
Hardness, mg/L 79 1143 435 200 400
Chloride, mg/L 20 1464 320 250 1000
Sulphate, mg/L 6.0 600 112 200 400
Nitrate, mg/L 0.0 252 36 45 -
Fluoride, mg/L 0.0 1.3 0.6 1.0 1.5
Sodium, mg/L 54 1110 250 - -
Potassium, mg/L 1.0 77 11.7 - -
Calcium, mg/L 12 313 103 75 200
Figure 1. Map showing location of sampling sites Magnesium, mg/L 12 127 43 30 100
The concentration of chloride varies from 20 to 1464 mg/L. 4.2 Mechanism Controlling the Groundwater Chemistry
More than 60% samples of the metropolitan city falls within the
desirable limit of 250 mg/L and only three samples of the city Geo-environmental conditions have a marked influence on the
exceeds the maximum permissible limit of 1000 mg/L. The groundwater quality. Hydrogeochemical studies relevant to the
concentration of sulphate in the metropolitan city varies from 6 water quality explain the relationship of water chemistry to
to 600 mg/L. Bureau of Indian standard has prescribed 200 mg/L aquifer lithology. Such relationship would help not only to
as the desirable limit and 400 mg/L as the permissible limit for explain the origin and distribution of dissolved constituents but
sulphate in drinking water. In the study area, 89% of the samples also to elucidate the factors controlling the groundwater
analysed fall within the desirable limit of 200 mg/L and only two chemistry. Gibbs (1970) proposed a hypothesis to elucidate the
samples exceed the maximum permissible limit of 400 mg/L. major natural mechanisms controlling world water chemistry.
The nitrate content in the metropolitan city of Vadodara varies Three mechanisms atmospheric precipitation, rock dominance
from 0.0 to 252 mg/L. About 84% of the samples of the and the evaporation-crystallization process are the major
metropolitan city of Vadodara fall within the permissible limit of factors controlling the composition of dissolved salts of the

world waters. Other second-order factors, such as relief,

vegetation and composition of material in the basin dictate only
minor deviations within the zones dominated by the three prime
factors.
Gibbs plot is a diagrammatic representation of the mechanisms
responsible for controlling the chemical composition of various
bodies of water on the surface of the earth. The major cations
that characterize the end-members of the world surface waters
are Ca for freshwater bodies and Na for high-saline water
bodies. Gibbs plotted the weight ratio Na/(Na+Ca) on the x-axis
and the variation in total salinity on the y-axis (Fig. 2). This
ordered arrangement can serve as a basis for discussion of the
several mechanisms that control world water chemistry.
The first of these mechanisms is the atmospheric precipitation.
The chemical compositions of low-salinity waters are controlled
by the amount of dissolved salts furnished by precipitation.
These waters consist mainly of the rivers having sources in
thoroughly leached areas of low relief in which the rate of
supply of dissolved salts to the rivers is very low and the amount
of rainfall is high much greater in proportion to the low
amount of dissolved salts supplied from the rocks. In addition,
the composition of this precipitation differs from that of rock-
derived dissolved salts. The second mechanism is the rock Figure 2. Gibbs plot (Source: Gibbs, 1970)
dominance controlling world water chemistry. The waters of this
rock-dominated end-members are more or less in partial Almost all collected groundwater samples from study area in
equilibrium with the materials in their basins. Their positions both seasons fall in rock dominance zone followed by
within this grouping are dependent on the relief and climate of evaporative zone suggesting precipitation induced chemical
each basin and the composition of each basin. The third major weathering along with dissolution of rock forming minerals. It
mechanism that controls the chemical composition of the earths may be inferred that the chemistry of groundwater in the study
surface waters is the evaporation-fractional crystallization area is controlled mainly by the chemical interaction between
process. This mechanism produces a series extending from the aquifer rocks and groundwater, and to some extent by processes
Ca-rich, medium-salinity (freshwater), rock source end- like evapo-transpiration etc. The process of evaporation might
member grouping to the opposite, Na-rich, high-salinity end- have incorporated some components of sodium and chlorine
member. ions.
4.3 Classification of Ground Water
Data has been processed as using Piper Trilinear Diagram and it

was observed that majority of the groundwater samples of the
study area belong to Ca-Mg-Cl-SO4 or Na-K-Cl-SO4
hydrochemical facies in both pre- and post-monsoon seasons.
Such water has permanent hardness and does not deposit
residual sodium carbonate in irrigation use and generally
creates salinity problems both in irrigation and drinking uses.
4.4 Scatter Plots between Ions
The scatter plot of (Ca+Mg) vs TZ+ shows that all the points fall
above 1:1 equiline (Fig. 3). The relatively high contribution of
(Ca+Mg) to the total cations (TZ+) and high (Ca+Mg)/(Na+K)
ratio indicate that carbonate weathering is a major source of
dissolved ions in the groundwater of the study area (Fig. 3).
The scatter plot of (Na+K) vs TZ+ shows that all the points fall
above 1:1 equiline with a low ratio indicating a relatively low
contribution of dissolved ions from silicate weathering (Fig. 4).
Na+, K+ and dissolved silica in the drainage basin are mainly
derived from the weathering of silicate minerals, with clay
minerals as by-products. The plot of Na vs Cl indicates most of

the points lie below the 1:1 equiline reflecting contribution of

silicate weathering through the release of Na. The plot of
(Ca+Mg) vs HCO3 for most of the samples of the study area
indicates an access of alkalinity over Ca+Mg content (Fig. 5).
The excess of Ca+Mg over HCO3 in some of the sample of the
upper part of basin indicate an extra source of Ca and Mg. This
requires that a portion of the (Ca+Mg) has to be balanced by
other anions like SO4 and/or Cl.
The plot of (Ca+Mg) vs HCO3+SO4 is a major indicator to
identify the ion exchange process activated in the study area. If
ion exchange is the process, the points shift to right side of the
plot due to excess of HCO3+SO4. If reverse ions exchange is the
process, points shift left due to excess Ca+Mg. Plot of (Ca+Mg)
vs HCO3+SO4 shows that most of the plotted points clusters
around the 1:1 equiline and fall in HCO3+SO4 indicating the ion Figure 5. Scatter plot of (Ca+Mg) vs HCO3 and (Ca+Mg) vs
exchange process which may be due to excess bicarbonate (Fig. (HCO3+SO4) (Pre- and Post-monsoon)
5).
5. CONCLUSION
Hydrogeochemical studies relevant to the water quality

successfully explain the relationship of water chemistry to
aquifer lithology. It is concluded that the problem of hardness in
groundwater at few location was attributed due to dissolution of
rock forming minerals and dominance of carbonate weathering.
The ion exchange process is dominating in the study area, which
may be due to excess bicarbonate. High concentration of sodium
and chloride may be attributed to the process of evaporation and
contribution of silicate weathering through the release of Na.
REFERENCES
i. APHA (Clesceri LS, Greenberg AE, Trussel RR, 1995) Standard

Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, APHA, Washington DC.
ii. BIS (2012) Indian Standard Drinking Water Specification (Second
Revision). IS:10500:2012, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
iii. Gibbs Ronald J. (1970) Mechanisms controlling world water
chemistry. Science 170(3962): 1088-1090.
Figure 3. Scatter plot of (Ca+Mg) vs TZ+ and (Ca+Mg) vs iv. Kumar Manish, Ramanathan AL., Rao MS, Kumar Bhishm (2006)
(Na+K) (Pre- and Post-monsoon) Identification and evaluation of hydrogeological processes in groundwater
environment of Delhi, India. Environ. Geol. 50(7): 1025-1039.
v. Master Plan (2002) Master Plan for Artificial Recharge to
Groundwater in India Central Ground Water Board, New Delhi, February 2002,
p. 115.
vi. Obiefuna GI, Orazulike DM (2011) The hydrochemical
characteristics and evolution of groundwater in semiarid Yola area, Northeast,
Nigeria. Res. J. of Environ. Earth Sci. 3(4): 400-416.
vii. Piper AM (1944) A Graphical Procedure in the Geochemical
Interpretation of Water Analysis. Trans. Am. Geophysical Union, 25: 914-923.
viii. Reddy AG, Kumar KN (2010) Identification of the hydrogeochemical
processes in ground water using major ion chemistry: a case study of Penna-
Chitravahi river basins in Southern India. Environmental Monitoring
Assessment 170(1-4): 365-382.
ix. Srinivasamoorthy K, Vasanthavigar M, Chidambaram S, Anandhan
P, Manivannan R, Rajivgandhi R (2012) Hydrochemistry of groundwater from
Sarabanga minor basin, Tamil Nadu, India. Proceedings of the International
Academy of Ecology and Environmental Sciences. 2(3): 193-203.
x. Vijaykumar V, Vasudevan S, Ramkumar T, Shrinivasamoorthy K,
Venkatramanan S, Chidambaram S (2010) Hydrogeochemistry in the part of
Ariyalur region, Perambalur district, Tamil Nadu, India. J. Applied Geochemists
12(2): 253-260.
Figure 4. Scatter plot of (Na+K) vs TZ+ and Na vs Cl (Pre- and

Post-monsoon)

optimal number of sensors and their locations in the network is

desirable.
EVALUATION OF VARIOUS OBJECTIVES IN MULTI-
OBJECTIVE SENSOR PLACEMENTS IN WATER Lee and Deininger et al. (1992) were perhaps the first to suggest
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS a methodology for location of monitoring stations (MSs) in a
S. Rathi1 R. Gupta2 WDN using the objective of maximizing the demand coverage
1
Research Scholar, Visvesvaraya National Institute of (DC) for routine monitoring of water quality. The demand
Technology, Nagpur-440010, India. coverage was defined as the percentage of total demand
2
Professor, Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology, monitored by the set of MSs. The demand coverage does not
Nagpur-440010, India. quantify the impact of contamination events. Kessler et al.
Email: drrajeshgupta123@hotmail.com (1998) suggested total volume of contaminated water consumed
by population as an objective to be restricted to a desired level
ABSTRACT while selecting location of MSs. Kumar et al. (1999) suggested
time of detection as level of service (LOS). In the last decade,
Online monitoring of water quality in distribution network the purpose of water quality monitoring has completely changed
through sensors are of pronounced interest for early detection of and early warning system with several other objectives like
contamination event. Since the online monitoring of network is population exposed to contamination, extent of contamination,
costly affair, the limited numbers of sensors are placed at crucial detection likelihood, number of failed detections, risk and
locations to cover the entire network. Several objectives have redundancy of monitoring system etc. were suggested to protect
been proposed to decide the location of sensors. However, the human from deliberate contamination events. These
including all of them in deciding location of sensors is a difficult objectives have been considered independently or jointly by
task. Sensor locations are obtained by considering single or few different researchers to propose algorithms for location of
objectives at a time. How far the other objectives not considered monitoring stations/sensors (Chastain 2006; Ostfeld et al. 2004;
during the design are satisfied can be obtained by analysis of Watson et al. 2004; Wu and Walski 2006; Berry et al. 2005,
sensor network design. This paper aims at explaining evaluation 2006; Propato 2006; Ostfeld et al. 2008; Peris and Ostfeld 2008;
of various objectives for a set of known sensor locations. The Aral et al. 2010; Weickgenannt et al. 2010; Krause et al.2008;
objectives evaluated are Demand Coverage, Detection Dorini et al. 2010, Hart and Murray 2010; Shen and McBean
Likelihood, Time of Detection, Population Exposed, Extent of 2011; Kansal et al. 2012).
contamination, Volume of contaminated water consumed,
Number of failed detection and Risk. The evaluation of above It is observed that various researchers have considered different
objectives is carried out by considering: (i) hydraulic simulation objectives in the design of sensor network. Some of the
for dominating demand pattern; and (ii) both hydraulic and objectives like maximizing detection likelihood would probably
water quality simulation over a period of time. EPANET is used locate the sensors at the far end of the system or at the
for both hydraulic and water quality simulation. downstream network nodes in order to detect more number of
The methodology for evaluating various objectives is explained contamination events while the objective like minimizing
with an illustrative network. The values of various objectives expected time of detection would locate the sensors as close as
evaluated through water quality simulations provided more possible to the source of contamination. Thus, optimizing sensor
realistic and accurate results as compared to that obtained locations with different objectives will give different sensor
through only hydraulic simulations. However, water quality locations. Further, different objectives can be evaluated by: (i)
simulation require more efforts and computation time along with considering only hydraulic simulation, in which network is
calibrated network to rely on the modeled output. analyzed for flow and velocities for most dominating demand
pattern and it is assumed that contamination in any
Keywords: contamination, monitoring, objectives, water concentration is detected by sensor as it reaches the sensor node;
distribution system, water quality. and (ii) water quality simulations to predict the more realistic
temporal evaluation of contaminant concentration.
1. INTRODUCTION:
The sensor network designed for one or more objectives may
Water distribution network (WDN) is an important part of the required to be checked for its efficacy for other objectives not
city infrastructure and its primary aim is to provide safe and considered in the design. Further, in GA based designs, few
adequate drinking water to consumers. A network consists of alternative designs are required to compared for fulfillment of
several pipes connected to each other and other components used different objectives during the design itself. This paper aims at
to control and measure flows and pressures. Water explaining evaluation of various objectives for a set of known
contamination can occur at any time due to several reasons. The sensor locations. The objectives evaluated are Demand
reasons for deterioration of water quality in WDN may be Coverage (DC), Detection Likelihood (DL), Time of Detection
classified as natural, accidental or intentional. In order to detect (TD), Population Exposed (PE), Extent of Contamination (EC),
contamination event at the earliest and to reduce the impact of Volume Consumed (VC), Number of Failed Detection (NFD),
contamination event, online water quality monitoring in a WDN and Risk.
through sensors is desirable. However, installation of sensors
and continuous monitoring is costly affair, therefore selection of

2. PERFORMANCE OBJECIVES AND THEIR where, DT (x,p) = Travel time t xp for detected events and for
DEFINITIONS
undetected events. The TD is an important parameter of sensor
Let S be the number of sensors installed in a WDN at different network. It can be noted that other parameters quantifying the
nodes. The total number of nodes are J and number of flow impact of contamination event are dependent on TD.
patterns are P. Let us considered that contamination takes place
only at the nodes and for any event x, the probability of Population Exposed (PE) It is defined as the number of people
occurrence during flow pattern p is xp. The contamination event exposed to the contaminant before detection by a sensor. In case
x at node j will certainly be detected, if j is one of the sensor when only hydraulic simulation is carried out, it is assumed that
node s. If j is not a sensor node then contamination event x may sensor is capable of detecting any small concentration of
be detected at one or more of downstream sensor nodes, if there contaminant. Thus, population exposed during contamination
exists flow paths from j to downstream sensor nodes s. The event x would be the addition of population of all the nodes
event x will remain undetected if there are no sensor nodes on which gets contaminated in time txp. Therefore, population
the downstream of contamination node. exposed is given by
J P
PE xp
Demand Coverage (DC) - The term DC is defined as the
percentage of network demand monitored by a particular and/or jp
set of sensor nodes. If the quality of water is good at any node, it x1 p 1 jcontaminated
nodes
can be presumed good at upstream nodes, if sufficient quantity
(3)
of water has passed through upstream nodes. An upstream node
is assumed as covered by a sensor node if a desired fraction of
flow has passed through that node. In general the demand
coverage of sensor network would be Where, jp population associated with node j during pattern p.
In case of water quality simulation, PE is mathematically
P J
a
expressed as
j q j, p
p 1 j 1
DC J p J
P J
PE xp C jp
q
p 1 j 1
j, p x 1 p 1
xpj
jcontaminated
node
(1) (4)
where aj =1 if node j is covered by set of sensor nodes, else aj =

0; q is the nodal demand. It can be noted that DC indicates the Where, Cxpj - Contamination concentration indicator variable;
property of sensor nodes. Cxpj = 1, if concentration is more than threshold concentration, 0
otherwise. It can be observed that during water quality
Time of Detection (TD) The detection time for a particular simulation for a contamination event the concentration of
contamination scenario is given by the time elapsed between the contaminant at sensor node may be less than threshold
start of contamination event and its detection by the first sensor concentration. Herein, the event remains undetected at sensor
location. Thus, the detection time for any event x at node i which nodes. However, the population at all the nodes at which
is detected first at node j would be the minimum travel time concentration is more than the threshold concentration are
required by contaminant to reach from node i to node j during included in population exposed.
flow pattern p and represented as txp. There could be some
scenarios in which contaminant may not be detected by any Extent of Contamination (EC) It is defined as the length of
sensor. The Time of Detection for undetected events may be pipe contaminated by a contamination event. Length of pipe
considered as 24 hrs or more (say ) based on time of simulation contaminated during contamination event x would be the
(Watson et al. 2004) or when it is indirectly detected in public. addition of contaminated length of all pipes which gets
The time of detection for the sensor network can been contaminated in time txp under the flow pattern p. It is
represented by including or excluding the undetected events. In mathematically defined as
the simplest way, it is the average time necessary for a sensor to
detect a substance. J p J
EC ip jp
x 1 p 1 jcontaminated
TD xp DT ( x, p)
node
(5)
xJ pP
(2)

jp L e
epipes between
population exposed. Following these definitions Risk of
contamination can be expressed as
contaminated nodes
(6) 1 J 1 J
R( S ) (1
x x 1
max ( S p , K l ))( min ( S P , kl ))
S P S x x 1 S P S
Where, Le Length of pipe e. The expression similar to Eq. (4) (10)
also can be written for the case of water quality simulation for
other objectives. where, S - set of sensor locations; R(S) - associated
contamination risk; Sp - elements in S (Sensor location); x -
Volume Consumed (VC) - The amount of contaminated water number of contamination scenarios; kl - a contamination
consumed by the population before detection by a monitoring scenario index; (Sp, kl) - a binary function with variables Sp
station. Mathematically, it can be written a (which is a sensor location) and kl (which is a scenario); (Sp,kl)
= 1 if the sensor at Sp can detect the scenario kl and 0 otherwise;
J p J (Sp, kl) - Volume of water that is contaminated prior to network
VC xp q jp ( DT ( x, p) t xp ) shutdown following the intrusion detection at a specific sensor.
x 1 p 1 jcontaminated
node
Monitoring Stations response delay (MSRD) It is defined as
(7) possible monitoring Stations response delay in revealing a
hazard intrusion. Herein, we assume that MSRD = 0 means it is
Where, qjp - demand at contaminated node j; (DT(x,p) - txp) assumed that monitoring stations are capable of providing real
Consumption time The duration before detection by the time time detection data.
water reaches to the sensor node defined as duration before
detection over which contaminated node consumes contaminated 3.0 Common Assumptions
water injected at a specific node for pattern p. (Detection time at
a sensor node minus minimum flow time to the contaminated 3.1 In hydraulic as well as water quality simulation:
nodes from the contaminant injected node); DT (x, p) travel
time to a detection point and tijp - Minimum flow time between x Following assumptions have been made to evaluate the
and j for p. objective values.
1. One contamination event is considered at any time. The
Number of Failed Detections (NFD) - The proportion of contaminant intrusion is considered at the nodal point only.
attacks that are undetected by all monitoring stations. 2. The probabilities of contamination at all the nodes are
Mathematically it is expressed as assumed to be equal.
3. Sensor locations are considered only at the nodal points in
J p the network.
NFD xpbi 0 p 4. Sensors are assumed to be perfect in the sense that above a
x 1 p 1 specified concentration, the sensor is 100 % reliable and
(8) below that concentration the sensor always fails to detect the
contaminant and they are accurate i.e no false positives and
Where, bi0p = 1, if contamination event is undetected; else 0. no false negatives. It is also assumed that the alarm is raised
by the sensors at detection time and without considering any
Detection likelihood (DL) It is defined as the probability of response delay.
detection of a contaminant or it is defined as complement of
NFD. For a given sensor network design i.e. by knowing the 3.2 Additional assumptions during hydraulic simulation
known number and locations of sensors, only:
J p 1. Hydraulic analysis is carried out for only one demand

DL xpbijp pattern, i.e. peak demands.
x 1 p 1 2. The contaminant travels in the pipeline with the velocity of
(9) water. Further, it is assumed that contamination is detected
by sensor as it reaches the sensor node how-so-ever small is
Where, bijp =1, if contamination event is detected else 0. the concentration, thus ignoring the effect of dilution on
contaminant concentrations.
3. Sensor protects downstream populations. A population is
Risk Weickgenannt et al. (2010) defined Risk as the product considered exposed if it could be reach by a flow path from
of the probability of not detecting the contaminant intrusion and the attack point without passing a sensor.
the corresponding consequence in terms of water demand 4. The contaminated water moves in the pipeline and travel in
consumed. Berry et al. (2005) defined Risk as fraction of different pipes connected at the junctions. All points on

downstream of attack point are assumed to be contaminated Figure 1. Example water distribution system
until contamination is reached at one of the sensors, i.e. up to
time when the contaminated water will reach at least one Table 1. Pipe details peak demand hour results
sensor.
3.3 Additional assumptions during water quality simulation:
1. The pollutants are assumed to be conservative type where

contaminant does not react with water and its dynamics is
determined by water flows, dilution and mixing from the
intrusion site to consumers nodes.
2. Water quality simulation is performed to predict
contaminant concentration with time resulting from a
particular contamination scenario and various objectives are
evaluated by developing a pollution matrix with mass rates
of 5000 mg/min with duration of injection is of 2 hours.
3. It is assumed that contamination event occur at peak
demand time where more number of people consuming
water at that time.
4. The hazard concentration threshold is taken as 0.3 mg/l. Table 2. Demand pattern
5. The contaminant reaches in the network at different nodes
with different concentrations from the contaminated source
node and effect will continues till contaminated water
reaches to one sensor in a set with concentration greater
than the threshold concentration. The effect of
contamination will be used for determination of objectives
up to that time.
4. ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE
A single source WDN (Kessler et al. 1998) as shown in Figure.1

is considered for the evaluation of various objectives for a set of
known sensor locations. The network has 12 pipes and 8
consumer locations- the number of consumers at each location
(given in parenthesis) is shown in Figure 1, a source, a storage
tank and a pump. The average nodal demands are given in Lps. 5. EVALUATION OF VARIOUS OBJECTIVES
The pipe diameters are given in Table 1. The demand multiplier
(ratio of actual demand to average demand) for different periods Various performance objectives are evaluated for two sets of
in 24 hours are given in Table 2. Total length of the pipe in the known sensor locations (1) Sensors at nodes 32 and 23; and
network is 19364 meters and total consumers of the network are (2) Sensors at nodes 32, 23 and 31. Further, objective function
7600. The pipe 10 is 3209 m long, while all other pipes are 1609 values are obtained by considering: (1) only hydraulic
m in length. Hazen-Williams coefficient for all pipes is 100. simulation; and (2) both hydraulic and water quality simulation.
Other details can be obtained from the Kessler et al. (1998).
5.1 Evaluation considering hydraulic analysis:
Case 1 : Sensors at nodes 32 and 23.
5.1.1 Evaluation of DC:
Lee and Deininger (1992) suggested a methodology for

maximizing DC which is based on development of water
fraction matrix and coverage matrix based on chosen coverage
criteria. In order to determine the upstream nodes covered by a
monitoring station, the coverage criteria is used and defined as
the minimum percentage of total water received at a monitoring
node that should have passed through an upstream node to be
able to consider it covered. The lower the coverage criteria,
the more the demand coverage of monitoring nodes increases.

Let us consider two coverage criteria of 60 % and 30 %. With

60% coverage criteria only those upstream nodes through which
60% of the total flow has passed will be included, while with 30
% coverage criteria all the upstream nodes through which 30%
total quantity of water passed will get included. Thus, demand
coverage of monitoring station is based on coverage criteria,
which brings subjectivity in the design as its value has to be
fixed by the designer according to his own experience.
Therefore, here to evaluate the demand coverage objective we
used a simple methodology (Rathi et al. 2014) which avoids 5.1.3 Evaluation of PE, EC, DL and NFD:
subjectivity owing to coverage criteria as it considers all the
nodes on the shortest path from source to sensor node as covered To determine PE, EC, DL and NFD for sensors at nodes 32, 23
based on the assumption that major flows are along shortest we make use of general travel time matrix shown in Table 3.
path. Consider contamination at node 10. The event is first detected at
sensor node 32 in 6.98 hrs. Therefore, all the nodes to which
The set of sensor at nodes 32, 23 are given. First, identify the travel time is less than 6.98 hrs. will get contaminated.
shortest path for nodes 32 and 23. Shortest path for 32 is 10-11- Considering the row 1 in Table 3, all the nodes except the two
12-22-32 and for 23 is 10-11-12-22-23. Now calculate DC by sensor nodes have travel time less than 6.98 hrs and therefore
adding the demands of all nodes on shortest path. Therefore, DC they are included in the list of contaminated nodes shown in
of 32 = 0+7.57+7.57+10.09+7.57 = 32.8 Lps and similarly DC Table 4. The PE and EC are also given in Table 4. Average
for 23 = 5.046 (without adding demand of previously covered values of PE and EC with equal probability of contamination at
nodes twice). Therefore, total DC of 32 and 23 = 37.846 Lps all nodes are obtained as 2328 and 4847.336 meters.
(68.18% shown in Table 5 and 6) out of a total of 55.508 Lps. It
can be noted that DC is the attribute of sensor network that is not Whether a contamination scenario is detected or not is shown in
affected by number or probabilities of contamination events. Col. 5. Thus, total 9 out of total 10 number of events are
detected by sensors at nodes 32 and 23. Therefore, detection
5.1.2 Evaluation of TD: likelihood is 90 % and NFD as complement of DL is 10 %.
To evaluate TD for the sensor network, the detection time for Table 4. Calculation of objectives for Sensor location at nodes
individual contamination events are required. A general travel 32, 23
time matrix as shown in Table 3 is developed which can be used
for evaluation of other objectives also as discussed later. The
element in travel time matrix is the shortest travel time (in Hrs.)
from the contaminated node to the other nodes.
Now, to evaluate TD for sensors at nodes 32, 23 various

contamination scenarios are considered at different nodes. For
example, from the shortest travel time matrix it is observed that
for contamination event at node 10, event is be detected by both
the sensors at nodes 32 and 23 in time 6.98 hrs and 8.53 hrs,
respectively. Therefore, the detection time for this event is 6.98
hrs. The contamination at all nodes except that at node 2 is
detected at least by one of the sensor node. The event at node 2
is undetected by sensors at nodes 32, 23.
The average time of detection is calculated by considering only

the detected events with equal probability of occurrence and
found as 5.94 hours. The TD is also evaluated by considering
both detected and undetected events in which detection time for
the undetected events is the time when such events are 5.1.4 Evaluation of VC:
indirectly noticed in public. Herein, detection time for
undetected events is taken as twice of the maximum simulation Contaminated volume consumed is the actual consumption up to
duration. The average TD is obtained as 10.14 hrs. the event is detected. It is calculated by aggregating the product
of the nodal demands at contaminated node by the time
Table 3. Calculation of objectives for Sensor location at nodes difference between time of detection at sensor node and the time
32, 23 required by contaminant to reach the contaminated demand node
from the point of intrusion. Thus, in this example if
contamination takes place at node 10 and first detected at sensor

node 32, the contaminated nodes are 10,11,12, 2, 21,22,31, and with hydraulic simulation over 24 hr period. The obtained values
13. These nodes are arranged in ascending order of travel times of the objectives are shown in Tables 6 and 7.
as nodes 10, 11, 12, 2, 21, 22, 31, and 13. Minimum travel time
from node 10 to 32 is 6.988 hours. The contaminated water Table 6. Evaluation of various objectives for a set of known
consumed by the time water just reaches node 32 will be given sensor locations using
by: {[0(6.98-0) + 7.57(6.98-1.3) + 7.57(6.98-1.88) + Water quality analysis
0(6.98-1.93) + 7.57(6.98-2.1) + 10.09(6.98-3.8) +
5.046(6.98-4.03) + 5.046 (6.98-5.84)} 3600 = 203640 litres.
Multiplier outside the brackets are the demands (L/s) at nodes
10, 11, 12, 2, 21, 22, 31, and 13. In this way, consumption is
calculated by assuming the contamination event at each node
and assuming equal probability of attack to all nodes gives a
volume consumption of 220128 litres.
5.1.5 Evaluation of Risk:
Risk values for PE (%) are evaluated considering fraction of

population exposed. The average PE is 2328 (Table 4) and the
total population is 7600. Therefore, PE (in %) is 30.63 %
(=2328x100/7600). Risk for VC (%) is 32.37 %, (i.e. 220128 Table 7. Evaluation of Risk objective
Litres of contaminated water consumed out of total volume
consumption of 679937.4 Litres).
Case 2. Sensors at nodes 32, 23 and 31.
The evaluation of various objective are also carried out similarly

for case 2. The obtained values are shown in Table 5 along with
those obtained for case 1 for easy comparison.
Table 5. Evaluation of various objectives for a set of known Performance objectives evaluated through water quality
sensor locations simulations provides more realistic results as they are obtained
using hydraulic analysis by considering variation in demands over time and concentration
of pollutant. However, water quality simulation require more
efforts and computation time. From Table 5 and 6 it can be
observed that the difference between the various objective
values under hydraulic simulation and water quality simulation
are not much.
5. CONCLUSIONS
This paper aims at explaining evaluation of various performance

objectives of a WDN equipped with a set of sensors at known
locations. The objectives evaluated are Demand Coverage (DC),
Detection likelihood (DL), time of detection (TD), population
It can be observed from table 5 that with one additional sensor at exposed (PE), extent of contamination (EC), volume consumed
node 31, coverage increases and other parameters such as PE, (VC), Number of failed detection (NFD), and Risk. It is
EC, TD and VC decreases. The DL and NFD remains the same observed that DC is an attribute of sensor network that is not
as the contamination event at node 2 still remains undetected dependent on number of contamination events and their
with addition of sensor at node 31. locations. The PE, EC, and VC are the attributes governed by
TD. With the increase in average TD, these parameters
Risk values for PE (%) and VC (%) are 24.33 % and 11.59 %, decreases. The evaluation of above objectives is carried out by
respectively. considering only hydraulic simulation and also with water
quality simulation. The values of objectives evaluated after
5.2 Evaluation considering water quality simulation along performing water quality simulations provides more realistic and
with hydraulic simulation: accurate results as compared to considering simply hydraulic
simulations. However, water quality simulation requires more
Performance objectives are evaluated for both the cases of efforts and computation time along with calibrated network to
known sensor locations using water quality simulations along rely on the modeled output.

Such evaluation are also required in sensor network design using Water Quality Assessment Of Dal Lake, Kashmir,
GA with multiple objectives where several alternative designs J&K.
are compared based on performance objectives and their fitness
is quantified.
Shabina Masoodi
REFERENCES: Associate Professor, SSM College of Engineering and
Technology, Parihaspora, Pattan, Kashmir, J&K. 193121
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of Water Resources Planning and Management 136 (6): 611-619.
vii. Lee BH, Deininger RA (1992) Optimal locations of monitoring
discharge depict temporal variations. Around fifty percent of
stations in water distribution system. Journal of Environmental Engineering 118 the observed maximum specific conductivity, dissolved oxygen,
(1): 4-16. nitrate-nitrogen, ammonicalnitrogen and total phosphorus
viii. Kansal ML, Dorji T, Chandniha SK and Tyagi A (2012) Identification have been noticed in the spring season. Summer season has
of optimal monitoring locations to detect accidental contaminations. Proc.
World Water and Environmental Resources Congress 2012, ASCE, Albuquerque,
twenty five percent of such observations and the remaining
NM, 758-776. twenty five percent are distributed in autumn and winter
ix. Kessler A, Ostfeld A and Sinai G (1998) Detecting accidental seasons. This may be possibly due to the start of activities in
contaminations in municipal water networks. Journal of Water Resources the catchment, mixing or re-suspension. A comparison of
Planning and Management 124 (4): 192198.
x. Krause A, Leskovec J, Guestrin C, VanBriesen J, Faloutsos C (2008)
values over a period of time shows that the Dal Lake has
Efficient sensor placement optimization for securing large water distribution passed through several stages of eutrophic evolution. Extensive
networks. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management 134 (6): 516 data establishes far reaching changes in the physico-chemical
526. environment. Dal Lake receives large quantities of nitrogen
xi. Kumar A, Kansal ML, Arora G (1999) Detecting accidental
contaminations in municipal water networks. Journal of Water Resources
and phosphorus from incoming sewage drains from non-point
Planning and Management 125 (5): 308310. sources like seepages and diffused runoff. Of the total
xii. Ostfeld A, Salomons E (2004) Optimal layout of Early Warning phosphorus and inorganic nitrogen inflow from all sources,
Detection Stations for Water Distribution Systems Security. Journal of Water the quantity contributed by the drains works out to be thirty
Resources Planning and Management 130 (5): 377-385.
xiii. Ostfeld A, et al (2008) The battle of the water sensor networks
five percent. Similarly a sizeable quantity of total phosphates
(BWSN): A design challenge for engineers and algorithms Journal of Water and nitrogen are added to the lake from non point sources.
Resources Planning and Management 134 (6): 555-568. Various engineering interventions like catchment
xiv. Preis A, Ostfeld A (2008) Multiobjective contaminant sensor network management, dredging, de-weeding, sewerage treatment plants
design for water distribution systems. Journal of Water Resources Planning and
Management 134 (4): 366-377.
etc have been taken but their efficacy is under assessment
xv. Propato M (2006) Contamination Warning in Water Networks: since the results are not very positive for the health of the
General Mixed-Integer Linear Models for Sensor Location Design. Journal of Lake.
Water Resources Planning and Management 132 (4): 225-233. Keywords: Water quality, Human interventions, Waste
xvi. Rathi S, Gupta R (2014) Location of sampling stations for water
discharge, Eutrophication, Engineering intervention.
quality monitoring in water distribution networks. Journal of Environmental
Science and Engineering (in press).
xvii. Shen H, McBean E (2011) Pareto optimality for sensor placements in 1. INTRODUCTION:
a water distribution system. Journal of Water Resources Planning and
Management 137 (3): 243-248.
The valley of Kashmir is bordered to the South and West by Pir
xviii. Watson J-P, Greenberg HJ, Hart WE (2004) A multiple objective
analysis of sensor placement optimization in water networks. Proc. World Water Panjal ranges and to the North and East by the Himalayan foot
and Environmental Resources Congress ASCE, Reston, VA. hills. Numerous freshwater lakes are found within the state of
xix. Weickgenannt M, Kapelan Z, Blokker M, Savic DA (2010) Risk based Jammu and Kashmir which covers an altitudinal range of 600m
sensor placement for contaminant detection in water distribution systems.
and 500m. These lakes have been originated as a result of
Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management 136 (6): 629-636.
xx. Wu ZY, Walski T (2006) Multi objective optimization of sensor earthquakes, damping of glaciers, weathering, denudation,
placement in water distribution systems Proc. 8th Annual Water Distribution floods and meandering of alluvial deposits. DAL LAKE is one
Systems Analysis Symp., ASCE, Reston, VA. such prized moderate altitude lake located within the
geographical coordinates of 340 6 N 740 45 East of Srinagar

spreading over an area of 25 sq Km (1895 AD) and reduced to

merely 11.5 Sq Km (2009). It is at an altitude of 1587msl.
Dal Lake has been the centre of Kashmir civilization and is

one of the most beautiful spots of tourist attraction. This
shallow-post glacial freshwater body is bounded on Southwest
and West by Srinagar city, and its remaining sides are
surrounded by gentle terraced slopes at the base of precipitous
mountains. Dal Lake is unique because of:
Floating Gardens with the lake.
Biodiversity.
The Dal Lake lies in the flood plains of river Jhelum whose
broad meanders have cut swampy low lands out of the Karewa
terraces. The inflow Telbal nallah channel enters the lake from
the North bringing water from the high altitude Mansar Lake.
During its downward journey the inflow stream collects large
quantities of silt from the denuded catchment and deposits it in
the lake. Numbers of ephemeral water channels, surface drains
enter the lake from the human settlements discharging large
Habitation within the lake. quantities of wastes. An estimated load of 12.30 x10 6m3 of liquid
waste with 18.17 tons and 25 tons of phosphorus and inorganic
nitrogen is enriching the lake annually. Within Lake Basin itself
a number of freshwater springs (mostly choked at present) act as
permanent source of water to the lake. Towards the South-west

side an outflow channel Tsuant-Kul discharges lake water into Fresh water lakes usually are abound of aquatic vegetation and
Jhelum river at Gawkadal. The outflow is regulated by a sluice constitute one of the important components of biodiversity. It is
gate to prevent the entry of Jhelum water into the lake during the also an established fact that the aquatic plants (Macrophytes) are
floods. On the Eastern side the Nigeen basin of the lake is the bio-indicators of pollution and have an important role in
connected by nallah or a channel dug by Afghan Governor Amir removal of nutrients from the lake sediment and help in
Khan up to Khushalsar lake, which in turn connects with Anchar pollution abatement. At the same time excessive growth of
lake. This channel also serves an additional outflow channel, aquatic weeds impede boat transport hinder irrigation and
particularly during floods. Influx of waste and silt and excessive increase sediment deposition besides effect the lake aesthetics.
weed growth in the Lake has affected the quality of its water and Thus the most sound and reasonable management approach is to
the present study it aimed at assessing it. control their growth. In Dal Lake the lake dweller have been
doing de-weeding through traditional pole method where in they
1. MARGINAL DREDGING AND ITS IMPACT ON would whirl the wooden pole in such a skilled way that they
WATER QUALITY would extract the weeds and use them for preparation of
vegetation gardens or as bio fertilizers. They would also take out
The main purpose of dredging is to increase the area of the bottom mud and use it for vegetable garden preparations. But
open water to improve water circulation, navigational routes, to when the weed infestation in the lake basins increased beyond
create more attractive mosaic and to define margins. As part of proportion the authorities concerned had to deploy mechanical
the Dal Lake conservation proposals under taken National Lake harvesters which also became an issue of controversy among the
Conservation Program, NLCP as per the proposals of IRAM lake scientists.
consultants, marginal dredging along the shore lines of Dal near
Nishat basin and Habak basin was done using suction cutter According to the consultants the de-weeding in Dal should be
dredgers. Similar peripheral dredging was also undertaken in the selective. AHEC, Roorkee (2000) states; based on the
Nigeen basin of the lake. Another consultant AHEC (Roorkee) information available, it is recommended that de-weeding has to
also had favored marginal dredging but with the remarks that be selective and limited to certain areas only especially areas
there should be pre-implementation evaluation of lake settings, which are useful to repeated harvesting. According to the
proper equipment and disposal sites and its effect on lake consultants de-weeding should be limited to backwaters, areas
ecology and long term productivity should be continuously where exotic water ferns, water lilies abound and areas where
evaluated. AHEC identified 38 channels within the lake which water skilling or swimming takes place. They further suggest
were clogged or reduced in width and proposed to excavate that in areas selected for de-weeding it is very important that
them. Similarly 57 fresh water springs were identified around only 40% - 50% weed is removed and the rest is left untouched.
the lake whose water got polluted during the intervening period Efforts should be directed towards harvesting undesirable plant
they reached the lake. The post dredging changes and a species such as Ceratophyllum demersum, Nymphaea Stellata
comparative limnology of Dal Lake reported a decrease in Salvinia natans and Hydrocharis morus ranae.
Nitrate-nitrogen and total phosphorous content after dredging
while increase in Ammonical and ortho-phosphates. The According Trisal (1977, 1987) Typha Agustata and Phragmites
plankton diversity did not show any significant change in communis were the chief occupants of littoral zone of Dal and
dredged and un-dredged sites. Nigeen Lake and extended all along the Eastern part of the
Southern side of the Hazratbal basin. In the Nishat basin and
Table1. Comparative changes in Physio-Chemical Nigeen basin the emergents are scattered towards the shorelines
parameters at dredged and Un-dredged sites in Dal Lake and formed large stands in the arms of the lake basin.
Kashmir.
According to the author rooted floating leaf macrophytes
(Aquatic plants) occupy 29.2% of total area of the lake free
floating aquatic ones were distributed throughout the lake area in
sheltered pockets. Submerged aquatic species due to their
aggressive capacity cover the maximum area of 57.6% in all the
basins of the lake.
Zutshi and Tickoo (1990) while studying the impacts of

mechanical de-weeding in Dal Lake recorded the reduction in
Seechi transparency of water and attributed it to the suspension
of sediments due to impact of harvesters. The authors however
noted the increase in dissolved oxygen content by 23 % in the
surface waters and by 36% in bottom waters. They further
recorded significant temporal change in nitrate nitrogen but little
horizontal and vertical difference as a result of de-weeding.
2. DE-WEEDING AND ITS IMPACT ON WATER Kundangar (1996) while studying the impact of waste waters on
QUALITY. the vegetation pattern of Dal Lake reported surprising changes in

the Dal Lake basins and reverted the increase in abundance of

some eutrophic species. He attributed the luxuriant entering the
lake besides the enrichment of sediments through leaching of
fertilizers in the immediate agricultural lands surrounding the
lake.
Kundangar (2003) while studying the impact of de-weeding in
Dal Lake estimated liquid wastes carrying 18.7 tons of
phosphorus and 25 tons of inorganic nitrogen into the lake which
results in increase in fertility of lake waters and resulting in
accelerated weed growth. They also added that major part of
phosphorus and nitrates coupled with other nutrients get locked
up in the roots and rhizomes of the aquatic weeds. Thus these
aquatic weeds play significant role in keeping the water crustily
more or less in stable condition. But these aquatic weeds on
decaying during autumn-winter go on enriching the sediment
with nutrients and play an active role in re-growth of aquatic
weeds in the next spring.
The authors recorded a slight shift in pH of water in Nehru Park 3. SEWERAGE AND SEWAGE TREATMENT AND ITS
and Nigeen basin (Table 2). After de-weeding the authors IMPACT ON WATER QUALITY
concluded that with overall 55% of manual aquatic weed
removal in various basins of Dal Lake, there was decrease in Sewerage and sewage treatment constitutes a major
specific conductivity, iron, and phosphorus. The authors also component of the Dal lake conservation plan for preventing the
recorded that the full scale de-weeding (8-100%) enhance the pollution of the lake. The Dal Lake receives water from fifteen
release of nutrients from the enriched sediment and result in major drains besides inflow from the Telbal and Bota-kadal
serious and hazardous algal blooms in a Lake ecosystem Nallahs. The drains bring in 40 mld of sewage and join the lake
particularly in Dal Lake. The authors stressed on long term at locations identified. Two alternative plans for sewage
studies to establish a set of standards both for water quality and treatment were envisaged. One proposed conceptualized a
biodiversity changes as a result de-weeding practices in the Lake centralized sewage treatment where in all the waste will be
ecosystem. collected by sewers (gravity mains) and trunk sewers with 15
Table 2a: Pre and post de-weeding changes in water quality by immediate pumping stations (IPS) and a main pumping station,
Mechanical de-weeding in Dal Lake Kashmir (after Kundangar at Brarinambal. This unit of about 41 mld will treat the sewage
2003) through an activated sludge process and release treated waste
effluent through Brainambal cut into Jhelum. This system
through theoretically very sound has some inherent weakness,
such as power dependence (in pumping and treatment) large size
trunk sewers and large distance of transport. The power scenario
in Srinagar town is dismal and utilizing it for pumping sewage as
against domestic requirements seems as far cry. Moreover,
failure of system or any component will put the entire machinery
out of gear. To obviate these difficulties a decentralized system
is preferred and has been proposed, which could do away with a
large amount of pumping and trunk sewers. The bulk of the
sewage will flow by gravity and pumping will be restored to
only when there is no alternative.
The STPs will be provided at least at six sites in Dal Lake

and two or three at Nigeen. The treated effluent of three STPs
will flow out of the lake and the rest after tertiary treatment will
be discharged into the lake (around 40%). The total sewage
generated in all three zones worked out to be 36.7 mld in the
Table 2b: Pre and Post de-weeding changes in water quality by year 2017. A total of nine IPS, one in zone one, six (under
Manual de-weeding in Dal Lake (after Kundangar 2003). construction) in zone 2 and two (existing) in zone 3 are
proposed. The decentralization has resulted in a significant
reduction in the cost of sewers and of operation and
maintenance.
Sewerage treatment.

There are numerous options available to treat the waste water.

These include dispersed and attached growth aerobic systems. Water quality of the Dal Lake has been seriously altered over
(Activated Sludge process, Aerated Lagoon, Oxidation ditch, a period of time because of human interventions which include
Trickling filter and Rotating Biological Discs), suspended and agricultural activities within and on the periphery of the lake,
attached growth anaerobic systems (up flow anaerobic Sludge urbanization and mushrooming of hotels besides waste
Blanket, expanded bed, fluidized bed) and pond processes. In discharge. The lake thus has turned Eutrophic and is under great
recent past the artificial wetland compartment technology has stress. Since the lake water at Nishat and Nigeen is also
also gained momentum in the developed countries where in harvested for public distribution (Potable purposes), the quality
aquatic plant species are exploited for waste water treatment. of water has therefore assumed a great significance keeping in
According to the AHEC consultancy the FAB (Fluidized view the public health.
Aerobic Bed and Bio-filters) technology was considered and
recommended for Dal Lake. The zones at the periphery and close to the effluent discharge
depict temporal variations. Around 50% of the observed
FAB technology consists of screening, grit removal, biological maximum specific conductivity, dissolved oxygen, nitrate-
treatment (bioreactors), tertiary treatment of clarifloculator (with nitrogen, ammonicalnitrogen, PO4 and total phosphorus have
alum), centrifuge and chlorination. The six units were proposed been noticed in the spring season. Summer season has 25% of
of which five have been made operational. such observations and the remaining 25% are distribution in
STP 1 (a) Habak 3.2mld autumn and winter seasons. This may possibly be due to the start
of activities in the catchment, mixing or re-suspension
STP 1 (b) REC 7.5mld (LAWDA, 2000 report).
STP 1 (c) Nallah Amir Khan 5.4mld
A comparison of values over a period of time (Table 4) shows
STP 2 BrariNambal 9.5mld that the Dal Lake has passed through several stages of trophic
STP 3 (a) Hotel Heemal 6.6mld evolution. Extensive data establishes far reaching changes in the
physico-chemical environment. Dal Lake receives large
STP 3 (b) Laam 4.5mld quantities of nitrogen and phosphorus from incoming sewage
36.7mld drains, Telbal Nallah and that of Bhota Kadal as well as from
Total
non-point sources like seepages and diffused runoff. The lake
being peculiar in having human habitations within the lake either
The treated effluent of STP 1 (c) and 3 (a) is discharged in in hamlets (Islands), boats, house boats etc of the total
channels leaving Dal Lake via Amir Khan. Dalgate exit and phosphorus inflow 156.62 tons from all sources, the quantity
Brari-Nambal cut). Thus only 40% of the total of 36.7 mld finds contributed by the drains works out to be 56.36 tons. In the case
its way into the Dal Lake. of inorganic nitrogen (NO3 and NH3-N) these figures are 241.18
tons and 77.60 tons with a flow of 11.70 million cum/yr.
Controversy regarding FAB Technology Similarly 4.5 tons of total phosphates and 18.14 tons of nitrogen
are added to the lake from non point sources.
Kundangar (2003) while maintaining the FAB based sewage
treatment plant, of one of the hotels in the immediate vicinity of Table 4a: Water Quality changes in Hazratbal Basin of Dal Lake
Dal Lake recorded reversed trend i.e, instead of expected over a period of time
decrease in nutrients, a significant increase was observed in the
treated sewage. According to the author 90-98% increase was
recorded in ortho-phosphate and total phosphorus respectively
while 32% increase was recorded in nitrate-nitrogen during
winter months.
In their studies during April 2008 (Table 3a) regarding the

functioning of FAB based STP reported 44% increase in nitrate-
nitrogen content of the treated sewage indicating the
.
malfunctioning of the STPs installed.
Table 3(a) Efficiency of nutrient removal through FAB STP
Table 4b: Water Quality changes in Nishat Basin of Dal Lake
(April 2008)
over a period of time
CONCLUSION-WATER QUALITY ASSESSMENT

xii. 2003, De-weeding practices in Dal Lake & impact

assessment.Kundangar.
xiii. 2004, Thirty years of Ecological Research on Dal Lake, Kundangar.
xiv. 2004, Groundwater quality of downtown Srinagar, Adnan, Neelofer,
Nuzhat and Kundangar. 2005.
xv. 2004, Bacterial Dynamics of Dal Lake, a Himalayan temperate fresh
water lake, Adnan & Kundangar.
xvi. 2005. Ecology of peripheral springs of Dal lake, Kashmir Adnan &
Kundangar.
xvii. 2009, Monitoring of Dal-Nigeen Lakes & other water bodies (J&K
PCB).
xviii. 2009. Three decades of Dal Lake, Adnan & Kundangar.
xix. 2010, Sanative role of macrophytes in Aquatic Ecosystems, Adnan.
xx. 2011, Water quality changes in Nigeen Lake, Shariqa Maryam.
xxi. 2011. Ecological studies & uses of valued aquatic plants in Kashmir
Table 4c: Water Quality changes in Nehru Park basin of Dal wet lands, Adnan, Afsha & Kundangar.
Lake over a period of time xxii. 2012, Impact of mechanical de-weeding on Macrozoobenthic
community in Dal Lake, Basharat, Rajini, AR Yousuf &Ashwani.
Spatial Water Quality Analysis Of Nagalamadike

Watershed Of Pavagada Taluk, Tumkur District
Karanataka Using Geo Informatic Tools
Nandeesha1, Ravindranath.C2, T.Gangadaraiah3, and S.G
Swamy4
1
Professor, Civil Engineering Department, Siddaganga Institute
of Technology, Karnataka, India
2
Research Scholar, Civil Engineering Department, Siddaganga
Table 4d: Water Quality changes in Nigeen Lake over a period Institute of Technology, Karnataka, India
of time 3
Professor Civil Engineering Department, Siddaganga Institute
of Technology, Karnataka, India
4
Fellow KSCST Bangalore Karnataka, India
ndeesha@rediffmail.com ravindranath.civil@gamil.com
tganga@iitk.ac.in swamy@kscst.iisc.ernet.in
ABSTRACT
Ground water samples from 25 locations of the watershed

bounded by latitude N 1405to 14015 and longitude E 77015
to77025 were collected. The samples collected are distributed
over Precambrian rocks such as closepet granite and gneissic
terrines. Red sandy and loamy soil covers the major area of the
watershed. The samples were analyzed for pH, Electrical
Conductivity (EC), Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Total
REFERENCES: hardness, Fluorides, Iron, Nitrite, Sodium and Chloride. The
results of all the samples analyzed as per standard method and
i. 1978, Pollution of Dal Lake, Enex. compared with the BIS and WHO, drinking water standards out
ii. 1990. Impact of mechanical de-weeding on Dal lake eco system,
Zutshi & Tickoo.
of 25 samples 23 samples of Fluoride showed more than
iii. 1993. Effects of weed cutting on species, composition and abundance permissible limit, and 15 samples of nitrate showed more than
of plankton population, Zutshi & Tickoo. permissible limit, and 20 samples of sodium shoved more than
iv. 1996, Impact of waste water on the vegetational pattern of Dal Lake, permissible limit the permissible range of Fe, pH, EC, Cl, TDS,
Kundangar.
v. 1996. Aeration of Dal lake (an interim report) HRL.
TH, are in permissible limit. The most of the samples are lie
vi. 1997, Dal Lake conservation & rehabilitation. (J&K LAWDA). within the permissible limits. Arc View Ver.9.2 software and
vii. 1998, Technical report on Dal Lake (J&K LAWDA). ERDAS Ver. 9.1 was used to get watershed map, land use/land
viii. 1999, Technical report on Dal Lake (J&K LAWDA). cover map, litho logical map and Iso contour maps of major
ix. 2000, Technical report on Dal Lake (J&K LAWDA).
x. 2000. DPR conservation and management plan for Dal Nigeen
parameter are generated and overlayed on the thematic map to
lake-AHEC Roorkee. study the spatial variation of the parameters in the watershed and
xi. 2001, Post dredging changes & comparative limnology of Dal Lake, causes for the pollution from various sources.
Kundangar.

KEY WORDS: Spatial variation, permissible limit, Arc View Ver.9.2, ERDAS Ver. 9.1
1. Introduction
Due to the ever increasing demand for potable and irrigation

water and inadequacy of available surface water the importance
of ground water is increasing everyday. In the natural
Hydrological cycle the rainwater gives us sample of good
quality of the water but as the Urbanization and Industrialization
the natural cycle of the water is disturbed resulting in less
rainfall or runoff of the good quality of the water into sea as
there is no open space left in cities to allow rain water to get
absorbed in earth due to concretization. Drinking water is a
basic requirement for life and a determinant of standard of
living. Around 22 per cent of households in India lack of access
to safe drinking water sources, like tap, hand pump and tube
well (Census 2001). Hence, significant efforts are being made
by the central and state governments for increasing the coverage
of households with adequate and safe drinking water supply,
along with sanitation services, which coincide with the
Millennium Development Goals. In the recent past, several parts
of our country have been experiencing drought conditions very
often due to vagaries of the nature, mainly monsoon. In
Karnataka, Tumkur district comes under this category.
Depending on the ground water resources available even at the
times of severe drought conditions, when major part of this
surface water resources are exhausted, it has been conceived to
Fig 1 Location map of study area
develop ground water base irrigation system in certain part of
the district. Nearly 2/3rd of the state receives less than 750mm of Sample collection points and location of study area
rainfall. Many parts of the south and north interior Karnataka
depends on ground water for its domestic and agricultural needs.
Study area
The Nagalamadike gram panchayat is located in eastern part of

the pavagada taluk 10.9 km from the main pavagada town and
99 km from Tumkur town. The gram panchayat has a total area
of 74.6 sq. km. and a population of 1500. The area consists of
14 micro watersheds that constitute a mini watershed. This is
situated in the Pennar river basin. The sources of water in this
area include bore well, hand pump, water tanks etc. The study
area is reported to be facing a lot of problems regarding the
quality of water. The residing people are facing acute problems
of fluorosis which is due to deficient of excessive quality of
water. Thus an effort has been made to survey the study area
and analyze the quality of water by sampling and presenting the
results in an interesting and attractive way so that the need for
reforms is highlighted. The technology involved in this project
plays a major role in the analysis. The use of sophisticated Fig 2: Sample Location map study area.
instruments such as the Water Analyzer 371, Colorimeter DDR
2010, flame photometer is used for the analysis and AAS Details of the latitude and longitude points of Nagalamadike
(Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer) have made the tests watershed, sample collection of 25 points shown in table no1.
very simpler and quicker. Moreover the use of G.P.S. devices
such as GARMIN 12 channel made it much easier to locate a
particular water source so that any person can identify the point.
Arc GIS Ver. 9.2 is used Table 1. Details of latitute and langitute of
for representation of sample locations
results.

Methodology
For studying the chemical quality of groundwater 25

groundwater samples were collected and the sample locations
are shown in fig 2. Water samples collected from bore wells in
use and samples collected in the one litre pre-washed polythene
bottles, were analysed in the chemical labaroatoty of the
Department of Civil Engineering, SIT, Tumkur and the results
are given in table no 3.
Chemical Analysis of Ground water: Groundwater is the main

source of water that meets the agricultural, industrial and
household requirements. Population growth, socioeconomic
development, technological and climate changes has increased
the demand for potable water manifolds in the past few years
(Alcamo et al. 2007).One of the internationally accepted human
rights is the access to safe drinking water which is the basic
need for human health and development (WHO 2001). The
general health and life expectancy of the people is reported to be Fig.3. Water Analysis Methodology chart.
adversely affected due to lack of the availability of clean
drinking water in many developing countries of the world (Nash The above methodology is used to find the chemical
and McCall 1995). In irrigation, the poor water quality not only contamination of water samples of 25 location in Nagalamadike
affects the crop yield but also affects the physical conditions of watershed of the Pavagoda taluk of Tumkur district karanataka
the soil (Ayers and West cot 1994). Since the dependence on state india.
groundwater has increased tremendously in India due to
vagaries of monsoon and scarcity of surface water in recent
years, therefore groundwater quality and surface water needs to
be monitored and managed. The water sample is analysed by
using BIS 1983 permissible limits which is shown in table no 2.

fig 6 and also the fluoride concentration is as shown in same

figure. Here the spatial distribution map of fluoride from the Iso
Soil map: In the pavagada taluk the soil is consisting of fine contour map of the study are shows the southwest zone having a
grained and loamy soil. The soil map rich content of fluoride and the central ,norhtenzone consisting
is shown in fig 4 limited quantity the lithology of these shows the granite belt and
northern shows the PGC belt.
Fig: 4 soil map of pavagada taluk
Lithology map of study area: In the Lithology map the study Fig:6 Lu/Lc map and overlay of Iso
area consists of Granite and PGC.is shown in fig 5 concentration map of Fluoride.
Table 2 : Permissible limits (BIS-1983) of potable water in

the study area
PARAMETER HIGHEST MAXIMUM

DESIRABLE PERMISSIBLE
LIMIT LIMIT
(in ppm) (in ppm)
FLUORIDE 0.6-1.2 1.5
NITRATE 45 NO RELAXATION
TOTAL 300 600

HARDNESS
CHLORIDE 250 1000
pH 6.5-8.5 8.5-9.5
IRON 0.3 1.0
SODIUM 0-60 100
Fig: 5 Lithology map of the study area
Land use and Land cover map of study area: In the study
area the five groups of land use and land cover is as shown in

Results and Discussions: Chemical concentration analysis of permissible limit as shown in table 2, and fluoride iso-
water samples is collected from the study area. In the study area concentration map is shown in fig 8. Fluoride is more in south
25 water samples are water collected from various locations and west region and remaining zone is less.
analyzed in chemical lab the following details is shown in table
3.
Table 3: Chemical analysis of water

samples.
Fig 8. Spatial distribution map of

fluoride (Iso contour map of fluoride)
Iso concentration map of Nitrate: Spatial distribution of

Nitrate and Iso contour map is prepared using of Arc GIS tool.
Nitrate content is more in most of the water samples out of 25
samples the Nitrate present in 15 samples is more than the
permissible limit as shown in table 2, Nitrate concentration is
shown in figure no 9. In North east and south east ,the nitrate
contamination is more due to more application of artificial
manure (NPK) in agriculture.
Fig:7 Chemical concentration of water sample
Iso Concentration map of fluoride: Spatial distribution of

fluoride and Iso contour maps is prepared using of Arc GIS Fig: 9 Spatial distribution map of
tool. Fluoride content is more in most of the water samples out Nitrate (Iso contour map of Nitrate)
of 25 samples the fluoride present in 23 samples is more than the

Iso concentration map of Iron: Spatial distribution of the iron Iso concentration map of Total Hardness: Spatial distribution
is prepared using Arc GIS and concentration of Iron is ranges of Iso counter map is developed by using the Arc GIS tool is
from 0 to 0.4 is within the permissible limit the Iron shown in fig 12 .TDS is more in the south central and north
concentration map is shown in fig 10.the iron concentration is central part of the study area and remaining area is less.
distributed almost equal in all places.
Fig 12: Spatial Distribution map of Total

Hardness (Iso contour map of Total Hardness)
Fig 10: Spatial Distribution map of Iron
Iso concentration map of Electrical Conductivity: Spatial
(Iso contour map of Iron)
distribution and Iso counter map is developed by using the Arc
GIS tool and, Electrical Conductivity shown in fig 13. The
Iso concentration map of pH scale: Spatial distribution map electrical conductivity is more in Northern part of the study area
pH is developed by using Arc GIS tool and pH is ranges from where as remaining part the electrical conductivity is less.
6.28 to 8.26. All the samples in the study area falls within the
permissible range.
Fig 13: Spatial distribution map of Electrical

Conductivity (Iso contour map of Electrical Conductivity)
Fig: 11 Spatial distribution map of pH (Iso
contour map of pH)
3.6: Iso concentration map of Cl: Spatial distribution and Iso
counter map is developed by using Arc GIS tool and
concentration level shown in fig 14. The chloride is more in the

north central part and south part of the study area and remaining dissolved materials. In natural waters, salts are chemical
area is less. compounds comprised of anions such as carbonates, chlorides,
sulphates, and nitrates (primarily in ground water), and cat ions
such as potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), and
sodium (Na). In ambient conditions, these compounds are
present in proportions that create a balanced solution. If there are
additional inputs of dissolved solids to the system, the balance is
altered and detrimental effects may be seen. Inputs include both
natural and anthropogenic source.
Fig 14: Spatial distribution map of chloride (Iso

contour map of chloride)
Iso concentration map of Sodium: Spatial distribution of

Sodium and Iso contour maps is prepared using of Arc GIS tool.
Sodium content is more in most of the water samples out of 25
samples the Sodium content in 20 samples is more than the
permissible limit as shown in table 2.the sodium content is more
in north central part and remaining of the study area is less. Fig 16: Spatial distribution map of Total
Dissolved Solids (Iso contour map of TDS)
CONCULSIONS
It is observed that the study area is basically composed of hard

and compact lithologies and to add to the conclusions the
distribution of rainfall in the state with time and space is highly
variable. Moreover, limited surface water resources and non
uniform rainfall as increased the dependence on the ground
water resources. This mounting pressure has resulted in excess
utilization of the ground water resource. Thus, the ground water
resources have reached critical stages. Geographic Information
Systems are rapidly developing as primary technologies for the
investigation of large scale patterns and processes. The use of
Arc GIS software not only improves the analytical capabilities
for water resource management but also the ability to
communicate work results and research findings to the decision
makers and general public. The advantage of GIS softwares has
Fig 15: Spatial Distribution map of sodium (Iso made it possible to update, modify or revalidate data at any
contour map of sodium) location. This tool will help the public and decision makers to
understand, assess and actively participate in issues pertaining to
water bodies pH, Electrical Conductivity, Iron content, Total
Hardness and Chloride content in all the samples is within the
Iso concentration map of Total Dissolved Solids: Spatial maximum permissible range. Fluoride content, nitrate content,
distributionof TDS and Iso counter map is developed by using and sodium is more in most of the water samples. Samples
Arc GIS tool. TDS concentration is shown in fig 16.The total exceeding Fluoride limit- 23/25Samples exceeding nitrate limit-
dissolved solids (TDS) in water consist of inorganic salts and 15/25Samples exceeding sodium limit- 20/25as per permissible
table.

Suggestions: xvi. Kazi T.G., Arain M.B., Jamali M.K., Jalbani N., Afridi H.I., Sarfraz
R.A., Baig J.A., and Shah A.Q., (2009),
Assessment of water quality of polluted lake using multivariate statistical
To prevent the entry of nitrate in the groundwater sources, the techniques: A case study, Ecotox. Environmental Safety, 72(20), pp 301-309
use of chemical fertilizers in agriculture should be minimized xvii. S.F. Mulgundmath (1974) , Dept of Mines and Geology, Bangalore. A
and the use of natural manure should be encouraged. The people report on GROUND WATER RESOURCES OF TUMKUR TALUK, TUMKUR
of the area should make the awareness programmers about water DISTRICT.
xviii. Statistical abstract. (2008). State statistical abstract. Chandigarh,
quality management and rain water harvesting, artificial India: Government of Haryana Publication.
groundwater recharge, etc. Frequent quality checks of water , xix. Todd, D. K., & Mays, L. W. (2005). Groundwater hydrology (3rd
Soil analysis, Rock analysis shall be made for betterment of ed.). New York: Wiley.
water quality analysis. xx. U.S. Salinity Laboratory (USSL) (1954). Diagnosis and improvement
of saline and alkali soils; USDA Handbook No. 60. pp. 160 Richards LA (ed)
(1954)
Scope of further study: xxi. WHO (2001). Water health and human rights, world water day
http://www.worldwaterday.org/wwday/2001/thematic/ hmnrights.html
Sampling is to be more representative because of the vast area xxii. WHO (2008). Guidelines for drinking water quality incorporating Ist
covered and more samples are needed to be taken to give more and 2nd addenda Vol.1 Recommendations, (3rd edit)
http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/ gdwq3rev/en.
accurate results. The samples have to be analyzed for
xxiii. Wilcox, L. V. (1948). The quality of water for irrigation use, USDA
bacteriological parameters, heavy metals such as lead, and also Technical Bulletin No 962, pp. 140
radioactive metals to know more about the affects of water for
various purposes .Spatial distribution maps have to be overlaid
on geomorphologic information. By overlaying the map of the
study area over the drainage map, soil map and lithology map
the drainage pattern; soil of the area can be assessed respectively Water Pollution In Ganga River
for future generation.
Susmita Saha
Asst. Professor
Sagar Institute of Research & Technology
References:
Email: pritha024@gmail.com
i. Abbasi, S.A., (2002), Water quality indices, state of the art report,
National Institute of Hydrology, scientific Abstract : There is a universal reverence to water in almost all
ii. Contribution no. INCOH/SAR-25/2002, Roorkee: INCOH, pp 73.
iii. Ahmed, S., David, K.S. and Gerald, S., (2004), Environmental
of the major religions of the world. Most religious beliefs
assessment: An innovation index for evaluation water involve some ceremonial use of "holy" water. The purity of
iv. quality in streams, Environment Management., 34 pp 406-414. such water, the belief in its known historical and unknown
v. Bajpai, A., Vyas, A., Verma, N. and Mishra, D.D. (2009). Effect of mythological origins, and the inaccessibility of remote sources,
idol immersion on water quality of twin Lakes of
vi. Bhopal with special reference to heavy metals. Poll. Res.,
elevate its importance even further. In India, the water of the
28(3):433-438. river Ganga is treated with such reverence. The river Ganga
vii. Bhavana, A., Shrivastava, V., Tiwari, C.R. and Jain, P. (2009). occupies a unique position in the cultural ethos of India.
Heavyvmetal contamination and its potential risk with Legend says that the river has descended from Heaven on
viii. special reference to Narmada River at Nimar region of M.P. (India).
Res. J. of Chem. &Env. 13 (4), 23-27.
earth as a result of the long and arduous prayers of King
ix. Chaudhary, B. S., Kumar, M., Roy, A. K., & Ruhal, D. S. (1996). Bhagirathi for the salvation of his deceased ancestors. From
Applications of RS and GIS in groundwater investigations in times immemorial, the Ganga has been India's river of faith,
Sohna Block, Gurgaon District, Haryana, India. International Archives of devotion and worship. Millions of Hindus accept its water as
Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 31(B-6), 1823. Eaton, F. M. (1950).
Significance of carbonates in irrigation water. Soil Science, 69, 123133.
sacred. Even today, people carry treasured Ganga water all
doi:10.1097/00010694-195002000-00004. over India and abroad because it is "holy" water and known
x. DISTRICT PROFILE AND RESOURCES ATLAS OF TUMKUR for its "curative" properties. However, the river is not just a
DISTRICT. N.R.D.M.S Centre, Z.P, Tumkur Ground Water quality legend, it is also a life-support system for the people of India. It
evaluation of Tumkur town- By Ajay K.C., Pawan kumar P.M. ,Sanjeev Saurabh.
Year 2006-07
is important because the densely populated Ganga basin is
xi. Ground water quality assessment using GIS:-by Channabasabanna inhabited by 37 percent of India's population. The entire
A. Year 2005-06 Ganga basin system effectively drains eight states of India.
xii. Goyal, S. K., Chaudhary, B. S., Singh O., Sethi, G. K., & Thakur, P. About 47 per cent of the total irrigated area in India is located
K. (2010) GIS Based Spatial Distribution Mapping and Suitability Evaluation of
Groundwater Quality for Domestic and Agricultural Purpose in Kaithal Distirct,
in the Ganga basin alone. It has been a major source of
Haryana State, India. Environmental Earth Science. In press, navigation and communication since ancient times. The Indo-
doi:101007/s12665-010-0472-z. Gangetic plain has witnessed the blossoming of India's great
xiii. Indian Standard Specification for Drinking Water (1983), IS-10500- creative talent.
1983, Indian Standards Institution, New Delhi,
xiv. Jain, C. K., & Sharma, M. K. (2000). Regression analysis of
groundwater quality of Sagar District, Madhya Pradesh. Indian Journal of Keywords: Pollution in Ganga, Pollution free by Ganga Action
Environmental Health, 42(4), 159168. Plan, Treatment of water of Ganga.
xv. Lloyd, J. W., & Heathcote, J. A. (1985). Natural inorganic
hydrochemistry in relation to groundwater: An introduction. Oxford, New York:
Clarendon Press, Oxford University Press. 1. INTRODUCTION

The Ganga rises on the sourthern slopes of the Himalayan In the recent past, due to rapid progress in communications and
ranges(fig 1.1) from the Gangotri glacier at 4,000 m above mean commerce, there has been a swift increase in the urban areas
sea level. It flows swiftly for 250 km in the mountains, along the river Ganga. As a result the river is no longer only a
descending steeply to an elevation of 288 m above means sea source of water but it is also a channel, receiving and
level. In the Himalayan region the Bhagirathi is joined by the transporting urban population lives in the towns of the Ganga
tributaries Alaknanda and Mandakini to form the Ganga. After basin. Out of the 2,300 towns in the country, 692 are located in
entering the plains at Haridwar, it winds its way to the Bay of this basin, and of these, 100 are located along the river bank
Bengal, covering 2,500 km through the provinces of Uttar itself.
Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal ,. In the plains it is joined by
Ramganga, Yamuna, Sai, Gomti, Ghaghara, Sone, Gandak, Kosi The belief the Ganga river is holy has not, however, prevented
and Damodar along with many other smaller rivers. over-use, abuse and pollution of the river. All the towns along its
length contribute to the pollution load. It has been assessed that
The Ganga river carries the highest silt load of any river in the more than 80 per cent of the total pollution load (in terms of
world and the deposition of this material in the delta region organic pollution expressed as biochemical oxygen demand
results in the largest river delta in the world (400 km from north (BOD)) arises from domestic sources, i.e. from the settlement
to south and 320 km from east to west). The rich mangrove along the river course. Due to over-abstraction of water for
forests of the Gangetic delta contain very rare and valuable irrigation in the upper regions of the river, the dry weather flow
species of plants and animals and are unparalleled among many has been reduced to a trickle. Rampant deforestation in the last
forest ecosystems. few decades, resulting in topsoil erosion in the catchment area,
has increased silt deposits which, in turn, raise the river bed and
lead to devastating floods in the rainy season and stagnant flow
in the dry season. Along the main river course there are 25 towns
with a population of more than 100,000 and about another 23
towns with populations above 50,000. In addition there are 50
smaller towns with population above 20,000. There are also
about 100 identified polluting areas. Fifty-five of these industrial
units have complied with the regulations and installed effluent
treatment plants (ETPs) and legal proceedings are in progress for
the remaining units. The natural assimilative capacity of the
river is severely stressed.
The principal sources of pollution of the Ganga river can be

characterized as follows:
Domestic and industrial wastes. It has been

estimated that about 1.4 x 106m3d-1 of domestic
wastewater and 0.26 x 106 m3 d-1 of industrial
sewage are going into the river.
Solid garbage thrown directly into the river.
Non-point sources of pollution from agricultural
run-off containing residues of harmful pesticides
and fertilizers.
2. MATERIAL AND METHODS Animal carcasses and half-burned and unburned
human corpses thrown into the river.
The purity of the water depends on the velocity and the dilution Defecation on the banks by the low-income people.
capacity of the river. A large part of the flow of the Ganga is Mass bathing and ritualistic practices.
abstracted for irrigation just as it enters the plains at Haridwar.
From there it flows as a trickle for a few hundred kilometers Causes of pollution in Ganga
until Allahabad, from where it is recharged by its tributaries. The
Ganga receives over 60 per cent of its discharge from its It provides water to drinking purpose and irrigation in
tributaries. The contribution of most of the tributaries to the agriculture about 40% of Indias population in 11 states. After
pollution load is small, except from the Gomti, Damodar and 27 years and Rs. 1000 crore expenditure on Ganga river, it has a
Yamuna rivers, for which separate action programmes have critical situation. In modern times, it is known for being much
already started under Phase II of The National Rivers polluted, 30 polluted nalas flows in Ganga river from Varanasi
Conservation Plan. city within seven kilometers.
2.1 Human Waste

The river flows through 29 cities in which cities population has been correlated to contracting dysentery, cholera, hepatitis,
living above ten lakh. A large proportion damp the solid and as well as severe diarrhea which continue to be one of the
liquid wastes in Ganga river like domestic usage (bathing, leading causes of death of children in India.
laundry and public defecation), Sewage wastes, unburnt dead
bodies through in Ganga river. Patna and Varanasi cities are 2.7 The Ganga Action Plan
more responsible to water pollution of Ganga.
The Ganga Action Plan or GAP was a program launched by
2.2 Industrial Waste Rajiv Gandhi in April 1986 in order to reduce the pollution load
on the river. Under GAP I, pollution abatement schemes were
Countless industries lies on the bank of the Ganga river from taken up in 25 Class-I towns in three States of U.P., Bihar and
Uttrakhand to West Bengal like chemical plants, textile mills, West Bengal. GAP I was declared complete on 31.03.2000 with
paper mills, fertilizer plants and hospitals waste. These an expenditure of Rs. 452 crore.
industries are 20% responsible to water pollution and run off
solid waste and liquid waste in the Ganga river. It is very As GAP I addressed only a part of the pollution load of Ganga,
dangerous to water quality, their chemical properties and GAP II was launched in stages between 1993 and 1996, 59
riverine life. towns along the main stem of river Ganga in five States of
Uttarakhand, U.P., Jharkhand, Bihar and West Bengal are
2.3 Religious factor covered under the Plan and included the following tributaries of
the Ganges, Yamuna, Gomti, Damodar and Mahananda.
Festivals are very important and heartiest to every person of
India. Owing festival seasons a lot of peoples come to Ganga According to Hindustan Newspaper, January 11, 2013, the Prime
Snans to clean themselves. After death of the people dump their Minister has been monitoring the availability of adequate water
asthia in Ganga river it is a tradition of India because they think from Tehri Dam in river Ganga at Allahabad during the Kumbh
that Ganga gives mukti from the human world. Khumbha Mela Mela. Directions have been given to control the pollution load
is a very big festival of the world and billion peoples come flowing in river Yamuna during the Kumbh Mela period.
"Ganga Snans at Allahabad, Hardwar in India. They throw some
materials like food, waste or leaves in the Ganges for Tehri Hydro Development Corporation (THDCIL) has agreed to
spiritualistic reasons. release 250 cumecs water from 21st December 2012 to 20th
February 2013 to 28th February 2013 in view of demand of water
2.4 Riverine Life for Allahabad Kumbh Snans. Instructions have also been given
by PMO that Delhi Jal Board should ensure that the performance
The Ganga river pollution increased day by day and from this of the 72 MGD STP (Sewage Treatment Plant) at Keshavpur
pollution marine life have been going to lost in near future and renovated / commissioned recently is stabilized so that it
this polluted water disturb the ecosystem of the river. And functions optimally and the effluent meets the norms. The Delhi
irrigation and Hydroelectric dams give struggle to life in their Government has been asked to ensure that the performance of
life cycle. the STPs and CETPs (Common Effluent Treatment Plants) is
optimized to meet the effluent quality norms.
2.5 Bio Life
At Sangam, Allahabd, the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
Some dams are constructed along the Ganges basin. Dams are of Yamuna and Ganga is generally less than 6 mg/ltr but the
collected a huge volume of water and this is hazard for wild life main issue is of the color of effluents discharged by the pulp and
paper industries into the river Ram Ganga and Kali (both
which are moving in Ganga river. The Kotli Bhel dam at
tributaries of Ganga). Monitoring of water quality in river Ram
Devprayag will submerge about 1200 hectors of forest. In India
Ganga and river Kali and their tributaries is being initiated on a
wildlife has been warning that the wild animals will find it
daily basis by the State Boards of Uttrakhand and Uttar Pradesh
difficult to cope with the changed situation.
with the coordination of CPCB. Action will be taken against the
industries for violating the norms.
2.6 Human beings
Spiritual dip in holy Ganga at Kumbh is not clean. The pollution
An analysis of the Ganges water in 2006 showed significant level in the sacred river has risen since Kumbh started at the
associations between water-borne/enteric disease occurence and historical city of Allahabad on January 14, 2013 and the water is
the use of the river for bathing, laundry, washing, eating, not fit for bathing purposes, latest evaluation by countrys
cleaning utensils, and brushing teeth. Exposure factors such as pollution watchdog the Central Pollution. The level of the
washing clothes, bathing and lack of sewerage, toilet at Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) level used to measure of
residence, children defecating outdoors, poor sanitation, low the level of organic pollution in the water had increased to 7.4
income and low education level also showed significant milligram per litre at the main bathing place, known as Sangam,
associations with enteric disease outcome. Water in the Ganges since the Kumbh started.

A day before the Kumbh, the pollution level was 4.4 milligram state governments, under the supervision of the GPD. The GPD
per litre slightly more than the national standard for bathing was to remain in place until the GAP was completed. The plan
quality of water of 3 miligram per litre. Higher the BOD level was formally launched on 14 June 1986. The main thrust was to
worse it is for ones skin, said a CPCB expert. High exposure to intercept and divert the wastes from urban settlements away
dirty water can result in skin rashness and allergies. The official from the river. Treatment and economical use of waste, as a
reason for the sudden rise of contaminants in the river was means of assisting resource recovery, were made an integral part
sudden increase in flow of human waste because of increased of the plan.
bathing during Kumbh. Around 10 million people have already
visited the Kumbh and the UP government has employed around The GAP was only the first step in river water quality
10,000 sweepers to keep the city clean. Off the record officials management. Its mandate was limited to quick and effective, but
admit that their drive to check sewage from industries in Ganga sustainable, interventions to contain the damage. The studies
upstream of Allahabad has not worked as dirty sewage was still carried out by the CPCB in 1981-82 revealed that pollution of
flowing into the river. the Ganga was increasing but had not assumed serious
proportions, except at certain main towns on the river such as
The Board has been asked by the environment ministry to industrial Kanpur and Calcutta on the Hoogly, together with a
monitor the pollution level in Ganga under its National Ganga few other towns. These locations were identified and designated
Basin River Authority and conduct periodic check on pollution as the hot-spots where urgent interventions were warranted.
industries along the river bank. But, the dirt in the river is not a The causative factors responsible for these situations were
deterrent for people to take a dip at Allahabad. Hindus believe targeted for swift and effective control measures. This strategy
that the Ganga water has ability to clean and purify itself, a was adopted for urgent implementation during the first phase of
claim not scientifically proven. And, this belief has drive the plan under which only 25 towns identified on the main river
millions to the world biggest Hindu congregation and another 15 were to be included. The studies has revealed that:
million are expected to visit in the 55-day long festival to end on
March 10. 75 per cent of the pollution loads was from
untreated municipal sewage.
3. RESULT AND ANALYSIS 88 per cent of the municipal sewage was from the
25 Class I towns on the main river.
3.1 Scientific awareness Only a few of these cities had sewage treatment
facilities (these were very inadequate and were
There are 14 major river basins in India with natural waters that often not functional)
are being used for human and developmental activities. These All the industries accounted for only 25 per cent of
activities contribute significantly to the pollution loads of these the total pollution (in some areas, such as Calcutta
river basins. Of these river basins the Ganga sustains the largest and Kanpur, the industrial waste was very toxic
population. The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), which and hard to treat).
is Indias national body for monitoring environmental pollution,
undertook a comprehensive scientific survey in 1981-82 in order 3.2 Attainable objectives
to classify river waters according to their designated best uses.
This report was the first systematic document that formed the The board aim of the GAP was to reduce pollution and to clean
basis of the Ganga Action Plan (GAP). It detailed land-use the river and to restore water quality at least to Class B (i.e.
patterns, domestic and industrial pollution loads, fertilizer and bathing quality: 3 mg l-1 BOD and 5 mg l-1 dissolved oxygen).
pesticide use, hydrological aspects and river classifications. This This was considered as a feasible objective and because a unique
inventory of pollution was used by the Department of and distinguishing feature of the Ganga was its widespread use
Environment in 1984 when formulating a policy document. for ritualistic mass bathing. The other environmental benefits
Realizing the need for urgent intervention the Central Ganga envisaged were improvements in, for example, fisheries, aquatic
Authority (CGA) was set up in 1985 under the chairmanship of flora and fauna, aesthetic quality, health issues and levels of
the Prime Minister. contamination.
The Ganga Project Directorate (GPD) was established in June The multi-pronged objectives were to improve the water quality,
1985 as a national body operating within the National Ministry as an immediate short-term measure, by controlling municipal
of Environment and Forest. The GPD was intended to serve as and industrial wastes. The long-term objectives were to improve
the secretariat to the CGA and also as the Apex Nodal Agency the environmental conditions along the river by suitably
for implementation. It was set up to co-ordinate the different reducing all the polluting influences at source. These included
ministries involved and to administer funds for this 100 per cent not only the creation of waste treatment facilities but also
centrally-sponsored plan. The programme was perceived as a invoking remedial legislation to control such non-point sources
once-off investment providing demonstrable effects on river as agricultural run-off containing residues of fertilizers and
water quality. The execution of the works and the subsequent pesticides, which are harmful for the aquatic flora and fauna.
operation and management (O&M) were the responsibility of the Prior to the creation of the GAP, the responsibilities for pollution

of the river were not clearly demarcated between the various CPCB issued direction to UPPCB and Uttrakhand PCB in the
government agencies. The pollutants reaching the Ganga from matter of Prevention and Control of Pollution from agro based
most point sources did not mix well in the river, due to the Pulp & Paper Sector Mills. As a result 31 industries have been
sluggish water currents, and as a result such pollution often issued directions in U.P., 25 digester sealed at Uttrakhand, 8
lingered along the embankments where people bathed and took industries were directed and 4 were stop chemical pulping.
water for domestic use. CPCB conducted monitoring of 26 industrial units in the
strength of river Ganga between Kannauj to Varanasi in the
3.3 The strategy month of September 2010. Of these 7 were found closed during
inspection, 2 were complying to the prescribed discharge norms,
9 were requiring minor improvements, 4 have been issued
The GAP had a multi-pronged strategy to improve the river
water quality. It was fully financed by the Central Government, directions (under section 5 of Environment Protection Act 1986)
with the assets created by the Central Government to be used for closure, 3 have been issued directions for corrective
measures (under section 5 of Environment Protection Act 1986)
and maintained by the industrial wastes. All possible point and
and I have been issued Show Cause notice for closure (under
non-point sources of pollution were identified. The control of
section 5 of Environment Protection Act 1986).
point sources of urban municipal wastes for the 25 Class I towns
on the main river was initiated from the 100 per cent centrally-
invested project funds. The control of urban non-point sources 3.5 Integrated improvements of urban environments
was also tackled by direct interventions from project funds. The
control of non-point source agricultural run-off was undertaken Apart from the above, the GAP also covered very wide and
in a phased manner by the Ministry of Agriculture, principally diverse activities, such as conservation of aquatic species
by reducing use of fertilizer and pesticides. The control of point (gangetic dolphin), protection of natural habitats (scavenger
sources of industrial wastes was done by applying the polluter- turtles) and creating riverine sanctuaries (fisheries). It also
pays-principle. included components for landscaping river frontage (35
schemes), building stepped terraces on the sloped river banks for
A total of 261 sub-projects were sought for implementation in 25 ritualistic mass-bathing (128 locations), improving sanitation
Class I (population above 100,000) river front towns. This would along the river frontage (2,760 complexes), development of
eventually involve a financial outlay of Rs 4,680 million (Indian public facilities, improved approach roads and lighting on the
Rupees), equivalent to about US$ 156 million. More than 95 per river frontage.
cent of the programme has been completed and the remaining
sub-projects quality, although noticeable, is hotly debated in the 3.6 Applied research
media by the certain non-governmental organizations (NGOs).
The success of the programme can be gauged by the fact that The Action Plan stressed the importance of applied research
Phase II of the plan, covering some of the tributaries, has already projects and many universities and reputable organizations were
been launched by the Government. In addition, the earlier action supported with grants for projects carrying out studies and
plan has now evolved further to cover all the other major observations which would have a direct bearing on the Action
national river-basins in India, including a few lakes, and is Plan. Some of the prominent subjects were PC-based software
known as the National Rivers Conservation Plan. modeling, sewage-fed pisciculture, conservation of fish in upper
river reaches, bioconservation in Bihar, monitoring of pesticides,
3.4 Prevention of pollution of river Ganga using treated sewage for irrigation, and rehabilitation of turtles.
Training cum Awareness programme on Saltless Preservation of Some of the ongoing research projects include land application
Hides / skins was organized by CPCB at Lucknow and Kanpur, of untreated sewage for tree plantations, aquaculture for sewage
which was attended by representatives from slaughter houses, treatment, disinfection of treated sewage by Gamma radiation.
tannery & allied units and officers of UPPCB. The programme Expert advise is constantly sought by involving regional
was oriented towards the ongoing efforts pursuing basin-wise universities in project formulation and as consultants to the
approach for reduction of dissolved solids in wastewater from implementing agencies to keep them in touch with the latest
leather processing industries in particular by invoking salt less technologies. Eight research projects have been completed and
preservation of hides / skins. 17 are ongoing. All the presently available research results are
being consolidated for easy access by creation of a data base by
CPCB has initiated a Techno-Economic Feasibility for setting up the Indian National Scientific Documentation Centre (INSDOC).
of Common Recovery Plant & Common Effluent Treatment
Plant for Pulp & Paper Industries identified clusters at Muzaffar 3.7 Public participation
nagar, Moradabad and Merut. CPCB also made a reconnaissance
survey from Gomukh to Uluberia (West Bengal) for identified The pollution of the river, although classified as environmental,
the point source and its impact on River. This reconnaissance was the direct outcome of a deeper social problem emerging
survey is conducted in association with Shri Rajinder Singh, from long-term public indifference, diffidence and apathy, and a
Member, NGRBA.

lack of public awareness, education and social values, and above The Action Plan started as a cleanliness drive and continues in
all from poverty. the same noble spirit with the same zeal and enthusiasm on other
major rivers and freshwater bodies. Its effectiveness could
In recognition of the necessity of the involvement of the people however be enhanced if these efforts could be integrated and
for the sustainability and success of the Action Plan, due well-accepted within the long-term objectives and master plans
importance was given to generating awareness through intensive of the cities, which are consultancy under preparation without
publicity campaigns using the press and electronic media, audio adequate attention to the disposal of wastes. More information
visual approaches, leaflets and hoardings, as well as organizing on polluted groundwater resources in the respective river basins
public programmes for spreading the message effectively. In will prove useful, because the existing levels of depletion and
spite of full financial support from the project, and in spite of a contamination of groundwater resources, which are already
heavy involvement of about 39 well known NGOs to organizing overexploited and fairly contaminated, will increase the
these activities, the programme had only limited public impact dependency in the future on the rivers, as the only economical
and even received some criticism. Other similar awareness- source of drinking water. This aspect has not been seriously
generating programmes involving school children from many considered in any long-term planning.
schools in the project towns were received with greater
enthusiasm. These efforts to induce a change in social behaviour 4.2 Recommendations
are meandering sluggishly like the Ganga itself.
A white paper on the status of Ganga and GAP.
3.8 River water quality monitoring Self purifying power of the river should be
ascertained.
Right from its inception in 1986, the GAP started a very People should be warned that the river is not worth
comprehensive water quality monitoring programme by aachman and bathing.
obtaining data from 27 monitoring stations. Most of these river Army should be involved in cleaning the river in
water quality monitoring stations already existed under other Cantonment stretches.
programmes and only required strengthening. Technical help A Ganga Restoration Fund should be constituted.
was also received for a small part of this programme from the Additional resources should be generated by
Overseas Development Agency (ODA) of the UK in the form of charging the Ganga usesrs, through sand mining
some automatic water quality monitoring stations, the associated etc.
modeling software, training and some hardware. The monitoring Campaign like clean Ganga, sare Ganga should be
programme is being run on a permanent basis using the introduced.
infrastructure of other agencies such as the CPCB and the
Central Water Commission (CWC) to monitor data from 16
References
stations. Some research institutions like the Industrial
Toxicology Research Centre (ITRC) are also included for
i. Cleaning-up the Ganges: A cost-Benefit Analysis of the Ganga Action
specialized monitoring of toxic substances. The success of the Plan by A Markandya and M.N. Murty.
programme is noticeable through this record of the water quality ii. On the Banks of the Ganga: When Wastewater Meets a Sacred River
over the years, considered in proportion to the number of by Kelly D Alley.
improvement schemes commissioned. To evaluate the results of iii. The River Goddess (Tales of Heaven & Earth S.) By Vijay Singh
(Author) and Pierre De Hugo (Illustrator)
this programme an independent study of water quality has also iv. Tare, Dr. Vinod. Pulp and Paper Industries in Ganga River Basin:
been awarded to separate universities for different regional Achieving Zero Liquid Discharge. Report Code: 14_GBP_IIT_EQP_S&
stretches of the river. R_04_Ver 1_Dec 2011.
v. K. Jaiswal, Rakesh. Ganga Action Plan-A critical analysis. (May,
2007).
4. CONCLUSION vi. A report Status Paper on River Ganga State of Environment and
Water Quality, National River Conservation Directorate Ministry of
Environment and Forests Government of India, Alternate Hydro Energy Centre
4.1 The future Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, (August, 2009).
vii. Singhania, Neha. Cleaning of the Ganga. Journal Geological
Society of India, Vol. 78, pp.124-130, August 2011.
Apart from the visible improvement in the water quality, the
viii. Das, Subhajyoti. Cleaning of the Ganga. Journal Geological
awareness generated by the project is an indicator of its success. Society of India, Vol 78, pp. 124-130, August 2011.
It has resulted in the expansion of the programme over the entire ix. A report of Central Pollution Control Board, Ministry of Environment
Ganga basin to cover the other polluted tributaries. The GAP has and Forest Ganga Water Quality Trend, Monitoring of Indian Aquatic
Resources Series, Dec., 2009.
further evolved to cover all the polluted stretches of the major
x. A report of Water Resources Planning Commission, Report on
national rivers, and including a few lakes. Considering the huge Utilization of Funds and Assets Created through Ganga Action Plan in States
costs involved the central and state governments have agreed in under GAP, May, 2009.
principle to each share half of the costs of the projects under the xi. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/pollution_of_the-Ganges
xii. Report for improvement in GAP, March 1999 MOE&F.
National Rivers Action Plan. The state governments are also
xiii. Ganga : A Journey Down the Ganges River by Julian Crandall
required to organize funds for sustainable O&M perpetuity. Hollick, Published October 15th 2007 by Island Press.
Initially, the plan was fully sponsored by the central government. xiv. Jaya Ganga : In Search of the River Goddess By Vijay Singh.

xv. The Ganges By Raghubir Singh. homogeneous region, and (ii) use of a RFA approach to fit a
distribution to information pooled from the region for arriving at
design estimate. Among the various RFA approaches developed
in the past, conventional index-flood (CIF) approach
Flood Frequency Analysis Using A Novel (Dalrymple, 1960) gained wide recognition. The CIF approach
Mathematical Approach considers the following assumptions: (i) Records of the variable
at each site in a region are identically distributed; (ii) Records at
each site are serially independent; (iii) There is no dependence
Bidroha Basu1V.V. Srinivas2
1 between records at different sites; and (iv) Frequency
Research Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian
distribution of the variable is identical across sites in the region,
Institute of Science,
except for a site-specific scaling factor called index-flood. Of
Bangalore - 560012, India.
2 these assumptions, the first three are generally valid for analysis
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian
of a random variable representing hydro-meteorological extreme
Institute of Science,
event, but the fourth is specific to only index-flood related
Bangalore-560 012, India
approach. Implementation of the CIF approach involves
normalization of records of the variable for each site by dividing
ABSTRACT
them by the sites scaling factor and combining information
from those normalized records to construct a dimensionless
Regional frequency analysis (RFA) is often considered to
distribution function (growth curve) that is assumed to be
estimate design flood quantile at target site(s) in river basins
unique for all the sites in the region. Required quantiles at the
when there is paucity of data. The analysis involves use of flood
target site are estimated by multiplying the growth curve by site-
related information from a homogeneous region (group of sites
specific scaling factor, which is often chosen as mean of the
that are hydrologically similar to the target site) to arrive at the
variable.
estimate. Conventionally RFA is based on Index-flood approach
in L-moment framework. Very recently, shortcomings associated
For the index-flood approach to be effective, the aforementioned
with assumptions of Index-flood approach motivated authors to
assumptions (i)-(iv) should be valid for the records before and
develop a novel mathematical approach to RFA. The approach
after normalization. Validity of the first three assumptions can
involves
be ensured by considering the scaling factor to be a population
(i) identification of an appropriate frequency distribution to fit
statistic. However, as population statistic is unknown in real
the random variable (flood) being analysed for homogeneous
world scenario, modelers chose sample statistic for
region, (ii) use of a proposed transformation mechanism to map
normalization. In real world scenario, the scale and shape
observations of the variable from original space to a
parameters of sites in a homogeneous region may not be close
dimensionless space where the form of distribution does not
enough to be considered identical, even if the type of frequency
change, and variation in values of its parameters is minimal
distribution is the same for all the sites in the region. The
across sites,
shortcomings associated with CIF approach motivated the
(iii) construction of a growth curve in the dimensionless space,
authors to develop a newmathematical approach to RFA. The
and (iv) mapping the curve to the original space for the target
RFA is deemed to be effective if knowledge of location, scale as
site by applying inverse transformation to arrive at required
well as shape parameters of all the sites is utilized in the
quantile(s) for the site. Effectiveness of the proposed approach
analysis, to properly characterize the growth curve
in predicting quantiles for ungauged sites is demonstrated
(dimensionless distribution function) that represents the region.
through a case study on watersheds in Godavari basin, India,
The proposed approach involves: (i) identification of an
using a jackknife procedure. Formation of homogeneous regions
appropriate frequency distribution to fit the random variable
is based on region-of-influence method. Results are compared
being analyzed for the homogeneous region, (ii) use of a
with those obtained by using conventional index-flood
proposed transformation mechanism to map observations of the
procedure.Results indicate that the proposed approach
variable from original space to a dimensionless space where the
outperforms conventional index-flood approach.
form of distribution does not change, and variation in values of
Keywords:Regional Frequency Analysis, Design flood, L-
location, scale as well as shape parameters of the distribution is
moment, Region-of-influence
minimal across sites, thus satisfying all the assumptions of
index-flood approach, (iii) construction of a growth curve in the
1. INTRODUCTION
dimensionless space, and (iv) mapping the growth curve to the
original space for the target site by applying proposed inverse
Estimation of design quantile of hydro-meteorological events
transformation to arrive at required quantile(s) for the site.
such as floods at target locations in river basins having sparse/no
records is one of the major challenges for hydrologists. To
The reminder of this paper is structured as follows: Methodology
obtain the required design quantile, Regional Frequency
for new mathematicalRFA approach is presented in section 2.1
Analysis (RFA) gained wide recognition The analysis involves
and that of CIF approach is provided in section 2.2.
(i) use of a regionalization approach for identification of
Effectiveness of the new mathematical approach is demonstrated
locations that are similar to the target location (site), in terms of
by application to real world data in section 3. Finally, summary
mechanisms influencing the variable being analyzed, to form a
and conclusions are given in section 4.

(iii) Compute L-statistics corresponding to each of the sites in

2. METHODOLOGY the dimensionless space using values obtained from
mapping of observations and use those as the basis to
2.1 Methodology for new mathematical approach to RFA estimate regional average L-statistics.
(iv) Estimate location, scale and shape parameters of regional
This section presents methodology of a novel mathematical frequency distribution using the regional average L-
approach that was recently proposed by authors (Basu and statistics and construct growth curve y F in the
Srinivas, 2013). Let N denote the number of sites in a region
that is homogeneous with respect to a random variable dimensionless space.
(v) To arrive at regional quantile function for the target site, map
X depicting peak flows. Let x denote an observation (data the growth curve to the original space by applying
point) corresponding to X . Implement the following steps to proposed inverse transformation equation. Use equation (3)
arrive at regional quantile function for a target site in the region. if regional frequency distribution is among GLO, GEV,
(i) Identify an appropriate regional frequency distribution to fit GPA or GNO, and equation (4) if it is PE3.
X
1 exp k y F
X . In real world scenario, the distribution can be identified
using observations (data) corresponding to sites in the x F X
k X
X
region by an effective regional goodness-of-fit test.
(ii) Map observations corresponding to X from the original x F X X y F
space to those corresponding to a random variable Y in a
Where X denotes location parameter, X and k X in
dimensionless space, such that frequency distribution of X
equation (3) represent respectively scale and shape
and Y remain the same, and variation in at-sites values of
location, scale as well as shape parameters of the parameters, and X in equation (4) represents scale
distribution is minimal. Use equation (1) for mapping when parameter corresponding to the target site. The subscript X
X follows Generalized Logistic (GLO), Generalized indicates that all the parameters are estimated in the original
Extreme Value (GEV), Generalized Pareto (GPA) or space. Those parameters can be reliably estimated using
Generalized Normal (GNO) distributions, and use equation observations at the target site if record length for that site is
(2) for mapping when X followsPearson type-3 (PE3) large enough. However, if the site is ungauged or has
distribution. inadequate data, the required parameters can be estimated
1 kX x X
based on regional information by various methods. One
y ln 1 , x X , y Y option is to estimate (1) those parameters using regional
kX X average values of L-statistics. An alternate option is to
estimate those parameters by using regression relationships
x X
y , x X , y Y developed between each (2) of them and site-specific attributes
X that influence the variable being analyzed. The site-specific
attributes should be those that are readily available even for
Where X denotes location parameter, X and k X in ungauged locations. For example, catchment area, slope,
equation (1) denote respectively scale and shape drainage density and soil characteristics could be considered
parameters, whereas X in equation (2) represents scale as attributes in the case of RFA of floods.
parameter of the frequency distribution of X . Equation of Table 1. Formulations related to GLO, GEV, GPA and GNO
cumulative distribution function (CDF) of frequency distributions for the random variable Y . FY y is
X corresponding toGLO, GEV, GPA, GNO and PE3
distributions can be found in Hosking and Wallis (1997). cumulative distribution function, 1Y , 2Y and 3Y are the first
The CDF of Y that follows GLO, GEV, GPA or GNO three L-moments, Y , Y , and kY denote, location, scale and
distributions, and the corresponding values for L-moments shape parameters respectively, and y F is population growth
and parameters are given in Table 1, while those for PE3
distribution are provided in Table 2. It may be noted that curve.
the values of location, scale and shape parameters for
GLO, GEV, GPA, and GNO populations are 0, 1, and 0
respectively. Further values of location and scale
parameters for PE3 population are 0 and 1 respectively,
whereas the value of shape parameter is the same as that in
the original space. Details pertaining to derivation of
population parameter values and the corresponding
equations for population growth curves in the
dimensionless space can be found in Basu and Srinivas
(2013, Appendix).

Implementation of CIF approach involves the following steps:

(i) Normalize peak flow values corresponding to each gauged
site in the region by dividing them by the sites scaling
factor, which is considered to be the mean annual peak flow.
(ii) Estimate L-statistics (L-mean; coefficient of L-variation, L-
skewness, L-kurtosis) corresponding to each of the sites
using the respective normalized records.
(iii) Compute regional average L-statistics by taking weighted
average of at-site values of those statistics computed in step
(ii), with weights being proportional to sites record length.
(iv) Use the regional average L-statistics as the basis to identity
an appropriate regional frequency distribution by regional
goodness-of-fit test (Hosking and Wallis, 1997).
(v) Let q denote CDF (quantile function) corresponding to
the fitted distribution. Refer to it as growth curve.
Table 2. Formulations related to random variable Y in case of
PE3 frequency distribution. FY y is cumulative distribution (vi) Determineregional quantile function Qk for the
function, 1Y , and 2Y are the first two L-moments, Y , Y ungauged site k as,
and denote parameters related to distribution of random Qk F q F k , F 0,1
variable Y and y F is population growth where q F is ordinate of growth curve corresponding to
curve.
non-exceedance probability F ,and k is scaling factor
(index-flood) corresponding to the ungauged site. The factor
is estimated using regression relationship developed
between the scaling factor and catchment attributes
corresponding to gauged sites in the region. Attributes
should be those that influence peak flows in catchments of
the study area and which can be determined even for
ungauged locations. Typical examples of attributes include
variables related to catchments physiography, shape, soil,
drainage,climate, land-use/land-cover, and geographic
location.
3. CASE STUDY
3.1.Description of study area and data
Effectiveness of the new mathematicalRFA approach in

predicting quantiles for ungauged sites is demonstrated through
a case study on watersheds in Godavari river basin, India, using
a jackknife procedure. The river basin extends from 1616' and
2343' north latitude and 7326' and 8307' east longitude, and
has an area of 3,12,813 km2 (Figure 1). The river originates near
Trayambak in the state of Maharashtra at an elevation of 1067
m, and flows from west to east and confluences with Bay of
Bengal near Rajahmundry in Andhra Pradesh. The river has its
catchment in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh states. Boundary of the
river basin was extracted from watershed atlas (AISLUS, 1990).
Information on annual maximum flows at 50 sites (gauges) in

the Godavari river basin, their location (latitude and longitude)
and contributing drainage areas was collated from Central Water
Commission (CWC) offices in Hyderabad and Nagpur, India.
2.2. Methodology for conventional index-flood (CIF) Watershed corresponding to each of the gauges was delineated
approach to RFA from 90m resolution Shuttle Radar Topography Mission

(SRTM) digital elevation model (DEM)using ArcHydro tools in subtracting by its respective mean and then dividing by their
ArcGIS environment. Attributes of the watersheds, namely standard deviation. The resulting values are referred to as scaled
average elevation (above mean sea level), perimeter, length of attributes.
longest stream, main stream slope, drainage density,
compactness coefficient, circularity ratio, form factor and Jackknife procedure was implemented to demonstrate
elongation ratio were computed using tools in ArcGIS. In effectiveness of the new mathematicalRFA approach in
addition, area weighted annual rainfall was computed for each of predicting quantiles for ungauged sites. It involved considering
the watersheds using one-degree resolution gridded daily rainfall one site at a time (from among 50 sites) to be ungauged, and
data available for the period 1951-2004 from India preparing pooling group (region) for the ungaugedsite based on
Meteorological Department (IMD). Region of Influence (ROI) (Burn, 1990) approach. The ROI
approach isone of the widely used approaches for
Information on nature, areal extent and spatial distribution of regionalization, though none of the available regionalization
soils in the study region was extracted from soil map obtained approaches is proven to be universally superior.To prepare
from National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning pooling group for the ungauged site using ROI approach, other
(NBSS&LUP). Further, information pertaining to land-use/land- gauged sites were ranked in ascending order of their Euclidean
cover was extracted from Earth Science Data Interface (ESDI) at distance to the ungauged site in the six-dimensional space of the
the Global Land Cover Facility (GLCF) available at web site: scaled attributes. Following this, those sites were considered one
http://glcfapp.umiacs.umd.edu. The extracted information at a time (in order of their distance), and assigned to the pooling
includes areas classified as built-up, agricultural, forest, water group until collective record length of all the sites in the group
bodies and waste lands. exceeded 500 station-years. This ensures that pooled information
is adequate to determine quantiles corresponding to return period
T up to 100-years, as per 5T rule (Institute of Hydrology,1999),
and adequate sites are available to develop regression
relationship using information in the group for estimating first L-
moment (index-flood) for the ungauged site. The foregoing
analysis yielded 50 pooling groups, each corresponding to one of
the 50 sites in the study area that was assumed to be ungauged.
To arrive at regional quantile function for ungauged site

corresponding to each of the 50 pooling groups, the RFA was
performed on each pooling group using the new mathematical
approach (MA) and the CIF approach described in section 2. The
regional quantile function constructed for an ungauged site using
each of the approaches was compared with the true quantile
function (CDF) corresponding to the site for five return periods
(T = 25, 50, 75, 100 and 200 years) in terms of three
performancemeasures (R-bias, AR-bias, and R-RMSE). The
true quantile function was constructed by fitting the best-fit
frequency distribution to AMF data available for the
ungaugedsite, following the conventional practice (e.g.,
Figure 1.Location of gauges considered for thepresent study in Cunderlik and Burn, 2006). The best-fit at-site frequency
Godavari river basin distribution was found to be GLO for 10 sites, GEV for 4 sites,
GNO for 8 sites, PE3 for 15 sites, and GPA for 13 sites using L-
moment based goodness-of-fit test (Hosking and Wallis, 1997)
3.2. Results and Discussion with 90% confidence level. Values of the performancemeasures
indicate that errors are significantly lower for the MA when
Database of attributes prepared for watersheds corresponding to compared to that for CIF method (Table 3). To gain further
50 sites in the Godavari river basin was scrutinized to identify insight, scatter plots between the true at-site quantile estimates
irredundant attributes that are fairly well correlated with mean of and regional quantile estimates based on MA and CIF were
Annual Maximum Flows (AMFs). The attributes identified prepared for various return periods. They showed that points
based on this analysis were drainage area, perimeter, main corresponding to PA are less deviated with respect to the solid
channel slope and average watershed elevation. Those four 1:1 line than those corresponding to CIF approach. Results
attributes together with two location indicators (latitude and corresponding to a typical return period (T = 100 years) are
longitude) were chosen as attributes for regionalization.Among presented in Figure 2, for brevity. Overall the results indicate
the six attributes, values corresponding to drainage area were that the proposed approach offers significant improvement over
quite large and their distribution was highly skewed. the CIF method for RFA.
Consequently, those values were transformed using logarithmic
transformation. Subsequently values (or transformed values)
corresponding to each of the six attributeswere standardized by

Table 3.Performance measures R-bias, AR-bias and R-RMSE REFERENCES:

computed based on errors in flood quantiles estimated
corresponding to 50ungauged sites. i. AISLUS, 1990 Watershed atlas of India, All India soil and land use
survey, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India.
ii. Basu, B., and V. V. Srinivas (2013), Formulation of a mathematical
approach to regional frequency analysis, Water Resour. Res., 49,
doi:10.1002/wrcr.20540.
iii. Burn, D.H. (1990), Evaluation of regional flood frequency analysis
with a region of influence approach, Water Resour. Res., 26(10), 2257-2265,
doi:10.1029/WR026i010p02257.
iv. Cunderlik, J. M., and D. H. Burn (2006), Switching the pooling
similarity distances: Mahalanobis for Euclidean, Water Resour. Res., 42(3),
W03409, doi:10.1029/2005WR004245.
v. Dalrymple, T. (1960), Flood frequency analysis, U.S. Geol. Surv.
Water Supply Pap., 1543-A, 11 51.
vi. Hosking, J. R. M., and J. R. Wallis (1997), Regional frequency
analysis: An approach based on L-moments, Cambridge University Press, New
York, USA.
vii. Institute of Hydrology (1999), Flood Estimation Handbook, vol. 3,
Wallingford, UK.
Performance Comparative Of Wavelets And

Savitzky-Golay Filter On Bathymetry Survey Data
M.Selva Balan1 Arnab Das2
1
Figure 11. Comparison of at-site (true) quantile estimates with Chief Research Officer, Central Water and Power Research
regional quantile estimates for ungauged sites based on new Station, Khadakwasla, Pune 411024, India
2
mathematical approach and CIF methods for 100-year return Commander, Indian Navy, Military Institute of Technology,
period. The solid 1:1 line corresponds to the case where at-site Girinagar, Pune-41125. India
and regional estimates are equal. A method is considered to be Email: instcwprs@gmail.com
effective if points corresponding to the method are closer to the
2 ABSTRACT : Bathymetry survey is one of the most reliable
solid line. R (coefficient of determination) corresponds to the and practical way to assess the reservoir capacity as well as to
dash-dot trend line fitted to points in a plot. estimate the sediment volume. Accurate estimation of
reservoirs volume is of crucial importance to make optimum
4. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS utilization of stored water and to plan the reservoir operations.
This also will enable the dam authorities to plan the dredging
The key assumption of the conventional index-flood approach is techniques. The correct knowledge of the volume of dams
that it requires location, scale and shape parameters of frequency facilitate in planning the amount of water discharge and silt
distributions of normalized records to be identical for all the removal. The volume is determined using the area which is
sites in a homogeneous region. For practical applications, this extracted from the satellite imagery and depth collected
assumption is always violated, which leads to ineffective through echo sounder by running a boat along survey lines. A
quantile estimation for ungauged sites using conventional index precise, linear indication of the depth of water as well as the
flood approach. To overcome the shortcoming of CIF approach, sediment deposit in a specific part of water body is what always
a novel mathematical approach is proposed for RFA in L- required. Presently there are a wide variety of ways to produce
moment framework. Transformation mechanisms corresponding a signal that tracks the depth of water bodies. The Ultrasonic
to various commonly used frequency distributions are proposed signal offers the benefits of shorter wavelength which resolves
to facilitate mapping the random variable being analyzed from smaller details and inaudibility so humans are unaffected,
original space to a dimensionless space where distribution of the hence most commonly used for the depth estimation. This
random variable does not change, and deviations of regional signal is affected by various underwater noises which results in
estimates of all the parameters (location, scale, shape) of the inaccurate depth estimation. In case of finding the layer width
distribution with respect to their population values as well as at- below the sediment the reflected ultrasound signal gets severely
site estimates are minimal. The location, scale and shape affected by the underwater noises. The objective of this paper is
parameters corresponding to GLO, GEV, GPA and GNO to provide noise reduction methods for underwater acoustic
populations are analytically derived to be 0, 1 and 0 respectively, signal. In present work, the signal processing is done on the
in the dimensionless space. Experiments on real world data data collected using TC2122 dual frequency echo transducer.
showed that the new mathematicalapproach offers significant There are two signal processing techniques which are applied
improvement over CIF, method in RFA. Further improvement in on a case study: The first method is denoising algorithm based
results could be possible by considering Mahalanobis distance to on Stationary wavelet transform (SWT) and second method is
form ROI (Cunderlik and Burn, 2006), instead of Euclidean Savitzky-Golay filter. The results are evaluated based on the
distance considered in this study. criteria of peak signal to noise ratio and volume estimation is
done by combining the data related to different locations of the

reservoir and plotting them inside the boundary extracted from Celsius in temperature, salinity which is a measure of the
satellite imagery. However the results obtained with Savitzky- quantity of dissolved salts and other minerals in water and the
Golay filter matches acceptable level of interpolation and also total amount of dissolved solids in water. As shown in
matches the depth measured at site. This paper shows the International hydrographic Bureau, (2005) the pressure also has
performance of two newly developed techniques applied on a significant impact on the sound velocity variation and has a
depth data which was acquired with underwater noise. 3D major influence on the sound velocity in deep water.
Surfer plots of the reservoir whose depth and volume
When an ultrasonic wave is transmitted through water, it is
estimation has to be done are shown with different processing
expected to reach the bottom and then reflect back, but instead
for the performance comparison.
of this, it changes the characteristics (i.e. picks up noise) due to
Keywords: Reservoir Sedimentation, Bathymetry Survey,
the medium as well as the reflective surface. However
Savitzky-Golay filter, Wavelet transform
submerged trees and rocks create large spikes, which are mainly
due to multipath effect. This gives a false bottom anticipation
1. INTRODUCTION:
which doesnt provide the accurate results. The reflected signal
when graphically plotted clearly indicates the unwanted sharp
Irrigation and Agriculture are the main occupations of the people
peaks, which are normally interpolated with standard
of India for thousands of years. Amongst the natural resources of
mathematical techniques as given in Surfer manual ver. 8. The
a country, fresh water reservoirs i.e. dams, lakes etc are of
focus of this study is to analyse the reflected signal received
utmost significance. The water stored by the dams can also be
through the sediment particles, which are corrupted badly than
used to prevent floods and facilitate forestation in the catchments
the surface reflections.
areas of the reservoirs. The measurement of capacity of reservoir
is of crucial importance to regulate the water discharge from the The raw depth signal is denoised by applying signal processing
reservoir for meeting the demands of irrigation and drinking techniques, which is then processed on Surfer ver.8 software to
water supply. The volume measurement is done using area and plot the 3D images of the reservoir bed. These sharp peaks could
depth of the reservoir. Hence area and depth of the reservoir are be the reflections from the suspended obstacles which come in
to be calculated very precisely. Depth measurement of water the path of the transmitted ultrasonic signal.
bodies has developed remarkably in the last few decades with
the adaptation of new ultrasonic techniques, which is proven The data was collected using sensor Reasons TC2122 dual
successful among other methods based on image processing, frequency survey echo sounder transducer which works on two
airborne laser and mechanical systems. resonant frequencies 33 kHz and 200 kHz and Reson's
Navisound 415 hydrographic single beam echo sounder. General
Photo bathymetry method, discussed by M. Selva Balan, et all assumption is that the noise present is white Gaussian noise but
(2013) based on image processing, digitally processes the aerial the underwater noise does not full fill the classical white noise
pictures to correlate light intensity with depth. This method is assumption [3] and hence Non-white noise is assumed. To
fast depth below the water cannot be measured with it. So it reduce noise from the given data and to estimate approximate
remains a tool for assessing the present area and approximate depth, two techniques are applied- denoising based on Stationary
volume. An airborne laser system utilizes method of estimating Wavelet Transform and Savitzky-Golay filter.
the time delay between the surface and bottom reflections of the
transmitted laser light. These systems are efficient, high speed This paper is organized as follows:-Section 2 deals with
and have good coverage but water clarity is the primary methods, limitations, wavelet transforms, Savitzky-Golay filter,
constraints as well as initial and operational cost are higher. section 3 & Section 4 deal with results & conclusion
Depth measurement methods based on acoustic uses ultrasonic respectively.
signal and are classified as single beam and multiple beam eco
sounding. The ultrasonic signal is transmitted towards the 2. MATERIAL AND METHODS
bottom of the reservoir and time interval required for the signal
to reflect and travel back to the transducer is measured. Prior Volume of the reservoir measurement requires two important
knowledge of velocity of ultrasonic signal in water and the time aspects namely; getting the position coordinates accurate and the
taken gives the distance travelled which is the depth of the third dimension (i.e. depth). The advent of latest GPS
reservoir. Multibeam eco sounding comprises of multiple narrow technology allows us to get the position to accuracy in the range
single beam transducers mounted near to each other and of centimeters. However the depth estimation depends on the
focussed at equally spaced angles for covering a large space method and the various nonlinear properties it encounters.
beneath the boat. In this paper single beam eco sounding is
utilized as it is simple and inexpensive.
1.1 Measurement of reservoir volume:
Ultrasound wave is basically cyclic sound pressure whose
2.1 Limitations of Existing techniques
frequency ranges from 15 kHz to 200 kHz as discussed by Sabuj
Das Gupta (2012). The depth measurement is quite sensitive to
Echo-sounders are basically designed to operate in standard
variations of the sound velocity profile. The sound velocity
frequency. However the medium characteristics it is used is not
profile is affected by factors such as, variation of one degree same always. Also the characteristics of the bottom surface are

not of same characteristics. This results in errors in terms of signals, orthogonality and biorthogonality as per Michel Misiti et
unacceptable depth readings. This could not be corrected beyond al (2000).
a limit as the echo reflection differs from different objects found
As per Meyer M. Kreidl et al (2002) there are a number of
below the water. CWPRS and many states are using a particular
wavelets that can be used for noise removal: Haar, Daubechies,
type of Echo sounder provided under hydrology project.
Symlet, Coiflet, Biorthogonal, Reverse Biorthogonal to name
However the data is collected it comes with various spiky non
few. All of them are wavelets with filter having either
Gaussian noises, which could not been eliminated fully by the
orthogonality or biorthogonality. The HARR wavelets are
filters and the interpretation techniques provided in the software
performs the mathematical operations of averaging and finding
supports these system. As explained by M. Selva Balan, et all
difference on the decomposed values of signal. Daubechies
(2013) for large reservoir the preplanning is essential, which is
wavelet are defined same as HARR, has balanced frequency
possible with the image processing techniques applied on an
responses but nonlinear phase responses. Symlet wavelet
satellite imagery as the one shown in fig 1 below.
comprises of a symmetrical wavelet. Coiflet is the member of a
family of wavelets having zero moments in the support of the
functions and also in the scaling function. Biorthogonal wavelets
are extension of orthogonal wavelet families to resolve the
problem of incompatibility between the symmetry and perfect
reconstruction. As per Michel Misiti et.al (2000) Meyer wavelet
is an infinitely derivable orthogonal wavelet without compact
support. In order to use the wavelet transform effectively the
details of the particular application should be taken into account
and the appropriate wavelet should be chosen. S.Kumari et. Al
(2012) explained that they are chosen based on their shape and
their ability to analyze signal in particular application. The
performance of wavelet based denoising depends on wavelet
Fig 1. Contour extraction of the reservoir for pre survey planning decomposition structure.
For selecting particular type of wavelet, performance
As detailed by M.Selva Balan et al (2013), in normal conditions, comparison of some known wavelet families was done and their
the raw data collected by a survey boat generates lots of noise, effect on the given signal was observed. In present case, as
which is very difficult to be removed by any manual methods. explained earlier smoothness of the surface is the basic criteria
And hence two new filters were developed namely Wavelet and for depth estimation, so accordingly one wavelet from each
Savitzky-Golay. wavelet family was selected. These are shown in Table 1.
Table 1.Wavelet selected from respective wavelet family.
2.2 WAVELET TRANSFORM
Wavelet Family Selected wavelet
Wavelet transforms have become one of the most important and Haar Haar
powerful tool for signal denoising as shown by SJS Tsai, (2002). Daubechies db8
Discrete Stationary Wavelet Transform is undecimated versions Symlet sym5
of discrete wavelet transform which is used for signal denoising
Coiflet coif5
and pattern recognition as shown by Chu-Kueitu et al, (2004).
The main idea is to average several detailed coefficients which Meyer Dmey
are obtained by decomposition of the input signal as explained Biorthogonal bior2.2
by V. Matz et al, (2005).Signal denoising using wavelet consists Reverse biorthogonal rbior2.2
of three steps of decomposition, thresholding of the coefficients
and reconstruction. Decomposition of signal is done over an The detailed and approximation coefficients are obtained using
orthogonal wavelet basis using the discrete transform. signal decomposition. Further decomposition of approximation
Thresholding is used to select a part of the coefficients and using coefficients up to specified level is done. The maximum
the threshold coefficients the signal is reconstructed. The decomposition level depends on number of data points contained
reproduced signal is the denoised signal. in a data set. Present depth analysis 5 decomposition levels were
Wavelet transforms make use of different basis functions to found to be appropriate.
decompose the signal. These basis functions can be
differentiated by scaling and shifting parameters. The properties K.Mathan Raj et. al (2011) shown a thresholding of data in
of wavelet play a key role in the selection of a wavelet for a wavelet domain to smooth out or to remove some of the
particular application. The main properties of wavelet include coefficients of wavelet transform of measured sub-signal
speed of convergence which quantifies the localization of the introduced due to noise or obstacles in water bodies. Two
wavelet in time and frequency, symmetry for avoiding commonly used types of thresholding are hard and soft
dephasing, regularity to obtain reconstructed smooth and regular thresholding. In hard thresholding if any coefficient (x) less than

threshold value(t) then it is set to zero otherwise it remains

unchanged.
(1)
Soft thresholding [10][11] is similar to hard thresholding with a
little difference i.e. no coefficient remains unchanged instead it
is shrunken by threshold value(t). The present analysis is done
using soft thresholding technique.
(2)
2.3. SAVITZKY-GOLAY FILTER
The Savitzky-Golay filter is a particular type of low-pass filter.

Sophocles J. Orfanidis (2012) shows that it is well-adapted for
data smoothing. It is also referred to as least-squares or
Polynomial Smoothing filter. Rather than having their properties
defined in the Fourier domain, and then translated to the time
domain, Savitzky-Golay filters derive directly from a particular Figure 2. Plots of Raw depth and data interpolated by S Golay
formulation of the data smoothing problem in the time domain Filter
as shown by Filip Wasilewski. Ronald W. Schafer (2011) shows
that these filters are of type-I FIR low pass filters with nominal In Savitzky-Golay filter, the odd-indexed coefficients of the
pass band gain of unity. Savitzky and Golay proposed the impulse response design polynomial are all zero. The nominal
method of data smoothing based on local least-squares normalized cut off (3 dB down) frequency depends on both the
polynomial approximation. Polynomial smoothing is the process implicit polynomial order and the length of the impulse
which replaces the noisy samples by the values that lie on the response. The impulse response of filter is symmetric, so the
smooth polynomial curves drawn between the noisy samples. frequency response is purely real. These filters have very flat
Sophocles J. Orfanidis (2012) has shown that for every frequency response in their pass bands and fair attenuation
polynomial order, the coefficients must be determined optimally characteristics in their stop band regions.
such that the corresponding polynomial curve best fits the given As per Ronald W. Schafer, (July 2011) following are the
data. Instead of applying averaging filter it is better to perform constraints on polynomial fitting;
least squares fit of a small set of consecutive data points to a
polynomial. Savitzky A., and Golay, M.J.E. (1964) proved that - The number of data points must be strictly greater than the
Least-squares fit technique is used to choose the polynomial number of undetermined coefficients to achieve smoothing by
coefficients such that they give minimum mean square error. the Savitzky-Golay process.
The output smoothed value is taken at the center of the window - If the order of the polynomial is too large, the solution will be
to replace the original data. Fig 2 below shows the plots of raw of no value.
data as well as S-Golay filter processed data. Generalize algorithm is as follows:
Consider frame size or filter length N is
odd, and whered is order of
polynomial.
Ifx is noisy signal with noisy samples , n = 0,1,.......,L-1 and it
is supposed to be replaced by its smoothed output version y
which contains , n = 0,1,.......,L-1 then input vector hasn =L
input points and x = is replaced byN
dimensional one, havingM points on each side ofx.
(3)
There are 3 cases, for calculating the output result. These cases
are explained in [16]. Smoothed output y is calculated as

(4)
The Savitzky-Golay filter coefficients are the
elements of matrixB.
(5)
(6)
From Table 3 it can be seen that as the order of polynomial
increases, PSNR value also increases. So PSNR is directly
Where , ,
proportional to order of polynomial for Savitzky-Golay filter.
whe Computational complexity is less for higher order. (Processer
re-d [12][13]. used-Intel core i5)
3. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS Table 4. Values of PSNR by varying frame size and with fixed
order for Savitzky-Golay filter
As shown by S.Kumari et. al. (2012) the peak signal to noise
ratio represents the measure of peak error. It is given as, File Or4_31 Or4_33 Or4_41 Or4_49
File1 44.0280 43.8143 43.0032 42.6637
File2 49.4808 49.1640 48.2272 47.8468
(7) File3 44.4367 44.0604 43.4561 43.1529
Where File4 44.7824 44.6722 44.1377 43.7461
File5 40.8566 40.6501 40.0252 39.9840
File6 37.2930 37.0813 37.0102 36.8819
(8) File7 41.1404 41.1594 40.9853 40.5424
Avg.Tim
MSE is Mean Square Error with I = original value O= output e (sec)
2.41 2.55 2.53 2.56
value and R= maximum input value
Generally PSNR should be greater than 30dB in order to reduce
noise effectively. From Table 4 it can be seen that as the lesser the frame size,
more is the PSNR. So PSNR is inversely proportional to frame
For comparing results of Savitzky-Golay filter, another size for Savitzky-Golay filter. Computational complexity is less
parameter used is Time Constraints which is time required for for smaller frame size. (Processer used-Intel core i5)
execution of program.
The volume of reservoir is determined using the area and depth
Table 2. Values of PSNR for different types of wavelets. at different locations in the bed. All the data related to these
locations is collected to provide the complete profile of the
reservoir and then boundary is applied for determining the
volume in Surfer11 software.
Actual volume of the reservoir calculated by design equation:
15475058 cubic meter
Table 5. Values of Volume of reservoir without denoising and

with denoising of signal.
Without denoising Denoised with Denoised with
Haar wavelet Savitzky Golay
Volume in cubic meter 15448266 15472741 15475539
Error 26792 2317 481
Percentage error 0.173 0.015 0.003
The results presented in Table 2 show PSNR values for different 3D plots of depth data are obtained using surfer11 are shown in
wavelets. It can be seen that Haar wavelet is giving better result figures 3to 8 below on two different data sets collected from
than other wavelets in this case. reservoirs:
Table 3. Values of PSNR by varying order and with fixed frame
size for Savitzky-Golay filter.

denoised echo yields a smooth profile (ie less peaks) the

reservoir volume become more realistic. The error percentage is
reduced to 0 .003 for the signal denoised with Savitzy-Golay.
The analysis has been done on a large volume data where
percentage error for the signal without denoising and with
denoising is small. However for a reservoir with less volume this
much error will be a considerable amount that will affect the
planning for the water discharge. In case of low frequency
Figure 3 : Original Figure 4 : Signal Figure 5 : Signal reflections (which represent depth with sediment) the variations
signal for right arm processed using processed using due to noise are huge which will give erroneous sediment
of lake Haar wavelet Savitzky-Golay volume, which in turn affects the reservoir planning the dredging
Filter process. With this filters the accuracy of sediment volume will
be considerably reduced.
REFERENCES
i. Arnaud Jarrot, Cornel Ioana, Andre Quinquis, (2005)"Denoising
Underwater Signals Propagating Through Multipath Channels", Oceans -
Europe (Volume:1) pp.501-506.
ii.Bernhard Wieland, (October 2009) "Speech Signal Noise Reduction with
Wavelets", pp.55-56.
iii. Chu-Kueitu, Yan-Yao Jang, (2004)"Development of Noise Reduction
Figure 6 : Reservoir Figure 7 : Figure 8 : Algorithm for Underwater Signals", Underwater Technology, International
bed plotted from Reservoir bed Reservoir bed Symposium on, pp.175-179.
RAW data denoised with denoised with iv. Golden Software, Surfer Manual online ver 12.
Haar wavelet Savitzky-Golay v. International hydrographic Bureau, (2005)"Manual on
hydrography", M-13, pp.126.
vi. K.Mathan Raj, S.Sakthivel Murugan, V. Natarajan, S.Radha,
The 3D profiles shows that wavelet and Savitzky-Golay filters (2011)"Denoising Algorithm using Wavelet for Underwater Signal Affected by
have smoothened the noisy data and hence improves the Wind Driven Ambient Noise", Recent Trends in Information Technology
accuracy of sedimentation volume calculations. Fig 7 shows the (ICRTIT), pp.943-946.
vii. Md. Abdul Awal, Sheikh Shanawaz Mostafa and Mohiuddin Ahmad,
capacity loss calculated with one survey using two frequencies. (2011)"Performance Analysis of Savitzky-GolaySmoothing Filter Using ECG
Signal", IJCIT, VOLUME 01 ISSUE 02, pp.24-29.
Li ve Vol ume Pl ot
(Ch 1 i n Mcum) viii. M. Kreidl, P. Houfek, (2002)"Reducing Ultrasounic Signal Noise by
Volume Plot Ori gi nal Vol ume pl ot Area
350
(Ch 2 i n Mcum)
Algorithms based on Wavelet Thresholding", Acts Polytechnica Vol. 42, pp.60-
300 65.
250
Fig7. Final plot ix. Michel Misiti, Yves Misiti, Georges Oppenheim, Jean-Michel Poggi,
Volume (Mcum)
200
showing the loss "Wavelets and their Applications", ISTE 2000.
150
100
in capacity based x. M. Selva Balan, Dr. Arnab Das, Madhur Khandelwal, Piyush
50
on single survey Chaoudhari, A Review of Various Technologies for Depth Measurement in
0 Estimating Reservoir Sedimentaion, IJERT, Vol. 2, Issue 10, Oct 2013,
-10 -5
-50
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
done with two
35 40
pp.223-228.
Water Level (meters)
different xi. M. Selva Balan, Sedimentation survey using dual frequency echo
frequencies sounder, Two days work shop on Reservoir Sedimentation by Beuro of
Indian Standards (BIS) , January 2013.
xii. Ronald W. Schafer, (July 2011)"What is a Savitzky-Golay filter?",
4. CONCLUSION IEEE SIGNAL PROCESSING MAGAZINE, pp.111-115.
xiii. Savitzky A., and Golay, M.J.E. (1964)"Analytical Chemistry", Volume
The analysis of ultrasonic depth data received through sediment 36, pp.1627-1639.
and water using two techniques: HARR wavelet Transform and xiv. Sabuj Das Gupta, Islam Md. Shahinur, Akond Anisul Haque, Amin
Ruhul, Sudip Majumder,(October 2012)"Design and Implementation of Water
Savitzky-Golay filter. It is found that out of all wavelet Depth Measurement and Object Detection Model Using Ultrasonic Signal
transforms, HARR wavelet is most suitable for noise reduction System",International Journal of Engineering Research and Development,
in ultrasonic signal based on high PSNR value. In Savitzky- Volume 4, Issue 3, pp.62-69.
Golay Filter analysis, higher order of polynomial with lesser xv. SJS Tsai, (2002)"Chapter 4 Wavelet Transform and Denoising".
xvi. Sophocles J. Orfanidis, (2010)"Introduction To Signal Processing",
frame size increases the PSNR. Pearson Education, Inc., pp.427-451.
xvii. S.Kumari, R.Vijay, (January 2012)"Effect of Symlet Filter Order on
The results from surfer plots show that the HARR wavelet with Denoising of Still Images", Advanced Computing :An International
decomposition level up to 5 and Savitzky-Golay filter with order Journal(ACIJ).Vol.3.No.1, pp.137-143.
4 and frame size 31 can be effectively used for smoothing the xviii. V. Matz and J. Kerka, "DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING OF
data obtained which can lead to estimation of depth with ULTRASONIC SIGNALS" 2005, pp.3
xix. wavelets.pybytes.com by Filip Wasilewski.
minimum error using empirical formula designed for a particular xx. William H. Press, Brian P. Flannery, Saul A. Teukolsky, William T.
application. Vetterling, (1988-1992)"Numerical Recipes in C:The Art of Scientific
Computing", Cambridge University Press, pp.650-651
The reflected echo of sensor without denoising when plotted
yields a profile consisting of a number of peaks. Since the

Simulation Study On Performance Of Household overview of the materials and methods and the results of the
Rainwater Harvesting Systems study are discussed in the subsequent sections.
2. MATERIAL AND METHODS:

P.G. Jairaj1 P. Athulya2
1
Professor in Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, In the present study the performance of household roof top
Trivandrum-695016, Kerala, India rainwater collection systems was described by its ability to
2
Former M.Tech Student, College of Engineering, Trivandrum- satisfy the demand without failure. Using the actual rainfall data
695016, Kerala, India at the locations, the runoff from the catch surface was worked
Email: jairaj_pg@yahoo.com, out on a daily basis. This runoff collected in the rainwater
athulya.purushothaman@gmail.com collection tank was used for satisfying the various household
demands. A simulation model using Standard Operating Policy
ABSTRACT (SOP) was made use of for the computation of yield from the
system and the evaluation of the system performance was carried
Water shortage has become a serious problem all over the world out using the indicators: Reliability, Resilience and Vulnerability
due to rapid urbanization and climatic changes. To cope with as follows.
such situation small onsite Rainwater Harvesting (RWH)
Systems can act as alternate water supply source in rural as well 2.1 Simulation Model:
as urban areas. But the efficiency of these RWH systems is
largely affected by the distribution pattern of rainfall as well A typical flat rooftop household rainwater harvesting system
water demands. This paper investigates the performance of
Rooftop household rainwater collection systems located at having a collection tank capacity of was considered for
various geographic regions in Kerala state, India considering the carrying out the simulation study. The yield from the rainwater
variation in demand and rainfall. The operation of Rooftop harvesting system was drawn according to the water demand.
household rainwater collection systems was simulated using Simulation of the operation of the system was carried out using
Standard Operating Policy (SOP), and the performance was Standard Operating Policy (SOP) given by Equations (1) to (3).
evaluated by three indicators namely; Reliability, Resilience and In simulation whenever the demand is not satisfied associated
Vulnerability. From the simulation study, it is revealed that failure occurs, computed in terms of deficit volume defined by
while designing the rainwater collection systems, sufficient care Equation (4).
is to be given to the spatial and temporal distribution pattern of
rainfall.
Keywords: Rainwater Harvesting System, Standard Operating
Policy, Demand, Capacity, Performance evaluation
(1)
1. INTRODUCTION:
Due to anthropogenic activities the surface water systems are

getting dried up, ground water is depleting and water bodies are (2)
getting polluted. Moreover the water resources are being
depleted faster than it can be replenished. The need of rainwater
harvesting (RWH) has been felt to meet the ever increasing
demand for water and reduce the large volume of surface runoff.
(3)
Among the RWH procedures the roof top harvesting using
collection tanks is a widely used one. For a given roof top area
the efficiency of the RWH system greatly depends on the
variability in the rainfall and the demand and in turn is
associated with the capacity of collection tank. (4)
An efficient rainwater harvesting system shall be able to where Yt is the yield from the collection system at period t (m3);
accommodate the runoff coming from the catchment surface area Qt inflow to the collection tank in period t (m3); Dt is the demand
so as to satisfy the demand with maximum reliability. This during the period t (m3); St is the storage in the time period t and
requires proper sizing of rainwater harvesting systems, so as to Spillt the spill occurring (m3) if any when the collection tank is
have the maximum efficiency. This paper focuses on the full and Smax the maximum design capacity of the collection
performance analysis of household rooftop rainwater collection tank. Det represents the deficit occurring (m3) in period t.
systems located at various geographical areas of Kerala state,
India, by analysing the performance indices: Reliability, Performance of the system was evaluated in terms of Period-
Resilience and Vulnerability of the system subject to the based Reliability (R), Resilience (Res) and Vulnerability (Vul).
restrictions imposed by capacity of the collection tank, demand Period based reliability estimation evaluates the system
to be met and the magnitude of available rainfall. A brief reliability on the basis of the number of time periods of non-

failure of system to meet the water demand to the total number applied in Equations (5), (6) and (7) to obtain the period-based
of periods in the study. The term Resilience is used as a measure reliability, resilience and vulnerability of the system.
of how fast the system is likely to return to satisfactory state,
once the system has entered an unsatisfactory state. This 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:
definition of resilience (Res) is equal to the inverse of the mean
value of time the system spends in an unsatisfactory state and The study focuses on the analysis of performance of the
computed using Equation (6) (Kjeldesn et al., 2005). rainwater collection systems located in various geographical
Vulnerability was calculated as the mean deficit incurred during locations of Kerala state. Simulation models were developed to
the period of study indicated by Equation 7 (Kjeldesn et al., analyse the performance of the system. Performance analysis
2005). was carried out using the indicators Reliability, Resilience and
Vulnerability subjected to the restrictions imposed by available
rainfall, water demand and storage capacity of the collection
tank.
(5)
3.1 Performance of RWH for Average Rainfall:
The simulation study of the operation of the roof top rainwater

(6) collection system at the different locations for average rainfall
were carried out; yielded the reliability, resilience and
vulnerability values for the specific demand and capacity of the
system considered. The variation in reliability against capacity
(7) for specific demand values are tabulated to obtain the tradeoff as
in Table 1. From the table it can be seen that for the RWH
where NT and Nfailure are the total number of periods in the study located in Southern Kerala the magnitude of rainfall limits the
and number of periods in which failure occurs, d(j) represents reliability of the system, while in the case of Northern Kerala the
the duration of jth failure event, v(j) is the deficit occurred during capacity of the collection tank limits the reliability of the system.
jth failure event and M is the number of failure events.
For average rainfall situation resilience and vulnerability indices
2.2 Analysis of problem: were also calculated for the proposed rainwater harvesting
stations located in the study area; and the set of representative
The performance analysis of rainwater collection systems in the values obtained for station Kannur are given in Table 2. From
areal extent of Kerala state located at: Trivandrum, Kollam in the table, it can be observed that, resilience of the system
Southern region; Kottayam, Chittur, Cochin in Central region; increases with increase in capacity showing that the duration of
Calicut, Kannur in the Northern region. The analysis was carried time in which system spends in unsatisfactory state decreases in
out on a yearly basis (June to May). The daily rainfall data for general. But the increase in resilience is found to be not uniform
the period 1982 to 2011 for the IMD stations at Trivandrum, as in the case of reliability with capacity. Similarly even though
Kollam, Kottayam, Cochin, Chittur, Calicut and Kannur were vulnerability of the system decreases with increase in capacity it
made use of in the study. The details pertaining to the study are is found to be not directly related to the capacity of the
given in Athulya (2013). collection tank. The vulnerability and resilience estimates
generally exhibit a non-monotonic behavior, i.e. the estimates,
The daily yield from the rainwater collection system depends on for a specified demand, do not vary monotonically as the
water demand to be met, and was computed on the basis of daily capacity increases. So it can be inferred that vulnerability and
per capita demand. As per IS 1172, the per-capita demand for resilience indices describe the system performance once the
the household systems in India is 135 lpcd. In the study, the failure has occurred, whereas the reliability index describes the
variation in daily percapaita water demand was considered in the overall efficiency of the system. So for further analysis in the
interval 30 lpcd to 135 lpcd, to incorporate the variation in present study the only reliability index was taken into account.
demand values. A five user flat roof terrace house of effective
catchment area of 100 m2 with coefficient of runoff of 0.75 was 3.2 Performance of RWH system for variation in rainfall
adopted for computation of runoff that can be harvested in the
study. The system performance indicator reliability of household
rooftop rainwater collection system with capacity of the
The temporal variation of rainfall was also incorporated by collection tank was analyzed for probability levels of rainfall for
evaluating the system performance for average rainfall situation the stations. The tradeoffs were generated between the reliability
as well as rainfall values taken at different probability levels. For of the system and capacity of the collection tank for different
the cases studied, the total deficit and the number of period for demands and rainfall values taken at different probability levels
which the system failed to satisfy the demand were worked out and are tabulated in Table 3. From the table it can be seen that
from the simulation results for different combinations of the performance RWH systems of the stations located in
collection tank capacities and daily demand. This in turn is Southern region is poor even for 50 % probability level of
rainfall, when compared to the

Table 1: Reliability of the rainwater collection system for Table 2: Resilience and vulnerability values obtained for station
average daily rainfall Kannur
Table 3: Reliability of the RWH system for different probability

levels of rainfall
stations in Northern Kerala. It can be observed that the

rainwater collection systems located at Kannur is found to be
most reliable at all probability levels of rainfall. Also rainwater
collection systems located at Trivandrum is found to be least
reliable compared to the other stations, since the reliability
obtained even at 50% probability of rainfall is less than 50%
except for 30 lpcd demand, and for higher probability levels of
rainfall, the system reliability obtained is less than 50% for all
cases considered. From the study it can be seen that the
uncertainty associated with rainfall values affects the
performance of the system.
4. CONCLUSIONS
The focus of the present study was to analyse the spatial and
temporal variation in the performance of household rainwater
collection systems incorporating the variability in rainfall and
demand values. The performance analysis was carried out for the
RWH systems located in different regions of Kerala state. The
specific conclusions from the study are as follows:
On analysing the performance of RWH for average rainfall

situation it seen that RWH collection systems located in
Northern region of Kerala are found to be more reliable
compared to the Southern and Central regions since they are able
to satisfy the complete household demands with

the need of the hour. In India, the Right to water has been
protected as a fundamental human right by the Indian Supreme
Court as part of the Right to Life guaranteed under Article 21of
the Indian constitution. India with majority of population
dwelling in rural areas faces the problem of acute shortage of
potable water in some rural area. The present paper addresses
such issues in one such rural area called Nawli village in the
Mewat district of Haryana with community participation. The
area has the problem of saline water which is unfit for drinking
as well as other domestic uses. So on-ground water recharge
measures were taken up with community participation.
Rainwater harvesting is the oldest technology to provide water
for human needs. It has been observed through our desktop
research that small communities are increasingly accepting
rainwater harvesting and its augmentation as a possible solution
to meet their water needs. So the community-based water
resource management practices can be the most suitable option
which not only will help the community develop and meet their
essentials but also give them a sense of accomplishment. Also
ArcGIS tool came handy in dealing with the diverse geomorphic
features of the area and demarcating streams and watersheds,
which further helped in augmenting the possibility of maximum
recharge of water.
Keywords: ArcGIS, community participation, water resource
management, transect walk.
1. INTRODUCTION:
1.1 Background to the study

5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Water is the key to development and sustenance of all
communities. Under conditions of increasing stress on this
The authors would like to express their gratitude to the Indian
essential renewable but scarce natural resource, effective and
Meteorological Department (IMD) Trivandrum for having
efficient management of water is a burning issue. Historically,
provided the data required for the study.
drinking water supply in the rural areas in India has been outside
the governments sphere of influence. Community-managed
REFERENCES:
open wells, private wells, ponds and small-scale irrigation
i. Athulya (2013) Modelling the performance of rainwater collection
reservoirs have often been the main traditional sources of rural
systems. Thesis submitted to University of Kerala. drinking water. The first government-installed rural water supply
ii. Kjeldsen T.R. and Rosbjerg D (2005) Choice of reliability, resilience schemes were implemented in the 1950s as part of the
and vulnerability estimators for risk assessment of water resources systems. Government policy to provide basic drinking water supply
Hydrological Sciences Journal 49:755-767.
facilities to the rural population. (NRDWP, 2009-2012). Out of
the 121 crores around 85 crores live in rural areas (Cenus, 2011)
out of which around 37.7 million are affected by waterborne
diseases annually, 1.5 million children are estimated to die of
COMMUNITY-BASED WATER RESOURCE diarrhea alone and 73 million working days are lost due to
MANAGEMENT, STUDY AREA NAWLI VILLAGE, waterborne disease each year. (WHO, 2012).
MEWAT DISTRICT, HARYANA
Amit Kumar Dogra1 Nitin Singh2 Groundwater is the major source to meet the domestic, irrigation
1
41-R, Sec-IV, D.I.Z. Area, Gole Market, Delhi-110001, India and industrial demands. Groundwater occurs in a wide range
2
C-21,Nehru Nagar, Bhopal-462003 of rock types and usually requires little or no treatment;
Email: mt.dogra1@gmail.com therefore, it is often the cheapest and simplest water supply
option. Unlike surface sources, community participation in
ABSTRACT groundwater management is seldom seen and the government
authorities have not given any attention to this so far. Since
The water regime in India is of major concern with the speedy majority of the groundwater structures are owned by the farmers,
and uncontrolled usage of ground water. Proper management community participation in groundwater use can help reducing
and judicious planning for these underground water resources is overexploitation by their need.

1.2 Statement of problem
The present study aims at resolving the water crisis for the Nawli
village of Mewat district, Haryana. The available water in this
area became brackish in nature over a period of time due to
over extraction and un-management irrigation practices. The
communitys knowledge is valuable in deciding what
improvements are needed in specific local context. Also the
modernization programmes can be more effective and also
much less expensive than the current approach which hardly
involves the user community. So the involvement of pre-
existing local experience and institutions will also facilitate
proper management of the revamped water resources systems.
The aim of the paper was to set up the plan to meet the water
requirement of the people of Nawli village in the Mewat district
of Haryana by community participation.
Following objectives were defined to be addressed based on the
research.
1. Identification of water related issues through

Participatory Rural Appraisal techniques such as
Transect walks in the area and its direct and indirect
effect on the community. Figure 1. Location Map of study area
2. To assess the feasibility and viability of rainwater
harvesting in the given area (by studying best-practices)
3. Giving possible solutions according to the research
studies and analysis
Table. 1: Demographic profile of the area (Source: Census,
1.3 Study area 2011)
Nawli is a Village in Ferozepur Jhirka Tehsil in Mewat District

of Haryana State, India. The village is connected via SH-13 to
different parts of Haryana. District headquarters is Mewat which
is 5 km from the village. The village lies in the semi-arid region
and receives an annual average rainfall of over 500mm but less
than 650mm. (Authority, 2005). Total geographical area of the
village is 21.7 sq. km. The location of Nawli is a Village in
Haryana State of India is shown in Figure 1 and demographic
profile of the area is given in Table 1.
2 MATERIAL AND METHODOLOGY
Proposal Outline
A checklist was made to procure data regarding the study of the

area such as rainfall data, post and pre-monsoon data, type of
soil, topography etc. Also the drainage pattern and contour-
analysis was done with the help of Arc-GIS tool. And micro

catchments were defined and maps were made accordingly for = 15.04 cu. m. (15,040 litres)
building-up of check-dams as such.
Calculation for Drinking water requirements
The water related issues were enlisted through transect-walks, Daily per capita drinking water requirement (drinking and
organized with the help of locals. A transect walk is a PRA cooking only) is 10 litres.
(Participatory Rural Appraisal) technique which is a systematic The water tank has to be designed for the dry period, i.e the
walk along a defined path (transect) across the period between the two consecutive rainy seasons. With a
community/project area together with the local people to explore monsoon extending over three months, the dry season is of
the existing situation conditions by observing, asking, listening, roughly 265 days.
looking and producing a transect diagram (Mohan, 2003). The
village was divided into two parts, one in the form of upper Drinking water requirement for a single household (dry season)
settlement which was somehow away from the Aravalis and = 265 * 8 * 10
another in the form of lower settlement which was on the = 21,200 litres
foothills of Aravalis. For the upper settlement two trails were
identified to look upon the issues. Also for the lower settlement Check dam specifications
one trail was identified as such. Depth of flow. six inches when drainage area is less than 5
Mapping of the existing situation was done and the also the acres.
water demand for the whole population was calculated. In the Average storage capacity. 39551 cubic meters.
given upper settlement the majority of houses are pucca in The center of the check dam must be at least 6 in (152 mm)
nature. So rooftop rainwater harvesting is being proposed for the lower than the outeredges.
area which will meet to the drinking water demands. The drainage pattern of the aravalis is being prepared by contour
analysis and by defining these drains check dams were made.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The proposed number of structures are 6 in the whole village.
With 5 of the check dams near the lower settlement. The
The proposed measures for the area are check dams on the maximum catchment area is around 10 acres and the minimum
foothills. Most of the water demands of lower settlements will be catchment is 7 acres for different micro-watersheds.
met by these check dams. Also roof-top harvesting. Most of the Total no. of proposed check dams. 06
houses were found to be pucca in nature in upper settlement and Average storage capacity of Check dams= 39551 cu. mts
therefore roof-top harvesting is possible. Total water retaining capacity = 237306 cu. mts.
Or 237.30 million litres
The various calculations involved in the process are detailed out
separately. 3.2 Check Dam Location
3.1 Calculations. A check dam is a small, temporary or permanent dam

constructed across a drainage ditch, swale or channel to lower
Calculation for amount of rainfall that can be harvested: the speed of concentrated flows for a certain design range of
No. of households. :393 storm event. (NRCS manual) The contour analysis was done for
(source: primary survey) the area and by the same drainage map was prepared. The major
No. of pucca households. :314 drain lines which dissect the lines were prepared using the flow
Average household dimensions :30 sq. direction tool in ArcGIS. The water can be restored in these
mts. structures for a whole of the dry season with the given amount of
Average annual rainfall :594 mm rain. With the use of suitable filter material water fit for
or 0.594 m household purposes can be obtained which will be free from any
Runoff coefficient considered :0.85 for pollutants. Bio-sand filters can be used which costs between
roof rupees 75,000 to 90,000 and cleans 2500-3000 L/d. Also the
catchments O&M costs are very low, around 300-500 (Rs.) (IRRAD, 2012)
; tiles and
corrugated The check dams are proposed on the ends of these drains. Six
metal check dams are proposed for the area, with five of them
sheets near lower settlement. The maximum catchment area is around
10 acres and the minimum catchment is 7 acres for different
Maximum amount of rainfall that can be harvested from the micro-watersheds. Firstly the stream flows were delineated by
rooftop (CPWD, 2009): the help of flow accumulation tool in the ArcGIS. Than these
= Area of catchment (A) * average annual rainfall (R) * Runoff minor streams were overlapped with the given map of Nawli
coefficient (C) village.
Annual average water harvesting potential from 9 sq. mts. Roof
= A*R*C
= 30 * 0.594 * 0.85

Figure 4. Major catchments

3.3 Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting
Figure 2. Major streams
Rooftop rainwater harvesting is the technique through which
rainwater is captured from the roof catchments and stored in
reservoirs. Harvested rainwater can be stored in sub-surface
ground water reservoir by adopting artificial recharge techniques
to meet the household needs through storage in tanks.
(C.G.W.B., 2007) In saline areas, rainwater provides good
quality water and when recharged to groundwater, it reduces
salinity and also helps in maintaining balance between the fresh-
water interfaces.
Figure 5. elements of typical water harvesting system

Source: (Environment, 2011)
Figure 3. location of check dams
4. CONCLUSIONS
The total water demand for various utilities will be met over a
course of time; with the proposed interventions. But again some
limitations will remain for against the drinking water needs

which can be met by the water procured through check dams.

Also the recharge practices primarily depend on the rainfall
pattern of the season overall. And if in any season this pattern
swerves than a major offset will be created. Overall the domestic
water needs including the drinking water need of the people will
be sufficed with the proposed interventions. The quality of water
will also be restored with the recharge of open wells. The water
demand will be satisfactorily met with the proper community
sensitization about the issues and management practices. The
community needs to be engaged with some self-help groups for
enhancing the knowledge base of the group.
The community participation can play an important role to figure
out the problems faced by the people. Planning for the people,
with the people concept was pursued. The transect walks carried
out to sight the generic problems of the people fulfilled the
purpose wholly in the case of Nawli.
As community knows its problems more than anyone else do. So
by means of community-participation the problems of the locals
can be sufficed with proper planning and technical skill-sets.
Also the people participation in construction works (for check-
dams) can be modeled by practices such as shramdaan. Thus
the community-based management of water resources can be
useful tool to solve the problems of worst hit areas and benefit
them with their own managed resources.
REFERENCES
i. Authority, M. D. (2005). Nawli. Firozepur Jhirkha.
ii. C.G.W.B. (2007). Manual on Artificial Recharge of Groundwater.
New Delhi: Ministry of Water Resources.
iii. Cenus. (2011). census.org.in. Retrieved from census.org.in.
iv. CPWD, G. (2009). Rainwater Harvesting and Conservation. New
Delhi: Consultancy Services Organisation.
v. IRRAD. (2012). IRRAD compendium . Gurgaon: IRRAD.
vi. Manual, N. P. (n.d.). Check Dam: overview.
vii. Mohan, R. K. (2003). A Process for Participatory Rural Appraisal. 12.
viii. NRDWP, P. F. (2009-2012). Policy Framework. New Delhi: Ministry
of Rural Development.
ix. WHO. (2012). South-Asia Healthcard.

ranges from 10-33 kPa suction pressure as per soil type. The
lower limit is the lowest water content of a soil after plants stop
SIMPLE MODEL TO ESTIMATE SOIL WATER extracting water as a result of water deficit and finally the plant
RETENTION LIMITS OF CHATTISGARH STATE wilts. The lower limit corresponds closely to water content of
N.G.Pandey1, B. Chakravorty1, Sanjay Kumar2 & P. Mani1 1500 kPa suction pressure, known as permanent wilting point
1
Scientists, CFMS, NIH, WALMI Complex, Phulwari Sharif, (PWP).
Patna 801 505, India
2
Scientist, National Institute of Hydrology, Jalvigyan Bhawan, Different models used to estimate water retention properties of
Roorkee-801505, India soil have been developed by Brooks and Corey (1964), van
Genuchten (1980), Campbell (1985), Arya and Paries (1981)
ABSTRACT among others. The input requirement of these models is large
and is either to be measured or estimated. The objective of the
To know available water holding capacity of soil, knowledge of paper is to develop simple, generic equations to estimate the
soil water retention limits is essential. This is useful in irrigation water retention limits of the soil water reservoir (water retained
scheduling, water balance simulation and land use planning. The in between FC and PWP) based on percentage of sand and clay.
measured soil water limits: upper limit at field capacity (-33 kPa There are other soil properties that can also be related to estimate
pressure) and lower limit at permanent wilting point (-1500 kPa the soil water limits. But the presence of more number of
pressure) was available for 67 established soil series of predictors (independent variables) makes the model more data
Chattisgarh state. In the present paper, a simple generic power specific and thus its generality is lost (Ritchie et al., 1999).
equation has been developed to estimate the soil water limits
based on soil survey data such as texture and bulk density. The upper and lower limits can be measured in the laboratory
Linear regression was used to estimate the gravimetric soil water using pressure plate apparatus on small soil cores removed from
limits from sand and clay percentages. The volumetric soil water the field. As field measured soil water retention limits data are
limits is estimated by multiplying gravimetric soil water limits generally not available, Rawls and Brakensiek (1982, 1985)
with bulk density. The predictions were adjusted for coarse estimated soil water retention at specific matric potential based
fragments and organic carbon present in the soil matrix. on the laboratory measurement. In the present paper, published
soil survey data of Chattisgarh state have been used. A simple
The standard error (SE) of the measured water content at field power relation has been developed using laboratory measured
capacity (Wfc) and at permanent wilting point (Wpwp) are 0.98 FC and PWP as a function of soil texture and bulk density data.
and 0.54 respectively whereas the SE of the estimated water
contents by the developed models are less, 0.89 and 0.51. The Ritchie et al. (1999) used the database of field measured soil
percentage error between the estimated and measured W fc and water limits of 401 soil samples from 15 states of US and
Wpwp found to be 10.1 and 5.8 respectively Comparison made developed a simple texture based empirical relation (Eq. 1) to
through graphical representation of error bars also shows estimate field capacity.
satisfactory result at (i) 1.96 (SE) and (ii) 10% error criteria.
Coefficient of variation (CV) also indicates improvements. The

W fc 0.186 ( s / c) 0.141
goodness of fit (R2) value between the estimated Wfc with fc W fc ( b ) (1)
measured Wfc, is 0.85, which shows model estimation is
reasonable. Similarly, for values of W pwp by model estimation R2 where, Wfc and fc are the gravimetric and volumetric water
is 0.81. Paired t test for comparison shows that model is content at field capacity (expressed in fraction), s is percentage
estimating well at 95% confidence level. of sand, c is percentage of clay, and b is the bulk density of soil.
The gravimetric water content was taken to develop the relation
Key words: gravimetric, volumetric, water content, field to avoid the error associated with measurements of bulk density.
capacity, permanent wilting point To generalize equation (1) he suggested some corrections to
water content at field capacity due to the presence of coarse
INTRODUCTION fragments and high organic carbon content. For verification and
adaptation of this empirical equation, field measured values of
Knowledge of the capacity of soil water reservoir is useful in water content for Indian soil condition is required which is not
irrigation scheduling, watershed management, water balance available.
simulation, and land use planning. Field measurements of soil
water retention limits are time consuming and tedious. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Alternatively soil water retention limits can be estimated from
available soil survey data. The drained upper limit is the highest The soil survey database of Chattisgarh state, described by
water content of a soil after thorough wetting and draining until Tamgadge et al. (2002) was used. The field work was conducted
drainage becomes practically negligible. The upper limit by National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning
corresponds closely to water content at field capacity (FC). The (NBSS&LUP), Nagpur on 1:250,000 scale maps marked with
FC is a subjective term which depends on the type of soil. For grids and strips. In total there were 1430 grids (each 10kmX10
sandy soils the upper limit reaches at suction pressure of 10 kPa km) and total numbers of 6650 soil samples were analyzed by
whereas in clayey soil it is of 33 kPa. Thus the field capacity laboratory methods. Random observations of 240 nos. strips

(master profile each covering an area of 50 km2) were made. Brandy (1996) has reported the ranges of organic matter
From the analyses of soils of Chattisgarh state, 67 soil series content of some inorganic soils viz Alfisol (0.8-6.5%),
were established in which the laboratory measured water Vertisols (1.5-3.0%), Ultisols (1.5-4%), Aridisol (0.2-
retention data at FC and PWP were available. Each established 1.7%). Organic matter content in soil is directly
soil series has depth wise soil layers characterization. The proportional to percentage of clay content (Brandy
database used in this paper contains 230 values of soil water (1996). Soils with high percentage of clay protects the
limits with other corresponding soil attributes such as texture, organic matter from degradation and thus due to presence
bulk density, coarse fragments and organic carbon content. of more organic matter in clay enriched soils, water
holding capacity increases. Hollis et al. (1977), Rawls and
The volumetric water content data were converted to gravimetric Brakensiek (1982) have found the following correction
water content dividing by bulk density. This was made to make factors due to presence of organic carbon (OC).
the model sensitive to bulk density and also to avoid the error
associated with the measurement of bulk density. The general fc oc fc 0.01*OC (5a pwp oc pwp 0.005*OC (5
form of the power equation for gravimetric and conversion to ); b)
volumetric water content corresponding to FC and PWP are:

W fc a ( s / c) b (2a);

W pwp a ( s / c) b (2b)
Where, fc oc and pwp oc are the volumetric water contents at FC
and PWP respectively adjusted with organic carbon, OC
fc W fc ( b ) pwp W pwp ( b ) expressed in percentage. In this paper relation on gravimetric
basis has been developed in which the correction factor is
Where, s is sand and c is clay in percentage, a and b are fitting divided by bulk density.
parameters of the power equation and b is the bulk density. This
is not the only possible form of the equation. Polynomial or Out of 230 datasets, 220 sets were used to develop the empirical
exponential functions of sand and/or clay will not be satisfactory relation and the remaining 10 sets selected from the database at
unless it is used with large number of terms. It was assumed that random were used to validate the model result.
clay content is directly and sand content is inversely proportional
to Wfc and Wpwp. By using the ratio sand/clay, we used two RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
pieces of information and at the same time eliminated one
parameter (Ritchie et al., 1999). We also assumed non zero 220 water retention data measured at FC were plotted with the
values of sand and clay contents. The parameters can be ratio of sand/clay. The data were fitted to the power equation
estimated with linear regression on the logarithmic (2a) and the parameters a and b were estimated through trend
transformation of Eqs.(2a, 2b). analysis. The estimated value of a=11.188 and b=-0.2538 with
R2 = 0.549 (Fig. 1). Similarly, another set of 220 measured water
log W log a b log ( s / c)
fc
3(a)
retention data at PWP were plotted. The data was fitted to the
log W pwp log a b log ( s / c) 3(b) power equation (2b) and the parameters a=5.5097 and b= -
0.2538 were estimated with R2 = 0.4594 (Fig. 2). In the
where log(a) is the intercept and b is the slope. developed equations (6a, 6b) for Chattisgarh state, the
gravimetric water content Wfc and Wpwp are expressed in
A regression equation was developed using the above database percentage.
in which the water content at FC and PWP was equated with
texture. Soil matrix comprises with coarse fragments and organic
W fc 11 .188 ( s / c) 0.2538
(6a

W pwp 5.5097 ( s / c) 0.2915
(6

carbon content affects water retention. Accordingly, the fc W fc ( b ) ); pwp W pwp ( b ) b)
following correction factors were incorporated to generalize the
relation.
(i) Coarse fragments (>2 mm in size) present in the soil

matrix affect in reducing porosity and thus it also affect
the soil water retention limits. Necessary correction in
water retention at FC and PWP was done multiplying Wfc
and Wpwp with (1-C/100) respectively, where C is the
percentage of coarse fragments by weight (Rawls
et.al.1992).
W fc cf W fc (1C /100)(4a) Wpwp cf Wpwp (1C /100)(4b
; )
(ii) The model was adjusted for high organic carbon content.
Organic matter is 1.74 times of organic carbon (Barua
1998). Maximum organic matter accumulation takes place
in the top 20 cm of the soil and it decreases with depth.

Figure 1: Scatter plot of measured Wfc and fitted model The standard error (SE) of the mean is the standard
parameters deviation divided by the square root of the sample size. From the
descriptive statistics (Table 2) it was found that the standard
error of the measured water contents Wfc and Wpwp are 0.98 and
0.54 respectively. In the model estimation, the standard error has
reduced to 0.89 and 0.51. The percentage error between the
estimated and measured Wfc and Wpwp founds to be 10.1 and
5.8 respectively. Graphical representation of error bars (Figs. 3
and 4) was used for comparison of estimated model values with
measured Wfc and Wpwp. Fig. 3 shows that if 1.96 times
standard error is added to the estimated value of the model, it
comes within the range of measured values, thus the model
estimation is within 95% confidence level. Similarly, Fig. 4
shows that the estimated error of the model is well within 10%
variation.
Figure 2: Scatter plot of measured Wpwp and fitted model

parameters
Each measured water content data was converted to gravimetric

water content by dividing with bulk density. Before fitting, Coefficient of variation (CV) of estimated values also showed
necessary corrections in the original dataset due to presence of some improvements over measured values. Analyses of
coarse fragments and organic carbon contents in the soil matrix skewness revealed that the positively skewed distribution has
were made using Eqs. (4a, 4b) and (5a, 5b). Hence the empirical been improved by the model estimation but with flatter curve
model (Eqs. 6a, 6b) so developed is made generic and simple. (kurtosis). The goodness of fit criteria was used for comparing
Out of the 230 datasets, 220 sets were used to develop the estimated Wfc with measured Wfc. The R2 value of 0.85 shows
empirical relation and the remaining 10 sets, selected from the model estimation is appropriate. Similarly for W pwp , R2 value is
database at random were used to validate the model. 0.81 indicating reasonable model estimation.
Table 1: Estimated soil water limits of the fitted model Table 2: Descriptive statistics and paired t-test
Sand=2.0-0.05 mm; Silt=0.05-0.002 mm;

Clay<0.002 mm;
Col. (9)=col.(3)/col.(5); Col.(10)=col.(7)/col.(6);
Col.(11)=col.(8)/col.(6); Paired t test considering two samples having same mean was
Col. (12) is estimated gravimetric water content at field capacity performed to verify whether the estimated and measured values
using Eq.(6a); are significantly different. It was found that calculated t values
Col. (13) estimated gravimetric water content at permanent (-1.59, -0.91) is less than critical t value of 1.83, 1.83 (Table 2).
wilting point using Eq.(6b) This means, Null hypothesis (that the means of two samples are
equal) can not be rejected at 5% significance level.
MODEL VALIDATION

TREND LINE ANALYSIS AND MODEL TESTING the presence of coarse fragments and organic carbon contents in
the soil. The model thus uses the basic soil data which is easily
For model validation trend line analysis of estimated value with available in soil survey reports. The model is useful in water
the observed one has been done (Figures. 5&6). The higher R 2 balance simulation, irrigation scheduling, and watershed
value at FC (84.4%) and at PWP (81.4%) is indicative of model management. The field engineers, water managers and
fitting well (Table 3). Linear trend analysis was performed and agronomists may use this empirical equations for estimation of
the best fit model close to 1:1 line was evaluated using the SDiff water content at FC and PWP for the soils of Chattisgarh state or
criteria. The best model should be close to 1:1 line with SDiff similar types of soils available in other states.
value lower or closer to zero. From table 3 it is evident that
SDiff of the fitted model at FC and PWP are 16.6% and 14.8% REFERENCES
respectively which is closer to zero thus model is behaving well.
i. Arya, L. M. & Paris, J. F. (1981) A physico-emprical model to predict
soil moisture characteristics from particle size distribution and bulk density
data. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 45. 1023-1030
ii. Barua, T. C. & Barthakur, H. P. (1998) Soil fertility In A Text Book of
Soil Analysis. Vikash publishing house, New Delhi
iii. Brandy, N. C. (1996) Soil organic matter and organic soil In The
Nature and Properties of Soils (Tenth edition), Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi
iv. Brooks, R.H., & Corey, A.T. (1964) Hydraulic properties of porous
media. Hydrology paper 3, Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins, CO
v. Campbell, G. S. (1985) Soil physics with BASIC, transport with
BASIC, transport model for soil plants systems. Elsevier. New York, N.Y
vi. Hollies, J.M., Jones R.J.A., & Palmer R.C. (1977) The effect of
organic matter and particle sizeon the water retention properties on some soils
in the west midlands of Engaland. Geoderma 17, 225-238
vii. Rawls, W. J., Brakensiek, D.L., Saxton K.E. (1982) Estimating of soil
Figure 5: Fitted model with 1:1 line at FC Figure
water 6: Fitted model
properties. with25(5),
Trans ASAE 1:1 line at PWP
1316-1320
viii. Rawls, W. J.& Brakensiek, D.L. (1985) Estimating soil water
Further Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency (NSE) was also used for retention from soil properties. In Watershed management In the eighties. (ed. By
performance evaluation of the models. If NSE value is positive E.B Jones. & T.J. Ward.) (Proc. Irrig. Drain. div., ASCE, Aprl 30 - May 1,1985),
Denver, CO., 293-299
(0 to 1), the model is acceptable. NSE (< 0) indicates that the ix. Rawls, W. J., Ahuja, L.R. Brakensiek, D.L. & Sirmohammadi, A.
mean value of the observed series would have been a better (1992) Infiltration and soil water movement. In: Handbook of Hydrology (ed. by
predictor than the model, and thus the model is not acceptable. David R. Maidment), p5.15, Mc Graw-Hill
In table 3 it is clearly shown that at FC and PWP the NSE is x. Richie, J.T., Gerakis, A., Suleiman A. (1999) Simple model to estimate
field measured soil water limits. Trans. Of the ASAE, 42(6), 1609-1614.
0.801 and 0.795 respectively means model is efficient. A similar xi. Ratliff, L.F., Ritchie, J.T., Cassel, D.K. (1983) Field measured limits
criteria d-index at FC (0.944) and PWP (0.943) indicates that the of soil water availability as related to laboratory measured properties. Soil Sci.
model estimation is satisfactory. Soc. Am. J. 47, 770-775
xii. Tamgadge, D.B., Gajbhiya, K.S. & Pandey, G. P. (2002) Soil series
of Chattisgarh state. Technical bulletin, NBSS &LUP, publication 85, Nagpur
Table 3: Model validation by trend line analysis and slope xiii. van Genuchten, M. Th.(1980) A closed form equation for predicting
difference (SDiff) the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soil. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 44, 892-898
Land Cover Classification By Ls-Svm With

Landsat Satellite Imagery
Shilpi1 R.M. Singh2
From the above analysis, model developed using 230 nos of data 1
Research Scholar, GIS Cell, MNNIT Allahabad, Allahabad-
and validating it with 10 data sets we could conclude that the use 211004, India
of simple and generic equations (6a, 6b) to estimate soil water 2
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, MNNIT
retention limits of Chattisgarh state is working satisfactorily. Allahabad, Allahabad- 211004, India
Email: shilpi.mnnit.1508@gmail.com1
rajm.mnnit@gmail.com2
CONCLUSIONS
ABSTRACT
The idea of the analysis was to propose a simple model to
predict soil water retention limits of Chattisgarh state. The Land cover classification is necessary for developmental
simple model estimates Wfc and Wpwp based on commonly planning and management for natural resources of a region.
measured soil properties such as texture and bulk density. We Land cover maps depict the current reality due to natural or
also adjusted the model incorporating correction factors due to political changes, or other rapid dynamic phenomena, if any,

resulting in a complete restructuring of the agricultural and other Hames (2008) utilized remote sensing technologies to extract
sectors. Satellite or aerial images are utilized to analyze the land land cover and land use (LCLU) from satellite images for remote
cover which provides information to understand current arid areas in Saudi Arabia. Four different classification
landscape. This paper presents a method to extract the land cover techniques unsupervised (ISODATA), and supervised
by using MLC and Least Square Support Vector Machine (LS- (Maximum likelihood, Mahalanobis Distance, and Minimum
SVM). Necessary inputs for LS-SVM are obtained by pre- Distance) were applied in three sub-catchments in Saudi Arabia
processing of Landsat satellite images. The satellite image used for the classification of the raw TM5 images. The developed
is Landsat 8 OLI/TIRS acquired in 2014. The Landsat 8 satellite maps are then visually compared with each other and accuracy
consists of two instruments namely Operational Land Imager assessments utilizing ground-truths are undertaken.
(OLI) and Thermal Infra Red Sensor (TIRS). The pixels with
their digital number (DN) along with coordinates of various Arshad Amin and Shahab Fazal (2012) analysed the urban land
points are inputs for the LS-SVM model and corresponding use/cover change and land transformation in Srinagar city,
classes are outputs. Developed methodology is able to classify Jammu and Kashmir. A change detection analysis was
the land cover verified with real field condition and/or performed to determine the nature, extent and rate of land
topographic maps in seven classes. Further the accuracy use/cover change and transformation over 30 years of time
obtained from Maximum Likelihood Classifier (MLC) in period. The results showed that the city has expanded
ERDAS IMAGINE 9.1 is compared with results of LS-SVM significantly at the cost of non built-up land which has decreased
model. in its area. Moreover, E. Akbari et al. (2012) considered central
Keywords: Land cover, supervised classification, MLC, least county in the Kabodar-Ahang region of Hamedan, Iran as their
square SVM, LANDSAT-8 study area. They used ASTER multispectral data to analyze the
accuracy of SVM classification method based on Polynomial
1. INTRODUCTION and radial basis kernel function and compared the results with
Maximum Likelihood Classifier.
Land Use Land Cover (LULC) maps based on satellite data have
various applications in the scientific research. LULC data refers A. K. Maurya et al. (2013) determined land use/land cover
to data that is a result of classifying raw satellite data into LAND change detection between the year 2005 and 2010 in
USE and LAND COVER categories. Land Cover data Achanakmar-Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve by using Landsat
documents how much of a region is covered by natural TM satellite imageries. ERDAS image processing and ArcGIS
phenomena whereas Land Use shows how people utilize the software were used to demarcate the land use/land cover
landscape. Land cover has applications in monitoring of global divisions in the study area. The land use and land cover analysis
studies, management of resources, and planning activities. Land has been attempted based on thematic features of the area
cover maps can be applied for change detection which may consisting of forest, agriculture land, water bodies, built-up land,
provide ground level information. The change in land use from and waste land.
year to year gives the timely information of current land area. So
baseline mapping and subsequent monitoring involves the 2. SATELLITE IMAGE CLASSIFICATION
applications of land use. Moreover strategies can be developed
for the issues of removal or disturbance of productive land, The fields of remote sensing, image analysis and pattern
urban encroachment, and depletion of forests. recognition involves the application of satellite image
classification. Classification is the process of sorting pixels of an
Earlier Treitz et al. (1992) developed a two stage digital analysis image into a finite number of individual classes or categories
algorithm incorporating a spectral class frequency based based on their data file values. When a certain set of criteria is
contextual classification of eight land cover and land use classes satisfied by a pixel, it is assigned to the category that
of the rural-urban fringe Toronto, Canada using SPOT HRV corresponds to that criteria. This process is based on pattern of
multispectral and panchromatic data. Xu et al. (2000) employed Digital Number (DN) and the spatial relationship between
Landsat TM images to characterize land-cover types and land- neighboring pixels. There are two ways of classifying the pixels
cover changes in Fuqing City and its adjacent areas in Fujian into different classes:
Province, southeast China. Three TM scenes from 1991, 1994
and 1996 were used to cover the city and the adjacent areas and 1.1 Supervised Classification:
a five-year time period. Socio-economic data were also
integrated with remotely sensed data for the study. The In this process, the pixels are selected on the basis of the patterns
suggestion on the regional sustainable development for the recognized or identified with the help of other sources. Before
county is also presented. the selection of training samples, the knowledge of data along
with the desired classes and the algorithm to be used is
Ali Nasiri (2002) mosaicked IRS 1C data acquired in 1997 required. The computer system can be trained by identifying
pertaining to Hamadan Province of Iran and stratified using patterns in the image to identify pixels with similar
Easi/Pace image processing software. Stratified maps thus characteristics. The accuracy of classification depends on how
produced then transferred to Arc/Info GIs for sample selection. much each resulting class corresponds originally identified
Sample designing and segmentation had been done on the basis pattern.
of blocking of whole study area. F. S. Al-Ahmadi and A. S.

1.2 Unsupervised Classification: Maximum likelihood classifier and LS-SVM both utilized
georeferenced image information. Flowchart of methodology
This method is used in case of less availability of information adopted is shown in Figure 1.
about the data before classification. It does not involve the
utilization of training data for classification of image. The
unknown pixels are examined by the classifier and then Satellite
Toposheet
Data
aggregated into a number of classes based on the natural
groupings or cluster present in the image. Such classes are
known as spectral classes. Create AOI
Georeferenced
Toposheet
3. MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD CLASSIFIER (MLC)

Geometric
Correction
Maximum Likelihood classification is one of the most popular
method of satellite image classification. In this method the
statistics for feature vectors of each class in each band are Georeferenced
Image
assumed to be normally distributed in accordance with a
multivariate normal probability density function. It involves the Maximum
Training and
Likelihood
calculation of the probability of a given pixel belonging to a Classifier
Testing Sample
specific class. The parameters variance and covariance are

evaluated for the spectral response patterns of class based on
Kernel Function
training samples. The change in decision from one class to Training Sample
Collection
Parameters
Optimization
another takes place after the placement of boundaries between
the different partitions in the feature space. After the selection of
probability threshold the classification of all pixels is done. As a Supervised LS-SVM
Classification Simulation
result, class is assigned to the maximum probable pixel. The
maximum probable pixel will be unclassified if it is lesser than
MLC Classified
threshold selected. Image
Class Prediction
4. LEAST-SQUARE SUPPORT VECTOR MACHINE (LS-

Figure 1. Methodology Adopted
SVM)
The methodology adopted here involved LANDSAT 8
Support Vector Machine (SVM) is a complex linear model that
OLI/TIRS satellite data of spatial resolution 30m and toposheet
can be used for difficult pattern classification problems. SVM is
of study area. The toposheet is georeferenced in ERDAS
a supervised machine learning method that performs
IMAGINE 9.3 to correct the AOI (Area of Interest) of satellite
classification based on statistical learning theory (Vapnik,1995).
data geometrically. Geometric correction is the process in which
In other word, a binary method performed by determining an
the projection of image is digitally manipulated in accordance
optimum hyperplane (k-1) in a set of training data (k), with a
with specific projection surface or shape. The correction method
maximum separation of the different classes. Least squares
involves locating Ground Control Points (GCPs) and
support vector machines (LS-SVMs) are re-formulations to the
resampling. Nearest neighbor resampling is applied in ERDAS
standard SVMs by using a regularized least squares cost function
IMAGINE 9.3. The georeferenced image obtained is classified
with equality constraints, leading to linear Karush-Kuhn-Tucker
by using two methods namely Maximum Likelihood
systems (Suykens and Vandewalle, 1999). The solution can be
Classification (MLC) and Least Square Support Vector machine
solved efficiently by iterative methods like the conjugate
(LS-SVM). In MLC training sample is collected in the form of
gradient algorithm.
signature for each class. All signatures of a particular class are
merged which are then classified in supervised manner and gives
The model can be analyzed mathematically by relating to
classified image for the study area.
nonlinear input space. It involves mainly two properties in which
first are generalizations in mind for finding the solutions of
LS-SVM model is applied in MATLAB R2013a on the satellite
classification problems and second is ability of using kernel
data FILE PIXEL values obtained in ERDAS IMAGINE 9.1 for
function to find the solution of non-linear classification
several locations. It involves the collection of training and
problems. The performance of model will be satisfactory in case
testing samples. Further the Kernel function parameters are
of high-dimensional data and small training sample. Least square
optimized by taking five inputs for one output. The inputs
support vector machine (LS-SVM) is a modelling technique that
selected are coordinates (latitude and longitude) along with pixel
analyze data and recognize patterns. This gives the solution by
values of the RGB bands of satellite data and one output for each
solving a set of linear equations whereas classical SVM involves
class. Finally LS-SVM simulation is done to predict the classes
convex quadratic programming.
for the study area for classification purpose.
5. METHODOLOGY ADOPTED

The methodology presented in this work demonstrates potential

The methodology presented is employed for land cover application for land cover classification in a study area.
classification of Allahabad and adjoining districts (24 .71 to Maximum Likelihood Classifier identified seven classes for the
25.67 o N, 80.78 to 82.03o E). The classified image (MLC) is study area namely water-bodies, dense vegetation, low
shown in Figure 2. vegetation, sandy area, urban settlement, barren land and stoney
waste. This can be further refined with ground truth data points
from GPS and high resolution Quickbird or IKONOS imagery.
Moreover, the LS-SVM model is more efficient tool for the
classification problem.
REFERENCES:
Akbari E, Amiri N, Azizi H (2012) Remote Sensing and Land

Use Extraction for Kernel Functions Analysis by Support Vector
Machines with ASTER Multispectral Imagery. Iranian Journal
of Earth Sciences 4 (2012) / 75-84.
Al-Ahmadi FS, Hames AS (2008) Comparison of Two
Classification Methods to Extract Land Use and Land Cover
from Raw Satellite Images for Some Remote Arid Areas,
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. JKAU; Earth Sci., Vol. 20, No.1, pp:
167-19.
Amin Arshad, Fazal Shahab (2012) Land Transformation
Analysis Using Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques. Journal of
Geographic Information System, Vol. 4, pp. 229-236, 2012.
Maurya AK, Tripathi Shashikant, Soni Sandeep (2013) Change
Detection Mapping: Using remote sensing and GIS technology
Figure 2. Maximum Likelihood Classified LANDSAT 8 Image a case study of Achanakmar-Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve,
Central India. International Journal of Remote Sensing &
The classified image of study area is classified in seven broad Geoscience (IJRSG), Vol. 2.
categories namely water body, urban settlement, stoney waste, Nasiri Ali, (2002) Improvement of land use/cover mapping by
sandy area, low vegetation, dense vegetation and barren land. integration of RS, GIS and GPS technologies, International
The areas covered by all these classes are shown in Table 1. Symposium on GIS.
Suykens, J. A. K., and Vandewalle, J., 1999. Least squares
Table 1. Area Covered by each class support vector machine
classifiers. Neural Processing Letters, 9(3), 293300
S. CLASS AREA AREA Trietz PM, Howarth PJ, Gong Peng (1992) Application of
No. COVERED (ha) COVERED(%) satellite and GIS technologies for land cover and land use
1. Water Body 10929.06 1.6 mapping at the rural urban fringe. Photogrammetric Engineering
2. Urban 16724.52 2.46 and Remote Sensing, Vol. 58, No. 4, pp. 439-448.
settlement Xu H, Wang X, Xiao G (2000) A remote sensing and GIS
3. Stoney Waste 156614.4 23.0 integrated study on urbanization with its impact on arable lands:
4. Sandy Area 62508.24 9.18 Fuqing city, Fujian Province, China. Land Degradation and
5. Low 216593.19 31.81 Development, Vol. 11, pp. 301-314.
Vegetation Vapnik, V., 1995, The Nature of Statistical LearningTheory.
6. Dense 38008.35 5.58 Springer Verlag.
Vegetation http://www.brainvoyager.com/bvqx/doc/UsersGuide/MVPA/Sup
7. Barren Land 179594.28 26.37 portVectorMachinesSVMs.html
http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/earth-sciences/geomatics/satellite-
LS-SVM is employed by collection of 285 samples. The imagery-air-photos/satellite-imagery-products/educational-
training sample is about 70 percent of the total sample collection resources/9373
and testing sample is 30 percent. The parameters gamma and
sigma of LS-SVM Kernel function (Radial basis) is optimized to
7223.5463 and 343.37529 respectively. The accuracy obtained
after prediction of classes by LS-SVM model is almost 100
percent which is comparatively better than MLC classifier.
Assessing Impacts Of Landuse/Landcover Change
7. CONCLUSIONS On Surface Runoff For Kadalundi River Basin: A
Watershed Modeling Approach

for spatial and temporal data analysis together with Remote

Sinha R. K.1, Eldho T. I.2, Ghosh S.2 Sensing (RS) data that can provide widely, regularly updated,
1
IDP in Climate Studies, Indian Institute of Technology and reliable data (Petchprayoon et al. 2010). Simultaneous
Bombay, Mumbai, India. assessment of hydrological impacts of LULC change with
2
Civil Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology respect to the population growth is needed to sustainably manage
Bombay, Mumbai, India. the water scarcity at basin scale. Tang et al. (2011) has detected
Email: rakeshsinhaiitbombay@gmail.com the effect of land-use change on streamflow, sediment and
nutrient losses by distributed hydrological simulation. However,
ABSTRACT how the changes in particular LULC class is influencing changes
of particular hydrological component is still unknown. The
Evaluation of the Landuse/Landcover (LULC) change on the answer to this question will improve predictability of
hydrology is essential for sustainable water resource hydrological consequences to LULC changes and thus is crucial
management. This will particularly helps in understanding how for future LULC and/or water resource planning and
each LULC class influences the hydrological components of the management. The specific objective of this study are to (1)
river basin. LULC has significant effect on the hydrological analyze how land use changed in Kadalundi River Basin over a
cycle. It is therefore most important to analyze the impact of period of 12 years (1988-2000); (2) determine the characteristics
LULC change on hydrology. However, there is large uncertainty and long term changes in discharge in the River Basin. In the
in the evaluation of LULC change on the hydrology, making it Kadalundi River basin, major LULC is plantation (managed
difficult to quantify change in particular LULC class on the forest), agriculture, grassland and forest and that is continuously
hydrologic component of the river basin. In this study, changing from the last five decades, which includes declines of
hydrological modeling was considered to quantify the grassland and forest while increase in plantation, urban area,
contribution of LULC change on the discharge at the river basin waterbody and agriculture.
scale. As a case study, Kadalundi River Basin, Kerala was
selected for hydrological modeling. The study was conducted on 2. STUDY AREA:
LULC map of two different scenarios (1988 and 2000) using the
Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) with manual The Kadalundi River originates from east of Karuvarakkundu
calibration and validation of results. The results showed that village in the district of Kozhikode in Kerala state and lies
urban, agriculture land, plantation and forest areas were highly between 10.980 to 11.150 latitudes and 75.800 to 76.350
dynamic in comparison to other landuse classes. The spatial longitudes (Figure: 1a). The maximum elevation of River basin
extent of urban, agriculture land, plantation and water bodies is 1291 m and flows east-to west direction, has total length of
have increased, and there is a decrease in spatial extent of forest 132km from its source to its out fall and its drainage area is
cover and grassland and while most of the bareland area remains 1111. 57 Km2. Figure: 1b shows digital elevation model of the
unchanged. Urbanization and deforestation contributed strongly River Basin. Geographically the basin is divided into two parts,
to the increase of runoff at the sub-basin scale. The study upper parts and lower parts of the basin. Most of the upper basin
indicates that the LULC change had much impact in changing of is mountainous with 37% forest cover and 20% plantation in
seasonal distribution of surface runoff for the study area. The 1988 (Figure: 4). The lower part of basin is well suited for
monthly stream flow increases in winter while the same cultivation mainly along with river bed. The average annual
decreases in summer months. precipitation in the study area is 2397 mm. The whole study area
Keywords: Landuse/Landcover, SWAT, Surface runoff, contains two different soil categories (Figure: 2a) and divided
Kadalundi River basin. into four different slope categories (Figure: 2b). For study of
hydrological parameters, the River basin divided into 41 sub-
1. INTRODUCTION: basin and 751 Hydrological Response Units (HRUs) (Figure: 3).
There is no major irrigation project and hydal potential existence
The assessment of LULC change basically includes the in the basin. There is one CWC Hydrological Observation
estimation of spatial patterns of hydrological consequences on Station at Karathode on this river. The main LULC classes
different LULC maps, various simulated hydrological include agriculture, grassland, forest, plantation, water, bare area
parameters at basin scale and assessment of temporal responses and urbanized area.
in channel discharge with the changes in LULC. The challenge
exists in the quantification of the impact that how the change in
particular LULC class is affecting the various hydrological
parameters. Surface runoff is usually affected by many natural
factors, such as soil characteristics, geomorphologic condition,
temperature, precipitation etc and also anthropogenic activities
such as presence of reservoirs, dams and other irrigation canal,
LULC change etc. With the increasing scarcity of water
resources, hydrological impacts of LULC change has drawn
attention among hydrological researchers, decision and policy
makers throughout the world. These problems can be addressed
by using a Geographic Information System (GIS) that is efficient

each of the LULC map in two different time periods 1988 and
2000.
Landsat satellite (5 and 7) images of spectral band 2 (0.52-
0.60m), 3 (0.63-0.69m) and 4 (0.76-0.90m) of Thematic
Mapper (TM) and Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+)
sensors acquired in 1988 (TM) and 2000 (ETM+) from United
States Geological Survey (USGS) were used to produce the
LULC change for 1988 1nd 2000.
For LULC classification supervised classification was applied to
classify the images into seven landuse categories including
agriculture, forests, plantation, grassland, bareland urbanization
and waterbody. The maximum liklelihood method for supervised
classification was used for Kadalundi Basin because of its
robustness and its easy availability in almost any image
processing software (Lu and Weng 2007) and also the
assumption of normally distributed data was met. The classified
Figure 1a. Satellite images from Landsat 7 ETM+ bands 4, 3
image ware converted into ArcGIS 10.1 file format for
and 2 (BGR) showing the study area. 1b. Digital elevation
determining change detection for both LULC.
model of study area.
3.1 Hydrological modeling
The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model developed

by the United States Department of AgricultureAgricultural
Research Service (USDAARS) (Arnold et al., 1998) and
SWAT-2012 version was applied to the Kadalundi river basin to
assess impacts of LULC changes on stream flow. The SWAT
model is a continuous, long-term, physically based distributed
model developed to assess impacts of climate and land
management on hydrological components, sediment loading, and
pollution transport in watersheds. In SWAT, a watershed is
divided into multiple sub-basins which are then divided into
units of unique soil/land use characteristics called hydrological
Figure 2a and 2b. The different soil and slope categories of response units (HRUs). These HRUs are defined as
Kadalundi River basin respectively. homogeneous spatial units characterized by similar
geomorphologic and hydrological properties. In SWAT, HRUs
are composed of a unique combination of homogeneous soil
properties, land use and slope. For example, a specific HRU land
unit may contain a sandy loam, walnut/ orchards, and a slope of
5%. User specified land cover, soil area, and slope thresholds
can be applied that limit the number of HRUs in each sub-basin.
In SWAT, surface runoff is estimated using a modification of the
SCS (Soil Conservation Service) curve number method (USDA,
1972) with daily rainfall amounts. The curve number values are
based on soil type and LULC condition of watershed.
Percolation is calculated using the combination of a storage
routing technique and a crack-flow model (Arnold et al., 1998).
The base-flow into the channel is calculated based on hydraulic
conductivity of shallow aquifer, distance from subbasin to main
channel, and water table height.
3.2 Model inputs

Fig 3. The 41 Sub-basin and 751 different HRUs of Kadalundi
The input data for SWAT model includes a digital elevation
River basin.
model (DEM), soil data, digital Landuse and Landcover (LULC)
maps, and weather data. The DEM was derived from the USGS
aster 30m resolution (about 1 arc-second), and the soil data was
from Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of united nation
To assess the impact of LULC change on hydrology, here
with 1km resolution. The LULC data for two time periods (1988
hydrological modeling is used to simulate the stream flow for
and 2000) are used to assess the impact of LULC change on the

stream flow was from the different landsat such as Landsat

Thematic Mapper (TM) and Enhanced Thematic Mapper plus The range of values for R2 is 1.0 (best) to 0.0. The R2 coefficient
(ETM+). Weather data such as rainfall and temperature were measures the variation fraction in measured data that is
obtained from Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) replicated in the simulated model results. A value of 0.0 for R 2
whereas solar, wind and relative humidity were taken from means that none of the variance in the measured data is
CFSR. All the weather data have 0.250 resolutions. Table 1 replicated by the model predictions. On the other hand a value of
show the data details and sources. 1.0 indicates that all of the variance in measured data is
replicated by the model predictions. Henriksen et al. (2003)
Table 1: Descriptions and sources of hydro-meteorological suggest that an R2 value > 0.85 is excellent for a hydrological
database of study area. model, values between o.65 0.85 are very good, o.5 0.65 are
Sort Format Description Sources good, 0.20 0.50 are poor and < 0.20 are very poor.
DEM Raster ASTER 30 m US 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Resolution Geological
Survey The Kadalundi river basin mostly occupied by forest, plantation,
Land use Raster 30m Resolution US and grassland followed by agriculture, urbanized area and water
Geological body throughout the study period (Figure 4; Table 2). The LULC
Survey changes for Kadalundi River basin from 1988 to 2000 were
Precipitation Mat file Temperature IMD Pune shown in figure 4 and over all amounts of change (%) and
and (min and max), percentage growth in LULC is shown in Table 2. On the basis of
Temperature Rainfall in 0.250 amount of change detection and percentage growth the LULC
Resolution map throughout the study period (1988 and 2000) indicates that
Wind, solar DBF Relative CFSR most significant change occurs in urban, forest, grassland and
and relative Humidity, Solar agriculture area out of seven classes. Agriculture, urban,
humidity radiation and plantation and water area increases however forest and grassland
wind in 0.250 decreases but there is no significant change occurs in bare area
Resolution of this basin. In Kadalundi basin, LULC change from 1988 to
Soil Raster Soil FAO FAO 2000, proportional extent of urban are increase by 3.31% to
1:50000 scale 5.80%, agriculture by 6.92% to 9.49% and water body by 4.17%
to 5.28% and plantation 19.73% to 28.83%and decrease of forest
3.3 Model calibration and validation 36.46% to 30.83% and grassland 29.21 to 19.57%.
The hydrological simulation was set up using 1988 and 2000

LULC maps to calibrate for 1988 to 1995 data and validate for
1996 to 2000 for monthly stream-flow at one river gauge station
at Karathode for corresponding rainfall details. The model was
calibrated manually and coefficient of determination (R2) criteria
was used to evaluate the performance of model
calibration/validation. The model was calibrated manually by
editing most sensitive parameters for discharge. The surface
runoff was calibrated by editing SOL_AWC (available water
capacity of the soil layer), CN2 (SCS runoff curve number for
moisture condition II), ESCO (soil evaporation compensation
factor), GW_DELAY (Groundwater delay), USLE_K (USLE
equation soil erodibility (k) factor and SOL_K (Saturated
hydraulic conductivity).
Figure 4: Land use /land cover classification of 1988 and 2000
of Kadalundi River Basin.
3.4 Model evaluation
The area of agriculture and plantation increased (by 28.56 km2
The model efficiency is evaluated by coefficient of
and 101.15 km2 respectively (Table 2)) due to population growth
determination (R2). The R2 coefficient for n time step is
and most of grassland and forest parts converted into agriculture
calculated as:
and plantation area. In addition, agriculture and urban area
expanded near the bed of river (slope 0-5% mostly) which
accelerate the removal of grassland and forest near these areas.
R2 =
On the basis of percentage growth analysis there is negative
percentage growth found in forest (-15.36%) and grassland
(33%) but all other classes shows positive growth (Table 2). The
percentage growth of urbanization increased by 75.23 % which
(1) is higher to all other LULC classes throughout the study period.

On the other hand no change occurs in bare land area. The

increase of urbanization is due to increase of population growth
and conversion of agriculture to urban and in the study area.
Table 2. Area (Km2) and overall amount of change (%) in

LULC of study area over the period of 1988-2000.
Figure 6(a) Precipitation, observed discharge, simulated

discharge of Kadalundi River basin during the period of 1988 to
2000 with their trend impose by using 2000 LULC and (b)
correlation between observed and calibrated/validated discharge.
On the basis of the results (observed and calibrated/validated)

The simulation and calibration/validation results of LULC presented in this study, LULC affect river discharge throughout
change impacts on surface runoff at the sub-basinal scale have the study period. Various other parameters also can changes
been estimated using SWAT model and how the runoff at the discharge on basin scale for example like climate change.
outlet of the River basin changes for the rainfall by 1988 to Noorazuan et al. (2003) detected that urbam extent and changes
2000. The comparison between simulated and observed monthly in urban related LULC cloud affect river stream flow behavior
stream-flow values in the periods of January 1988 to December by increasing the surface runoff in the Langat river basin,
2000 based on LULC 1988 is shows in the figure 5a, similarly Malaysia, South east Asia. Shi et al. (2007) studied the effect of
simulated monthly stream flow for the period of 1988 to 2000 LULC change on surface runoff in the Shenzhen region, China
for 2000 LULC given in figure 6a. Further the results and and concluded that urbanization led to increases in the maximum
calibration from January 1988 to December 1995 and validation flood discharge.
for January 1996 to December 2000. The results shows that a small but increase in discharge
There is a good correlation found between calibrated/validated continuously by average 1.37m3/sec from 1988 LULC to 2000
and observed value. R2 values for the calibration and observed LULC and average increase of 3.68 % from 1988 to 2000. The
are 0.896 and validation is 0.870 for LULC 1988 (Figure 5a) small change in discharge is increased due to increase of
while overall R2 values is 0.843(Figure 5b) whereas R2 values urbanization near river bed and plantation (managed forest) in
for the calibration and observed are 0.896 and validation is 0.860 the study area.
for LULC 2000 (Figure 6a) while overall R2 values is 5 CONCLUSIONS
0.842(Figure 6b) for monthly stream flow. These results suggest
that model performance are good. Uses satellite images collected from remote sensing for studying
LULC classification, change detection and percentage growth
are helpful for hydrological impact study. The LULC change has
a major role in the change of surface runoff. Increase in surface
runoff was observed for the Kadalundi River Basin for the
LULC change from 1988 to 2000. A slight increase observed in
long term discharge (12 years) with change in LULC. It may be
due to increase in urban area and decrease in forest area and also
location of LULC change. The drastic change in LULC may
affect other environmental stress through generating more
sediment yield and erosion that were usually directly related to
runoff volume and velocity. Thus, urbanization and deforestation
is the strongest contributor for surface runoff which can be
considered as a major environmental stress controlling the
hydrological parameters such as runoff, water yield, and ET, for
Kadalundi River Basin. The approach used in this study
Figure 5(a) Precipitation, observed discharge, simulated estimates contributions of changes for LULCs to surface runoff
discharge of Kadalundi River basin during the period of 1988 to which provide quantitative information for decision makers to
2000 with their trend imposed by using 1988 LULC and (b) make better choices for land and water resource. Lastly, present
correlation between observed and calibrated/validated discharge. approach provides a solid example of integrating hydrologic

modeling (using remotely sensed digital LULCs) to understand drainage system gets affected, as storm sewer network might
the potential impact of landscape change on the water resource, a replace only a part of the natural system. Further, changes in
vital ecosystem of the Western Ghats region in India. The land use /land cover (LULC) associated with urbanization of
present approach can be used to different river basin, where catchments has implications on generated runoff in terms of
time-sequenced digital Landcover is available, to predict the increase in peak discharge, runoff volume and velocity. Increase
change in surface runoff to LULC changes. in runoff velocity causes reduction in time to peak discharge,
resulting in flash floods. In addition, encroachment into storm
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runoff) from catchments,. The effects are often evident in the
Hydrology.
xii. Wenming Nie, Yongping Yuan, William Kepner, Maliha S. Nash, form of increase in runoff peaks, volume and velocity in drain
Michael Jackson, Caroline Erickson. (2011) Assessing impacts of Landuse and network. There is a need to account for LULC change
Landcover changes on hydrology for the upper San Pedro watershed. Journal of information in studies related to urban watershed management
Hydrology 407 105114.
or development, and to model such changes for use in efficient
design of storm water conveyance structure. Often, in most of
the urban localities, the existing storm water drains are in
dilapidated stage owing to improper maintenance or inadequate
design, which causes flooding and consequent damage to
Impact Of Land-Use Land-Cover Changes On property.
Runoff Generation In A Bangalore Urban
Catchment Most studies in the past have assessed effect/impact of LULC
change on (i) water balance components in agricultural
R. L. Gouri1 V. V. Srinivas2 watersheds (Schilling, et al. 1998); and (ii) runoff generation in
1
Research Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian river basins (Niehoff, et al., 2002; Hundecha&Bardossy, 2004;
Institute of Science, Bangalore-560 012, India Tang, et al., 2005; Rongrong&Guishan, 2007; Liu et al., 2011).
2
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian They have concluded that reduction of vegetation cover leads to
Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India increase in runoff and vice versa, which is the case in urban
Email:rlgouri@civil.iisc.ernet.in catchments. There is a stressing need for studies on impact
assessment of LULC change on runoff generation in urban
ABSTRACT catchments in India, as most cities are witnessing rapid
development. However, hardly there have been any attempts to
The process of urbanization is often rapid and disorganized in study effect of land use change. Recently Nagarajan and
developing countries like India. Owing to this, existing natural Poongothai (2011) assessed effect of LULC change in
Manimuktha sub-watershed of Vellar basin, Tamilnadu, India.

The current study is motivated to assess effects of LULC agricultural college were at daily scale, they had to be
change on runoff generation in an urban catchment in disaggregated to hourly scale for construction of design
Bangalore, India. The LULC changes were examined based on hyetographs corresponding to sub-daily durations. The
remote sensing products usingGeographic Information System disaggregation was carried out using k-nearest neighbor method
(GIS) tools, and effect of LULC change on runoff generated (Anandhi et al. 2012). For this purpose, relationships between
from the catchment was assessed using Storm Water daily and hourly rainfall records corresponding to a rain gauge
Management Model (SWMM). Significant change in LULC located at Indian Institute of Science (IISc) campus were
was observed especially during recent years and it was reflected considered. The gauge at IISc had 10-min scale rainfall records
in the generated runoff volume. over the period 2003-2012, and they were found to be
reasonably well correlated at daily scale with records
The remainder of the paper is structured as follows. A case corresponding to gauges located at Hebbal and agricultural
study is presented on storm water distribution system in college. For each of the stations IDF curves were developed
Yelahanka zone of Bangalore city in the following section. using the derived hourly rainfall by frequency analysis using
Subsequently conclusions drawn based on the study are Extreme value type-I distribution. Subsequently those curves
provided. were considered as the basis to construct design hyetographs
corresponding to various sub-daily durations and return periods
2 CASE STUDY: for the locations Hebbal and agricultural college by using
2.1 Study area and Data description: alternate block method (Chow et al 1988). Herein, it is to be
mentioned that records corresponding to gauge at IISc were
The study area considered for assessing LULC change on short, and hence those were not considered for frequency
hydrological response from catchments is located in northern analysis to construct IDF curves.
zone (Yelahanka) of Bangalore, India, (Figure 1). Length of
storm water drain network in the study area is about 18 km. The For the study area LULC maps were prepared corresponding to
network is divided into 19 conduits that are shown in Figure 1. the years 1996, 2002, 2006 and 2012. Among those, maps
Area of watershed contributing flow to the network is about 70 corresponding to the years 1996 and 2002 were based on
km2. The watershed is divided into 34 sub-watersheds (Figure1). satellite imageries obtained from IRS-IC-LISS-III at 1:50,000
scale, whereas the maps for the years 2006 and 2012 were
prepared based on thematic maps available for the study area
fromBhuvan-Thematic Services National Remote Sensing
Centre (NRSC), ISRO, Hyderabad, India,
(http://bhuvan.nrsc.gov.in) at 1:50,000 scale. A level II
classification was carried out to classify land use in the study
area corresponding to each of the LULC maps. This resulted in
identification of 12 different classes of land use and land cover.
Investigations were carried out to detect changes in the LULC
classes for locations in the study area over the years 1996, 2002,
2006 and 2012. For this purpose, transition matrix indicating
LULC change between various map pairs was determined using
IDRISI software that has land-use change modeler for land-use
change analysis and prediction. The considered map pairs
included 1996-2002, 2002-2006, 2006-2012, and 1996-2012.
The transition matrices were analyzed to draw inferences on
LULC change.
Hydrologic Soil Groups (HSG) were identified for the study area
based on soil map obtained from National Bureau of Soil Survey
and Land Use Planning (NBSS&LUP, Prasad et al., 1998). Each
of the LULC maps was merged with HSG map and Weighted
Curve Number (WCN) corresponding to each of the 34 sub-
watersheds was computed following the procedure described in
Figure 1: Study area
Chow et al. (1988). The foregoing analysis was carried out using
ARC-GIS 9.1 software. Discharge from the entire watershed,
For use in the study, daily rainfall records over the period 1988- which contributes flow to the network, was estimated
2010 corresponding to two rain gauges located at Hebbal and corresponding to various rainfall durations (e.g., 1h, 3h) and
Gandhi KrishiVignana Kendra (GKVK) Agricultural College return periods (e.g., 2-year, 5-year) using Storm Water
were collected. Locations of the gauges are shown in Management Model (SWMM) (Rossman, 2010). Inputs to
Figure1.Design hyetographs were constructed based on
SWMM included design hyetograph for the duration of interest,
Intensity-duration-frequency (IDF) curves developed for the
land-use/land-cover and soil details. Further, estimation of initial
study area. As the available records at Hebbal and GKVK abstractions in the model was based on Natural Resources

Conservation Service (NRCS) curve number method.

Streamflow generated by SWMM was considered as the basis to
identify vulnerable conduits in the network.
3 RESULTS:
The LULC maps prepared corresponding to the years 1996,

2002, 2006 and 2012 were analyzed for detection of changes in
various land-use classes in each of the sub-watersheds. It was
observed that LULC has changed during the entire period and
the changes were significant during 2006-2012. Figure 2
presents LULC map of the study area prepared for the year
2012. Maps corresponding to the remaining years are not shown
due to lack of space. Comparison of LULC classes across the
years 1996, 2002, 2006 and 2012 corresponding to 12 level II
classification is shown in Figure 3. It can be observed from the
figure that between the years 1996 and 2012 crop land has
decreased from approximately 25 km2 to 13 km2. Similar
reduction is also evident in areas corresponding to forest, forest
plantations, lakes, grassland and fallow lands. In contrast, built-
up urban area has significantly increased (from 18 km2 to 33
km2) and a relatively lower increment is evident in built-up
rural area.

other sub-watersheds. This increase in WCN can be attributed to

transition from crop land to urban built-up area, which was
observed from LULC maps. Changes in LULC were relatively
minimal for the remaining sub-watersheds. Interesting LULC
changes in sub-watershednumbered 14 were insignificant. It is to
be noted that the WCN has increased significantly between the
years 2006 to 2012 when compared with the earlier years.
.
1996 2002 2006 2012
100
Curve number
90
80
Figure 2: LULC map of the study area for the year 70

2012 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Subwatershed number
35
1996 2002 2006 2012 Figure 4: Weighted Curve Number corresponding to
30 the years 1996, 2002, 2006 and 2012.
25 Experiments were carried out to examine effect of LULC change

Area (km2)
on water balance components such as evaporation, infiltration

20
and runoff. Each experiment involved providing a design
15 hyetograph as input to SWMM along with LULC information
corresponding to each of of the four years (1996, 2002, 2006 and
10 2012), and analyzing output from the model to quantify
changesin each of the water balance components due to LULC
5
change. To quantify effect of design hyetograph on the results,
0 hyetographs corresponding to various durations and return
periods were developed, and one of those hyetographs was
Barrenland
Forest
Urban
Rural
Wetland
Crop Plantation
Fallowland
Crop Land
Lake
Mining
Forest Plantation
Grassland
considered at a time for performing an experiment.
Changes in water balance componentsdue to LULC change was

quantified corresponding to each of the hyetographs. One of the
typical results obtained from these experiments is presented in
Figure 5. Comparison of runoff generated for different years
Figure 3: Change in LULC shows increase in runoff and consequentreduction in infiltration.
The LULC maps corresponding to the years 1996, 2002, 2006 Reductionin infiltration and increase in runoffcould be attributed
and 2012 were merged with the HSG map to derive WCN to increase in imperiousness owing to increase in built-up area.
corresponding to each of the 34 sub-watersheds in the study On the other hand, change in evaporation was found to be
area. Figure 4 depicts WCN for 34 sub-watersheds in the study insignificant, possibly due to insignificant changes to factors
area corresponding to each of the years. On comparing the WCN (e.g., temperature, humidity, wind speed) effecting the
across the years 1996 to 2012, it can be observed that WCN for component. For brevity, the distribution of catchment response
all the sub-watersheds have increased. The sub-watersheds to a design hyetograph corresponding to 3-h duration and 5-year
numbered 16, 18, 22 to 26 and 32 (Figure 1) have shown return period is shown in Figure 5.
significant change (>10) in the value of WCN as compared to

Figure 6 shows effect of LULC change on runoff generated from 1996 2002 2006 2012
each sub-watershed in the study area by SWMM model 60
corresponding to a few typical design hyetographs. It can be
observed from the figure that rainfall with higher return period 50
generatesmore runoff, as expected. Comparison across the years
Runoff (103 m3)

40
1996, 2002, 2006 and 2012 showed that the volume of runoff
has increased consistently from the year1996 to the year 2012 30
across all sub-watersheds. The increase is significant during 20

2006-2012 for sub-watersheds numbered 16, 18, 22 and 26
10
across all hypothetical rain events (design hyetographs). These
sub-watersheds were earlier found to have marked increase in 0
their WCN (Figures4 and 6). Similarly, no significant changes 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34
Sub-watershed number
were noted in runoff from sub-watershed numbered 14 for which
changes in LULC were previously found to be Figure 6: Volume of runoff generated corresponding to 1h and
insignificant.(Figures 4 and 6). 3h duration rainfall of 2year and 5year return period for each of
the 34 sub-watershed.
Evaporation Infiltration Runoff
120
Water balance components (mm)
100 Duration 3-hr of 2-year return period

1996 2002 2006 2012
80 80
70
60 60
Runoff (103 m3)
50
40 40
30
20 20
10
0 0
LULC of 1996 LULC of 2002 LULC of 2006 LULC of 2012 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34
Figure 5: Water balance componentsquantified (in depth units) Duration 3-hr of 5-year return period
corresponding to 3h duration 5-year return period design 1996 2002 2006 2012
hyetograph. 90
80
70
Duration 1-hr of 2-year return period
Runoff (103 m3)
60
1996 2002 2006 2012
50
60
40
50 30
20
Runoff (103 m3)
40
10
30 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34
20 Sub-watershed number
10 Figure 6 (continued): Volume of runoff generated

corresponding to 1h and 3h duration rainfall of 2year and 5year
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 return period for each of the 34 sub-watershed
Storm water conduits numbered 11, 12, 13, 14, 17, 18 and 19
Duration 1-hr of 5-year return period
(shown in Figure 1) were identified to be vulnerable reaches in
the storm water drainage network being studied, as they were
found to be inadequate to convey discharge corresponding to
various design hyeographsand LULC past scenarios generated
by SWMM. The identified vulnerable conduits are located
immediately to the downstream of watersheds numbered 16, 18,

22 to 26 and 32 where marked increase in imperviousness was

noted in the recent years.
4 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS: Change Detection In Land Use/Land Cover Using

Changes to LULC in sub-watersheds contributing flow to storm
Remote Sensing And Gis A Case Study For Ur
water distribution system in Yelahanka zone of Bangalore city Basin In Tikamgarh District
was examined. The changes were found to be significant for sub-
watersheds numbered 16, 18, 22 to 26 and 32, and insignificant S. Karwariya1* S. Goyal2 V. C. Goyal3 T. Thomas4
for sub-watershed numbered 14.Transition from crop land to 1: Sr. Project Officer, NIH-TIFAC-DST Project, NIH-Regional
urban built-up area was evident, especially during 2006-2012, Centre, Bhopal.
indicating increase in imperviousness (curve number). 2: Sr. Scientist & Head MPRA Division, M.P.Council of Science
Investigations on changes in water balance components due to & Technology, Bhopal.
LULC change over the study area indicated reduction in 3: Scientist-F, National Institute of Hydrology, Jalvigyan
infiltration and increase in runoff. Increase in volume of runoff Bhavan, Roorkee.
was found to be significant for the watersheds for which increase 4: Scientist-D, National Institute of Hydrology, Regional Centre,
in imperviousness (curve number) was high. Vulnerable reaches WALMI Campus, Bhopal
in the storm water drainage network were also identified, and the Email*: sateesh.karwariya@gmail.com
vulnerability was attributed to LULC changes in sub-watersheds
that are located immediately to the upstream of those conduits. ABSTRACT : Land use and land cover is an important
component to understand basin level land status as it shows the
REFERENCES present as well as past status of the earths surface. The land
use/land cover pattern of a region is an outcome of natural and
i. Anandhi A, Srinivas VV, Kumar DN, Nanjundiah RS (2012) Daily socio-economic factors and its utilization gives information
relative humidity projections in an Indian river basin for IPCC SRES scenarios. about the human livelihood and development. Land use and
TheorApplClimatol 108(1-2): 85-104
land cover are two separate terminologies which are often used
ii. Chow VT, Maidment DR, Mays LW (1988) Applied hydrology.
McGraw-Hill, NY
interchangeably (Dimyati et al 1994). Land cover is a basic
iii. Eastman, J.R., 2009. IDRISI Taiga (Worcester, MA: Clark
parameter which evaluates the content of earth surface as an
University). important factor that affects the condition and functioning of
iv. ESRI 2011. ArcGIS Desktop: Release 10. Redlands, CA: the ecosystem whereas the land cover is a biophysical state of
Environmental Systems Research Institute. the earth surface, which can be used to estimate the interaction
v. Hundecha, Y., &Brdossy, A. (2004). Modeling of the effect of land of biodiversity with the surrounding environment. Land use
use changes on the runoff generation of a river basin through parameter and land cover is dynamic in nature and provides a
regionalization of a watershed model. Journal of Hydrology, 292(1), 281-295. comprehensive understanding of the interaction and
vi. Liu, Z., Yao, Z., Huang, H., Wu, S., & Liu, G. (2012). Land use and relationship of anthropogenic activities with the environment
climate changes and their impacts on runoff in the yarlungzangbo river basin,
China. Land Degradation & Development.
(Prakasam, 2010). As land is becoming a scarce resource due
to immense agricultural and demographic pressure, therefore
vii. Nagarajan, N and PoongothaiS (2011) Trend in Land Use/Land
Cover Change Detection by RS and GIS Application. International Journal the information on land use/land cover and possibilities for
ofEngineering and Technology 3 (4): 263-269 their optimal use is essential for the selection, planning and
viii. Niehoff, D., Fritsch, U., &Bronstert, A. (2002). Land-use impacts on implementation of land use schemes to meet the increasing
storm-runoff generation: scenarios of land-use change and simulation of demands for basic human needs and welfare.
hydrological response in a meso-scale catchment in SW-Germany. Journal of Bundelkhand region in Central India is in the limelight due to
Hydrology, 267(1), 80-93.
continuous droughts leading to large scale out migration,
ix. Rongrong W, Guishan Y, (2007), Influence of land use/cover change
on storm runoffA case study of Xitiaoxi River Basin in upstream of Taihu Lake
degraded forests and lands, high soil erosion, reduction in soil
Watershed, J Chinese Geographical Science, 17(4): 349-356 productivity and crop yields and has one of the lowest socio-
x. Rossman AL (2010) Storm Water Management Model, Version 5: economic indicators in the country. The Ur river basin, a
Users Manual, EPA/600/R-05/040. Environ Res Lab, EPA, and Athens, major tributary of River Dhasan with a catchment area of
Georgia. 990.37 sq. km has been selected for the study. The land use
xi. Schilling, K. E., Jha, M. K., Zhang, Y. K., Gassman, P. W., &Wolter, change detection has been performed based on the analysis of
C. F. (2008). Impact of land use and land cover change on the water balance of the digital data of LISS III & IRS-P6 with a resolution of
a large agricultural watershed: Historical effects and future directions. Water
Resources Research, 44(7):1-12 23.5m pertaining to 2003-04 and 2011-12. It has been observed
xii. Prasad CRS, Reddy RS, Seghal J, Velayutham M, 1998. Soils of
that there has been a considerable change in the land use
Karnataka for optimising land use. NBSS Publ. 47b (Soils of India series), pattern with an increase of 55.02 % in the area under kharrif
National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning, Nagpur, India. crop whereas the area under double crop has increased
xiii. Tang, Z., Engel, B. A., Pijanowski, B. C., & Lim, K. J. (2005). drastically by 136.17%. The increase in area under kharrif
Forecasting land use change and its environmental impact at a watershed scale. crop and double crop has been at the expense of land with
Journal of environmental management, 76(1), 35-45.
scrubs which had a decrease of 73.4%. Even though there is
slight change in the acreage under forest.

Keywords: Land use, Land cover, Change Detection, LISS III & of land that can be sustained and in short the whole population
IRS-P6, DSS, Watershed, GIS. and socio-economic determinants.
1. INTRODUCTION 1.3 Study area
Land is the basic natural resource that provides habitat and The study area represents the typical topography and geology of
sustenance for living organisms, and a major source of economic the Bundhelkhand region and moreover large number of tanks is
activities. The increasing population and economic activities are alo present here. Ur river basin is situated in Tikamgarh district
putting pressure on the available land resources. According to of Madhya Pradesh and lies on the Bundhelkhand Plateau
Census 2011 the population growth rate of India is 17.66. The between the Jamni, a tributary of the Betwa and the Dhasan
population is increasing day by day so the land use/land cover rivers. It extends between latitudes 24350 N and 25050 N
areas also change. Land use relates to the human activity or and between 78500 E and 79100 E longitudes. The total
economic function associated with a specific piece of Land geographical area of basin is 990.37 sq. km. The total population
(Lillesand et al. 2004). Examples of land use include agriculture, is 3, 32, 998 based on the 2011census. The Ur River flows in a
urban development, grazing, logging, and mining. In contrast, south to north direction. Ur river basin is bounded by Chhatarpur
land cover relates to the composition and Characteristics of land district to the east, Lalitpur district to the west; Jhansi district to
surface elements (Cihlar 2000). the north and Sagar district to the south. The location map of the
study area is given in Figure 1.
Historically humans have been modifying land to obtain the
essentials for their survival, but the accelerated rate of The climate of study area is semi-arid and the year comprises of
exploitation has brought unprecedented changes in ecosystems four seasons. The winter season from December to February
and environmental processes at local, regional and global scales. followed by the hot season from March to mid-June; .rainy
The prime aim of these land use/land cover changes including season from mid-June to September end and the transition
land conversion from one type to another and land-use season from October to November. After February the
management is to satisfy mankinds immediate demands i.e., the temperature rises progressively. May is generally the hottest
need to provide food, water, and shelter (Arshad Amin and month with mean daily maximum temperature at about 43 0C
Shahab Fazal (June 2012) Land Transformation Analysis Using sometimes may even rise up to about 47 0C on individual days.
Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques , Journal of Geographic The relative humidity is high during the monsoon season being
Information System, 2012, 4, 229-236).The land use/land cover generally above 70 percent. In the rest of the year the air is
pattern of a region is an outcome of natural and socio-economic comparatively dry. The driest part of the year is summer season
factors and their utilization by man in time and space. Land is when the relative humidity is less than 20 percent.
becoming scarce resource due to immense agricultural and
demographic pressure. Hence, information on land use/land The topography of basin is undulating and comprises of very
cover and possibilities for their optimal use is essential for the high hills along the ridge line with the elevation varying between
selection, planning and implementation of land use schemes to 200 m to 400 m above mean sea level. The elevation gradually
meet the increasing demands for basic human needs and welfare. decreases from the southern part of the basin towards the north.
This information also assists in monitoring the dynamics of land Therefore the Ur river also flows in a north-east direction till its
use resulting out of changing demands of increasing population. confluence with Dhasan river.
Land use and land cover change has become a central 2. MATERIAL AND METHODS
component in current strategies for managing natural resources
and monitoring environmental changes. 2.1 Data Products
Watershed is the smallest sized hydrologic unit. It is an ideal In the present study multidate satellite data of 2003-04 and
base for broad level planning of most of the land and water 2011-12 (LISS III & IRS-P6) were used.
development programme. Change detection in watersheds
helped in enhancing the capacity of local governments to
implement sound environmental management. This involves
development of spatial and temporal database and analysis
techniques.
1.2 Need for mapping Change Detection in Land Use/Land

Cover
The whole part of the earth like hills, different types of lands,
water bodies, and built-up area comes under the land use land
cover. Land has been going through tremendous transformations
due to growth in agriculture, industrialization and urbanization.
The changes in land use affect the ecosystem in terms of land
cover, land quality and capability, weather and climate, quantity

approach i. e. remote sensing and GIS in conjunction with

secondary data has been adopted. The remote sensing and GIS
data were handled with the help of Erdas Imagine 9.3 and Arc
GIS Desktop 9.3 respectively. The detailed methodology of the
study is given below:
Figure 1: Location Map of Study Area
2.2 Ground truth verification:
Entire study area was visited to get an acquaintance of different

ground feature and cover type with respect to satellite data. The
doubtful area on preliminary interpreted maps from satellite
data were carefully verified in the field. After verification,
these areas were reconciled on the maps and corrections were
made to obtain final maps.
Figure 2: Flow chart showing methodology of
2.3 Visual analysis: landuse/landcover change detection.
Visual interpretation technique was used for the mapping of land 2.5 Overlay analysis, final map preparation and area
use/land cover. Prior to interpretation of multidate satellite statistics generation:
data, a reconnaissance survey of the study area was done to
develop a classification scheme based on local knowledge Union method is applied for Overlay analysis using Arc Map 9.3
and ancillary information. An interpretation key was also Software. The final maps were prepared after reconciliation of
developed based on standard Photo-elements like tone, doubtful areas observed in preliminary maps. The final maps
texture, size, shape, association, pattern, location etc. to were prepared/ composed and area statistics was generated using
identify and map different classes. With the help of Arc Map 9.3 Software.
interpretation key on screen preliminary interpretation of
satellite data was done using ERDAS IMAGINE 9.3 software. 3. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
2.4 Methodology Out of the total geographical area of 990.37 km2, agriculture
constitutes 579.98 km2 in 2011-12, which was 399.69 km2 in
The study is mainly based on primary sources of data, the data 2003-04. Major cause of this unprecedented increase in area
used for the preparation of Land use/land cover map is multidate under agricultural use was transformation of wasteland into
multispectral satellite data of IRS LISS III & IRS-P6 of the year agriculture. Landuse map clearly shows that about 85- 90 % of
2003-04 and 2011-12 on 1:50,000 scale. Similarly, the wasteland area converted into agricultural land. The main reason
secondary data were used for validation of land use/land cover of this land transformation is massive growth of population. It
maps. A variety of remote sensing change detection has been also observed that there has been a considerable change
methodologies have been developed and evaluated over the past in the land use pattern with an increase of 55.02 % in the area
twenty years (Rogan et al., 2002; Woodcock & Ozdogan, 2004; under kharrif crop whereas the area under double crop has
Healey et al., 2005). For this study an integrated geo-spatial increased drastically by 136.17%. The increase in area under

kharrif crop and double crop has been at the expense of land
with or without scrub/ waste land which had a decrease of
70.4%. The cropping pattern in the study area which had the
practice of Rabi cultivation only, has now changed with more
farmers adopting the soybean crop in the kharrif season along
with wheat in the Rabi season. Even though there has been slight
change in the acreage under forest, the area under fellow land
has increased from 21.54 to 69.65 sq. km, a 223 % increase.
Figure 5: Statistics of land use/land cover during year 2003 &

2011.
Table 1: Area statistics of land use/land cover distribution in Urr

river basin
during year 2003-04, and 2011-12
Table 2: Land use/land cover changes during year 2003-04, and

2011-12
Figure 3: Land use/land cover-2003-04 Figure 4: Land

use/land cover-2011-12
4. CONCLUSIONS

The temporal change in land use /land cover was detected resources ManagementA new perspective (Ed. R.L. Karale) NNRMS
Publication, Department of Space, Govt. of India, Bangalore, PP. 342-345.
through preparation of land use/ land cover maps pertaining
xi. Lillesand, J.M. and Kiefer, R.W., Remote Sensing and Image
to 2003-04 and 2011-12 using multidate satellite data .The Interpretation.
prepared maps were overlaid using GIS to obtain Change xii. Lodwick, G.D. (1981). A computer system for monitoring
Detection maps to know the changes occurred in different environmental changes in multitemporal Landsat kata, Can. Jour. Remote
Sensing, 7:24-33.
land use classes during 2003-2011. The following
xiii. Rao Nageshwara, K., and Vaidyanathan, R. (1981). Land use
conclusions are derived from this study: capability studies from aerial photo interpretation a case study from Krishna
Delta, India. Geog. Rev. of India, 43(3).
1. Remotely sensed data especially satellite data can xiv. Sahai, Beldev. (1989). Remote Sensing of environment, Proc. Of the
Application Seminar on Remote Sensing of Environment, Ministry of
be effectively used in mapping as well as monitoring of
Environment and Forest, SAC (ISRO), Ahmedabad.
temporal changes in land use/land cover of an area. xv. Savindra Singh, Types of drainage pattern and geomorphology.
2. A considerable change in different land use/land cover xvi. Shrivastav, P.N. and Guru, S.D., Gazetteer of India.
categories was observed during 2003 to 2011 especially
cropland and wastelands. Changes in forest sub-classes were
also noticed.
3. The overall increase in built-up area was 17.5 % during
2003 to 2011.
4. Croplands also registered an overall increase of 45.3 % Multi Objective Optimization Of Cropping
in area during 2003-2011.The increase in area was as a result of Pattern In A Canal Command Area
transformation of Land with or without Scrub/Waste land into
cropland. Paritosh Srivastava1 and Raj Mohan Singh2
5. In case of forest, the land transformation in dense, open 1
Resaerch Scholar, Civil Engineering Department, MNNIT
and scrub was also observed for the period 2003-2011. During Allahabad, and Assistant Professor at HCST Mathura
this period dense forest converted into open forest and 2
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, MNNIT
open forest into scrub forest. Allahabad, India
E-mail: rajm.mnnit@gmail.com
The study with the help of Geographic Information System
(GIS) and Remote Sensing technique is very useful tool for ABSTRACT : Optimal cropping pattern depends on water
Landuse/Landcover change detection /land transformation availability and other constraints like crop area, soil properties,
mapping. The measurement of land use/ land cover change is use of fertilizer, and local socio-economic conditions.
very useful for future management and planning at local and Availability of water depends upon various hydrological and
regional level. Finally, although human demands cannot be climatological factors like rainfall in area, aquifer properties of
stopped, with proper management and planning it can be the area, existing canal network in the area etc. Use of surface
restricted and directed in a desirable and sustainable way, and groundwater conjunctively not only improve production
but also help in sustainable water utilization. Benefit and
REFERENCES: production (yield) are the two most important objectives for
optimal cropping pattern. Single objectives considering benefit
i. Bansal, A., Karwariya S. and Goyal S. (2012) Change Detection in
Land use / Land cover in Sewan Watershed Using Remote Sensing and GIS
and production are formulated and solved for nine scenarios.
Technique. Int. Journal of Advances in Remote Sensing and GIS, Vol. 1, No. 2, Single objective separately optimize benefit or production only.
2012 Single objective maximization of benefit/production does not
ii. Dabbs, D.L. and Gentle, G.C. (1974). Landscape classification and guarantee maximization of production/benefit. Multi objectives
plan succession Trends in Peace Athabasca Delta Can. Wildlife Service Rep.
SER: 32-34.
optimization of benefit and production simultaneously give
iii. District Statistical Handbooks of Sehore (2002 to 2007). optimal solution incorporating benefit and production. In
iv. District resource map, Geological Survey of India, Central Region, present paper multi objectives optimization problem is
Sehore. formulated and solved using fuzzy programming approach
v. Gautam, N.C., and Narayan, L.R.A.(1983). Landsat MSS data for
land use/land cover inventory and mappinga case study of Andhra Pradesh, J. (FPA) with Linear and non-linear membership functions
Indian Soc. Remote Sensing, 11(3): 15-28. Keywords: Optimization, constraints, groundwater, Cropping
vi. Hiese. (2001). From Application of Remote sensing and GIS for land pattern, Aspiration level
use/land cover change analysis in a mountainous terrain. A case study of part of
Kohima district, North- east India.
vii. Jenson, J.R., (2002). Digital Image Processing.
1. INTRODUCTION
viii. Kamat, D.S., Gopalan, A.K.S, Majumdar, K.L., Ramakrishnan, R,
Rao, U.R., Nag Bhushan, S.R., Thayalan, S., Krishnappa, P. and Sadashivaiah, Growth of population is impacting natural resources available
A.S. (1985). Monitoring changes in ecology in the Kudremukh mining region, for human consumptions and food security. Exponential growth
Int. Jour. Remote Sensing, 6:541-548.
ix. Karwariya.Sateesh and Goyal Sandip., (2011). Land use and Land
of population leads to reduce the net agriculture area available
Cover mapping using digital classification technique in Tikamgarh district, for crop production. The population may touch the 9.25 billion
Madhya Pradesh, India using Remote Sensing. mark by 2050 from the current 7 billion (United Nations 2008).
x. Krishna Murthy, Y.V.N., Srinivasan, D.S., Balasubrahmania, R., Agricultural production needs to increase to provide food and
Karale, R.L. Mahalanobis J.K., Roy, D.K. and Adak, N.K. (1992). Land use/
Land cover mapping of Ranganadi Catchment, Arunachal Pradesh, Natural
fiber for the increasing global population (Davies and Simonovic

2011; Singh and Panda 2012). One of the biggest challenges in

the coming decades will be meeting the irrigation requirements
and increasing of the food production especially in countries
with limited water and land resources (FAO, 2002). Food
production can be improved by providing additional area to
agriculture or grow more crop per unit area. But due to twin
problems of urbanization and possible natural environments
disturbances, addition in agricultural area is becoming difficult
day by day. In addition, the availability of water for irrigation
will decrease because of expected increases in water demand for
different competing sectors such as domestic, industrial, and
hydroelectric generation. For instance, in India the irrigation
allocation will probably decrease from the present level of 83%
to approximately 69% by the year 2050 (Panjiar, 2010).
Therefore, it is imperative to optimize the available land and
water resources to achieve maximum returns.
Various optimization techniques have been used to arrive at an

optimal cropping pattern for optimal use of land and water
resources for the maximization of net benefits and yield from
irrigated agriculture. Linear programming one of the oldest
optimization technique and it has been applied for the single
objective approach with the objective function and the Figure -1 Map of study area (a) Location map of India (b)
constraints as linear function of variables. Some research Location map of Uttar Pradesh in India (c) Location map of
workers have modified the linear programming techniques to soraon canal command in UP
accommodate specific area based conditions (Arya and Hagan Table-1 Basic description of Soraon command area
1969; Heady et al 1973;Gulati and Murty 1979; Panda et al
1983; Kumar and Pathak 1989; Singh et al 2001; Mohamad and S.No Parameter Value
Said 2011). A command area is a complex system and a single
objective approach gives only a partially efficient solution. 1 Total command area (Ha) 23,089.93
Optimization of one objective dose not guarantee the optimal 2 Cultural command 11543
value for another objective(s). Therefore Multiobjective area(Ha)
approach is imperative to get optimized solution for all the 3 Canal length (Command 72.4 km
objective simultaneously. Some pioneer work discussing multi- area)
objective application in their field optimal cropping pattern 4 Wind speed max 5.16 Km/hr
(Cohon and marks 1973, Morales et al. 1992; Raju and Kumar 5 Mean maximum 42.90 C
2005;Regulwar and Gurav2010; Gore and Panda 2009; Mirajkar temperature
and Patel 2012). 6 Mean minimum 9.300 C
temperature
1.1 Study area description 7 Number of rainy rays 49
The study area comprises of Soraon canal command area
0
situated in Allahabad district with latitude 24 47 and
0 0 0
25 47North and longitude 81 09 and 81 21E. The annual Table -2 Area, and production of major crops cultivated in
average rainfall in the command area is 947 mm. The other the Allahabad
detail of the command area is given in Table-1. Soraon command S.No Crop Season Area (inHa)(% Production(
Area is bounded by two drain systems Raya and Basana Area) Quintal)
respectively as shown in Figure 1. These two drain ultimately 1 Paddy Kharif 105361(67) 228633
bounded by Kachar of Ganga river. Soraon rajwaha is the main 2 Jowar Kharif 5210 (3.2) 146
canal in the study area feeded by Allahabad branch. Allahabad 3 Bajara Kharif 27862(17.5) 26116
branch is part of Sarda Sahayak canal irrigation system which
4 Arhar Kharif 18388(11.6) 22525
one is of the largest canal irrigation system in Utter Pradesh. Soil
of the command area is mainly consist of silty loam and clay 5 Wheat Rabi 215979(83) 583354
6 Barley Rabi 7106(2.7) 5945
soil. Traditionally, the year is divided into two principal crop
seasons, kharif (monsoon, JulyOctober) and rabi (winter, 7 Gram Rabi 22489(8.6) 22805
NovemberApril). Rice Wheat is the major crops in kharif and 8 Lentil Rabi 9649(3.7) 8528
rabi season respectively. List of other major crops grow in
9 Pea Rabi 4077(1.6) 5501
command area is shown in Table 2.

Source: Agricultural Department Report, Allahabad 2009-10 PDij = Production of the ith crop in jth seasons (Q/ha)
1.2 Data Acquisition Multi-objective Based Planning
The data on crops, weather, groundwater, and canals were Max ZB = j=1 i=1 {(PiYi j + PBi YiBi j )- Ci j }
acquired from various Central and State Government (III)
departments and district administrations, located in and around Max ZP = j=1 i=1 =PDij
the study area and from personal contact, such as Ground Water (IV)
Cell, Irrigation Department, Office of tehsildars, Department of where
Agriculture, and India Meteorological Department. Table -3 = Area in Ha
shows various data type and their sources 2.1 Constraints
Table -3 Data Type and their Sources
S.No Data Type Sources The previously stated Individual objectives and Multi-objective
1 Rain fall data Soraon Block IMD -Pune are subject to some constraints that are to be satisfied. The
(Allahabad)
2 Canal Rostar Date /Irrigation UP Irrigation
constraints which are taken into consideration are discussed
Scheduling Department below.
3 Canal Network Map UP Irrigation
Department 2.1.1 Area Constraints
4 Soil Map UP Agricultural The area constraints are defined to account for the total available
Department
5 Groundwater Draft data Soraon Groundwater area for cultivation both in the kharif and the rabi. The crop
block Department rotation, the soil texture and the individual crop constraints as
per available guidelines (Gore and Panda, 2009; Singh, 2012).
2. METHODOLOGY Land availability constraints
Land allocated to various crops under particular season should
In single objective based planning an optimization model is be less than or equal to the total cultivable area.
formulated to achieve specified objective (maximization or i=1Aij<= At
minimization) under specified constraints. In present study (for all j =1 for Kharif season and j =2 for Rabi season crop)
maximization of benefit and production formulated and solved Aij =Area allocated to ith crop grown in Jth seasons (ha) At =
various soil and water availability constraints as discussed in Total culturable command area (ha)
section 2.1. Other than single objective Multiobjective including 2.1.2 Soil Texture Constraints
benefit and production is formulated and solved using fuzzy The soil texture is an important parameter for deciding the
programming approach. optimum allocation of crops. Few crops like wheat can be grown
in clay and sandy soils; rice can not be grown successfully in
Mathematically, objective function for maximization of benefit sandy loam and sandy soils. Similarly crop sensitive to water
can be represented as: logging can not be grown in the clay soils. Fallowing constraints
Max ZB = j=1 i=1 {(PiYi j + PBi YiBi j )- Ci j } Ai j have been formulated to incorporate these factors in
(i) optimization formulation.
where, Constraints for clay soils
ZB= Optimal benefit in rupees corresponding to the feasible This constraint limits the rice area. For rice crop soil which can
solution hold the water is essential. For rise cultivation clay is best soil.
Pi = Market price of the ith Crop (Rs/Kg) Aij <= pc*At; (For Kharif season i=1 & j=1) (For
i=Crop index, i=1 to n, J=Crop season index; j=1 for Rabi season i=2 & j=3)
Kharif & j=2 for Rabi
Aij =Area allocated to ith crop grown in Jth seasons (ha) Soraon command area which consists of 85% of clay soil. Hence
Cij = Cost of production of ith crop grown in Jth seasons (Rs/ha) value pc is 0.85
Pi = Market price of the ith Crop (Rs/Kg) where
PBi= Market price of bi product of the ith Crop (Rs/Kg) At = Total cultural command area (ha) Pc= Percentage of clay
Yij= Yield of the ith crop in jth seasons (Kg/ha)
YiBij =Yield of the bi product ith crop in jth seasons of
agricultural (Kg/ha) Constraints for clay loam soil
This constraint limits the area under jawar, bajara, and arhar in
Maximization of Total Production/Yield Kharif and wheat, barley, pea lethil in Rabi.
Aij<= At (For Kharif season i=1 & j=2,3,4)
Max ZP = j=1 i=1 =PDij Ai j (For Rabi season i=2 & j=1,2,4,5)
(II) Where
ZP= Optimal Production in quintal corresponding to the feasible At = Total cultural command area (ha)
solution 2.1.3 Water Requirement Constraints
Aij =Area allocated to ith crop grown in jth seasons (ha) The water requirement constraints stipulates that the weekly
requirement of the command area is less than or equal to the

weekly available water. In other words, at any given week, the

cumulative water requirement is less than or equal to the Results for optimization of cropping pattern is broadly divided
cumulative water availability till that week. As per irrigation into two category in first category the results which obtained
schedule, 12th standard week has been considered as last week form maximization of single objectives. And in second category
of irrigation season for rabi crop. The water requirement the results which we obtained form incorporating benefit and
constraints can be expressed as: production simultaneously
2j=1 Ni=1 WRwiAij <= WSCW
where 3.1 Results from maximization of single objective
WSCW= Cumulative water available in the command area at the
Wth week in Ha mm Equation for maximization of net benefit is obtained by
WRwi= Water required in the Wth week by the ith crop in mm multiplying benefit coefficient of each crop to crop variable
2.2 Weekly water availability estimation from the Table 6 in Equation 1. Similarly maximization of
production is obtained by multiplying production coefficient of
The weekly irrigation water requirement of each crop was each crop area as shown in Equation 2. Equation 1 and 2 is
estimated after the analysis of rainfall. For estimation of subjected to different water available scenario and constraint as
irrigation water requirement, weekly rain fall data used which discussed in section 2.1. Result obtained for maximization of
obtained from IMD Pune. Other than irrigation water benefit and production is shown in Table-7. Single objective
requirement for each crop weekly availability of water from based planning has certain limitation because of maximization or
various sources like runoff, canal and groundwater is also minimization of one objective. If one objective is optimized,
estimated. Table-4 shows total water available from all resource other objectives obtained from optimal variable of optimized
in Soraon command area. objective may not be optimal. To overcome this situation multi-
objective approach is adopted. Multi-objective approach gives
Table-4 Total water available from all resource optimal value for more than one objective.
Table -6 Economics of Kharif/Rabi Season Crop
S Sources Water available Water availability
.No in Ha-mm in percentage
1 Canal 9074818 41
system
2 Runoff 7919563 36
3 Groundwater 5130996 2
After estimation of total water availability from various resource

(Groundwater, Canal water, Surface water) in Soraon command
area different scenarios are made with possible water availability
condition that can occur. Detail of various scenarios given in
Table-5
Table -5 Water availability in crop seasons (Kharif & Rabi)
S.No Scenario Water supply System Total Water

availability 105 Ha-m
1 S-1 Only Canal System 46.041
Reference: Commission for Agricultural Cost & Prices (CACP)
2 S-2 75% Canal System Av water 34.53 Ministry of Agricultural
3 S-3 50% Canal System Av water 23.02 *Data Obtained form Local Authority (Block level)
4 S-4 Canal Water+ Surface Water 66.82 Table -7 Objective Function value for benefit and production
5 S-5 75%Canal Water+ Surface 55.30
Water
6 S-6 50%Canal Water+ Surface 43.79
Water
7 S-7 No Canal System Only 20.77
Surface Water
8 S-8 Total Surface Water and 49.39
groundwater
9 S-9 Only groundwater 28.61
[ZB=Value (1000) 104 Rs ] [ZP= 104Value in Quintal]
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:

3.2 Result from Multi-objective incorporating benefit and Following conclusion can be drawn from the results obtained
production for single objective and multi-objective solutions:
Benefit and production are the two important component of (i) Scenario 4 gives maximum single objective function
agricultural activity. So maximization of benefit and production value for benefit and production as shown in Table 6.
can be achieved by using Multi-objective approach. In Multi- (ii) In Multi-objective benefit and productions both are
objective approach for maximization of benefit and production incorporated Scenario 4 gives maximum value for benefit and
fuzzy programming approach (FPA) is used to solve multi- production as shown in Table 8(A)and 8(B).
objective formulation. Linear and non-linear membership (iii) In Scenario-4 if we individual maximize objective
functions are employed for fuzzification of the problem into function for benefit than production is 19 x104 Quintal and if we
fuzzy optimization frame work. Mathematical algorithms are individual maximize production objective function than benefit
then utilized to solve the problem with (i) Linear Member ship is 5.4 x104 Rs thousand. Therefore it is obvious from the results
Function approach and (ii) Exponential Membership Function that individual maximization of benefit or production does not
In fuzzy programming approach (FPA) higher the value of give maximum of other objective.
Aspiration level (). Maximum level of aspiration is achieved (iv) Optimal aspiration levels values by different
considering objectives taken into consideration. Aspiration level approaches (linear and Exponential) is shown in Table 7. From
result incorporating benefit and production shown in Table 7. Table-7 it is obvious that Scenario-4-and -5 gives highest
aspiration level (). Therefore Scenario 4 and 5 will gain with
Table -7 Aspiration level in different scenarios highest satisfaction level.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Result obtained for maximization of benefit and production The Author is extremely thankful to UP Irrigation department
simultaneously is shown in Table 8(A) and 8(B). From the and Indian metrological department for providing map and
result it is clear that value obtained in multi-objective essential data for the study.
maximization for benefit and production is less than
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and kharif 2009-10 Govt of UP.
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Requirements and Irrigation scheduling. Irrigation manual module 4
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Plan Using Fuzzy technique for Optimal Cropping Pattern In command Area of
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xxi. United Nations. (2008). World population prospects: 2008 revision
population database online. (http://www.un.org/esa/population/unpop.htm). 1. INTRODUCTION
Rainfall forecasting hours, days, months or possibly longer in

advance is required for the effective operation of a water
resources systems so that water authorities can administer water
reserves optimally for various water users such as hydropower
generation, agricultural, domestic, etc. The hydrologic system is
Urban Watershed Rainfall Forecast Of Chennai a highly complex non-linear system. Forecasting of hydrological
City time series can be done by using stochastic models like Auto
regressive (AR), Auto regressive moving average (ARMA) and
R. Venkata Ramana, B Krishna,Y. R. S. Rao and Auto regressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) etc. These
V.S.Jayakanthan models are basically time series models and have a limited
Scientist, National Institute of Hydrology ability to capture nonstationarities and nonlinearities. Recently
Deltaic Regional Center, Siddartha Nagar, Kakinada-3, A.P. soft computing techniques such as artificial neural network
E-mail: Venkataramana_1973@yahoo.co.in (ANN), fuzzy logic (FL) and genetic algorithm (GA) has been
gaining popularity since last decade due to its versatility in
ABSTRACT : Accurate and timely rainfall forecasting is crucial for handling non linearity and somewhat extent to handle non
reservoir operation and flooding prevention because it stationary. Soft computing techniques offer an effective
can provide an extension of lead-time of the flow forecasting, larger approach for handling large amounts of dynamic, non-linear and
than the response time of the watershed, small and medium sized noisy data, especially when the underlying physical relationships
mountainous basins. In particular, existing classical storm water are not fully understood (Nourani et al., 2011). The ASCE Task
drainage infrastructures may no longer work properly in the Committee (2000 II) reviews hydrologic applications of ANN.
future. To cope with uncertain rainfall scenarios, structural In the last decade, Wavelet Transform (WT) has become a useful
best management practices (BMPs) or sustainable urban technique for analyzing variations, periodicities, and trends in
drainage systems (SUDs) may offer a robust and flexible time series. A wavelet transformation is a strong mathematical
alternative. Soft computing techniques offer an effective signal processing tool with the ability of analyzing both
approach for handling large amounts of dynamic, non-linear stationary as well as non stationary data, and to produce both
and noisy data, especially when the underlying physical time and frequency information with a higher resolution, which
relationships are not fully understood (Nourani et al., is not available from the traditional transformation (Fourier
2011).ANN is a mathematical model which mimics the Transform and Short Time Fourier Transform). In most of the
function of human brain. It has the ability to identify the hybrid models, WT is used as preprocessing technique. The
relationship from given patterns and solve large scale complex wavelet-transformed data aid in improving the model
problems such as non-linear modeling pattern recognition, performance by capturing helpful information on various
classification, association and control. Widely use neural resolution levels. Due the above mentioned advantages of WT, it
network models are successfully applied in rainfall-runoff has been found that the hybridization of wavelet transformation
modeling, runoff forecasting, evaporation estimation, with other models like ANN, Fuzzy Logic (FL), ANFIS, linear
precipitation forecasting, water quality modeling, ground water models, etc., improved the results significantly than the single
level and significant wave height forecasting. In order to raise regular model (Deka et. al, 2012). Zhou et al. (2008) developed
the forecasted precision, an alternative hybrid model called wavelet predictor-corrector model for simulation and prediction
wavelet neural network model (WNN), which is the of monthly discharge time series. Adamowski (2008) developed
combination of wavelet analysis and ANN, has been proposed. a short term river flood forecasting (1, 2 and 6 days ahead)
Recently wavelet neural network (WNN) has been used for method based on wavelet and cross-wavelet analysis. Partal and
modeling different kinds of nonlinear systems including Cigizoglu (2008) estimated and forecasted daily suspended
rainfall forecasting. In this paper an attempt has been made to sediment using wavelet neural networks. Nourani et al. (2009)
linked wavelet analysis to the ANN for developing rainfall-

runoff model in Lingvanchai watershed at Tabriz, Iran. For this provides a measure of time and frequency resolutions, but the
purpose the main time series of rainfall and runoff, were use of a fixed window size at all times and for all frequencies is
decomposed to some multi-frequency time series by wavelet a limitation of this method. The wavelet representation addresses
theory, then these time series were imposed as input to ANN to the above limitation, by adaptively partitioning the time-
predict the runoff discharge 1 day ahead. In this research the frequency plane, using a range of window sizes. WT provides
authors examined not only the sensitivity of the pre-processing multi resolution analysis i.e. at low scales (high frequency) it
to the wavelet type and decomposition level but also the effect of gives better time resolution and at high scales (low frequency) it
number of inputs were evaluated. Kisi (2009) developed gives better frequency resolution. The wavelet transform breaks
neurowavelet model for forecasting daily intermittent the signal into its wavelets (small wave) which are scaled and
streamflow 1 day ahead. Nourani et al. (2009) developed neural- shifted versions of the original wavelet so called mother wavelet.
wavelet model for prediction of precipitation in Ligvanchai The choice of the mother wavelet depends on the data to be
watershed at Tabriz, Iran. Adamowski and Sun (2010) coupled analyzed. The Daubechies and Morlet wavelet transforms are the
discrete wavelet transform with ANN for flow forecasting in two commonly used Mother wavelets. Daubechies wavelets
different non-perennial rivers in semi-arid watershed at lead exhibit good trade-off between parsimony and information
times of 1 and 3 days. It was found that in both the cases coupled richness, it produces the identical events across the observed
wavelet-neural networks model were more accurate than the time series and appears in so many different fashions that most
single ANN model. Rajaee et al. (2011) hybridized wavelet prediction models are unable to recognize them well (Benaouda
analysis with ANN (WANN) to predict 1 day ahead daily et al., 2006). Morlet wavelets, on the other hand, have a more
suspended load (S) in the Iowa River gauging station in United consistent response to similar events but have the weakness of
States and compared results with single ANN, multilinear generating many more inputs than the Daubechies wavelets for
regression (MLR), and sediment rating curve (SRC) models. The the prediction models. Discrete wavelet transform (DWT): The
results showed that WANN model performed better than the basic aim of wavelet analysis is to determine the frequency (or
other model. Wang. et al. (2011) developed wavelet transform scale) content of a signal and then it assess and determine the
method for synthetic generation of daily streamflow sequences. temporal variation of this frequency content. This property is in
Maheswaran and Khosa (2012) presented a comparative complete contrast to the Fourier analysis, which allows for the
evaluation of different wavelet types when employed for determination of the frequency content of a signal but fails to
hydrologic time series forecasting. Khandekar and Deka (2012) determine frequency-time dependence. Therefore, the wavelet
developed wavelet-neural network hybrid model for transform is the tool of choice when signals are characterized by
Brahmaputra River flow forecasting using db4, COIFLET-2 and localized high frequency events or when signals are
SYMHLET-4 as mother wavelet and showed that db4 wavelet characterized by a large numbers of scale variable processes.
has given better results. Ramana et al. (2013) applied wavelet Because of its localization properties in both time and scale, the
and ANN model to predict monthly precipitation of Darjeeling wavelet transform allows for tracking the time evolution of
rain gauge station and showed that the performances of wavelet processes at different scales in the signal.
neural network models are more effective than ANN models. The wavelet transform of a time series f(t) is defined as
(Xu et al 2014).Wavelet decomposition method is proposed to
1 t b
link to ANFIS and ANN models use the rainfall forecast
(Akrami et al.2014). Demonstrate wavelet- adaptive neuro-fuzzy
f (a, b)
a
f (t )

dt
a (1)
inference system (WANFIS) with split data model and
WANFIS-modified time series model have been used to forecast where (t) is the basic wavelet with effective length (t) that is
river water levels with one-day lead time (Sehgal et al.2014). In usually much shorter than the target time series f(t). The
this paper, a Wavelet Neural Network (WNN) model, which is variables a is the scale or dilation factor that determines the
the combination of wavelet analysis and ANN, has been characteristic frequency so that its variation gives rise to a
proposed for rainfall forecast modeling of IMD Chennai of spectrum and b is the translation in time so that its variation
Nungambakkam rain gauge station. represents the sliding of the wavelet over f(t). The wavelet
spectrum is thus customarily displayed in time-frequency
2. WAVELET domain. For low scales i.e. when |a|<<1, the wavelet function is
highly concentrated (shrunken compressed) with frequency
Signals whose frequency content does not change with time are contents mostly in the higher frequency bands. Inversely, when
called stationary signals. In stationary signals it is not necessary |a|>>1, the wavelet is stretched and contains mostly low
to know at what times frequency components exists, since all frequencies. For small scales, we obtain thus a more detailed
frequency components exists at all times. Mathematical view of the signal (also known as a higher resolution) whereas
transformations (viz. Fourier transform (FT), Short Time Fourier for larger scales we obtain a more general view of the signal
transform (STFT), Wavelet Transform (WT), etc.) are applied to structure.The original signal X(n) (Fig. 1) passes through two
time domain signals (raw signals) to obtain further information complementary filters (low pass and high pass filters) and
from that signal that is not readily available in the raw signals. emerges as two signals as Approximations (A) and Details (D).
FT of a signal in time domain gives information about how The approximations are the high-scale, low frequency
much of each frequency exists in the raw signal without giving components of the signal. The details are the low-scale, high
the information about time (Misiti et al. 2010). So FT is not frequency components. Normally, the low frequency content of
suitable for non-stationary data. On the other hand, STFT the signal (approximation, A) is the most important part. It

demonstrates the signal identity. The high-frequency component Y f ( WX ) (2)

(detail, D) is nuance. The decomposition process can be iterated,
with successive approximations being decomposed in turn, so where X = input or hidden node value; Y = output value of the
that one signal is broken down into many lower resolution hidden or output node; f (.) = transfer function; W = weights
components (Fig. 1). connecting the input to hidden, or hidden to output nodes; and
= bias (or threshold) for each node. Method of network
training:Levenberg-Marquardt method (LM) was used for
training of the given network. It is a modification of the classic
Newton algorithm for finding an optimum solution to a
minimization problem. In practice, LM is faster and finds better
optima for a variety of problems than most other methods
1 also
X k 1 X k ( J J I ) J e
(Hagan, 2004). T
The method t takes advantage of the internal
recurrence to dynamically incorporate past experience in the
training process (Coulibaly et al., 2000). The Levenberg-
Marquardt Algorithm (LMA) is given by (3)
where, X is the weights of neural network, J is the Jacobian
matrix of the performance criteria to be minimized, is a
Figure 1. Diagram of multiresolution analysis of signal. learning rate that controls the learning process and e is residual
error vector. If scalar is very large, the above expression
3. ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS (ANN) approximates gradient descent with a small step size, while if it
is very small; the above expression becomes Gauss-Newton
An ANN, can be defined as a system or mathematical model method using the approximate Hessian matrix. The Gauss-
consisting of many nonlinear artificial neurons running in Newton method is faster and more accurate near an error
parallel, which can be generated, as one or multiple layered. minimum. Hence we decrease after each successful step and
Although the concept of artificial neurons was first introduced increase only when a step increases the error. LM has great
by McCulloch and Pitts, the major applications of ANNs have computational and memory requirements, and thus it can only be
arisen only since the development of the back-propagation used in small networks. It is faster and less easily trapped in
method of training (Rumelhart et.al 1986). Following this local minima than other optimization algorithms. Selection of
development, ANN research has resulted in the successful network architecture: Increasing the number of training patterns
solution of some complicated problems not easily solved by provide more information about the shape of the solution
traditional modeling methods when the quality/quantity of data surface, and thus increases the potential level of accuracy that
is very limited. ANN models are black box models with can be achieved by the network. A large training pattern set,
particular properties, which are greatly suited to dynamic however can sometimes overwhelm certain training algorithms,
nonlinear system modeling. The main advantage of this thereby increasing the likelihood of an algorithm becoming
approach over traditional methods is that it does not require the stuck in a local error minimum. Consequently, there is no
complex nature of the underlying process under consideration to guarantee that adding more training patterns leads to improve
be explicitly described in mathematical form. ANN applications solution. Moreover, there is a limit to the amount of information
in hydrology vary, from real time to event based modeling.The that can be modeled by a network that comprises a fixed number
most popular ANN architecture in hydrologic modeling is the of hidden neurons. The time required to train a network
multilayer perceptron (MLP) trained with BP algorithm (ASCE increases with the number of patterns in the training set. The
2000(a, b)). A multilayer perceptron network consists of an input critical aspect is the choice of the number of nodes in the hidden
layer, one or more hidden layers of computation nodes, and an layer and hence the number of connection weights. Based on the
output layer. The number of input and output nodes is physical knowledge of the problem and statistical analysis,
determined by the nature of the actual input and output variables. different combinations of antecedent values of the time series
The number of hidden nodes, however, depends on the were considered as input nodes. The output node is the time
complexity of the mathematical nature of the problem, and is series data to be predicted in one step ahead. Time series data
determined by the modeler, often by trial and error. The input was standardized for zero mean and unit variation, and then
signal propagates through the network in a forward direction, normalized into 0 to 1. The activation function used for the
layer by layer. Each hidden and output node processes its input hidden and output layer was logarithmic sigmoidal and pure
by multiplying each of its input values by a weight, summing the linear function respectively. For deciding the optimal hidden
product and then passing the sum through a nonlinear transfer neurons, a trial and error procedure started with two hidden
function to produce a result. For the training process, where neurons initially, and the number of hidden neurons was
weights are selected, the neural network uses the gradient increased up to 10 with a step size of 1 in each trial. For each set
descent method to modify the randomly selected weights of the of hidden neurons, the network was trained in batch mode to
nodes in response to the errors between the actual output values minimize the mean square error at the output layer. In order to
and the target values. This process is referred to as training or check any over fitting during training, a cross validation was
learning. It stops when the errors are minimized or another performed by keeping track of the efficiency by fitted model.
stopping criterion is met. The Back Propagation Neural Network The training was stopped when there was no significant
(BPNN) can be expressed as improvement in the efficiency, and the model was then tested for

its generalization properties. Figure 2 shows the multilayer Parameter Total Calibration Validation
perceptron (MLP) neural network architecture when the original Minimum 0.00 0.00 0.00
Maximum 394.40 317.10 394.40
signal taken as input of the neural network architecture. method Mean 3.68 3.66 3.72
of combining wavelet analysis with ANN: The decomposed Standard deviation 15.48 15.03 15.01
details (D) and approximation (A) were taken as inputs to neural Skew ness 9.75 8.66 9.99
network structure as shown in Figure 3, where i is the level of
decomposition varying from 1 to I and j is the number of
antecedent values varying from 0 to J and N is the length of the
time series. To obtain the optimal weights (parameters) of the
neural network structure, LM back propagation algorithm was
used to train the network. A standard MLP with a logarithmic
tangent sigmoid transfer function for the hidden layer and log
sigmoid transfer function for the output layer were used in the
analysis. The number of hidden nodes was determined by trial
and error procedure. The output node will be the original value
at one step ahead. Performance criteria: The performance of
various models during calibration and validation were evaluated
by using the statistical indices: the Root Mean Squared Error
(RMSE), Correlation Coefficient (R) and Coefficient of
Efficiency (COE).
Figure 4. Location of IMD Nunganbakkam rain gauge station in

the Chennai City
5. DEVELOPMENT OF WAVELET NEURAL NETWORK

(WNN) MODEL
The original time series was decomposed into Details and

Approximations to certain number of sub-time series {D1, D2,
Dp, Ap} by wavelet transform algorithm. These play different
role in the original time series and the behavior of each sub-time
series is distinct (Wang and Ding, 2003). So the contribution to
Figure 2. Signal data based Figure 3. Wavelet based original time series varies from each successive approximations
multilayer perceptron (MLP) multilayer perceptron (MLP) being decomposed in turn, so that one signal is broken down into
neural network structure. neural network structure. many lower resolution components, tested using different scales
from 1 to 10 with different sliding window amplitudes. In this
4. STUDY AREA context, dealing with a very irregular signal shape, an irregular
wavelet, the Daubechies wavelet of order 5 (DB5), has been
Chennai (earlier called as Madras) was established in 1639, as used at level 3. Consequently, D1, D2, D3 were detail time series,
one of the East India companys earliest trading ports and later and A3 was the approximation time series. An ANN was
became the center for the companys control over southern constructed in which the sub-series {D1, D2, D3, A3} at time t are
India. The Chennai Metropolis is expected to become one of the input of ANN and the original time series at t + T time are output
Mega Cities in the world with more than 10 million populations, of ANN, where T is the length of time to forecast. The input
in the next 10 years. The Chennai city Corporation with 176 sq. nodes are the antecedent values of the time series and were
km area may have to accommodate about 59-lakh population presented in Table 1. The Wavelet Neural Network model
while rest of the metropolitan area with the extent of 1013 sq. (WNN) was formed in which the weights are learned with Feed
km will accommodate about 66 lakh population by 2026. Mean forward neural network with Back Propagation algorithm. The
annual rainfall in Chennai metropolitan is about 1200 mm and number of hidden neurons for BPNN was deter-mined by trial
mean rainy days are about 52 days and figure 4 shown the and error procedure.
location IMD Nunganbakkam rain gauge station in the Chennai
City. Table 1 depicts the statistical parameters of 29 years (1981- Table 1. Model Inputs
2009) the daily rainfall series data sets of the rain gauge station Model I X (t) = f (x [t-1])
Model II X (t) = f (x [t-1], x [t-2])
Model III X (t) = f (x [t-1], x [t-2], x [t-3])
Table 1: Statistical analysis for training, testing, and all data sets Model IV X (t) = f (x [t-1], x [t-2], x [t-3], x [t-4])
of the IMD Nunganbakkam rain gauge station in the Chennai Model V X (t) = f (x [t-1], x [t-2], x [t-3], x [t-4], x [t-5])
City. Model VI X (t) = f (x [t-1], x [t-2], x [t-3], x [t-4], x [t-5] x [t-6])

To forecast the rainfall at Nunganbakkam gauging station of

IMD Chennai (Fig. 4), the daily rainfall data of 29 years from
1981-2009was used. The first nineteen years (1981-1999) data
were used for training of the model, and the remaining ten years
(2000-2009) data were used for validation. The model inputs
(Table 1) were decomposed by wavelets and decomposed sub-
series were taken as input to ANN. ANN was trained using back
propagation with LM algorithm. The optimal number of hidden
neurons was determined as six by trial and error procedure. The
performance of various models estimated to forecast the rainfall
was presented in Table 2.
From Table 2, it is found that low RMSE values
(3.0236mm to 8.9116mm), correlation coefficient (0.9733 to
0.6897) and coefficient of efficiency (45.7995% to 96.5419%)
for WNN models when compared to ANN and AR models. It
has been observed that WNN models estimated the peak values
of rainfall to a reasonable accuracy (peak rainfall in the data
series is 394.40 mm). Further, it is observed that the WNN
model having four antecedent values of the time series,
estimated minimum RMSE (4.5803mm), high correlation
coefficient (0.9497) and coefficient of efficiency (>90%) during
the validation period. The model IV of WNN was selected as the
best fit model to forecast the rainfall one-day in advance. Model
performance criteria graphs figure 5 and 6 gives the model IV
higher value of correlation coefficient (R) with minimum root
mean square error (RMSE) and maximum coefficient efficiency
(COE).
Table 2. Goodness of fit statistics of the calibration and

validation for the forecasted rainfall.
Figure 5. Model Performance Figure 6. Model

Criteria graph between Performance Criteria
Correlation coefficient (R) graph between
and root mean square error Correlation coefficient
(RMSE) to forecast rainfall (R) and coefficient of
during validation. efficiency (COE) to
forecast rainfall during
validation.
Figure 7 to 10, shows the observed and modeled graphs

for ANN and WNN models respectively. It is found that values
modeled from WNN model properly matched with the observed
values, whereas ANN model underestimated the observed
values. From this analysis, it is evident that the performance of
WNN was much better than ANN and AR models in forecasting
the rainfall.
7. CONCLUSIONS
xi. Maheswaran, R. and Khosa, R (2012). Comparative study of

different wavelets for hydrologic forecasting. Computers and Geosciences, 46,
This paper reports a hybrid model called wavelet based neural
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network model for time series modeling of rainfall. The xii. Misiti, M., Misiti, Y., Oppenheim, G., and Poggi, J (2010). Wavelet
proposed model is a combination of wavelet analysis and toolbox: For use with MATLAB, The MathWorks, Natic,Mass
artificial neural network (WNN). Wavelet decomposes the time xiii. Nourani, V., Kisi,O., Komasi, M (2011) Two hybrid artificial
intelligence approaches for modeling rainfall runoff process. Journal of
series into multilevels of details and it can adopt multiresolution
Hydrology, 402, 41-49.
analysis and effectively diagnose the main frequency component xiv. Nourani, V., Komasi, M., Mano, A (2009). A Multivariate ANN
of the signal and abstract local information of the time series. Wavelet Approach for Rainfall-Runoff Modeling. Water Resources Manage, 23,
The proposed WNN model has been applied to daily rainfall of 2877-2894.
xv. Partal, T., and Cigizoglu, H., K (2008). Estimation and forecasting
Nunganbakkam gauging station, IMD Chennai India. The time
of daily suspended sediment data using wavelet-neural networks. J. of
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Each of the sub-series plays distinct role in original time series. xvi. Rajaee, T., Nourani, V., Kermani, M. Z., Kisi, O (2011). River
Appropriate sub-series of the variable used as inputs to the ANN suspended sediment load prediction: Application of ANN and wavelet
conjunction model. ASCE J. Hydrologic Engg., 16(8), August, 613-627.
model and original time series of the variable as output. From
xvii. Ramana. . R. V. , Krishna B., Kumar S.R.and Pandey N. G. (2013)
the current study it is found that the proposed wavelet neural Monthly Rainfall Prediction using Wavelet Neural Network analysis Journal of
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gauging station. In the analysis, original signals are represented 4).
xviii. Rumelhart, D. E., Hinton G. E. and Williams, R. J (1986). Lear-
in different resolution by discrete wavelet transformation;
ning Representations by Back-Propagating Errors, Nature, Vol. 323, No. 9, pp.
therefore, the WNN forecasts are more accurate than that 533-536.
obtained directly by original signals. Where rainfall prediction is xix. Sehgal. V, Sahay. R. R, and Chatterjee. C (2014).Effect of
needed in several hydrological models, WNN can be applied to Utilization of Discrete Wavelet Components on Flood Forecasting
Performance of Wavelet Based ANFIS Models. Journal of water Resources
those models in order to make irrigation or water resources
Management. Volume 28,Issue 6, pp 1733-1749.
planning management more effective. xx. Wang, W., Ding, J., Xiang, H (2002). The multi-time scale analysis
of hydrological time series with wavelet transform. J. of Sichuan university,
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 35(4),14-17.
xxi. Wang, W., Hu, S., Li, Y (2011). Wavelet transform method for
synthetic generation of daily streamflow. Water Resources Management, 25:41-
Authors are thankful to Dr R. D. Singh, Director, NIH, Roorkee 57.
and Dr J. V. Tyagi, Scientist G and Coordinator, DRC, xxii. Zhou, H.C., Peng, Y., Liang, G-H (2008). The research of monthly
Kakinada for their encouragement to submit the paper. discharge predictor corrector model based on wavelet decomposition. Water
Resources Management, 22; 217-227.
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forecasting method for snowmelt driven floods based on wavelet and cross- Agriculture Water Consumption In Madhya
wavelet analysis. Journal of Hydrology, 353, 247-266.
ii. Adamowski, J. & Sun, K. (2010). Development of a coupled wavelet
Pradesh An Analysis From Virtual Water
transform and neural network method for flow forecasting of non-perennial Perspective
rivers in semi-arid watersheds. Journal of Hydrology, 390(1-2): 85-91.
iii. Akrami. S. A, Nourani. V and Hakim. S.J.S (2014) Development
of Nonlinear Model Based on Wavelet-ANFIS for Rainfall Forecasting at Vivek K. Bhatt1 Dr. J.S. Chouhan2
1
Klang Gates Dam. Journal of water Resources Management. DOI MP Water And Land Management Institute, PB No 538, RS
10.1007/s11269-014-0651-x, Online ISSN 1573-1650. Nagar PO, Bhopal, 462016, India
iv. ASCE Task Committee, 2000(a) Artificial Neural Networks in 2
hydrology-I: Preliminary Concepts, Journal of Hydrolo- gic Engineering, Vol.
Professor and Head, Samrat Ashok Technological Institute,
5, No. 2, pp. 115-123. Vidisha, India
v. ASCE Task Committee, 2000(b) Artificial Neural Networks in Email: vivekbhatt64@gmail.com
Hydrology-II: Hydrologic Applications, Journal of Hydrologic Engineering,
Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 124- 137.
vi. Aussem, A. and Murtagh, F. (1997) Combining Neural Network
ABSTRACT :The ultimate purpose of water management is to
Forecasts on Wavelet Transformed Series, Connection Science, Vol. 9, No. 1, ensure availability of water in right quantity, at right time and
pp. 113-121. at right place. Recently, scarcity of water resources has been
vii. Coulibaly, P., Anctil, F.., Rasmussen, P.and Bobee, B (2000). A witnessed in different areas. This can be attributed to rising
Recurrent Neural Networks Approach Using Indices of Low-Frequency Climatic
Variability to Forecast Regional Annual Runoff, Hydrological Processes, Vol.
water demands primarily due to population increase and
14, No. 15, 2755-2777. improvement in living standards, leading to increased demand
viii. Deka, P. C., and Prahlada, R. Discrete wavelet neural network for agriculture and other competing sectors like domestic,
approach in significant wave height forecasting for multistep lead time. Ocean industry and energy, on demand side, while on the supply side,
Engineering, 43, 32-42, 2012.
ix. Khandekar, S. D., and Deka, P. C (2012). Wavelet-neural network
erratic rainfall, both in terms of quantity and distribution,
conjunction model in flow forecasting of sub-Himalayan river Brahmaputra. indiscriminate exploitation of groundwater, inadequate
Int. J. of Civil Engg. and Technology, 3 (2), 415-425. recharge and poor water management in agriculture.
x. Kisi, O. (2009). Neural networks and wavelet conjunction model for
intermittent stream flow forecasting. Journal of Hydrologic Engineering, 14(8):
773-782. Water, a limited resource, is gradually becoming an economic
good. Many approaches, both software and hardware, have

been attempted for improving water management. Virtual needed to raise a certain quantity of food. Virtual water is the
water has been defined as the water embedded in production of water used in production, rather than the water contained in the
a commodity or service. Due to inefficient use of water, the product. Water contained in the product is a fraction of the water
virtual water content related to processes of production is used in production (Berriittella et.al. 2007). The precise volume
large. Virtual water approach has generally been used in can be more or less depending on climatic conditions and
context of national or regional transfer of water through agricultural practice. Chapagain and Hoekstra have defined the
commodities, referred as virtual water trade. However, it can virtual-water content of a product (a commodity, good or
also be used as an assessment tool for managing the overall service) as "the volume of freshwater used to produce the
regional water availability. In Madhya Pradesh(MP), more product, measured at the place where the product was actually
than 90% of the water is used for irrigation. Inefficiency and produced". It refers to the sum of the water use in the various
irresponsibility in water resources management pose a serious steps of the production chain (Chapagain & Hoekstra, 2004).
threat to water security and sustainability.
Thus, at the stage of harvesting, in most of the crops, there is
In the present study, an analysis of regional water more than about 99 percent of virtual water. This virtual water
consumption in agriculture from virtual water content consumption may be attributed to losses in main/branch canals/
perspective has been made for agro-climatic zones of MP. By distributaries, minors & subminors, losses in field channels and
vigilant examination and introducing suitable local and water courses and losses in field application i.e. during
regional interventions in agriculture production processes, a application of irrigation water to individual farm plots as well
large amount of water embedded in agriculture produce may water lost by crop in its consumptive use which includes water
be unlocked for fulfilling competing demands from other used by in evapo-transpiration and metabolic activities. On the
sectors of economy. availability side, the total water of a region or individual may
Keywords: virtual water, agriculture, agroclimatic regions, comprise of two components: the blue water and the green
green water, blue water water. The blue water resources include surface water and
ground water like rivers, lakes, ponds, aquifers etc. to fulfill the
1. INTRODUCTION: national, regional or individual demand for goods and services.
The green water resources refer to water stored in soil as soil
Water management has been an important issue since ages and is moisture to fulfill the demand for goods and services.
a burning issue now a days. Reliable water supplies mean
providing water at right time, at right place and in right quantity. 1.1 Agroclimatic Zones of Madhya Pradesh
Water has multiple uses. Due to many unaddressed challenges in
water management, acute scarcity of water is being felt in many Virtual water content of a product depends upon the technology
areas. Similar situation is creeping in other areas also. The and conditions of production. Considerable saving of water is
situation is further worsening due to competing in water possible if water-efficient technology is employed to produce the
demands among various other sectors of economy. The quantity product. Further, water consumed in a production process also
of water received through rainfall is more or less constant. With depends upon climate; more water is needed to produce each
the increase in population the per capita availability of water is unit of a crop in arid climates compared to that in humid areas.
constantly decreasing. (Kumar & Jain, 2007)
Management of water has been a challenge since ages and has Madhya Pradesh has been divided into 11 agroclimatic zones
been addressed through various approaches. It is said that there depending on Soil, rainfall and climatic conditions. Districts
cannot be a management without measurement. For irrigation covered by various agro-climatic zones have been shown in
projects, water use efficiency approach is used for economizing Figure 1. (Tomar, Gupta, & Kaushal, 1995).
in the use of water. This approach is comparatively general in
nature. Agriculture is the largest consumer of water all over the
world. In Madhya Pradesh more than 90 % of water is used in
agriculture. It has been pointed out in many forums that
agriculture is also the most inefficient user of water. It consumes
water in different phases and places for crop production.
Concept of virtual water can be used to understand the
consumption pattern of water in the process of agriculture
production. Virtual water (also known as embedded
water, embodied water, or hidden water) is the amount of water
that is embedded in food or other products needed for its
production. The term virtual water was first used by Tony Allan
in relation to food imports in Middle East and North African
region in the year 1997. His argument was that countries in the
Middle East can save their scarce water resources by relying
more on import of food instead of producing food locally (Allan,
1997). He explained "Virtual water" as the amount of water

In the study major crops have been included which represent

about 89 % of area and about 85% state's of production. The
production data has been taken from Commissioner Land
Records.
Owing to the data availability constraints of all the crops for the
all the years of the period considered in the present work, the
crops have been taken up for examining the role of virtual water
were Paddy, Sorghum, Bajra, Maize,Wheat, Barley, Gram,
Arhar, Sugarcane, Groundnut, Linseed, Soybean and Cotton.
The data for period 2000-2010 was considered in the study.
The data for the last decade has been analysed and the average
share of virtual water of soybean has been the highest which is
followed by wheat, gram and cotton. The overall share of
different crops selected under the study has been shown in figure
2.
Figure 1. Agroclimatic Zones of Madhya Pradesh
In the present study, an estimation of virtual water content in

agriculture production of the state has been made for different
agro-climatic zones of Madhya Pradesh. The paper analyses
regional water consumption in agriculture sector in the state of
Madhya Pradesh with virtual water content perspective. It also
examines the prospects of using virtual water concept in
improving water use efficiency of irrigation projects.
Agriculture is the largest consumer of water. Further, water

consumed in a production process also depends upon climate. In
arid climates more water is needed to produce each unit of a
crop as compared to that in humid areas. (Kumar & Jain, 2007). Figure 2. Average share of different crops in virtual water
Therefore, the regionwise analysis of virtual water for the state during the period.
has been done considering agroclimatic zones.
The variation of virtual water content of different crops for over
Chapagain and Hoekstra (2004) have given detailed the period 2000-10 has been shown in Figure 3.
methodology to estimate the virtual water content of various
products. The virtual water content of a crop in a country is
calculated as the ratio of total water used for the production of
the crop to the total volume of the crop produced in that country.
Crop water use is assumed to be equal to the crop water
requirement, which is calculated by accumulation of data on
daily crop evapotranspiration over the complete growing period.
Crop water requirements for different crops have been calculated
using the CROPWAT model of the Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO), United Nations. Accordingly, (Kumar &
Jain, 2007) have given the virtual water content of different
crops for India. Using the virtual water content values, the
virtual water content of different agricultural crops in various
climatic zones of Madhya Pradesh has been worked out in the
present study.

Figure 3. Yearwise Virtual water content of major crops

.
The yearwise variation of total virtual water volume for different Figure 5. Yearwise share of virtual water volume in total
agroclimatic zones in crops considered under the study is shown rainfall volume for different agroclimatic zones
in Figure 4. It is seen that Malwa Plateau has highest virtual
water content and thus is highest consumer of water in A comparison of virtual water content in different agro-climatic
agriculture which is followed by Vindhya Plateau, Khymore zones for year 2000 and year 2010 is shown the Figure 5.
and Satpura Hillls, Gird Region and Central Narmada Valley.
However, when considering the virtual water volume as a
percentage of total rainfall volume over the respective
agroclimatic zone, Malwa Plateau tops in the consumption
followed by Central Narmada Valley, Vindhya Plateau, Gird
Region, Nimar Plains and Satpura Plateau as evident in Figure 5.
Figure 4. Yearwise virtual water volume of different

agroclimatic zones There has been a substantial increase virtual water content in the
period except for Bundelkhand region. The % increase in virtual
water content in the period is given in Table 1.

Table 1. Change in cropped area and virtual water content in objectives and political considerations (Aldaya, Hoekstra, &
year 2010 Allan, 2008).
(as % values of year 2000)
4. CONCLUSIONS
Agriculture sector is the largest consumer of water in the country

and Madhya Pradesh. With the increase in population there has
been an increasing load on water resources to match the water
demands of population. An analysis by virtual water approach
may provide a common platform for issues related to regional
water management. For sustainable water management in the
state and respective agroclimatic regions, the interventions for
blue water management and green water management need to be
indentified to ensure optimum consumption of water. The
savings resulting from efforts for efficient use of water, both
hardware and software, including technological, managerial and
policy interventions in agriculture will help in reducing virtual
water content of agriculture products. By vigilant examination
and introducing suitable interventions for improvement in
agriculture production processes, a large amount of water
embedded in agriculture produce may be unlocked which may
be used for fulfilling competing demands from other sectors of
economy.
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content in these agroclimatic zones has increased. equilibrium analysis. Water Research , 41.
iv. Chapagain, A. K., & Hoekstra, A. Y. (2004). Water footprints of
Rabi area in the state has shown significant increase of 43% nations. UNESCO-IHE Delft. Delft, The Netherlands: UNESCO-IHE Delft.
v. Kumar, V., & Jain, S. K. (2007). Status of virtual water trade form
against kharif area which is about 10%. As rabi areas are
India. Current Science , 93 (8).
dependent on blue water sources hence this is an important vi. Tomar, V. S., Gupta, G. P., & Kaushal, G. S. (1995). Soil Resources
indication on emphasizing need for better irrigation methods as and Agroclimatic Zones of Madhya Pradesh. Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, India:
well as initiatives for conservation of water through storage and Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, JNKVV.
recharge. This trend also points towards increasing stress on
groundwater resources, which may adversely affect the water
balance in as well as among the regions. Virtual water content
of a product depends upon the technology and conditions of
production. Considerable saving of water is possible if water-
efficient technology is employed to produce the product (Kumar
& Jain, 2007).
Kharif crops take water mostly from green water resources. Thus
the large increase in virtual water content in kharif crops is
manageable. Aldaya et. al.(2008) have critically evaluated the
strategic importance and implications of green virtual water in
relation to international crop trade. As per their study, due to a Development Of Generalized Neural Network
lower opportunity cost, the use of green water in the production
of crops is considered more sustainable than the use of blue
Based Eto Models From Limited Climatic Data
water. The importance of international green virtual-water For Different Agro-Ecological Regions In India
trade and its contribution to water security in the future will
depend on factors such as the productivity of blue and green Sirisha Adamala1 N.S. Raghuwanshi2 Ashok Mishra3
water, water pricing, international trade agreements, the costs of
engaging in trade, and the nature of domestic economic

1
Research Scholar, Agricultural and Food Engineering (iii) prone to over-fitting, and (iv) no reproducibility of results
Department, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), for the same set of data when they are run several times using
Kharagpur-721302, India, E-mail: different initial weights.
sirisha@agfe.iitkgp.ernet.in
2
Professor, Agricultural and Food Engineering Department, To overcome the above limitations associated with the LSN
IIT, Kharagpur, E-mail: nsr@agfe.iitkgp.ernet.in models, many researchers have focused on using quadratic
3
Associate Professor, Agricultural and Food Engineering synaptic neural (QSN) models which employ a second order
Department, IIT, Kharagpur, E-mail: synaptic operation between inputs and synaptic weights to
amishra@agfe.iitkgp.ernet.in extract non-linear correlations (Chakra et al., 2013). The QSN
models are capable of capturing not only the first order
ABSTRACT: This study aims at developing generalized correlations but also the second-order correlations that exist
quadratic synaptic neural (GQSN) reference between the components of the input patterns. This property
evapotranspiration (ETo) models corresponding to Hargreaves makes them superior models as compared to the LSN models.
(HG) method. The GQSN models were developed using pooled One limitation associated with these QSN models is their lack of
climate data of different locations under four agro-ecological generalizing capability because they are applicable to those
regions in India. The inputs for the development of GQSN locations data which are used in training or model development
models include daily climate data of minimum, maximum air (so these locations are indicated as model development
temperatures and extra terrestrial radiation and the target locations). When new location data i.e. data not used during
consists of the FAO-56 PM estimated ETo. The performance model development (so these locations are represented as model
indices used for comparison include root mean squared error test locations) are given to developed network, is fails to
and coefficient of determination. Based on the comparisons, it provide good performance: indicating poor generalizing
is concluded that the GQSN along with generalized linear capacity. This limitation can be overcome by developing
synaptic neural (GLSN) models performed better than generalized quadratic synaptic neural (GQSN) and generalized
conventional HG method. Comparison of GQSN and GLSN linear synaptic neural (GLSN) models which not only perform
models among themselves, reveal that the GQSN models well for model development locations but also for model test
performed superior than the GLSN models for all regions. locations. This can be achieved by considering pooled data of
Further, GQSN models were applied to model development and various locations which have properties of both spatial and
model testing locations to test the generalizing capability. The altitudinal variations during model development.
testing results suggest that, the GQSN and GLSN models have
a good generalizing capability for almost all regions. In a developing country like India with higher spatial variation
in climate, the required climatic data for ET o estimation may be
Keywords: Neural networks, synaptic operation, higher-order, difficult to obtain at all locations. The most readily available
evapotranspiration data for India may be the maximum and minimum air
temperatures. This shows the need of developing GQSN models
1. INTRODUCTION with minimum available climatic input data for ET o estimation.
Therefore, for the purpose of this study, the Hargreaves (HG)
Reference evapotranspiration (ET o) is one of the significant method is selected. Therefore, the objectives of this study are
components of the hydrologic cycle. Accurate estimation of ET o formulated as: (i) to develop GQSN models for the estimation of
is important for carrying out many water resources and ETo for different agro-ecological regions (AERs) (semi-arid, arid,
hydrological studies. There exist a number of direct and indirect sub-humid, and humid) of India corresponding to HG method;
ETo estimation methods. But, most of the existing ET o estimation (ii) to compare the developed GQSN models with the GLSN
methods have the number of limitations such as errors in models; and (iii) to test the generalizing capability of GQSN
measurement, lack of data availability, applicability to specific models to model development locations and model test
locations etc. (Adamala et al., 2014). To avoid the limitations of locations.
existing ETo models, the artificial neural networks (ANNs) are
used in ETo modeling. These ANNs can model the complex non- 2. METHODOLOGY
linear ETo without having a complete understanding of it.
Generally ANNs are characterized as first order or higher order Generally, neural networks are categorized as GLSN and GQSN
depending on the synaptic operation involved in a node or models based on type of synaptic operation. The processing of
neuron (Gupta et al., 2003). The most widely used multilayer information in any biological or artificial neural models involves
feed-forward neural network models are also called as first- two distinct operations: (a) synaptic operation; and (b) somatic
order neural networks or linear synaptic neural (LSN) models. operation. In synaptic operation, different weights are assigned
These employ a linear correlation between the input vector and to each input matrix based on past experience or knowledge with
the synaptic weight vector and they can capture only first-order an addition of bias or threshold. In somatic operation, the
correlations between inputs and weights. Kumar et al. (2011) synaptic output is applied to a nonlinear activation function
presented an exhaustive review on ET o modeling using different
LSN models. These LSN models can exhibit some of the
( . ). Mathematical representation of synaptic and somatic
limitations such as (i) long training times to a solution, (ii) no operations in a neural network is shown in Eqs. (1) and (2),
guarantee of convergence and nature to stuck in local optima, respectively.

n arid, sub-humid, and humid with 8, 3, 9, and 5 locations lie in

y wi xi w0 x0 w1 x1 ... wn xn respective regions. Table 1 presents (1) information related to
i 0 altitude and observation periods of the chosen locations.
z y (2)
2.4 Data preparation
where y = neural synaptic output; z = neural somatic output; w0 =
threshold weight; x0 = constant bias (=1); xi = neural inputs at For the development of GQSN models for different AERs,
th th
i step; wi = synaptic weights at i step; and = activation
locations having daily data for the period of 2001-05 were
chosen. The data were divided into training, validation, and
function (sigmoidal). testing sets. The locations with Tr, V, Ts role (Table 1) were
used to develop GQSN models (model development locations).
2.1 Generalized linear synaptic neural (GLSN) model These locations for the model development were selected due to
the availability of a larger set of data as compared to other
In GLSN model, the synaptic operation is of the first order locations during the study period. For these locations, 70% and
which means that there exist only first order correlations in 30% of data for the period of 2001-04 were used for training and
between its inputs and synaptic weights. Let N and n be the order validation, respectively. The data for the year 2005 were used
and the number of inputs to the neuron, respectively. For N = 1, for model testing. The data were pooled from (PR, SL, BN, KV,
the mathematical expression of GLSN model is given as and UD), (AT and HS), (RP, FZ, LD, and RN), and (PL, JR,
(Redlapalli, 2004): MH, and DP) locations to develop GQSN models for semi-arid,
n arid, sub-humid, and humid regions, respectively. To test the
z N 1 wi xi (3) models (applicability or
generalizing capability of developed
i1 0
1 1
testing only), the data from remaining locations that were not
used during model development which consists different
where xi1 = neural inputs at i1th step; wi = synaptic weights at i1th observation periods were used. The locations with only Ts role
step. (Table 1) were used to test the generalizing capability of the
developed models (model testing locations). For example, the
pooled data of 2001-04 and 2005 for the locations lie in semi-
arid region (PR, SL, BN, KV, and UD) were used to train
2.2 Generalized quadratic synaptic neural (GQSN) model (validation also) and test GQSN models, respectively. The
generalizing capability of GQSN models was tested using data
In GQSN model, the synaptic operation in a neural unit or a from locations (KN, AN, and AK) that were not included during
node is of the second order which means that there exists not development in semi-arid region. In a similar way, different
only first order but also second order correlations with second GQSN models were developed and tested for their
order terms between inputs and synaptic weights. For N = 2, the generalization capabilities under arid, sub-humid, and humid
mathematical model of GQSN is represented as (Redlapalli, regions.
2004):
n n Table-1: Characteristics and summary statistics of daily FAO-56
z N 2 wi1i2 xi1 xi2 PM ETo for the study
(4) locations
i1 0 i2 i1
where xi2 = neural inputs at i2th step; wi1i2 = synaptic weights at Location Index Alt. (m) Rolea Period
i1 i2th step. Semi-arid
Parbhani PR 423 Tr, V, Ts 2001-05
2.3 Study area and climate data
Solapur SL 25 Tr, V, Ts 2001-05
The climatic data required to carry out this study were collected Bangalore BN 930 Tr, V, Ts 2001-05
from All India Coordinated Research Project on Kovilpatti KV 90 Tr, V, Ts 2001-05
Agrometeorology (AICRPAM), Central Research Institute for
Udaipur UD 433 Tr, V, Ts 2001-05
Dryland Agriculture (CRIDA), Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh,
India. The data sample consisted of daily climate data of Kanpur KN 126 Ts 2004-05
minimum air temperature (Tmin), maximum air temperature Anand AN 45 Ts 2002-05
(Tmax), and extra terrestrial radiation (Ra). Due to the Akola AK 482 Ts 2001-03
unavailability of measured lysimeter ET o data for the selected Arid
study locations, it was estimated by the FAO-56 PM method Anantapur AT 350 Tr, V, Ts 2001-05
which is proposed as the sole and standard method for the HS
Hissar 215 Tr, V, Ts 2001-05
computation of ETo in the absence of lysimeter data (Allen et al.,
1998). The data pertaining to 25 meteorological stations Bijapur BJ 594 Ts 2001-04
distributed over four agro-ecological regions (AERs): semi-arid, Sub-humid

Raipur RP 298 Tr, V, Ts 2001-05 equal to 0 and 1, respectively. The inputs for developing GQSN
FZ models include Tmax, Tmin and Ra and the target consists of the
Faizabad 133 Tr, V, Ts 2001-05
FAO-56 PM ETo. During model development, the training of the
Ludhiana LD 247 Tr, V, Ts 2001-05 network starts with random initialization of weights and
Ranichauri RN 1600 Tr, V, Ts 2001-05 proceeds by applying Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm which
Jabalpur JB 393 Ts 2002-05 simply tries to find those weights which optimize an error
function (RMSE). Sigmoidal activation function was employed
Samastipur SM 52 Ts 2004-05 in the output layer neurons. The optimum number of hidden
Bhubaneshwar BB 25 Ts 2002-05 nodes were found as i+1 and 2 (where i = number of nodes in the
Ranchi RC 625 Ts 2005 input layer) for GLSN and GQSN models, respectively after
number of trial and error experiments with 1 to 15 hidden nodes
Rakh Dhiansar RD 332 Ts 2005
based on minimum RMSE criteria. For developing GQSN based
Humid daily ETo models, the code was written using Matlab 7.0
Palampur PL 1291 Tr, V, Ts 2001-05 programming language.
Jorhat JR 86 Tr, V, Ts 2001-05
MH 2.7 Performance evaluation
Mohanpur 10 Tr, V, Ts 2001-05
Dapoli DP 250 Tr, V, Ts 2001-05 In order to evaluate the performance of the GQSN models, two
Thrissur TR 26 Ts 2001-04 statistical indices, namely, the root mean squared error (RMSE,
mm day-1) and coefficient of determination (R2, dimensionless)
Note: a Tr: Train; V: Validation; and Ts: Test
were considered. The expressions for the aforementioned
statistical indices are given below.
2.5 Estimation of ETo
1 n
The HG method uses only temperature and latitude data for RMSE =
(Ti - Oi )2
n i 1
estimating ETo. The Hargreaves equation is one of the simplest
equations used to estimate ETo. It is expressed as: (7)
ETo = 0.0023Ra TD Tavg 17.8
2
n
R2 =
(5)
i 1

Oi - O Ti - T

where ETo = reference evapotranspiration (mm day-1); Ra =
O - O T - T
n 2 n 2
extraterrestrial solar radiation (function of latitude and day of the
i i
year) (MJ m-2 day-1); Tmax= maximum daily air temperature at 2 i 1 i 1
m height (oC); Tmin= minimum daily air temperature at 2 m (8)
height (oC); TD = difference between Tmax and Tmin (oC); Tavg =
average daily air temperature at 2 m height (oC). where Ti and Oi = target (FAO-56 PM ETo) and output (ETo
resulted from GQSN models) values at the ith step, respectively;
The FAO of the United Nations reported that the definition ETo
from Smith et al. (1997) and it accepted the FAO-56 PM method n = number of data points; T and O = average of target and
as a standard equation for estimating ET o and for evaluating output values, respectively.
other methods (Allen et al., 1998).
3. RESULST AND DISCUSSION
900
0.408 Rn G Ws es ea
Tavg 273 All the GQSN models were trained with the above mentioned
ETo = (6)
1 0.34Ws criteria during model development and after each training run,
the performance indices such as RMSE and R2 were calculated
using training and validation data set, to find the optimum neural
where ETo = reference evapotranspiration (mm day-1); Rn = daily network. This section presents the best achieved results of
net solar radiation (MJ m-2 day-1); G = soil heat flux (MJ m-2 day- GQSN models corresponding to HG conventional ET o method
1 under four AERs during testing.
); es = saturation vapor pressure (kPa); ea = actual vapor
pressure (kPa); = slope of saturation vapor pressure versus air
temperature curve (kPa oC-1); Ws = wind speed at 2 m height (m 3.1 Simulation results of developed GQSN models
s-1); = psychrometric constant (kPa oC-1).
2.6 Preprocessing and parameters estimation criteria Table 2 shows the performance of GQSN, GLSN and HG
models in terms of RMSE and R2 under four different AERs.
As a priori step in developing GQSN models, normalization The GQSN models were compared with the GLSN models to
process before presenting data as input to network and test the relative performance of second order over first order
denormalization procedure after developing optimum network neural models. Further, both the GLSN and GQSN models were
were performed using a Matlab built-in function called mapstd compared with the conventional HG method to test the accuracy
which processes data such that its mean and standard deviation of neural models. Fig. 1 shows the scatter plots and part of Table

3 confirms the performance statistics in terms of RMSE and R2

of HG estimated ETo with respect to the FAO-56 PM under four
AERs. The GQSN models with RMSE (mm day-1) of 0.668,
0.911, 0.663 and 0.646 performed superior as compared to their
conventional method (HG) with RMSE (mm day-1) of 0.962,
1.247, 1.058 and 0.959 for semi-arid, arid, sub-humid, and
humid regions, respectively (Table 2). Similarly, the GQSN
models performed better than GLSN models for all regions.
These results suggest that the GQSN and GLSN models have
better accuracy compared to conventional methods for the
estimation of ETo.
Table-2: Performance statistics of HG, GLSN and GQSN Figure-2: Scatter plots of GQSN models with respect to FAO-
models during model development 56 PM ETo under (a) Semi-arid; (b) Arid; (c) Sub-humid; and (d)
Humid regions
AER Model RMSE (mm day-1) R2
HG 0.962 0.776 3.2 Application of GQSN models
Semi-arid GLSN 0.682 0.825
To test the generalizing capability of developed GQSN models
GQSN 0.668 0.830
under different regions, these were applied or tested with two
HG 1.247 0.685
different scenarios: (i) with individual locations data which are
Arid GLSN 1.023 0.771 used during model development (model development locations);
GQSN 0.911 0.820 and (ii) with new individual locations data which are not used
HG 1.058 0.812 during model development (model testing locations). Table 3
Sub-humid GLSN 0.671 0.869 shows the performance statistics of GQSN models with
GQSN 0.663 0.872 individual locations data under scenario (i) for different regions.
HG 0.959 0.724 Under semi-arid region, the GQSN models were tested for 5
Humid GLSN 0.663 0.739 locations, namely PR, SL, BN, KV, and UD (2005 year data for
GQSN 0.646 0.754 each individual location). Similarly, GQSN models were tested
with AT and HS (arid), RP, FZ, LD, and RN (sub-humid), and
PL, JR, MH, and DP (humid) locations data. For all the above
cases, performance of GQSN models was in the order of
GQSN>GLSN. Here the greater order indicates model with a
lower RMSE compared to others. The results conclude that the
under scenario (i) the performance of the GQSN models were
good compared to GLSN for all locations under four AERs.
Table-3: Performance statistics of models with model

development locations
Figure-1: Scatter plots of HG method with respect to the FAO- GLSN GQSN
56 PM under (a) Semi-arid, (b) Arid, (c) Sub-humid, and (d)
AER Location
Humid regions RMSE R2 RMSE R2
Due to the superior performance of GQSN models over other, PR 0.649 0.866 0.619 0.868
the scatter plots were drawn only for these models corresponding
SL 0.708 0.820 0.696 0.830
to four AERs and are shown in Fig. 2 which confirms the Semi-arid
statistics given in Table 2. Fig. 2 results illustrate that the BN 0.664 0.702 0.646 0.719
agreement between GQSN models simulated ET o with respect to KV 1.026 0.624 0.976 0.637
the FAO-56 PM was good for all regions except humid. The
UD 0.785 0.831 0.745 0.856
GQSN model, gave R2 values>0.820 in all regions except for
humid region (R2=0.754). The reason for this underperformance AT 1.094 0.680 0.973 0.721
Arid
might be due to the absence of relative humidity as an input HS 0.839 0.822 0.753 0.860
during model development because this is an important variable
RP 0.713 0.865 0.689 0.867
under humid region than other regions.
Sub-humid FZ 0.623 0.870 0.615 0.874
LD 0.659 0.897 0.653 0.897
RN 0.602 0.877 0.585 0.884
Humid PL 0.691 0.765 0.647 0.797

JR 0.706 0.547 0.686 0.558 1.27 0.8 0.57 0.81 0.57 0.8
RC
7 00 1 9 4 15
MH 0.647 0.765 0.590 0.796
1.55 0.7 0.65 0.83 0.66 0.8
DP 0.621 0.743 0.592 0.764 RD
0 86 3 7 2 33
-1
RMSE Unit = mm day Hum 0.93 0.4 1.49 0.03 1.45 0.0
TR
id 2 85 3 1 6 26
Table 4 illustrates the performance statistics of GQSN models RMSE Unit = mm day-1
with model testing locations under different regions (scenario
(ii)). Under semi-arid region, the GQSN models were tested for 4. CONCLUSIONS
three new locations, namely KN, AN, and AK. The performance
of these models for KN and AK were in the order of The ability of GQSN models corresponding to HG method to
GQSN>GLSN and for AN, the performance was GLSN>GQSN. estimate ETo using pooled daily climate data from different
Similarly, GQSN models were tested with different new locations under four AERs in India has been studies in this
locations data, namely BJ (arid), JB, SM, BB, RC, and RD (sub- paper. The GQSN models were compared with the GLSN
humid), TR (humid). The performance of the developed GQSN models find the relative performance of one model over the
models was in the order of GQSN>GLSN for all locations under other. To test the accuracy of GQSN and GLSN models, their
arid and humid; whereas in sub-humid the performance was performance was also compared with the conventional HG
GLSN>GQSN. Therefore, under the scenario (ii) the superior method. The developed GQSN models were tested with two
performance of GQSN models were achieved for almost all scenarios: (i) model development locations; and (ii) model
locations under four regions except sub-humid where GLSN testing locations to test the generalizing capability. The
models found better. Here most interesting point observed was comparative results of GQSN models with the GLSN models
that, at TR location (humid), both the developed models i.e. confirmed that the GQSN models yield superior performance for
GLSN and GQSN failed to show generalization (RMSE>1.456 all regions during model development. The developed GQSN
mm day-1). This may be due to the lack of relative humidity data and GLSN models performed much better than the
as input during model development because; this is the most corresponding conventional HG counterpart. During testing the
influential variable in humid regions. The GQSN models generalizing capability of GQSN models for the above two
performed better than their conventional counterpart (HG) for all scenarios, the GQSN models performed better than the GLSN
locations under four AERs except under humid region location models for all cases. Overall, better performance of GQSN
(TR). The GQSN model underperforms than its conventional models corresponding to HG conventional ETo estimation
HG method for TR location. However, this model needs to be method under different AERs in India showed that these models
tested on more humid locations. These results suggest that the not only have the better potential but also have the good
GQSN models have better accuracy compared to conventional generalizing capability.
method during their generalization testing also.
5. REFERENCES
i. Adamala S, Raghuwanshi NS, Mishra A, Tiwari MK (2014)

Evapotranspiration modeling using second-order neural networks. Journal of
Hydrologic Engineering 19(6): 1131-1140
Table-4: Performance statistics of models with model testing ii. Allen RG, Pereira LS, Raes D, Smith M (1998) Crop
locations evapotranspiration: Guidelines for computing crop water requirements. FAO
Irrigation and Drainage Paper no. 56, Rome, Italy
iii. Chakra NC, Song KY, Gupta MM, Saraf DN (2013) An innovative
HG GLSN GQSN neural forecast of cumulative oil production from a petroleum reservoir
AE Locati
RM RM RM employing higher-order neural networks (HONNs). Journal of Petroleum
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iv. Gupta MM, Jin L, Homma N (2003) Static and dynamic neural
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8 99 5 5 3 26 v. Kumar M, Raghuwanshi NS, Singh R (2011) Artificial neural
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6 02 9 1 1 17 vi. Redlapalli SK (2004) Development of neural units with higher-order
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BB
7 86 1 0 2 39

Estimating Flood Inundation Using Hec-Ras And large floods in 1879, 1886, 1890, 1898, 1899, 1922, 1954, 1963,
Regression Models 1971, 1984, 1991, 1995 in Bihar (Reddy et al., 2008). As a
consequence, rapid siltation of river bed, drainage congestion,
and channel dis-connectivity have been reported in these regions
R.S. Meena1 R. Jha2 and K.K. (Sinha, 2010).
Khatua3
1
Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, In present scenario, the effectiveness of river control strategies
National Institute of Technology Rourkela-769008, India through the construction of barrages and embankments along the
2
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute river, especially for the Himalayan Rivers that carry high
of Technology Rourkela-769008, India sediment load is debatable. Using non-structural techniques,
3Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, assessment and management of flood inundated area for
National Institute of Technology Rourkela-769008, India different magnitudes of floods is very essential. Recently, the
Email: rsnitrkl2005@gmail.com practice of non-structural measures such as flood risk zoning and
flood forecasting are more in vogue (National Natural Resources
ABSTRACT: Floods are probably the most recurring, Management System). For the development of flood hazard and
widespread, disastrous and frequent natural hazards of the risk zone maps, it is essential to simulate the flood inundation in
world. India is one of the worst flood-affected countries. In the floodplains caused by floods of different magnitudes. In the
India the Himalayan Rivers account for maximum flood past few years, various researchers have used the hydrodynamic
damage in the country. The problem of flood in the state of modeling approach to simulate flood inundation in the
Bihar is well known and every year it becomes a recurring floodplains (Werner, 2004; Iwasa and Inoue, 1982; Samules,
problem to the entire region. The plains of north Bihar are 1985; Gee et al., 1990). HEC-RAS developed by US Army
some of the most susceptible areas in India, prone to flooding. Corps etc. have been used extensively for dynamic 1D flow
Flood forecasting & flood warning, flood hazard mapping and simulation in rivers. Various numerical models have been
flood risk zoning are quite effective non-structural procedures developed for floodplain delineation/flood inundation and flow
in managing floods that decreases the risks and disasters simulation which may be used as tools to delineate the
floods may cause. In view of this an attempt has been made in floodplain zones bordering the rivers and calculate the
the present study to estimate the flood inundated areas of Kosi associated risk considering hypothetical floods of various return
river basin, India using hydro-meteorological data (rainfall, periods. These numerical models are categorized into (a) one-
water level, discharge, soil moisture and land-use/land-cover). dimensional (1D) models, (b) two dimensional (2D) models, and
HEC-RAS 1D hydrodynamic model and regression models (c) one-dimensional river flow models coupled with two-
(Linear, Gaussian, Exponential, Power Function, Rational dimensional floodplain flow (1D-2D) models. These models
and Full cubic models) were used for the analysis and their consider overland and river flows. Also, these models are
performance has been evaluated using different error statistics applied either only in test catchments or in some small flat areas
and correlation estimates. Full Cubic Model showed best with hypothetical conditions. Further, many hydro-logical
results with various combinations of hydro-meteorological data variables are not considered in these models.
sets.
Keywords: Flood inundation, HEC-RAS, Regression Model, Keeping this in view, 1-D model HEC-RAS along with many
Rainfall-Runoff, Water Level, Soil Moisture linear and nonlinear regression models have been used in the
present work to estimate the flood inundated area of Kosi river
1. INTRODUCTION basin using various combinations of hydro-meteorological data.
Flood occurrences and their serious consequences due to flood 1.1 Study Area
inundation are common in many parts of the world including
India, which in turn, has raised public, political and scientific The Kosi River Basin is a sub-basin of the Ganga basin situated
awareness for proper flood control and management (Becker et on the left side of the main Ganga River (Figure 1). Upper
al., 2003). A review indicated that the plains of north Bihar in catchment of the basin lies in Nepal and Tibet at great heights of
India have recorded the highest number of floods during the last the Himalayan range. The Kosi River is one of the major left
30 years (Kale, 1997). The total area affected by floods has also bank tributaries of the Ganga rising at an altitude of over 7000 m
increased during these years. Drained by two major rivers, the above MSL in the Himalayas. The total drainage area of the
Kosi and Gandak, and several smaller systems such as Burhi Kosi River is 74,030 km2 out of which 11,410 km2 lies in India
Gandak, Baghmati and Kamla-Balan, the plains of north Bihar and the rest 62,620 km2 lies in Tibet and Nepal
have experienced extensive and frequent loss of life and property (http://fmis.bih.nic.in). The location of the basin lies between
over the last several decades (Sinha & Jain, 1998). The Kosi 852219- 885544 East and 252030- 290748 North.
River which originates in Nepal and Tibet at great heights of the It is bounded by the ridge on the left side separating it from the
Himalayan range, carry high discharge and very high sediment Brahmaputra River, while river Ganga forms its southern
load and drop it down in the plains of Bihar. The Kosi River boundary.
(The Sorrow of Bihar) is well-known in India for rapid and
frequent avulsions of its course and the extensive flood damages
it causes almost every year. Before 2008, there are reports of

Figure-1: Location Map of Kosi Basin
The mean annual rainfall for the Kosi Basin is about 1456 mm.
Most of the rainfall (80 to 90%) is received from mid-June to Figure-2: (a) Daily Rainfall Data (b) Modified
mid-October. Daily Water level and discharge data were Discharge Data
collected from Central Water Commission (CWC) India for
three measuring station Barahkshetra, Bhimnagar and Baltara. 2.1 1D-HEC-RAS Model
The discharge data has been modified because the discharge data
of River Ganga and its tributaries are confidential and may not The HEC-RAS model allows to performing one-dimensional
be made public. Monthly Mean Soil Moisture Data were steady flow, unsteady flow, sediment transport/mobile bed
obtained from Climate Prediction Center NOAA (National computations, and water temperature modelling. This model is
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration). Daily TRMM used to obtain flood extent and depth due to high rainfall in the
(Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission) Rainfall 3B42 (V7) were basin. HEC-RAS is a 1-D flow model in which the stream
used for Kosi basin. Flood inundated images were obtained from morphology is represented by a series of cross sections indexed
the website http://fmis.bih.nic.in. The land use maps of lower by river station. Water surface profiles are computed from one
part of Kosi River Basin prone to floods were procured from cross section to the next by solving the energy equation with an
http://www. bhuvan.nrsc.gov.in/ and transformed as input to the iterative procedure called the standard step method as shown in
models. The entire lower area of the Kosi Basin in the plains can Figure 3 (USACE, 2010, 2011).
be regarded as a large inland delta formed by the huge sandy
deposit of the Kosi River. Digital Elevation Model (DEM) for
Kosi Basin was downloaded from http://eros.usgs.gov.

2.2 Regression Models
Linear/non-linear relationship developed between various

parameters with the observed flood inundated areas. Various
parameters such as rainfall, rainfall distribution over an area,
discharge, water level, soil moisture etc. were related with the
flood inundated area using best possible combination of linear
and non-linear models. The governing equations are
Linear Model
(4)
Exponential Model
(5)
Gaussian Model
(6)
Power Function Model
Figure-3: Representation of terms in the Energy equation
(Source:-HEC-RAS User Manual, 2010)
(7)
Rational Model
(1) (8)
where, Z1, Z2 = Elevation of the main channel inverts, Y1, Y2 = Full Cubic Model
Depth of water at cross sections, V1, V2 = Average velocities
(total discharge/total flow area), a1, a2 = Velocity weighting
coefficients, g = Gravitational acceleration, h e = Energy head (9)
loss
The energy head loss (he) between two cross sections is 3. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
comprised friction losses and contractions or expansion losses.
The equation for the energy head loss is as follow: USGS 30 arc-second Digital Elevation Model (GTOPO30) of
Lower part of the Kosi basin, India, prone to flood inundation,
was downloaded and converted into Triangulated Irregular
Network (TIN) format using 3D Analyst tool in Arc-GIS 9.3.
(2) (Figure 4). Using the RAS Geometry function; stream centerline,
where, L = Discharge weighted reach length, = river bank, flow path lines, cross-sections have been created as
Representative friction slope between two sections, C = shapes files for preprocessing of the data as highlighted in the
expansion or contraction loss coefficient, figure.
(3)
where, where: Llob, Lch, Lrob = Cross section reach lengths
specified for flow in the left over bank, main channel, and right
over bank, respectively, = Arithmetic
average of the flows between sections for the left overbank,
main channel, and right over bank, respectively.
Using Inundation Mapping (Floodplain Delineation) button
water surface TIN is first converted to a GRID, and then DTM
grid is subtracted from the water surface grid. The area with
positive results (meaning water surface is higher than the terrain)
is flood area, and the area with negative results is dry. All the
cells in water surface grid that result in positive values after
subtraction are converted to a polygon, which is the final flood
inundation polygon.

data was used as the upstream boundary condition. Normal

depth was used as the downstream boundary condition. This
boundary condition requires the input of the Energy Grade Line
(EGL) slope at the downstream boundary. Daily discharge and
water level data were used for analysis. The flood inundated area
in Kosi River obtained using 1D-HEC-RAS and the results were
compared with the observed flood inundated areas of Kosi river
basin for different periods of the 2009 (Figures 6a and 6b). HEC-
RAS allow user to perform various calculation and generate
different scenario for steady flow (critical, subcritical and mixed
flow) and unsteady flow. HEC-RAS uses various kinds of data
sets like geometric data, bridge/culvert, land-use/land-cover,
discharge data and bank full level data (In time series manner)
etc., for the modeling purpose.
It has been observed that the flood inundated area obtained using
the model is confined to the main channel and flood plain.
However, the model is not able to estimated flood inundation in
low lying area beyond the flood plain.
Figure-4: DTM and RAS layers created in HEC-GeoRAS
The land-use/land-cover map delineated using satellite data

(Figure 5) was used to generate the Mannings n values for the
main channel and the floodplain. After creating and digitizing all
the required layers, GIS data are exported to HEC-RAS.
Figure-6: (a) Flood inundated area of Kosi River using HEC-

RAS, (b) observed ones
Figure-5: Landuse/Landcover for Kosi Basin (Source: NRSC)
Further to estimate the flood inundation over the low lying areas
The HEC-RAS model parameters (discharge and water level of Kosi basin, different linear and non-linear models were tested
data using Manning n value) were calibrated and used to for their applicability to estimate flood inundated areas in Kosi
estimate the flood inundation in the channel reach. Discharge basin. Various parameters such as rainfall, discharge, water

level, soil moisture, TRMM rainfall were used as input to

develop models for flood inundation mapping. Different
algorithms used in equations (4 to 9), were applied to obtain
flood inundated area in Kosi Basin. Linear and non-linear (r2=0.93)
relationship has been developed for the year 2006, 2007 and (10)
2009. There was Kosi breach during the year-2008, so this year
has not been considered for analysis. Full cubic model shows
best result for all possible combination of water level, discharge, (r2=0.98)
rainfall, soil moisture and inundated area (Figure 7). It has been (11)
observed that for the input values as Water Level and Discharge
of Baltara, the results obtained using Full Cubic Method shows 4. CONCLUSIONS
best result with r2 value equal to 0.93. Further, the input
combination of Water level of Baltara, soil moisture and mean The following conclusions are drawn from the above study:
rainfall of Kosi basin shows r2 value equal to 0.98. However, the
input as Discharge and water level of Barahkshetra and Assessment of flood inundated area using HEC-RAS was
Bhimnagar shows very poor relationship with inundated area. successful for the Kosi main river. Due to break of continuity
Other combination of water level, discharge, rainfall, soil equation beyond the river reach, it was difficult to obtain flood
moisture also indicates poor results for Barahkshetra and inundated area beyond river reach in low lying flood plain areas
Bhimnagar stations. The Full cubic model developed is given in using HEC-GeoRAS model.
equations (10) and (11).
Full cubic Non-linear models developed for estimating flood
inundation in the low lying flood plain area showed very
promising results. Different input combinations were tried to
estimated flood inundated areas and it has been observed that the
water level of Baltara alone can be used to represent the flood
inundated area of the region. Other combinations of water level,
rainfall, runoff, soil moisture also show fairly good results.
The inundated area obtained using integrated approach can be

graphically represented in DEM map of the study region and
flood risk analysis can be done. The 1D models, though simple
to use and provide information on bulk flow characteristics, fails
to provide detailed information regarding the flow field. Further
the coupled 1D-2D models SOBEK, MIKE FLOOD etc. can be
applied in Kosi Basin which offer great advantage for real-time
simulations of flooding events.
Further, detailed information of Kosi basin and daily/hourly

hydro-meteorological data (rainfall, water level, discharge, soil
moisture etc.) will increase the accuracy in flood inundation
modelling.
REFERENCES:
i. Becker A, Grunewald U (2003) Flood risk in Central Europe,

Science, 300, 1099
ii. Kale VS (1997) Flood studies in India: a brief review. Journal of
Geological Society India 49: 359-370
iii. Sinha R, Jain V (1998) Flood hazards of north Bihar Rivers, Indo-
Gangetic Plains. In: Kale, V. S. (Ed.) Flood Studies in India, Geological Society
of India Memoir, 41: 27-52
iv. Reddy DV, Kumar D, Saha D, and Mandal MK (2008) The 18 August
Figure-7: Full Cubic Model for flood inundated area Kosi Basin 2008 Kosi river breach: an evaluation, Current Science., 95(12): 1668-1669
(a) Water Level, Rainfall and Inundated area (b) Water v. Sinha R (2010) A river runs through it. Public Serv Rev Int Dev 17:
20-22
Level, Soil Moisture and Inundated area vi. Werner MJF (2004) A comparison of flood extent modelling
approaches through constraining uncertainties on gauge data. Hydrology Earth
Syst. Sci., 8(6): 11411152
vii. Iwasa Y, Inoue K (1982) Mathematical simulations of channel and
overland flood flows in view of flood disaster engineering, Natural Disaster
Science 4: 1-30

viii. Samules PG (1985) Modelling of river and floodplain flow using the
finite element method, Hydraulic Research, Technical Report No. SR61:
Keywords :Evapotranspiration, Sensitivity Analysis,
Wallingford, U.K.
ix. Gee DM, Anderson MG, Baird L (1990) Two-dimensional floodplain Geographical Attributes, Nash Coefficiency, Hydrologic cycle
modelling, In Hydraulic Engineering, Proceedings of the 1990 National and meteorological studies
Conference, Hydraulic Division, ASCE: Boston, MA; 32: 773-778
x. Flood Management Information System (2011) Water Resources
Department Government of Bihar, Flood Report
1. INTRODUCTION
xi. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE). HEC-RAS, Users Manual
Version 4.1, 2010. Hydrologic Engineering Centre, Davis, CA, USA. Accurate estimation of Evapotranspiration (ET) is essential for
xii. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE), HEC-GeoRAS, Users many studies such as hydrologic water balance, irrigation
manual Version 4.3.93, 2011. Hydrologic Engineering Centre, Davis, CA, USA.
scheduling, and water resources planning and management.
Determination of ET is of great significance for better
understanding the mechanism of climate change and plays a
crucial role in hydrological, agricultural and meteorological
studies through the mass and energy interactions between land
and atmosphere H. V. Hajare et. al (2009). It is often limited by
the currently available evaporable water, as well as by
characteristics of the plant cover and the soil. Based on these
Sensitivity Analysis Of Penman Monteith factors, two types of ET had distinguished namely Potential
Evapotranspiration (PET or ETp) and Actual Evapotranspiration
Method For Estimation Of Evapotranspiration
(AET or ETa) Racz, Cs. et al (2013). It is desirable to have a
method that estimates reasonably the Reference crop
Ch.V.S.S. Sudheer1 Dr.G.K.Viswanadh2 Dr.G.Venkata
Evapotranspiration (RET). The Penman-Monteith Method
Ramana3
1 recommended by UN - FAO and WMO has received widespread
Asst. Professor, GRIET, Hyderabad 500090, India
2 acceptance internationally for estimating RET K. Chandra
Professor of Civil Engg. & OSD, JNTUH, Hyderabad
Sekhar Reddy et. al (2012). RET can be defined as from a
500072, India
3 hypothetical reference crop with an assumed crop height of 0.12
Professor of Civil Engg. & Dean, GRIET, Hyderabad 500090,
m, a fixed surface resistance of 70 sec/m and an albedo of 0.23,
India
vegetative surface, over which weather data are recorded and
Email: royal.sudheer@gmail.com, ramanagedela@gmail.com
allows to develop a set of crop coefficients to be used to
determine ET for other crops. It is desirable to have a method
ABSTRACT:Evapotranspiration (ET) is one of the most
that estimates reasonably the value of RET. Hence, specific
important components of hydrologic cycle which is commonly
equations and standardized procedures are being recommended
calculated from records of climatic data and geographical
for the estimation of RET. Mallikarjuna et. al. (2008) evolved
attributes of a meteorological station. Reference
the performance of various empirical methods for estimating
Evapotranspiration (RET) is an important index of hydrologic
ETc for different crops for the Tirupati and Nellore regions of
budgets at different spatial scales. Numerous methods have
Andhra Pradesh. Xing et al. (2008) evaluated the methods of
been developed to estimate Reference Evapotranspiration. On
estimating daily RET and found that the pan evaporation
the other hand, accuracy and reliability of simple RET models
methods generated lower estimation of ET compared to the
vary widely according to regional climate conditions. Many
Penman-Monteith and Priestley Taylor methods.
RET estimation methods have been developed for different
types of climatic data, whose accuracy depends on various
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
climatic conditions. The International Commission for
Irrigation and Drainage (ICID) and Food & Agriculture
Allen et al., (1998), concludes the most extended indirect
Organization (FAO) of the United Nations have proposed
methodology is the FAO - 56 Penman- Monteith Method which
using the Penman-Monteith method as the standard method
requires a great availability of meteorological data to calculate
for estimating Reference Evapotranspiration (RET), for
ETo. Parameters such as relative humidity, air temperature, solar
evaluating other methods.The objective of the present study is
radiation and wind speed are required. Chattopadhyay and
to estimate daily, monthly and annual RET over a span of 10
Hulme, (1997); Xu and Singh, (2000); Xu and Chen, (2005),
years (i.e.,) from 2003 to 2012 of Dharmaram watershed, and
also said that other methods only contemplate the temperature,
to compare different RET models with that of standard
as for example, those of Thornthwaite and Hargreaves. These
equation Penman Monteith method (PMM) to ensure the
methods have the advantage of requiring a few meteorological
sensitivity. Sensitivity analysis is useful in a common way to
data; however, they were developed for use in specific studies
study on regional and seasonal behaviour of RET in response
and are most appropriately applied to climates similar to that
to changes in climatic variables. The results were calibrated
where they were developed. Xu and Singh, (2001), assumed that
with Nash Co-efficiency of Error (NCE) to estimate the
Hargreaves Method (HM) uses the extraterrestrial radiation Ra to
closeness to the chosen standard method. In this study, RET
estimate the ET0, for a given latitude and day. Ra can be obtained
estimated by Turc method on yearly time scale (R2 = 0.813 &
from tables or it can be calculated by means of a set of equations
NCE = 93.97) yielded better values when compared to that of
using temperature. Therefore, HM has become a temperature-
standard method.
based method. Giridhar et al (2006) compared RET values

estimated through various RET equations with FAO-56 PM

method for different irrigation project locations in Andhra
Pradesh. George et al. (2002) have developed decision support
system for estimating reference evapotranspiration using
Temperature, Radiation and Combination methods. Among
these methods, Penman-Monteith method is taken as standard
method for comparison with other methods. Viswanadh et.al
(2004) developed a computer program in Microsoft Visual C ++
which is generalized to calculate reference evapotranspiration
using FAO-56 PM method. This program is based on the FAO-
56 Penman Monteith equation as given by FAO.
3. STUDY AREA
The present study area Dharmaram watershed lies in Dharmaram

village of Mannevari Turkapally (M. Turkapally) mandal in i. Thornthwaite Method (TWM)
Nalgonda District of Andhra Pradesh State, India, having its One of the earliest methods of estimating RET
geographical extends as 170 37 30 to 170 45 N and 780 45 to involved the use of air temperature. The temperature
780 52 30 E. The total geographical area of the study area is methods are empirical equations that rely on air
around 473 hectares. The climate of this watershed is temperature as a substitute for the amount of energy that is
characterized by a hot summer & mild winter. The monsoon sets available to the crop or watershed for Evapotranspiration.
early in the month of June and continues up to November. The formulae may be expressed as
Winter starts from December to mid of the February and RET = 1.6 l (10 Tm / I)a
summer starts from middle of February to end of May. Daily ii. Jensen Haise Method (JHM)
data had collected from the meteorological station located at Jensen Haise used observations of
Begumpet, Hyderabad for the present study. The data had consumptive use from the Western United states and
collected over a period of 10 years from 2003 to 2012 for the developed the following linear relationship for estimating
estimation of RET. Reference Evapotranspiration (RET). The equation may be
expressed as:
4. METHODOLOGY RET = Rs (0.025 Tm + 0.08)
iii. Hargreaves Method (HM)
Daily meteorological parameters viz., maximum temperature, On the basis of data obtained from grass
minimum temperature, minimum relative humidity, maximum lysimeters, Hargreaves developed the following expression,
relative humidity, wind speed, evaporation, and sun shine which can be written as:
duration were collected and processed for the above said period RET = 0.0023Ra TD 0.5
from Indian Metrological Department (IMD), Begumpet. (Tm+17.8)
Appropriate methods were chosen accordingly to estimate RET iv. Turc Method (TM)
based on the availability of the data. Mainly, the methods chosen The Turc method requires fewer input
were categorised into 4 divisions, namely Temperature parameters, i.e., mean air temperature and solar radiance
methods, radiation methods, pan evaporation methods and data only. The corresponding equation may be expressed
combination methods. Table -1 represents the methods under as:
different categories that are used for estimating the RET along RET = 0.40 Tm (Rs+50) /
with the data requirements in employing different formulae. (Tm+15)
v. Christiansen Method (CHM)
Christiansen (1968) proposed a revised
empirical formula, originally developed by him in (1966),
Table-1: Different methods to estimate RET and input data to estimate pan evaporation from climatic data when
requirements for RET estimation methods reliable measured pan evaporation data are not available for
estimating of Evapotranspiration.
RET = 0.755 EoCT2 CW2
CH2CS2
vi. Priestly - Taylor Method (PTM)
The most widely used hydro metrological model
is the Priestley Taylor evaporation model, which only
requires the net radiation, heat flux and surface temperature
as its inputs.
RET = 1.26 ( / + ) (Rn
G)
vii. Penman Monteith Method (PMM)

Penman combined the energy balance with the mass values when compared with the rest of the methods which can be
transfer method and derived an equation to compute the seen from Tables 2 and 4. Table 5 represents the correlation
evapotranspiration from an open water surface from values (R2) obtained when compared to standard Penman
standard climatological records of sunshine, temperature, Monteith method on annual basis, and the same is represented
humidity and wind speed. The equation for estimating RET through graphical representation in Figure -1. In this case, we
can be expressed as can observe that R2 values are high for Turc method at all the
time scales. Furhter, NCE values were also represented in daily
and annual basis in Tables 6 and 7. As stated earlier, more the

0.408 X X Rn - G +
900
T + 273

U 2 ea - ed value of NCE, the more accurate the model is. Hence by
observing Table 6 and 7 values of NCE obtained by Turc

RET= method confirms on higher side of NCE values which are close
+ 1 + 0.34 U 2
to100%.
Hence, by using all the above methods and with the available 6. CONCLUSIONS
data, values of Reference Evapotranspiration (RET) were
estimated on daily, monthly and annual basis over a period of 10 Of all the above methods, Turc equation shows good correlation
years (i.e.,) from 2003 to 2012 for Dharmaram watershed. After with R2 = 0.77, 0.843, 0.813 for daily, monthly and yearly RET
RET values are estimated at three different time scales, co- values. RET estimated from Turc method resulted in 91.08% and
relation with the standard method was also estimated using 93.97 % for Nash Co-efficiency of Error (NCE) when compared
linear regression analysis in MS-excel 2007. The standard to Penman - Monteith method which was found to have highest
method was taken as Penman Monteith Method, which was closeness to predictor among all other methods in the present
widely recommended FAO. Regression analysis was developed study. Hence, it is concluded that, for the Dharmaram watershed,
to detect the presence of a mathematical relation between two or Turc equation is best suitable among all the methods.
more variables subject to random variation, and to test if such a
relation, whether assumed or calculated, is statistically Table 2: Daily RET from different equations for the month of
significant. January-2003 in mm.
NCE values were also calculated by using the observed or

measured evaporation values and the corresponding RET values
obtained by different methods by using the following equation.
.
NCE =1 -
n RETe - RETo X 100
i = 1 RET - RET 2
e o
NCE is a convenient measure of model performance. Values of
NCE can range from - to 1. An efficiency of 1 (NCE = 1)
corresponds to a perfect match between model and observations.
An efficiency of 0 indicates that the model predictions are as
accurate as the mean of the observed data, whereas an efficiency
less than zero (- < E < 0) occurs when the observed mean is a
better predictor than the model. Essentially, the closer the model
efficiency is to 1, the more accurate the model is.
5. RESULTS & DISCUSSION
The values of RET were calculated by using Thornthwaite Table 3: Monthly RET from different equations for the years of 2003,
method, Jensen Haise method, Hargreaves method, Turc 2005 and 2010 in mm.
method, Christiansen method, Priestly Taylor method and
Penman Monteith methods were calculated and output data on
daily basis were listed in Table 2 for the month of January 2003.
From the daily values corresponding mean monthly values were
computed and tabulated in Table 3. Further, monthly RET values
were converted into mean yearly RET values and listed in Table
4. Mean values of RET obtained by Turc method shows higher
values ((i.e.,) 15.088 mm / day, 21.828 mm / month, 21.83 mm /
year ) when compared to all the other methods at all three
different time scales. Similarly, the mean values of RET
obtained by Priestly Taylor method shows the least of all the

Turc
Table-4: Yearly RET values in mm for Dharmaram watershed
Table-5: Mean yearly R2 values for Dharmaram watershed
Jensen - Haise
Figure 1: Graphical representation of R2 values when compared with

standard Penman Monteith Method on yearly basis.

Table-6: mean values of Nash

coefficient of efficiency (NCE) on daily basis
Table- 7: Mean yearly NCE values
REFERENCES
i. Allen, R.G., Pereira, L.S., Raes, D. Smith, M. (1998), Crop
evapotranspiration. Guidelines for computing crop water requirements. FAO
Irrigation and Drainage, paper no. 56, FAO, Rome.
ii. B. Bapuji Rao, V M Sandeep, V U M Rao, B Venkateswarulu (2012)
Potential Evapotranspiration Estimation for Indian conditions: Improving
accuracy through calibration coefficients National Initiative on Climate
Resilient Agricultre (NICRA) All India Co-ordinated Research Project on
Agrometeorology Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture. Tech. Bull.
No. 1 / 2012. PP 5 60.
iii. Csaba RCZ, Jnos NAGY, Attila Csaba DOBOS (2013),
Comparison of Several Methods for Calculation of Reference
Evapotranspiration, Acta Silv. Lign. Hung., Vol. 9 PP NO:924.
iv. Dr. G.K.Viswanadh, P. Kanaka Durga and M.V.S.S.Giridhar,
Estimation of reference crop evapotranspiration by developing a software
application to a sub basin of the river Krishna, India. (2006) , in proceedings of
International Conference.
v. Dr. G.K.Viswanadh, P. Kanaka Durga and Dr. M.V.S.S.Giridhar,
Comparison of Class A Pan Co-Efficient Equations. Journal of Applied
Hydrology 10/2006; XIX: PP :28-36.
vi. H. V. Hajare, N. S. Raman, Er Jayant Dharkar (2009),
Evapotranspiration studies for Nagpur District, Wseas Transactions on
Environment and Development, Issue 1, Volume 5, PP No. 94 103.
vii. K. Chandra Sekhar Reddy S.Aruna Jyothy and P. Mallikarjuna, (
2012), Evaluation of Evapotranspiration Estimation Methods and Development
of Crop Coefficients for Groundnut Crop, IOSR Journal of Engineering, Volume
2, Issue 6, PP 35-42.
viii. Mallikarjuna, P. and Aruna Jyothy, S. (2008). Evapotranspiration
Studies for irrigation Projects-A case Study. Journal of the Institution of
Engineers (India), Agriculture Engineering Division, vol. 89, pp.5-13.
ix. C.-Y. XU and V. P. Singh, (2002), Cross Comparison of Empirical
Equations for Calculating Potential Evapotranspiration with Data from
Switzerland, Water Resources Management Volume 16: PP No. 197219.

Variability In Sediment Size Of Two Sub- According to Singh and Hasnain (1998), River Alaknanda
Catchment Areas Of Ganga Basin, Western accounts for approx. 356 tons/Km2/year of suspended sediment
load to River Ganga at Devprayag; whereas Ramganga River
Himalayas carries 213 m/Km2/year at Dabri (Roy and Sinha, 2007).
Anthropogenic presence in both the basins is marked by a large
M.Y.A. Khan* S. Panwar
number of dams and reservoirs along the river course. Increased
Department of Earth Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology
anthropogenic disturbances in the Himalayas is a concern and is
Roorkee, Rorkee 247667, India,
linked with glacial melt and high discharge in the Himalayan
Email: *myawar.akhan@gmail.com
rivers that may affect the river processes concerned with
sediment load and sediment size. The study examines the
ABSTRACT
variability in the bed load sediment size of the Alaknanda and
Ramganga Rivers and what are the factors that influence the
Ganga River is the largest carrier and a contributor of sediment
variability.
load to the oceans. Grain size estimation helps in understanding
the source of sediments, its chemical composition, pollution and
2. STUDY AREA
effect of anthropogenic activities and climate of the basin. To
understand the grain size variation in the upper Ganga Basin, we
The study has been carried in the Alaknanda and Ramganga
analyzed sediment size of Alaknanda and Ramganga Rivers.
Rivers which are the major tributaries of River Ganga. Both
These two Rivers are very important tributaries of the Ganga
rivers originate from the Western Himalayas. River Alaknanda
River, Alaknanda being the major contributor of water and
arises from the Satopanth and the Bhagirathi Kharak Glaciers
sediments at Devprayag in Garhwal Himalayas and Ramganga
from the Garhwal Himalayas. On the other hand, the Ramganga
being the first major tributary in the Ganga Foreland Basin
River has its origin from the Namik Glacier in the Kumaon
(GFB). Sediments were sampled during the pre-monsoon season
Himalayas. The map of
of the year 2014 and grain size variability was evaluated using
the parameters such as mean size, sorting, skewness and
kurtosis. Considerable variations are observed in the grain size
characteristics. On the Alaknanda River, sediment is mostly fine
to coarse in texture whereas, Ramganga sediments are mostly
medium sand. Moderately sorted sediments were found in the
Ramganga River whereas, fine to moderately well sorted
sediments were present in Alaknanda channel. The considerable
variations are also observed in the skewness value. The results
demonstrate the influence of lithology, discharge, erosion rate,
land use, glacial melt and steep slopes in determining the
suspended sediment size.
Keywords: Upper Ganga Basin, Discharge, Sorting, Skewness
and Kurtosis
1. INTRODUCTION:
River Ganga carries the high sediment load in the world due to
high erosion activities in the Upper Ganga basin. According to
Richey (1983), the total suspended sediment transports by the
Ganga River to the Bay of Bengal with its huge size and water
potential was about 1600 X 109 Kg. Grain size analysis of the
bed load is important to understand the river processes,
geomorphology, ecology, heavy metal contamination,
sedimentation in reservoirs and impact of anthropogeny and
climate change in the basin (Walling 1996; Slattery and Burt
1997; Xu 1999; Pandey et al. 2002). In the watersheds, there are
many variables such as lithology, discharge, rainfall,
physiography, and tectonics and anthropogenic activities that
may influence the grain size characteristics of river load
(Milliman and Meade, 1983; Lindholm 1987; Gaillardet et al.
Figure 1. Geological map of the study area (Valdiya, 1980).
1999; Chakrapani 2005; Feng et al, 2011). In the Himalayan
context, tectonics, rainfall, lithological changes and steep slopes
the study area is shown in Fig. 1. The geology of both of the
are the natural factors that may affect the sediment size.
rivers does not show so much of the variations. Both the rivers
Alaknanda and Ramganga Rivers are the important tributaries of
drain through the Higher and Lesser Himalayan formations
Ganga River, flow in the Garhwal and Kumaon Himalayas.
except Ramganga River, which also flows through Sub-
Himalayan formation (Fig.1). The upper Ganga basin two tributaries of River Ganga shows that different factors
experiences high monsoonal rainfall with most of the rain control the grain size variability that vary from basin to basin.
occurring during the months of June-Sept. Rainfall in the The mean grain size in the Alaknanda and Ramganga Rivers
Ramganga River varies of about 80-100 cm/year (Roy and varies from 138.4 to 539.9 m and 308.7 to 504.9 m
Sinha, 2007) and Alaknanda basin 100-160 cm/year (Singh and respectively. Samples are varying from fine sand to coarse sand.
Hasnain, 1998). Both the drainage basin is sparsely populated At Govindghat, no tributary is added to the River Alaknanda
with dispersed population along the whole watershed, the forest resulting in low flow conditions that hampers river from carrying
and glaciers are the dominant land use cover noticed in the the larger grain size. The larger grain size at Devprayag is
basin. because of the steep slope of 40m/Km that increases river energy
3. MATERIAL AND METHODS to carry bigger grain size. The larger grain size at Devprayag is
also attributed to the lithology change. But, if we see River
Bed load sediment was sampled during the pre-monsoon month Ramganga, the average grain size carried by the river is 420 m
(Mar, 2014). At every sample location, sediment was extruded and mostly medium. The reason for Ramganga to show this
from a depth of 15 cm using a stainless steel spatula to prevent behaviour is the constant water flow; no big tributary is added to
metal contamination. In total, 5 samples were collected from both the river in the upstream. The sample RG5 (sample collected
the Alaknanda and Ramganga Rivers. after Kalagarh dam) is coarse sand which is due to the gentle
slope at Kalagarh which lead river to deposit the sediment load.
Table 1. Sample locations of the study area with Coordinates and
Elevations
The locations of sediment collection are shown in Table 1. Grain

size distribution was estimated by the Particle Size Analyzer
(Model Coulter LS230), which works on the principle of laser
diffraction pattern to calculate the diameter of the individual
grain. The pre-possessing of the sediment before analysis
includes removal of organic matter by adding 30% H2O2 and
removal of carbonate by adding 10% HCl solution (Cuven et al.
2010). Using the approach followed by Folk and ward (1957),
grain size characteristics such as Mean size (d50), sorting,
skewness and kurtosis were calculated. The samples that were
correlated approximately having the same altitude.
3.1. Variability in Grain Sizes of Alaknanda and Ramganga

Rivers
Grain size parameters are the guide for interpreting

environmental conditions and river processes in the basin. The
statistical method developed by Folk and Ward (1957), was
applied to interpret the size characteristics of the sediment load.
3.1.1. Mean Grain Size (m)
Mean grain size of the river is the statistical average of the

sediment population (Fig. 2). The grain size variability of the

Figure 2. Grain size variability of the Alaknanda and Ramganga

Rivers sediments
3.1.2. Sorting (m)
The standard deviation values show that sediment is poorly to

moderately sorted in the Alaknanda River; the reason for this
can be variable lithologies, depositional conditions and the
channel gradient along the course of the river (Table. 2).
Upstream large glacial contribution to sediment load and
merging of several tributaries can also influence the sorting of
sediments. As in case of the Ramganga, no major tributary is
influencing the water flow; river shows moderately sorted
behaviour of sediment. The results also point that sorting of
sediment occurs in the river that is carrying medium sand rather
than the one carrying variable size fractions.
Table 2. Grain size parameters of the study area.
3.1.3. Skewness and Kurtosis
Skewness determines the asymmetry of the grain size

population. Due to the presence of coarser fraction, fine skewed
sediments are found in both the rivers, though at some locations
distribution is symmetric. It is interesting to note that,

moderately sediments in Alaknanda River shows symmetrical ix. Richey JE (1983). Interaction of C, N, P, and S in river systems: a
biogeochemical model. In: B. Bolin and R.B. Cook (Editors), The Major
skews. This may be because of the unimodal nature of sediment
Biogeochemical Cycles and Their Interactions. Wiley, New York, pp. 365-383
at A4 and A5. Kurtosis measures the peakedness of the x. Roy N and Sinha R (2007). Understanding confluence dynamics in
frequency curve, most of the samples are mesokurtic but at the the alluvial GangaRamganga valley, India: An integrated approachusing
upstream site in Alaknanda and Ramganga Rivers (A1 and RG1) geomorphology and hydrology; Geomorphology 92 182197.
xi. Singh AK and Hasnain SI (1998). Major ion chemistry and
samples are platykurtic and leptokurtic respectively which may
weathering control in a high altitude basin: Alaknanda River, Garhwal
be due to channel morphology or fluctuation in glacial Himalaya, India; Hydrological SciencesJournaldes Sciences Hydrologiques,
contribution. Due to the presence of coarser fraction, fine 43(6)
skewed sediments are found in both the rivers, though at points xii. Slattery MC and Burt TP (1997). Particle size characteristics of
suspended sediment in hillslope runoff and stream flow; Earth Surf. Proc. Land.
distribution is symmetric. 22 705-719.
xiii. Valdiya KS (1980). Geology of Kumaun Lesser Himalaya. WIHG
4. CONCLUSIONS Dehradun, pp. 291
xiv. Walling DE, Owens PN, Ben DW, Graham JL, Leeks and Paul DW
Grain size parameters are the guide for interpreting (2000). The particle size characteristics of fluvial suspended sediment in the
Humber and Tweed catchments, UK; The Science of the Total Environment
environmental conditions and river processes in the basin. The 251/252 205-222
Upper Ganga Basin displays variable lithology, physiography, xv. Xu J (1999). Grain-size characteristics of suspended sediment in the
discharge, land use and climatic pattern. Alaknanda and Yellow River, China; Catena 38 243-263.
Ramganga Rivers were sampled at approximately the same
elevation to define the controlling factors that determines the
grain size of the bed load sediments. The mean grain size in the
Alaknanda and Ramganga River varies from 138.4 to 539.9 m
and 308.7 to 504.9 m respectively. In the Alaknanda River
sediments are poorly to moderately sorted whereas, in the
Ramganga River sediments are moderately sorted due to
presence of medium sand. The absence of major tributaries of
the Ramganga River results in its moderately sorted behaviour.
Due to the enrichment of coarser fraction, fine skewed sediments
are prominent in both rivers. Kurtosis values show dominantly
mesokurtic nature in both the rivers. From the study it can be
inferred that the grain size variability in both the basin is
influenced by its morphology, glacial contribution, discharge,
and river energy. The grain size variability of the two tributaries
of River Ganga shows that it varies from basin to basin even
having somewhat same land use, and physiography. Thus, there
is need to understand the sedimentological processes of River
Ganga at the sub-catchment level.
REFERENCES
i. Chakrapani GJ (2005). Major and trace element geochemistry in

upper Ganga River in the Himalayas, India; Environ. Geol. 48 189-201.
ii. Cuven S, Francus P and Lamoureux SF (2010). Estimation of grain
size variability with micro X-ray fluorescence in laminated lacustrine sediments,
Cape Bounty, Canadian High Arctic, J Paleolimnol., 44 803817
iii. Feng JL, Hu ZG, Ju JT and Zhu LP (2011). Variations in trace
element (including rare earth element) concentrations with grain sizes in loess
and their implications for tracing the provenance of eolian deposits; Quatern.
Int. 236 116-126.
iv. Folk RL and Ward WC (1957). Brazos River bar: a study in the
significance of grain size parameters; J. Sediment. Petrol. 27(I) 3-26.
v. Gaillardet J, Dupre B and Allegr CJ (1999). Geochemistry of large
River suspended sediments: Silicate weathering or recycling tracer; Geochim.
Cosmochim. Acta 63(23/24) 4037-4051.
vi. Lindholm R (1987). A Practical Approach to Sedimentology. Allen &
Unwin, London, pp. 278.
vii. Milliman JD and Meade RH (1983). Worldwide delivery of River
sediment to the oceans; J. Geol. 91(1) 1-21.
viii. Pandey SK, Singh AK and Hasnain SI (2002). Grain-size distribution,
morphoscopy and elemental chemistry of suspended sediments of Pindari
Glacier, Kumaon Himalaya, India; Hydrolog. Sci. J. 47(2) 213-226.

Comparative Study Of Double Ring And Tension exist for measuring the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity. One
Infiltrometers To Measure Infiltration Properties common approach to obtain the unsaturated hydraulic
conductivity relationship is based on the knowledge of saturated
And Hydraulic Conductivity hydraulic conductivity and water retention curve (van
Genuchten1980). There are several field methods and techniques
B. Ghosh1P. Sreeja2
1 to measure Ks, such as, single or double ring infiltrometers under
Civil Engg. Department, IIT Guwahati, Guwahati781039,
constant head (Bouwer1986; Bodhinayake et al., 2004), disc
Assam, India
2 infiltrometers under controlled suction (Warrick 1992; Angulo-
Civil Engg. Department, IIT Guwahati, Guwahati 781039,
Jaramillo et al., 2000; Vandervaere et al., 2000), and falling head
Assam, India
ring infiltrometers (Elrick et al. 1995; Angulo-Jaramillo et al.
Email: 1g.biplab@iitg.ernet.in, 2sreeja@iitg.ernet.in
2003) etc.The double-ring infiltrometer (DI) can be used to
assess Ksfrom measuring infiltration at a constant positive
ABSTRACT : Infiltration, which is defined as the process of
pressure equal to the water ponding depth, while the tension
water entry into subsurface soil is an important parameter in
infiltrometer (TI) derivesKs or unsaturated hydraulic
the hydrological modelling of runoff, irrigation management
conductivity from infiltration measurements performed at zero
and watershed modelling. Hydraulic conductivity is one of the
or negative pressures (White & Sully 1987, Perroux and White
most important parameters in characterizing the transport of
1988, Ankeny et al. 1991). But TI is convenient over DI in the
fluids and solutes through the vadose zone, but presents
determination of Ks and other soil hydraulic properties based on
significant practical difficulty in measurement. Hence, it is
in situ infiltration measurements at the soil surface.
necessary to test different practical methods for measuring the
saturated hydraulic conductivity, Ks. There are several field
2. METHODOLOGY
methods and techniques for measuring Ks. In this study, a
comparison of results of Kson a structured sandy loam soil
Infiltration experiments were conducted with two infiltrometers
obtained by using double-ring (DI) and tension infiltrometer
on three locations inside the campus of IIT Guwahati. The
(TI) were presented. Although DI is potentially well accepted
double ring infiltrometercan be used for measuring infiltration,
for estimating Ks, there is not much studies with field testing or
which is in turn used for determining saturated hydraulic
comparison with other methods. The TI and DI methods can
conductivity of the surface layer, consists of an inner and outer
be applied alternately at the same location with minimum
ring, which will be inserted into the ground. Each ring is
disturbance of the surface, and, for both techniques, the
supplied with a constant head of water manually. Hydraulic
infiltration process is controlled by the pressure head imposed
conductivity can be estimated when water flow rate in the inner
on the soil surface.
ring is at a steady state. The rate of infiltration is determined by
Keywords:Infiltration, Hydraulic Conductivity, Infiltrometer
the amount of water that infiltrates into the soil per surface area,
per unit of time. Data is gained by a drop in water height, giving
1. INTRODUCTION
an infiltration of water over time. These data points are plotted
in a graph of infiltration versus time. Theoretically once the soil
Infiltration is the term applied to the process of water entry into
becomes saturated, a steady state infiltration rate will be reached,
the soil, generally by downward flow through all or part of the
which is seen on a graph as linear. Once this linear section is
soil surface. It is complex, depending on soil and rainfall
identified, a line of best fit can be fitted to the applicable data.
properties and initial and boundary conditions within the flow
The gradient of this fitted line gives the steady state infiltration
domain (Assouline2013). The rate of this process, relative to the
rate for that particular soil. The steady state infiltartion rate can
rate of water supply, determines how much water will enter the
then be multiplied 1.45(Millar, 2004), to obtain the hydraulic
root zone, and how much, if any, will run off (Hillel 1998).
conductivity Ks, of that soil.In case of the double ring
Vertical infiltration in layered soils has drawn much attention
infiltrometer,the outer ring virtually turns a 3D single ringed
and been studied by particularly through analytical or numerical
system of looking at infiltration into a one dimensional model by
methods by Whisler and Clute (1966), Shrivastava and Yeh
allowing water in the centre ring to flow nearly exclusively
(1991), Romano et al. (1998), Corradini et al. (2000) and
straight down. This allows much easier calculation by taking out
through experimental methods by Stauffer and Dracos (1986),
the need to account for lateral flow. The arrangement of the
Serrano (1990). All the studies showed that the transient process
rings in the ground after being knocked in, applying the water to
of infiltration is complex due to the high nonlinearity of soil
the centre ring, then finally measuring infiltration at certain time
water characteristics and soil permeability and various boundary
intervals. Before the double rings can be placed in position the
and initial conditions. The complexity is further increased by
ground cover must be removed without disturbing the soil
hysteretic behavior of soil water interaction.
surface. Once this is done the rings can be set in position and
knocked into the ground about 10cm, or until the rings are set
Hydraulic conductivity is one of the most important parameters
firmly in the ground. Water can be supplied inside the rings
in characterizing the transport of fluids and solutes through the
either by a marriotte bottle assembly, to keep a constant head or
vadose zone, but with significant practical difficulty in
manually. When filling up the rings the outer ring is filled first
measurement. In vadosezone applications, knowledge of the
so that the soil profile around the inner ring would be wet and
saturated hydraulic conductivity is of limited use, as saturated
only vertical flow would occur when the inner ring is filled later.
conditions are rare in most locations. Yet, a few reliable methods
When filling the inner ring water is poured in on a plastic sheet,

then once the desired amount of water is in the ring on the sheet, the head is adjusted between (-20mm to -250mm) to the desired
the sheet is removed quickly. The level of the water is recorded level. Before operating the TI, all entrapped air bubbles were
at this point as the start of infiltration. removed from the foot assembly and the Marriot bubbler. The
test was conducted on a locally available sandy soil of specific
In tension infiltrometer water is allowed to infiltrate the under gravity (G) equal to 2.66. It essentially consists of particle size
lying soil at a slower rate than the infiltration rate that would between 2 mm and 0.075 mm. The infiltration test has been
have been established when water is ponded on the soil surface. conducted for the sandy sample in its air dried state, oven dried
This is accomplished by maintaining a small negative pressure state and different water contents (w) as listed in table 1. In the
(tension) on the water as it moves out of the infiltrometer disc table, d and Sr is the dry density and saturation of the compacted
into the soil. Water can only flow out of the infiltrometer disc at soil, respectively. The designations of the soil samples are also
the base and infiltrate into the soil, if air can enter the sealed listed. The soil sample is packed in a PVC container of 13500
reservoir through a narrow tube in which the tension is . This cc. A sequence of TI measurements was obtained for tension
capillary attraction of water into the air entry tube means that the equal to 20 cm and 10 cm, on all the packed soil samples with
soil has to suck with a pressure head to get the water out of different water content. In each case, the desired tension head is
the basal disc. The tension infiltrometer works on this principle set in the Marriot bubbler and the water from the reservoir
where the Marriot bubbler establishes the required tension head. assembly is allowed to infiltrate the soil through the foot
From the steady state flow values obtained from the TI readings, assembly. The rate of water level drop against time is then
the saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks) and unsaturated recorded till it attains a constant rate, which is called steady state
hydraulic conductivity (Ku) were calculated (Reynolds and infiltration (q).The steady state infiltration corresponding to
Elrick, 1991) as described below. The sorptivity number () of tension () 20 cm and 10 cm is designated as q20 andq10,
soil at particular value can be calculated (McKenzie et al., respectively.
2002) as an average for each of the adjacent (, q) data pairs
using the Eq. 1. For clarity an example calculation for based For DI, the steady-state vertical water flux through
on tension heads of 10cm and 20cm was calculated as given homogeneous soil below the inner ring, kept at the same small
below: water ponding depth as the outer ring, was driven by gravity
q only at a unit hydraulic gradient. The steady-state vertical water
ln 20 flux under these conditions corresponds to the infiltrability,
q10 defined as the flux of water infiltration into soil, when water, at
20 (10) cm
(1) atmospheric pressure, is maintained on the atmosphere-soil
boundary, with the flow direction being one-dimensionally
Hence, saturated and unsaturated hydraulic conductivities can be downward. It follows the Darcys law, which states that the
calculated as given by the following equations (Wooding, 1968). infiltrability should be approximately equal to the field-saturated
Ksvalue, i.e., the maximum Ksvalue to be expected for
Gd q20 infiltration. For TI, the infiltrability is additionally affected by
K ( sat ) p
(2) lateral capillary forces, since the water flow underneath the
q
r 1 Gd r 20 circular infiltration area is not vertically confined. In order to
q10 obtain comparable values for Ks, from the different infiltration
methods, one has to account for the three-dimensional flow
And K u = K (sat). Exp (3) underneath the TI disk (Wooding 1968, Ankeny et al. 1991).
Where, Gd = shape parameter with a recommended value of IIT Guwahati campus is selected as the study area and the
0.25 infiltration tests were conducted at the 3 sites. The details of the
r = radius of TI disc = 10cm site locations and their respective soil properties are listed in
1 20cm table 1.
P= = 2
1 2 (20 10)cm
q10and q20 representthe steady state flows in cm3/sec for 10cm Table 1. Site Details of Study Area at IIT Guwahati
and 20cm tension heads respectively. campus
TheTension Infiltrometer (TI) attachments consist of three major

components (2825K1 Tension Infiltrometer, Soilmoisture
Equipment Corporation, USA):
1. Guelph Permeameter Reservoir Assembly
2. Infiltrometer Foot Assembly
3. Marriot Bubbler Assembly
Three components were assembled and the reservoir assembly

was filled with water with the help of supplied vacuum hand
pump. The Marriot bubbler is then totally filled with water and

The Double ring infiltrometer is inexpensive to construct and

operate. One person can set up and run several tests
simultaneously. The test, however, requires the most water of all
three methods. The simplicity of the infiltrometers design
allows for ease in replication and operation. Lateral flow is the
most serious limitation in using of ring infiltrometers (Hills,
1971). Another serious limitation is the method of placement.
Hammering or jacking the rings into the ground can result in
destruction of soil structure or compression influencing the true
value of the saturated hydraulic conductivity. The practicality of
the instrument is reduced by the fact the ring is relatively heavy.
A flat undisturbed surface is required which sometimes may not
be feasible. Edge effects may include flow along the edge of the Figure 1. (a)Comparison of Infiltration Rate (mm/min)
cylinder causing the infiltration rate to be overestimate. (b)Cumulative Infiltration (cm) using TI and DI for station I
The tension infiltrometer is a more complex device than the ring

infiltrometer. Preferably, two persons are needed to conduct an
infiltration experiment. It is critical to maintain excellent contact
between the disc and the soil, which is not always easy to do
especially when there is no loose fine soil close at hand to
prepare the surface. A flat undisturbed surface is required which
may not be feasible. One distinct advantage is that they can
operate in soils containing macropores because the pressure head
along the bottom of the membrane during testing is maintained
at a slight tension with respect to atmospheric pressure, so water
does not flow into macropores.
Comparisons of infiltration rate (mm/min) and cumulative

infiltration (cm) using TI and DI for all the 3 locations are given
below in Fig 1, 2 and 3 along with the comparison of hydraulic
conductivity (cm/min) using TI and DI of the 3 sites in table 2.

The saturated hydraulic conductivity varied depending on the

Figure 2. (a) Comparison of Infiltration Rate (mm/min) method applied, and was proportional to the scale of the
(b)Cumulative Infiltration (cm)using TI and DI for station II instrument and limitations associated with each device. As a
possible reason, restricted operation of surface-vented
macropores, cracks or other preferential flow zones under the TI
infiltration surface were hypothesized (Reynolds et al. 2002).
Higher Ksvalues for DI, as compared to TI, were also obtained
by Luna-Saez et al. (2005). These results very obviously show
that traditional tension or pressure infiltration data, in case of
structured soils, can be used for predicting water flow velocity or
advective transport, unless information about the mobile soil
region is added. Consequently, DI and TI techniques should be
similar enough to avoid misconceptions arising from method
comparison. The use of tension infiltrometer to measure
Kspresents one difficulty, however. Generally, the DI method
provided larger Ksvalues than the TI one, except for low
permeability soils, where results were rather similar for DI and
TI methods. The explanation suggested is that some macropores,
which were conductive under ponded conditions, were inactive
when the TI method was applied (Reynolds et al. 2002).
However, such explanation is difficult to be checked, unless
information about preferential macropore flow can be
obtained.The Ksvalue, or infiltrability, was found to be larger for
ponded, as compared to zero-head conditions. The DI estimation
of the Ksvalue strongly relies on the assumption of vertical flow.
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xxiv. Whisler FD, and KluteA (1966) Analysis of infiltration into stratifies 2008, Vijay Kumar et.al. 2010). Significant increasing or
soil columns. Proceed IAHS symposium on water in the unsaturated flow, decreasing trends in Indian monsoon precipitation led to spatial
Wageningen, The Nederland, 451-470.
heterogeneity in precipitation (Krishnamurthy et al, 2009) and
xxv. White I, and Sully MJ (1987) Macroscopic and Microscopic capillary
length and time scales from field infiltration. Water resource Research, 23:1514- temporal variation in trends by aggregating precipitation over
1522. large areas receiving varied amounts of rainfall was reported by
xxvi. Wooding R.A. (1968) Steady infiltration from large shallow circular Goswami et.al., (2006). The spatial distribution of increasing or
pond. Water Resource Research, 4: 1259-1273. decreasing trends in extreme rain events across India has been
well documented using a variety of statistical methods by
different workers (Ghosh et al, 2011).Study conducted for whole
India by Kumar et.al. (2010) indicates that in terms of
percentage of mean per 100 years, Punjab and Haryana states
witnessed a large increasing trend in annual rainfall. Based on
duration and recurrence intervals Gill et.al. (2013) studied the
spatial and temporal variation of extreme rainfall events in
central Punjab and found that recent decade i.e. 2000-2012
showed much variation in rainfall extremes with highest rainfall
event in 2011 and lowest during 2002. Bist-doab region of the
Punjab state has been selected for the study in views of its
important contribution in agricultural production for the country.
Spatial And Temporal Distribution Of Rainfall The land surface of Punjab is one of the most fertile plains of
Trends In Bist-Doab Region Of Punjab (1901 India and understanding of the various hydro-climatic variables
2010) shall be very useful for future planning and management of the
water resources in optimum way. With the foresaid context and
M. K. Nema1 S. K. Jain1 P.K. Mishra1 view the present study was conducted to analyze rainfall data for
1
National Institute of Hydrology,JalVigyanBhawan, Roorkee trends or changes in the Bist-doab region of Punjab.
247 667 (INDIA)
Email: mxnema@gmail.com 2. MATERIAL AND METHODS
ABSTRACT : It has been established that the global climate 2.1 Study Area
changes are real and these could have imperative effects on
various environmental variables including rainfall in many The study was undertaken actually for the plains of the lower
countriesaround the world. Changes in precipitation regime Sutlej of Punjab State, which is also popularly known as Bist-
directly affect water resources management, agriculture, doab region of Punjab. The geographic extent of the study area
hydrology and ecosystems of a region.For this reason it is lies between the 3045'-3230'N latitude and 7445'- 7645'E
important to investigate the changes in the spatial and longitudewith a range of altitudinal profile of 106m in the
temporal rainfall pattern in order to improve water southern to 953m in the northern part. The Punjab plains are
managementstrategies and improve the exiting approaches.In largely flat and featureless and it is formed of Pleistocene and
this study, an analysis has been made to study the spatial and the sub recent alluvium deposited by the rivers of the Indo-
temporal variability of rainfall over the period of 110 years Ganagetic system.The study area falls under nine districts of
(1901-2010) on annual, seasonal and monthly basisin order to Punjab state namely Amritsar, Gurdaspur, Hoshiarpur,

Jalandhar, Kapurthala, Ludhiana, Moga, Nawanshehar and year to February of the current year) along with annual rainfall
Rupnagar (Fig 2.1). Climate of the study area is semi-arid, hot was also carried out for better interpretation and understanding
and subtropical monsoon type with cold winter and hot summer. of the trend.
It is mainly influenced be the Himalayas in the North and the
'Thar' desert of Rajasthan in the south and south-west. It receives
about 456 mmof average annual rainfall with huge variability in 2.3 Trend detection test
space as well as in time. About 75% of average annual rainfall is
received during monsoon months. July and August are rainiest Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) series were computed by
month.Agricultural in the major industry in the region, hence the subtracting the mean and dividing by the standard deviation of
majority of land use belong to agriculture land.The study area is the precipitation series (Shreshtha et al. 2000; Pant and Kumar
about 13,229 km2 up to Harike Barrage which is the confluence 1997). The SPI data series were then subjected to trend analyses
of the Sutlej and Beas rivers, located at downstream of Bhakra by two established statistical techniques: standard parametric
dam. technique, such as linear trend analysis (Borgaonkar and Pant
Fig 2.1 Location of the Study Area 2001) and non-parametric test, such as Mann-Kendall test
(Kendall and Stuart 1961). The magnitude of the trends at all
nine districts stations has also been determined with Sen' Slope
estimator method (Sen, 1968).Mann-Kendall test, which is also
known as Kendalls statistic, has been widely used to test for
randomness against trend in hydrology and climatology. It is a
rank-based procedure, which is robust to the influence of
extremes and good for use with skewed variables.
2.2 Data used
Monthly rainfall data from 19012010 for nine district

headquarters stations across the Bist-doab region of the Punjab
state of India have been analyzed to describe any changes in
annual, seasonal and monthly rainfall amount.The district-wise
rainfall data was obtained by simple linear averaging from the
gridded data of the CRU dataset. The data was downloaded from Fig 2.1 Box plot of the rainfall data (1901-2010) for districts
the India water portal (http://www.indiawaterportal.org/) which (North to South) of study area.
has been originally publicly available at the website of Centre of
Environmental Data Archival Centre for Climate Change Mann (1945) originally used this test and Kendall (1962)
Research, School of Environmental Sciences, University of East subsequently derived the test statistic distribution. This test
Anglia in Norwich, UK (http://badc.nerc.ac.uk).The box plot allows to inquire on the presence of a tendency of long period in
given blow (Fig 2.2) represents the major statistical rainfall data, without having to make an assumption about its
characteristics such as a data sets lowest value, highest value, distributional properties. Moreover the non-parametric methods
median value, and the size of the first and third quartile of the are less influenced by the presence of outliers in the data
rainfall data () from1901-2010 for the concerned districts of the (Lanzante, 1996).According to this test, the null hypothesis H0
study area.It is deceptive from Fig. 2.2 that the rainfall is states that the de-seasonalized data (x1, ..,xn) is a sample of n
decreasing from northern part of the region towards the south- independent and identically distributed random variables. The
western part for the said study period. Vicinity of the northern alternative hypothesis H1 of a two-sided test is that the
parts to the Shiwaliks foot hills could be one of the reason for distributions of xk and xj are not identical for all k, j n with k
this. The box plots of Seasonal analysis of the entire monthly j. The test statistic S, which has mean zero and a variance
rainfall data (1900-2010) based on the three prominent and computed by Equation (3), is calculated using Equations (1) and
distinct seasons viz. pre-monsoon or spring season (March (2), and is asymptotically normal (Hirsch et al. 1982):
May), southwest monsoon season (June October), northeast
monsoon season or winter season (from November of the last

n 1
sgnx xk
n
S j A positive values of B indicates an upward (increasing) trends
k 1 j k 1 and a negative value indicates a downward (decreasing) trend in
(1) the time series.
2.5 Spatial analysis of Rainfall Trends
To explore the spatial distribution of the detected trends on

annual and seasonal basis, the Z - value of Mann-Kendalltest
(2)
was interpolated using ArcGIS 9.3 based on each stations slope

Var(S ) nn 12n 5 t t 12t 5 18
value for the entire study period (1901-2010). The Spline
method uses an interpolation method that estimates values using
t a mathematical function that minimizes overall surface
(3) curvature, resulting in a smooth surface that passes exactly
The notation t is the extent of any given tie and t denotes the through the input points. The Z-value maps of the study area for
summation over all ties. In cases where the sample size n > 10, annual as well seasonal rainfall trends were prepared which are
the standard normal variate z is computed by using Equation (4) useful to determine the Z statistics of Mann-Kendall test at any
(Douglas et al., 2000). In a two-sided test for trend, H0 should point location in the study area.
thus be accepted if |z| z/2 at the level of significance. A
positive value of S indicates an upward trend; likewise, a 3. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
negative value of S indicates downward trend:
3.1 Mann-Kendell Test
The results for the non-parametric Mann-Kendall (MK) test

applied to ascertain the significance of trends along with the Z-
values of the individual districts for monthly time series and
seasonal and annual time series are shown in Table 3.1 and
Table 3.2 respectively. The results indicated that, during the
(4)
primary monsoon month i.e. July seven districts out of total nine
districts area showing increasing rainfall at statistically
The Mann-Kendall test has two parameters that are of
significance level of more than 95% and four of them are
importance to trend detection. These parameters are the
supporting this trend at 99% significance level. This is followed
significance level that indicates the trends strength and the slope
by the pre-monsoon month May in which, five districts are
magnitude estimates that indicates the direction as well as the
confirming rising trend of rainfall with significance level of
magnitude of the trend. The MK test checks the null hypothesis
more than 95% and two districts out of this five are also
of no trend versus the alternative hypothesis of the existence of
supporting the trend at 99% significance level. The negative z-
increasing or decreasing trend.
values of January and December months time series for all the
districts are depicting the decreasing trend of rainfall but without
2.4 Magnitude of the Trend
any significant level. District Gurdaspur is supporting the rising
trend of rainfall in all months expect six months of January,
The magnitude of the trend in a time series was determined
April, June, September, November and December.
using a non-parametric method known as Sen's slope estimator
method (Sen, 1968). This Method assumes a linear trend in the
It is apparent from the results table 3.1 that the study area as a
time series. In this method, the slope (T i) of all pairs are first
whole is supporting the rising trend Monsoon season and spring
calculated by
season with statistically significance level of more than 95%.
Monsoon contributes around 80% of total annual rainfall, the
annual rainfall series is also affirming the rising trend. The
monsoon season series is having rising trend at 95% significance
(5)
level for all the districts except Hoshiarpur. Five out of the nine
districts have this significance level at 99%. Similarly in the
Where Xjand Xk area data values at time j and k (j>k)
spring season series, six out of nine districts are having
respectively. The median of these N values of T i is Sen's
statistically significant rising trend. Although, in the winter
estimator of slope which is calculated as
season series six districts are showing falling rainfall trend and
three are showing rising trend, none of them are statistically
significant.
Table 3.1: Z-Value of MK Test for monthly series of rainfall

data
(6)

3.2 Magnitude of trend:
The magnitude of the trend in the rainfall time series, as

determined using the Sen Estimator, is given in Tables 3.3 and
3.4. The analysis of trends of rainfall variations by districts
shows a large variability in the magnitude and direction of trend
from one district to another. Monthly analysis of district rainfall
indicated that the majority of the districts have very little or no
change in non-monsoon months (Table 3.3) and the monsoon
months witnessed increasing rainfall in the majority of districts.
The analysis of annual series is very similar to Monsoon series,

as except Hoshiarpur districts all the districts are having
statistically significant upward trends. Gurdaspur district is
having highest significance level of more than 99.9% for annual
series. It is evident from the Table 3.1., Table 3.2 and Fig 3.1
that there are rising trend of precipitation over the last century in
most of the districts of north-west Punjab state.
Table 3.2: Z-Value of MK Test for Annual and Seasonal series

of rainfall
In order to get the study areas response the Z-values of annual

and seasonal time series also have been interpolated using spline
method. The Z-value maps of the study area for annual as well
seasonal rainfall trends are presented in the Fig. 3.1. Z-value
maps of the area are useful to determine the Z statistics of Mann-
Kendall test at any point location in the study area. The annual
average rainfall of the lower Sutlej is supporting the rising trend
with more than 95% significance level in most of the area. The
analysis of the rainfall data by parametric and non-parametric
statistical test and the magnitude of trends supports the rising
trend over the study area. While analysing the results presented
in the various tables and figures one can easily conclude that the
only winter season is not supporting any trend but the monsoon
and the annual rainfall in the region has been increased over the
last century.

rate of rise of rainfall over last century comes out be of an order

of 1.42mm/year based on annual time series.
Table 3.4: Sen Estimator of slope (mm/year) for Annual and

seasonal rainfall.
4. CONCLUSIONS
The understanding of spatial and temporal distribution and

changing pattern of precipitation is most fundamental and
primary input required for any kind of planning and management
of water resources. The aim of this work was to study rainfall
trend in Bist-doab region of Punjab and spatial distributionof the
annual as well as seasonal and monthly precipitation series for
the period of 1900-2010 were analyzed.Punjab state holds place
of pride among the Indian States for its outstanding
achievements in agricultural development productivity.
Agricultural productivity is sensitive to global climatic changes
and therefore the tracking of theses changes in terms of trend is
Fig 3.1Mann-Kendall Z-Statistic for Annual, Monsoon, winter essential to generate variable predictions about impact of change
and spring rainfall trend in climate and variability.Most frequently used non-parametric
Mann-Kendall test and simple linear regression technique was
Table 3.3Sen Estimator of slope (mm/year) for monthly rainfall. used to identify the significant trends of rainfall in this study and
the magnitude of the trends were ascertained by the well-
established Sen slope estimator method. Overall annual rainfall
showed increasing trend at almost all the districts with certain
significance level. Average rainfall of the study area was
546mm. The highest average annual rainfall is estimated at
Gurdaspur district (661mm) and lowest at Moga district
(379mm). While looking at the trend analysis part the maximum
increase was 1.95 mm/year and the maximum decrease was -
0.08 mm/year. Over the complete study area, the annual rainfall
showed an increasing trend and the rate of rise was estimated
1.42 mm/year.Seasonal analysis showed that monsoonal rainfall
increased statistically significant over all districts except
Hoshiarpur district. Spring rainfall increased over 6 districts
with statistically significance levels. Winter rainfall at five
districts showed falling trend but these are not at significance
levels. The annual rainfall trends fully indorsing to the monsoon
trend, which implicit the dominance of the monsoon for
On analyzing the estimates of the slope (mm/year) for annual rainwater arability in the region. The study indicated a clear
and seasonal rainfall series of all the districts (Table 3.4), it is pattern of rainfall trends in the study area with less variability,
implicit that three districts experienced decreasing rainfall in the this could be due to homogeneous geographic and climatic
winter season. The maximum reduction was found for conditions of the districts falling the study area.
Kapurthala (-0.08 mm/year). The maximum increase out of 9
districts was experienced by Gurdaspur in rainfall (1.95 mm/year
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Net Radiation Estimation From A Remotely intensifies and better irrigation management will be required to
Sensed Data Using Sebal Model achieve greater efficiency in the use of this valuable resource.
Out of all the components of the hydrological cycle, land surface
M.V.S.S.Giridhar1 and P. Suneel2 evapotranspiration estimates are crucial for water balance
1
Asst. Prof., Centre for Water Resources, Institute of Science and studies. Also this is perhaps the most difficult component to
Technology, J N T U H, Hyderabad, estimate because of complex interactions between this and the
email: mvssgiridhar@gmail.com components of the land-plant-atmosphere system. Land surface
2
P.G. Student, Centre for Water Resources, Institute of Science evapotranspiration is governed by the conditions of the lower
and Technology, J N T U H, Hyderabad part of the atmosphere, the presence and the properties of the
vegetation layer and the sub surface soil moisture conditions.
Abstract : The objective of the present study is to estimate the The condition of the lower part of the atmosphere depends on
daily net radiation from the remote sensing images for the supply of heat energy and the vapour pressure gradient,
Nagarjuna Sagar Left Bank Canal Command Area, Andhra which, in turn, depend on meteorological factors such as
Pradesh, India. Net radiation is one of the important temperature, wind speed, atmospheric pressure, and solar
parameter for further estimation of actual evapotranspiration. radiation. These factors also depend on other factors, such as
The study was conducted for the day of the imagery taken by geographical location, season, time of day, etc. Calculation of
the LANDSAT satellite on 22nd October 2011 with thermal and net radiation at any instance will generate actual
near infrared (NIR) bands. The study area lies between evapotranspiration from each pixel to global level using remote
latitude 160 3506.34N to 170 0240.77N and longitude 790 sensing imagery.
1616.42E to 800 0303.11E. The command area map was The net radiation flux at the surface (Rn) represents the actual
digitized on the toposheet and processed for the estimation of radiant energy available at the surface. It is computed by
net radiation with the help of ARCVIEW and ERDAS. The DN subtracting all outgoing radiant fluxes from all incoming radiant
values of bands were used to estimate radiance, reflectance, fluxes. Net surface radiation = gains losses. The amount of
Net radiation and soil heat flux. The thermal range of bands shortwave radiation (RS) that remains available at the surface is
has been used to estimate temperature related components like a function of the surface albedo (). Surface albedo is a
the estimation of net radiation and sensible heat flux. After the reflection coefficient defined as the ratio of the reflected radiant
estimation of all energy balance components the evaporative flux to the incident radiant flux over the solar spectrum. It is
fraction was used to estimate the daily rate of actual calculated using satellite image information on spectral radiance
evapotranspiration using SEBAL algorithm. The minimum for each satellite band. The incoming shortwave radiation (R S)
and maximum net radiation estimated in the command area is
is computed using the solar constant, the solar incidence angle, a
8.1183 W/m2 and 225.3886 W/m2 respectively on the day of
relative earth-sun distance, and a computed atmospheric
pass. Further, from the net radiation and soil heat flux, the
transmissivity. The incoming longwave radiation (R L) is
actual evapotranspiration was also calculated for the entire
command area which will be useful for effective crop water computed using a modified Stefan-Boltzmann equation with
management at a local level. atmospheric transmissivity and a selected surface reference
Keywords: Nagarjuna Sagar, SEBAL, LANDSAT, radiation, temperature. Outgoing longwave radiation (RL) is computed
actual evapotranspiration using the Stefan-Boltzmann equation with a calculated surface
emissivity and surface temperature. Surface temperatures are
1.0 INTRODUCTION: computed from satellite image information on thermal radiance.
The surface emissivity is the ratio of the actual radiation emitted
Land managers today are faced with multiple challenges. They by a surface to that emitted by a black body at the same surface
must, as a result of expanding economic pressures, become temperature. In SEBAL, emissivity is computed as a function of
advocates for the sustainable use of our natural resources while a vegetation index. The final term in above Equation, (1-o)RL,
ensuring that the quality of the resource is maintained. The represents the fraction of incoming long wave radiation that is
public and the courts are increasingly demanding objective and lost from the surface due to reflection. SEBAL requires a
effective strategies for managing these exhaustible resources. satellite image and some weather data. A land-use map for the
Fresh water has become our most precious natural resource and area of interest is also helpful. This manual applies specifically
the wise management of this resource is one of our greatest to images produced from the Landsat satellites. Landsat
challenges. An understanding of the natural systems and the Thematic Mapper (TM) bands 1-5 and 7 provide data for the
physical laws that govern each component of the hydrologic visible and near infrared bands. The pixel size for these bands is
cycle is very important for the water resource manager. In 30m by 30m. TM band 6 provides data for longwave (thermal)
particular, the evaporation processes from the various surfaces of radiation. The pixel size for this band is 60m by 60m for Landsat
the earth need to be understood in order to achieve a sustainable 7 and 120m by 120m for Landsat 5. We recommend using
development of our water resources. Cropland irrigation is a images from Landsat 7 since there is more error possible with
major consumer of water in semiarid and arid regions and an recent Landsat 5 images due to sensor degradation. Some
efficient and reliable method for determining the consumptive Landsat 5 satellite constants that are used in the computations
use of water by crops is crucial for adequate water management. are updated to 1986 and may be in error for 2002 without
As fresh water becomes scarcer, competition for fresh water adjustment. SEBAL calculates ET through a series of

computations that generate: net surface radiation, soil heat flux, limitation of SEBAL, some correction have been made by Su
and sensible heat flux to the air. By subtracting the soil heat flux (2002) to make it more practicability, who remedied a
and sensible heat flux from the net radiation at the surface we theoretical problem of SEBAL model and added a scheme to
are left with a residual energy flux that is used for apply NWP fields with an Up-scaling and down-scaling
evapotranspiration (i.e. energy that is used to convert the liquid approach (Su and Pelgrum et al., 1999). In another effort,
water into water vapour). In the SEBAL model, ET is computed Roerink et al (2000) developed a new method to derive the
from satellite images and weather data using the surface energy surface energy fluxes from remote sensing measurements, called
balance. Since the satellite image provides information for the the Simplified Surface Energy Balance Index (S-SEBI), which
overpass time only, SEBAL computes an instantaneous ET flux fits dry and wet cases present in the spatial radiometric data and
for the image time. The ET flux is calculated for each pixel of showed reasonable success for application to semiarid areas. But
the image as a residual of the surface energy budget equation after this approach a new model came into light that was SEBS
(1). model. The surface energy balance system (SEBS) is developed
for the estimation of atmospheric turbulent fluxes and
ETact= Rn - G H evaporative fractions using satellite earth observation data, in
1 combination with meteorological information at proper scales
(Su, 2002). The land surface parameters (albedo, emissivity,
where incoming components are positive and outgoing are temperature, fractional vegetation cover and leaf area index) for
counted as negative. The net radiation is the sum of the the system are extracted from the reflectance and radiance
incoming and outgoing short and long wave components. In measurement of the satellite. The other input used includes air
above Equation, the soil heat flux (G) and sensible heat flux (H) pressure, temperature, humidity, and wind speed at a reference
are subtracted from the net radiation flux at the surface (R n) to height. Energy balance models of ET require explicit
compute the residual energy available for evapotranspiration characterisation of numerous physical parameters, many of
(ET). Soil heat flux is empirically calculated using vegetation which are difficult to determine globally and locally. SEBAL
indices, surface temperature, and surface albedo. Sensible heat Bastiaanssen et al (1998a,b), SEBS (Su,2002), and RSEB
flux is computed using wind speed observations, estimated (Kalma & Jump, 1990) estimate ET as a residual of the energy
surface roughness, and surface to air temperature differences. balance at the earths surface, which contain biases from both
SEBAL uses an iterative process to correct for atmospheric the sensible heat flux and net radiation. The REBM model (Mc
instability due to the buoyancy effects of surface heating. Vicar & Jupp, 1999, 2002) uses combined remote sensing data
and meteorological data to calculate ET, while the triangle
Norman et al, (1995) developed two layer model of turbulent method (Gillies & Carlson, 1995; Nemani & Running, 1989:
exchange that includes the view geometry and associated with Nishidha & Nemani, 2003) uses the slope of surface temperature
directional radiometric surface temperature is developed and versus the NDVI to estimate the surface resistance to ET, and
evaluated by comparison of model prediction with field the dual-source model developed by Norman et al (1995) and
measurement. Bastiaanssen et al, (1998) evaluated the major Kustas and Norman (1999) uses multi-angular remote sensing.
bottlenecks of existing algorithms to estimate the spatially For all the above models, thermal remote sensing data, land
distributed surface energy balance in composite terrain by means surface temperature are the most important inputs. The objective
of remote sensing data are briefly summarized. Michael (2003) of the present study is to calculate accurate land surface
estimated of absolute surface temperature by satellite remote temperatures from the remote sensing imagery to give as a input
sensing. Land surface temperature is strongly influenced by the to further estimate actual evapotranspiration at pixel by pixel
ability of the surface to emit radiation, i.e. surface emissivity. level at locally and globally to feed as a input to climatic models
The objective of our study is to demonstrate the feasibility of for forecasting.
Landsat TS product as a source for calculating spatial
distribution of Ta to detect urbanization effect in Jakarta city 2.0 DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA
(Hasti et al 2013). Gislain (2006) used the Surface Energy
Balance Algorithm for Land (SEBAL) images was used to The present study is to estimate the daily net radiation and
determine the actual evapotranspiration of acquisition day finally to estimate actual evapotranspiration through remote
Landsat ETM+ images of 26/08/2000, 25/05/2001, 16/08/2002 sensing image for Nagarjuna Sagar Left Bank Canal Command
and 31/05/2003.The development of Surface Energy Balance area. The study was conducted for day 22 nd October 2001. The
Algorithm for Land (SEBAL) by Bastiaanssen et al (1998a,b) study area lies between latitude 1603506.34 N to
built up the milestone for estimation of land surface turbulent 1700240.77N and longitude 7901616.42E to 8000303.11E.
energy fluxes. The relationships between visible and thermal The study area has been delineated using the command area map
infrared spectral radiances of areas with a sufficiently large provided by the irrigation department. The command area map
hydrological contrast constitute the basis for the formulation of was georeferenced with respect to SOI toposheet. The boundary
the SEBAL model. After its establishment, a lot of filed of the study area was digitized and cut-out. The present research
validations have been done in different area, especially in arid work is aimed to apply the SEBAL models for estimation of net
and semi-arid area. However, due to the difficulty to find exactly radiation and finally actual evapotranspiration in a semi arid
right pixels of dry and wet conditions in certain images, its region of India namely Nagarjuna Sagar left bank Canal (NSLC)
application is limited in a certain degree. To solve related Command area of Andhra Pradesh. SEBAL can compute ET for

flat, agricultural areas with the most accuracy and confidence surface is a black body (i.e., spectral emissivity is 1), and
level. includes atmospheric effects (absorption and emissions along
path). The at-sensor temperature uses the prelaunch calibration
3.0 METHODOLOGY constants given in Table.
Major part of the work has been done with ILWIS software, 3.1 SEBAL METHODOLOGY
which is also used for compiling and analyzing the data. ILWIS
has a very good GIS operation capability and is specially built Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land (SEBAL) is a
for Land-Water analysis. With the added advantage of easy relatively new parameterization of surface heat fluxes based on
script writing facility, it can be said as the best software for this spectral satellite measurements. SEBAL requires spatially
present kind of analysis. In order to be able to make the right distributed, visible, near-infrared and thermal infrared data,
decisions, access to different sorts of information is required. which can be taken from any suitable satellite sensor working in
The data should be maintained and updated and should be used these wavelength. The SEBAL parameterization is an iterative
in the analysis to obtain useful information. In this process and feedback-based numerical procedure that deduces the
ILWIS can be an important tool. Figure 1 represents False radiation, heat and evaporation fluxes. The key input data for
Colour composite of NSLC command area which was digitized SEBAL consists of spectral radiance in the visible, nearinfrared
and cut out in ERDAS imagine 8.7. Command Area was and thermal infrared part of the spectrum. SEBAL computes a
delineated Using Arcview 9.1 Software with the help of SOI complete radiation and energy balance along with the resistances
toposheets thereby after creating the boundary shape file we are for momentum, heat and water vapor transport for every
suppose to import the boundary shape file to another software individual pixel. The resistances are a function of state
ERDAS IMAGINE 8.7 which is very flexible to create a subset conditions such as soil water potential (and thus soil moisture),
of an image. We have to create subset by placing the boundary wind speed and air temperature and change from day-to-day.
file above the band1, band2, band3, band4, band5, band6-1, Satellite radiances will be converted first into land surface
band6-2, band7, band8 everything will be provided in individual characteristics such as surface albedo, leaf area index, vegetation
format so that we can create subset for every band of the satellite index and surface temperature. These land surface characteristics
imagery with the help of boundary file thereafter reprojection to can be derived from different types of satellites. First, an
be done for the satellite imagery so that UTM values will be instantaneous evapotranspiration is computed, that is
converted into Lat-Long Values. subsequently scaled up to 24 hours and longer periods. In
addition to satellite images, the SEBAL model requires weather
The Landsat ETM+7 images dated October 22, 2001 were data parameters, such as Wind speed, Humidity, Solar radiation
downloaded for the full scene of the path and row 143/48 from and Air Temperature. There is no data on land cover, soil type or
global land cover facility site. The raw images acquired had file hydrological conditions required to apply SEBAL. The primary
formats as GEOTIFF. Pre-processing such as geometric, basis for the SEBAL model is the surface energy. The
radiometric and atmospheric corrections which are a prerequisite instantaneous ETact flux is calculated for each cell of the remote
for analysis of energy fluxes and land cover parameters were sensing image as a residual of the surface energy budget
done. All the operation from importing the data to analysis of equation (1). It is important that the image used is for a totally
the data was carried out in the GIS & RS software ILWIS clear sky. ET cannot be computed for cloud covered land
(Integrated Land Water Information System). All the data surfaces, because even a thin layer of cloud can considerably
required for performing operations on landsat imagery were drop the thermal band readings and cause large errors in
given in a meta data file namely Acquisition date, latitude, calculation of sensible heat fluxes. Therefore, all satellite images
longitude, Path, row, UTM zone number etc. During product should be thoroughly checked for the occurrence of cloud cover
rendering image pixels are converted to units of absolute and if found, these areas should be masked out and dealt with
radiance using 32 bit floating point calculations. Pixel values are individually. In order to detect clouds in an image, view the
then scaled to byte values prior to media output. For relatively thermal band using a range of colors to differentiate temperature
clear Landsat scenes, a reduction in between-scene variability values. Clouds will then show up as uniquely colored areas in
can be achieved through a normalization for solar irradiance by the image and can be flagged. Masking can be done following
converting spectral radiance, as calculated above, to planetary the processing of ET, but is an important final step.
reflectance or albedo. This combined surface and atmospheric
reflectance of the Earth is computed. The value of ESUN andd 3.1.1. Header file information
is provided. The reflectivity of a surface is defined as the ratio of
the reflected radiation flux to the incident radiation flux. ETM+ TM images are generally created with an associated header file.
Band 6 imagery can also be converted from spectral radiance (as The header file for the satellite image is a relatively small file
described above) to a more physically useful variable. This is the that contains important information for the SEBAL process. The
effective at-satellite temperatures of the viewed Earth- following information must be obtained from the header file for
atmosphere system under an assumption of unity emissivity and entry into SEBAL:
using pre-launch calibration constants. The thermal band data The satellite overpass date and time
(Band 6 on TM and ETM+) can be converted from at-sensor The latitude and longitude of the center of the image
spectral radiance to effective at-sensor brightness temperature. The sun elevation angle () at the overpass time
The at-sensor brightness temperature assumes that the Earths

Gain and Bias levels for each band stations not having a net longwave radiometer but information
The satellite overpass time is expressed as Greenwich Mean on standard daily averaged meteorological parameters, the
Time (GMT) and must be converted to local time. For Landsat 7, exchange of long-wave radiation Lday between vegetation and
the header file includes the gains and biases for bands 1-5 and 7. soil on the one hand, and atmosphere and clouds on the other,
These parameters are used to convert digital numbers (DNs) in can be represented by the radiation law.
the original files into energy units. For band 6, the thermal band,
both high and low gain images are supplied and the user must 4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
decide which one to use for SEBAL. We recommend using the
low gain image, which yields slightly lower resolution, but is The reflective and thermal bands of the ETM sensor were
less likely to suffer from saturation. When the low gain image is converted into reflectance and temperature maps using the
selected, use the gain and bias information for low gain. If the calibration coefficients and solar zenith angle derived in the
header file is missing, the user must use the internet to find gain above section. Band 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 7 were converted into
and bias data for the image. reflectance and band 6 was converted into temperature. The
temperature is known as brightness temperature or radiant
3.3 Estimation of total daily net radiation temperature because it is measured at the top of the atmosphere
by the satellite. Temperature map was resampled to the
It is the result of the energy balance between the incoming and reflective band resolution for all future analysis. The dry and wet
outgoing long and shortwave radiation on the Earth' surface pixels were identified using the criteria described in the
during one day. Positive fluxes indicate radiation reaching the methodology. Scatter plot between Surface Temperature and
surface and negative leaving it. The mathematical equation that Albedo was made to find the dry pixel. Another scatter plot
expresses this balance, C1 is the conversion factor for surface between surface temperature and NDVI was constructed to find
Albedo from the image. It is the ratio between the average daily the wet pixel. Estimated values were listed for the dry and wet
Albedo to the instantaneous Albedo as it is derived from the pixel is given in Table 1.
visible band image. A default value 1.1 can be taken.
Table 1. Derived components of dry and wet pixel for the study
3.3.1Daily terrestrial solar radiation (Sday exo) region
The maximum instantaneous solar radiation outside the

atmosphere, measured at an average Sun-Earth distance, and
perpendicular to the solar rays is equal to 1367 watt/m2. The
daily terrestrial solar radiation as defined as 24 hour average of
the total energy reaching the top of the atmosphere at the point
of consideration.
The dT map is an important input for the determination of
3.3.2 Average daily incoming shortwave radiation (Sday) sensible heat. The value of dT varied from 3.157K to 14.753K
for the study region. Since Sensible Heat Flux is an implicit
The solar radiation reaching the ground is a function of function of components that contains it therefore an iterative
geometric and atmospheric factors such as date of the year, process is run to derive the final value. The iteration process is
latitude, sunshine fraction and atmospheric gaseous components. carried with initial value of m (correction factor for momentum
Due to the highly temporal and spatial variation of the transport) and h (correction factor for heat transport) as zero
atmospheric components, the determination of the incoming then subsequently computing the maps of Friction Velocity
shortwave radiation reaching the ground is usually done by (U*), Aerodynamic resistance for heat transport (Rah), Sensible
means of atmospheric-solar models in combination with ground Heat (SH), Monin Obukhov Length (L), x m, m, xh, h in
data collection. The incoming shortwave radiation or global sequential order. The value of m and h at the end of the first
radiation, 'S', is measured at ground stations by means of iteration is taken for the next iteration. This iterative process is
instruments called pyranometers. These instruments usually run till a constant value of sensible heat is reached. Sensible heat
work in the entire visible broadband range (usually 0.305 - 2.4 flux ranged from 0.0066 to 141.0801 Wm-2 for the command
m). This range comprises almost 96% of the spectral solar area. Histogram of sensible heat flux shows a normal
irradiance. distribution of values.
3.3.3 Average daily net longwave radiation (Lday) 4.1 Net daily radiation
There is a significant exchange of radiant energy between the Daily net radiation is the integration of all the instantaneous
earth's surface and the atmosphere in form of radiation at longer values of net radiation for the whole day, there are separate set
wavelengths (3-100 m). The average daily net longwave of formulas for its estimation.
radiation is given by: The value of Lday can be determined with
appropriate instruments (net longwave radiometer) and is the
most accurate method since direct information is available. For 4.1.1 Daily terrestrial solar radiation (Sdayexo)

iii. Gillies, R. R., & Carlson, T. N. (1995). Thermal remote sensing of

surface soil water content with partial vegetation cower for incorporation into
Day angle map was created using the Julian day value; this map
mesoscale prediction models. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 34, 745756.
is used to compute the eccentricity correction factor and the iv. Hasti et al (2013) Air Temperature Estimation from Satellite Remote
solar declination values. The sunrise hour angle map was Sensing to Detect the Effect of Urbanization in Jakarta, Indonesia, Journal of
developed using the latitude map and solar declination map. Emerging Trends in Engineering and Applied Sciences (JETEAS) 4(6): 800-805
Kalma, J. D., & Jupp, D. L. B. (1990). Estimating evaporation from pasture
Using the above derived components the daily terrestrial solar
using infrared thermometry: evaluation of a one-layer resistance model.
radiation was computed in MJm-2day-1. The value of daily Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 51, 223246.
terrestrial solar radiation was nearly constant and ranged from v. Kustas, W. P, & Norman, J. M. (1999). Evaluation of soil and
24.5959 M J m-2 day-1 to 24.7470MJm-2day-1 for the command vegetation heat flux predictions using a simple two-source model with
radiometric temperatures for partial canopy cover. Agricultural and Forest
area. Average daily incoming Shortwave radiation is estimated
Meteorology, 94, 1329
to be 166.0981 vi. McVicar, T. R., & Jupp, D. L. B. (1999). Estimating one-time-of-day
meteorological data from standard daily data as inputs to thermal remote
4.1.2 Average daily net longwave radiation (Lday) sensing based energy balance models. Agriculture and Forest Meteorology, 96,
219238.
vii. McVicar, T. R., & Jupp, D. L. B. (2002). Using covariates to spatially
The average daily net longwave radiation was calculated using interpolate moisture availability in the MurrayDarling Basin: A novel use of
the meteorological data. Mean relative humidity for the satellite remotely sensed data. Remote Sensing of Environment, 79, 199212.
overpass day was recorded as 80% and the mean air temperature viii. Michael (2003) Estimation of Absolute surface temperature by
satellite remote sensing, Thesis submitted to International Institute for Geo-
was taken as 180C. Using the meteorological data the average
information Science and earth observation. Enschede, The Netherlands, pp:1-70.
daily net longwave radiation has been estimated as -65.09 Wm-2. ix. Nemani, R. R., & Running, S. W. (1989). Estimation of regional
Also using the relation provided be De Bruin (1987), the net surface resistance to evapotranspiration from NDVI and thermal infrared
longwave radiation has been estimated as -64.163 Wm-2. AVHRR data. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 28, 276284.
x. Nishida, K., Nemani, R., et al. (2003). Development of an
evapotranspiration index from Aqua/MODIS for monitoring surface moisture
5.0 CONCLUSION status. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, 41(2).
xi. Norman, J. M., Kustas, W. B., & Humes, K. S. (1995). Source
The present Research work was undertaken to study the Surface approach for estimating soil and vegetation energy fluxes in observations of
directional radiometric surface temperature. Agricultural and Forest
energy balance algorithm for land (SEBAL) model on Nagarjuna
Meteorology, 77, 263293.
Sagar left bank canal command area and to estimate the net xii. Roerink, G.J., B. Su, and M. Menenti, 2000. S-SEBI - A simple remote
radiation from the command area. The minimum and maximum sensing algorithm to estimate the surface energy balance, Physics Climate Earth
radiation has been estimated as 8.1183 and 225.3886 w/m 2 Journal (B) 25(2):147-157.
xiii. Su, Z. (2002). The surface energy balance system (SEBS) (for
respectively for the study area for the given date of pass.
estimation of turbulent heat fluxes. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 6,
8599.
Low Flow Analysis In Bina River Basin Of

Madhya Pradesh
V.K. Chandola1*, Sunil Kumar Yadav1, R.V. Galkate3, Palak
Mehata4
1. Professor, Department of Farm Engineering, Institute of
Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India 221005,
*
Corresponding Author : Email: vkc_vns@yahoo.co.in
2. M.Tech. Student, Department of Farm Engineering,
Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu
University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India 221005
3. Scientist, National Institute of Hydrology, Ganga plains
South Regional Center, WALMI Campus, Bhopal
Madhya Pradesh, India - 462016.
4. Junior Research Fellow, Ganga plains South Regional
REFERENCES Center, WALMI Campus, Madhya Pradesh, India -
462016.
i. Bastiaanssen, W. G. M., Menenti, M., Feddes, R. A., & Holtslag, A. A.
M. (1998). The Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land (SEBAL): Part 2 ABSTRACT: The study was conducted in the sub catchment of
validation. Journal of Hydrology, 212213, 213229.
ii. Bastiaanssen,W.G.M., Menenti, M., Feddes, R.A.&Holtslag, A.A.M.
Bina River, a tributary of Betwa River, in drought prone
1998. A remote sensingsurface energy balance algorithm for land (SEBAL): 1. Bundelkhand region of Madhya Pradesh, India during 2011-
Formulation. Journal of Hydrology 212213: 198212. 12, to analyze the low flow events for assessment of drought.
The daily stream flow data, recorded at Rahatgarh gauge

discharge site of Bina River Basin, was analyzed for using low flow analysis may be helpful in planning and
assessment of hydrological drought situation, drought development of water resources to meet the various water
frequency, duration, and severity of low flow using Flow demands in the river basin. The low flow, according to the
Duration Curve Technique. The dependable flow at 75% International Glossary of Hydrology (WMO,1974)is defined as
probability of exceedance was considered as truncation level to the flow of water in a stream during prolonged dry weather. This
obtain deficiency volume and its severity for each event of low paper deals with the assessment of hydrological drought
flow condition. Stream flow drought severity was taken as the situation using low flow analysis in Bina river basin using daily
total deficit or cumulative deficient runoff volume below the stream flow data of Rahatgarh Gauge-Discharge (G/D) site.
truncation level during the period of the event of low flow
condition.The river experienced 6 low flow events over the 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
period of 9 years (1990-1998) indicating 1 to 2 low flow events
every year. The low flow events in this basin usually begin 2.1 Study Area
during July to October and terminate during November to
December. The severity of low flow varies from 2.88 to 287.37 Bina river is an important tributary of Betwa River of Madhya
MCM and duration of low flow events ranges from 10 to 22 Pradesh. It originates in Raisen district and enters in Rahatgarh
days. The maximum severity of 287.37 MCM has been block and traverse through Khurai and Bina blocks of Sagar
observed for 23 days during September, 1994. district. The study area is located partly in Sagar, Vidisha and
Key Words: Drought Severity; Flow Duration Curves; Raisen districts of Madhya Pradesh. The index map and drainage
Hydrological Drought; Low Flow; Stream Flow; Truncation map of the
Level.
1. INTRODUCTION
Drought is an extended shortfall of precipitation that results in

water supplies insufficient to meet the needs of humans and the
environment and occur routinely as part of the natural
hydrologic cycle (Wilhite and Smith, 2005). The prime cause of
drought is occurrence of below normal precipitation, which is
affected by various natural phenomenon. The occurrence of
drought leads to reduction in river flow, consequent reduction in
reservoir and tank levels and depletion of soil moisture and
groundwater. The surface water deficits are reflected through
low stream flows and reduced reservoir storages. The low stream
flows are indicative of drought situations. When the stream
flows are not sufficient enough to meet the required demand of
water, it is considered that the drought has set in. The drought st ud
severity, frequency and duration can be studied by low flow y area is shown in Figure 1.
analysis of the local streams. During the rainfall deficient
condition the deviation from normal values is greater for stream
flows than the rainfall.Due to uneven distribution of
precipitation, catchment characteristics and predominant hydro
meteorological factors in the watershed, all taken as the input,
there is wide degree of variation in the runoff, taken as output of
the hydrological system.
Bina river is one of the important river in Bundelkhand region of

Madhya Pradesh. The Water Resources Department, Govt. of
Madhya Pradesh has planned a Bina Complex-Irrigation and
Multipurpose Project (BC-IMP) on Bina river to meet the
domestic water demand of towns like Rahatgarh, Khurai and
Bina and industrial water demand of Bina Refinery and proposed
JP power project. Water will also be supplied to meet water India
demand of railways. Beside this, large quantity of water will be M
directly pumped from the river for irrigation.Thus the knowledge
of the available flows in rivers during monsoon and lean period
is vital in formulation of the yearly plan for water uses which
include domestic and industrial water supply, besides planning
for economic and ecological activities of a given region (Clausen
and Pearson, 1995). The assessment of water scarcity situation

Figure 2: Locations of raingauge stations and gauge-discharge

site in Bina river
Map of Bina Basin up to Rahatgarh G/D 2.2.1 Flow duration curves
Figure 1: Index Map of Bina River Basin up to Rahatgarh A Flow Duration Curve (FDC) is a simple and very useful
Gauge Discharge Site method of displaying the complete range of river discharges
from low flows to flood events. It is a relationship between any
The geographical area of the Bina river basin up to Rahatgarh given discharge value and the percentage of time that this
Gauge-Discharge site is about 1180 km2. Bina river basin is discharge is equaled or exceeded, or a relationship between
situated at 24 09' 36" to 2442' 00" N latitude and 7809' 06" to magnitude and frequency of stream-flow discharges (Smakhtin,
7823' 05" E longitude. The major part of the rainfall in the river 2001). FDC technique is useful in water resources planning to
basin is covered by four Raingauge stations namely; Rahatgarh, evaluate dependable flows, river characteristics and its potential.
Jiasinagar, Begamganj and Gairatganj. The average annual In present study monthly FDC of Rahatgarh gauging site of Bina
rainfall of the study area is about 1196 mm and the mean river were prepared using daily flow data for the period from
minimum and maximum temperature of the region is 11.50C 1990 to 1998 .Forpreparation of monthly FDC, the stream flow
and 40.9Crespectively (Sunil Kumar Yadav, 2012). The study datawas grouped according to different months and was assigned
area falls under Vindhyan Region. The important rocks which a rank after arrangingdischarge data ofeach month group in
are found in the area are sand stone, Quartzite sand stone, Lime descending order of magnitude.The probability of excedance of
stone and Deccan traps, called as Basalt. Basalt rocks overlie the each discharge data was determined by following equation.
Vindhyan sand stone. The land use and land cover in the area
mainly comprises of agriculture, forests, settlements, barren
land, etc. Agriculture is the main occupation in this region and
irrigation requirements are met mainly through groundwater (3.1)
causing groundwater depletion (Sunil Kumar Yadav, 2012). The
main crops grown in the area are paddy, oilseeds, wheat, gram
and vegetable. Where, P= Probability of exceedance (%)
M= Rank number of the discharge event
2.2 Methodology N = Total number of discharge events
The daily flow data of Rahatgarh G/D site of Bina river for the Finally the monthly FDC were plotted by plotting the values of
period of 9 years i.e. from 1990 to 1998,was collected from probability of exceedance against the corresponding discharge
State Water Data Centre, Water Resources Department, Govt. of data. The flow duration curves can also be plotted using different
Madhya Pradesh, Bhopal. Daily flow data was analyzed to carry time resolutions of streamflow data like daily, 10-days, weekly,
out low flow analysis using flow duration curves technique. monthly and annually.
2.2.2 Estimation of truncation level

The variable truncation approach is efficacious in depicting both during August whereas the minimum dependable flow of0.77
the drought and wet events and therefore, in describing drought m3/s during July. The dependable flow at 75% probability was
duration and severity (Pandey et. al., 2008). In the present study zero during nine months from October to June. From the
truncation level has been considered as the value of dependable analysis it can be concluded that Binariver is anintermittentriver
flow at 75% probability of exceedance. The truncation levels for having stream flow during monsoon season and 2-3 months
all 12 months were derived by drawing the monthly FDC using thereafter.
daily flow data of each month. Figure 3: Flow Duration Curves for August at Rahatgarh
2.2.3 Low-flow analysis
Low flow is a term used in different meanings by different

interest groups. It may be considered as the actual flow in a river
occurring during the dry period of the season. However, the
effect of changes in the total flow regime of a river on
sustainable water yield and riparian ecology may be another
aspect of this term. Low flow is a seasonal phenomenon, and an
integral component of a flow regime of any river. Drought, on
the other hand, is a natural event resulting from a less than
normal precipitation for an extended period of time (Smakhtin,
2001). There are natural and anthropogenic factors, which
influence the various aspects of the low-flow regime of the river.
The natural factors include the soil distribution, infiltration
characteristics and hydraulic characteristics; extent of the
aquifers; rainfall frequency and amount, evapotranspiration rates
from the basin; topography and climate. On the other hand,
Table 1: Derived truncation level at 75% dependability levels at
anthropogenic factors include ground water abstraction, sub-
site Rahatgarh (m3/s)
surface drainage, deforestation, urbanization, Industrialization,
construction of dams and subsequent regulation of a river flow
regime.
In present study, the low flow analysis was carried out with the
help of FDC technique using daily discharge data of Bina river
basin at Rahatgarh G/D site to identify the low flow events. The
dependable flows at 75% probability of all 12 months were
considered as a truncation level of respective months. Iftheriver
flow on a particular day is lower than the truncation level, then it
wasconsidered as deficitflow or low flow conditionwhereas if
the river flow is higher than the truncation level, then it
wasconsidered as surpluscondition or high flow.The prolonged
deficit flow condition below its truncation level can be
considered as the low flow event. Considering the size of the
catchment, type of river and on stream demands the events of
continuous deficit flow conditions for more than tendayswere
considered as the lowflowevent. The analysis was carried out for The departure of daily stream flow from its truncation level
the 9 years of daily flow data to identify the low flow events and demonstrating low flow conditions persisting for more than ten
their durations. Severity of each low flow event was taken as the days periodis shown in Figure 4. From the analysis it can be seen
total deficit or cumulative deficient runoff volume below the that the Bina river had experienced 6 low flow events over the
truncation level during the period of low flow event. period of 9 years from 1990 to 1998 indicating 1 or 2 low flow
events every year. Analysis was also carried out to obtain
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION deficitflow volume and severity of low flow events as shown in
Table 2. The low flow events in the basin usually began during
Low flow analysis has been carried out in Bina river basin using July to September and terminated during November to
daily stream flow dataof Rahatgarh G/D site. Flow Duration December. The severity volume of low flow in the river varied
Curves technique was used to obtain dependable flow at 75% from 2.88 to 287.37 MCM and duration of low flow rangedfrom
probability of occurrence which was considered as truncation 10 to 22 days. The maximum severity volume of 287.37 MCM
level. The typical Flow Duration Curve for the August month is was observed for22 days during September, 1994. The years
shown in Figure 3. The derived truncation levels for 12 months 1991 and 1995 experienced twolow flow events each, which
are given in Table 1. From Table 1, it can be seen that the river were highest in any year. In the year 1991 two low flow events
has maximum dependable flow of28.1 m3/s at 75% probability of total 23 days experienced a total severity of 39.27 MCM. In

the year 1995 two low flow events of total 29 days experienced December. The truncation approach appears to be more effective
total severity volume of 95.69 MCM. In the year 1992 one low in the investigation of drought characteristics of the river system.
flow event of 16 days experienced total severity of 17.03 MCM.
Therefore, on the basis of above analysis, it can be concluded REFERENCES
that years 1991 and 1995 were the drought years of severe
deficit runoff volume in Bina river at Rahatgarh. The i. Clausen B and Pearson CP (1995) Regional Analysis of Annual
Maximum Streamflow Drought. Journal of Hydrology, 173, 111-130.
information on frequency of occurrence of low flow and runoff
ii. Galkate RV, Thomas T, Pandey RP, Singh S and Jaiswal RK (2010)
volume deficit in the river is useful in improvement of existing Drought Study in Chhindwara District of Madhya Pradesh, India. Third
backup practices and to undertake water resources management International Conference on Hydrology and Watershed Management
and development of river basin in systematic manner to meet the (ICHWAM) JNTU, Hyderabad, India.
iii. Pandey RP, Sharma KD, Mishra SK, Singh R. and Galkate RV,
various water demands.
(2008) Assessment of Stream flow Drought Severity Using Ephemeral Stream
flow Data. International Journal of Ecological Economics & Statistics
(IJEES), Vol. 11, No. S08, 77-89.
iv. Smakhtin VY (2001) Low flow hydrology: a review. Journal of

Hydrology240, 147186.
v. Sunil Kumar Yadav (2012) Drought study and water availability
assessment in Bina river basin. M.Tech. Thesis, Department of Farm
Engineering, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, BHU, Varanasi, Uttar
Pradesh, India.
vi. WMO (1975) Drought and Agriculture, WMO Technical Note No.
138, Geneva.a
Figure 4: Low Flow events at Rahatgarh
Table 2: Duration and severity of low flow

Events Periods Duration Severity Volume
(MCM)
1 1-10 July, 1991 10 2.88
2 9-30 September, 1991 13 36.39
3 1-16 July, 1992 16 17.03
4 9-30 September, 1994 22 287.37
5 1-18 July, 1995 18 21.56
6 20-30 September 1995 11 74.13
4. CONCLUSIONS
Drought studies can provide an important input to water

resources planners for water conservation and water
management purposes. Flow Duration Curves technique helps to
determine the probability of occurrence of particular flow at the
site and dependable flow at various probability levels, which is
helpful for planning of water resources projects and deriving
truncation levels for specific purposes. Low flow analysis
technique helps in assessing the hydrological drought frequency,
its duration and severity in the river basin using daily stream
flow data. The Bina river in Madhya Pradesh is of an
intermittent nature which generally experiences 1 or 2 low flow
condition every year. The low flow events in this basin usually
begin during July to September and terminate during October to

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Effect Of Conservation Works On Soil Erosion-A Case Study Of Punegaon

Hydrological Data Modelling Using Wavelet, Neural Network And Ar Models

Improved Neuro-Wavelet Model For Reservoir Inflow Forecast

Monthly Inflow Prediction Using Wavelet Neural Network

Typologies For Successful Operation And Maintenance Of Horizontal Sub-

43. 8 Technological Utilization Of Parthenium Hysterophorus-A Review

Theme: Water Quality Assessment And Modeling

Water Quality And Flow Simulation Along River

Assessment Of Groundwater Quality Of Bah Block, Agra, India

Water Quality Assessment Of Dal Lake, Kashmir, J&K

Theme: Water Resource And Hydrology

Flood Frequency Analysis Using A Novel Mathematical Approach

Assessment of Hydropower Potential in significantly. Hydropower is a renewable energy sources that do

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Figure 1. Location map of study area

The computation of hydrologic processes operates in five

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3.4.1 Head variability is through flow-duration curves. The flow-duration

Figure 3. Measurement of head (Sale Michael et al., 2006)

3.4.3 Flow-Duration Curves (FDC)

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soil temperature, crop growth, pesticides agricultural

2.4 SWAT model setup

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

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06 47.07 0.02 S. Raazia1 R. Khosa2

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For a number of initial conditions of the water table, it was

Figure 6. Saturated slope length in the foothills of the Zabarwan

Figure 7. Outflow hydrograph at the lower end of the steep

Figure 8. Total outflow from the Zabarwan subbasin

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Where, N - the total number of years of record and R- the rank

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Where, Oi is the observed rainfall and Ei is the expected rainfall

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Table 3: Observed and expected one day maximum

The expected AODMR for different probabilities are graphically

Fig. 3:- Predicted AODMR with different probability

From the figure, it can be observed that the estimated annual

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