OP wekagerehtheratey st to Composite Materials DesignCONTENTS Introduction 1 1.1 Basic Concepts 2 i The Design Process 2-2 2-2 ee 5 1.3 Principal Stress Design. . 6 14 Qverview of Composites see Methods 9 Exercise -» It References we saeminine ee LE Video References oe one 3 ‘Materials 5 2.) Fiber Reinforcements ' . ib 2... Fiber Types : 16 21.2 Fiber Forms 2 2.2 Matrix Materials ee Bs 221 Thenmoset Matrices . ee ee 2.22 Thenmoplastic Matrices 2... ene dle wale o &t 2.23 Creep, Temperature. and Moisture 33 224 Cormsion Resistance % 225 Flammability 7 Exercised oan sre MI ETE yr Tee. xs References 40 Manufacturing Processes 43 3.1 Hand Lay-up a a4 3.2 Prepreg Lay-up : 46 33 Hag Molding a7 44 Autoclave Processing an 35 Compression Molding 50 46 Resin Transfer Molding wae soe « 37 Pultrusion 53 348 Filament Winding wee ‘ 56 Exercises . so RNG 6's SS Se lee ge te re cacao Indicates sections that can be omizted during dhe firtt reading,oT Micromechanics Basic Concepts... oo 4 42 43 4a 40 412 4.7 414 415 4.16 4e 432 433 441 442 443 a44 445 446 447 Enarcises: References. Volume and Mase Fraction cde oe Representative: Volume Element (RVE) Heterogeneous Material... , Anisotrapic Mnterial ' ‘s ‘Onbotropic Material... , ‘Teantwersely Isotropic Matesial , Liotrapie Material = ae ness. . Longitudinal Modalas =. a Transverse Moilulus Inpinne Poisson's Ratio... Inplane Shear Modulus Interfarninar Shear Modulus... - Suess Partitioning Parameter (*) Continuous Strand Mat (*) a Some Restrictions on the Blastic Constants Thermal and Moisture Expanston (") . 2. - ‘: Thermal Expansion. Moisture Expansion . ‘Transport Properties... Longitudinal Tensile Strength - Longitudinal Compressive Strength . ‘Transverse Tensile Strength ‘Transverse Compressive Strength Inplane Shear Strength Tnterlaminar Shear Strength, 2, ‘Chopped and Continuous Sirand Mat Ply Mechanics ‘Coordinate Systems: Saas a $2 Stress and Strain ates 53 a4 SO Bias Sseeie'es"s F 322 Simin. eae fs Stress-Steain Equations tad hae OfF-anis Stiffners ep pee ee 5. Coordinate Transformations $42 $43 544 Stress and Sirain Transformations : Stiffness and Complinnce Transformations Specially Grthorropic Layer . CONTENTS 110 wz 16 WT LB 122CONTENTS: tx Ewencises: =. Ait References 12a f Macromechanics and Stiffness Design 129 6.1 Plate Suffness and Compliance 130 6.11 Axsumptiom . 0... 6 oe - bo 61.2 Strain ace . 613 Stress Resultams . . Z 34 GAA Plate Stiffness’ and Compliance... . _ BT 6.2 Computation of Streases sites » 42 6.3 Commén Laminate Types ee ee . M4 63.1 Laminate Description . ee eLeceseecese ~-- M5 63.2 Symmetric Laminotes ! as 63.3 Antieymmetic Laminate . : . iar 634 Balanced Laminate . - . a . . .. Wt 6.35. Cuasi-isorropic Laminates tar 63.6 Ciss-ply Laminow ... 5... . 1s2 63.7 Angle-ply Laminate . , isa 6.38 Specially Orthotropic Laminate 153 64 Laminate Moduli ......, ace » Ss GS Design Using Carpet Plows... . . . EST 65.1 Suffness Conirolied Design . bo 65.2 Design for Bending 165 6.6 Hygrothermal Seases (*) 2... aierace » ier Exercises wae ‘ . 16 References 9 7 Ballure and Strength Design 181 7.) Layer Failure Criteria... 5s. ‘ eee 183 TAA | Strength Rimiin , . . , . 183 7.1.2 | Maximum Stress Criterion vee 184 713 Maximum Stain Criterion . aa2e, wee 1ST V1.4 Tsai-Hill Criterion isa TLS Teai-Wu Criterion. . Pee 7.1.6 Piber-Mairix: Failure Criteria fave os vee 196 7.1.7 Effcets of Hyzrothermal Stresses (*} 198 T.L8 The Off-Axis Test (*) ae 199 7.2) Laminate Suremgth . , ‘ os :e.e:e eee 20h 7.21 First Ply Failure (FPF) 21 7.2.2 Fiber Failure (FF)... . . . one 72.3 Trumcated-Maximum-Suain Criterion 208 7.9) Strength Design Using Carpet Plots wee 24 31 Strength Design with Inplane Load ne oHe 7.4. Stress Concentrations (*) vee 0Tat References, Beams 8.1 Preliminary Design i BLT 812 S13 B14 Design for Teflections Design for Suength 1. . Design for Buckling ‘Column Behavior 8.2 Thin-Walled Beams . we 82.1 822 823 B24 B25 8.26 B27 B28 B20 82.10 B21 Exercises . References ‘Wall Constitutive Equations Notwhed Pla under Inplane Ls Baetetses ss oat Load 5 ‘Neutral Axis of Bending and Torsion Axial Stiffmess . 0. Mechanical Center of Gravity Bending Stiffness ‘Torsional Suiffiess Shear of Open Sectinss Shear of Single Cell Closed Section Bewin Deformations Segment Deformations and Stresses... 5 Restrained Warping of Open Piates and Stiffened Panels 9.1 Plalc Bending ¢ 92 Plate Buckling... 0... AAll Edges Simply Supported 921 92.2 923 924 925 93 5 3.1 Exercises: References Shells All Sides Clamped Que Free Edge Biaxial Loading Fixed Unloaded Edges jened Panels... Sections Stiffened Panels under Bending Loads 93.2 Stiffened Panel under Inplane Loads . . 10.1 Shells of Revolution 1001 (0.2 Cylindlrienl Shells with General Loading Exercises . = References, Symmeuic Loading cowrenTs 222 a re 43 Bs zt 238 240 244 246 Me a 250 35 8 265 266 267 271 Fae) ™ 275 276 9 282 22 2B 233 a3 319 720CONTENTS a A. CADEC Software AL Installation... ' + ea atate Sieiegieececene A2 User's Guide bia ls59,0:4,5.6 * A.L1 Micromechanicn (Chapter 4) A22 Ply Mechanics (Chapler3) . . A23 Maccomechanics (Chapter 6) 303 AA. Failure (Chapter 7) - a4 A25 Beams (Chapter 8). am AD Software License y a4 AA1 Technical Support and Upgn a B Conversion of Units a7CHAPTER INTRODUCTION Materials have such an influence on our lives thal the historical periods of humankind have been dominated, and named, after materials. Over the last 30 yeas; composite materinis, plastics, amd ceramics have been the dominant emerging materials. The vol- ume and number of applications of composite materials has grown steadily, penctrating, and conquering new markets relentlessly. Most of us are familiar with fiberglass boats and graphite sporting goods, snd possible applications of composite materials are lim- ited only by the imagination of the individual. The main objective of this textbook is to provide the reader with an opportunity w develop the: skills required to assexs the feasibility of using composites for a given application, to select the lest material, and to design the part. A brief description of composites is presented in section 1,1. ‘There is mo bewer way two gain un initial feeling for composite matcrials thin actually observing a composite part being fabiicated, Laboratory experience or a video about composite fabrication is most advantageous at this stage. A list of available video references is included at the end of this chapter. Materials and supptics to set up for simple composites fabrication as well as videos that teach how todo it are available from various veadors. Alematively, a visit to a fabrication facility will provide the most enlightening initial experience. Afier that, the serinus work of designing a part and understanding why and how i performs can be dome with the aid of the methods and examples presented in this textbook, complemented with further reading and experience. There are several ways to tackle the problems of analysis and design of composites. These are briefly introdneed im section 1.2 and thoroughly developed in the rest of this textbook,smiaerix, an fiber form than in their bulk form. In the TION Yo COMPOS Li BASIC A eampesite materia more distinct materials tw form a new material with enhanced properties, For example, rocks are combined with cement to make concrete, which is as string as the rocks it contains but can be shaped more easily than carving rock, While the enhanced propenies af concrete are strength and cuse of fabricalion, most physical, chemical, and processingerelated properties can be enhanced by a mbination of materials. ‘The most comme composites are those mack with st fibers held together in a binder. Particles: or lakes arc also used as sein ey are not as effective ax fibers The oldest compo 4 consists of cellulose fibers in a Tignin bed as fiberlike osteons embedded in an intersti cial bome matrix. While manmade composites date back tothe ase of sraw-reinforced clay fer bricks and pottery, modern compasites use metal, ceeamic, ar palymer binders reinforced with 4 variety of fibers of particles . For example, fiberglass boats are made resin ret ed with glace fibers. Sometimes composites use more than ent material, in which case they ure called hybrids. For ax. ample, consider reinforced concrete, a particle-reinforced composite (concrete] that is further fiber reinforced with sice| reds, Sometimes different materials are laycred wg form an enhanced product, as in the case af sandwich construction where a light between two faces of stiff and strong materials, C fied im various ways, the main factors: being the fo polyeste me type of reinfars maternal 6 sandwiche posite materials can be class wing Reinfor — Continuous Jong fibers * Unidirectional fiber omentation er orientation (woven, stitched mat, o innous strand mat (C3M)) ent ® Random Discontinuous fibers ® Random orientation { riontation ( g.. chopped strand mat) ® Preferential oriemation (¢.g., ofiented strand board) = Panicles and whiskers © Random orientation * Proferential osientation Laminate configuration = Unidirectional, including several faye in all Jayen — Laminate, where at feast Hybrid structure Different material: in var — Different reinforcement with the same material and orientation ¢ layers hove different orientation or material an and carbon fibers) reinforcement is preferred because most materials are much stronger in ‘of glass, this is attributed to the sharpANTROBUCrIEIN } 2500 aasy Specitic Strength (10" em) a8 oO 0 BO 7D fO00 TD IAGO ISO Zoom aeRO ‘Specific Modulus (10° om) Figure 1.1. Comparison of specific strength and siiffness of composite materials and metals (reproduced with permission from Jones, R. M., Mechanics of Composite Materials, Teylor and Francis, 1975), reduction In the number of defects in the fibers compared with those in tulle glass. The high strength of polymeric fibers, such as arumid, is anributed to the alignment of the polyover chains along the Aber 2s opposed fo tha randomly entangled arrangement in the bulk polymer. Crystalline materials, such as graphise, also align along the fiber longth, inereasing the strength, Whiskers, which are elongated single crystals, wre extremely strong because the disldontion density of a single crystal is lower than in the pilycrystalline bulk material ‘The main factors that drive the use of composites are weight reduction, corrosion resistance, und part-count reduction: Other idvantages that motivate some npplications inctude electromagnetic transparency, wear resistance, enhanced fatigue fife, thermul~ acoustical insulation, low thermal expangion, low or high thermal conductivity, ete. Weight reduction provides one of the more important motivations for use of composites in transportation in general and aerospace applications in particular. Com- posites are lightweight because both the fibers and the polymers used as matrices have low density, More significantly, fibers have higher values of strengih=weight and stiffness—weight ratios than most materials, as shown in Figure 1.1. However strong. fibers cannot be used alone (except for cables), because fibers CARNOt suslath compression or transverse loads. A binder or matrix it thus required tm hold the fibers jogether, The mairix also protects the fibers from environmental attack, Therefore, the mucrix is crucial in determining the cormosion resistance of thea SNTRODUCTION TO COMPOSITE MATERIALS DESIGN Figure 1.2 Assembly of three layers into’ a laminate. composite. Because of the excellent resistance to envirommental and chemical attack of polymer matrices and most fibers, composites have conquered lange markets. in the chemical industries, displacing conventional matetisis such us steel, reinforced concrete, and aluminum, This tend is expanding into the infrastructure construction und: repair markets as the resisiance to environmental degradation of composites is exploited [1], Since. polymers can be molded into complex shapes, a composite part itiay replace many metallic paris that would otherwise have to be assembled to achieve the same function, Pan-count reduction often tranilates into production, assembly, and inventory sayings that more than compensate far higher material cost Since the fibers cunnot be used alone end the strength and stiffness of polymer are negligible when compared with the fiers, the mechanical properties of compesites ore lower than the properties of the fibers. Still, composites are stiffer and stronger than most conventional materials when viewed on a per unit weight basis, as shown im Figure 1.1 by the data of unidirectional composites. The reduction from fiber to composite properties is proportional tthe amount of matrix used. This effect will be thoroughly investigated in Chapter 4 Since the fibers do not contribute to the strength transversely to the fiber direction, and the sirengih of the matrix is very low, it becomes necessary to add layers with varios orientations to face all the applicd Joads. One way to achieve this is to create a laminate, as shown in Figure 1.2, stacking layers with various orientations. Although such a laminate can handle multidirectional loads, the strength and stiffness per unit weight of the laminate on a given direction are lower than the corresponding values forINTRODUCTION 5 a unidirectional composite, This effect, which ix thoroughly investigated in Chapters Sand 6, is illustrated in Figure 1.1 by the dats of biaxial composites, Aner solution to handle multidirectional loads is to incorporate bidirectional seinforcements, such a woven cloth, in each layet. The composite may even be rein- forced in suck a way that the properties are the same in every direction. This can be accomplished by using random reinforcing material such as continuous or chapped strand mat, ar by using short fibers dispersed in the matrix, These types of reinforce. Tenis ate also used 16 lower the cast, but the propertics of such compasites are lower than those of continuous fiber composites. Filler particles, such as calcium carbone, are commonly used mixed with the Tamirix to reduce weight and/or cost, to delay flame and reduce smoke, and to reduce the degradation of the polymer by the ultravicket (UV) radiation present in sunlight. ‘However, filler particles arc not considered reinforcements; their effect is accounted by modifying the properties of the matrix. Hybrids ate used for many teasons. In one cave, ghsereinforced or aramid teinforced layers are placed on the surface of a carbon-retnforced laminate. The car- bon fibers provide stiffness and strength and the glass fibers provide protection against impact by flying objects or projectiles. In another example, a boron-reinforced layer is sandwiched between carbon-reinforced layers, Boron fibérs provide high compressive sirength, but they are very expensive and difficult to Ihandhe, Therefore, the carbon. reinforced fhoes provide high tensile strength and simplify the fabrication while re- ducing the overall cost. Finally, the most common hybrid is sandwich construction. A lightweight Gore, such as foam of honeycomb, is sandwiched between two strong and aiff faces. The core separates the (wo faces so thut the moment of inertia of the faces is lunge, resulting in high bending stiffness, while the core adds little to the weaght and cost of the product, 12 THE DESIGN PROCESS Design is the process that involves all the decisions necessary to fabricate, operate, maintain. and dispose of a product, Design begins by recognizing « need. Satisfying this moed, whatever it is, becomes the problem of the designer. The designer, with the concurrence of the user und other parties involved (marketing, etc.), defines the problem in enginecring as well as in laymum’s ters, 80 that everyone involved under- stunds the problem. Performance criteria are defined at this stage, meaning that any solution proposed later will have to aatinfy these criteria to be considered an acceptable solution. Definition of the problem leads to statements whout possible solutions and speci- fications Of the various ingredients that muy participate in the solution te the peoblem, Synthesls is the selection of the optimum solution among the many combinations pro posed. Synthesis, and design in gencral, relies on innolysis to predict the behavior of the product before one is actually fabricated. Analysis usex mathematical models to construct an absiract representation of the reality from which the designer cun extract information about the likely behavior ofINTRODUCTION TO COMPOSITE MATERIALS DESIGN Sa Brainstorming { Deon Consents |¢— Ana | Epa nt Local Ophmzmton Figure 1.3 Schematics of the desizn proces the real product. The optiitived soluting a then evaluated againit tho performance teria set forth in the definition of the problem. The performance criteria become the yardstick by which the performance, oF optimality, of any proposed solution is mea- sured, In optimization jargon, perfomance criteria become either objective functions or constraints for the sohmton, An iterative process takes place as dopicted in Figure 1.3; see also {2} 13 PRINCIPAL STRESS DESIGN Principal stress design consists of tansforming the applied state of stress (ct.2,044) into two principal stresses (ny, oy), which can be computed using Mobe's circle, or (dyFigure 14 Mohr's cele for transformation of stresses, The principal stresses are oricitcd at an angle (Figure 1.4: see also (27) Lyf ley a= jun (=) (ay Ci with respect tp the x,y coordinate system. The principal axes (1, 1), are oriented along the principal stresies, The advantage of this procedure is that the shear stress is zero in principal axes Thet the largest of nj and oy is compared with the strengih of the material, Principal stress design is very popular for the design of metal siruc~ tures because the strength of isotropic materials does pot depend an the orientation. But principal stress design finds very limited application in-composies design, ‘The limitations of this method for composites design are illustrated in Examples $.4 and a5. Example 1.1 Choose « material w carry the loadsa, = 400 MPa, ay = 100. MPa, Ory = 200 MPa, Compute the principal stresses wsing (f.2) and the orienestion of the. mais principal stress oy with respect to the x-axis using (1.2) To simplify the computations introduce the quantities p, 9. end Rs Oe + oy wa = 10 MPa qo 254 = 150 = ja? +3, = 250 Pa which can be easily identified in Mohr's circle as the average strese, one-half’ the difietence of the tww normal stresses, and the radius of the circle, respectively, Ten the principal stress and tir orientation areEle|=/2/5/3]8|3/$/8)2)2] 2) =< nada POS sousodumos yeuonsampion jo sonsselosd peor Ay Y*] EGU,INTRODUCTION a o) = p+ R= 500 MPa om =p-R=0 I ai [Ty I om jt (=) 2657 This mecns that the loud of 500 MPa has tg be carried in the direction d= 26.57°. This load can be carried eaxily by a wnidirecticoett leryer- with the fibers oriented at 26.57". From Fable ft, select @ material that can carry 500 MPa. E-glass-epaxy has. tensile strength of 1020. MPa, which gives a safety factor R = 2.04. What happens if the rign of the applied shear stress ix reversed to ory = —200 MPu after the structure was buile with fiber orientation af 26,57°? Recoinpute the principal stresses and she orientation as of = 50), oy = 0, and @ = 26.57" Now the principal stress would be applied at 53,13° from the previously selected fiber orientation, Although there i only ome principal strecs different from zero, if cannot he compared with any strength property (tensile wr compressive, along or transverse te the fibers) because o, és mot in the fiber direction ot -at AP with it, This ts the main problem when applying principal sirecs design to composites, In the case of metals, the strength ix independent of the direction. Therefore, it ix always possible 1 compare the jsrincipal siress with the strength of the material, regardless of the direction af the priscipal stress. For enmyrasites, the best option ix to conypute the stresses along the fiber direction oy, transverse to it 3, and the shear stress in the material coordinates og. This is done in section 5.4, Then these values can be compared with the longitudinal, tranrverse, and shear strength af the material (se© Example 5.5) 14 OVERVIEW OF COMPOSITES DESIGN METHODS Composite materials ure formed ky the combination of two or more materials 10 achieve properties (physical, chemical, etc.) that are superior to those of the con- stituents, The main components of composite muertals are fibers and matrix. The fibers provide most of the stiffness and strength, and the maltix binds the fibers to- gether providing load transfer between fibers and between the composite and the external loads and sopports ‘The design of a structural component using composites involves concurrently ma- terial design und structural design (¢g., the geometry). Unlike conventional materials (eg. steel}, the properties of the composite material ean be designed simultaneously vwith the structural aspects, Composite properties (¢-g., stiffness, thermal expansion, etc.) can be varied continuously over a broad range of vulues, under the control of the designer. Properties of fibers and mutrices are reported separately in Chapter 2. These Propertics can be combined using micromechanics formulas presented in Chapter 4 ‘to generate properties for any combination of fibers and matrix, Although micrame- chumics can predict very well stiffness of a material, it is not as accurate at predictingIam) a | (ead S| dem | funy) qpfoans | antwans | empopy oP MOEA db eon AAA [= fiscep comma “amayyaue saqy jo wonyAp ay) IY Bogue 1ompang go seakuy poursITRODEETION u sirength, Therefore, experimental dain of strength is very valuable in design, For this reason, manufacturers and handbooks tend to report composite properties rather than fiber and matris propertics separately. The problem is that the reported properties sorreapond to a myriad of different minforcements and processing techniques, which Takes comparison among products very difficult. Typical properties of unidirectional composites lire listed in Table 11, compiled from manufacturer's lirature, handbooks and other scurces [3]-{1 1). ‘The design of composites can be dode using composite properties, wuch as those given in Table 1.1, provided experimental data are availabe for all types ef fiber-matrix combinations to be used in the luminate Ty this ease, Chapter 4 can be skipped, and the unalysis proceeds directly from Chapter 5. However, Chupter + provides a clenr view of bow w composite material works, and it shauld not be completely dissegarded. by the reader. While using experimental composite properties eliminates the need for ti- cromechanical modeling, it requires a large investment in generating the experimental data. Furthermore, a change of matrix material later in the design process invalidates all the basic material data used und requires a pew experimental program for the new matrix. Most of the time, experimental material properties ure noc available for the fiber—matrix—process combination of meres. Then fiber and matrix properties, which are readily available from the maternal supplier, or can be measured with « few tests, ise used in micromechanies (Chapter 4) to predict layer properties. ‘This is often done when new muterials are being evaluated or in small companies that dé not have the resources (0 generate their own experiinenta! data. Then the accuracy of micrame- chanics results can be evaluated by doing a few selected tests. The amoum of testing will be deicrmined by the magnitude of the project and the availability of resources, and in some cases testing may be deferred until the proatype stage, Guee the properties of individual layers ore known, the properties of a laminate can be obtained by combining the properties of the layers thal form the Inminate (cee Figure 1.1) as explained in Chapter 6. However, the design may start directly with experimental values of laminate properties, such at those shown in ‘Table 1.2 compiled from [12] (see also Table 23), These luminate properties. can be used to perform a Preliminary design of a structure, as explained in Chapters 6 wo 10. Note, however, that the effect of chunging the matrix or the manufncturing process.is unksown and any such change would require repeating the whole experimental program. The cost of experimentation is likely to limit the number of different laminates for which data are available. When laminate properties are not available from ae experimental program, they can be generated using micromechanics and macromaechanics, The resulting tam- inate propertics are presented in the form of carpet plots (Sections 6.5 and 7.3), which can then be used for preliminary desijn, as illustrated throughout this textbook. EXERCISES LIA cylindrical pipe with siameterd = 1,0 am is siebject to internal prevure y= 5.0 MPa, ‘but it is free i expand along the length, soahat oaly hoop stress o = pa/2/ is developed ie the wall, Use ‘Table 1.1 and a safery factor FS. 4. Do not consider those materials for which the required data ane not availablea INTRODUCTION TO COMPOSITE MATERIALS DESIGN (a) What is the optimum arentation for the fbets and why? (b) What is the required wall thicksess and material (ype that yields the minimaim thick- nese? (c) What is the required wall thickness nd rntetial type for minima weight? id} What as the required wall thickness and material Iype (or miniimuin cust? Adstine the following costs (3k) for the materials in Table 1.1, from Saft to right 1.60, 3.20, 180, $.80. 10.80, 10:80, 10:80. 15:00. and 18.00, 1.2 Compare the weipit pec unit length of the minimum weight pipe of Exercise 1.1 with a pipe made oot of 061-T6 aluminam with yield sirengih 270 MPa and dentity » = 179 gfoe, Use the same anfey facrerr. 134 comporent of a composite rockel motor care in subject toa state of sirese oy = 10 MPa o, = 5 MPa oy = 2.5 MPa Using principal stress design, compute 4a) the optimum fiber arkentation, (b) the safety fetoe (af the: layer with optimam orientation) considering all possihte mades of failure. Use the data for carhon—opoxy material (AS-43801~6) in Table 1.1 REFERENCES [1] Peters, §., editor, Applications; Construction, Handbook of Composites, pp. 983-5003, Chapenan tnd Hall, Landon (195%). (2) Shigiey, J. B., and Mischie, © RL, Mechanical Engineering Design, Sth Bd, MoGcww-Hill, New Werk (1989) [3) Setar, M_ ML, Composite Materials Hurulbook, Jad Bl, MuGraw-Hill, New York (1992), [4] Harper, A. Haedbook of Plawics, Elastomers and Composincs, Ind. Ed, MeCiraw-Hill, New York (191% (5) Bundall, A R., Fibre Reinforcemens for Composite Muictials, Comporite Maseriabs Sories 2. Bisevier, Aimstercain (1988), (6) Vasiliew, VV, Mechanica of Composite Serwctures, Tayloc.d&: Francis, Bristol PA. (1995). [7] Lee, 5. M. elliot, International Eocyclopedia of Composites, Voll 4, figure 29% and wile 8, VHC, New Yeek (1991). [M} Swenson. $. R., and Qian, ¥., Multiestal characterization of THOW3#00-2 carboofepxmry compos ites, Composites Science sd Technokogy, 43, 197-203 (1992) 19] Colvin, G. E, and Smacion, 5. R, Méchsnical characterization of IMTSSS1-7 carboniepony voder bhwunl sizes, 1. Enginoering Materiate and Technologe, 112, 61-47 (1990), (10) Wang, #1, and Wwi-Khoai, T., Damage extension in cwtbon Sew PEEK craseply laminas under low velocity Impact, 4, Compotiie Materials. 28, 684-707 194) [10] Marcrial Data Sheet, Piberte APC-2 Thermoplastic Laminmes, ICL Advanced Material, Winona, Mn (12) Product Catalog, Hirmmwick Techasingien, Ims., One Mais 81, Brarewbck. AE 0401 |INTRODUCTION b VIDEO REFERENCES [1] Advanced Malémaking and Flug Consuuction, Fiber Glast Development Cis, Hrcekville, OH, URL: www-fiberalau.com, [21 Yocum Bagginy and Sandwich Core Consruction, Fiber Glass Developent, Cis, Bnav, DH, URL: ww fborglart.com 13} A Step by Step Guide tt Molding Fiter www.tiberglast. com. 14) The Basica of Fiberglass, Fiber Glast Devetapmest Co. Brookville, OH. URL: www fiberplast.com. [5] The An of Mokdlers Composines, Fiter Glas Development Co, Bronkvalle, GH, URL www, fiberslatt com ([O] Tooling foe Composites, Sovsety of Manufacturing Engineers, Dearbora, MI. URL! www:smne.org. [7] Composites in Manufacturing, Society of Mamufscuring Bagineers, Dearborn, MI, URL: www. Fiber Gla Development Co., Brookv|te, OH, URL: tentang (8) High Quality RTM and $-RIM parm, Sectery of Manufacturing: Engineers, Dearborn, MI. URL: wu smioep. (9) ‘The Pulrusion Process, Markets aid Applicitians Composites Institme of The Society. of the Plastic: Industry, Washington, DC, URL! www socplas.ong.CHAPTER, TWO MATERIALS Composite muterints ore formed by the combination of two or mare materials to achieve properties (physical, chemical, ete.) that are superior to those of its con- stituents, The main components of composite materials, or composites. are fibers and matrix, The fibers provide most of the stiffmess and strength, and the matrix binds the fibers together thus providing load transfer bevween fibers and between the composite and the external foads and supports. Other substances are used to improve specific properties. Far example, fillers are used to reduce the cast and improve peacessability and dimensional stability [1], The design of a structural component using composites involves both material and structural design. Unlike conventional materials (e.g., steel), the properties of the composite material can be designed simultaneously with the strucuucal aspects. Com- posite properiics (c.g, stiffness, thermal expansion, etc.) can be varied continuously over a broad ringe of values, under the control of the designers. The objective of this chapter is to describe the constituents uied in the febrication of the composite moterial. ‘The capabilities and limitations of various processing techniques used to fabricate the material and the part are presented in Chapter 3. A brief review of the mest common types of materiale used jn the fabrication of composites is presented in this chapter, with emphasis om propertics, advantages, disadvantages, and cost. No attempt is mude 1 explain how fibers and polymers are produced; excellent material science books and handbooks cover that subject (2, 3, 4], Comprehensive fists of material suppliers can be found in specialized publications 15, 6], trade associations [7.8], ot the World Wide Web. Another important aspect of design and fabrication is to have standard test methods to verify the material properties used in design [9]. While testing of composites is a very active area of research, only references to standard test methods are made in this book, 1sTy INTRODUCTION TO COMPORTTE MATERIALS DEGGN 2.1 FIBER REINFORCEMENTS Fibers are used in composites becanise they are lighiweighi, siiff, and song. Fibers fre stronger than the bulk material that constitutes the fibers. This is because of the preferential orientation of molecules along the fiber direction and because of the reduced number of defeces present ina fiber as opposed to the bulk material, Whereas the tensile strength of bulk E-glas is low (15-5.8 GPa [10]), the same material reaches 72.3 GPa in fiber form, mainly because off the reduction in the mimber and size of surface defects. Fiert ore used as continuous. reiaforeemants in unidirectional composites by aligning a lace number of them in a thin plate or shell, culled lamina, luyer, or ply. A unidirectional lamina has maximum stiffness and strength along the fer direction and minimum properties in a direction perpendicular to the fihers, When the same ‘properties are desired in every direction on the planc-of the lamina, randomly oriented fibers are wed. The resulting composite has the same properties in every direetion on the plane of the lamina, and it is weaker in the thickwess direction, The creep properties of the compasiic are dominated by the matix (see seo- tion 2.2.3). Composites reinforced with chopped fibers, whiskers (elongated single crystals), or particles may cxperience large creep deformations, even st room temperature. This is the mnin reason for using continuous fibers for structural ap- Plications. By choosing fibera with very low creep compliance (eg., carbon of glass), polymer matrix composites (PMC) can be made as creep resistant as neces- sary, 2.1.1 Fiber Types ‘The most common fibers used in composites are glass, carbon, and organic (Kevlar) Boron, silicon carbide (SiC), alumina, and other fibers are used in specialized appli- cations. Choosing which type of fiber io use depends on the mechanical and enviran- mental properties desired and the cnst-of the fiber. See Table 2.1, Glass fibers, Glass fibers cxhibit the typical glass properties of hardness, corrosion Fesistance, and inertness, Furthermore. they are flexible, lightweight, and inexpensive. These properties make glass fibers the most common type of fiber used in low-cost industrial applications. The high strength of glass fibers iv attributed to the low number and size of defects. on the surface of the fiber All glass fibers have similar stiffness ‘but different strength vaives-and different resistance to environmental degradation. E» glass fibers (E for electrical) are wsed where high tensile strength and good chemical fasistanee is required, E-glass is the preferred stroctural reinforcement because of the combination of mechanical performance, gorrosion resistance, and low cost {about 51.60/kg). S-glass [11] and S-2-glass (S for strength) have the highest smenigth, but bey are of limited application becuse they cost three to four times more than E-glass. For this reason, Inw-cost carbon fibers are now considered as un alternative ta S-plass and S-2-glays.C-glass (C for corrosion) is used for corrosion resistant applications, D- glass (0 for dielectric) is used for electrical applications such as the core reinforcement —————_—————‘Table 2.1 Typical properties of glass, carbon, organic. boron, SiC, and ceramic fibers 100 1) - os magoraitie fur cteaining ‘Termal | Manion | Besitivity peratiog, fi ff aes = PIB bo = HE j agebergeg|ggga|5 TSE | Ggereel a fe Elnogaia | oe ‘itrenaths [ees 7 3A ‘ : : = dies omer, aimee ales exited for Beadl clase of materials. The desire “ae | (Gal Fiber Mites (Gpal s| as | 4 - Cans, 131 = cr 2s = T z 3 2 i z ASD bat ‘ ah r 7 | aaah a L , a1 = a - y ia2 | att 00 t37| 69 3 | 2 =W INTRODUCHION TO COMPOSITE MATERIALS Dustin ‘Tobie 2.2 Measured fiber sength reduction (adapted from Juernariomal Envyelopedia of Composites: Filament Winding, Vol. 2. pp. 167-192, S.M. Lee, editor, VCH, New York (1990)) Kevlar 149 Cuban ASW Caton F700 | Ccbam 14-4 | Carbem TH DE high voltage ceramic insilators. A-glass and AR-glass (allailine resistant) are used for surfacing veils or mats of low weight and R-giass is sometimes used for filument winding ond sheet molding compounds [5] The maximum strength measured in single fiber tests (ASTM D3379) may yield up to 3.5 GPu for E-glass und 4,8 GPu for S-glass, but these values cannot be realized in @ composite. Damage produced during the various stages of processing reduces the fiber strength to about 1.75 GPa for E-lass and 2.10 GPa for S-placs (up to 50% reduction, strongly dependent on processing conditions and type of loads). The reduction of fiber strength in the composite with respect to the strength of the virgin Teinfercement is also caused by residual stresses and sevundary loads (shear and transverse 1 fiber direction), among other factors (12). Typical reduction of fiber strength in filament-wound composites are listed in Tuble 2. ‘The corrosion resistance depends on the composition of the fiber, the corrosive Solution, and the exposure time, Tensile strength of lass fibers reduces at clevated temperature but can be considered constent for the range of teraperature at which Polymer muirices can be exposed (up to 275°C depending of the matrix type). Tensile strength alio reduces with chemical corrosion. Also, the tensile strength reduces with lime under sustained loads. This effect is called stulic fatigue or stress corrnsion [13] Mainly to account for this effect, « sireys ratic (similar to a safety factor) of 3.5 is used in the detiga of glass-reinforced campasites for pressure vessels subject to permanent Joad [14], Data for commercially avaifable glass fibers are given in Table 2.1 (see also (1O}). Glass fiber diameters range from 9.5 to 24.77 microns, and they are designated with-a loiter code (see [15, p. 2.42), Carbon fibers. Carbon fibers, also called graphite fibers, ate lightweight and strong fibers with excellent chemical resistance. They dominate the aerospace market. Unlike glass fibers, carbon fibers are available with a broad range of stiffness values (see Table 2.1). The properties of catbon fibers depend on the raw material and the process used for itt manufacture, Two main raw materials, or precursors, are used: polyacrylonitrile (PAN) and pitch. Pitch fibers are less expensive tut have lower strength than PAN fibers. PAN fibers dominate the high performance markets in acrospace applications