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APPLIED PHYSICS REVIEWS
TABLE OF CONTENTS physical ~palpable, visible! constraints that are in fact re-
sponsible for the irreversible operation of the device. The
I. Objectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1191 combined heat transfer and thermodynamics model visual-
II. The method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1192 izes for the analyst the irreversible nature of the device.
III. Cryogenics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1193 From an educational standpoint, the optimization of such a
IV. Heat transfer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1197 model gives us a feel for the otherwise abstract concept of
V. Storage systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1201 entropy generation, specifically where and how much of it is
VI. Solar power plants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1203 being generated, how it flows, and how it impacts thermody-
VII. Nuclear and fossil power plants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1206 namic performance.
VIII. Refrigeration plants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1212 The emergence of a new field of research is marked by
IX. Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1214 the appearance of several fundamental results that hold for
entire classes of known and future applications. Although
I. OBJECTIVES isolated publications had appeared throughout the 1950s and
1960s, thermodynamic optimization emerged as a self-
Entropy generation minimization ~EGM! is the method
of modeling and optimization of real devices that owe their standing method and field in the 1970s in engineering, with
thermodynamic imperfection to heat transfer, mass transfer, applications notably in cryogenics, heat transfer engineering,
and fluid flow irreversibilities. It is also known as thermo- solar energy conversion, and education. These first develop-
dynamic optimization in engineering, where it was first de- ments were reviewed in Ref. 1, and Refs. 1113.
veloped, or more recently as finite time thermodynamics The field has experienced tremendous growth during the
in the physics literature. The method combines from the start 1980s and 1990s. The objective of this article is to review the
the most basic principles of thermodynamics, heat transfer, field, and to place its growth in perspective. The explosion of
and fluid mechanics, and covers the interdisciplinary domain interest that we are witnessing today is due to three new
pictured in Fig. 1. The most exciting and promising interdis- developments: the diversification of the problems tackled in
ciplinary aspect of the method is that it also combines re- engineering after the energy policies of the 1970s, the lifting
search interests from engineering and physics. of the Iron Curtain and the absorption of work done by pre-
The objectives of the optimization work may differ from viously unrecognized pioneers, and the contributions that ap-
one application to the next, for example, minimization of pear in the physics literature. The field today is so large and
entropy generation in heat exchangers,1 maximization of active that the author is forced to focus this review on just
power output in power plants,2 8 maximization of an eco- three aspects, which were stressed by the editors in their
logical benefit,9 and minimization of cost.10 Common in original invitation:
these applications is the use of models that feature rate pro-
cesses ~heat transfer, mass transfer, fluid flow!, the finite ~1! The fundamental and technological implications of the
sizes of actual devices, and the finite times or finite speeds of results obtained until now.
real processes. The optimization is then carried out subject to ~2! The pedagogical merits of the method, i.e., how EGM
J. Appl. Phys. 79 (3), 1 February 1996 0021-8979/96/79(3)/1191/28/$6.00 1996 American Institute of Physics 1191
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this array of interactions is the heat transfer rate between the
system and the atmospheric temperature reservoir, Q 0 , on
which we focus shortly.
The thermodynamics of the system of Fig. 2 consists of
accounting for the first law and the second law ~e.g., Ref.
14!,
n
dE
5
dt i50 i (
Q 2W1 (in mh2 (
out
mh, ~1!
n
dS Q i
S gen5 2
dt i50 T i (2 (in ms1 (
out
ms>0, ~2!
S D
chanics, not just thermodynamics. Consider the general n
d T0
systemenvironment configuration shown in Fig. 2. The sys-
tem operates in the unsteady state, and its instantaneous in-
W52 ~ E2T 0 S ! 1
dt i51
12 Q
Ti i (
ventories of mass, energy, and entropy are M , E, and S. The
(in m ~ h2T 0 s ! 2 (
system experiences the net work transfer rate W, heat trans-
1 m ~ h2T 0 s ! 2T 0 S gen . ~3!
fer rates (Q 0 ,Q 1 ,...,Q n ) with n11 temperature reservoirs out
(T 0 ,T 1 ,...,T n ), and mass flow rates ~m in , m out! through any
number of inlet and outlet ports. For simplicity, only one The work transfer rate in the limit of reversible operation
inlet and one outlet are illustrated in Fig. 2. Noteworthy in ~S gen50! is clearly
FIG. 2. General work transfer, heat transfer, and mass flows between a system and its environment in the unsteady state ~from Ref. 14!.
1192 J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 79, No. 3, 1 February 1996 Appl. Phys. Rev.: Adrian Bejan
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S D
n
d T0
W rev52
dt
~ E2T 0 S ! 1
i51
12( Q
Ti i
1 (in m ~ h2T 0 s ! 2 (
out
m ~ h2T 0 s ! . ~4!
E
flow and heat transfer, or the optimal hot-end temperature of TH Q
a power plant with a bypass heat leak to the ambient. The S gen5 dT, ~6!
approach of any other design ~S gen! to the limit of realistic TL T2
J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 79, No. 3, 1 February 1996 Appl. Phys. Rev.: Adrian Bejan 1193
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where it is important to note that the heat leak Q is allowed
to vary with the local temperature T. The origin of the inte-
grand in Eq. ~6! is the infinitesimal element ~shaded in
Fig. 3!, in which the rate of entropy generation
is dS gen5Q/T1dQ/T2(Q1dQ)/(T1dT)5QdT/T 2 , be-
cause dT!T. The local heat leak decrement dQ is removed
by the rest of the installation, which is modeled as reversible.
The heat leak is also related to the local temperature gradient
and conduction cross-section A,
FIG. 4. The intermediate cooling effect provided by a cold stream in coun-
dT
Q5kA , ~7! terflow with the conduction current through a structural support ~from
dx Ref. 25!.
E
perature, and the single-stream intermediate cooling tech-
L TH k
5 dT. ~8! nique can approach S gen,min only approximately. The optimal
A TL Q flow rates to be used in conjunction with common structural
materials are reported in Ref. 25.
According to variational calculus ~e.g., Ref. 14!, the heat The fabrication of the heat exchanger between the sup-
leak function that minimizes the S gen integral ~6! subject to port and the coolant is less difficult and more economic if the
the finite-size constraint ~8! is obtained by finding the extre- continuous contact ~Fig. 4! is replaced by a succession of
T
mum of the aggregate integral * T H FdT whose integrand F is discrete cooling stations ~Fig. 5!. The optimal heat leak func-
L
a linear combination of the integrands of Eqs. ~6! and ~8!, tion required by Eq. ~9! must be approximated by a stepwise-
F5Q/T 2 1lk/Q, and l is a Lagrange multiplier. The Euler varying function. The problem consists of determining not
equation reduces in this case to ] F/ ] Q50, which yields only the optimal cooling rate for each station, but also the
Q opt5(lk) 1/2T. The Lagrange multiplier is finally deter- optimal spatial position of each station. Hilal and Boom26
mined by substituting Q opt into the finite-size constraint ~8!. solved this problem using the method of Lagrange multipli-
The results are24 ers, and reported optimal structural designs for several super-
S E D
conducting coil applications of very large scales.
A TH k 1/2
Q opt5 dT k 1/2T, ~9! The optimization of conduction heat leak paths was con-
L TL T sidered in more general circumstances by Bisio.27,28 An even
SE D
more practical technique for optimizing the support of a ves-
A TH k 1/2 2
sel filled with cryogen is to place the natural stream of vapor
S gen,min5 dT . ~10!
L TL T ~boil off! in contact with the support at a number of cooling
stations ~Fig. 6!. The optimization problem is also simpler
Equation ~6! was provided by thermodynamics and Eq.
because it reduces to finding only the optimal positions of
~8! by heat transfer: together they prescribe the optimal de-
sign @Eqs. ~9! and ~10!#, which is characterized by a certain
distribution of intermediate cooling effect (dQ/dT) opt . Any
other design, Q(T), will generate more entropy and will re-
quire more power in order to maintain the cold end of the
support at T L . Quantitative examples are given in Refs. 1,
13, and 24. Together, Eqs. ~6! and ~8! illustrate the method of
thermodynamic optimization subject to a physical constraint,
and, to paraphrase some of the more recent physics terminol-
ogy, they constitute one of the earliest examples of finite-
size thermodynamics, this in 1974 in engineering.
The technological applications of the variable heat leak
optimization principle are numerous and important. In the
case of a mechanical support, the optimal design is approxi-
mated in practice by placing a stream of cold helium gas in
counterflow ~and in thermal contact! with the conduction
path, Fig. 4. The heat leak varies as dQ/dT5mc p , where
mc p is the capacity flow rate of the stream. The practical
value of the theory @Eqs. ~9! and ~10!# is that it guides the
designer to an optimal flow rate for minimum entropy gen-
eration. To illustrate, if the support conductivity is tempera- FIG. 5. Structural support cooled at several locations ~from Ref. 26!.
1194 J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 79, No. 3, 1 February 1996 Appl. Phys. Rev.: Adrian Bejan
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number of shields ~N21! is sufficiently large such that the
net radiation heat transfer between two adjacent shields is
approximately1,14
DT i
Q i 5 s AF ~ T 4i11 2T 4i ! >4 s AFT 3i , ~11!
Di
where DT i 5T i11 2T i , Di5(i11)2i and A, F, and s are
the shield area, effective view factor, and StefanBoltzmann
constant. Integrating Eq. ~11! across the stack we obtain a
finite-size constraint that replaces Eq. ~8!,
N
A
5 E TL
T0 4 s T 3F
Q
dT, ~12!
J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 79, No. 3, 1 February 1996 Appl. Phys. Rev.: Adrian Bejan 1195
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where p is the perimeter of the duct that carries m, and U is
the overall heat transfer coefficient based on p. The total
stream-to-stream heat transfer area pL is fixed. We account
for this constraint by eliminating DT between Eqs. ~15! and
~16!, and integrating from x50 to x5L,
pL5 E TL
TH mc p
QU
dT. ~17!
The integral constraint ~17! plays the same role as Eq. ~8!,
and the result of the EGM analysis is again an optimal heat
leak variation,
Q opt5 S mc p
UpL
ln
TH
TL
mc p T,D ~18!
S D
computers.41,42
Another class of engineering components that has been DT mc p T H
5 ln . ~20!
optimized based on the irreversibility minimization prin- T opt
UA TL
ciples ~6!~10! is the counterflow heat exchangers that con-
nect the coldest regions of refrigerators and liquefiers to the This rule follows from Eqs. ~15! and ~18! and is widely
room temperature compressor.43 The counterflow sketched in recognized in the design of cryogenic counterflow heat
Fig. 8 was intentionally oriented and labeled in the same way exchangers.45 Another interesting aspect is that the convec-
as the mechanical support of Fig. 3 to stress the analogy tive heat leak ~18! and entropy generation rate ~19! decrease
between the two devices. The entropy generation rate asso- when the stream-to-stream thermal conductance UpL in-
ciated with the two streams and the space between them ~Fig. creases. In other words, by promoting heat transfer in the
8! is given by Eq. ~6! in which Q is now the longitudinal transversal direction, counterflow heat exchangers serve as
convective heat leak effective insulations in the longitudinal direction.
The structure of any low temperature installation con-
Q5mc p DT ~15! tains more than one heat leak path. The intermediate cooling
and DT is the transversal ~stream-to-stream! temperature dif- regime for parallel heat leak paths has been optimized46
ference. The equivalent of the finite-size constraint ~8! is based on the EGM approach presented in this section. One
obtained by writing that the enthalpy gained by the colder conclusion is that parallel heat leak paths must be fitted in-
stream is equal to the local stream-to-stream heat transfer dividually with optimal continuous distributions of interme-
rate, diate cooling. References such as 24, 30, and 45 are further
examples of early finite size thermodynamics work in engi-
mc p dT5 ~ pdx ! UDT, ~16! neering.
1196 J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 79, No. 3, 1 February 1996 Appl. Phys. Rev.: Adrian Bejan
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FIG. 9. The optimal intermediate cooling of a counterflow heat exchanger ~from Ref. 14!.
J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 79, No. 3, 1 February 1996 Appl. Phys. Rev.: Adrian Bejan 1197
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FIG. 10. Entropy generation number N S , or relative entropy generation rate
in a smooth tube with heat transfer ~from Ref. 48!. FIG. 11. The optimal size of a plate, cylinder, and sphere for minimum
entropy generation ~from Ref. 64!.
8 /S gen,min
eration rate ratio S gen 8 is used to monitor the approach
of any design relative to the best design that can be con- the effect of the heat transfer augmentation technique on the
ceived subject to the same constraints. This performance cri- total entropy generation rate. Zimparov and Vulchanov55 ap-
terion was used extensively in the engineering literature plied the EGM method to assess the merits of using spirally
~e.g., Refs. 1 and 14! and, just last year, was also recognized corrugated tubes. Performance evaluation studies were also
in the physics literature.49 conducted by Chen and Huang56 and Prasad and Shen.57,58
The minimization of entropy generation in ducts with The EGM method was recognized in the most recent review
heat transfer attracted considerable interest from engineers of heat transfer augmentation techniques.59
working on heat transfer augmentation techniques. In such The opportunity of minimizing the entropy generation to
techniques the main objective is to increase the wallfluid determine the optimal sizes of ducts and other heat transfer
heat transfer coefficient relative to the coefficient of the un- devices has been noted by practitioners in the field of chemi-
augmented ~i.e., untouched! surface. A parallel objective, cal process engineering.60 The same topic became a sizable
however, is to register this improvement without causing a component in the new edition of a classic undergraduate heat
damaging increase in the pumping power demanded by the transfer textbook.61
forced-convection arrangement. These two objectives reveal Another large and diverse group of heat transfer devices
the conflict that accompanies the implementation of any aug- relies on external convection, that is, heat transfer between a
mentation technique: a design modification that improves the stream and a body immersed in the stream. The minimization
thermal contact ~e.g., roughening the heat transfer surface! is of entropy generation for members of this class has been
likely to also augment the mechanical pumping power re- performed by adapting the internal flow analyses ~21!~25!
quirement. to external flow. The start is the formula for the total entropy
The true effect of a proposed augmentation technique on generation rate associated with heat transfer and drag on an
thermodynamic performance can be evaluated by comparing immersed body62
the entropy generation rate of the heat-exchange apparatus
before and after the implementation of the augmentation Q B ~ T B 2T ` ! F D U `
technique. This method of optimizing augmentation tech- S gen5 1 , ~26!
T BT ` T`
niques was proposed in Ref. 50, where it was applied to the
design of ducts with sand-grain roughness and transversal rib where Q B , T B , T ` , F D , and U ` are the heat transfer rate,
roughness. Spiral tubes, twisted tape inserts, propeller inserts body temperature, free stream temperature, drag force, and
and tubes with internal spiral ribs were optimized in Ref. 51. free stream velocity. The relation for calculating Q B is pro-
Nelson52 used this method to evaluate the effect of heat vided by the field of heat transfer. Similarly, the fluid flow
transfer augmentation on optimized full-size heat exchang- information required for evaluating F D comes from fluid me-
ers. Sekulic et al.53 documented the thermodynamic optimi- chanics. The S gen expression has the same two-term structure
zation of several ducts ~smooth and enhanced!, and showed as Eq. ~22!. The competition between the two terms points to
that the minimum entropy generation design differs mark- an optimal body size for minimum entropy generation rate.
edly from the design based on conventional methods. The simplest example is the selection of the swept length
Perez-Blanco54 integrated the entropy generation rate along L of a plate immersed in a parallel stream ~Fig. 11 inset!. The
the entire surface of the heat exchanger, and then evaluated optimization procedure for laminar and turbulent flow was
1198 J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 79, No. 3, 1 February 1996 Appl. Phys. Rev.: Adrian Bejan
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destroys minimum power while performing its assigned heat
and fluid flow duty. The design is improved and, at the same
time, simplified. Even the teaching of the discipline of heat
transfer benefits from this approach.
Elemental features such as ducts and fins are what heat
exchangers are made of. The EGM method was also applied
to heat exchangers as complete, more complex systems.
Consider for example the counterflow heat exchanger seen in
Fig. 8, where the inlet conditions (T H , P H ) and (T L , P L ) are
fixed. The two streams have the same capacity rate mc p , and
the fluid is the same ideal gas (R,c p ). Each stream flows
with pressure drop through a space ~passage! of length
(L H ,L L ) and hydraulic diameter (D h,H ,D h,L ). The sub-
scripts H and L refer to the high pressure side and, respec-
tively, low pressure side of the heat transfer surface. It has
been shown that the rate of entropy generation of each pas-
sage is minimized if the passage slenderness ratio is selected
optimally66
S D
L
Dh opt
5
t
4G @~ R/c p ! f St # 1/2
*
, ~29!
FIG. 12. Optimal pin fin diameter and length for minimum entropy genera-
S gen,min
mc p
52 t
R
cp S D SD 1/2
G
f
* St
1/2
, ~30!
tion ~from Ref. 62!.
where t5u T H 2T L u /(T H T L ) 1/2, G 5G/(2 r P) 1/2, and G is
*
the mass velocity through the passage flow cross-section A f ,
given in Ref. 1, and for turbulent flow in Ref. 63. The results
namely G5m/A f . As a first approximation, the ratio f /St is
for ReL,opt5U ` L opt / n are shown in Fig. 11 where B is the
a constant for a given type of heat exchanger surface.66 The
duty parameter
subscripts H and L are dropped from Eqs. ~29! and ~30!
Q B /W because one such set can be written for either passage. This
B5 ~27! further illustrates the power of the method: the same optimi-
U ` ~ k m T ` Pr1/3! 1/2
zation rule applies on both sides of the heat transfer surface.
and W is the plate dimension perpendicular to Fig. 11. The In Eq. ~29! we see just one of the geometric optima that
same figure shows the corresponding results for the optimal have been developed. The balanced counterflow heat ex-
diameter of a cylinder in cross flow,63,64 where ReD,opt changer subject to fixed heat transfer area was optimized in
5 U ` D opt / n , and B is given by Eq. ~27!. The optimal diam- Ref. 66, which also reported the optimization subject to fixed
eter of the sphere1,63,64 is referenced to the sphere duty pa- heat exchanger volume. The doubly constrained optimization
rameter defined by of the counterflow heat exchanger with fixed area and vol-
Q B ume was reported in Ref. 14. In Refs. 47 and 66 we see early
B s5 . ~28! examples of finite size thermodynamics applications in heat
n ~ k m T ` Pr1/3! 1/2
transfer. The optimization subject to fixed total number of
The fins planted on the surfaces of heat exchanges act as heat transfer units ~N tu! was developed in a noteworthy study
bodies with heat transfer in external flow. The size of a fin of by Sekulic and Herman.67 Another line of research focused
given shape can be optimized by minimizing S gen of Eq. ~26! on the thermodynamic optimization of several types of heat
while accounting for the internal heat transfer characteristics exchangers where the fluid friction irreversibility is
~longitudinal conduction!65 of the fin. Figure 12 shows one negligible.68 71 Heat exchangers with phase change ~boilers,
example of how to select the optimal length and diameter of condensers! were optimized by London and Shah,72 Zubair
a pin fin ~cylindrical spine!, where ReL,opt5U ` L opt / n , et al.,73 and Lau et al.74
ReD,opt5U ` D opt / n , and B5 rn 3 kT ` /Q 2B . The figure was Extensions to the study of entropy generation in coun-
drawn for M 5(k/l) 1/2Pr21/65100 where k and l are the fin terflow heat exchangers66 have been performed by Sarangi
and fluid thermal conductivities. Optimal sizes for other fin and Chowdhury68 and Huang.75 Grazzini and Gori76 recon-
shapes are reported in Ref. 62. sidered the entropy generation analysis, and distinguished
The technological benefit of applying the EGM method between three separate entropy generation number defini-
to heat transfer devices is that such devices are notorious for tions, two of which are new. They investigated the extrema
their large number of dimensions, which have to be selected of these numbers, and applied their results to an air-to-air
by the designer. The thermodynamic optimization method counterflow heat exchanger. In chemical engineering,
shows how to select certain dimensions such that the device Tondeur77 and Tondeur and Kvaalen78 showed that, for a
J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 79, No. 3, 1 February 1996 Appl. Phys. Rev.: Adrian Bejan 1199
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given duty, the best configuration of a heat and mass process
is that where the entropy generation rate is distributed in the
most uniform way possible.
A study of crossflow heat exchangers was conducted by
Baclic and Sekulic.79 Their study reveals once again the
tradeoff between heat transfer and fluid flow irreversibilities,
as well as the remanent ~imbalance! irreversibility associated
purely with the crossflow arrangement. Several basic studies
of the thermodynamics of forced convection heat transfer in
heat exchangers were undertaken by Soumerai.80,81 The rela-
tionship between entropy generation minimization and cost
minimization was illustrated by Wepfer et al.82 in the prob-
lem of deciding the optimal size of a steam pipe and its
insulation.
The generation of entropy at the local ~differential! level
in heat exchangers was documented by El-Sayed,83 Liang
and Kuehn,84 Evans and von Spakovsky,85 and Drost and
Zaworski.86 The calculation and display87 of entropy genera-
tion rate distributions through heat and fluid flow fields was
recommended by Paoletti et al.,88 White and Drost,89 Cheng
and Huang,90 Drost and White,91,92 Benedetti and Sciubba,93
and Cheng et al.94 Taken together, these studies argue that
commercial computational fluid dynamics packages should
have the capability of displaying entropy generation rate
maps for both laminar and turbulent flows.
For example, Figs. 13~a! and 13~b! show the flow and
temperature fields in the entrance region to a vertical channel
with mixed ~forced1natural! convection. The right wall is
heated ~T 1!, and is fitted with horizontal fins. The left wall is
cooled to the ambient temperature ~T 0!, which is also the
temperature of the fluid that enters through the bottom of the
FIG. 13. Flow, temperature, and volumetric entropy generation rate in a
channel. New in this display of numerical information is Fig. vertical duct with mixed convection ~from Ref. 94: Courtesy of Prof. C.-H.
13~c!, which shows the contour lines of the local ~volumet- Cheng, Tatung Institute of Technology, Taipei!.
ric! entropy generation rate. For the latter, Paoletti et al.88
proposed plotting contour lines for constant values of the
-
dimensionless group S gen,DT -
/(S gen,DT 1S -
gen,D P ), to show the this work cover conduction in a medium with thermal con-
relative importance of heat transfer irreversibility in the local ductivity ~or its derivative! that is a piecewise continuous
total entropy generation rate ~see also Refs. 93 and 95!. function of temperature,107 and thermal conductivity that is
The thermodynamic optimization of complete heat ex- also a function of the temperature gradient in the heat flux
changer systems was performed by Tapia and Moran,96 Ra- direction.108
nasinghe et al.,97 and Li et al.98 Heat exchanger networks An entirely new area of application of entropy genera-
were optimized by Hesselmann,99 Chato and Damianides,100 tion by conduction is being charted by the work of Kinra and
and Sekulic and Milosevic.101 Regenerators were optimized his associates109113 at Texas A&M University. They used the
by Tsujikawa et al.102 for gas-turbine power plants, by entropy generation calculations to explain and predict damp-
Hutchinson and Lyke103 for Stirling cycle machines, and ing in homogeneous and inhomogeneous elastic systems.
Matsumoto and Shiino104 for cryogenic plants. Heat ex- They named their theory elastothermodynamic damping.
changers with offset strip-fin surfaces were optimized more Kinras approach begins with the observation that a ma-
recently by Schenone et al.105 terial that is stressed reversibly and adiabatically always ex-
The method was also extended in several fundamental periences local changes in temperature, however small. This
directions of heat transfer science. The generation of entropy thermoelastic effect can be predicted using the first law and
by pure heat conduction, in the absence of fluid flow, has the second law. The new observation is that since the tem-
come under close scrutiny in more recent papers. Bisio106 perature field and the stress field are coupled, nonuniformi-
focused on one-dimensional heat conduction in systems with ties in stress and materials properties induce nonuniformities
time-dependent boundary conditions. The thermal conductiv- in temperature. As a consequence, heat is conducted locally
ity was a function of temperature and the coordinate of the from regions of relatively high temperature to regions of low
heat flux direction. He examined homogeneous as well as temperature. The entropy generated by conduction through-
multilayered systems, and pointed out relations between en- out the material is responsible for the damping effect.
tropy generation extrema and the solution to the heat con- Kinra, Bishop, and Milligan have used this approach to
duction problem ~the temperature distribution!. Extensions of demonstrate that it is now possible to design a composite
1200 J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 79, No. 3, 1 February 1996 Appl. Phys. Rev.: Adrian Bejan
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material that has certain, desired damping characteristics.
Theirs is an interdisciplinary example of the importance of
the concept of entropy generation in the field of materials
design. This is an important development, because the other
applications collected in this review come strictly from the
mainstream of thermal engineering ~Fig. 1!.
As an analogy to the convective heat transfer irrevers-
ibility illustrated in Fig. 10, the competition between mass
transfer and fluid flow irreversibilities was demonstrated by
San et al.114 The irreversibility of combined heat and mass
transfer was minimized in internal flow by San et al.115 and FIG. 14. Solid or liquid-bath element for sensible heat storage ~from
in external flow by Poulikakos and Johnson.63 Carrington Ref. 127!.
and Sun116,117 reconsidered the internal and external flow
problems. Sun and Carrington118 developed a general analy- the stream and the storage element, and the heat transfer
sis of the flow of a fluid mixture with heat conduction, mass between the exhaust and the ambient. A third source, ne-
diffusion, fluid friction, and chemical reactions. glected here but treated in Ref. 127, is the pressure drop on
The generation of entropy in reacting flows with radia- the gas side of the UA heat exchanger. It was shown that the
tion has been studied by Arpaci and his associates119124 and total entropy generated from t50 to t5t is minimum at a
Puri.125 For example, Arpaci and Selamet122 focused on pre- certain time ~duration! of the heating process, t opt or uopt . In
mixed flames stabilized above a flat flame burner, and the limit t!t opt , the generated entropy is due mainly to the
showed that the tangency condition ~i.e., the minimum internal source, while in the limit t@t opt the dominant source
quench distance! is related to an extremum of the entropy is the external thermal mixing ~Fig. 14!. Charts for calculat-
generation rate, which is inversely proportional to the Peclet ing the optimal heating time uopt as a function of N tu and
number. Puri125 minimized the entropy generation rate of a (T ` 2T 0 )/T 0 are available in Refs. 1 and 127. For
droplet burning in a stream. He showed that the minimum (T ` 2T 0 )!T 0 , the optimal heating time is available in
entropy generation rate corresponds to a tradeoff between closed form:
drag and mass loss from the droplet, and to maximum energy
per unit mass flowrate at the combustor exit. 1.256
u opt5 . ~32!
The entropy generation rate in convection through a 12exp~ 2N tu!
saturated porous medium was presented in Ref. 126. The Since in most heat exchangers N tu is of the order of 1 or
general form for the local entropy generation rate due to greater, Eq. ~32! shows that uopt is of the order of 1, or that
combined heat, mass, and fluid flow through a porous me- t opt;M C/(mc p ). In conclusion, for engineering design pur-
dium is given in Ref. 14. poses, the optimal heating strategy is such that the process
must be terminated when the thermal inertia of the hot gas
V. STORAGE SYSTEMS used (mc p t) becomes of the same order as the thermal iner-
tia of the storage element (M C).
The optimization of time-dependent heating and cooling The thermodynamic optimization of the element of Fig.
processes has generated a subfield of its own. The applica- 14 during a complete storage and removal cycle ~i.e., heating
tions are diverse, for example, sensible heating versus latent followed by cooling back to T 0! was performed by Krane.128
heating, or the temporary storage of heating versus the An improvement to the single-element storage method of
storage of refrigeration. Common to all these applications Fig. 14 is the use of several elements in series, as proposed in
is the search for optimal strategies for executing heating and Ref. 1. This proposal was investigated in great detail by Tay-
cooling processes, i.e., the search for optimal histories, or lor et al.129 based on a solid distributed-storage-element
optimal evolutions in time. model in which the storage material temperature varied con-
The earliest work of this type127 focused on the sensible tinuously along the stream. Taylor et al. showed among other
heating of a storage element ~solid or incompressible liquid! things that the longitudinal conduction of heat through the
of mass M and specific heat C, by using a stream of hot gas storage material during the periodic operation of the heat
(m,c p ,T ` ) as shown in Fig. 14. Initially, the storage element exchanger can have a major impact on the overall irrevers-
is at the ambient temperature T 0 . Gradually, the element tem- ibility of the installation. The overall entropy generation is
perature T and the gas outlet temperature T out rise and ap- again a strong function of the time interval required by the
proach T ` . The temperature histories T(t) and T out(t) can be storage part of the cycle: the identification of the optimal
written analytically as functions of the dimensionless time u storage time interval is critical. The series of storage units
and the number of heat transfer units N tu based on the was optimized further by Sekulic and Krane.130
stream-element thermal conductance UA ~fixed!, Closely related to the continuous one-dimensional stor-
mc p UA age scheme with periodic counterflow circulation is the class
u 5t , N tu5 . ~31! of periodic heat exchangers recognized as regenerators. The
MC mc p
design of this type of heat exchanger was approached on the
Figure 14 shows that the sensible heating process has basis of EGM by San et al.131 Their model consists of two-
two sources of entropy generation, the heat transfer between dimensional parallel-plate channels sandwiched between
J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 79, No. 3, 1 February 1996 Appl. Phys. Rev.: Adrian Bejan 1201
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This question is essential in the operation of large scale su-
perconducting systems, which must be cooled down before
they can function. Note that to minimize the amount of cool-
ing agent ~cryogen! is equivalent to minimizing the refrig-
erator work needed to produce the cryogen, or the total en-
tropy generated in the cold space.
This problem was solved by variational calculus for the
optimal flow rate history m opt(t) that minimizes the m inte-
gral ~33! subject to the time constraint t c . The details can be
found in Refs. 1 and 140. The end result is
m opt~ t ! 5 F U~ T !A
C *c p~ T ! G 1/2
, ~34!
1202 J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 79, No. 3, 1 February 1996 Appl. Phys. Rev.: Adrian Bejan
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numerical simulations of the heat transfer behavior of the
shell-and-tube phase-change heat exchanger were performed
by Bellecci and Conti.153,154
Aceves-Saborio et al.155 developed a systematic way of
modeling phase-change storage systems, by applying the
lumped model to many independent phase-change capsules.
They also considered the more general case where the phase-
change material melts over a finite temperature range. In an
earlier study, Aceves-Saborio et al.156 optimized a single
latent-heat cell by first simulating numerically the phase-
change process. This is an important and difficult task be-
cause the natural convection currents that occur in the liquid
FIG. 16. Latent heat storage by using two phase-change materials in series control the shape and movement of the liquidsolid interface
~from Ref. 147!.
~e.g., Sec. 10.4 in Ref. 157!. It was shown by De Lucia and
Bejan145 that when the melting process is controlled by natu-
fication cycle when the fluid is modeled as well mixed inside ral convection the optimal melting temperature is equal to
the storage element. The same authors showed that the ther- the geometric average shown in Eq. ~35!.
modynamic performance of the latent heat storage process Adebiyi et al.158 constructed a numerical model for
can be improved by using two or more different phase- simulating and then optimizing the performance of storage
change materials in series. Two such elements are pictured in systems with multiple phase-change materials. They found
Fig. 16, for which there are two optimal melting tempera- that the second law efficiency of systems with multiple ma-
tures ~i.e., two materials! as shown in Fig. 17. The dimen- terials can exceed by 13%26% the efficiency of systems
sionless optimal temperatures in Fig. 17 are referenced to Eq. employing a single material. A fundamental study of EGM in
~35!, namely t 1,opt5T m,1,opt /(T ` T 0 ) 1/2 and t 2,opt time-dependent unidirectional heat conduction was con-
5T m,2,opt /(T ` T 0 ) . Lim et al.147 similarly optimized an in-
1/2 ducted by Charach and Rubinstein.159
finite number of phase-change materials heated in series, and
a single material melted by an unmixed stream. VI. SOLAR POWER PLANTS
The thermodynamic optimization of practical storage in-
stallations with melting and solidification has attracted a lot The generation of mechanical or electrical power has
of interest in both engineering and physics. For example, been subjected to thermodynamic optimization in many stud-
Adebiyi148 considered a bed with particles with several ratios ies that cover a vast territory. Therefore in this section and
of latent heat to sensible heat storage capability. He modeled Sec. VII we cover only some of the central ideas and the
the heat conduction as one dimensional in the cylindrical literature that followed. We do this chronologically, i.e., in
pellet geometry. For the complete storage and removal cycle, the order in which the use of the method reached critical
he found that the optimal phase-change temperature is equal mass in the various sectors of the power generation field.
to the arithmetic average of the heat source and ambient This occurred first in the optimization of solar driven power
temperatures. plants, as exemplified by the solar theme chosen for a
Charach and Zemel149 optimized the thermodynamic recent book160 dedicated to the application of the method.
performance of latent heat storage in the shell of a shell-and- Book chapters on the application of the EGM method to
tube heat exchanger. The focus was on the effect of two- solar power plants appeared earlier in Refs. 1 and 14.
dimensional heat transfer, that is, as a step beyond the one- In a 1957 paper, Muser161 optimized the power produced
dimensional model employed by De Lucia and Bejan.145 by an engine driven by solar heating. Musers model is
Charach and Zemel149 also considered the effect of pressure equivalent to the upper portion drawn between T s and T L in
drop on the stream side of the heat exchanger. Their analysis Fig. 18. The hot end of the heat engine cycle receives heat
has been extended by Charach and Zemel150 and Charach151 from a solar collector (T H ) that sees not only the solar disc
to the complete melting and solidification cycle, by using a (T s ) but also the cold universe ~T `!. The heat engine cycle is
quasisteady treatment of the phase change process occurring modeled as reversible, with the cold end in equilibrium with
in the shell. These latest studies showed that the optimal the ambient. Muser161 and, independently, Castans,162
phase-change temperature is bounded from above and from Jeter,163 and De Vos and Pauwels164 showed that the power
below by the arithmetic and, respectively, geometric aver- output W is maximum when the collector temperature has
ages of the source and ambient temperatures. the optimal value given by
Another interesting direction has been the study of latent
4T 5H,opt23T L T 4H,opt2T 4s T L 50. ~36!
heat storage units coupled in series with a power plant, and
optimized over the entire storage and removal cycle. Bellecci This was an important first step in the demonstration that
and Conti152 showed that minimization of entropy generation an optimal design can be found based on a model that com-
and operation stability are two competing criteria in the op- bines only the thermodynamics of the (T H 2T L ) compart-
timization of the aggregate installation. The arithmetic aver- ment with the irreversibility of radiation heat transfer in the
age of the extreme temperatures emerges again as the opti- three-surface enclosure formed by T H , T s , and T ` . The
mal phase-change temperature. Detailed modeling and same combination of thermodynamics and radiation heat
J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 79, No. 3, 1 February 1996 Appl. Phys. Rev.: Adrian Bejan 1203
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FIG. 18. Model of solar power plant with heat transfer irreversibilities at the
hot end and the cold end ~after Refs. 14 and 65!.
S D
power output W is equivalent to minimizing the total entropy 4
generation rate associated with the solar power plant ~Ref. Ts
F Hs 51.538, ~40!
14!. Note that as T H is varied during the optimization pro- T H,opt
cess, the net solar heat input to the collector ~Q, from T s to
T H ! also varies. And if Q is to float freely, then the actual W max50.0414s AF Hs T 4s , ~41!
heat input available from the sun must be greater than any Q where s and F Hs are the StefanBoltzmann constant and the
value that might be required in the course of W maximiza- collector-sun view factor. If we substitute T s 55762 K and
tion. Let Q be this sufficiently large ~and fixed! heat transfer F Hs ;1024 into this solution we obtain T H,opt > 520 K and
rate. A portion of Q is intercepted by the collector (Q), T L,opt > 340 K for the recommended extreme temperatures
while the remainder (Q 2Q) must necessarily fall on the ~boiler, condenser! of the power cycle executed by the work-
ground, i.e., be rejected to the ambient T L . Both portions ing fluid. Another technological aspect of this result is that
vary with the lone degree of freedom in the power plant the radiator area should be roughly twice as large as the
design ~T H , Q, or W!. The total entropy generation rate collector area.
S D
As a way to think, the extraterrestrial solar power plant
Q Q Q 2Q W 1 1 model of Fig. 18 is related to the conversion of solar heating
S gen5 2 1 52 1Q 2 ~37!
TH Ts TL TL TL Ts into wind power ~natural convection! on earth. This power is
1204 J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 79, No. 3, 1 February 1996 Appl. Phys. Rev.: Adrian Bejan
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FIG. 19. Solar power plant model with collector-ambient heat loss and
collector-power cycle heat exchanger ~from Ref. 167!.
J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 79, No. 3, 1 February 1996 Appl. Phys. Rev.: Adrian Bejan 1205
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ture of the stream is equal to T HC . There is only one degree
of freedom in the optimization of the power plant: the hot
end of the inner compartment, or the exhaust temperature
T HC . It is not difficult to express W as a function of T HC and
to show that W is maximized when
T HC,opt5 ~ T H T L ! 1/2. ~44!
Chambadals corresponding energy conversion efficiency at
maximum power is
h 512 S D
TL
TH
1/2
. ~45!
1206 J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 79, No. 3, 1 February 1996 Appl. Phys. Rev.: Adrian Bejan
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(s d 2 s a ) 5 (1 1 i)(s d,rev 2 s a ), or Q L 5 (1 1 i)Q L,rev , where
~11i!>1 and Q L is the heat transferred to the ambient (T L ).
The rest of the power plant operates reversibly. Novikovs
optimal heating temperature and efficiency for maximum
power output,
FIG. 23. Novikovs model for a steady-state power plant with heat transfer and expander irreversibilities ~from Ref. 197!.
J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 79, No. 3, 1 February 1996 Appl. Phys. Rev.: Adrian Bejan 1207
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FIG. 24. Power plant model with bypass heat leak ~after Ref. 204!.
T H,opt5T L 11 S Q H
CT L
D 1/2
. ~50!
The corresponding efficiency ~W max/Q H ! is expectedly lower FIG. 25. Steady-state power plant model with finite hot-end and cold-end
than the Carnot efficiency, thermal conductances ~from Ref. 1!.
1208 J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 79, No. 3, 1 February 1996 Appl. Phys. Rev.: Adrian Bejan
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The power output, which was maximized once to arrive at
Eq. ~45!, can be maximized one more time by choosing the
proper ratio U H A H /(U L A L ) subject to constraint ~52!. The
optimal conductance allocation rule is
~ U H A H ! opt5 ~ U L A L ! opt . ~53!
This optimization result also holds when the conductance
inventory UA is minimized subject to fixed power output.209
If, instead of Eq. ~52!, the optimization is performed subject
to the total area constraint
A H 1A L 5A ~54!
the optimal way to divide the area inventory is210
A H,opt 1
5 . ~55!
A 11 ~ U H /U L ! 1/2
Optimization results such as Eqs. ~45!, ~53!, and ~55! can
also be derived by minimizing the entropy generation rate of
the power plant model of Fig. 25. In this alternate approach
it is essential to note that the optimization requires that Q H
vary, i.e., that the appropriate room-to-move entropy genera-
tion rate197 must be included in the calculation of the total
entropy generation rate. On the other hand, if the heat input
Q H is treated as fixed,197 the only degree of freedom left in
the optimization of the model of Fig. 25 is the allocation of
the finite heat exchanger inventory. For example, if the UA FIG. 26. Combined-cycle power plant with three heat exchangers ~from
inventory is constrained in accordance with Eq. ~52!, then Ref. 170!.
the optimal allocation rule continues to be Eq. ~53!, with the
corresponding maximum efficiency197 @see also the discus-
sion under Eq. ~63!#: leading to the CNCA efficiency, Eq. ~45!. Second, the finite
h5
W max
Q H
512
TL
TH
S 12
4Q H
UAT H
D 21
. ~56!
UA inventory ~52! must be divided equally between the two
heat exchangers, cf. Eq. ~53!. Third, there is a tradeoff be-
tween investing more in the heat exchanger equipment (UA)
Rubin and Andresen211 optimized the temperature stag- and in the resistance R i to the bypass heat leak
ing of two power plants fitted with three finite-size heat ex-
changers, Fig. 26. They showed that the efficiency at maxi-
mum total power (W 1 1W 2 ) is given by the same formula as
in Eq. ~45!. The power output was maximized further in Ref.
170, where the total thermal conductance inventory was con-
strained
U H A H 1U M A M 1U L A L 5UA. ~57!
The optimal way to allocate UA to the three heat exchangers,
and the resulting maximum power are
~ U H A H ! opt5 ~ U M A M ! opt5 ~ U L A L ! opt , ~58!
~ W 1 1W 2 ! max5
1
9
UAT H 12
TL
TH F S DG 1/2 2
. ~59!
S D S D
T HC
T LC opt
5
TH
TL
1/2
~60! FIG. 27. Power plant model with bypass heat leak and two finite-size heat
exchangers ~from Ref. 10!.
J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 79, No. 3, 1 February 1996 Appl. Phys. Rev.: Adrian Bejan 1209
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Figs. 2123 and 2527!. However, in the presentation of the
empirical efficiency data T H was erroneously taken as equal
to the highest temperature reached by the working fluid, in-
stead of the equivalent temperature of the combustion cham-
ber as an exergy source ~Ref. 14!. An alternative explanation
for the position of the empirical data is provided by the
model of Fig. 29, in which the bypass heat leak of Fig. 24 is
optimized in harmony with the power-producing compart-
ment, i.e., in accordance with the method used in cryogenics
~Fig. 3!. When the entropy generated inside the insulation of
resistance R i is minimized as in Eqs. ~6!~10!, the power
plant model of Fig. 29~b! delivers maximum power with the
efficiency170
FIG. 28. The efficiencies of: actual power plants, models with finite heat
exchangers, and a model with bypass heat leak optimized in harmony with
the power-producing compartment ~From Ref. 170!.
h 512
TL
TH S
11ln
TH
TL
. D ~63!
1210 J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 79, No. 3, 1 February 1996 Appl. Phys. Rev.: Adrian Bejan
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heat, specific heat and convective heat transfer coefficient, formula ~45! does not hold when the heat transfer model is
which were conceived roughly a hundred years later by not linear. Early studies were also contributed by Rubin,232
Black,14 Wilcke,14 and Fourier,65 respectively. Proportionali- Lucca,233 Rozonoer and Tsirlin,234 and Mozurkewich and
ties such as Eq. ~64! are the invention of Fourier, who de- Berry.235 The effect of speed on optimal performance was
fined in this way the convective ~fluid flow! heat transfer studied by Spence and Harrison236 and Petrescu et al.220
coefficient as a concept distinct from that of thermal conduc- There is an important technological issue to consider in
tivity. To his contemporaries and the subsequent develop- connection with the two-stroke model inspired by Ref. 8. In
ment of heat transfer science, Fouriers heat transfer coeffi- Sadi Carnots 1824 essay we were told of a gas contained in
cient was revolutionary: it is an important reason why he, a cylinder and piston apparatus that underwent a cycle com-
and not Biot, won the race for the development of a success- posed of two strokes and four processes: two quasistatic and
ful analytical theory of conduction heat transfer. isothermal processes interspaced with two quasistatic and
The second observation concerns the nonlinear alterna- adiabatic processes. Curzon and Ahlborn8 added finite ther-
tive to Eq. ~64!, which in the physics literature is sometimes mal resistances between the cylinder and the respective tem-
referred to as the Dulong & Petit law. This terminology perature reservoirs, and, in this way, described and optimized
belongs to the mid-1800s, when it was known empirically the time-dependent evolution of the cycle. Although the
that the heat transfer relation can be more complicated than cycle described by Curzon and Ahlborn is a good instrument
in Eq. ~64!. The readers may be interested to know that mod- for teaching, it is a questionable roadmap to improvements in
ern heat transfer is now a mature science, which is capable of the thermodynamic performance of real heat engines. Recall
anticipating the nonlinear heat transfer rates based on highly that the maximized power output can be further increased by
successful theories of forced convection, natural convection, increasing the thermal conductances associated with the iso-
radiation, mixed convection, and conjugate heat transfer. The thermal processes. Can this be accomplished in a real heat
predictive powers of heat transfer science were developed engine in which the same cylinder wall is asked to be a
over the past 200 years on the back of analytical advances perfect insulator during one process and a very good thermal
made, chronologically, in heat conduction, hydrodynamics, conductor during the next process in the same stroke? The
thermal radiation, aerodynamics, boundary layer theory, and engine builders have faced this question early in the devel-
convection in porous media. The most recent overviews of opment of practical machines. Examples are Watts 1769
the current status of heat transfer science are presented in separate condenser, Braytons 1873 external combustion
Refs. 65, 157, and 215. chamber, and Otto and Langens 1876 internal combustion
The work that has been published on the thermodynamic engine ~Ref. 14!.
optimization of power plant models is sizable. As we saw in Another line of research focused on individual features
Fig. 23, Novikovs model included the effect of irreversible of the four-process model. Band et al.237 performed the op-
expansion through the turbine of the steam cycle. Lu,216 timization of the heating process undergone by a fluid in a
Grazzini,208 Ibrahim et al.,217,218 and Wu and Kiang219 ex- piston and cylinder apparatus. Richter and Ross238 and
tended this model by also accounting for the irreversibility of Fairen and Ross239,240 considered the effect of time-
the compression process and for the fact that the temperature dependent operation and inertia. Orlov and Berry241 opti-
of the working fluid changes along the two heat exchangers. mized an engine model where the working fluid is noniso-
Petrescu et al.220 generalized the model by including the ef- thermal and viscous ~with pressure drop! while in contact
fect of piston speed and type of working fluid. with the heat reservoirs. The mechanical optimization of the
The model of Fig. 27 was extended by Swanson221 to kinematics of engines is an interesting direction defined by
account for the capacity flow rates and effectivenessN tu the work of Senft.242244 Related to this is the cylindroids
relations of the heat exchangers. Swanson showed that in this rotary engine of Vargas and Florea.245
case the optimal thermal conductance allocation ratio de- The maximization of work output as opposed to power
pends on the total number of heat transfer units of the two output was pursued by Grazzini and Gori246 and Wu et al.225
heat exchangers. A similar model was optimized by Ibrahim Subtle differences between the maximum power in time-
and Klein222 and Lee and Kim,223,224 who extended it further dependent ~reciprocating! versus steady-flow power plant
to the optimization of Lorentz cycles, and by Ibrahim models were clarified by Kiang and Wu.247 As an ecological
et al.,217 who also considered the life-cycle economic opti- figure of merit in power plant optimization, Angulo-Brown9
mization of the power plant. proposed to maximize the function W2T L S gen , where S gen is
The four-process ~two-stroke! model of Curzon and the entropy generation rate of the power plant and T L is the
Ahlborn8 and its steady-state counterpart ~Fig. 25! was pur- heat sink temperature.
sued along several lines. These were reviewed most recently Nomenclature innovations included the introduction of
by Wu et al.,225 Feidt et al.,226 and Arias-Hernandez and the term endoreversible ~Rubin!232 to describe the revers-
Angulo-Brown,227 to whom the reader is directed. For ex- ibility of the innermost compartment such as the one shown
ample, in several studies beginning with Gutkowicz-Krusin in Fig. 25, or alternatively, the term exoirreversible for the
et al.,228 the assumption that the heat transfer rates are pro- external irreversibilities that surround the same compartment
portional to the local temperature differences was replaced ~Radcenco!.248 As pointed out by Berg,249 the concept of
with more general, nonlinear heat transfer models that ac- internal reversibility ~or external irreversibility! is basically
count for natural convection, radiation, and temperature de- the same as the local thermodynamic equilibrium model that
pendent properties.229231 The maximum power efficiency serves as foundation for all modern heat transfer and fluid
J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 79, No. 3, 1 February 1996 Appl. Phys. Rev.: Adrian Bejan 1211
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mechanics. The term thermodynamics in finite time was
introduced in 1977 specifically for the optimization of ther-
modynamic processes subjected to time constraints.250
Alefeld251 analyzed an entire steam-cycle modern power
station, and showed how the entropy generation rates con-
tributed by the components can be summed up to evaluate
the overall performance of the power plant. A similar proce-
dure was illustrated using the simple Rankine cycle in Ref.
14. The Rankine cycle power plant was also analyzed and
optimized by Wilson and Radwan,252 Roche,253 Habib and
Zubair,254 Smith,255 and Radcenco et al.256 Several of these
studies emphasized the importance of matching the variable
temperature of the working fluid to the temperature of the
heating agent. The graphic presentation and optimization of
complex power cycles was illustrated by Jin and Ishida.257
A comprehensive treatment of the distribution of sources
FIG. 30. Model of power plant with on and off operation and scale ~fouling!
of entropy generation in a gas-turbine power plant was accumulating on the hot-end heat exchanger surface ~from Ref. 197!.
present by Denton.258 The effect of turbine blade cooling on
entropy generation was investigated by Farina and
Donatini.259 Fundamental studies of power maximization in VIII. REFRIGERATION PLANTS
simple Brayton ~Joule! cycles were conducted by Leff,260
Landsberg and Leff,261 Wu,262 as well as in Refs. 10 and 14. The modeling features used for power plants ~Secs. VI
Organ263 presented a detailed analysis of the distribution and VII! have also been used in the optimization of refrig-
of entropy generation in a Stirling-cycle power plant. This eration plants. This body of work parallels in several respects
the work done on power plants, therefore its review in this
topic and the maximization of power received considerable
article will be more brief. It is interesting that by ending this
attention in subsequent papers by Organ,264 Organ and
article with a second look at refrigeration we are in fact
Jung,265 Radcenco et al.,256 Ladas and Ibrahim,266 and Blank completing a circle that started in cryogenic engineering
et al.267 Reviews of this field were published by Organ,268 ~Sec. III!. This is another indicator of how established the
Reader269 and, in a recent book, by Organ.270 method is, and how well rounded the field has become.
A systematic treatment of the Otto, Brayton ~Joule!, Die- The model that was studied the most is the refrigerator
sel, and Atkinson cycles was made by Leff260 and, in a gen- composed of a cold-end heat exchanger ~e.g., evaporator!, a
eralized form, by Landsberg and Leff.261 The Diesel cycle reversible compartment that receives power and moves the
was optimized for maximum power by Hoffman et al.,271 entropy stream toward higher temperatures, and a room-
and the distribution of entropy generation was studied by temperature heat exchanger ~e.g., condenser!. This model is
Primus and Flynn.272 Papers on Otto-cycle power plants shown in Fig. 31~b!. It was used first by Andresen et al.207
were written by Mozurkewich and Berry235 and Angulo- who focused on the optimal temperature staging of the three
Brown et al.273 Internal combustion power plants were also
optimized by Orlov and Berry:274 potentially important in
practice is the fact that optimized stroke-by-stroke cycles
such as the Otto cycle require optimal time-dependent piston
motions, which, in turn, require optimal kinematics ~link-
ages, shapes! between piston and crankshaft.
Ocean thermal energy conversion ~OTEC! power plants
were optimized by Johnson275 and Wu.276 The MHD power
cycle was treated by Aydin and Yavuz277 and Human.278 The
on and off operation of power plants that have to be shut
down to have their heat exchangers cleaned ~defouled! was
optimized in Ref. 279. An example of the model of time-
dependent operation is shown in Fig. 30, where fouling is
assumed to occur on the surfaces of the hot-end heat ex-
changer. The thickness of the scale increases with time, d(t).
It was shown that the period-averaged power output is maxi-
mized when the on time interval has an optimal duration.
The optimal design conditions are reported in dimensionless
charts that also hold for power plants in which fouling occurs FIG. 31. ~a! Actual steady-state refrigeration plant, and ~b! model with two
on the surfaces of the cold-end heat exchanger. finite size heat exchangers ~from Refs. 1 and 209!.
1212 J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 79, No. 3, 1 February 1996 Appl. Phys. Rev.: Adrian Bejan
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the insulation R i compete in a cost formula that is the same
as Eq. ~61!, then the optimal cost allocation rule is given by
Eq. ~62!. We see again the power of compact design optimi-
zation results such as Eqs. ~53! and ~62!: they apply across
the board, to power plants and refrigeration plants. The
model of Fig. 32 was used subsequently by Agrawal and
Menon287 and Chen.288 The optimal allocation of heat ex-
changer inventory subject to a constraint that is qualitatively
related to Eq. ~52! was documented by Klein.289
Another practical merit of this modeling method is with
respect to correlating and explaining the trends in the data
reported on the performance of existing refrigeration plants.
To correlate the data is important because correlations are
needed for making projections on the refrigeration needs of
future large scale projects ~e.g., Ref. 40!. This line or work
FIG. 32. Refrigerator model with bypass heat leak and two finite-size heat
exchangers ~from Ref. 281!.
was pursued in Refs. 14 and 281 for low temperature refrig-
erators, and in Ref. 290 for near ambient refrigerators and
heat pumps ~chillers!.
compartments: unlike in the power-plant equivalent ~Fig. The power of the method can be seen by examining the
25!, in a refrigerator there is no optimal T HC /T LC ratio for cloud of performance data of actual refrigerators,291 Fig.
minimum power input. 33. The data cover refrigerators in the temperature range 1.8
The model of Fig. 31~b! was proposed independently in K,T L ,90 K and capacity ~size! range 0.1 W,Q L ,106 W.
Ref. 1 for determining the optimal allocation of a finite heat The ordinate shows the reported second-law efficiencies
exchanger inventory. This topic was pursued along several hII5COP/~COP!rev where COP5Q L /W. A three-line analysis
lines in the literature. In Ref. 1, the initial question was of the model of Fig. 34 predicts that hII should vary as14,281
where to invest an additional unit of heat transfer area (DA)
when the cold-end conductance U L A L and room temperature
conductance U H A H are given. Goth and Feidt280 assumed
h II5 11F C iT H
Q L
S 12
TL
TH DG 21
, ~65!
that the total heat transfer area A is constrained according to where C i is the thermal conductance of the leaky insulation,
Eq. ~54!, and showed that the power input is minimum when Q L 5C i (T H 2T L ). A comparison with Fig. 33 shows that Eq.
A is divided as shown in Eq. ~55!. An independent study281 ~65! with C i T H /Q L ;5 is an adequate curve fit for the re-
was based on the optimization based on the UA constraint ported performance data. Equation ~65! predicts several of
~52!, and led to the conclusion that the thermal conductance the observed trends. First, hII decreases monotonically as C i
inventory must be split evenly between the two heat ex- increases, which should be expected because leakier refrig-
changers, cf. Eq. ~53!. The same optimization rule applies erated enclosures make less efficient refrigeration plants.
when the UA inventory is minimized subject to fixed power Second, hII decreases as T L /T H decreases. Third, the second-
input.209,282 law efficiency ~or the COP! increases as Q L increases, which
Of technological importance is that compact design rules means that larger machines are more efficient. Finally, the
such as Eqs. ~53! and ~54! lead to savings in power input, fact that the empirical data of Fig. 33 are fitted by
and that they apply to power plants as well. The model of C i T H /Q L ;5 means that in modern low temperature refrig-
Fig. 31~b! was also analyzed by Yan and Chen283,284 and erators the heat leak is of the order of five times the actual
Grazzini.285 The optimal allocation of either A or UA in a refrigeration load. Some of these trends were also anticipated
modern defrosting refrigerator based on the vapor compres- by Gordon and Ng290 and Ref. 281 based on more complex
sion cycle with fluids R-12 or R-134a is documented numeri- models such as Fig. 32.
cally in Ref. 286. Other aspects of improving the thermodynamic perfor-
A model that combines the heat exchanger irreversibili- mance of refrigeration machines are discussed by
ties of Fig. 31~b! with the heat leak irreversibility of Fig. 3 Alefeld.292,293 In contrast to using exergy analysis, Alefeld
was proposed in Ref. 281 ~Fig. 32!. The bypass heat leak was describes the effectiveness of components in terms of their
modeled as proportional to the room-load temperature differ- respective contributions to the total entropy generation rate.
ence, Q i 5(T H 2T L )/R i . There are two degrees of freedom The optimal distribution of a finite amount of insulation over
in the maximization of the refrigeration effect Q L , the allo- a cold enclosure of nonuniform temperature was developed
cation of the heat exchanger inventory between the two ends in Ref. 294. The application of this insulation allocation prin-
of the machine, and the allocation of cost between the total ciple to a modern domestic refrigerator with two temperature
heat exchanger inventory and the thermal insulation. Specifi- compartments ~fridge and freezer! is described in Ref. 295.
cally, when the heat transfer rates are modeled as Even closer to modern refrigeration technology is the opti-
Q HC 5U H A H (T HC 2T H ) and Q LC 5U L A L (T L 2T LC ), and mization of time-dependent refrigerators that must be de-
the heat exchanger inventory is constrained according to Eq. frosted periodically. The model of Fig. 35 was sufficient for
~52!, the optimal UA allocation rule is Eq. ~53!. If the ther- pinpointing an optimal rhythm of on and off operation when
mal conductance inventory UA and the thermal resistance of the growth of the frost layer thickness d(t) is known. Opti-
J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 79, No. 3, 1 February 1996 Appl. Phys. Rev.: Adrian Bejan 1213
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FIG. 33. Compilation of the second-law efficiencies of existing refrigerators and liquifiers ~from Ref. 291!.
mization results that are directly applicable to current design quency for the manufacture of ice on the outside of horizon-
and manufacture are presented in Ref. 286 for refrigerators tal tubes296 and on the inside or outside of vertical surfaces
based on the vapor compression cycle. These results cover of several shapes.297 The analyses also require the use of
not only the optimal control of the defrosting cycle but also contact melting theory.298 This optimization principle is rel-
the optimal allocation of a finite heat transfer area to the evant to the production by intermittent solidification of other
evaporator and the condenser. materials, not just ice.
The formation of frost on cold heat exchangers is detri-
mental to refrigerator thermodynamic performance, which is IX. CONCLUSION
why the optimization of the freezing and frost removal cycle
A revolution is taking place in thermodynamics, and it
is an important technological issue. Most interesting is that
amounts to the bridging of the gaps between thermodynam-
the same phenomenonthe same on and off cyclecan be
ics, heat transfer and fluid mechanics. Today a common
viewed and optimized as something beneficial, namely, the
methodology unites these seemingly separate disciplines,
maximization of ice production in industrial ice making in-
and, when viewed as self-standing, the method and its vari-
stallations. Models of the same class as Fig. 35 have been
ous models are surprisingly simple. This review showed that
used to determine the optimal freezing and removal fre-
new contributions are being added at an accelerated pace in
FIG. 34. Model of refrigeration plant with heat leak irreversibility ~from FIG. 35. Model of refrigerator with unsteady operation and frost accumula-
Refs. 14 and 281!. tion on the evaporator surface ~from Ref. 197!.
1214 J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 79, No. 3, 1 February 1996 Appl. Phys. Rev.: Adrian Bejan
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opportunity to distribute the hardware optimally in the de-
sign of actual installations. The contribution made by simple
models and the method of entropy generation minimization
is to show the way, i.e., to uncover new opportunities for the
work that will follow in industrial research and development.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I want to thank the Editors, Dr. J. M. Poate, and Dr. S. J.
Rothman, for inviting me to prepare this review article. I also
thank the National Science Foundation for supporting my
current research on basic thermodynamics, heat transfer, and
fluid mechanics.
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11
A. Bejan, Thermodynamic Design, Course ME 551 ~University of Colo-
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14
A. Bejan, Advanced Engineering Thermodynamics ~Wiley, New York,
1988!.
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17
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18
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