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Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 3
Chiller Types........................................................................................................................................... 3
Chiller Components ............................................................................................................................... 4
Refrigeration Cycle .............................................................................................................................. 15
Application Considerations................................................................................................................. 19
HVAC Clinics Draft - Not For Distribution
Introduction
Two types of chiller technologies dominate the large chiller landscape. For the purposes of this discussion, large
tonnage chillers will be chillers with a nominal capacity rating greater than 200 tons. The two dominant technologies
utilized in large tonnage chillers are helical rotary chillers and centrifugal compression chillers. A third chiller
technology, absorption refrigeration chillers, comprises a small percentage of the North American chiller market.
Absorption chiller technologies will not be discussed in this clinic.
Chiller Types
Types Of Helical Rotary Chillers
Helical rotary chillers can be either water cooled or air cooled (figure 2). Air cooled chillers are typically available from
150 to 500 ton at efficiencies from 1.0 kW/Ton to 1.3 kW/Ton. Water cooled helical rotary chillers are typically
available from 100 to 675 tons at efficiencies from 0.55 kW/Ton to 0.7 kW/Ton at ARI conditions. Helical rotary
chillers, either air or water cooled, are ideally suited for small to medium sized applied systems. Air cooled systems
are less costly to install and require less maintenance, largely due to the lack of water treatment, compared to
equivalent water cooled systems. However, air cooled systems operate at lower efficiencies compared to comparably
sized water cooled systems. In addition, water cooled systems may employ a waterside economizers, a feature that
is relatively expensive to employ with air cooled systems.
Chiller Components
Helical Rotary Compressors
Helical rotary chillers are generally comprised of an evaporator, one or multiple twin rotary compressors, a motor
(either open or suction gas cooled), an oil separator, condenser, an electronic expansion device, evaporator, starter
and control panel (figure 4). Each of these components will be explored in detail.
Two general types of vapor compression compressors are predominantly used in the HVAC industry. Those types
are positive displacement compressors and dynamic compression compressors. Positive displacement compressors
reduce the amount of refrigerant volume within the compression chamber, thus increasing its pressure. Dynamic
compression cycles utilize the principle of static regain (as discussed in the duct clinic) to increase static pressure
through changes in velocity pressure.
Helical rotary compressors are positive displacement type compressors. A helical rotary compressor traps the
refrigerant vapor between a male and female rotor and compresses it by decreasing the volume of the refrigerant
(figure 5).
The majority of helical rotary compressor designs use two mating screw rotors to perform the compression process.
The male rotor is driven by the compressor motor. The lobes of the male rotor make contact and drive the female
rotor, causing the two rotors to counter rotate. Refrigerant vapor enters the compressor housing through the intake
port and fills the pockets formed by the lobes of the rotors (figure 6). As the rotors turn, they push these pockets of
refrigerant toward the discharge end of the compressor. The continued rotation of the rotors forces the refrigerant to
meshing point. It is at this point that the refrigerant begins to compress (point D). Finally, when the pockets of
refrigerant reach the discharge port, the compressed vapor is released.
Centrifugal Compressors
Unlike helical rotary compressors, which work on the principle of positive displacement compression, centrifugal
compressors operate on the principle of dynamic compression. Dynamic compression involves the conversion of
energy, from one form to another. In the case of a centrifugal compressor, kinetic energy is converted to static
energy. The main component of a centrifugal compressor is the impeller. In a closed face impeller, relatively low
pressure refrigerant vapor is drawn into the eye of the impeller. Within the impeller body are blades that are fitted
between two enclosed surfaces (for closed faced impellers). The rotation of the impeller causes the refrigerant vapor
to accelerate within the blades (impeller passages), thus increasing its velocity. As the refrigerant velocity is
increased, its kinetic energy is increased.
After exiting the impeller, high velocity, high kinetic energy refrigerant enters the diffuser passages (figure 8). These
passages initially match the outlet area of impeller outlet. However, as the refrigerant passes down the length of the
diffuser, the passages gradually increase in size. As the passages increase in size, the refrigerant velocity
decreases. Following the first law of thermodynamics, which states energy cannot be destroyed, only converted from
one form to another; the refrigerant energy is converted from kinetic to static energy. This employs the same
phenomenon employed with duct static regain, as discussed in previous clinics.
The higher pressure refrigerant, as it exits the diffuser, collects in the volute. Like the diffuser, the volute increases in
volume as the refrigerant travels through its passages which further converts kinetic or velocity energy to static
energy. Finally, the refrigerant exits the compressor and travels to the condenser (figure 9).
A centrifugal compressors part load capacity can be modulated with inlet guide vanes, a variable frequency drive, or
a combination of both. Traditionally, inlet guide vanes were used to control chiller capacity. Inlet guide vanes pre-
spin the refrigerant before it enters the impeller passages. This pre-spinning of refrigerant reduces the grab or
dynamic energy the impeller can impart on the incoming refrigerant stream (figure 10).
A recent technological advancement to centrifugal compressors involves the use of magnetic levitation bearings.
Within a magnetic levitation centrifugal, the main drive shaft and impeller are magnetically levitated through the use of
specially designed magnetic bearings (figure 11). Much like a magnetic levitation high speed train, the shaft and
impeller float within a magnetic cushion, eliminating any contact friction. Implementing magnetic bearings can
dramatically improve efficiency, reduce noise and improve reliability. In addition, systems that utilize magnetic drives
do not require oil. The oil in a system acts as an added barrier to heat transfer. Oil coats heat exchange surfaces,
both the evaporator and condenser, decreasing efficiency. In addition, oil-less systems simplify the machine design
(the oil management system is removed) and reduces maintenance. Inlet guide vanes are generally not used in
magnetic bearing designs. Furthermore, magnetic bearing machines often operate at motor speeds well above 3600
RPM (generally between 20,000 and 45,000 RPM), requiring the use of frequency drives in order to achieve the
required motor speed (figure 11).
Magnetic drive machines may use multiple smaller open faced impellers which rotate at very high speeds (>40,000
RPM) or a single larger closed faced impeller which rotates at a slower speed (20,000 RPM). Generally speaking, a
larger closed face impeller will offer better aerodynamics compared to a similar capacity machine utilizing multiple
open faced impellers. The aerodynamics of an impeller is directly related to the chillers efficiency.
Oil Management
Following the compressor, the refrigerant may be fed into an oil separator. Oil separators are utilized is most helical
rotary and many centrifugal chiller designs. The oil separator is a centrifugal device that separates the oil from
refrigerant vapor (figure 12). The centrifugal motion of the refrigerant vapor forces the oil outward to the walls of the
cylinder. The oil collects on the walls, eventually draining to the bottom of the device and collects in the oil sump and
is recycled through the system. Generally, the oil sump is heated in order to ensure proper lubrication and to
minimize condensation. The oil free refrigerant discharges through the top of the oil separator and passes to the
condenser. A chillers oil separator is generally capable of separating more than 99% of the systems oil from the
refrigerant vapor.
While oil separators are very efficient, they are not 100% efficient. Thus, the refrigeration system must be designed to
adequately move the oil throughout the entire system. This includes the condenser, evaporator and refrigerant
connections.
Condensers
After the refrigerant vapor discharges the oil separator, it is directed to the condenser. Both helical rotary and
centrifugal water cooled chillers generally utilize a shell and tube condenser. In a shell and tube condenser, water is
allowed to run through the interior of the tubes that form the heat exchanger while refrigerant vapor fills the shell
space surrounding the tubes (figure 14). By allowing the condenser water to run through the tubes, maintenance
personnel can clean the tubes in the event of scale formation. Alternately, if the refrigerant was to run through the
tubes, the heat exchanger would not be cleanable.
As heat is absorbed by the cooler condenser water, the refrigerant vapor condenses on the tube surfaces. The
condensed refrigerant liquid then falls to the bottom on the shell. At the bottom on the shell, additional tubes called
the subcooler further cool the liquid refrigerant. The subcooler prevents liquid refrigerant from flashing before it enters
the expansion device. As the refrigerant vapor condenses, the condenser water temperature will be increased and
returned to the heat rejection device.
Evaporative condensers provide many of the energy advantages of water cooled systems while simplifying the design
of the system. An evaporative condensers efficiency is a function of the ambient wet bulb temperature. Thus, in drier
climates, machines with evaporative condensers can provide tremendous energy efficiency gains (figure 16). In
addition, due to the reduced condenser pressures experienced with evaporative condensing machines, centrifugal
compressors (including magnetic levitation) can be utilized.
An evaporative condenser functions by evaporating water as it is transferred across a warm heat exchanger
(condenser). As discussed in previous clinics, the heat of vaporization is much higher than typical sensible only
cooling. Hence, an evaporative condensed heat exchanger can function much more efficiently that a comparable dry
heat exchanger. However, one of the inherent disadvantages to any evaporative process is the deposition of solids
that occurs as water evaporates. Some manufacturers utilize a dry sensible pre-cooler to pre-cool the hot discharge
refrigerant before it enters the wet evaporative condensed heat exchanger (figure 17). The formation of solids is
decreased as the approach temperature between the two fluid streams is decreased. When utilized, a dry pre-cooled
can virtually eliminate most scale formation. Water treatment may still however be required, depending on the quality
of water being used in the evaporative condenser.
Evaporator
Saturated refrigerant exits the expansion device and enters the evaporator. The evaporator in a helical rotary chiller
may be either a direct expansion or flooded type evaporator. Centrifugal chillers, in contrast, generally utilize flooded
evaporators. In a direct expansion type evaporators, the refrigerant flows through the tubes while the water flows over
the outside of the tubes. Conversely, in a flooded type evaporator, the water flows through the tubes and the
refrigerant is distributed in a uniform manner over the outside of the tubes (figure 19).
Most contemporary water and air cooled helical rotary compressors utilize flooded type evaporators. Flooded
evaporators offer the advantage of being both cleanable and offering a smaller capacity and efficiency degradation
when operating with glycol. Air cooled chillers utilizing flooded evaporators becomes especially important when in
colder climates. In colder climates, glycol is often an operating requirement in order to prevent freezing of
components and ultimately damage to the system. Air cooled machines employing direct expansion type evaporators
will experience a significant capacity and energy efficiency reduction when running glycol.
A variation of the flooded evaporator is the falling film type evaporator (figure 20). In a typical flooded evaporator, the
refrigerant enters at the bottom shell (figure 19). In contrast, in a falling film flooded evaporator, the refrigerant is
sprayed over the top of the tube bundle rather than entering through the bottom of the heat exchanger. The
evaporator contains two tube bundles. The first, the falling film tube bundle, contains the first tubes that make contact
with the refrigerant which is distributed by means of the spray header. After the refrigerant passes over the falling film
tube bundle, any remaining liquid refrigerant settles to the bottom of the heat exchanger and transfers heat to the
flooded tube bundle. Refrigerant vapor passes through the suction slot and finally passes through the suction flange
and on to the compressor.
A falling film evaporator, compared to a traditional flooded evaporator, generally reduce the total refrigerant charge by
as much as 40%. In addition, the improved heat exchanger characteristics of a falling film evaporator will generally
improve the efficiency characteristics of the chiller.
If air cooled machines with direct expansion type evaporators are used, the designer should consider locating the
evaporator inside the conditioned building so as to avoid the use of glycol. This option, known as a remote
evaporator, is available with several manufacturers of air cooled helical rotary chillers (figure 21). While this type of
Starters
Chillers cause large electrical loads with a large instantaneous inrush current. Because of this instantaneous
electrical load, helical rotary and centrifugal chillers cannot be started and stopped using a contact closure. A starters
primary function is to connect and disconnect the chiller from the incoming line. Three types of starters are common
with helical rotary and centrifugal chillers. These are:
In a typical across the line starter, the jobsite full load amps (FLA) are the same as the motor full load amps (figure
23).
The amp draw during startup, for the first few fractions of a second, is very large. This is due to the energy required to
overcome static friction at startup. This large amp draw condition is referred to as locked rotor amps (figure 24).
A wye-delta starter is type of reduced voltage starter that makes use of the characteristics of wye and delta
connections to reduce voltage without lowering current (figure 25). A wye-delta starter reduces inrush current by 66%
compared to an across the line starter. Star-Delta starters require a special six lead motor which allows connection of
the three phase windings in a Star connection or Delta connection.
Star-Delta starting creates stresses for the starter's switchgear, building electrical system, power grid, and chiller
mechanical driveline. Although these stresses are 1/3 of the stresses generated by an ACL starter, they cause wear
on the system. Star-Delta starters require periodic maintenance and are only available for low voltage motors.
Solid state starters utilize silicone controlled rectifiers (SCRs) to control current levels at startup. This method is more
expensive than across the line or wye-delta starters, but offers variable voltage and torque. Solid state starters
reduce motor stress by softly ramping inrush current. The solid state starter provides a soft continuous current to the
chiller motor during motor starting, limiting the inrush of current to a programmed starting value, by reducing the
voltage to the motor during startup. This reduced voltage is accomplished when the silicone controlled rectifiers
(SCRs) are turned on in a phased back mode during motor acceleration. As the motor accelerates and the inrush of
current begins to drop, the SCR devices are fired with less delay time so that more of the AC main voltage is
conducted. Once the motor is up to speed there is no longer any delay applied to the firing signals. The SCR devices
are turned on full voltage is applied the motor.
Finally, variable frequency drives are becoming relatively prevalent in the design of helical rotary drives. Variable
frequency drives modulate the incoming frequency in order to softly start the machine. Power is directly related to
frequency in a linear fashion. For example, if we cut the frequency in half, the power delivered to the motor is cut in
half. Thus, by modulating the frequency, a variable frequency drive can vary the power and torque delivered to a
motor (figure 27).
Control Panel
The last component common to all helical rotary and centrifugal chillers is the unit control panel. The control panel is
the brain that operates the chiller. The control panel governs the operation of the compressor in coordination with the
expansion device and condenser fans (if air cooled) in order to maintain the leaving chilled water temperature. In
addition, the control panel monitors the chillers operation and prevents it from operating outside of its limits. Finally,
the chiller control panel should provide a simple means by which building operators can diagnose and troubleshoot
the machine. Most modern chillers utilize a large easily read display, some of which utilize touchscreen technology, to
present the information to the building operator (figure 28).
Refrigeration Cycle
A typical vapor compression refrigeration cycle as it applies to a typical helical rotary or centrifugal chiller is
demonstrated in figure 30. First, cool, low pressure saturated liquid (A) plus vapor enters the evaporator. The
evaporator absorbs heat from the warmer the conditioned fluid, superheating the refrigerant. The superheated
refrigerant vapor is then drawn in to the suction side of the helical rotary compressor (B). The compressor draws in
the superheated refrigerant vapor (B) and compresses it to a higher pressure and temperature (C) such that it can
reject heat to another fluid. This hot, high-pressure refrigerant vapor then travels to the condenser. As the refrigerant
passes through the condenser, heat is transferred from the hot refrigerant vapor to relatively cool heat rejection fluid
(water if water cooled or air if air cooled). This reduction in the heat content of the refrigerant vapor causes it to
desuperheat, condense into a liquid, and finally subcool before leaving the condenser (D) for the expansion device.
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Finally, the high-pressure liquid refrigerant (D) flows through the expansion device. The flow through the expansion
devices causes a large pressure drop that reduces the pressure of the refrigerant to that of the evaporator. This
pressure reduction causes a small portion of the liquid to boil off, or flash, cooling the remaining refrigerant to the
desired evaporator temperature. The cooled mixture of liquid and vapor refrigerant then enters the evaporator (A) ad
repeats the cycle (figure 30).
The vapor compression refrigeration cycle described in figure X is common to a large percentage of helical rotary
chiller designs. However, adaptations to the cycle have been incorporated by some manufacturers in order to
improve the efficiency of the cycle.
A shortcoming to the vapor compression refrigeration cycle described in the pressure enthalpy chart of figure 30 is
that some refrigeration effect is lost due to flashing of liquid refrigerant within the saturation dome. This flashing
occurs due to the nature and slope of the saturated liquid line curve. Any degree of subcooling prior to the expansion
device will cause an excess of saturated vapor prior to the evaporator. This shortcoming can be alleviated by
installing a refrigeration economizer cycle (figure 31).
Before refrigerant enters the expansion device, any refrigerant vapor is allowed to separate from liquid refrigerant in
an economizer flash tank. As the chiller loads, the economizer feed valve opens, allowing the medium pressure vapor
part way through the compressor rotors.
Viewed on a pressure-enthalpy chart, subcooled liquid refrigerant exits the condenser (1). The subcooled liquid
refrigerant experiences a pressure drop as it passes through the refrigerant piping and feed valve, causing some
refrigerant to flash into vapor (point 1 to 2). Medium pressure vapor is fed to the compressor rotors (point 2 to 6) while
liquid refrigerant is allowed fall to the bottom of the economizer flash tank (point 2 to 3). The liquid refrigerant passes
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through the expansion device before entering the evaporator (point 3 to 4). The difference in refrigeration effect, due
to the implementation of the economizer cycle, is shown by R. This added refrigeration effect increases the capacity
and efficiency of the helical rotary chiller.
Similarly, an economizer cycle if often utilized with Centrifugal chiller applications. In order to utilize an economizer
cycle within a centrifugal chiller, the chiller must either implement multiple impellers or multiple compressors. Much
like a helical rotary machine, a centrifugal chiller economizer cycle will flash some degree of refrigerant vapor during
the expansion process (point 1-2). This flashed refrigerant vapor is then fed to the compression cycle (figure 33).
This lower energy vapor is fed at some intermediary point in the compression cycle, lowering the heat of compression
during the compression cycle (point 6-7).
This lowered heat of compression further increases the efficiency of the refrigerant cycle.
It is at this point that economizer designs may vary slightly among the manufactures which employ centrifugal chillers
with economizer cycles. Much like a helical rotary chiller, the vapor which is flashed during the expansion process
In either scenario, both the refrigeration effect is increased and the heat of compression is effectively decreased. This
has the effect of both increasing the capacity and efficiency of the chiller. Thus, if multiple stages of compression are
available, an economizer cycle is an effective means of increasing chiller capacity and efficiency.
A more efficient method of controlling helical rotary compressors is to utilize a variable frequency drive to modulate
compressor speed. A variable frequency drive, while more expensive than a slide valve, greatly increases
compressor part load efficiency. In addition, as discussed earlier, the variable frequency drive can double as a soft
starter for the compressor. Helical rotary machines, which utilize variable frequency drives, do not require a slide
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valve. Eliminating the slide valve removes its associated inefficiencies and further decreases the number of moving
parts by 50%.
Application Considerations
Single Versus Multiple Circuits
Both helical rotary and centrifugal water chillers are available as single circuit machines or multiple circuit machines.
Often, designers are lured by the appeal offered by multiple circuited machines. Multiple circuits offer redundancy.
Each circuit contains its own compressor, expansion device and dedicated portions of the evaporator and condenser
(figure 36).
However, multiple circuited machines do not offer 100% redundancy. Multiple circuited machines share a single
control system. Should the controls fail, the entire machine will fail. In addition, multiple circuited machines, which
contain twice the number of moving parts, present double the potential for equipment failure. Equipment failure is
directly related to the number of moving parts in a system. If we double the number of moving parts, we double the
potential for failure. Finally, multiple circuited machines offer reduced part load efficiency. Consider a machine that
operates with a single circuit compared to a machine that operates with dual circuits of the same capacity. A single
circuited machine operating at 50% load utilizes 100% of its heat exchange surface area in the evaporator and
condenser. A dual circuited machine, with one circuit off, operates at 50% load with 50% of its heat exchange surface
area available for heat transfer. This decrease in heat transfer at lower loads equates to a significant drop in part load
efficiency. If a designer requires redundancy, it is often better to design a plant with multiple chillers in lieu of a single
chiller plant with multiple circuits. However, in applications where multiple machines exceed the design budget,
multiple circuited machines may be a viable option.
A variable primary chilled water system design often allows the designer to reduce the number of pumps required to
operate the system (figure 38). Rather than utilizing dedicated primary and secondary pumps, a variable primary
pumping system eliminates the need for secondary pumps.
In a variable primary system, the primary pumps are supplied with variable frequency drives. The secondary pumps
are eliminated. As the system flow modulates with demand, the primary pumps modulate in order to satisfy the
system demand. The flow through the chiller is allowed to modulate. As the system modulates below the minimum
setpoint for the given chiller (generally around 30-40% of design flow), a two way valve located in a bypass pipe
allows flow to bypass the system and satisfy the minimum flow required by the chillers.
While variable primary pumping systems offer both energy savings and an opportunity for a simplified Hydronic
design, several considerations must be taken into account when controlling the system. Those considerations are:
For water cooled systems with a cooling tower, three methods of condenser capacity control are recommended. The
first method is to use a throttling valve at the condenser outlet. The throttling valve reduces the condenser water flow
through the condenser (figure 39). The throttling method has the advantage of being simple and relatively
inexpensive. In addition, the throttling method will save some pump energy. The system can be designed to either
run on the pump curve or the pump can be controlled by a variable frequency drive. However, the throttling method
has the potential to run into pump surge and may run below the tower minimum flow rate at low flows.
The second method of capacity control for water cooled systems is cooling tower bypass. Tower bypass mixes warm
leaving condenser water with cool entering condenser water. Flow to the condenser is constant while flow to the
cooling tower is variable (figure 40). The advantage to this system is that the flow through the condenser is constant.
The disadvantage is that this system does not allow the system to start under low load conditions (such as coming out
of plate and frame free cooling) and you may still run below the tower minimum flow.
In cold climates, either condenser throttling or condenser bypass are preferred. Both of these systems allow the
chiller to start under low load, low ambient conditions or in the event of a system coming out of free cooling. Being
that the condenser water flow is decreased with both methods; provisions need to be made to bypass the flow switch
at low flow conditions. Often, a simple time delay switch may be used to prevent the chiller from disabling while
attempting to start under cold condenser water conditions (i.e. coming out of plate & frame cooling).
The chiller is controlled based on leaving chillled water temperature. The heat capacity generated from the auxiliary
heat exchanger is not controlled. The heat generated to the auxiliary condenser is directly related to the chilled water
capacity generated by the chiller. Auxilary heat recovery chillers are able to produce hot water in the rage of 95oF to
115oF.
A heat pump chiller, like an auxilary heat recovery chiller, is capable of generating hot water. Unlike an auxilary heat
recovery chiller, a heat pump chiller does not utilize a separate secondary heat exchagner in order to generate heat.
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A heat pump chiller is optimized to generate high levels of compressor lift, utilzing its condenser bundle to produce
heat. Heat pump chillers utilize 100% of the heat energy that would otherwise be rejected at the cooling tower,
utilzing that heat to meet the building heating demand (figure 43). Heat pumnp chillers are able to produce hot water
in the rage of 120oF to 170oF. However, the total lift generate by the compressor is generally limited to 65 oF to 100oF.
Thus, at higher hot water temperatures, the chilled water temperature produced by the chiller is limited.
Heat pump chillers are controlled to maintain the hot water load. The chilled water capacity is not controlled. Being
that the cooling load is the dependent variable, the chilled water capacity is directly related to the heating capacity
required. Thus, a heat pump chiller is commonly one of multiple chillers in the plant. The heat pump chiller is base
loaded. Any additional chilled water demand would be satisified by one or multiple dedicated cooling only chilers. If
the heat pump chiller cannot maintain the heating load, a supplemental boiller may be installed to meet any additional
heating demand.
In order to determine the overall efficiency benefit of a heat pump chiller compared to a conventional chiller plus boiler
plant, figure 44 depicts the efficiencies that could realistically be expected operating a heat pump chiller.
the heat pump system uses 5 times less energy than the chiller plus boiler system (6.7 COP / 1.48 COP). Upon
further anlysis of the two systems, it becomes readily apparent why heat pump systems can offer designers an
opportunity to attain tremendous energy savings.
In order to realize the energy savings potential afforded by a heat pump chiller, the system must have simultaneous
heating and cooling loads. For example, larger buildings with a higher percentage of interior zones would generally
create simultaneous loads. The ASHRAE 2008 Handbook reads:
Another common example of such a system would be a variable air volume operating during the warmer spring,
summer and fall months. VAV systems are typically designed with some type of reheat at the air terminal units.
These reheat terminal require some form of heat energy, even during the warmest months of the year.
The ratio of heat energy to cooling energy produced by a heat pump chiller is typically very close to 1.35 to 1. The
difference in heating energy to cooling energy is a product of the heat produced by the refrigeration cycle (heat of
compression). However, rarley will the building load profile follow the ratio of heating to cooling energy produced by
the chiller. Thus, heat pump chillers are generally run in conjunction with supplemental boilers and chillers.