Material Engineering

Contents
1. Polymers:............................................................................................................1
1.1 Introduction to polymers:..................................................................................2
1.2. Polymer Types:.................................................................................................4
1.3 Polymers processing:.......................................................................................5
1.4 Applications of Polymers:................................................................................11
1.5 Polymer industries in Pakistan:.......................................................................12
2. Plastics:.............................................................................................................13
2.1 Introduction:....................................................................................................13
2.2 Classification:..................................................................................................13
2.3 Examples:........................................................................................................14
3. Elastomers:.......................................................................................................15
3.1 Examples:........................................................................................................17
4. Advanced polymeric materials:.........................................................................18
4.1Examples:.........................................................................................................18
5. References:.......................................................................................................20
5.1 Websites:.........................................................................................................20
5.2 Books:.............................................................................................................20
5.2 Books:

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1. Polymers:

1.1 Introduction to polymers:

Polymers are a large class of materials consisting of many small molecules
(called monomers) that can be linked together to form long chains, thus they
are known as macroolecules. A typical polymer may include tens of
thousands of monomers. Because of their large size, polymers are classified
as macromolecules.
Humans have taken advantage of the versatility of natural polymers-those
derived from plants & animals for centuries in the form of wood, cotton,
wool, oils, tars and gums. However, it was not until the industrial revolution
that the modern polymer industry began to develop. In the late 1830s,
Charles Goodyear succeeded in producing a useful form of natural rubber
through a process known as "vulcanization." Some 40 years later, Celluloid
(a hard plastic formed from nitrocellulose) was successfully commercialized.
Despite these advances, progress in polymer science was slow until the
1930s, when materials such as vinyl, neoprene, polystyrene, and nylon were
developed. The introduction of these revolutionary materials began an
explosion in polymer research that is still going on today.

1.1.1 Polymer molecules:

The molecules in polymers are gigantic in comparison to the hydrocarbon
molecules; because3 of their size they are often referred as macromolecules.
Within each molecule the atoms are bound together by covalent interatomic
bonds. These long molecules are composed of structural entities called
repeat units, which are successively repeated along the chain. The term
monomer refers to small molecule from which a polymer is synthesized e.g
polyethylene has the monomer ethylene. Poly butylene has the monomer
butylenes.

1.1.2 Molecular structure:

Although the fundamental property of bulk polymers is the degree of
polymerization, the physical structure of the chain is also an important factor
that determines the macroscopic properties.

The terms configuration and conformation are used to describe the

geometric structure of a polymer and are often confused. Configuration
refers to the order that is determined by chemical bonds. The configuration
of a polymer cannot be altered unless chemical bonds are broken and
reformed. Conformation refers to order that arises from the rotation of
molecules about the single bonds.

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1.1.2.1 Configuration:
The two types of polymer configurations are
can not be changed by physical means (e.g.
arises when substituent groups are on the
double bond. Trans refers to the substituents
bond.
cis and trans. These structures
rotation). The cis configuration
same side of a carbon-carbon
on opposite sides of the double

1.1.2.2 Conformation:
If two atoms are joined by a single bond then rotation about that bond is
possible since, unlike a double bond, it does not require breaking the bond.

The ability of an atom to rotate this way relative to the atoms which it joins is
known as an adjustment of the torsional angle. If the two atoms have other
atoms or groups attached to them then configurations which vary in torsional
angle are known as conformations.

1.1.2.3 Other Chain Structures

The geometric arrangement of the bonds is not the only way the structure of
a polymer can vary. Linear polymers are those in which the repeat units are
joined together end to end in single chains

A branched polymer is formed when there are "side chains" attached to a

main chain. A simple example of a branched polymer is shown in the
following diagram.

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The third type is crosslinked polymer. In cross linked polymers, adjacent

linear chains are joined to another at various positions by covalent bonds.

1..1.3 Thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers:

With regard to behavior at elevated temperatures, polymers are classified as

either thermoplastic or thermosetting. The former have linear and branched
structures; they soften when heated and harden when cooled. In contrast,
thermosets, once having hardened, will not soften upon heating; their
structures are crosslinked and network.

1.2. Polymer Types:

There are many different polymeric materials that are familiar to us and find
a variety of applications. Within this scheme the various polymer types
include plastics, elastomers, fibers, coatings, adhesives, foams and films.

1.2.1 Elastomers:

Elastomers or rubbery materials, have a loose cross-linked structure. This

type of chain structure causes elastomers to possess memory. Typically,
about 1 in 100 molecules are cross-linked on average. When the average
number of cross-links rises to about 1 in 30 the material becomes more rigid
and brittle. Natural and synthetic rubbers are both common examples of
elastomers.

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1.2.2 Plastics:

Plastics are polymers which, under appropriate conditions of temperature

and pressure, can be molded or shaped (such as blowing to form a film). In
contrast to elastomers, plastics have a greater stiffness and lack reversible
elasticity. Cellulose is an example of a polymeric material which must be
substantially modified before processing with the usual methods used for
plastics. Some plastics, such as nylon and cellulose acetate, are formed into
fibers (which are regarded by some as a separate class of polymers in spite
of a considerable overlap with plastics).

1.2.3 Fibres:

Fibres are capable of being drawn into long filaments having atleast a 100:1
length to diameter ratio. Most commercial fibers are utilized in the textile
industry, being woven or knit into cloth or fabric.

1.2.4 Coatings:

Coatings are frequently applied to the surface of material to protect the

material from environment, provide electrical insulation and to improve
items appearance. Many of the ingredients in coating materials are
polymers, the majority of which are organic in nature. Theses orgaic coatings
fall into several classifications, as follows: paint, varnish, enamel, lacquer,
and shellac.

1.2.5 Films:

Films are polymeric materials having thickness between 0.025 and 0.125nm.
these are extensively used as bags for packaging food products and other
merchandise.

1.3 Polymers processing:

Once a polymer with the right properties is produced, it must be manipulated
into some useful shape or object. Various methods are used in industry to do
this. Injection molding and extrusion are widely used to process plastics
while spinning is the process used to produce fibers.

1.3.1 Injection Molding:

One of the most widely used forms of plastic processing is injection molding.
Basically, a plastic is heated above its glass transition temperature (enough
so that it will flow) and then is forced under high pressure to fill the contents
of a mold. The molten plastic in usually "squeezed" into the mold by a ram or
a reciprocating screw. The plastic is allowed to cool and is then removed

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from the mold in its final form. The advantage of injection molding is speed;
this process can be performed many times each second.

Flow diagram

Process

1.3.2 Extrusion:
Extrusion is similar to injection molding except that the plastic is forced
through a die rather than into a mold. However, the disadvantage of
extrusion is that the objects made must have the same cross-sectional
shape. Plastic tubing and hose is produced in this manner.

Flow Diagram

Process

1.3.3 Spinning
The process of producing fibers is called spinning. There are three main
types of spinning: melt, dry, and wet. Melt spinning is used for polymers that
can be melted easily. Dry spinning involves dissolving the polymer into a
solution that can be evaporated. Wet spinning is used when the solvent
cannot be evaporated and must be removed by chemical means. All types of
spinning use the same principle, so it is convenient to just describe just one.

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In Melt spinning,the polymer is melted and pumped through a spinneret (die)

with numerous holes (one to thousands). The molten fibers are cooled,
solidified, and collected on a take-up wheel. Stretching of the fibers in both
the molten and solid states provides for orientation of the polymer chains
along the fiber axis. Polymers such as poly(ethylene terephthalate) and
nylon 6,6 are melt spun in high volumes.

Flow diagram of melt spinning

Process

1.3.4 Filament winding:

Filament winding is used for the manufacture of parts with high fiber volume
fractions and controlled fiber orientation. Fiber tows are immersed in a resin
bath where they are coated with low or medium molecular weight reactants.
The impregnated tows are then literally wound around a mandrel (mold core)
in a controlled pattern to form the shape of the part. After winding, the resin
is then cured, typically using heat. The mold core may be removed or may
be left as an integral component of the part.

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Flow diagram

1.3.5 Blown film extrusion:

The majority of polymer films are manufactured by film blowing (blown film
extrusion). A single screw extruder is used to melt the polymer and pump it
into a tubular die, as shown in cross-section at right. Air is blown into the
center of the extruded tube and causes it to expand in the radial direction.
Extension of the melt in both the radial and down-stream direction stops at
the freeze line (frost line) due to crystallization of the melt. The nip rolls
collect the film, as well as sealing the top of the bubble to maintain the air
pressure inside. This process is used extensively with polyethylene and
polypropylene.

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1.3.6 Spin coating:

Spin coating is the preferred method for application of thin, uniform films to
flat substrates. An excess amount of polymer solution is placed on the
substrate. The substrate is then rotated at high speed in order to spread the
fluid by centrifugal force. Rotation is continued for some time, with fluid
being spun off the edges of the substrate, until the desired film thickness is
achieved. The solvent is usually volatile, providing for its simultaneous
evaporation.

Flow diagram

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Process

1.4 Applications of Polymers:

Macromolecular science has had a major impact on the way we live. It is
difficult to find an aspect of our lives that is not affected by polymers. Just 50
years ago, materials we now take for granted were non-existent. With further
advances in the understanding of polymers, and with new applications being
researched, there is no reason to believe that the revolution will stop any
time soon.
Below are some common applications of the polymer classes introduced
above.

1.4.1 Elastomers
Rubber is the most important of all elastomers. Natural rubber is a polymer
whose repeating unit is isoprene. It is still utilized to a large degree because
it has an outstanding combination of desirable properties. However, the most
important synthetic elastomers is SBR, which is predominantly used in
automobile tyres, reinforced with carbon black

1.4.2 Plastics
Among the most important and versatile of the hundreds of commercial
plastics is polyethylene. Polyethylene is used in a wide variety of applications
because, based on its structure, it can be produced in many different forms.
The first type to be commercially exploited was called low density
polyethylene (LDPE) or branched polyethylene. LDPE is soft and pliable and
has applications ranging from plastic bags, containers, textiles, and electrical
insulation, to coatings for packaging materials.
Another form of polyethylene differing from LDPE only in structure is high
density polyethylene (HDPE) or linear polyethylene.. Major uses of HDPE are
plastic tubing, bottles, and bottle caps.
Other forms of this material include high and ultra-high molecular weight
polyethylenes. HMW and UHMW, as they are known. These are used in

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applications where extremely tough and resilient materials are needed. PET
is also a common plasic.Primary applications of PET include blow-molded
beverage bottles; fibers for wash and wear, wrinkle-resistant fabrics; and
films that are used in food packaging, electrical applications (capacitors,
etc.), magnetic recording tape, and graphic arts

1.4.3 Fibers
Fibers represent a very important application of polymeric materials,
including many examples from the categories of plastics and elastomers.
Natural fibers such as cotton, wool, and silk have been used by humans for
many centuries. In 1885, artificial silk was patented and launched the
modern fiber industry. Man-made fibers include materials such as nylon,
polyester, rayon, and acrylic. The combination of strength, weight, and
durability have made these materials very important in modern industryThe
largest application of nylons is in fibers. Molded applications include
automotive components,
related machine parts (gears, cams, pulleys, rollers, boat propellers, etc.),
appliance parts,
and electrical insulation.
From textiles to bullet-proof vests, fibers have become very important in
modern life. As the technology of fiber processing expands, new generations
of strong and light weight materials will be produced.

1.5 Polymer industries in Pakistan:

Following are some of the polymer industries in Pakistan.
Citizen International Plastic Industries (Pvt) Ltd
Plastic packaging material manufacturers, Khi
Sheikh plastic industries , Lhr
Central surgical co, Sialkot
lucky plastic industries (pvt) ltd, Lhr
Vohra group of companies, Lhr
NI corporation, Lhr
Riffat associates, Khi
Greenland pipe co,
US trading co, Lhr
Umar farooq belting, Lhr
Sadiq & saddique enterprises, Rwp
NNS chemicals pvt. ltd. - (ncl)
trader, Lhr
Diwan plastics, Lhr

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Alpine trading
Karachi international petrochemicals pvt. lt.d.
Jr tyres & rubber co., Peshawar
Abeer impex , Peshawar
Iqbal mill store, Lhr
Silica rubber works, Lhr
Fargo beltings co, Lhr
Prime Pakistan, Lhr
International petrochemicals ltd., Lhr
Mian trade impex co ltd, Lhr
Dawn rubber store, Lhr
Chawla rubber & plastic industries (pvt) ltd., Kotlakhpat
Al badar international, Lhr
Wali laminates & plastics pvt ltd, Lhr
Madina international, Khi
A.kamruddin & co.,Khi
Intercom trade services pvt ltd
Iqra plastic, Khi
Amaan associates, Khi
Quality international, Fsb
Pak shuttle company (pvt) ltd. G.T road
Ess-zee industries., Sialkot
Al-waseem enterprises, Sialkot
Patara ,sialkot
Dilpasand hoisry, Fsb

2. Plastics:

2.1 Introduction:
The use of plastics has increased almost 20-fold in the last 30 years. Plastics
have come on the scene as the result of a continual search for man-made
substances that can perform better or can be produced at a lower cost than
natural materials such as wood, glass, and metal, which require mining,
refining, processing, milling, and machining. Plastics can also increase
productivity by producing finished parts and consolidating parts. Thus, an
item made from several metal parts that require separate fabrication and

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assembly can often be consolidated into one or two plastic parts. Such
increases in productivity have led to fantastic growth.

2.2 Classification:
Plastics can be classified in several ways. The two major classifications are
thermosetting materials and thermoplastic materials.
2.2.1 Thermosetting & thermoplastics:
As the name implies, thermosetting plastics or thermosets are set, cured, or
hardened into a permanent shape. The curing that usually occurs rapidly
under heat or UV light leads to an irreversible cross-linking of the polymer.
Thermoplastics differ from thermosetting materials in that they do not set or
cure under heat. When heated, thermoplastics merely soften to a mobile,
flowable state where they can be shaped into useful objects. Upon cooling,
the thermoplastics harden and hold their shape. Thermoplastics can be
repeatedly softened by heat and shaped. Thermoplastics can be classified as
amorphous or semicrystalline plastics.

2.3 Examples:
2.3.1 Polyethylene:
Polyethylenes (PEs) have the largest volume use of any plastic. They are
prepared by the catalytic polymerization of ethylene. Depending on the
mode of polymerization, one can obtain a high-density (HDPE) or a low-
density (LDPE) polyethylene polymer. LDPE is prepared under more vigorous
conditions, resulting in short-chain branching. Linear low-density
polyethylene (LLDPE) is prepared by introducing short-branching via
copolymerization with a small amount of long-chain olefin. Polyethylenes are
crystalline thermoplastics that exhibit toughness, near-zero moisture
absorption, excellent chemical resistance, excellent electrical insulating
properties, low coefficient of friction, and ease of processing. Their heat
deflection temperatures are reasonable but not high. The branching in LLDPE
and LDPE decreases the crystallinity. HDPE exhibits greater stiffness, rigidity,
improved heat resistance, and increased resistance to permeability than
LDPE and LLDPE.
Uses: HDPE's major use is in blow-molded bottles, drums, carboys
automotive gas tanks; injection- molded material-handling pallets, trash and
garbage containers, and household and automotive parts; and extruded
pipe.
LDPE/LLDPEs find major applications in film form for food packaging, as a
vapor barrier film, plastic bags; for extruded wire and cable insulation; and
for bottles, closures and toys.

2.3.2 Polypropylene:

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Polypropylene (PP) is prepared by the catalyzed polymerization of propylene.

PP is a highly crystalline thermoplastic that exhibits low density, rigidity,
excellent chemical resistance, negligible water absorption, and excellent
electrical properties.
Uses. End uses for PP are in blow-molding bottles and automotive parts;
injection-molding closures, appliances, housewares, automotive parts, and
toys. PP can be extruded into fibers and filaments for use in carpets, rugs,
and cordage.

2.3.3 Polystyrene:
Catalytic polymerization of styrene yields polystyrene (PS), a clear,
amorphous polymer with a moderately high heat deflection temperature. PS
has excellent electrical insulating properties, but, it is brittle under impact
and exhibits very poor resistance to surfactants and solvents.
Uses. Ease of processing, rigidity, clarity, and low cost combine to support
applications in toys, displays, and housewares. PS foams can readily be
prepared and are characterized by excellent low thermal conductivity, high
strength-to-weight ratio, low water absorption, and excellent energy
absorption. These attributes have made PS foam of special interest as
insulation boards for construction, protective packaging materials, insulated
drinking cups, and flotation devices.

2.3.4 SAN (Styrene/Acrylonitrile Copolymer):

Copolymerization of styrene with a moderate amount of acrylonitrile
provides a clear, amorphous polymer (SAN) with increased heat deflection
temperature and chemical resistance compared to polystyrene. However,
impact resistance is still poor.
Uses. SAN is utilized in typical PS-type applications where a slight increase
in heat deflection temperature and/or chemical resistance is needed, such as
housewares and appliances.

2.3.5 Polymethyl Methacrylate:

The catalytic polymerization of methylmethacrylate yields poly(methyl
methacrylate) (PMMA), a strong, rigid, clear, amorphous polymer. PMMA has
excellent resistance to weathering, low water absorption, and good electrical
resistivity. PMMA properties appear in Table 8.5.
Uses. PMMA is used for glazing, lighting difrusers, skylights, outdoor signs,
and automobile
taillights.

2.3.6 Polyethylene Terephthalate(PET):

Poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) is prepared from the condensation
polymerization of dimethyl terephthalate and ethylene glycol. PET is a

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crystalline polymer that exhibits high modulus, high strength, high melting
point, good electrical properties, and moisture and solvent resistance. PET
crystallizes slowly, hence blow-molded and extruded objects are clear.
Injection-molding grades are nucleated to facilitate crystallization and
shorten the molding cycle. Nucleated PET resins are opaque.
Uses. Primary applications of PET include blow-molded beverage bottles;
fibers for wash and wear, wrinkle-resistant fabrics; and films that are used in
food packaging, electrical applications (capacitors, etc.), magnetic recording
tape, and graphic arts.

3. Elastomers:
Elastomers are polymers that can be stretched substantially beyond their
original length and will retract rapidly and forcibly to essentially their original
dimensions upon release of the force.

3.1 General purpose Elastomers:

The optimum properties and/or economics of many rubbers are obtained
through formulating
with reinforcing agents, fillers, extending oils, vulcanizing agents,
antioxidants, pigments, and so on. End-use markets for formulated rubbers
include automotive tire products (including tubes, retread applications, valve
stems, and inner liners), adhesives, cements, caulks, sealants, latex foam
products, hose (automotive, industrial, and consumer applications), belting
(V-conveyor and trimming), footwear (heels, soles, slab stock, boots, and
canvas), and molded, extruded, and calendered products (athletic goods,
flooring, gaskets, household products, O-rings, blown sponge, thread, and
rubber sundries). A list of general-purpose elastomers and properties is

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summarized in Table :

3.2 Specialty elastomers:

Specialty rubbers offer higher performance than general-purpose rubbers
and find use in more demanding
applications. They are more costly and hence are produced in smaller
volumes. Properties
and uses are summarized in Table

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3.3 Examples:
3.3.1 Rubber:

Natural rubber is an elastomer (an elastic hydrocarbon polymer) that was

originally derived from a milky colloidal suspension, or latex, found in the sap
of some plants. The purified form of natural rubber is the chemical
polyisoprene, which can also be produced synthetically. Natural rubber is
used extensively in many applications and products, as is synthetic rubber.

Uses: Significant uses of rubber are door and window profiles, hoses, belts,
matting, flooring and dampeners (anti-vibration mounts) for the automotive
industry in what is known as the "under the bonnet" products. Gloves
(medical, household and industrial) and toy balloons are also large
consumers of rubber,
Additionally, rubber produced as a fiber sometimes called elastic, has
significant value for use in the textile industry because of its excellent
elongation and recovery properties.

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3.3.2 Polybutadiene:
Polybutadiene is a synthetic rubber that is a polymer formed from the
polymerization of the monomer 1,3-butadiene. It has a high resistance to
wear and is used especially in the manufacture of tires. It has also been used
to coat or encapsulate electronic assemblies, offering extremely high
electrical resistivity. It exhibits a recovery of 80% after stress is applied, a
value only exceeded by elastin and resilin.
Uses: Polybutadiene is largely used in various parts of automobile tires. Its
use in the tread portion of giant truck tires helps to improve the abrasion, i.e.
less wearing, and to run the tire comparatively cool, since the internal heat
comes out quickly. In the sidewall of truck tires, the use of polybutadiene
rubber helps to improve fatigue to failure life due to the continuous flexing
during run. As a result, tires will not blow out in extreme service conditions.
Polybutadiene rubber may be used in the inner tube of hoses for
sandblasting, along with natural rubber. The main idea is to increase
resilience. This rubber can also be used in the cover of hoses, mainly
pneumatic and water hoses, railway pads, bridge blocks, golf balls, etc. In
car tires, polybutadiene rubber can be used with SBR in the tread portion.
Polybutadiene rubber can be blended with nitrile rubber for easy processing.
However large use may affect oil resistance of nitrile rubber .Polybutadiene
Rubber is blended with Polystyrene to prepare High Impact Polystyrene
(HIPS).

4. Advanced polymeric materials:

A number of new polymers having unique and desirable combinations of
propertieshave been developed over past several years. Some of these
include Ultra high molecular weight polyethylene, liquid crystal polymers and
thermoplastic elastomers.

4.1Examples:
4.1.1 Ultra high molecular weight polyethylene:
Ultra high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE or sometimes shortened
to UHMW), also known as high-modulus polyethylene (HMPE) or high-
performance polyethylene (HPPE), is a subset of the thermoplastic
polyethylene. It has extremely long chains, with molecular weight numbering
in the millions, usually between 2 and 6 million. The longer chain serves to
transfer load more effectively to the polymer backbone by strengthening
intermolecular interactions. This results in a very tough material, with the
highest impact strength of any thermoplastic presently made.] It is highly
resistant to corrosive chemicals, with exception of oxidizing acids. It has
extremely low moisture absorption, has a very low coefficient of friction, is
self-lubricating, and is highly resistant to abrasion (15 times more resistant

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to abrasion than carbon steel). Its coefficient of friction is significantly lower

than that of nylon and acetal, and is comparable to that of Teflon, but
UHMWPE has better abrasion resistance than Teflon. It is odorless, tasteless,
and nontoxic.

Uses: Ballistic vests are made of UHMWPE. UHMWPE fibers are used in
armor, particularly personal armor and occasionally as vehicle armor, cut
resistant gloves, bow strings, climbing equipment, fishing line, spear lines for
spearguns, high-performance sails, suspension lines on sport parachutes and
paragliders, rigging in yachting, kites, and kites lines for kites sports. Spectra
is also used as a high-end Wakeboard line.
Owing to its low density, ships' hawsers and cables can be made from the
fibre, and float on sea water. It is used in skis and snowboards, often in
combination with carbon fiber, reinforcing the fiberglass composite material,
adding stiffness and improving its flex characteristics. The UHMWPE is often
used as the base layer, which contacts the snow, and includes abrasives to
absorb and retain wax. High-performance ropes for sailing and parasailing
are made of UHMWPE, due to their low stretch and high strength. Medical
applications in total joint replacement
UHMWPE has over 40 years of clinical history as a successful biomaterial for
use in hip, knee, and most recently (since the 1980s), for spine implants
Downhill and trick slide skateboarders use UHMWPE for the plastic pucks
used on sliding gloves.
4.1.2 Liquid-crystal polymers:

Liquid-crystal polymers (LCPs) liquid-crystal polymers (LCPs) are a class of

aromatic polyester polymers. They are extremely unreactive and inert, and
highly resistant to fire.

Uses: Because of their various properties, LCPs are useful for electrical and
mechanical parts, food containers, and any other applications requiring
chemical inertness and high strength. LCP is particularly attractive for
microwave frequency electronics due to low relative dielectric constants, low
dissipation factors, and commerical availability of laminates.
4.1.3 Thermoplastic elastomers:
Thermoplastic elastomers (TPE), sometimes referred to as
thermoplastic rubbers, are a class of copolymers or a physical mix of
polymers (usually a plastic and a rubber) which consist of materials with both
thermoplastic and elastomeric properties. While most elastomers are
thermosets, thermoplastics are in contrast relatively easy to use in
manufacturing, for example, by injection molding. Thermoplastic elastomers
show both advantages typical of rubbery materials and plastic materials. The
principal difference between thermoset elastomers and thermoplastic
elastomers is the type of crosslinking bond in their structures. In fact,

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crosslinking is a critical structural factor which contributes to impart high

elastic properties. The crosslink in thermoset polymers is a covalent bond
created during the vulcanization process. On the other hand the crosslink in
thermoplastic elastomer polymers is a weaker dipole or hydrogen bond or
takes place in one of the phases of the material.
Uses: TPE's are used where conventional elastomers cannot provide the
range of physical properties needed in the product. These materials find
large application in the automotive sector and in household appliances
sector, some general examples of object made of TPE are shown in this
demo. Thus copolyester TPE's are used in snowmobile tracks where stiffness
and abrasion resistance is at a premium. They are also widely used for
catheters where nylon block copolymers offer a range of softness ideal for
patients. Styrene block copolymers are used in shoe soles for their ease of
processing, and widely as adhesives. TPE is commonly used to make
suspension bushings for automotive performance applications because of its
greater resistance to deformation when compared to regular rubber
bushings. TPE is also finding more and more uses as an electrical cable
jacket/inner insulation, mostly in Portable Cord. Coleman Cable, Inc markets
a product trademarked as Seoprene. Carol Cable and AIWC offer similar TPE
insulated cables. TPE offers a flexibility and laying that traditional (American)
type "S" portable cables don't offer.

5. References:

5.1 Websites:
http://www.list-of-companies.org/Pakistan/Rubber_Plastics/10.html
http://www.polymerprocessing.com/operations/index.html
http://www.en.wikipedia.org
http://www.sdplastics.com/plastics.html
http://plc.cwru.edu/tutorial/enhanced/FILES/Polymers/intro.html

5.2 Books:
Chapter-8-Plastics-and-Elastomers-Edward-n-Peters.pdf
Material Science & Engg and introduction by William Calister

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