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ENGINEERING
DIELECTRICS
VOLUME I
CORONA MEASUREMENT
AN D INTERPRETATION
Sponsored by ASTM
Committee D-9 on
Electrical Insulating Materials
AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR
TESTING AND MATERIALS
ASTM SPECIAL TECHNICAL

PUBLICATION 669
R. Bartnikas, Institut de Recherche, Hydro-
Quebec, Varennes, Quebec, Canada
E. J. McMahon, E. I. duPont de Nemours & Co.,
Inc., Wilmington, Delaware, U.S.A.
editors
List price $42.50

04-669000-21
AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING AND MATERIALS

1916 Race Street, Philadelphia, Pa. 19103
Copyright 9 by American Society for Testing and Materials 1979
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 78-72477
NOTE
The Society is not responsible, as a body,
for the statements and opinions
advanced in this publication.
Printed in Baltimore, Md.

February 1979
Foreword
This publication is Volume I of a series entitled Engineering Dielectrics.

The series will consist of six volumes, namely:
Volume I Corona Measurement and Interpretation
Volume II Electrical Properties of Solid Insulating Materials
Volume III Solid-Liquid Insulating Systems
Volume IV Cable Insulating Systems
Volume V Transformer and Generator Coil Insulating Systems
Volume VI Capacitor and Bushing Insulating Systems
R. Bartnikas, Institut de Recherche, Hydro-Quebec, and E. J. McMahon,
E. I. duPont de Nemours & Company, will serve as editors of these publica-
tions. The series will be sponsored by ASTM Committee D-9 on Electrical In-
sulating Materials.
Related
ASTM Publications
Spreading Resistance, STP 572 (1975), $3.55, 04-572000-46
Direct-Current Hysteresisgraphs, STP 526 (1973), $6.00, 04-526000-06
Direct-Current Magnetic Measurements for Soft Magnetic Materials, STP

371-SI (1970), $6.25, 04-371001-06
1979 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, PaX 39 (1979), $33.00,

01-039079-21
1979 Annum Book of ASTM Standards, PaX 40 (1979), $38.00,

01-040079-21
Contents
Introduction
CHAPTER 1--Some General Remarks on Corona Discharges--

J. R . P E R K I N S 3
CHAPTER 2--Corona Discharge Processes in Voids--R. BARTNIKAS 22
CHAPTER 3--Fundamentals of Partial Discharge Detection:

System Sensitivity and Calibration--E. B. CURDTS 68
CHAPTER 4--Detection of Corona Discharges in Lumped Circuit

Specimens--w. T . S T A R R 101
CHAPTER 5--Partlal Discharge Measurements in Distributed

Parameter Systems: Cables--N. B. TIMPE 134
CHAPTER 6--Measurement of Partial Discharges in Inductive

Apparatus: Transformers and Rotating Machines--T. w. DAKIN 177
CHAPTER 7--Corona Endurance Tests--E. J. MCMAHON 221
CHAPTER 8--Corona Measurements Using Bridge Methods--

E. H. POVEY 264
CHAPTER 9--Corona Pulse Counting and Pulse-Height Analysis

Techniques--R. BARTNIKAS 285
CHAPTER 10--Acoustical Techniques for Detecting and Locating

Electrical Dischurges--s. T. X~ARROLD 327
CHAPTER ll--Partlal Discharges Under Direct-Voltage

Conditions--R. j. DENSLEY 409
CHAPTER 12--Partial Discharges Under Impulse-Voltage

Conditions--s. J. DENSLEY 468
Subject Index 505
Author Index 517

STP669-EB/Feb. 1979
Introduction
The ASTM book series on Engineering Dielectrics is devoted to a com-

prehensive presentation of topics related to electrical insulating materials,
concerning their dielectric properties, their use, and evaluation for applica-
tion in electrical power and communication apparatus structures and
devices. It has been deemed proper that the first volume of the series should
deal with corona or partial discharge measurements, since the subject matter
is of great interest to electrical insulation engineers and scientists. At the
same time, it was felt that a monograph on corona discharges would fill in a
gap in the scientific literature, which has now been long overdue.
The contents of Volume I have been designed so that the book can be used
as a reference source on corona discharges by specialists in the field as well as
an introductory text by beginners. Each chapter has been arranged to pro-
vide an introduction followed by an extensive review treatise on a particular
aspect of the corona discharge field. Volume I covers the entire field of co-
rona measurement and detection on electrical insulating materials and ap-
paratus structures such as capacitors, cables, transformers, and electrical
machines; however, no given chapter is allocated solely to the measurement
of corona discharges originating from overhead transmission lines, as the lat-
ter subject matter falls outside the general realm of insulating materials.
Nevertheless, the subject is dealt with to a great extent as a subsection in
Chapter 10 in connection with the acoustical techniques applied to the detec-
tion and measurement of corona discharges. Likewise some of the radio noise
measurement techniques described in Chapter 6, which are used on
transformers, can be equally applied to overhead lines. Some individual
chapters will be found to be entirely self-contained; these chapters are highly
specialized in nature and are thus intended to describe completely a par-
ticular subject. Alternatively, other chapters complement each other. For ex-
ample, in reading Chapter 6 on corona measurements in transformers and
electrical machines, it would be well to consult beforehand Chapter.3 on co-
rona discharge set calibration. The same should apply to Chapters 4 and 5,
dealing with capacitors and cables, respectively. On the other hand, Chapter
7 on corona endurance tests is quite self-sufficient. Likewise, the same holds
for Chapter 8 on bridge measurement techniques, Chapter 9 on corona pulse
height analysis, and Chapters 11 and 12 on corona discharge measurements
under d-c and impulse conditions, respectively. It will be noted that Chapter
2 deals with corona discharge processes; its intent is to provide the reader
with some basic understanding of the corona discharge behavior and its rela-
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2 CORONA MEASUREMENT
tion to measurement. Chapter 1 has been included to provide a historical

background and general commentary on the subject of corona discharges.
As the individual chapters of Volume I have dealt with a variety of topics
on corona discharges that had been approached from different points of
view, it was a natural consequence that there should arise some salient dif-
ferences in the terminology used. It must be emphasized that the differences
in terminology did not so much represent the individual preferences of the
respective authors but rather the chronological development of the symbols
and terminologies within the respective and highly specialized fields of
endeavor themselves. We have attempted to eliminate some of the minor dif-
ferences; the major differences in the terminology and symbols, however,
must remain until they are finally resolved through the proper channels of
standardization. Lastly, the question of whether the term corona discharge
or partial discharge was to be utilized was left entirely to the goftt of the
authors concerned. Our own preference, perhaps reflecting the prevalent
usage in North America, is indicated in the title of Volume I.
We are grateful to Ms. J. B. Wheeler, ASTM Managing Editor, and Dr.
E. P. Bartkus of the ASTM Publication Committee for their patience and
help in the preparation of Volume I. We would like to thank the directors in
our own institutions, Drs. L. Boulet, G. G. Cloutier, and J. K. Beasley, who
have not only given us encouragement in the course of the work but have, in
addition, allowed us to take refuge in libraries and other places of relative
tranquility so that we may pursue our task more diligently and efficiently. In
this regard, we would also like to extend our appreciation to the institutions
of the contributing authors, who have been kind enough to provide the
necessary time for the completion and preparation of the individual chapters.
Finally, we owe a special debt of gratitude to our respective wives, Margaret
and Jean, for their patience during the numerous evenings that we spent
preparing and editing the manuscripts. We realize that the preparation of
the ASTM book series on Engineering Dielectrics represents a monumental
undertaking, and we would regard any comments that the readers may have
on Volume I as very constructive and helpful to our task of providing an ef-
fective reference series on electrical insulating materials.
R. Bartnikas
Department of Materials Science, Hydro-
Quebec Institute of Research, Varennes,
Quebec, Canada; editor.
E . J. M c M a h o n
Experimental Station, E. I. duPont de
Nemours & Co. Inc., Wilmington, Del.;
editor.
STP669-EB/Feb. 1979
J. R . P e r k i n s ~
Some General Remarks on Corona

Discharges
1.1 Historical Background

Saint Elmo's Fire was probably the first recorded form of corona. During
stormy weather at sea, there appeared occasionally flamelike reddish or
bluish lights on the tops of masts and on the ends of yardarms [1].2 Sailors
associated it with a benign protection and called it after their patron saint,
Saint Elmo. Many years later Benjamin Franklin would claim, but not ex-
plain, that the sailors were right and that the wet masts and spars were acting
as lightning rods, and were protecting. Because the rounded head of the mast
wore this light like a crown or halo, it was later referred to as corona (the
Latin word for crown) by the Latin-oriented scholars of those days. Many
years later, as sources of high-voltage electricity were developed, the same
light-like phenomena were observed in the laboratory and were traditionally
referred to also as corona. Its usage persisted throughout the years, and the
term corona is commonly used now to describe electrical discharge
phenomena occurring either internally or externally, in or on electrical ap-
paratus or devices.
The ASTM Standard Method for Detection and Measurement of
Discharge (Corona) Pulses in Evaluation of Insulation Systems (D 1868-73)
defines corona or partial discharge as a type of localized discharge resulting
from transient gaseous ionization in an insulation system when the voltage
stress exceeds a critical value. This ionization process is taken to be localized
over only a portion of the distance between the electrodes of the system
(ASTM D 1868-73). The foregoing usage of corona referring to internal
discharges must be distinguished from the external type of corona, which
characterizes discharges occurring on the surface of electrical conductors.
Indeed, it is this corona phenomenon with which most people are familiar, as
it causes an impressive glow to surround the conductors suspended between
the towers of a high-voltage power transmission line [2]. These discharges are
1Experimental Station, E. I. DuPont de Nemours & Company, Inc., Wilmington, Del. 19898.
/The italic numbers in brackets refer to the list of references appended to this chapter.
Copyright* 1979 by ASTM International www.astm.org

visible on a dark night but are much more noticeable on a foggy night;
moreover, in a fog, the accompanying hissing sound is more pronounced. Ex-
ternal corona in air is generally accompanied by ozone generation, which in
turn serves as one possible means for corona detection.
Much time and effort have been wasted on the discussion of which term,
corona or partial discharge, should apply to which phenomena. The most
vociferous claim, with some historical justification, is that the word corona
should be reserved for visual phenomena, such as appears on a high-voltage
transmission line. For phenomena not visible, because they are internal to a
material or device, the term partial discharge is preferred. The term ioniza-
tion is used by some workers, with some justification. Intellectually, the
author prefers the term partial discharge because it implies the inherent
ballast impedance [3], but he habitually uses the term corona. However,
what we call it is much less important than having some understanding of
what it is, how it performs, and what are the results of its presence.
1.2 Effects of Corona

We have seen that corona is associated with high voltage and that it can
produce light, audible noise, and ozone; these are detectable by our conven-
tional sensory capabilities of sight, hearing, and smell. In addition, corona
discharges give rise to other effects, such as:
1. Generation of ultraviolet radiation.
2. Nascent oxygen, also a strong oxidizing agent, as is ozone.
3. Nitric acid in the presence of moisture.
4. Oxalic acid and other exotic materials within enclosed voids of
polyethylene and other insulations; also the absorption or generation of
gas.
5. Heat generation in the discharge channel and power loss in the power
supply.
6. Mechanical erosion of surfaces by ion bombardment. Materials differ
in their rates of erosion by discharges; this property is defined as corona
resistance. Organic materials are eroded usually more than mica, glass,
and other ceramic products.
7. Electric wind: a positively or negatively charged needle that produces
corona also generates a wind that blows parallel to the needle and in the
direction indicated by the point. It will blow to one side a flame on a
Bunsen burner if the point is positive, but a negative point has the ef-
fect of the wind partly reduced by the fact that the flame carries positive
ions. A popular lecture type of demonstration is to mount the needle
partly below the surface of oil with the point of the needle protruding 6
to 12 mm above the oil. On electrifying the needle, there will be a
stream of oil projected by the needle as if the latter were a hose. The oil
is pumped up the surface of the needle, because dielectric materials ex-
CHAPTER 1--GENERAL REMARKS ON CORONA DISCHARGES 5
perience a force that moves them into a region of highest electric stress.
The discharge at the point carries the oil out in a stream. The stream
breaks up into fine particles as a result of the electrification and mutual
repulsion between drops.
8. Interference with radio communication within the usual broadcast
band frequency spectrum.
With such a conglomeration of effects, especially those leading to chemical
and mechanical destruction of adjacent materials, it is readily seen why co-
rona discharges are undesirable. Thus, for many reasons, we strive to avoid
generating corona discharges in electrical equipment to avoid its destructive
effects. On the other hand, corona discharges, on the basis of these very same
properties, perform important commercial services in many areas ranging
from xerography to ore separations.
1.3 Some Basics on Corona Discharges and Their Nature

First, consider that corona occurs only in a gas and not in a solid or liquid.
There are those who claim the contrary, but for the purposes of our discus-
sion, this is our assumption. Second, corona does consume power, but in a
special way; it requires both a high voltage and a low current. Also, one must
always have a high value of current limiting impedance in series with the co-
rona discharge. The latter can have a number of different forms as will be
shown subsequently. The ideas that the discharge always occurs in a gas and
that an impedance must limit the current are the key factors in understand-
ing corona. A third item of less importance, but helpful to know, is that co-
rona discharges do not necessarily take place between a pair of conducting
electrodes or surfaces. The erroneous conclusion, that metallic electrodes are
needed, has come about because most laboratory demonstrations use two
metallic electrodes, for example, a point and a plane, or a wire and a ground
plane; corona can occur between two insulators acting as electrodes or even
without any electrodes. Such electrodeless discharges are a problem in some
of our space vehicles.
1.3.1 Gaseous Ionization

The picture that has been developed in the past concerning the mechanism
of these gaseous discharges is a simple and readily understood one. In order
to have a proper understanding of the ionization process in gases, it is well to
emphasize a number of fundamental concepts, such as potential difference
and gradient.
The potential difference concept provides a simple tie between mechanical
energy and electrical energy, which is often not well appreciated (Fig. 1.1).
The negatively charged electron is attracted to the left by the positive charge
on A and repelled also to the left by the negative charge on B. If the electron
6 CORONAMEASUREMENT
GENERATOR~_ R
ELECTRON
FORCE
FIG. 1.1--Definition of potential difference.
is not held in place, it will be swept toward A; the energy required to move it
will be derived from the generator. If, on the other hand, that electron is
forced to the right, work is being performed to move it. Work equals force
multiplied by distance. In this instance, the work thus supplied will be fed
back into the generator for storage. Potential difference (electrical) between
Point A and Point B is simply the mechanical work required to move the elec-
tron that distance; it is mechanical work per unit charge. Ergs per electron
charge is an unwieldy number, so we use joules of energy per coulombs of
charge, or more familiarly, volts. Remembering that volts (potential dif-
ference) is force times distance, it is easy to see that potential gradient
(voltage divided by distance) means mechanical force on a charge, as for ex-
ample, an electron.
Figure 1.2 shows a single atom in an electrostatic field. The negatively
charged electron is subjected to a mechanical force to the left, and the
positively charged nucleus is subjected to a mechanical force to the right.
These forces distort the structure of the atom so that the nucleus is to the
right of the center of the electronic orbit. If the generator is adjusted to give
increasingly higher potential differences (voltage differences), a point will be
reached when the external mechanical forces exerted on the electron and
nucleus will overcome the internal forces and the outer electron will be pulled
out of the atom. The atom is then said to be ionized.
The electron, with its light mass will be quickly whisked to the positive
electrode and enter the terminal. The positive ion, or the nucleus with the
positive charge, being much heavier will progress more slowly to the negative
terminal at B. Upon touching B, it receives from B an electron and again
becomes a neutral or normal planetary atom. When the electron combines
with the nucleus to make a neutral atom, it emits a quantum of light or ra-
diant energy, which may or may not be visible. The energy exchange in this
process is informative. The mechanical energy to pull the electron out of the
atom comes from the electrical energy supplied by the voltage source. The
atom, in having the electron pulled away from the nucleus, receives stored
potential or mechanical energy. When the electron falls back into the atom,
I GENERATOR
I
ATOM
!/ F \
A I , e-I -Io
FIG. 1.2--Forces on a t o m due to electric field.
this potential energy must be given up and it appears as radiant energy. The
ultimate source of the radiant energy is, of course, the generator.
While the preceding process illustrates the rather fundamental electro-
mechanical relationships and the meaning of ionization, it is not an impor-
tant process of ionization, if it exists at all in a normal discharge. The main
ionization process is ionization by collision between an electron and a neutral
atom or molecule. Production of additional free electrons to take part in the
process is due to the emission of photo-electrons caused by irradiation of the
cathode by light from the recombination of electrons and ions to neutral
atoms or molecules.
1.3.2 Ionization by Collision

Due to the potential gradient (force on the electron), a free electron mov-
ing in a gas undergoes acceleration. If it has gained enough velocity (kinetic
energy) by the time it collides with an atom, it can dislodge an electron, leav-
ing an ionized atom. Then, there can be two free electrons being accelerated,
each of which can cause ionization, ultimately leading to four electrons, etc.
If there is unlimited power available from a constant voltage or source of
potential difference, it is obvious that this avalanche process can continue to
build up to staggering proportions, providing enough electrons and positive
ions to produce massive conduction of current between electrodes and also
absorbing relatively large amounts of power from the source. The ultimate is
a spark channel bridging the electrodes. Note that the initial free electron,
which initiates the ionization process, is omnipresent and can be due to
cosmic radiation or a radioactive background.
The movement of electrons to and into the positive electrode and the move-
ment of positive ions to the negative electrode, to receive an electron to
neutralize the ion to a neutral atom, means a flow of electrons through the
generator between the two polarity terminals. This pumping of electrons
from one terminal to the other provides the energy to maintain the discharge.
The number of electrons per second pumped through is the current. Since
the electron is such a small charge, a more practical larger unit, the
coulomb, is used. One coulomb is equivalent to the charge of 6.2 10 ta elec-
trons. A coulomb per second is an ampere. In the avalanche previously
described, the current can change from the initial value of a few hundred
electrons per second (10 -~7 A) to a few thousand amperes (1022 electrons/sec-
ond) in a typical period of one ten millionth of a second.
1.3. 3 Gas Discharge Characteristics
A gas discharge that, on a constant voltage difference, will build up the

current to ever higher values is described as having a negative resistance
characteristic. In other words, as current increases, resistivity decreases (or
conductivity increases).
When large numbers of both electrons and positive ions are present
together, electrons and the positive ions will collide. If their relative velocity
is small enough, the electron can be recaptured, forming a neutral atom and
emitting a quantum of light energy. This process is called recombination.
The greater the number of electrons and positive ions per unit volume, the
greater the rate of recombination. If the energy source is cut off, the ioniza-
tion process wiU cease; but recombination will continue until no more free
electrons or positive ions are left.
If an impedance is introduced between the generator and the terminals,
the voltage difference will no longer be constant as current increases but will
drop linearly. Now, this positive resistance characteristic can counterbalance
the negative resistance characteristic of the discharge. At an equilibrium
condition, the rate of formation of ions is exactly balanced by the recombina-
tion rate. By adjusting the value of the ballast impedance, the energy dissipa-
tion rate in the discharge, or the power consumed, can be varied.
1.3. 4 Corona Discharge Behavior

Consider an electrode system as in Fig. 1.1. Start at zero voltage difference
and gradually raise the voltage, measuring current versus voltage. As voltage
increases, the current will increase and then level off, or saturate, at voltages
from 50 to 100 percent of the flashover value. Saturation currents depend on
volume enclosed between the electrodes and the residual radioactivity and
cosmic radiation that produce low levels of ionization. Saturation is due to
the collection of all the ionized species without giving opportunity for spon-
taneous recombination and not providing enough voltage gradient to pro-
duce ionization. Ultraviolet light on the cathode or negative electrode will in-
crease the saturation current, with photo-electrons being released from the
cathode. Radioactive sources or X-radiation would produce the same results.
No avalanche effects are experienced in this range of applied voltage. Satura-

tion currents can range up to the rough order of magnitude of 10 -lz A under
usual conditions, depending upon the volume between the electrodes.
If one adjusts the voltage and the limiting ballast resistor so that
discharges occur and the average current is in the 1 0 - " to 10 -1~ A range, one
will have erratic discharges, or pulses that are avalanches with almost con-
tinuous activity present. When the resistance is lowered still more, to yield a
current level of 10 -s to 10 -4 A, the corona appears visually to be continuous.
It actually is not in air, but consists of so many discharges closely spaced
timewise that the light appears constant. Further increase in current causes
the area of the glow on the cathode terminal to grow, thereby illuminating
more of the terminal. A continued increase in current will ultimately mean
the formation of an arc. A corona discharge is made up of pulses. The
voltage drop within the corona discharge volume is a few hundred volts; the
current is low, 10 -~~ to 10 -4 A; this means relatively low power. The
discharge is distributed over an area of the cathode and does not usually ex-
tend over the complete length between electrodes.
On the contrary, if no stabilizing impedance is in series with the power
supply, an arc into which corona discharge can collapse has a low voltage
drop within the discharge channel, typically 10 to 20 V. The current can be
from one ampere to thousands of amperes. The discharge extends from elec-
trode to electrode and is concentrated into a narrow channel, whose position
tends to shift erratically. This is because of the large amount of power
dissipated in the arc and its resultant high temperature in the channel; the
heat causes rising air currents to shift the arc. Another basic difference is
that the corona discharge involves only the gases between the electrodes. In
the case of an arc, the high temperature assures that metal ions shortly begin
playing a part in the arc behavior.
1.3.5 Electrode Geometry as a Source of Ballast Impedance

Consider a point-to-plane electrode system as in Fig. 1.3. Upon raising the
applied voltage difference to produce corona at the point, one needs no series
impedance. However, if one continues to raise the voltage, the discharge will
grow and collapse into the arc condition.
The reason why the external ballast impedance is not needed is because the
electrode geometry effectively builds one in. In Fig. 1.3 adjacent to the point,
the voltage gradient (force on an electron) is high; adjacent to the plate, the
voltage gradient is much lower. Near the point, the electron can gain enough
kinetic energy in the distance it travels before hitting a neutral molecule
(mean free path or average spacing, molecule to molecule) to cause ioniza-
tion. Near the plate, the force (voltage gradient) is lower and an electron can-
not gain enough energy in the same mean free path to cause ionization.
Hence, the discharge is limited to a volume close to the point. The remaining
10 CORONAMEASUREMENT
LOW STRESS
REGION
HIGH S T R E S S / / / ~ ~
FIG. 1.3--Point-to-plane electrode system.
volume of gas between the plate and the discharge provides an excellent
series limiting resistance. The cylindrical-electrode structure, where the in-
side cylinder is much smaller than the outer, works in identically the same
way, with the discharge adjacent to the inner electrode where the potential
gradient is greatest.
If one tries two needles (approximately 0.5-cm apart) against a plane, it is
found that when the voltage is adjusted to give a very small corona discharge,
both needles will glow. If, however, the voltage is increased to give large
discharges, only one needle will provide the discharge, since voltage drops as
current increases. To make both work, series ballast impedances need be in-
serted in each needle circuit as in Fig. 1.4. When the discharges are small,
the impedances presented by the non-ionized volume of gas between point
and plane provide the ballast action.
BALLAST
RESISTORS
FIG. 1.4--Parallelgaps with external, individual ballasts.

You may have seen multi-needle discharge systems, where all the points
appear to be active. These points can be stabilized as depicted in Fig. 1.5,
where a series capacitor adjacent to the point serves as a ballast impedance in
the form of a capacitive reactance on an a-c voltage supply. Note that for d-c
voltages, when the point is negative, corona always starts at a lower voltage
difference than when the point is positive. It is not possible to be general, but
usually the actual breakdown or flashover voltage is higher when the point is
negative.
With air and the needle at negative dc, the corona is in the form of pulses,
whose energy per pulse is approximately constant; here, the number of pulses
per unit time is essentially constant for a given voltage difference, but the
energy per pulse goes up rapidly as voltage difference is increased. It per-
forms as a relaxation oscillator. The mechanism is simple: a free electron
starts an avalanche in the high gradient field near the point. The avalanche
grows, the high-speed electrons scurry away from the needle, leaving a swarm
of positive ions near the cathode. This swarm is referred to as a space charge.
The latter shields the negative needle and lowers the acceleration of the elec-
trons on the far side of the space charge from the needle. These are slow
enough to attach themselves onto oxygen molecules to form heavy negative
ions, forming a swarm of negative ions, also called a space charge, but
negative. Now, due to the negative space charge, the field adjacent to the
H, V,
SERIES
CAPACITOR GRND.
FIG. 1.5--Individual ballasts with respective needle gaps.

needle is too low for collision ionization, so the positive ions wander to the
needle to become neutralized; also, the negative ions move in the opposite
direction for neutralization at the positive electrode. The ions being recom-
bined, the performance can be repeated. The whole buildup and relaxation
occurs in a space about 0.1 mm (4 to 5 mils) from the needle, and in a time of
10 -7 to 10 -8 s. The time before another performance depends on the
prevalence of free electrons and the voltage stress.
If nitrogen replaces the air, nitrogen molecules do not have the electron
capture ability nor the ability to form a negative ion by adding an electron;
the second negative space charge cannot build up. The discharge becomes
steady and is described as pulseless.
1.4 Corona in Electrical Equipment

When corona occurs in a piece of equipment where we do not expect to
have it, the results may be anything from just annoying to absolutely
disastrous. In the latter case, this is a mechanism of rapid failure. A series of
examples follow.
1.4.1 Unshielded Hook-Up Wire

Consider a piece of conducting wire with a cylindrical insulating wall about
it. If the voltage is too high, the wall of insulation is too thin, the pressure of
air is low (as in an airplane or space craft), or the temperature high, corona
can occur. It will take place usually between the outside surface of the insula-
tion and an adjacent wire, or the grounded metal chassis on which the wire is
supported. The electromagnetic noise created by the corona discharge causes
interference in associated low-energy-level communication or control cir-
cuits. This can even destroy the capability of communication or cause
malfunction of the control circuits; moreover, failure of the wire insulation
eventually follows. In the process, ozone and nitric acid (with moisture) can
form, which can destroy oxygen sensitive materials or relay contacts. The
solution to the problem entails heavier insulation walls so that ionization can-
not occur in the air. This adds series ballast impedance so that the voltage
across the air gap is less than that required for ionization.
1.4.2 Shielded High-Voltage Cables

Insulation of the cable walls could be made thick enough so that any
unintentionally included air gaps would have such low electric stresses that
ionization would not occur. However, this approach would not be practical,
because cables designed for use at high voltages would not be flexible, and
the amount of material used would render such designs economically unat-
tractive. As an example, a 500-MCM (thousand circular mil) conductor,

operating at 138 kV to ground, would require an enormous wall of
polyethylene about 13.7 cm thick to preclude corona between the outside of
the insulation and ground. A typical rubber cable would require about twice
as much.
A grounded metallic shield is included over the outside of the insulation to
eliminate air that is stressed. During temperature cycling, because of the dif-
ference of expansion coefficients of the insulation and metal, air gaps can
develop between the conductor and the inside of the insulation and between
the outside of the insulation and the outer shield. To cure this, thin semicon-
ducting coatings are put over the conductor, (referred to as strand shielding
or screening), and over the outside of the insulation (known as insulation
shielding or screening). These are designed so that under temperature cy-
cling, they will adhere to the insulation rather than to the metals. Any voids
formed will be between the semiconductor and the metal, where no voltage
stress can exist across the void since they are at the same potential. The
semiconductor must not adhere to the insulation too firmly, since removal is
necessary in terminating.
The preceding approach eliminates voids outside the insulation. The next
problem is a void internal to the insulation. Discharge within such voids can
cause long-term failure in any insulation, regardless of its type. Figure 1.6
shows a tree that grew from one test electrode to the other, both electrodes
being molded into cable-grade polyethylene. Note that the tree did not grow
directly from one electrode to the other across the shortest gap where the
dielectric stress was highest. Instead, it started at the base of the lower needle
where there was an air gap in which ionization could occur; the ionic bom-
bardment of the insulation formed the channels shown, ultimately leading to
the failure of the specimen. The tree formation gives supporting evidence on
the destructive effects of corona discharges.
The air gap need not be at the insulator surface. Examine again Fig. 1.6
just below the electrode gap and half way over to the left edge of the
photograph. Here are the beginnings of trees that initiated at the interface
between the insulation and some occluded impurity. Because of lack of adhe-
sion between impurity inclusion and insulation, an air void exists to provide a
starting point for tree growth.
In an oil-filled paper-tape-insulated cable, the classical mode of failure is
one where a void is formed when a cable is cooled rapidly and the oil within
the paper contracts more rapidly than reservoir oil can flow back through the
paper. This so-called vacuum void is actually filled with oil vapors in which
ionization can occur.
1.4.3 Oil-Impregnated-Paper Capacitors

Here the problem is the same as in an oil-filled paper-tape high-voltage
FIG. 1.6--Dendrite growth in polyethylene (courtesy, E. J. McMahon ).
cable. End of life usually appears when the gas formed within the structure
allows ionization to occur. Quality control testing of capacitors to the point
where ionization does occur should never be done, since this constitutes one
of the causes of gas generation. Eventually, some of the gas will reabsorb, but
usually it causes a shortening of life.
Short circuiting a fully charged capacitor is degrading, unless it is de-
signed for such service. The steep wave front causes flashover from the edge
of a foil along the surface of the adjacent separator paper, leading to gas for-
mation and subsequent failure.
1.4. 4 Oil-Filled Power Transformers

Corona can occur inside the tank, or within the feed-through bushings that
carry the power leads through the tank, or alternatively on the outside of the
bushings. Obviously, if corona occurs within the oil-filled unit or inside the
feed-through bushings, this is a situation that should not be permitted to ex-
ist. Bushings are usually tested separately before installation in a
transformer. Under clean conditions of operation when properly installed,
there should be no corona external to the bushing. When insulations are
unclean, discharges do usually occur.
Checking transformers for corona and locating it, if it exists, is not a sim-
ple task, because the transformer coils represent a complicated set of series
and parallel impedances. Audible noise detection is sometimes used to help
locate the corona discharge sources.
1.4.5 Rotating Machinery

High-voltage motors and generators, from an insulation point of view, con-
sist of a group of long insulated but unshielded conductors that, after insula-
tion, are forced or driven into rough slots in laminated steel structures. In
operation, the insulation must carry a cyclic compressive load, since it is the
member that transmits the mechanical force generated by the interaction of
the current and the magnetic field to the iron of the machine, or vice versa.
With this kind of mistreatment, even semiconductive paints used to sup-
press corona between insulation and the metal slot do not always survive;
eventually, corona occurs. Corona is undesirable and does degrade the in-
sulation. However, such insulation is usually based on mica or mica-derived
products and, consequently, due to its inorganic nature it is capable of
withstanding many years of corona discharge exposure, if properly applied.
1.4. 6 Overhead Power Lines

Not only can the corona discharges on transmission lines produce light,
but the associated r-f interference can be objectionable to radio reception. In
addition, the actual power consumed by the discharge process may be ap-
preciable. As an example, a three-phase overhead transmission line with a
32-ft flat spacing and a conductor diameter of 1.65 in. may lose, due to co-
rona, 4 kW per mile at 350 kV in dry weather. In wet weather, the corona
loss can go up as high as 70 kW per mile. At 400 kV, the same line loses 10
kW per mile in dry weather, and 180 kW per mile when wet. As a matter of
interest, the kilowatt per mile value is about equal to the corona power loss in
milliwatts per square inch of conductor surface, that is, at 180 kW per mile,
the loss per square inches is 0.18 W per square inch.
To reduce corona losses, the first idea tried was a larger conductor
diameter, using hollow conductors. A simpler solution uses four medium-
sized parallel conductors spaced into a square 6 in. on a side. This simulates,
to a better degree than might be guessed, a conductor 6 in. in diameter. In
practice, two parallel conductors spaced 6 to 8 in. apart are an economical

and workable solution up to at least 500 kV.
1.5 Methods for Eliminating Corona Discharges

Note that first for corona to occur, a gaseous medium is necessary; sec-
ondly, the series ballast impedance must be low enough to allow the
discharge. Obvious approaches are thus to eliminate the gas or to increase
the ballast impedance. As an example, consider a hook-up wire with corona
discharges occurring between the outside of the insulation and the metallic
ground on which it rests; the obvious cure is a heavier insulation wall that
serves as a larger ballast impedance and takes a large enough fraction of the
conductor-to-ground voltage so that insufficient voltage drop occurs across
the insulation-to-ground gap to cause ionization.
Another case often encountered in practice concerns sharp edges, that at
high voltage, are causing discharges but do not flash over. Rounding the
sharp edges, dulling the sharp points, replacing them with larger radii of cur-
vature, putting a round piece of putty or wax over the sharp edges, all have
the effect of reducing the highly divergent electric field at the sharp edge or
point. The free electrons are thereby accelerated less and have insufficient
energy to ionize neutral air molecules.
A device, where elements with too high a voltage difference are too close
because of space limitations, may be subject to corona discharges. Enclosing
the device and filling with pressurized air, nitrogen, or sulfur hexafluoride
may be a solution. At higher gas pressures, the mean free path between
molecules is reduced, and higher potential gradients are required for ioniza-
tion, thereby perhaps preventing the corona. Sulfur hexafluoride is a gas that
has electron capture characteristics that tend to suppress ionization by col-
lecting electrons from a discharge. An alternate method is to fill the box with
oil, which has a much higher dielectric strength than any gas. Oil-filled
transformers and oil-paper capacitors obviously fit into the foregoing
category. Another alternative to compressed gas or oil is an encapsulating
compound. This will eliminate a simple corona problem, if a completely
void-free encapsulation can be achieved. The latter can be an advantage,
because one needs no metallic housing and, therefore, no feed-through
bushings.
1.6 Commercial Uses of Corona

Surprisingly, corona discharge enters into a large number of practical
uses. However, the general public is probably not familiar with these uses or
the part that corona plays in them.
1.6.1 Lightning Rods

The oldest practical use for corona discharges, still valid today, is the well-
known lightning rod. The pointed ground rod produces ions under high-
voltage gradients, which exist during thunderstorms; these discharges help
neutralize and reduce those gradients so that lightning is prevented from
striking in the vicinity of the pointed rod.
1.6.2 Printing Treatment of Plastics Films

Thin extruded films, such as polyethylene, refuse to be wetted by conven-
tional printing inks, making durable printing impossible. If, however, the
film, as it is made, is run between two cylindrical electrodes (in contact with
the bottom one and spaced away from the top one that is covered with a
dielectric sleeve) corona occurs in the air gap due to an r-f source of high
voltage between the two cylinders. The chemical action of the corona on the
new polymer surface modifies it, primarily by oxidation, to a composition
that inks will wet. This is probably the biggest poundage of everyday useful
material processed by corona.
1.6. 3 Electrostatic Separation of Ores

Plants are now producing 1000 tons per hour of high-grade hematite (fer-
ric oxide) concentrate. Most titanium mineral producing plants use this pro-
cess to separate ilmenite (iron-titanium oxide, FeTiO3) and rutile (titanium
dioxide, TiO2) from other minerals. There are numerous others.
The process is shown in Fig. 1.7 where a mixture of conducting and non-
conducting (dielectric) particles are separated. The negative charging elec-
trode essentially sprays electronic charges onto the particles as they pass over
a grounded rotating roll. The dielectric particles with the sprayed surface of
negative charge adhere to the positive (grounded) roll and ride around 180
deg to a point where they are brushed off the roll. On the other hand, the
conducting particles do not adhere to the roll because the negative charge
sprayed on simply flows off onto the ground roll. However, when the con-
ducting particle approaches the 270-deg position, it does tend to charge up
positively, due to the presence of the negative diverting (non-corona) elec-
trode and is forced to the right by the field between the positive rotor and the
diverting bar.
1.6. 4 Ozone Generators

Ozone is manufactured primarily by a corona process, although ultraviolet
light will also work. The generator is formed of two coaxial glass tubes. The
inside surface of the inner tube and the outside surface of the outer tube are
CHARGING

DEFLECTOR
0
INSULATORS
0 &-. O CONDUCTORS
O
FIG. 1.7--Schematic for electrostatic separation of ores.
metal coated to form a cell. Thus, there are two electrodes, two layers of glass
forming the ballast impedance and the cylindrical space with glass walls.
Corona is generated between the glass walls when appropriate voltage is ap-
plied to the electrodes. Oxygen passing through the annular discharge
generates ozone. The yield in grams of ozone per ampere hour for variations
in gas pressure and temperature is well-known engineering information. I f
air is used instead of pure oxygen, the yield of ozone is cut about in half. If
the temperature rises when using air, oxides of nitrogen begin to be formed
while ozone is reduced. In the extreme case of higher temperatures, one ar-
rives at the use of an arc and we have the Birkeland-Eyde process for nitrogen
fixation.
1.6.5 Geiger Counter

The Geiger counter device was and still is used to measure the passage of
cosmic rays or other high-energy particles. Unlike the previous uses, it
operates with gas at a lower pressure, where the mean free path between gas
CHAPTER lmGENERAL REMARKS ON CORONA DISCHARGES 19
molecules is much greater. It consists of a pair of coaxial conductors, the

outer being a cylinder perhaps 1 in. in diameter, and the inner a very thin
wire. With a negative d-c voltage on the wire and the outer cylinder
grounded, one has a case similar to the point-to-plane geometry where the
voltage gradient is very high at the wire surface and very low at the outer con-
ductor. T h u s c m u c h of the gas volume is subjected to too low a gradient to
produce any discharge. If the voltage is adjusted to just below the level at
which corona will maintain itself, the passage of a cosmic ray close to the wire
will cause an incipient avalanche, or pulse. The current pulse is used to ac-
tivate a counter circuit.
1.6. 6 Charging of Particles or Surfaces

The simple point-to-plane scheme is used in many instances for this pur-
pose. Many of the particles that are charged in this way are manipulated
electrostatically as a technique of controlling their motion. A series of ex-
amples follow.
Electrostatic PrecipitatorRIt is not only desirable, but today legally
necessary, to collect emissions such as fly ash, soot, or other entrained par-
ticles from the gases in stacks to prevent their discharge into the atmosphere.
If the effluent gas is made to pass between parallel plates, which are main-
tained at a sufficient d-c potential difference, these particles will be deposited
out on one or the other of the plates, assuming that these particles are elec-
trically charged. The simplest technique for charging these particles is by
corona sources.
Electostatic Paint Spray--A positively-charged small particle will unnerr-
ingly find its way onto a grounded metallic object, if the spray gun is aimed
only in the general direction. Charging of the paint particles is accomplished
by corona exposure.
Van de GraaffGenerator--This is a generator of up to several million volts
at low current capability. It works by the simple definition of voltage dif-
ference. A belt runs from the inside of a lower electrode to the inside of an
upper electrode, and, of course, runs back down. Negative charges are
deposited on the belt in the lower electrode, carried up to the upper, and
there removed. Charge carried from one electrode to the other builds up the
voltage in proportion to the charge. The charge is placed on the belt by a
corona source (negative needle points). Likewise, the charge is removed from
the belt at the top by a similar mechanism.
Xerography--This process is too complicated to discuss in detail, but the
first step is to distribute a uniform layer of static charge over the surface of
the light-sensitive plate. This is done by a corona generating technique.
Sandpaper Manufacture--This is a procedure where the corona for elec-
trification of a particle to give it controllable mobility is produced by the
same voltage involved with the movement of the particle. The process is sim-
pie in theory. The sand is placed on the top of the lower negative electrode,
while the paper is placed on the bottom of the upper positive electrode with a
sticky adhesive facing down. With sufficient voltage difference, discharges
form around the sand or abrasive particles, charging them negatively. The
particles are lifted toward the upper positive plate by electrostatic forces; the
irregularly shaped sand particles line up with their largest direction parallel
to the field, and at right angles to the paper. The particles reach the adhesive
and remain there as the adhesive is cured.
Manufacture of Pile Fabrics Using Textile Flocks--The same process used
for sandpaper can be used for applying short lengths of monofilament yarn to
an adhesive-coated backing, aligning the fibers at right angles to and
uniformly over the substrate.
1.7 Detection of Corona

Although many ingenious techniques have been used for detecting corona,
the main ones, which are used for quality control and trouble shooting, are
based on three areas.
The first procedure is the radio influence voltage test (RIV) that is based
on the fact that corona generates electromagnetic waves in the form of static
interference. The receiver is calibrated in microvolts to measure the level of
the input signal; the method is not suitable for physically locating the specific
source of trouble within a piece of equipment. The RIV technique is mainly
used on transformers and transmission lines. In transformers, the corona
discharge signals are detected across a resistance, whereas in the transmis-
sion lines the r-f interference generated by the corona discharge is detected
using an antenna.
The second procedure makes the detection equipment electrically a part of
a circuit, including the device in which the corona is occurring [4, 5]. Here the
corona discharge is measured in picoeoulombs. This measurement procedure
is by far the most common used on high voltage cables, capacitors, and
transformers. An RCL or RC detection impedance 3 may be used; the former
is characteristic of the narrow band detection mode, whereas the latter is
used in the wide-band detection mode applications [6].
The third technique is based on the audible or supersonic noise generated
by the corona discharges, that is, noise in air or vibrations set up in the
materials adjacent to the corona source. This technique has been found to be
particularly helpful in localizing a problem and is often used with large
transformer structures.
3With the RCL or resistive-capacitive-inductiveimpedance, the detected signal is of an

oscillatory-exponentiallydecayingwaveform;with an RC or resistive-capacitiveimpedance, the
detected signals generallyassume a unidirectionalexponentiallydecayingpulse form.
1.8 Conclusion
In this chapter, an attempt was made to underline in simple terms a
n u m b e r of basic concepts relating to corona discharges. In the course of the
discussion, several facets of corona discharges have been dealt with briefly,
such as: their nature [7], deleterious effects on insulating materials, elimina-
tion from insulating structures, and detection. These brief excursions into
the vast subject of corona discharge have merely scratched the surface of
this complex and intricate field. Greater insight and understanding of the
corona discharge p h e n o m e n a requires an extensive and in-depth treatment,
as will be done in the subsequent chapters dealing with specific topics of
corona discharge.
References
[I] von Engel, A., Ionized Gases, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1965.
[2] Loeb, L. B., Electrical Coronas, University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles,
1965.
[3] Cobine, J. D., Gaseous Conductors, McGraw-Hilt, New York, 1941.
[4] Whitehead, S., Dielectric Breakdown of Solids, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1953.
[5] Quinn,,G. E., Transactions, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Vol. 59, Dec.
1940, pp. 680-682.
[6] AIEE Working Group on Definitions, Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, In-
stitute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Vol. 82, Dec. 1963, pp. 1044-1050.
[7] Gallo, C. F., Transactions on Industry Applications. Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers, Vol. IA-11, Nov./Dec. 1975, pp. 739-748.
STP669-EB/Feb. 1979
R. Bartnikas 1
Corona Discharge Processes in Voids
2.1 Introduction
It has been well recognized in the past that one of the most common
causes for insulation system failure occurs from void inclusions, which are
usually introduced during the various manufacturing steps associated with
the formation of the insulating materials themselves or the composite insu-
lation systems used. For example, in the case of polyethylene cables, voids
are generally introduced during the extrusion process. They may also occur
due to the maintenance of a poor vacuum during the impregnation cycle
as is often the case with epoxy cast instrument transformers or the oil-
impregnated-paper insulating systems used in cables, capacitors, and trans-
formers. Whether or not the presence of certain voids in a given insulation
system can eventually lead to breakdown will depend primarily on whether
or not the occluded voids undergo corona discharge under the operating
voltage stress and on the intensity of the corona discharge process itself
as well as on the degradation characteristics of the insulating materials
involved. Obviously, voids, which do not discharge under the normal oper-
ating voltage conditions, are quite innocuous. In fact, discharge-free voids
represent the near-ideal case of a loss-free dielectric.
The purpose of this chapter is to examine under a-c conditions the
corona discharge process in voids, with particular reference to those param-
eters that determine corona inception, intensity, pulse repetition rate, and
energy loss. The question of the corona degradation rate characteristics of
insulating materials and their resultant aging is to be dealt with in another
chapter.
Voids occluded in the insulation systems of electrical apparatus are
always subjected to higher electrical stresses than the adjacent solid or
liquid insulating media. If we consider a simple flat-shaped cavity or void
in series with a solid or liquid insulation subjected to an average electrical
stress E and having a dielectric constant value of e', then the stress across
1Department of Materials Science, Hydro-Quebec Institute of Research, Varennes, Quebec,

Canada.
22
Copyright9 1979 by ASTM International www.astm.org

CHAPTER 2--CORONA DISCHARGE PROCESSES IN VOIDS 23
our ideal cavity is equal to e'g. The void will break down or commence to
discharge, at a peak value of applied voltage E given by [1,2] 2
E=Eb(dl +d2 + 1) (2.1)

, de'
where
E = Eb + Ed (2.2)
Here Eb is the breakdown voltage of the void, Ed is equal to the voltage

drop across the two dielectric layers enclosing the idealized cavity, dJ and
d2 are the respective thicknesses of the two dielectric layers of dielectric
constant e ', and d is the thickness of the cavity in the field direction (see
Fig. 2.1). For voids having different geometrical shapes, Eq 2.1 would
have to be modified, since the electrical stress is necessarily a function of
the void geometry. In practice, physical voids tend to approximate more
closely a spherical shape, as depicted in Fig. 2.2, and accordingly the
breakdown voltage is then determined from a modified expression given
by [3]
Eb [ do(l+2e')]
E = 7 d + 3e' (2.3)
where do is the overall insulation thickness, and d is the diameter of the

spherical void.
As with cavities having metallic boundaries, it has been also established
that the initial breakdown voltage value, Eb, of physical voids having di-
FIG. 2.1--Parallel-plane void inclusion within a dielectric material between two test
electrodes.
2The italic numbers in brackets refer to the list of references appended to this chapter.
FIG. 2.2--Spherical void inclusion within a dielectric material between two test electrodes.
electric surfaces, is a function of the pressure-gap separation product (pd)

and follows closely Paschen's Law. Hall and Russek [4], who carried out
an extensive study on the breakdown voltage behavior of various gap sepa-
rations using void surfaces of rubber, polystyrene, polyethylene, cellulose
acetate, and oil-impregnated-paper, were not able to detect any significant
difference in the corona inception voltages from those obtained with equiv-
alent gap-spacings having metallic electrodes. Figure 2.3 provides a typical
set of Paschen curves obtained for air, nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen
between parallel-plane metallic electrodes [5]. In the vast majority of cases
most physical void inclusions in electrical insulating systems contain air,
though due to the prevalent usage of organic insulating materials, they
also may contain small traces of low-molecular-weight hydrocarbon gases.
The Paschen curves in Fig. 2.3 exhibit a minimum breakdown voltage,
indicating that an optimum pd value exists for which the breakdown
process in the gas attains optimum efficiency. For air, the breakdown
potential value at the (pd)ml. point is roughly 320 V. At the pd = ( p d ) m i n
value, the kinetic energy of the free electrons within the gas accumulates
most efficiently to yield the optimum number of collisions with the neutral
gas molecules necessary for breakdown. For the region of the curves to
the left of the minimum, pd < (pd)mln, the number of collisions is too
small to result in a breakdown at the same minimum value of applied
voltage, (Eb)mi.. Whereas for the condition to the right of the minimum,
pd > (pd)mi., too many collisions take place and a great proportion of the
electron kinetic energy is dissipated in various excitation processes [6].
Deviations from the more classical shape of the Paschen curves, obtained
on molecular gases shown in Fig. 2.3, have been observed by Sch6nhuber
[5]; curves of Eb = f ( p d ) , exhibiting deviations from the normal behavior
in the region pd < (pd)mi., are shown for helium and neon and compared
with argon in Fig. 2.4. The observed deviations in the breakdown behavior
CHAPTER 2 1 C O R O N A DISCHARGE PROCESSES IN VOIDS 25
I I
>0
I
t \\H 2
\
g ~" N- ~ 02
0
>
t-
10 3 -\ ;... \ .j~.:..~---~...._..
. ~
10 2 I I
10 -t 1 t0 t0 2
pd (Torr cm)
FIG. 2.3--Paschen's characteristics for air, nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen (after Sch6n-
huber [5]).
I I
I
~_~~0 4 t ~He
I
i '
Ne \\\
\
~~ I0 3 I
3
0
nn
10 2 I I
t0 -~ t 10 t0 2
pd (Torr cm)
FIG. 2.4--Paschen's characteristics for argon, neon, and helium (after Sch6nhuber [5]).
of helium are particularly significant in view of its projected usage in future

cryogenic power cables.
2.2 Breakdown Mechanisms

The electrical breakdown process, which takes place in uniform field
parallel-plane metallic electrode gaps, has been expounded by Townsend
in terms of the electron-avalanche concept [6]. He showed that when a

free electron moves in the direction of the field, colliding with neutral gas
molecules along its trajectory, its probability of ejecting an electron from
a neutral gas molecule over a travelled distance, x, is given by otdx. The
quantity ~ is known as the first ionization coefficient, and its value is
numerically equal to the number of ionizing impacts per electron per unit
distance. Accordingly, n free electrons moving in the direction of the elec-
tric field increase to n + dn electrons at a distance x from the cathode
electrode. Thus, the increase in the number of electrons, dn, is given by
dn = nt~dx (2.4)
If the distance between the anode and the cathode is taken as x : d,

then
N = No exp [~d] (2.5)
where No is the original number of free electrons starting out from the
cathode, and N is the total number of electrons arriving at the anode.
Often it is helpful [7] to express the coefficient ~ in terms of the electronic
charge, e, the electric field intensity, ~, the energy required to ionize the
gas molecules, wi, and the mean free path between collisions )~, as
1
= -~- exp (wi/~,eX) (2.6)
Hence, Eq 2.5 may be rewritten as
N = Noexp[dexp(wi/~ek) 1 (2.7)
Both Eqs 2.5 and 2.7 state in effect that each ionizing electron when sub-
jected to a sufficiently high electric field, g, is accompanied by an expo-
nentially increasing number of electrons along its collision route. This re-
suits in the formation of an electron avalanche, which ultimately may
initiate a breakdown between the metallic electrodes. The breakdown,
manifesting itself externally under normal pressure conditions as a discrete
spark, bridges the intervening gap space in a time that usually ranges
between 0.01 and 0.1 #s. As the fast moving electrons in the avalanche
disappear into the anode, they leave behind the relatively slower ions. The
height, H, of this positive ion column or avalanche is given by [6]
H = exp [c~d] - 1 (2.8)
As the slower positive ions gradually drift towards the cathode, they may
liberate upon impact additional electrons with a probability y (Townsend's
second ionization coefficient). When the height, H, of the positive ion
avalanche becomes sufficiently large to lead to a regeneration of a starting
electron, spark breakdown of the gap ensues as the discharge mechanism
becomes self-sustaining. The Townsend condition for breakdown is thus
given as
y[exp (c~d) -- 1] = 1 (2.9)
Although Townsend in deriving Eq 2.9 assumed that all secondary electron

emission occurs at the cathode due to ionic bombardment, there are other
mechanisms that renew the supply of free electrons and thus influence the
overall value of the second coefficient, % Additional free electrons are
generated by photoelectric emission processes at the cathode and by ioniza-
tion of the gas by photons radiated from metastable and excited gas atoms
or molecules.
2.3 Breakdown Mechanisms Involving Dielectric Surfaces

In our discussion in the previous section, we have pointed out that the
breakdown voltage of a spark gap is a function of the gap length, d, and
the Townsend coefficients, a and y. The first Townsend coefficient, a,
depends 'on the gas within the gap, that is, the electronic structure of the
gas atoms or molecules with which the travelling electrons interact during
their collisions whereby new electrons are released, or, depending upon the
nature of collision and the kinetic energy of the electrons, the gas atoms
or molecules are put into an excited state. The second Townsend coeffi-
cient, % is a measure of the electron regeneration probability. Since a
sizeable portion of the regenerated electrons are produced at the cathode
surface, ~/ should be expected to depend significantly upon the nature of
the electrode surfaces or their work functions. For this reason, one would
anticipate a difference in the breakdown voltage value when, for an identi-
cal gap, the metallic electrodes are replaced by dielectric ones. In his early
pioneering work on corona discharges, Mason [8, 9] found that in the case
of nonventilated dielectric voids, the breakdown voltage was roughly 10 to
20 percent lower than that which would be expected with parallel-plane
metallic electrodes of equivalent gap separation. However, with the rela-
tively more simple parallel-plane dielectric-metallic electrode systems, the
breakdown values were found to be 25 percent lower.
It is generally accepted that breakdown in short metallic-surfaced gaps
is governed by the previously described Townsend mechanism. Because the
most common range of physical void diameters extends roughly from about
28 CORONA
MEASUREMENT
0.1 to 3.0 mm, one would expect the same to apply for the various void
inclusions in the insulating systems of electrical apparatus. However,
because of the highly distorted electric field configurations arising in voids
having dielectric boundaries, there is also a great possibility that the break-
down process is determined by the streamer discharge mechanism [10].
The streamer theory, which was proposed independently by Meek and
Raether [11], involves the formation of individual electron avalanches in
the initial stage, then their transition into streamers and, finally, the mech-
anism of streamer formation itself.
In the development of the streamer discharge as also with the initial
stage of the Townsend-type breakdown, it is assumed that an electron
accelerated in a sufficiently high field, 8, over a distance x gives rise to
exp [ax] electrons. At sufficiently high ratios of G/p. p being again the
gas pressure necessary for spark breakdown [11], the electrons attain
velocities up to 2 1 0 7 c m s - l , while the ions move much more slowly at
2 105 cm s -l, resulting in a typical avalanche formation depicted in
Fig. 2.5. Roughly 104 free electrons comprise each electron avalanche [12].
The space charge field, Er, created by the slow-moving positive ions tends
to increase the externally applied field, 5, as well as producing a radial
field component to the avalanche axis. As the avalanche propagates to
bridge the gap, the electrons disappear into the anode, while the slower
positive ions form a cone-shaped volume across the gap. The ionized gas
now emits photons, and the resulting photo-electrons cause auxiliary elec-
tron avalanches directed towards the main avalanche cone. This auxiliary
avalanche activity becomes most intense in regions where the space charge
field, Er, enhances the value of the externally applied field. According to
the theories of Meek and Raether, as the positive space charges remaining
from the auxiliary avalanches extend and intensify the space charge of the
main avalanche towards the cathode, a self-propagating streamer begins
to form at the anode. When the streamer propagation across the gap is
finally completed, a highly conductive plasma channel is formed and a
spark is observed to bridge the gap. It has been estimated that streamer
l,llll J ll//l'l,l,~illjlJ/ +
Anode
~m~~~th de
FIG. 2.S--Typical electron avalancheformation (after Meek and Craggs [11]).
development is preceded by a buildup of roughly 106 avalanches or 10 ~~

electrons [12]. The streamer formation process is depicted schematically
in Fig. 2.6.
The space charge field at the head of the avalanche, having a radius, r,
is given by [11]
gr= 4ca exp[c~x]

3r (2.10)
where e is the dielectric constant of the gas. The radius term, r, is a func-
tion of the diffusion coefficient, D, and the absolute temperature, T, and
is determined from
r = [2DT] '~ (2.11)
The criterion for streamer formation requires that ~r, as defined by Eqs
2.10 and 2.11, approach in value the externally applied field 5, that is,
g- 3 { eu D-1/2T-l/2 exp [ax]} (2.12)
Devins [10,12] has found that with small dielectric-surfaced gaps (0.08
to 2.5 mm), the streamer mechanism predominates due to the resulting
field distortions that arise from deposited surface charges on the dielectric
electrodes, following the previous discharges. He showed that the transition
from the streamer to the Townsend-type discharges occurs when the elec-
trode surface resistivity falls between 108 and 109 ohm cm -2 or less. With
surface resistivity of _ 10 ~~ohm cm -2, streamer discharges were observed.
According to Devins, the time constant is defined by the following equation.
Anode
////////
///////
Cathode
(a)
JJJJJJJJ 4 ii'i'
:F /////// ///////
(b) (c) (d) (e)
Initiating Positive Auxiliary Streamer Streamer
avalanche space charge avalanches propagates bridges gap
cone in main cone from anode
FIG. 2.6--Streamer formation sequence (after Meek and Craggs [11]).

r = psC (2.13)
Where p, is the surface resistivity and C is the capacitance per unit area.
This time constant, r, must be sufficiently low to redistribute quickly the
surface charge over the entire surface following a preceding discharge, if
the ensuing discharge is to be governed by the Townsend discharge mech-
anism requiring uniform field conditions. With practical insulating ma-
terials such as polyethylene, the resistivity is high and, consequently, the
time constant, r, is too long to effect charge distribution over the void
boundary surfaces. This leads to charge concentrations over the void sur-
faces and the associated field distortions; the positive space charge formed
by the avalanches together with the surface space charge thus aids in the
formation of the streamer-type discharge.
The minimum number of electrons required for the development of a
streamer-type discharge appears to be in the order of 7.6 X 10 a, and this
corresponds to a charge release of about 122 pC per discharge [13]. In the
case of physical voids, Starr [13] reckons that this would correspond to a
minimum void diameter of about 0.051 to 0.076 mm. Since the corona
discharge detectors presently in use can measure only the apparent corona
charge, the detected corona-pulse apparent-charge value in pC in the case
of the critical streamer value might be somewhat less than 122 pC. Never-
theless, the latter value may be used as a rough indicator, that is, dis-
charges with magnitudes >122 pC may be considered as due to the
streamer mechanism, whereas those < 120 pC as due to the more simple
Townsend-type mechanism. A more critical test may be utilized to deter-
mine the nature of the discharge in terms of the detected corona-pulse
shape itself. For tiffs purpose a wide band RC-type (resistive-capacitance)
corona discharge detector must be employed, and the specimen under test
must be free of inductive effects (that is, constitute a true capacitive).
Under these circumstances, the detected corona pulse due to a Townsend-
type discharge would be characterized by a sharp peaked wavefront (elec-
tronic current component) and a relatively long, nearly flat, trailing pulse
edge (ionic return current component) as depicted in Fig. 2.7a. In con-
trast, a detected corona pulse resulting from a streamer-type discharge
would exhibit a considerably sharper well-defined peak with an appreciably
higher amplitude as shown in Fig. 2.7b. As to be expected, the detected
pulse due to the Townsend discharge would be somewhat shorter than that
due to the streamer discharge, since in the case of the Townsend discharge
the spark gap is bridged by a single avalanche event. The overall difference
between the two pulse shapes results primarily from the fact that with the
Townsend discharge both the ions and the electrons are created near the
anode, so that the slow-moving ions must traverse the entire gap in their
migration towards the cathode. Whereas with the streamer discharge, both
the ions and electrons are produced uniformly throughout the gap volume
CHAPTER 2 - - C O R O N A DISCHARGE PROCESSES IN VOIDS 31
o o
<3
<3 i
i r
' <tO-%ec I > 10-7 see

P, "l
(a) (b)
Townsend- fype discharge Streamer type disch0rge
FIG. 2.7--Detected corona-pulse shapes as observed with an RC-type wide-band corona-

sensing unit (after Starr [13]).
and only a small proportion of the slow-moving ions must traverse the
entire gap; consequently, the nearly constant ionic current that falls rather
abruptly to zero at the cathode surface in the Townsend-type discharge is
not observed with the streamer-type discharge [10,12].
Most conventional corona-pulse detection apparatus is available with a
sensitivity level of around 1 to 10 pC. With many currently practical insu-
lating systems, the corona-pulse discharge intensity levels measured in the
vicinity of the corona inception voltage (CIV) point do not exceed much
beyond 10 pC, and the Townsend discharge mechanism predominates.
With applied voltages in excess of the CIV value, larger voids commence to
ionize, and it is quite common to observe a considerable number of dis-
charges with amplitudes in excess of 122 pC. These larger intensity dis-
charges, produced by the streamer process, are appreciably more detri-
mental to the life of the insulating system.
2.4 Dielectric Electrode Effects

As pointed up in the previous section, the discharge mechanism occur-
ring in gap spaces can be significantly affected by whether the electrodes
are of metallic or dielectric material. With physical voids occluded within
the insulating systems of electrical apparatus, the involved boundaries or
electrodes are highly resistive or nonconducting in nature so that the indi-
vidual corona discharges are not capable of completely discharging the
dielectric surface at the time of the discharge. In this section we shall
examine in some detail, the effects of the surface resistivity of the elec-
trodes upon the discharge process.
In discussing the breakdown process in physical voids with dielectric
boundaries, it is always helpful to draw a comparison between the break-
down mechanism in metallic-electrode and dielectric-electrode plane gaps.
When a discharge occurs between metallic electrodes, the resistance across

the spark gap falls to a very low value determined mainly by the impedance
of the external circuit of the voltage source. The resulting current in the
spark channel is thus sufficiently high to release nearly all the charge on
the surface of the conducting (metallic) electrodes at the instant of the dis-
charge. It is therefore evident that with metallic electrodes, a discharge
taking place at any point on the electrode surface will determine the over-
all charge and voltage distribution over the entire electrode surface and,
hence, another simultaneous breakdown is not permitted to occur at any
other point on the electrode surface. Gross [14] has analyzed the case of
metallic-electrode to dielectric-electrode discharges and has shown that
in contrast to the relatively simple case of discharges between metallic elec-
trodes, the air-gap field is dependent on both the dielectric surface charge
distribution as well as the voltage across the electrode system. He found
that when a discharge takes place at any given point on the dielectric
surface, the charge distribution over the remaining portion of the dielectric
surface remains unaffected, apparently due to the relative immobility of
the surface charges (that is, the time constant, r, defined by Eq 2.13 is too
long). Furthermore, because now the impedance of the electrode system
itself is high, the voltage across the entire electrode system is not reduced
to zero by a single discharge, and simultaneous discharges can and do
occur at other points or discharge sites on the dielectric-electrode surface.
Thomas [15], using the Lichtenberg figure approach, obtained additional
experimental evidence concerning the low-mobility behavior of charges on
dielectric-electrode surfaces. He found that with a negative polarity dis-
charge, the electrons enter the dielectric surface and become trapped in
positions that are not readily accessible to neutralizing positive ions pro-
vided by discharges of opposite polarity. A positive charge is created on
the dielectric surface when, during the opposite polarity discharge, elec-
trons are removed from the surface molecules. Under repeated discharges
of opposite polarity, charge clusters of opposite polarity tend to be built
up and sufficiently high tangential fields are thereby created, ultimately
leading to surface discharges between the oppositely charged areas.
Friedlander and Reed [16] have carried out a carefully controlled study
on the surface discharge patterns, using dielectric electrodes consisting of
synthetic-resin bonded papers. They showed that when the positive elec-
trode has a metallic surface and the negative electrode is covered by a di-
electric, the positive charge left on the dielectric-electrode surface following
a spark discharge creates a field concentration at the base of the spark
channel. This causes electron avalanches to propagate over the surface
of the dielectric into the base of the positive space charge column. As the
electrons move upwards in the positive space charge column towards the
positive metal electrode, they leave a trail of positive ions on the dielectric
surface into which auxiliary surface electron avalanches begin to propagate
CHAPTER 2--CORONA DISCHARGE PROCESSES IN V O I D S 33
until the electric field, due to the positive surface charges, is reduced below
a critical value necessary to sustain the surface electron avalanche mech-
anism. This observed surface phenomenon has been well documented using
Lichtenberg figures and is schematically delineated in Fig. 2.8.
When the metallic electrode is at a negative potential and the dielectric-
surfaced electrode is positive, the probability for a multiplicity of discharge
sites on the dielectric surface increases [16]. As the electrons in the spark
channel reach the surface of the dielectric, they become trapped at the
surface and produce a negative surface charge that gives rise to a repulsion
force towards the electron swarms arriving later. The repulsing field of the
negative charge diverts these electrons further away from the base of the
spark channel, and this process continues until the electric field at the
discharge base is balanced out by the reaction field of the negative space
charge left at the outer periphery. Normally, the counter field of the nega-
tive space charge is not sufficiently high to prevent discharges from occur-
ring at adjacent sites on the dielectric surface, thus leading to a branched-
type surface discharge pattern depicted schematically in Fig. 2.9.
If an alternating voltage is applied between the dielectric-metallic elec-
trode system considered previously, then it would be found that the positive
and negative discharge patterns of Figs. 2.8 and 2.9 would be superposed
on the dielectric surface. Mason [9,17], in his extensive work carried out
to study the discharge process in physically real voids in polyethylene, has
substantiated this behavior with experimental evidence. He showed that
with time, the entire void surface becomes covered with superposed dis-
charge patterns. This behavior demonstrates without doubt that with voids
occluded within the insulating systems of electrical apparatus (in contrast
to metallic-electrode gaps) more than one discharge is necessary to dis-
charge the entire void capacitance. It thus follows that the charge released
/////////////////////(+)
"_.2 ~
/ % :&;i:J'/ / " < - " /
' m \'~(-1 Dielectric electrode
FIG. 2.8--Formation o f surface discharges on a dielectric-surfaced electrode at negative

potential (after Friedlander and Reed [16]).
/////////////////////(+)
-+- -+~
.- + - . . . . . . -+- Metallic electrode

247 +~+
First +- +2" Second

~4~ork channel -*2 4-7 247
spark channel
-+-
+~+
-+-

-+-
+-+
-+- -+-
+ -
-+- -+-
( - ) Dielectric electrode
FIG. 2.9--Formation of surface discharge paths on a negative potential dielectric-electrode

surface (after Fr&dlander and Reed [161).
by a single discharge in a gap space with dielectric boundaries will tend to

be less than that of an equivalent gap space (with the same capacitance)
having metallic boundaries. It is further evident that at any given discharge
site, several discharges of opposite polarity take place. The behavior also
suggests that a given discharge channel may migrate back and forth be-
tween a number of discharge sites. Depending upon the surface area of the
dielectric-electrode boundary, two or more migrating discharge channels
may be involved, though the probability that two discharges may occur
simultaneously appears to be low.
2.5 Equivalent Void Circuit

In the previous sections, we have considered the various aspects of the
discharge processes that govern the discharge behavior in void inclusions.
To understand the discharge parameters such as discharge amplitude,
repetition rate, and energy loss, it is often helpful to represent a void in
terms of a model or equivalent electrical circuit. In this section, we shall
deal with a number of important points on this subject.
In the past, a great deal of useful information on the corona discharge
behavior in physically real voids subjected to alternating voltage stress
was obtained by analyzing the discharge behavior of model circuits ap-
proximating physical and artificial voids. The first efforts in this direction
were made by Gemant and yon Philipoff [18], who for the first time made
use of an oscilloscope to study the breakdown or corona discharge sequence
of a metallic-electrode spark gap in series with a capacitor. They placed
the series combination of the spark gap and capacitor across an a-c source
and recorded on an oscillograph the voltage waveforms across the dis-
charging gap. They observed that the number of discharges per cycle was
approximately equal to four at the corona discharge onset and that this
number increased again by about four each time the peak value of applied
voltage exceeded an integer value of the breakdown voltage of the gap.
On the basis of the observations made by Gemant and yon Philipoff,
Whitehead [19] and Austen and Hackett [20] proposed an equivalent
circuit for the discharge process in voids, which was subsequently used to
explain the discharge sequence by Mason [8, 9]. The equivalent circuit is
shown in Fig. 2.10. In the equivalent circuit, Cv represents the capacitance
of the void, C, is the total capacitance in series with the void, and Cp is
the remaining capacitance of the dielectric shunting the series combination
of Cv and Cs. Note that this equivalent circuit is the most simple possible
for the dielectric-void combination, as it completely neglects any surface
leakage effects along the dielectric walls of the void. Although the equiva-
lent circuit greatly oversimplifies the actual discharge conditions occurring
in physically real voids, it has nevertheless served well in providing a simple
means for understanding the more complex and intricate discharge proces-
ses involved.
When a discharge takes place across the void capacitance, Cv, the
voltage across the void falls by a value AE from its initial value of Eb (the
breakdown voltage of the void). Since the discharge takes place in a very
short time compared to the 60 Hz time period of the applied voltage wave,
this is equivalent to an application of a voltage step function across Cv
equal in value to (Eb -- AE). Whitehead [19] correctly points up that
to restore this voltage drop, the charge, AQ, drawn from the capacitance,
Cp, must equal to
AE CvC,
AQ -- Cv + C, (2.14)
Under normal conditions C, << Cv << Cp and Eq 2.14 reduces to
I Cp Cs
Eo a
(a) (b)
Void occluded in dielectric Equivalent circuit of dielectric and void
FIG. 2.10--Dielectric with void inclusion and its corresponding equivalent circuit.
AQ = C~ AE (2.15)
Here AQ represents the charge transfer in the void at the instant of the
discharge. Note that AQ constitutes a direct measure of the magnitude or
intensity of the discharge, since it is proportional to AE. If we define Eb as
the breakdown voltage of the void and E, as the residual voltage of the
void, then in accordance with this definition, the discharge voltage AE is
given by
AE = Eb -- E, (2.16)
The energy, A W, dissipated in each discharge pulse is approximated

by [19]
AW = CvAE b--f (2.17)
where in this case Eb corresponds to the instantaneous sinusoidal voltage

value across the void at the instant of breakdown. If the void is completely
discharged, that is, Er = 0, then Eq 2.17 simplifies to the more often
referred to expression in literature
1
A W = - f Cv[AE] 2 (2.18)
The discharge energy, AW, expended within the discharge channel repre-
sents an important quantity, since the degradation rate of the insulating
material exposed to discharges is directly proportional to the energy re-
leased by the corona discharges. This follows because both the amount of
heat dissipated and the intensity of the ion bombardment, to which the
dielectric surface is subjected, are determined by the AW term. However,
in practice, Eq 2.18 is difficult to implement, since normally neither the
void capacitance nor the voltage change, AE, across the void are known.
In actual fact, the energy release in the voids can be estimated in terms of
the total discharge power loss; the derivation of the latter will be considered
in a subsequent section.
2.6 Sequence of Discharges

When a void is subjected to an a-c stress greater than its breakdown
value, discharges will be found to occur regularly at each half-cycle of the
applied sinusoidal voltage wave. The number of discharges occurring over
each half-cycle will be mainly determined by the integer amount that the
applied voltage peak exceeds the breakdown voltage of the void. The dis-
charges will be observed to occur at definite discharge epochs on the

voltage wave and to follow a certain sequence. To understand the discharge
sequence process, it is again necessary for initial simplicity to consider the
equivalent circuit of the void and dielectric shown in Fig. 2.10.
Let us consider Cv as an ideal spark gap having metallic electrodes such
that the breakdown voltage, Eb, in the two polarities is equal and the
residual voltage, Er, in the two polarities is zero. The latter condition
would follow from the assumption that with each breakdown spark, the
electrodes of the gap are completely discharged. If we use with this ar-
rangement a voltage source frequency of 60 Hz, which is sufficiently low
such that the duration of the discharge, Ar (--10 -7 s), is negligible in
comparison to the period of the sinusoidal wave, 27r/o~, then as the peak
of the voltage wave across the gap reaches the value of the breakdown
voltage, spark-type discharges will recur regularly in each half-cycle in
accordance with the hypothesis of Gemant and yon Philipoff [18]. Dis-
charges will tend to occur at points or epochs along the upward and down-
ward voltage excursions of the applied voltage wave, whenever the voltage
swing across the idealized cavity changes by an integer value of the break-
down voltage in the same polarity [19]. In the analysis of the discharge
sequence, it is often helpful to introduce the concept of the apparent
voltage across the cavity, because this allows us to express the actual
voltage across the discharging cavity in terms of it. The term apparent
voltage refers to the voltage that would be developed across the cavity in
the absence of spark-over. If we consider the model equivalent circuit of
the void in Fig. 2.10b, where Eo is the peak applied voltage across the
series combination formed by Cs and Cv, then the apparent voltage E~ sin 0
(where 0 = o~t) across the cavity having an unionized gas capacitance,
Cv, that is in series with a corona-free capacitance, C,, has a peak value
equal to
EoC~
E, = (2.19)
C~+C~
Assuming in our idealized cavity that the breakdown voltage, Eb, is equal
in the two polarities, we have at the CIV value, E, = Eb. Neglecting the
discharge time, Az, and letting the residual voltage E, = 0 in the two
polarities, we have exactly four discharges over one cycle as depicted in
Fig. 2.11. It can be discerned from the waveform that two of the discharge
epochs are located exactly at the two voltage maxima (01 = r / 2 , 03 =
37r/2), while the remaining two take place exactly at the two voltage zeros
(05 = 7r, 04 -----270. As the applied sinusoidal voltage is raised above the
CIV value, no additional discharges occur though some of the discharge
epochs change, thus in effect altering the discharge sequence. This can
be perceived by comparing Fig. 2.11 with Fig. 2.12, which represents the
FIG. 2.11--Voltage waveforms across an idealized cavity at the CIV. with equal breakdown
voltages and zero residual voltages in the two polarities.
condition with Eo = 3 E b / 2 . Note that for the latter case, 01 < ~r/2 and
03 < 37r/2 though 02 and 04 are still equal to ~r and 2~r, respectively.
As the applied voltage is further raised to E o C , / ( C , + Cv) : 2Eb or
Ea ---- 2Eb, the total number of discharges is augmented abruptly to eight
per cycle as illustrated in Fig. 2.13. From the examples considered, it is
thus evident that with our idealized cavity the number of discharges per
cycle will tend to increase in steps of four every time that the peak value
of the instantaneously applied voltage equals or exceeds the breakdown
voltage, E b , in accordance with the hypothesis of Gemant and yon Philipoff.
This behavior will generate a step-function of the form [21]
n = No(o~/27r)u(E - E b ) + N o ( ~ / 2 7 r ) u ( E -- 2Eb)
+ No(~/2z)u(E - - 3Eb) + . . .
i
: No(o~/2z) ~, u [ E -- ( m + 1)Eb] (2.20)
m=0
where m = 0, 1, 2 . . . i, n is the discharge rate in pulses per second, E is

the instantaneous value of the apparent voltage across the cavity having
zero residual voltages and equal breakdown voltages (Eb) in the two polari-
ties, ~ is the frequency term in radians, and No represents the initial num-
ber of discharges per cycle. The latter quantity is always taken as equal
to four, assuming that the discharge time, Ar = 0. In practice even in the
relatively simple case of parallel-plane metallic-electrode spark gaps, the
step-curve is rarely obtained [22], and the resulting voltage waveform
pattern is generally unstationary. This visually observed instability arises
from a precession of discharge epochs, caused primarily by a variation of
the breakdown and residual voltages in the two polarities. This leads to
a voltage waveform across the gap, which no longer evinces the symmetry
FIG. 2.12--Voltage waveforms across an idealized cavity having equal breakdown voltages
and zero residual voltages in the two polarities, obtained at a peak apparent voltage equal
to 1.5Eb.
FIG. 2.13--Voltage waveforms across an idealized cavity having equal breakdown voltages
and zero residual voltages in the two polarities, obtained at a peak apparent voltage equal
to 2Eb.
in the two half-cycles characterizing the idealized waveforms portrayed in

Figs. 2.11, 2.12, and 2.13. In addition, note that the occurrence of a finite
discharge time, At, alone would give rise to a very slow precession of
discharge epochs.
Figure 2.14 compares the theoretical curve with an actual discharge
characteristic obtained with a 0.10-mm metallic-electrode gap in air; the
latter was obtained on the assumption of equal breakdown and zero
residual voltages in the two polarities [22,23]. In the theoretical curve, it
t500 I I I I
t250
c:
I
,o
r
t000
0.. Experimental curve-
750
o
t.. curve
s 500
8
"6
ii
>
r~
z 25s
I I ~ I
O
0 2 4 6 8 t0
Applied voltage ( kV rms )
FIG. 2.14--Corona discharge rate characteristics o f a O.lO-mm spark gap in air at atmo-
spheric pressure (after Bartnikas [23]).
is thus assumed that the discharge rate increases by 4 pulses per cycle or
240 pulses per second (at a power supply frequency of 60 Hz) in integer
multiples of the corona onset voltage (CIV). The experimental characteristic
was obtained using the 0.10-mm gap in series with a corona-free 40-pF
capacitor; the series combination formed by the latter and the gap was
shunted by an appreciably larger cable specimen capacitance. For this
reason, the applied voltage across the cable was used as the abscissa-axis
variable. From Fig. 2.14, it can be discerned that the experimental curve
is approximately the mean of the theoretically predicted one; this behavior
has been found to be typical of many metallic-electrode gaps tested, using
different separations, vapor pressures, and gases in addition to that of air.
One of the most interesting features of the experimental characteristic is
that at the CIV point, the discharge rate is always found to be 120 pulses
per second (two discharges per cycle) in lieu of the 240 pulses per second
(four discharges per cycle) inferred from the theory. Whitehead [19] dem-
onstrated that a stable discharge rate of two pulses per cycle is possible
only when the two breakdown voltages in the two polarities are greater
than the peak value of the apparent voltage and the discharge process is
triggered by a spontaneous discharge resulting from some unknown cause.
However, extensive high-speed camera records obtained by Bartnikas and
d'Ombrain [23] have established that the initial discharge takes place at
the peak voltage of either the positive or negative portions of the cycle
whenever the voltage across the gap becomes initially equal to the break-
down voltage of the cavity in the respective polarity. Subsequently, with
the occurrence of the incipient discharge, space charge is created and the
breakdown voltage in the opposite polarity is increased so that the ensuing
discharge does not appear at the voltage zero, in accordance with the
theory, but at a point extending into the following half-cycle. Evidently,
as the incipient discharge causes the breakdown voltages to exceed the
instantaneous peak value of the apparent voltage across the gap, only two
discharges per cycle are allowed; in effect, the Whitehead condition holds,
but for a different reason. Figure 2.15 depicts a typical voltage waveform
across a spark gap at corona onset. The abrupt breaks in the otherwise
continuous waveform represent the discharge epoch points; it is apparent
that the condition of two discharges per cycle does not lead to a sym-
metrical voltage waveform across the gap in the two respective half-cycle
segments.
The fact that normally the experimental discharge rate versus applied
voltage characteristic for metallic-electrode cavities is found to be linear
as well as a mean of the theoretically-derived step-curve, for the case of
equal breakdown and zero residual voltages in the two polarities, can
be regarded as rather fortuitous. Under actual discharge conditions, even
with the most simple geometrical configurations involving metallic elec-
trodes, it is normally found that both breakdown voltages in the two po-
larities differ, and finite residual voltages, unequal in the two polarities,
FIG. 2.1S--Voltage waveform at corona onset across a discharging O.15-mm metallic-

electrode gap in air under atmospheric pressure (two breakdowns p e r cycle at 60 H z ). Scale:
1.1 k V / division (vertical), 5 ms/division (horizontal) (after Bartnikas and d'Ombrain [24]).
appear. In addition, both the breakdown and residual voltages undergo

variation even within the same polarity. Occasionally, the discharge rate
versus applied voltage characteristics evince some step-like features over
a restricted applied voltage range [21]. This quasi-regular behavior is
caused by a constancy in the magnitude of the residual and breakdown
voltages over the applied voltage range in question. The appearance of
finite residual voltages will tend to alter significantly the discharge sequence,
as the following simple example will indicate.
Let us consider a spark gap with equal breakdown and residual voltages
in the two polarities such that Eb ~ E b ' , E r ~- E r ' , and E r = t/2Eb,
where E b ' and E r ' refer respectively to the breakdown and residual volt-
ages in the negative polarity as opposed to the respective quantities of Eb
and Er in the positive polarity. If we consider a case where E, = 3 E b ,
then the voltage across the gap for the first half-cycle assumes the form [22]
E(O) = {[U(O -- 0.,) -- u(O -- O.,+I)]Eo sinO -- m ( E b -- E . ) }

tit = 0
8
+ E {[u(O - o,,,) - u(O - o,.+,)]
m=6
E, sin 0 -- (10 -- m ) (Eb -- Er)} (2.21)
where the discharge epochs are given by
O("+ ') = s i n - l l E b - m(E~ - E') form=O, 1,2,3,4 (2.22)
and
0tin+l) =~r --sin-1 I.E" -- [Eb +Ea(m --4)E,].I for m = 5, 6, 7,8 (2.23)
At each discharge epoch, the voltage across the idealized cavity falls
abruptly from Eb to E r a s shown in Fig. 2.16. It can be seen that over the
initial half-cycle, we have nine discharge epochs or discharges, whereas in
all the subsequent half-cycles the discharge number remains fixed at ten.
Another important point to note, which was not emphasized before, is that
over the ascending portion of the cycle the corona discharges are of positive
polarity while over the descending portion their polarity becomes negative.
The discharge polarity must be taken into account when designing corona-
pulse detection and counting circuitry.
It becomes evident that the introduction of finite residual voltages gives
rise to an increased number of discharges, if we consider the equivalent
FIG. 2.16--Voltage waveforms across an idealized cavity having equal breakdown, Eb,
and residual, Er, voltages in the two polarities, representing the condition where the peak
apparent voltage equals 3 E b or 6 E r .
case of 3gb = E . , Eb : E b ' , but Er = Er' : O. For this condition, the

voltage E(O) across the cavity over the first positive half-cycle becomes
3
E(O) = ]2 {[u(O -- 0 , . - , ) -- u(O - O.,)]E. sinO -- (m -- 1)Eb}
m:l
6
-]- ~ { [ U ( 0 - - Om-1) - - u(O - - Om)]Ea s i n 0 - - ( 7 - -
m=4
m)Eb} (2.24)
where by definition 0o : 0, and the defined discharge epochs are given by
Om = sin -1 ~ - ~ - ~
~mEb] for m = I, 2, 3 (2.25)
and
Om = Tr - sin-l I 9Ea - (m
E . - 3)Eb t form = 4,5, 6 (2.26)
Comparing Eqs 2.24 through 2.26 with 2.21 through 2.23, it is apparent
that with the appearance of finite residual voltages, the number of dis-
charges is augmented from six over the first half-cycle (for Er = E r ' = 0)
to nine over the first half-cycle for (Er = E / = Eb/2). The effect of the
residual voltages upon the discharge rate becomes more lucid, if we con-
sider the discharge rate expression for the conditions defined by Eq 2.21
and depicted in Fig. 2.16. The discharge rate may be expressed by [22]
n = (colt) 1 + -(~ --Er) (2.27)
Equation 2.27 is defined only for integer values of
I. 2Eo -- (Eb + E~)

(Eb -- Er) "]
Upon examining Eq 2.27, it becomes apparent that for E~ = E / = 0,
Eq 2.27 will yield an identical result to that provided by Eq 2.20. This
follows from the fact that Eq 2.27 also represents a step function, whose
individual step magnitudes are determined by the value of (Eb -- E~). It
is furthermore apparent that the slope of the function decreases with the
value of Eb and increases with Er. Evidently, the slope of the function
defined by Eq 2.27 will always exceed that defined by Eq 2.20. We observe
moreover that as
limrr~Eb [.2E5
[_ (Eb-- (Eb + E~) -J = oo
----E-~j (2.28)
we can anticipate extremely small step increments as well as high discharge

rates for unusually large values of Er. In practice, where voids or cavities
with dielectric-surfaced electrodes are involved, the discharge rates at any
given discharge site would be expected to be somewhat higher than of
equivalent gap spacings with metallic electrodes. In the latter case, the
discharges would tend to discharge most of the gap capacitance leading to
relatively small values of Er as compared to those characterizing voids with
dielectric electrodes where the limited conductivity of the dielectric would
give rise to higher values of Er.
In the completely general case, it is necessary to consider a cavity with
unequal breakdown and residual voltages in the two polarities. It can be
anticipated that under such circumstances a variety of step functions could
be obtained depending upon the relative magnitudes of Eb, Eb', Er, and
E / . The corona discharge rate for the completely general case can be
expressed as [22]
n
= (o~/27r)~'[I+ 2E.- (Eb +.E,')]
(L (E~ - E,) J
+ :,)]}
+[1+ (E, --E,) j) (2.29)
Again, this equation is only defined for integer values of

2a -- (Eb q- E , ' )
(E~ -- E,)
and
2E~ -- (Eb' + E,)

(Eb' - - E , ' )
From Eq 2.29, it is apparent that the discharge rate represents two super-
posed step functions, provided the breakdown and residual voltages are
constant and certain additional conditions are met. The latter require that
the fractional remainders in the first bracketed term be equal to those of
the second at all values of test voltage. If these conditions are not met,
then the number of discharges will alternate from cycle to cycle, giving
rise to a precession of discharge epochs, thereby causing the discharge rate
to increase with voltage not in steps but quasi-linearly. Evidently, this leads
to an unstationary discharge pattern, and it is thus incorrect to speak in
terms of a fixed number of discharge pulses per cycle. Implicit in Eq 2.29
is Whitehead's stable condition for two discharges per cycle [22], namely
[(Eb + E r ' ) + (Eb -- Er)] > 2Eo _ (Eb + Er')
and
[(Eb' + E,-) + (Eb' -- Er')] > 2 E . >- ( E b ' + E~) (2.30)
This condition is quite general and applies even if we let Eb = Eb' and
E, = E , ' or Er = E , ' = 0. The relationship in Eq 2.30 assumes that a
triggering discharge (most probably at the voltage crest) is required to
initiate the discharge process.
Studies carded out with metallic-electrode gaps showed that the break-
down and residual voltages vary from polarity to polarity and even within
the same polarity. Thus, our previous considerations in model cavity
studies, assuming fixed breakdown and residual voltages, cannot be directly
applied in practice. However, such consideration of the idealized cavities
is helpful because it provides us with a better mental grasp on the more
complex discharge sequence behavior in the physically real voids. Figure
2.17 shows a typical voltage waveform obtained with a 0.10-mm parallel-
plane metallic-electrode spark gap in air at atmospheric pressure. It can
be discerned that for the particular example shown there are six discharges
over the entire cycle and that the breakdown and residual voltages exhibit
variation with the discharge epoch. At the same time, it is rather note-
worthy that the voltage reduction at each discharge epoch, that is, the
arithmetic difference between the breakdown and residual voltages, is

surprisingly constant. We thus note that for the positive polarity
[Eb(Oi) - - Er(Oi)] = z~E (2.31)
and for the negative polarity
[Eb'(Oj) -- E,'(Oj)] = &E' (2.32)
where zkE = A E ' , and 01 and Oj are the /th and j t h discharge epochs,
respectively. It is most appropriate to remark here that it is precisely the
voltages &E and &E' to which a corona pulse detector responds. Thus,
with constant and equal values of &E and &E', the corona-pulse discharge
pattern displayed on the cathode ray screen of a conventional corona-
pulse discharge detector would consist of a series of pulses with constant
amplitude.
Returning to the question of the corona discharge rate, n, under the
above conditions of variable breakdown and residual voltages and zLE =
A E ' , we can write [ 2 2 ]
n = -- + 2Ea -- E~(O,) -- E,'(0,)]

.ff
+ [2Ea -- Eb(02) -- E,'(02)]

+ -.. + [ 2 E ~ -- Eb(O:) -- E,'(Of)]}
I
+ -~- {[2E, -- Eb'(O,) -- E,(0t)]
+ [2E. -- Eb'(O2) -- E,(02)]
+ . - . + [2s -- Eb'(Of) -- E,(O:)]} (2.33)
FIG. 2.17--Typical variation o f breakdown and residual voltages with discharge epoch for
a 0.15-ram gap in air under atmospheric pressure (four breakdowns per cycle at 60 Hz).
Scale: 1.1 k V/division (vertical), 5 ms/division (horizontal) (after Bartnikas and d'Ombrain
[241).
Here the subscript f refers to the cycle number; thus for tests carried out
at a power frequency of 60 Hz, f : 60. Equation 2.33 essentially repre-
sents two summations. The first summation is made along the ascending
portion and the second along the descending portion of each cycle, respec-
tively, over an interval of 1 s. The terms Eb(Oi), Eb'(Of), Er(Of), and
Er'(Oy) refer to average voltage values over each of the respective cycles
under consideration. In the case of a nearly stationary discharge voltage
wave pattern, an irregular step behavior would be anticipated in terms of
Eq 2.33, though under the occurrence of a rapid precession of discharge
epochs a quasi-linear curve would result. Note that in all of the foregoing
analyses, we have neglected the finite discharge time value, At. With a
finite Ar only, a slow precession of discharge patterns may be observed
and with all other variables remaining fixed, a step behavior of the dis-
charge rate is normally observed [22].
2.7 Discharge Sequence with Dielectric Electrodes

Until now in our analysis of the corona discharge sequence, we have
dealt with idealized cavities having metallic electrodes. When dielectric
electrodes are introduced, the discharge process usually involves two or
more discharge sites, and it is no longer possible to determine the exact
discharge sequence at the discrete discharge sites. Instead, the observed
waveform across the dielectric-electrode cavity represents the cumulative
effect of all the discharge sites. An additional complication also arises in
the sense that the voltage waveforms cannot be observed directly across
the gap. It is now only possible to view the waveform across the entire gap
including the dielectric in series.
Let us now consider the voltage division relationships that would result
across a discharge site on a dielectric surface in series with an air gap,
as in the case of a real void located between the conductor of a cable and
the cable insulation, for example. To observe the ~vaveforms in practice
[24,25], it is common to connect the series dielectric-cavity combination
in series with another corona-free capacitor and place the combination
thus formed in parallel with a large corona-free capacitance, which simu-
lates the remainder of the insulating system of the cable or electrical appa-
ratus under test. One such possible arrangement is depicted in Fig. 2.18a,
in which the voltage waveforms across the discharging cavity are observed
across the terminals shown. Figure 2.18b provides the details on the spark-
gap layout itself.
With the experimental setup given in Fig. 2.18, the observed voltage
waveforms include two components across the dielectric-surfaced electrode.
One simply consists of the sinusoidal voltage drop, whereas the other arises
from the instantaneous breakdown current, i(t), which, by causing a volt-
age change, AV, across the series capacitor, C, and AV2 across the di-
Corona-free ._~ Ct ~
L Corona- free
capacitor(40~F)
capacitor
simulating
major portionaf T
insulatingsystem
(~ 5000pF) / Dielectric C2,_~
surfaced gap ,.-'--r--,-.
l
Directlyto plates
of oscilloscopeor
voltage divider
2_
D
HV metallic electrode
O.250 in. R. I ~'~

O. .D. Tin fail
E 1" t.Oin. D.
4/ S Dielectric layer
d i // I /
I
1 ,
.d
u')
,
i \ L
eJ 20 in.D.
d '~-- Groundedmetallicelectrode
~ ~ 0 . 0 ~ 5 in.
FIG. 2.18--(a) Experimental arrangement for observing the voltage waveforms across a
discharging metallic-dielectric electrode cavity. (b) Detailed electrode schematic for use in
conjunction with the circuitry of (a) (after Bartnikas and Levi [21]).
electric-surface electrode at the discharge site with an effective capacitance

C2, compensates for the abrupt voltage collapse across the cavity [25].
Although the value of C2 is unknown and, consequently, the ratio AV~/AV2
cannot be determined, this uncertainty does not really preclude interpre-
tation of the waveforms. Consider a hypothetical discharge site having con-
stant and equal breakdown voltages, Eb, in the two polarities, with zero
residual voltages (that is, E, = 0) so that each breakdown is assumed to
discharge completely the discharge site. For illustrative purposes, we shall
arbitrarily set AV2 = 1/2Eb and consider the case with the peak sinusoidal
voltage across the gap equal to 3 E b and that across the dielectric layer
E d = Eb. Then if we neglect the finite discharge time, At, the various
waveforms shall assume the forms delineated in Fig. 2.19. Examination
of the waveforms shows that the voltage across the metallic-dielectric-
electrode discharge site falls always by (Eb -- AV2) at each discharge
epoch; should Er ~ 0, then each abrupt voltage fall or pulse would be
equivalent to ( E b - - E r - - AV2). Using the previously developed notation,
the voltage waveform generated over one complete cycle across the dielectric
layer due to the cumulative effect of all the AV2 voltage change-steps, is
represented by the following step-function
FIG. 2.19--Voltage waveforms at a hypothetical discharge site o f a metallic-dielectric-

electrode gap,
m=9 rn:12 ]
E2(0)=AV2L .... ~ u ( O - - O ' ) - u(O -- Om) + ~ u(O -- Om) (2.34)
m:4 m=10
It is evident that the waveform depicted in Fig. 2.19b is obtained by super-

posing this step-function upon the sinusoidal drop occurring across the
dielectric layer. The overall waveform of Fig. 2.19b added to that of the
discharging gap in Fig. 2.19a yields the total waveform across the metallic-
dielectric-electrode discharge site depicted in Fig. 2.19c.
Although the waveform depicted in Fig. 2.19c represents a highly ideal-
ized situation, it nevertheless serves as a good basis for interpreting the
discharge behavior of the more complicated discharge processes in practice
[26]. When viewing similar voltage waveforms across actual spark gaps
undergoing discharge, it must be borne in mind that the resultant wave-
form usually comprises the overall effect of more than one discharge site.
Consequently, the temporal separation between adjacent discharge epochs
does not necessarily represent the time span between two successive dis-
charges at the same discharge site; more likely, it may represent the dis-
charge time span between two discrete discharge sites. With larger gaps,
faint sparks are visible in the intervening gap space and their migration
over the dielectric surface reveals the presence of several discharge sites.
Figure 2.20, obtained on a 5.0-mm helium gap, typifies this spark dis-
charge regime. Each discontinuity in the voltage waveform trace represents
a spark discharge epoch at which the voltage falls abruptly by
{Eb(O~k) - - E,(Ojk) - - 6(O2k)[Eb(Ojk) -- E,(O~k)]} (2.35)
where Eb(Ojk) and E,(Ojk) are the breakdown and residual voltages respec-
tively at thejth discharge epoch (Ojk) for the kth discharge site, and ~(0jk)
is a proportional function determining the fraction of the pulse [Eb(0jk) --
Er(Ojk)] appearing across the dielectric at the kth discharge site. In the
idealized case dealt with in Fig. 2.19, it is apparent that by definition
AV2 -----t$(Ojk)[Eb(Ojk) -- Er(Ojk)]
or
AV2 - ~(Ojk)Eb(Ojk) f o r E,(O~k) = 0 (2.36)
As pointed out previously, with a single discharge site involving metallic

surfaces, the difference [Eb(0j) -- Er(Oj)] exhibits negligible change. For
this reason, the appreciably more pronounced variations in the voltage
decrements evinced in Fig. 2.20 must be ascribed mainly to the presence of
several discharge sites having significantly different values of [Eb(Ojk) - -
Er(Oyk)].
FIG. 2.20--Voltage waveform across a discharging 5. O-ram metallic-dielectric-electrode gap

in helium under atmospheric pressure at an applied voltage of lO k V. Scale: 1,16 k V/division
(vertical), 2 ms/division (horizontal) (after Bartnikas, unpublished work).
Considerably more insight into the discharge sequence is gained if the

discharge voltage waveforms are examined between equally spaced metallic-
dielectric electrodes, first with the dielectric electrode covered by a metallic
foil and then with the foil removed. This is accomplished by molding a tin
foil over the dielectric electrode, which can be subsequently removed to
expose the dielectric surface [26]. Figure 2.21 shows a set of voltage wave-
forms obtained on a 0.5-mm air gap at atmospheric pressure with the tin
foil in situ and then removed. It can be perceived that with the tin foil
removed, the value proportional to [Eb(O) - - Er(O)] and, hence, to the
discharge pulse amplitude, is less than that with the tin foil in situ--
thereby indicating that less charge per discharge pulse is transferred when
one of the electrodes is surfaced with a dielectric layer. Furthermore, in
this particular case, the number of discharges per cycle appears to be
unaltered, and one must therefore conclude that under some conditions
the substitution of a metallic surface with a dielectric surface does not
always lead to an increase in the number of discharges.
With the preceding experimental arrangement, the number of pulse-type
discharge sites, N(E, x), on a dielectric surface for a given gap setting,
x, at an applied voltage, E, can be estimated approximately using the
relationship [26]
N(E, x) = [nd(E, x)/nm(E, x)] (2.37)
where n,,(E, x) is the discharge rate in pulses per second obtained with
the tin foil covering the dielectric-electrode surface, and rid(E, x) is the
corresponding discharge rate obtained with an equivalent gap setting upon
removal of the tin foil. In terms of this definition, N(E, x) = 1 entails a
single pulse-type discharge site upon the dielectric surface. A considerable
number of experiments carried out using a polyvinyl chloride (PVC) dielec-
tric-electrode surface [26] showed that for air at atmospheric pressure this
condition obtains approximately for the usual gap settings representing
FIG. 2.21--Voltage waveforms across a discharging 0.5-mm gap in series with a 0.38-ram
PVC film in air under atmospheric pressure at an applied voltage of 5.5 kV: (top) tin-brass
electrodes and (bottom)PVC-brass electrodes. Scale: 2. 0 k V/division (vertical), 2 ms~division
(horizontal) (after Bartnikas [26]).
typical physical void diameters. In the case of other electronegative gases

such as oxygen and sulfur hexafluoride, SF6, the condition N ( E , x ) > 1
was found to prevail (that is, several discharge sites occurred on the dielec-
tric surface). This particular behavior is depicted in Fig. 2.22, obtained on
oxygen. (Note that the larger slope characterizing the metallic-dielectric
electrode curve indicates that the number of discharge sites increases
significantly with the applied voltage.)
With inert gases, the reverse to the preceding behavior was generally
found to occur, that is, N ( E , x) < 1. This strongly suggested that dis-
charge processes other than the pulse or spark type could predominate
when a metallic surface is replaced by a dielectric surface. It has been
demonstrated [25-27] that with all gases (including air) under certain
conditions, the breakdown process in cavities may be governed by either
the glow or the so-called pseudoglow [27] discharge mechanism. Whether
t h e s e types of discharges do actually occur within practical voids depends
largely on the void diameter, nature of the gas, gas pressure, void con-
t600 i i I / |
/
f = 60 Hz
,
g BOC
/ PVC-brass electrodes
8
~0 40C
I I I I
2 4 6 8 I0 12
Applied voltoge - ( k V )
FIG. 2.22--Corona discharge rate characteristics o f a 0.50-ram gap in oxygen at atmo-

spheric pressure at 60 Hz, with the low- voltage electrode material as a parameter (after Bartnikas
[261).
figuration, and t h e nature of the dielectric surface lining the void. The
probability of occurrence of glow or pseudoglow discharges increases with
decreasing gas pressure and void diameter. The occurrence of glow or
pseudoglow discharges poses great ramifications as regards the conventional
corona detection and measurement methods. These ramifications will be-
come abundantly clear as we proceed to define the terms glow and pseudo-
glow.
Let us first consider the glow discharge process. Perhaps the most classic
example of the glow discharge applied in practice is the thyratron rectifier
tube, containing a gas at low pressure. A thyratron tube with its grid re-
moved may be regarded as an equivalent circuit of an idealized cavity
containing a gas at low pressure. Consider the case where the peak value
of the apparent voltage, E,, across the cavity exceeds the breakdown
voltage, E b , by one-third (that is, Eb = 2,/aEa) and, further, the constant
voltage drop across the plasma glow is Er = 1AEb. Under these circum-
stances, the voltage waveform across the cavity undergoing a glow dis-
charge would assume the form delineated in Fig. 2.23.
From the voltage waveform in Fig. 2.23a, it is apparent that under glow
discharge conditions the number of pulse breakdowns per cycle is limited
to two at the discharge epochs 01 and 02, where the discharge glow is
initiated in the two respective half-cycles. Note that in contrast, a void
undergoing true pulse-type discharge under the same conditions would be
subjected to four discharges per cycle. The glow portion of the discharge
is confined to the regions (lr -- 01) and (27r - - 0 2 ) . The corresponding

square pulse excitation train generated by the two pulse type discharges,
causes a conventional corona-pulse detector to respond only at 01 and 02
(see Fig. 2.23c), provided the charge transfer associated with the voltage
reduction (Eb - - E~) is sufficiently large in terms of the detector sensi-
tivity. Unlike for a discharge process entirely governed by the spark break-
down mechanism, the overall energy expended by this type of glow dis-
charge is no longer proportional to the total number of detected discharge
pulses. A substantial portion of the energy is dissipated within the pulse-
less glow region bound by the phase limits 01 to 7r and 02 to 2w. The dis-
charge energy loss per second associated with the two glow-initiating pulses
is given by
[w(o,)] = ~ [E~(O,) - E,(O,)]~C
and
60
[W(02)] 7_ ~ [Eb(02)- E,.(02)]2C
or
[W(01) + W(02)] 7_ --~-~-{[Eb(Ol) --Er(01)] 2 + [Eb(02) --Er(02)] 2} (2.38)
FIG. 2.23--(a) Voltage waveform across cavity undergoing a glow discharge. (b) Corre-
sponding voltage step rise across equivalent series dielectric. (c) Response of a conventional
corona-pulse detector.
where C is the equivalent void capacitance being discharged. Over the two
pulseless glow regions, the energy loss is defined by
o~ J . 8 dt
[WOr -- Ol)] = 27r J0,/~
and
12~r/t0
o~ jo2/~ J . ~ dt
[W(2~ -- 02)] = 2r
or
[W(~ -- 01) + W(2~ -- 02)] = o~ ~Jo,/~ J . ~ dt + Jo2/~ J . g dt

2~ (2.39)
where J-is the current density phasor, defined by
J= ~ (2.40)
and o is the conductivity of the plasma glow, and ~ is the electric field
gradient phasor across the glow discharge. Due to the symmetry of the
discharge process in our idealized cavity, the total energy loss Wo within
the cavity may be expressed in a more simple form by
Wo = ~ (Eb-Er)2C + ~ J. gdt (2.41)

71" OO~l~
As concerns the detectability of voids undergoing a true glow discharge,

it might be pointed out that the redeeming feature lies with the two initi-
ating pulses. Were it not for the presence of these two pulses, a conven-
tional corona-pulse detector would fail completely to indicate the presence
of corona in the void. Since the true glow discharge is essentially a low
gas pressure phenomenon, its occurrence within the voids of practical
insulating systems is unlikely. Evidently, in the case of some specialized
low-vacuum apparatus, its occurrence probability would be greatly en-
hanced.
In the preceding discussion, we have mentioned the term pseudoglow
discharge. The term pseudoglow refers to a discharge [27] that may be
regarded as representing an intermediate or perhaps transitory stage be-
tween the pulse-type and glow-type discharges. Thus, pseudoglow dis-
charges have some features that are common to spark and glow discharges.
Visually, a pseudoglow discharge emits a glow indistinguishable from that
emitted by a true glow discharge. However, in contrast to the true glow
discharge, a voltage waveform discharge pattern of the pseudoglow con-

tains numerous minute pulses; in fact, with metallic electrode gaps, the
voltage reduction difference (Eb -- Er) tends to zero towards the end of
each half-cycle. Figure 2.24 illustrates this most unusual behavior first
observed by Bartnikas [27], using metallic electrode gaps placed 1.20 mm
or less apart in helium. Note that at the beginning of each half-cycle, no
large pulse-type discharges occur. The magnitude of the individual voltage
reductions (Eb -- E,) are too small to excite a response in conventional
corona-pulse detectors and, consequently, this type of discharge would
remain completely undetected. With dielectric-surfaced electrodes, it is
quite often the case that all three types of discharges (spark, glow, and
pseudoglow) occur simultaneously; this leads to rather complex voltage
waveforms across the discharging cavity as is illustrated in Fig. 2.25. In
the region over which the values of (Eb -- Er) are small, the pseudoglow
discharge mechanism predominates. Large values of (Eb - - E,) characterize
the pulse or spark discharge regime, whereas the distortions in the continu-
ous portion of the otherwise sinusoidal waveform are caused by the true
glow discharge process.
From the foregoing considerations, it is apparent that the accurate
measurement of corona discharges and their interpretation are not a simple
matter. However, because the discharge process in physical voids is char-
acterized by the presence of some spark or pulse-type discharges, even in
eases where the glow and pseudoglow discharge mechanisms may predomi-
nate, mere corona detection using conventional corona-pulse detectors is
generally adequate. As most electrical apparatus and cable insulating sys-
tems are operated at or close to atmospheric pressure, any voids occluded
therein will be subjected to roughly the same gas pressures despite the
fact that the initial pressures within these voids during or shortly after the
manufacturing processes may have differed significantly from the atmo-
FIG. 2.24--Voltage waveform typifying the pseudoglow discharge across a 0.5-mm brass-
electrode gap in helium under atmospheric pressure at an applied voltage of 1.0 k V. Scale:
O.14 k V/division (vertical), 2 ms~division (horizontal) (after Bartnikas, unpublished work).
FIG. 2.2S--Voltage waveform across a discharging 0.5-mm metallic-dielectric-electrode

gap in helium under atmospheric pressure at an applied voltage of 10 kV. Scale: 1.16 k V /
division (vertical), 2 ms~division (horizontal) (after Bartnikas, unpublished work).
spheric value. Diffusion of the gas molecules throughout the insulating

system does eventually equalize the pressure differences with the ambient
conditions. The vast amount of experimental data collected heretofore
indicates that the spark-type discharge process will generally predominate
in voids containing air at atmospheric pressure. It has been further demon-
strated that for any gas, including air, the presence of pseudoglow dis-
charges is eliminated when the pressure is raised above atmospheric. Thus,
any corona discharge process occurring in gas pressurized electrical appa-
ratus would be expected to be largely of the spark or pulse type. At the
same time, it must be emphasized that with minute voids - 0 . 1 5 mm in
diameter containing air at atmospheric pressure there has been consider-
able evidence gathered to support the fact that pseudoglow discharges can
and do occur [26].
Up to this point in our discussion on the discharge process between
dielectric surfaces, we have neglected the effect of the finite conductivity
of the void surface walls. With physically real voids, which are generally
of spheroidal shape, the discharge sequence would be expected to differ
somewhat from that of dielectric-electrode gaps due to conduction effects
that may take place along the void surfaces in the direction of the electric
field gradient. It is often found in practice that voids, which may undergo
ionization or discharge quite readily upon the initial application of the
electric field, cease to discharge after a certain amount of time following
the application of the external electrical stress. This commonly observed
phenomenon is usually traced to either the formation of conductive car-
bonized channels along the void walls or the formation of conductive acids
that short out the discharging void-electrode extremities in the field direc-
tion. In such circumstances, it is normally found that with the initial appli-
cation of the external field, the corona discharge rate is relatively constant
over a short period of time after which it gradually decreases towards zero,
indicating the final short-circuit condition within the void. Here, it should
be emphasized that the disappearance of the corona discharges within a

given void may also be caused by other possible effects such as gas pressure
changes within the void due to gas diffusion or chemical reaction rates.
Evidently, the latter effect has no connection with the void surface con-
ductivity behavior.
Even minute changes in the void-wall surface conductivity can affect the
charge distribution at or in the vicinity of the discharge sites within a
given void. It is perhaps due to this primary effect and other associated
insulation degradation processes that the corona energy loss and discharge
rate emanating from physical voids is a strong function of the testing time.
A great deal of work has been carried out in this field of endeavor by
workers concerned with insulation material ageing and corona degradation.
For this reason we shall not delve further into the subject here, as it will
be dealt with in greater detail in Chapter 7.
2.8 Corona Energy and Power Loss

The presence of glow or pseudoglow discharges can perhaps be best
detected in terms of the energy dissipated, using bridge measuring tech-
niques [28-30]. The energy loss contributions resulting from true spark-
type and pseudoglow discharges have been examined in helium using
bridge techniques, and it was established that losses resulting from pseudo-
glow discharges are generally of the same order of magnitude as those
associated with spark-type discharges. Figure 2.26 compares the losses in
a metallic-electrode helium cavity undergoing pulse and pseudoglow dis-
charge within two different gap separations [22]. The somewhat higher
discharge power losses apparent with the pseudoglow discharge result
directly from the longer gap spacing employed. The slight saturation effect
evinced by the pulse-type discharge loss curve is attributable to an average
decrease in the (Eb -- Er) values of the spark gap at higher applied or
apparent voltages across the gap.
Because of the prevalence of the spark or pulse-type discharge mech-
anism in physically real voids under normal discharge conditions, a great
deal more attention and work has been devoted to the study of energy
losses resulting from corona pulses. As pointed out in our previous section
on the void-model circuit, the energy dissipated in a corona pulse is pro-
portional to the breakdown voltage Eb of the void and, hence, to the value
of (Eb -- Er). This in effect relates the energy loss to the void diameter.
Since the voids present in the insulating systems of electrical apparatus
and cables vary appreciably in their diameters as well as in their geometri-
cal configurations, it is therefore expected that their individual breakdown
voltages and, hence, the resultant detected corona-pulse amplitudes will
also vary. Consequently, each void and each given void diameter size
distribution will lead to a particular corona-pulse pattern and corona-pulse
o06 I /
( pseudoglow)--
o 0.04
0
a.
0.02 x
i ~X~
( J " ( pulsedischarge)
dischar!
C x / I i
4 8 t2
Apparent voltageacrossgap (kV peek)
FIG. 2.26--Discharge power loss under true spark and pseudoglow discharge conditions,
obtained using metallic electrodes in helium at atmospheric pressure (after Bartnikas [22]).
amplitude distribution. The calculation of the corona energy loss in terms

of the corona-pulse amplitudes derived from a time-varying corona-pulse
discharge pattern does not however represent a simple exercise. For this
reason bridge measuring techniques are exceptionally useful in corona
discharge loss measurements (see Chapter 8).
The corona energy loss may be calculated in terms of the corona-pulse
intensity and discharge rate [30]. Let us consider a test specimen, having
an overall capacitance equal to C'; under a-c conditions, the energy sup-
plied to the test specimen in a time interval from to to tl, is given by
W(t) -- W(to) ----

I
to
E ( t ) I ( t ) dt
= I t [O(t)][ dQ(t).~
,o L-c JL --dT-J at
= 1 C'[E(t) -- E(to)] 2 (2,42)
2
If the charge on the specimen at the initial time to is zero, then there
results the well-known relation in electrostatics, namely
1
W ( t ) = - ~ C' [E(t)] 2 joules (2.43)
where W ( t ) represents the energy stored in the test specimen capacitance,

C', and E ( t ) is the instantaneous applied voltage value at the time t. The
energy stored in the specimen capacitance is maximum at the peak value
of E ( t ) and is always positive regardless of the sign of the instantaneous
value of the applied voltage E ( t ) . In contrast, the power flow between the
source and the specimen depends on the instantaneous values of the prod-
uct E(t) I(t) and may be either positive or negative. Evidently, it is positive
when the specimen is being charged and energy is stored; it is negative
when the specimen is returning the stored energy to the voltage source. If
the specimen is completely free of all corona and dielectric losses, the
total energy supplied by the source to the specimen is always returned.
When corona discharges take place in the voids occluded within the insu-
lating system of the test specimen, then a portion of the energy supplied
by the source is dissipated in the form of heat by the corona discharges.
Should a corona discharge occur in a void at a time t, then Eq 2.43
assumes the transitory form
1
[W(t) -- AWl = -~- [C' -4- AC'I[E(t) -- AEc] 2 (2.44)
where A W represents the loss in stored energy due to the discharge pulse,
AC' is the momentary rise in the specimen capacitance as the corona dis-
charge shorts out the void partially, and AEc is the instantaneous fall in
the voltage E ( t ) at the time t. Expanding Eq 2.44 and subtracting the
result from Eq 2.43 yields the energy loss AW resulting from a corona
discharge pulse, that is
1
A W = - ~ [2C'AEcE(t) -- C'(AEc) 2 -- AC'E2(t)
+ 2 A C ' A E c E ( t ) -- AC'(AEc) 2] (2.45)
This expression may be simplified, noting that AC' << C' and AEc << E (t).
Thus, we have
AW = C'AEcE(t) (2.46)
If the corona pulse of intensity, AEc, appearing across the specimen at

the applied voltage, E ( t ) , recurs n times per second, then Eq 2.46 may
be expressed as a power loss relationship, AP,
AP = n A W
= n C ' A E c E ( t ) watts (2.47)

Since the individual corona discharge pulses are superposed upon the
sinusoidal wave of the power frequency as portrayed in Fig. 2.27, the total
power loss is obtained by taking into account all the discharges occurring
at the corresponding values of applied voltage in the summation
j=i j=i
j=l
~kej = j~l
"=
njC' AEcjE~(t) (2.48)
wherej refers to thejth discharge pulse. Note that Fig. 2.27 is representa-
tive of a typical corona discharge pattern appearing on the oscilloscope
screen, with the high-frequency corona pulses detected across the im-
pedance of the corona-detection circuit. However, the 60-Hz voltage drop
is relatively small and constitutes only a small fraction of the actual applied
voltage across the specimen. Evidently, the value, E(t), refers to the actual
instantaneous voltage across the specimen. Since the specimen capacitance
is increased by the shunting capacitance of the corona detection circuit,
it is common to rewrite Eq 2.48 as
j=i j=i
j=l
APj = .'=
,~1 njCoAEciEj(t) (2.49)
where Co represents the total specimen capacitance as well as that of the

associated circuitry. The total power loss occurring in the insulating system
of the specimen may be expressed as
j=i
Po=P' +Pe+P,g+ ~ APj (2.50)
j=l
where P ' is the dielectric loss in the solid or solid/liquid insulating system
It~ ~ - Corona pulses
l ~ ~I ~Appliedvoltagewave
F I G . 2.27--High-frequency corona transients superposed upon the power frequency wave.

of the specimen, while Pg and P,e are the respective loss contributions from
the glow and pseudoglow discharges. If we assume the absence of glow
and pseudoglow discharges, then Eq 2.50 reduces to
j=i
Po = P' + F, AP~ (2.51)
j=l
or substituting the complete expressions for each term
j=i
r 2 tan ~ = o~C'E2 tan 6' + ~ njCoAE,jEj(t) (2.52)
j=l
where E is the root mean square (rms) value of the applied voltage, C is
the total capacitance measured by a bridge circuit such as the Schering
bridge (00 = 27rf, where f is the frequency term in Hz), and tan ~' is the
dissipation factor value due to the dielectric loss contributions only. For
large specimen capacitances, the ratios C ' / C and Co/C are close to unity,
and Eq 2.52 thus enables us to determine the dissipation factor increase
due to the corona discharge pulses, that is
.=.
l ~ S ~J= ' njAE~iEj(t)
tan 3 = tan iS' + 21rfE2 (2.53)
where the second term on the fight-hand side of the equation represents
the contribution by the corona-pulse discharges to the tan & value. Equa-
tions 2.49 and 2.53 provide some useful information on the corona power
loss behavior in physical and artificial gas cavities.
If one considers the corona pulsed power loss at a single discharge site,
then in terms of Eq 2.53 the tan ~ value peaks abruptly at the corona onset
voltage and thereafter decreases monotonically. Figure 2.28 illustrates this
behavior with a number of tan ~ versus applied voltage characteristics ob-
tained using different parallel-plane electrode separations in air at atmo-
spheric pressure. Note that the monotonic decrease of tan ~ following dis-
charge onset follows directly from the nature of the second term on the
fight-hand side of Eq 2.53. Here the denominator increases very rapidly
with the square of the rms applied voltage, E2; this increase is much more
rapid than that of the numerator term, njAEcjE~(t). The foregoing behavior
has also been confirmed by calculation using Eq 2.53 on the results ob-
tained with metallic-electrode spark gaps [24]. In this calculation, the
relative polarities of AEci and E(t) had to be taken into account. When
large numbers of discharge sites or voids are involved, then the tan 8 value
may exhibit a steady increase with applied voltage [31]. This results be-
cause with increasingly applied voltage more and more voids commence
.007
.005 J \
\,,~
.\lO.2 mm
",\_ ' ~ / 0 2 0 m m
_
I \
r-
0
L
O
~r .005
OAOmm/ -
-
i:5
.00t I I I I
0 2 4 6 8 t0
Applied voltage (kV rms)
FIG. 2.28--Dissipation factor-voltage characteristics obtained using discharging gaps,
with gap separation as the parameter (after Bartnikas and d'Ombrain [24]).
to discharge, thereby causing a superposition of the numerous individual

tan 6-voltage characteristics (see Fig. 2.29).
When single discharge sites are involved, the energy released per dis-
charge may be estimated from the corona-pulse-discharge power loss
versus discharge rate plots. Figure 2.30 shows a number of typical char-
acteristics obtained using parallel-plane electrodes in oxygen at atmospheric
pressure. The power loss was measured by means of a Schering bridge,
whereas the discharge rate was measured using electronic circuitry to be
described in Chapter 9. One perceives a linear relationship between the
pulse-discharge power loss and the discharge rate. This behavior is directly
attributable to the linear relationship existing between the discharge rate
and applied voltage and that between the power loss and applied voltage,
normally observed with metallic-electrode spark gaps. Evidently, with
dielectric surfaces, one would anticipate a more complex relationship,
because the discharge voltage AE would vary considerably with the dis-
charge epoch 0. The discharge energy, AW, dissipated per discharge in
terms of Fig. 2.30 can be computed from
AW = P/n (2.54)
where P is the total pulse-discharge power loss at the discharge repetition

rate n. The condition that each discharge expend the same amount of
energy requires the quotient, P/n, to be independent of n. However, the
slope of the plots is somewhat less than that required to yield a constant
energy release per discharge. This point is illustrated in Table 2.1, which
compares the quotient, P/n, at n = 150 and 500 pulses per second, re-
spectively. Examination of the tabulated values shows that the average
energy released per discharge, AW, decreases with n. The decrease in the
discharge energy must be attributed mainly to an observed decrease in
the average value of the discharge voltage AE with increasing n [32].
The average values of the energy loss per discharge provided in Table 2.1
show that the energy loss increases with the gap length at atmospheric
pressure. This follows directly from the larger discharge voltages, AE,
characterizing the larger gaps. With physically real cavities involving di-
electric surfaces, the values of AE o r (Eb Er) would be expected to be - -
somewhat lower than that for metallic cavities of equivalent gap spacing.
For this reason the energy loss in physical voids, having equivalent di-
ameters to those tabulated in Table 2.1, would be expected to be slightly
lower than the calculated values of P / n in Table 2.1 for the equivalent
spark-gap spacings used.
.0026 I I II I I
I
I
I
tn
E
>
tO
0024
I!
g
0
2
e-- t-
O
e~ q}
~
._m
0022 0
0
c-
O
0
.002( I I I I I
0 5 I0 15 20 25 50
Applied voltage (kV rrns)
FIG. 2.29--Effect of corona discharge upon the tan (5 value of an oil-impregnated-paper

cable (after Bartnikas and d'Ombrain [31]).
CHAPTER 2 - - C O R O N A DISCHARGE PROCESSES IN VOIDS 65
0.25
050mm
0.20
o o J5
0.t0
o
o
"o 0.05
.=
"~
a. O.|Omm
0 t00 3 0~0 I
500 700 900
Number of corona discharges per second-n
FIG. 2.30--Corona-pulse discharge power loss as a function o f discharge rate obtained

with a spark gap in oxygen at atmospheric pressure, with the gap separation as a parameter
(after Bartnikas [32]).
T A B L E 2.1--Effect of discharge rate upon the energy quotient, P / n .
P / n at n = 150, p u l s e s / s , P / n at n = 500, pulses/s,

Gap Length, mm watt-seconds watt-seconds
0.10 0.30 X 10 - 3 0.062 X 10 - 3

0.20 0.167 X 10 - 3 0.108 X 10 - 3
0.30 0.260 X 10 - 3 0.182 X 10 - 3
0.40 0.363 X 10 - 3 0.303 X 10 - 3
0.50 0.503 X 10 - 3 0.480 10 - 3
2.9 Conclusion
This chapter has been devoted to a presentation of a number of funda-
mental concepts underlying the corona discharge mechanism in idealized
and physically real cavities or voids. The aim was to provide the reader
with an understanding of the variables and parameters governing the
corona discharge process that exert a controlling influence on the measured
and observed corona quantities such as the discharge magnitude, sequence
of discharges, and their repetition rate and discharge energy loss. The
concepts, dealt with in this chapter, constitute a prerequisite to a proper
understanding and meaningful interpretation of the corona discharge
measurements carried out on insulation structures and systems intended
for, or used, in electrical apparatus such as cables, capacitors, electrical

machines, and transformers.
References
[1] Reynolds, S. I., Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, American Institute of
Electrical Engineers, Vol. 78, Feb. 1959, pp. 1604-1608.
[2] Dakin, T. W. and Berg, D. in Progress in Dielectrics, Vol. 4, J. B. Birks and J. Hart,
Eds., Heywood & Co. Ltd., London, 1962, pp. 151-198.
[3] Mason, J. H., Proceedings, Institution of Electrical Engineers, Vol. 112, July 1965,
pp. 1407-1423.
[4] Hall, H. C. and Russek, R. M., Proceedings, Institution of Electrical Engineers, Vol.
101, 1954, pp. 47-55.
[5] Sch6nhuber, M. J., Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Institute of Elec-
trical and Electronics Engineers, Vol. PAS-88, Feb. 1969, pp. 100-107.
[6] yon Hippel, A., Dielectrics and Waves, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1966, pp.
234-252.
[7] Trump, J. G. in Dielectric Materials and Applications, A. yon Hippel, Ed., MIT
Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1966, pp. 147-156.
[8] Mason, J. H., Proceedings, Institution of Electrical Engineers, Vol. 98, Part I, 1951,
pp. 44-59.
[9] Mason, J. H. in Progress in Dielectrics, J. B. Birks, Ed., Heywood & Co. Ltd., London,
1959, pp. 1-58.
[10] Devins, J. C., 1957 Annual Report, Conference on Electrical Insulation and Dielectric
Phenomena, NAS-NRC, Washington, D.C., 1958, pp. 6-11.
[11 ] Meek, J. M. and Craggs, J. D., Electrical Breakdown of Gases, Clarendon Press,
Oxford, 1953, pp. 251-290.
[12] Devins, J. C., 1961 Annual Report, Conference on Electrical Insulation and Dielectric
[13] Start, W. T., Transactions on Electrical Insulation, Institute of Electrical and Elec-
tronics Engineers, Vol. EI-3, Feb. 1968, pp. 23-28.
[14] Gross, B., British Journal of Applied Physics, Vol. 1, Oct. 1950, pp. 259-267.
[15 ] Thomas, A. M., British Journal of Applied Physics, Vol. 2, April 1951, pp. 99-109.
[16] Friedlander, E. and Reed, J. R., Proceedings, Institution of Electrical Engineers, Part
IIA, Vol. 100, March 1953, pp. 121-131.
[17] Mason, J. H., Proceedings, Institution of Electrical Engineers, Part IIA, Vol. 100,
March 1953, pp. 149-158.
[18] Gemant, A. and von Philipoff, W., Zeitschrift fuer Technische Physik, Vol. 13, 1932,
pp. 425-430.
[19] Whitehead, S., Dielectric Breakdown of Solids, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1953,
pp. 163-233.
[20] Austen, A. E. W. and HackeR, W., Journal. Institution of Electrical Engineers, Vol.
91, Part I, 1944, pp. 298-322.
[21] Bartnikas, R. and Levi, J. H. E., Review of Scientific Instruments, Vol. 37, No. 9,
Sept. 1966, pp. 1245-1251.
[22] Bartnikas, R., Archivfuer Elektrotechnik, Vol. 52, 1%9, pp. 348-359.
[23] Bartnikas, R., "A Study of the Corona and Dielectric Losses in Practical Insulating
Systems," Ph.D. thesis, McGill University, Montreal, Canada, 1963.
[24] Bartnikas, R. and d'Ombrain, G. L., Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems,
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Vol. PAS-84, No. 9, Sept. 1965, pp.
770-779.
[25] Bartnikas, R., Journal of Applied Physics, Vol. 40, No. 4, March 1969, pp. 1974-1976.
[26] Bartnikas, R., Transactions on Electrical Insulation, Institute of Electrical and Elec-
tronics Engineers, Vol. EI-6, June 1971, pp. 63-75.
[27] Bartnikas, R., British Journal of Applied Physics (Journal of Physics D.), Vol. 1,
Series 2, May 1968, pp. 659-661.
[28] Dakin, T. W., Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, American Institute of
Electrical Engineers, Part 1II, Vol. 78, Oct. 1959, pp. 790-795.
[29] Dakin, T. W. and Malinaric, P. J., Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems,
American Institute of Electrical Engineers, Part III, Vol. 79, Oct. 1960, pp. 648-653.
[30] Bartnikas, R., Proceedings. International Conference on Large High Tension Electric
Systems, Paper 202, Paris 1966, pp. 1-37.
[31] Bartnikas, R. and d'Ombrain, G. L., Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems,
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Vol. 82S (Supplement), 1963, pp.
336-375.
tronics Engineers, Vol. EI-3, Nov. 1968, pp. 91-95.
STP669-EB/Feb. 1979
E. B. C u r d t s I
Fundamentals of Partial-Discharge
Detection: System Sensitivity and
Calibration
9 . . when you can measure what you are speaking about, and express it in
numbers, you know something about it; but when you cannot measure it,
when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is of a meagre and
unsatisfactory kind; it may be the beginning of knowledge, but you have
scarcely, in your thoughts, advanced to the stage of science9
Lord Kelvin
3.1 Introduction
The sensitivity and calibration of partial-discharge detection systems is

an important aspect of the general subject of partial-discharge measure-
ments of products or structures involving electrical insulating materials.
The primary objective is to perform a measurement, using a detection
system having a sensitivity adequate to the purposes of the test, in the
presence of inevitable electrical noise. Of equal importance is the matter
of calibration which requires that fairly-accurate information be obtained
as to the magnitudes of the changes that take place in the insulation sys-
tem when it is stressed at some particular voltage.
At this point a comment should be made about a basic aspect of the
problem, which is sometimes not fully appreciated. This comment has to
do with the extremely small quantity of energy we are dealing with when we
try to measure the voltage amplitude of a discharge pulse, or its charge
content. In other words, we are dealing with a relationship expressed as
q = VC, the q being in the order of 10 -12 C, and the capacitance in the
order of 10 -6 F or less. Therefore, V may be in the order of a few micro-
volts, before amplification. When a partial discharge occurs in an insu-
lation system, it is, by definition, a limited-energy phenomenon, and the
1James G. Biddle Company, PlymouthMeeting, Pa. 19462.

Copyright91979 by ASTMInternational www.astm.org

CHAPTER 3--PARTIAL-DISCHARGE DETECTION SYSTEMS 69
sensitivity required for its detection is comparable to the signal sensitivity

required in the spaceborne-communication field.
All of the basic considerations of sensitivity and calibration will be
covered in the next section on straight-detection methods, followed by
sections that consider any additional aspects of the subject such as those
pertaining to bridge-form networks. This chapter will be confined to
partial-discharge detection in lumped-parameter systems. The terminology
used, except in Section 3.3, will be the same as that used in ASTM Detec-
tion and Measurement of Discharge (Corona) Pulses in Evaluation of Insu-
lation Systems (D 1868-73).
3.2 Straight-Detection Methods
3.2.1 General Description

A block diagram of a simple partial-discharge measuring system, com-
monly identified as a straight-detection circuit, is shown in Fig. 3.1. The
pulse-detection network may be placed in series with the specimen, as
shown by the dotted block, if the specimen can be isolated from ground.
The only advantage in this location is that, if the coupling capacitance is
greater than the specimen capacitance, pulses from electrical noise, in-
duced or generated in the high-voltage part of the circuit, will be decreased
in the inverse ratio of the two [1]. However, it also has disadvantages: (1)
a flashover across specimen terminals would endanger the network, and
(2) its normal current capability must match the capacitive charging cur-
rent of the specimen. The forthcoming sensitivity and calibration analysis
of the straight detection system will be based on the detection network
being placed in the capacitive-coupling leg as shown in Fig. 3.1.
I Capacitive
Coupling r ~--;
Specimen
~ To _.2' ..~
Pulse- Amplifier
and LT
I I
Detection Voltmeter I I
Network j
FIG. 3.1--A straight partial-discharge-detection network. (Dotted block shows alternate

location of pulse-detection circuitry. Dots 1, 2, and 2" show possible connection of calibrating
capacitor to system).
2The italic numbers in brackets refer to the list of references appended tO this chapter.
The pulse-detection networks used are either of two types--RC 3 or

RCL4--which will be considered in some detail later. They both have their
specific applications, although the RCL network is more commonly used
today.
Two locations are shown in Fig. 3.1 where the calibrating capacitor
may be connected into the system. Location 1 is the logical one, since it is
in the part of the circuit where discharge pulses resulting from high elec-
trical stress would most likely be initiated. It has the disadvantage, how-
ever, of requiting the calibrating capacitor to be discharge-free at full test
voltage. For tests at higher voltages, which are increasing in use, this has
become an economic consideration. Location 2 eliminates this problem,
but introduces others.
Figure 3.2 is a diagrammatic version of the capacitive network making
up a discharge-detection circuit coupled to the insulation system being
tested. Its caption describes it in detail, but several additional comments
can be made.
The stray capacitance, C,, is a tangible quantity that can have a signifi-
cant effect on sensitivity, but cannot be accurately measured alone. Cc is
shown to be switchable to two points in the circuit. Actually, it cannot be
switched to a point above Ccc if the system is energized, unless its discharge-
free voltage rating is adequate. C, is shown without its accompanying R
(resistive) or RL (resistive-inductive) shunt components, since they do not
affect the basic charge transfer or voltage sensitivity of the system. It
should be further stated that C~ consists largely of the stray and circuit
capacitance within the detection network itself, making it difficult to state
its absolute magnitude.
3.2.2 System Sensitivity in Terms of Pulse Voltage

Sensitivity of a system, as shown in Fig. 3.2, is expressed basically as the
ratio of the voltage, Vi, appearing across C; as a result of a partial dis-
charge in Ct that causes a change in voltage A V = Vt. This ratio, V J V t ,
based on Fig. 3.2b, is derived as follows.
Let
CccCi
Co+C,+ =Cx
Ccc -J[- Ci
e~ = A V
(c,)
C~ + C~
3The term RC, or resistive-capacitive network, refers to a corona detection circuit, which
excludes induction components.
4The term RCL network is often used to describe any corona detection circuit that contains
resistive, capacitative, and inductive elements.
CHAPTER3--PARTIAL-DISCHARGE
DETECTION
SYSTEMS 71
J
I i b i -I-
Ct a q
I
I "-]-- c
&v C~"~ C~ C,I I [ ~ Readout
I
(a)
CalGenerat
ibrating-Pul
or se
&V=Vt Cc Ix ~=ccc
(b)
Ccc =coupling capacitance

Cc= calibrating capacitance
Ci= detection network stray and circuit capacitance
C,= stray capacitance across high-voltage system
cb
Ct = specimen capacitance ( : a + c-b---~-5)
b = capacitance in series with a discharging cavity
c : capacitance of cavity before discharge occurrence
V t = terminal pulse-voltage = AV
Vi= pulse voltage across Ci
E = applied peak voltage
FIG. 3.2--(a) Complete circuit of an energized insulation system coupled to a discharge-
detection network. (Note a, b, c capacitative network represents cavity within insulating
system). (b) Capacitative elements and voltages representing the circuit, based on Th~vinin's
theorem.
V i ~- ex \Cc~ + Ci]
= AV (c )tCcc t
C, + Cx Cc~ + Ci
C,+Cc+C,+
c CocCi
Ccc+Ci
I Cccccc
+ Ci
or
V~ C, Cc~
-- = (3.1)
V, (C, Jv Cc "Ji- Cs) (Ccc Ji- Ci) ~- CccCi
This equation is based on Cr being permanently connected to the high-

voltage part of the system, that is, directly to the specimen capacitance,
C,. Examining the form of this equation tells us the part that each capaci-
tive element plays in determining the sensitivity of the system. For example,
Ci, Co, and C, are in the denominator only, which states that sensitivity
is adversely affected by their size. In other words, sensitivity is reduced
as the detection-network capacitance, C/, the calibrating capacitance, Co,
or the stray capacitance, C,, are increased, all three of which can be
minimized to a degree.
The coupling capacitance, C,c, and specimen capacitance, C,, are in
both the numerator and denominator of Eq 3.1, and their effects on sensi-
tivity are not as obvious as in the cases of the other parameters. Their
effects can best be shown by plotting sensitivity for ranges of C, with Ccc,
C,, C,, and C~ held constant at some typical values. This is done in Fig.
3.3 for C, as the variable. It will be noted, in the case of Curve (T) for
smaller specimens, that little is gained in sensitivity for values of C, >
103 pF, or, in the case of Curve Q , for values of C, > 104 pF.
Figure 3.4 is a similar plot for a range of values of C~, from 102 to
104 pF, and for small and very large specimen capacitances. It will be
noted that increasing C~, causes a continuous increase in sensitivity, but
eventually at a decreasing rate. This is an important economic factor to
be considered in choosing the size of a high-voltage, discharge-free coupling
capacitor, C,c.
It must be borne in mind that the discussion of sensitivity thus far is
based on Eq 3.1. If C, is permanently attached in the secondary position
shown in Fig. 3.2a, then Eq 3.1 must be modified to
Vi C, Ccc
E = (Ct + C,) (Ccc -Ji-Cc + Ci) -Ju Ccc(Ce "~- Ci) (3.2)
Repeating the calculations, using Eq 3.2, and comparing the results

with those in Fig. 3.4, would show a minor decrease in sensitivity for both
curves, based on the particular parameters chosen in this case. For further
information see Section 3.2.6.
3.2.3 System Sensitivity in Terms of Charge Transfer

Sensitivity of a discharge detection system can also be expressed as that
minimum charge transfer in picocoulombs that can be detected in the
1.0
.8
I
Vl
D
V~
.6
|
.2
10 2 10 3 104 105
Ct - pf
QD "ccc = 150 pF, ci = 500 pF, Cc = 150 pF, Cs = 150 pF
V2 _ Ct (after Eq 3.1)
Vt -- [(300 + Ct) 13/3] + SO0
(~) Ccc = 3000 pF, Ci = S00 pF, Cc = 150 pF, Cs = 150 pF
Vi Ct (after Eq 3.1)
Vtt = [(300 + Ct) 35/301 + 500
FIG. 3.3--Plots o f Vi/Vt sensitivities over a range o f specimen capacitances, Ct, for large
and small coupling capacitances.
presence of a prescribed noise or interference level. We will need to defer

consideration of this sensitivity until we have analyzed the complete detec-
tion system in more detail.
3.2. 4 Calibration-Pulse Characteristics

The equations given in the previous paragraphs are useful in studying
the effects of parameter magnitudes on system sensitivity, but contribute
little to our knowledge of the charge magnitudes involved. In other words,
for meaningful test results, the system as a whole must be calibrated in
terms of the magnitude and time duration of a transient electrical pulse,
having characteristics similar to those of electrical-ionization pulses re-
sulting from the breakdown of overstressed gaseous areas in insulation
systems.
System calibration is normally achieved by the insertion of a square
wave produced by a pulse generator into the system at a location, which
can be related to the terminals of the specimen. It can be considered as a
primary standard in the sense that it injects into the system a charge of
1.0
~ 1 1 ""'--
.8 ~'- ~'Typical C+c --
, ~ / F,~r Small
Vt Specimens _
.6
.4
/
- - For Large
Specimens
102 2 ,= 6 103 2 <+ + 104
Ccc - Pf
(~) Ct = 103 pF, Ci = 500 pF, Cc = 150 pF, Cs = 150 pF
Vi _ Cec (after Eq 3.1)

Vt 1.8 Cce + 650
(~ Ct = 106 pF, Ci = 500 pF, Cc = 150 pF, Cs = 150 pF
Vi ~ Ccc
( a f t e r Eq 3.1)
Vt 1.0008 Cee + 500.15
FIG. 3.4--Plots of Vi/Vt sensitivities over a range of coupling capacitances, Ccc, for large
and small specimens.
known magnitude. It is not a primary standard in the usual meaning of

the term, although the pulse can be standardized in terms of capacitance
and time duration.
Since the originated calibration and ionizing pulse shapes are not main-
tained as they pass through the detection system, it is important that the
rise time at the front of the excitation pulse be comparable to that at its
trailing edge. Otherwise, any claims of the calibrating pulse being a stan-
dard of comparison would be invalidated. Dakin [2,3], Mole [4], and
Bartnikas [5] give calibrating square-wave-front rise times of about 0.1 #s
as being similar to typical ionization- or discharge-pulse rise times. Dakin
[2] further points up that to avoid calibration-pulse superposition caused
by the negative pulse occurring at the end of the square wave this negative
pulse should be suppressed or the calibrating square wave made longer
than the time constant of the detection circuit. Mole [4] states that, since
there is usually no practical difficulty in producing a tail of adequate
length, any calibration error from this cause should be insignificant. Mole
further states that the repetition rate of the calibration step wave should
be related to the bandwidth of the detector.
Cc
I
j L1
ec
I Ct __ _ C=
FIG. 3.5--Calibrating-pulse network.

e~
[-.
T c'
?
Bartnikas [5] states that, since the frequency spectrum of actual dis-
charge pulses extends into the 100-MHz range, calibration pulses should
ideally have sufficiently short rise times to cover these frequencies. In prac-
tice, he notes that parasitic ringing effects would obscure any advantage
to be gained by very short rise-time pulses (<0.01 /~s); in addition, the
normal amplification equipment rarely exceeds in bandwidth 10 MHz,
thus restricting further the practical use of rise times to about >_0.1 #s.
In the case of discharge detectors using highly tuned amplifiers, the band-
width can become appreciably more restrictive, which may in effect permit
calibration pulses of still longer rise times depending on the tuning fre-
quency. As a general rule, the rise time of the calibrating pulse should
correspond to a frequency that is somewhat higher than the upper cut-off
frequency, and tuning or operational frequency, of the overall discharge
detector. When distributed-parameter specimens, such as cables, are
involved and the calibrating pulse is injected at the far end of the cable,
the rise time should be further decreased to compensate for the pulse-front
degradation as the calibrating pulse travels along the transmission line.
Since most square-pulse generators, available commercially, provide rise
times of the order of 0.1 #s, this value seems suitable for acceptance as a
standard, since it will provide an adequate calibration source for the vast
majority of discharge-pulse detectors.
3.2.5 System Calibration in the High-Voltage Mode

The square-wave pulse generator previously mentioned is used to charge
a capacitance, Co, or inject into the system a known charge, qc = e~C~.
When injected into the high-voltage part of the system (see Fig. 3.2a), the
square-wave excitation pulse sees the network shown in Fig. 3.5; the
following derivation gives the relationship between the injected voltage,
ec, and the resulting terminal pulse voltage, V,. Considering the capaci-
tive network of Fig. 3.5, we have
Cr C i
C~' = C ~ + C, +
Ccc 3r Ci
Cc
e~" = e~ C~ + C,,'
Ccc
Vc ~ ex ~
C~ + Ci
Cc ) C~
= e~ (" Cc + CI" Ccc + Ci
Cc ) C~
ec
CccCi Ccc -Jv Ci
C~ + Ct + C, + Cc~ + Ci
Vc Ccc
= (3.3)
ecC~ (Cc + Ct + C,) (C~c + Ci) + CccCi
Vi Ccc
V,C, (Cc + C, + C,)(Ccc + C/) + Cc~Ci
therefore
V~ V,
ecC--~ - v,c~ (3.4)
and when V~ is adjusted to equal Vi
ecCc = qc : VtCt = q
or
ecCc
v, = c, (3.5)
It may be well to say at this point that if only a low-voltage calibrating

capacitor is available, it can be used in the high-voltage mode and removed
before the system is energized, without a significant error if Ct :~ Co. This
can be shown from Eq 3.1, which by removing Cc from the network becomes
V,C, Ccc
Vi' = (3.1a)
(C, + C,) (C~ + C,) + Cc~C~
and
(C, + C~) (Cc~ + C,.) + C~,Ci

V~' (C, + Cc + CA (C,c + C3 + C,cC~
Here, C~ is known and C, can be measured; therefore, Vi = Vi" when

C, >> Cc.
3.2.6 System Calibration in the Low-Voltage Mode

It was mentioned earlier in this chapter that there is an economic ad-
vantage in using a low-voltage calibrating capacitor for high-voltage dis-
charge testing. It was also shown in Eq 3.1 that connecting the calibrating
capacitor to the high-voltage part of the system has an adverse effect on
sensitivity, particularly in testing small specimens. As a result of these
factors there has been a tendency in industry to favor the low-voltage cali-
bration method shown in Fig. 3.2a. ASTM D 1868-73 and IEEE No. 454 s
give the factor for this invalid injection location of the calibration pulse,
namely
C,c + C , + C ,
f = C,~ (3.4)
It will be noted that this equation contains the parameter, C,, which, as
stated earlier, cannot be measured effectively.
In examining equations throughout this text, it will be noted that C,
always appears as a parameter in parallel with other parameters across the
high-voltage system to ground. Therefore, a capacitance-bridge measure-
ment across the system as a whole can be used as an approximation of C,
by subtracting out the known capacitances, Ct -I- CccCi/(Ccc -t- Ci). Know-
ing C~, with a reasonable degree of accuracy for each particular system
assembly, Eq 3.4 can be used as a correction factor for low-voltage cali-
bration. However, accurate knowledge of the magnitude of Ci is not ordi-
narily available. It could be approximately measured, for any particular
length of cable between the pulse-detection network and the input of the
detector, after disconnecting the network from the coupling capacitor
(see Figs. 3.1 and 3.2).
Knowing the magnitudes of Cc~ and Ct, any error in estimating Cs would
usually not cause a significant overall error where large magnitudes of
C,~ and Ct (large specimens) are involved, but could be a sizable error in
the case of smaU specimens (low magnitudes of C,~ and Ct).
s RecommendedPracticefor the Detectionand Measurementof Partial Discharges(Corona)

During DielectricTests, IEEE Standard 454, Institute of Electrical and ElectronicEngineers.
In an effort to exploit the advantages of the use of low-voltage calibration

a technique has been developed that, with one exception, makes it equiva-
lent to a high-voltage calibration. As Step 1, a low-voltage calibrator is
connected to the high-voltage side with the system deenergized, and an
arbitrary value of 1I,. = Vc produced on the readout (see Fig. 3.2a). The
calibrator is then moved as Step 2 to the low-voltage position shown in
Fig. 3.2a, and the same calibrating-pulse charge injected. Obviously,
V~ will increase in magnitude to V~' by some factor depending upon the
system parameters. It can be shown mathematically that this factor will
be a modification of Eq 3.1
E" C~+C,+C, [ Ccc(Cc + C, + C, + Ci) + Ci(Cc + C, + C,) 7]

Vi C ~, c L /4 c TC
Ccc+C,+C,
= C~c for Ci = C, + C, (3.6)
A compensation is then made in the calibrator output so that V / / V i = 1,

and the test pursued as Step 3.
As mentioned earlier, this procedure can be valid with one exception.
When Step 3 is taken, the system (circuit) arrangement is not the same
as that when Step 1 was taken. The error is now
V~" C~r + G + C, + G) + C~(C~ + G + C,)

(3.7)
Vc - coc(cc + c, + c, + c J + (c, + c,) (Cc + c,)
where Vc" is the calibrating voltage at Ci when Cc is relocated from its

position in Step 1 to that in Step 2. Note that this is the same as the second
factor in Eq 3.6. The result of this second factor in Eq 3.7 is shown plotted
in Fig. 3.6, using the same parameters given in Fig. 3.3. Note that the
error is negligible for Curve (~) where Ccc = 3000 pF, but significant for
Curve C) with Ccc = 150 pF. The compensation of the first factor in
Eq 3.6, or Eq 3.4 using a T-pad attenuator can be made to eliminate the
error caused by injecting the calibrating pulse below C~c, as mentioned
previously. Curves (~) and (~) in Fig. 3.6 are plots of the first factor in
Eq 3.6. Note the wide range of these factors between very-small to very-
large specimens, particularly where Cc~ = 3000 pF.
3.2. 7 Pulse-Detection Networks

The voltage, Vi, appearing at the detector has been defined by Eq 3.1.
This equation is valid when dealing with a complete system that can be
treated as one having lumped-parameter characteristics. A generalized
I I
1~ Ccc = 150 pf
1,2
..,,I
10
@ G~ = 3000 )f
.8
g
.6
\
~ i Ccc = 3000 pf
.4
,~,,Cr = 150 pf
.2
102 2 , 6 103 2 4 6 104 2 4 6 105

Ct - pf
F I G . 3.6--Plots of correction factors over a range of specimen capacitances, Ct, based on
Eq 3.6. Curves (~) and ( ~ are for the second factor of Eq 3.6, and Curves ( ~ and ( ~ are
for the first factor of that equation.
R~ C V~(t)
FIG. 3.7--Generalized pulse-detection network.
pulse-detection network is shown in Fig. 3.7, where C represents the effec-

tive capacitance of the entire system. L, with its inherent resistance, R,,
is used in the so-called RCL network. When L is not used, the circuit is
known as an RC network. Rp represents the inherent input-resistive com-
ponent of the amplifier impedance, which follows the pulse-detection net-
work. The overall magnitude of Rp may be adjusted to meet certain require-
ments to be discussed later. Now that we are about to enter into individual
analyses of the RC and RCL networks, the reader should be prepared to
visualize the distinction between the two in elementary terms.
First, we visualize a discharge-voltage increment, AV = V,, appearing
at the terminals of the specimen as being a steep-front unidirectional pulse
of short duration, and representing a charge, q = VtCt. This pulse will
travel from the specimen terminals to the detection network, its voltage
amplitude attenuated to a degree depending upon the distance traveled,
so that at the detection network q = VIC at t = 0, or in the case of the
calibrating pulse, qc = V c C (Vc = Vi). T h e RC network being a single-

energy circuit responds to the pulse as a unidirectional and decaying func-
tion of time. In the case of an oscilloscope readout, it measures the voltage
as a function of time or the charge contained in the pulse [6]. 6
In the case of the RCL network, the situation is different in the sense
that it is a double-energy circuit that shock-excites the amplifier that con-
centrates the energy contained in the pulse to a narrower band of fre-
quency than the Fourier-harmonic content of the unidirectional RC re-
sponse. The net result is a detection-amplifier network that can measure
the discharge-pulse charge content within a relatively narrow band of
frequency, thereby reducing the exposure of the total detection network
to electrical noise, both external and self-generated.
Advanced development work on discharge-detection systems in recent
years has largely centered around the RCL network. One of the reasons for
this has more recently been due to discharge-detection problems in the
power-cable industry [7,8]. Here, the demand for high detection sensitivity
in high-noise-level environments has shown that this problem can best be
solved by the use of the RCL detection network. The problems of sensitivity
have been aggravated in the cable industry because it is almost invariably
dealing with cavity discharges in products having distributed-parameter
characteristics. In such products, Vi of Eq 3.1 may be attenuated badly
because of the transmission-line characteristics of the system between the
cavity location and the detector. Distributed-parameter systems are the
subjects of other chapters of this book.
The development of industrial and commercial specifications for limited
discharge intensities in all high-voltage apparatus is increasing, as it has
in the past in the cable industry. This trend has brought discharge-
detection procedures to the production areas of manufacturing plantsmin
areas of high electrical noise. The end result of this trend, to date, is that
standard, commercially-available discharge-detection systems are almost
invariably of the RCL type. The performance of any discharge-detection
system, to be effective, must satisfy several objectives.
(a) its internal signal-to-noise ratio should be high--preferably >2/1;
(b) its sensitivity, in terms of picocoulombs per pulse height, must meet
the objectives of the test;
(c) its resolution should be such that closely-occurring pulses can be
individually distinguished;
(d) the bandwidth of the system should, in terms of frequency response,
be such that the desired range of specimen sizes can be tested to the re-
quired picocoulomb sensitivity;
(e) the calibration of the system must be reasonably valid; and
(f) the overall system be such that ambient electrical noise is adequately
6 Partial Discharge Measurement, IEC Standard 270, International Electrotechnical Com-
mission, 1968.
rejected, and includes such considerations as amplifier bandwidth, the

grounding network, and physical layout or arrangement of components.
The first two of these objectives are interdependent. For example, if one
needed a sensitivity that permitted the measurement of 1 pC then the white
or thermal (Johnson) noise of the detection system should be < 1/2 pC, if no
interference from external sources exists having equivalent frequencies
within the bandwidth of the amplifier. In other words, the 2 to 1 signal-
to-noise ratio suggests that all external interference, entering the system
within the bandwidth limits of the detector, has been adequately subdued.
It can be added at this point that gating circuits have been developed, and
are in use, which help to cope with the interference problem. The circuit
is inserted at the amplifier output to block any pulses or signals that do
not recur in a prescribed successive number of applied-voltage half cycles.
In other words, the detection system is allowed to only recognize pulses
or signals that occur in both half cycles for a consecutive period of usually
five half-cycles. Such logic circuits are especially helpful in cases where
point-to-plane-type interferences occur on the external high-voltage side
of the specimen. They can be extended to also block any extraneous sig-
nals that occur at or near the zero crossings of the applied-voltage sine
wave, such signals presumably being attributed to interference sources.
3.2.8 The R C Network

In analyzing the RC network, we should first note from Eq 3.1 that the
charge transfer of a single discharge pulse, q, will be distributed through-
out the various capacitive dements in the system, including Ci. At t = 0,
Ci will be charged to a voltage, Vi, that will dissipate through Rp as a
simple decaying exponential
Vi(t) = Vi exp [--at] (3.8)
where u = 1 / T -=- 1/RpC, and T is the time-constant, 1/or. C is the total

effective capacitance looking back into the system from Rp
Ccc(C, + C, + Co)
C = Ci + (3.9)
Ccc + C, + C, + C~
as shown in Fig. 3.8.

For a fixed value of C, Rp will be the determining factor for the inverse
time-constant, 1 / R p C = ~, and, as will be shown later, for the bandwidth
of the detection system. For our subsequent example, we will assume that
we would prefer that the bandwidth of the system will not exceed about
200 kHz. As will be shown by the example to follow this will result in Rp
equalling approximately 1500 ft.
At this point it would be well to tabulate a range of typical capacitance

magnitudes for detection systems, so that practical cases can be better
visualized (see Table 3.1).
Table 3.1 assumes that the user of the detection equipment wishes to be
prepared to test both small and large specimens with the same detection
system. If the interest is only in small specimens, one could, for comparable
sensitivity, use a much smaller magnitude for Ccc (see Fig. 3.3). The reason
that Ccr is given in Table 3.1 as 3000 pF is because this magnitude is about
the maximum that is commercially available for discharge-free test-voltage
ratings of 50 kV and below. Above 50 kV, the capacitive ratings are pro-
gressively lower. Calibrating capacitors of 150 pF are commonly available.
The Ci and Cs magnitudes given in Table 3.1 are subject to some variations.
Proceeding with our analysis, based on Table 3.1 and using Eq 3.9, the
range of specimen capacitive magnitudes can be arbitrarily chosen from 0
to 86 700 pF such that 773 pF < C _< 3400 pF and using these limits to
determine c~ and cx2
for Ct ~ 0 and, c~2 =

1500 773 10 -12
C=773 X 10 -12 = 8.62 l0 s inverse seconds
for Ct -- oo and, ~l =
1500 3400 10 -12
C = 3400 10 -12 = 1.96 l0 S inverse seconds
Continuing the analysis another step, we need to consider the matter of

sensitivity, that is, what the magnitude of Vi in Eq 3.8 will be for a charge
transfer that we will assume to be a q of 5 pC. Hence, Vg can be restated
by letting V, : q/C, in Eq 3.1 or
q f cc
Vi : (Ct -Ji- Cc + Cs) (Ccc -JI- Ci) J[- CccCi (3.10)
Equation 3.8 shows that Vi(t) will be an exponentially decaying voltage
TABLE 3.1--Large and small specimens.
Ci = 500 pF
Ccc = 3000 pF
C, = 150 pF
Cc = 150 pF
Ct - very small to high magnitudes
with time. It can be considered to have a frequency spectrum that, by

Laplace transform pairs, is expressed as
Vi
V(o:) - c~ -t-jw = Vi(a2 + ~ (3.11)
Letting the derivative of this equation equal zero, shows that V(o:) attains
a maximum at ~ = 0, or V(o~) = Vi/a. It can be easily shown that RpC
in Eq 3.8 has the dimensions of seconds, or ~ = 1/(RpC) is inverse sec-
onds. Also, the reciprocal of frequency ~o has the dimensions of seconds.
The analysis thus far points to the practicality of plotting Vi in terms of
or o:. This is done in Fig. 3.9, based on the parameters listed in Table
3.1 and the limits imposed by a, and a2. It does not, however, necessarily
point up the full significance of Eq 3.11. This equation states the Fourier-
harmonic content of an exponentially-decaying pulse in terms of voltage
amplitude per harmonic. It can be used to determine the range of fre-
quencies to which the amplifier must respond, in terms of bandwidth, to
realize a sizable amount of the energy contained in the pulse.
Dakin [2] derives an equation that can be used to establish the band-
width required to measure any desired fraction, F, of the total pulse energy
F = 27r [tan-' ( ~ 2) -- tan-~ ( ~ ! ) ] (3.12)
If the amplifier can be made to respond to frequencies approaching zero

(usually the case), or oJ2 >> o~, this equation can be simplified to
rF
w=a tan---~-- (3.12a)
where o: is the upper limit of the amplifier bandpass for an ~ that repre-
T ToT
i I
FIG. 3.8--Capacitative elements looking back hzto the systemfrom Rp.
10-~
10-
r
o
>
10-
10
0 20 40 60 80 100 t20 140
Equivalent f (k Hz) = a
I II III IV
a/27r 103 C (pF) Ct (pF) Q
31.2 3 400 86 700 1.0

35.4 3 000 14 700 1.0
53.1 2 000 2 700 1.0
70.7 1 500 1 200 1.0
106.1 1 000 300 1.0
117.9 900 162 1.0
137.2 773 0.33 1.0
FIG. 3.9--A plot of Vi a s a function of the limits of equivalent frequencies for large and
small specimens when using the RC detection network.
sents the largest specimen or ~z = 1.96 l0 s in our case. I f we choose

F = 0.9 or 90 percent of the total pulse energy as being adequate, then
0.9 (7r57.3) (3.12b)

f= 27r a l t a n 2
= 1.005 a~ = 197 kHz (3.12b)
By the same reasoning, the smaller specimens would require a greater

amplifier bandwidth to recover 90 percent of the pulse energy.
If the basic detection system (Ccc, RC network and amplifier) is to be

used for both small and large specimens, then the bandwidth should ex-
tend from near-zero frequency to, in our example, about 900 kHz. If, on
the other hand, the basic system will be confined in its use to large speci-
mens, then a narrower bandwidth could be used to avoid noise problems,
recognizing that other desirable features could be adversely affected. In
the matter of bandwidth, there are counteracting influences involved.
Greater bandwidth will increase sensitivity, both to discharge and noise
pulses, so that such systems can be used effectively only in well-shielded
environments. The characteristics of the amplifier enter into the problem.
Since the RC network introduces a steep-front exponentiaUy-decaying pulse
to the amplifier, its response time must be fast enough to respond to the
higher-frequency components of the pulse, otherwise sensitivity will be sac-
rificed. Furthermore, the internal noise of the amplifier itself will be pro-
portional to the square root of its bandwidth, thereby degrading its signal-
to-noise ratio [1 ]. On this latter basis, it may not be desirable to extend the
bandwidth of the amplifier beyond o~. Again, if the system in our example
is to be used for both large and small specimens and 90 percent of the
pulse energy is to be recovered in both cases, and if it is desirable to re-
strict the bandwidth to about 200 kHz, then a solution to the problem
would be to reduce az. This could be done by increasing Rp for small
specimens from the 1500 12 value used in the example so that oL2 ~ Os or
3400/773 1500 = 6600 fL In other words, a variable resistor ranging
between 1500 and 6600 fl could be used as Rp so that 90 percent of the
total pulse energy can be recovered for detection for all specimen sizes
without having to overextend the amplifier bandwidth.
This brings us to the subject of resolution in RC-network detection
systems. Aside from distributed-parameter systems where transmission-line
reflections may enter into the problem, there may be several cavities dis-
charging nearly simultaneously, in either distributed- or lump-parameter
systems, which could cause overlapping of pulses. The most common dis-
charge-detection systems use the oscilloscope (CRO) as the readout, pri-
marily to measure the height of individual pulses, and, in some cases, the
number of pulses occurring per quadrant of the applied-voltage frequency.
Electronic pulse counters are also used, in some cases, which will be
covered in another chapter of this book. The CRO-screen width commonly
used today is 10 cm, which is set to accommodate two sine-wave quadrants
in either flat, round, or elliptical form. This means that each quadrant
of the applied-voltage sine wave will have a time base 5 cm long. In terms
of a 60-Hz test voltage, this is equivalent to 4.17 ms.
Kreuger [I] states that a resolution between 250 and 500 pulses per
quadrant is, from experience, called for. This would mean, according to
the last paragraph, that close-order pulses occurring in time intervals less
than 4.17 X 10 -a/500 = 8.3/zs would not be satisfactory. Shorter intervals,
depending upon the pulse time constant, l / a , will overlap and, in the case
of RC networks, cause an adding of pulse magnitudes as a result of super-
position. This is another way oCsaying that one hopes that the specimen
being tested will not have cavities that will cause close-order pulses in
intervals less than about 10 #s. Using the values for c~ and cr previously
given as limits, and as shown in Fig. 3.9, we can convert these back to
their respective time constants and compare them with Kreuger's [1] criteria
of a resolution time of 8.3/~s, for small specimens
8.3 10 -6 8.3 X 10 -6
= 7.16 time constants
RpC 1.16 10 -6
and for large specimens
8.3 X 10 -6 8.3 X 10 -6
-- 1.63 time constants
RpC 5.1 X 10 -6
Figure 3.10 shows the pulse lengths for very-small and very-large speci-
mens. In each case, the pulse lengths are shown cut at 2.3 time constants
or a 90 percent decay. A close-order pulse is shown delayed by 8.3 #s. Note
that there is no resolution problem for the small-specimen case, but, in
the large-specimen ease, the pulse heights will be increased by about 20
percent due to superposition.
In closing the discussion of RC networks, the question arises as to how
to improve resolution in such systems. Obviously, close-order pulses cannot
be controlled in a particular specimen. The capacitive parameters in the
system are, to a great extent, fixed. The time constant of the system is the
controlling factor that, in itself, is controlled by Rp. Reducing the magni-
tude of Rp lowers the time constant, which, in turn, improves resolution,
but increases o~, which, in turn, increases bandwidth. Increasing bandwidth
also increases amplifier noise, and opens the door to extraneous inter-
ferences. As in dealing with many of the laws of nature, compromise is
the only solution.
The resolution analysis to this point has been based on a mathematical
concept. If, however, resolution is considered from a practical point of view
of distinguishing individual pulses visually from a CRO screen, rather than
by an electronic pulse counter, Kreuger's [1] 500 pulses per quadrant
would be unrealistic. The spacing would be 5 cm per 500 = 0.1 mm on a
10-cm screen, which even with CRO beam-brightening features would be
indiscernible to the naked eye without magnification. A minimum spacing
of 250 pulses per quadrant would be more realistic. A recapitulation of
numerical values used in the RC-network analysis, and those to be used
in the RCL-network analysis are given in Table 3.2. For additional details
Specimens
Very - Small Very - Large
/ ! --..,...,,.
I
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
FIG. 3.10--The 2.3 time constant length of pulse with very-smalland very-large specimens.
concerning resolution see Section 3.2.10 following the next section on the
RCL network.
3.2. 9 The RCL Network

In discussing the RCL detection network, we will need to refer back to
Fig. 3.7 and consider the circuit from two points of view. As in the RC
network, we know from Eq 3.1 that the charge transfer of a single dis-
charge pulse, q, will be distributed throughout the various capacitive ele-
TABLE 3.2--Corona discharge detection circuit component valuesfor use with small to large
sized specimen capacitances.
Specimens
Parameters Small Both Large
q coulombs 5 10 -12 ...

Ct farads -'6 . . . . oo
C farads a 773 10 -12 3400 10 -12
Rs ohms ... "1'3"0 ...
Rp ohms ... 1500 . ..
L henries 5 10 -3
Vi voltsb 5.88 'X '10 -3 ... 4.90 "X"10 -S
aSee Eq 3.9 and Table 3.1.

b See Eq 3.10.
ments of the system, including Ci. At t = 0, Ci will be charged to a volt-

age, Vi, which will be discharged through L and resonate at a frequency
determined by
fr - -
1 R(2R_)__C
27r L 1 2
4Rp2C R,
4L 2 + _~_/V~
----T (3.13)
_ 1 ),/2 =
-- 27r (1/CL forR, = 0 and Rp oo (3.13a)
R, and L are usually of fixed magnitudes for a particular RCL network in

discharge-detection systems. Using the magnitudes given in Table 3.2, the
equation can be reduced to
1 1.3 x 104 0.25 1.69 10 s + (3.13b)

fl- 27r RpC Rp2C 2
One magnitude of Rr is the inherent resistive component of the amplifier

input impedance. If we assume this resistance to have a typical value of
2 104 ohms, the foregoing equation would reduce to
fi = ~
,(0e 6. C2
,00 -- 1.69 108 + (3.13c)
For small specimens (Table 3.2), this would be, fi = 80.9 kHz; for large
specimens, 38.6 kHz. In order to reduce the decay time of the oscillatory
response of the complete detection system so as to improve resolution,
Rp is, in some cases, reduced to about 1500 fl by inserting additional re-
sistance in parallel with the network. In this case
1 (8~7 1.11 -7 _~_)'n

fr = 2~r - - C2 -- 1.69 10~ + (3.13d)
For small specimens, fi = 46.1 kHz, and for large specimens, fr = 36.2
kHz. Note, incidentally, that the resonant frequencies of small- and large-
system responses are now nearer alike--in the range of approximately 36
to 46 kHz. We will continue our analysis on the basis of Rp = 1500 fl,
since resolution in the detection system is as important as sensitivity. This
calls for a compromise of pulse-response behavior that meets the needs
of industry.
At this point, we need to look at the RCL network in the light of it being
a double-energy storage system and to determine its overall time constant
accordingly. Let us first consider each energy-storing element separately,
on the basis of their individual time constants. In other words, TL' =
L / R , and Tc' = R p C for single-energy pulse responses. In double-energy

systems the energy is alternately stored in the inductive and capacitive ele-
ments. It is evident that since this energy is oscillating between the two
reactive elements, it will be stored one-half the time in each, or TL" =
2TL" = 2L/R,, and Tc" = 2Tc' = 2RpC. Therefore, since the decay of
voltage for both reactive dements is exponential in character
exp [--at] = exp [--tlTL"] exp [--tlTc"]

= exp [tR,12L] exp [--tl2RpC]
expI--IA(.R'RpC+L
= RpCL )t]
= damping factor (3.14)
1 (R,RpC+L)
~3 = -~ 9 RvCL inverse seconds (3.15)
= dissipation constant
For small specimens
a3' = 4.44 105 inverse seconds
For large specimens
a3" = 1.11 105 inverse seconds
We now need to express the oscillatory characteristics of the network in

terms of V(t). It can be shown that the voltage across Rp will be
Vi(t) = Vi exp [--a3t] ( c~ ~ + a4 sin (3.16)
where a3 is as shown in Eq 3.15 and
1 [ R,RpC -- L ) (3.17)
a4 = -2 ~" RpCL
For small specimens
a4' = --4.18 105 inverse seconds
For large specimens
a4" = --0.85 10s inverse seconds

Figure 3.11 shows a plot of Eq 3.16 based on OJr : 27rf, as given in

Eq 3.13. It is plotted for the large-specimen case only since it would repre-
sent the worst case from a resolution point of view. V, in Eq 3.16 is de-
termined from Eq 3.1 by making V, = q / C t , or, Eq 3.10
qCcc
,5 =
(C, + Cc + C)(Ccc + Ci) + Cc~Ci
We next need to express the frequency characteristics of the network in

terms of V(o~). With the help of Laplace transform pairs, this can be
shown to be
V(6o) Vi[( Rs/L ) 2 .Jc 602] '/,

= +- (3.18)
[(0[3 2 "3!- (dr 2 - - 0.12)2 + 4~d2(X3 2] 1,4
where
o~r = the resonant frequency (see Eq 3.13),
o~ = any other frequency,
V; = amplifier-input peak voltage, and
eta = dissipation constant (see Eq 3.15).
Taking the derivative of this equation, and equating it to zero, shows
that its peak, when R+/L ,r o~, will occur at
60 ---~ (0/3 2 "31- 60r2) 1A (3.19)
!
1.0
4 to 6/zs IPCEA Resolution Umits m

.8 Also See Fig. 3.14
m .6
0
+ 10% - 15%
'--'-
C .4
N'.2
f
0
\ /
.2
\j
.4
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
/zs
FIG. 3. ll--Oscillatory decay pulse characterizing large specimens (according to Eq 3.16).

We now have all of equations that are required to plot the voltage re-
sponse of the detection network, namely, Eqs 3.1, 3.9, 3.13d, 3.15, and
3.19. First, from Eq 3.9, the range of specimen capacitive magnitudes
would, based on Table 3.1, be such that
773 pF _< C _ 3400 pF
Imposing these limits in Eqs 3.13d, 3.15, and 3.19, we find the limits of
the RCL network frequencies to be from 40.24 to 84.37 kHz. In other
words, the amplifier will see no resonant frequencies outside of these limits
for our chosen (typical) parameters. A range of magnitudes of C are then
chosen between these limits, shown tabulated in Fig. 3.12. Next, using
Eq 3.9, the range of C magnitudes are converted to Ct, also tabulated in
Fig. 3.12. Finally, using Eq 3.1 or 3.10, the magnitudes of Vi can be cal-
culated for the previously-obtained magnitudes of Ct, shown plotted in
Fig. 3.12, based on an assumed charge of 5 pC.
Also tabulated in Fig. 3.12 are the Q values for each frequency, based
on either Q = (R~ + Rp)/o:L or Q = RpoJC, in which case
1 JR__,+ R , I ' / '

fi-- 2~r [ RpLC ~ "
The O of the RC network is shown in Fig. 3.9, being a value of 1 over the
entire frequency range. If we should wish to have a charge sensitivity of
5 pC/cm at the CRO readout, and assuming a CRO sensitivity of 17 V/cm,
the amplifier gain would need to be
17 17
=346939 for the largest specimen
Vi 4.9 10 -s
17 17
= 2891 for the smallest specimen
Vi 5.88 10 -3
The bandwidth of the amplifier should, based on conventional 3 dB points,

be at least 40 to 85 kHz (see Column I, Fig. 3.12). The reasoning behind
the foregoing analysis, which resulted in the presentation of Fig. 3.12, does
not take into consideration the full significance of Eq 3.18, which expresses
the harmonic voltages at frequencies on the sides of each resonant peak.
In other words, the analysis presented here is based on the resonant peaks
only, as determined from Eq 3.19, for a wide range of specimen sizes.
Therefore, to record a sizeable amount of the pulse energy for all specimen
sizes, the 3 dB roll-off of the amplifier bandwidth should be outside of
the 40- to 85-kHz frequency limits.
10 2
>
f
o
>-
~0-' I
0;
4 ~
i Q
Frequency
Limits
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
f - kHz
I II III IV
f(kHz) C (pF) Ct (pF) Q
40.2 3 400 86 700 1.29

42.8 3 000 14 700 1.21
52.5 2 000 2 700 0.99
60.6 1 500 1 200 0.86
74.2 1 000 300 0.70
78.2 900 162 0.66
84.4 773 0.33 0.61
FIG. 3.12--A plot of Vi between the limits of resonating frequencies for large and small
specimens when using an RCL detection network.
Figure 3.13 shows plots of the two values of V(co), based on Eq 3.18,
for the extremes of specimen capacitances used in Fig. 3.12. Several char-
acteristics of these plots should be noted. First, the wide breadth of the
two curves should be noted, particularly the one representing the small-
specimen case. If the magnitudes of a3' and ct3" had been made less, the
curves would have been sharper, that is, their energy content would have
been concentrated in a narrower bandwidth. Furthermore, their ampli-
tudes would have been greater. For example, if a magnitude of Rp = 2 X
104, mentioned earlier, had been used in our example, the magnitudes
would have been increased about a decade. Second, Eq 3.12a, given for the
RC detection-network case, could be used as an approximation of the
10-a
Large
Specimen
o
E Jmits Shown
r "in Fig, 3.12"
z I
10-9 Small
ca Specimen
o
> s
Z
>
4
2 f %
I
10-,o
/ \\
I0 30 50 70 90 110 130 150
f - kHz
FIG. 3.13--A plot of detector response as a function of frequency, V (o~), for large and
small specimens in accordance with Eq 3.18.
amplifier bandwidth extension on each side of the detection network band-

width to recover 90 percent of the pulse energy for very small and large
specimens. However, since this would widen the amplifier bandwidth
greatly, to the extent of ~3' and c~3", it would appear not to be justified
for very small and large specimens only. Therefore, an amplifier bandwidth
of 25 to 115 kHz would, in our example, appear to be a practical com-
promise between overall sensitivity and resolution.
The matter of amplifier bandwidth, as it may affect the reproducibility
of the oscillatory decaying pulse from the RCL detection network, has
received considerable attention in recent years, particularly as it affects
problems of resolution in making discharge measurements on distributed-
parameter systems. It has been demonstrated that in certain detection
systems the amplifier, due to its limited bandwidth, distorts the pulse from
the detection network to such a degree that the amplitudes of the first few
half-cycles of the oscillatory wave are less than subsequent ones, after
which the decay takes place [1, 9]. This type of behavior has been identi-
fied as a/~ response, as compared to the valid or true a response where the
first half-cycle has the greatest amplitude.
From sensitivity and resolution points of view, the (~-type response may
be objectionable where close-order pulses occur. If two pulses with the
same time delay occur and are superimposed, an o~ response can only result
in an additive magnitude, whereas a/3 response could be either additive
or subtractive.
3.2.10 Resolution Time of RCL Networks

In the section covering the RC network, we mentioned that close-order
pulses can cause additive overlapping. In RCL networks, such close-order
pulses can result in both additive and subtractive overlapping because of
their oscillatory nature.
The seriousness of the problem has caused, at least, one document to
be promulgated 7 dealing, in part, with close-order pulses in terms of reso-
lution time. The document gives a schematic diagram for a variably-spaced
two-pulse generator used to inject pulses, of varying time spacings, into a
detection network so that the superposition characteristics of the network
and amplifier can be observed without any specimen connected. On the
basis of this document, the power-cable industry has adopted a resolution
time of 4 to 6 #s for superposition not to exceed 10 percent positive and
15 percent negative (for further details see IPCEA Standard T-24-380). We
will use these times and percentages in our detection network of the RCL
circuit where both Rp and R, are involved.
Referring back to Fig. 3.11, it will be noted that IPCEA Standard T-24-
380 limits are shown, superimposed on the pulse network response. Figure
3.14 is a plot of an actual test of a commercial detection system.
3.2.11 System Sensitivity in Terms of Charge Transfer

We previously gave the gain required of the amplifier for large and small
specimens for a charge of 5 pC. Although the gain possibilities of modern
amplifiers are quite great, the inherent internal thermal noises of the sys-
tem together with uncontrolled externally-generated noise does place a
limit on amplification.
If we use a maximum gain of 600 000 as being commercially feasible,
and maintain a signal-to-noise ratio of 2, the 5 pC gain figures previously
given could be adjusted to increased sensitivity as
346939
5 = 2.9 pC/cm for large specimens
600,000
2891
S = 0.024 pC/cm for small specimens
600,000
7Guide for Partial-DischargeTest Procedure, IPCEAStandard T-24-380, InsulatedPower

Cable EngineersAssociation.
4 to 6 ~s IPCEA Resolution Limits ~'~

9~ 2.0 / / See AIso Fig. 3.11
> 110%-- ~
1.0 ~, e " :
-~ 85%~
n.-
100 2 4 6 101 2 4 s 102

Delay Time - / ~ s
FIG. 3.14--Pulse resolution test characteristic of a corona detection network in accordance

with IPCEA Standard T-24-380.
Considering the great difficulties in combatting both externally- and inter-

nally-generated noises, the sensitivities just given are close to the limit for
straight detection systems.
There has been a recent trend toward the detection of low-level charge
discharges in larger specimens, which calls for ways to gain this increased
sensitivity in view of somewhat fixed inherent noise levels of detection
systems including amplifiers. Kreuger [1] recognized this trend and dis-
cussed aspects of the problem, offering a solution for straight-detection
RCL networks.
This solution consisted primarily of the insertion of a transformer in
place of the simple induction coil in the conventional RCL network. Such
a complete system is shown in Fig. 3.15, where Cc and C, are ignored as
being << C,. Optimum performance, from,the point of view of best signal
-" Ccc Amplifier
E Ct
---!- Ratio N Ci !
FIG. 3.1S--Corona detection circuit f o r use on large-capacitance specimens for the mea-
surement of low-level corona pulse charges.
detection in view of thermal noise from the detection network and ampli-
fier, is obtained by Ccc >> Ct. Ci is primarily the capacitance of the shielded
interconnecting cable between the transformer output and the amplifier.
The transformer ratio N is based on an impedance match through the
detection network, which in terms of energy transfer can be derived as
follows
C11112 C2 V22
2 2
V22 C1
Vl 2 C2
Vl N = (3.20)
where
CccCt
C1-- C o o + C , and,
C2=G
It must be borne in mind that the current rating of the transformer pri-
mary has to be compatible with that of Ccc or Ct at test-voltage frequency.
By the use of such detection networks, minimum detection levels, in view
of thermal noise, in the order of 0.3 pC have been observed in specimens
having capacitances of 105 pF.
3.3 Bridge-Form Networks

Although bridges used for the detection and measurement of discharge
losses in insulation systems constitute the subject of another chapter, there
is one form of bridge network that should be considered to some extent in
this chapter. This is the form that does not measure power loss or changes
in capacitance as result of discharges, but detects and measures discharge
pulses in the same way as the straight-detection method. In other words,
it measures individual pulse amplitude in terms of the charge, q.
The method is, in general, known as the balanced detection system, and
several versions, given in the technical literature of the past, are discussed
by Kreuger [1]. Further, Kreuger [1] developed modifications in the net-
work and identified his development as a differential method. His basic
objective was to provide a detection system for large specimens, such as
power cable of reel lengths in noisy environments that would have a high
CHAPTER3--PARTIAL-DISCHARGE
DETECTIONSYSTEMS 97
noise-rejection ratio and high sensitivity. The basic diagram of such a
network is shown in Fig. 3.16. Note that the subscripts for the capacitive
parameters are inconsistent with those used in previous text.
The advantages of this particular bridge network are several-fold. When
the bridge is in balance, it can be shown [1 ] that when the dielectric losses
of C, and Cx (Fig. 3.16) are equal, that is, tan 61 = tan 62, the common-
mode-rejection ratio can be quite high. The capacitance of C, need not
necessarily be equal to Cx, but if they are, the rejection ratio can be even
higher. In other words, extraneous noise or interference entering the net-
work by way of the high-voltage source appears in both arms of the bridge
at equal magnitudes and is not detectable between Points A and B.
Common-mode rejection ratios of 5000 to 1 are ordinarily attainable, as
for example, with a specimen capacitance of 10 000 pF, based on an
optimum thermal (Johnson) noise of 0.06 pC (2 to 1 signal-to-noise ratio).
There are several possible disadvantages to the use of the balanced
detection method just described. One is that the method requires that the
specimen be lifted from ground. Another is that taking full advantage of
the desirable features of the method may require more than ordinary skill
on the part of the operator. A third is that to gain full advantage of a high
noise-rejection ratio a second specimen, or reasonable facsimile in terms of
capacitance and dissipation factor, must be available. Obviously, the
capacitive network, looking back from the amplifier, will not be the same
as that given in Eq 3.9 and shown in Fig. 3.8. The derivation of its equation
.,~.~ High
y~Cv Voltage
Cs ~ ~)~ ~ Cx
T1 1
PB
)
~ ,, Frame
FIG. 3.16--Double-input balanced corona detection circuit. (Courtesy o f the James G.

Biddle Co. ).
is more complex, and requires the use of the wye-delta transformation as

in many bridge networks. Kreuger [1] gives the results of this derivation
C = Cx + CA + (n + 1)Ci (3.21)
where
Cx = capacitance arm in which a discharge occurs (see Fig. 3.16),
CA = capacitance of the corresponding lower arm (see Fig. 3.16),
C~ = capacitance between Points A and B in Fig. 3.16, and
n = ratio of Cs and Cx in Fig. 3.16.
Kreuger states that the relation given by Eq 3.21 is valid if C~/Cs =
Ci/CA' = GA/G~ = n.
It will be noted that Kreuger's equation (our Eq 3.21) does not include
Cs and Cc as in our Eq 3.9. As discussed earlier in this chapter, the only
valid point at which a calibration pulse can be injected into the system is
across Cx(Ct), if nebulous correction factors are to be avoided, caused by
removing a low-voltage Cc from the system before it is energized at high
voltage. However, as mentioned earlier in this section, the balanced
method described here is primarily intended for large specimens, Cx >> Co;
therefore, Cc can be ignored in Eq 3.21.
As to C,tray, which can be considered as parts of (7, and C~ in Fig. 3.16
when the bridge is balanced, it too can be ignored in Eq 3.21. However,
the physical placements of C~ and Cx should be such that significant dif-
ferences in their C~traymagnitudes will not exist, otherwise the value of n
may be excessive, which can have an adverse effect on the common-mode
rejection ratio.
3.4 Direct-Voltage-Test Deteetlon

All that has been discussed up to this point in this chapter has been
based on the application of an alternating voltage to the specimen. How-
ever, with one exception, what has been said would also apply to the direct-
voltage case. This exception is the repetition rate at which discharges may
occur. Without delving into the differences that might occur in the stress
distribution within an insulation system with direct as compared to alter-
nating voltage, it can be said that partial discharges will occur in cavities
under similar conditions in either case. When such partial discharges
occur, the transient effect, as seen at the terminals of the system, will be
similar. However, since the wave form of the two voltages are different,
the repetition rate of discharges may also be different. Therefore, the
discharge pulses are likely to occur in a random fashion with no 60-Hz
background to serve as a time base [10].
For direct-voltage tests where negligible ripple exists, the repetition rate
will depend largely on both the permittivity and resistivity of the insulating
material in which the cavity exists, and the repetition rate may decrease
during the period the voltage is applied at a constant value (see ASTM
Measurement of Energy and Integrated Charge Transfer Due to Partial
Discharges (Corona) Using Bridge Techniques (D 3382-75) and IEEE
Standard 454).
In fact, the pulses that occur may be so random in occurrence and so
short in duration that they become difficult to observe on a CRO screen
and need to be recorded by an electronic pulse counter or an X-Y recorder
with pulse-stretching features. The time intervals between pulses, depending
on the insulating material involved and the conditions within the cavity,
may range from a few to many minutes. If the polarity is reversed to simu-
late power-flow reversals, or for other reasons, the time intervals during
discharge tests will likely decrease.
The use of direct voltage for power transmission is increasing, which will
lead to a greater interest in insulation systems operating at high direct
voltage. Therefore, partial discharges in such systems will become of in-
creasing importance. To date, comparatively little work has been done in
this area or reported in the technical literature [10]. An entire chapter in
this book is devoted to the subject of d-c corona measurement techniques.
3.5 Pulse versus Pulseless Discharges

Throughout this chapter, we have considered partial discharges in insu-
lation systems as a phenomenon that can be observed or measured by
pulse-detection techniques. Where divergent fields or stresses exist in insu-
lation systems involving gaseous spaces or occlusions, the discharges that
occur may pass from a pulse to a pulseless or glow form. When and if
such a transition takes place, pulse-detection techniques are no longer
applicable.
Nasser [11] gives an excellent description of this phenomenon from a
physicist's point of view for both d-c and a-c cases. In another reference
[12], Bartnikas discusses his research findings for the a-c ease. ASTM
D 3382-75, as well as Chapter 8, describe loss-measurement techniques in
dealing with this phenomenon.
References
[1] Kreuger, F. H., Discharge Detection in High Voltage Equipment, Ameriban Elsevier,
New York, 1965.
[2] Dakin, T. W. and Lim, J., Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, American
Institute of Electrical Engineers, Vol. 76, Dec. 1957, pp. 1059-1065.
[3] Dakin, T. W., "Corona pulse detection circuits and their calibration," Conference
Paper 62-260, American Institute of Electrical Engineers, 1962.
[4] Mole, G., Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers, Vol. PAS-89, Feb. 1970, pp. 198-204.
tronics Engineers, Vol. EI-7, Mar. 1972, pp. 3-8.
[6] Committee Report, Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Institute of Elec-
trical and Electronics Engineers, Vol. PAS-86, Oct. 1967, pp. 1185-1191.
[7] Eager, G. S., Bahder, G., and Silver, D. A., Transactions on Power Apparatus and
Systems, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Vol. PAS-88, April 1969,
pp. 342-364.
[8] Eager, G. S. and Bahder, G., Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Institute
of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Vol. PAS-86, Jan. 1967, pp. 10-34.
[9] HV Cables Committee No. 2, Proceedings, International Conference on Large High Ten-
sion Electric Systems, Progress Report No. 21.01, Paris, 1068, pp. 1-35.
[I0] Rogers, E. C. and Skipper, D. J., Proceedings, Institute of Electrical Engineers, Vol.
107A, June 1960, pp. 241-254.
[11] Nasser, E., Fundamentals of Gaseous Ionization and Plasma Electronics, Wiley-Inter-
science Division, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1971.
STP669-EB/Feb. 1979
W. T. S t a r t ~
Detection of Corona Discharges in

Lumped Circuit Specimens
4.1 Introduction
In tests carried out on lumped capacitance specimens, the assumption is
made that the apparent corona pulse charge is given by the product of the
capacitance of the specimen and the resultant change in voltage across the
terminals of the specimen. It is the intent of this chapter to examine the fac-
tors that are involved in the precision of this relationship as well as the possi-
ble significance of the measured apparent charge with the prospective life of
the lumped capacitance specimen. Recommendations are also to be made
relative to the means available to improve the significance of the apparent
charge measurements.
4.2 Definition of a Lumped Capacitance Specimen

A lumped circuit in corona discharge measurements is a test specimen
that, for purposes of detection and calibration, can be viewed as essentially a
pure capacitor. Therefore, the following relationship holds
AQ = C,AV (4.1)
Here, A Q is the charge lost from the terminals of the test specimen due to a
discharge, C, is the capacitance of the test specimen, and A V is the change in
voltage at the specimen terminals due to the discharge. Mole has defined the
limitations on the test specimen within which the foregoing relationship can
be expected to be reasonably valid [1].2 The limitations involve both the test
specimen and the band-pass of an RCL-type corona discharge detector (see
Chapter 3).
In the analysis, Mole makes use of a number of basic concepts. He notes
that calibration of corona detection sets is carried out using excitation pulses
l Raychem Corporation, Menlo Park, Calif. 94025.
101
Copyright* 1979 by ASTM International www.astm.org

having finite rise times, so that the calibration is not only influenced by the
frequency response characteristics of the corona detectors themselves, but
also by the manner in which the excitation pulse step-front deviates from an
ideal corona pulse. A narrow-band corona detector is defined to exhibit a
response that can be derived in terms of its single natural resonant fre-
quency,f0. The relative response (v 'Iv) of a narrow-band detector is thus ex-
pressed as
v--= 1
v (1 q- w02 r12) 1/2 (4.2)
where v is the peak response to the ideal step-wave of zero rise time, v' is the
corresponding peak response due to an exponential-rise waveform calibra-
tion pulse, oJ0 -----21rfe, and rl is the time constant of the calibration pulse.
On the other hand, Mole defines a wide-band corona detection unit as one
that exhibits a constant detected amplitude with a linearly varying phase
shift over the frequency band from f l to f2. Outside the f l and f2 limits, the
response is assumed to fall to zero. Evidently, in physical terms such a circuit
cannot be entirely realized. For the wide-band detection system, it is shown
that
v' csch-~co~rz -- csch-1 o~2~'1

(4.3)
v In ~_~2
601
where o~1 = 27rfl, o~2 = 2~f~, and the midband frequency, f0, is equal to
( f l f 2 ) 1/2. The percentage error in the measured corona pulse amplitude is
given by 100 [1 -- (v '/v)] and can thus be determined for both narrow and
wideband detection systems, using Eqs 4.2 and 4.3, respectively. Mole's
analysis is summarized in Fig. 4.1, where the effect of the time constant of
the front of a calibration pulse waveform, together with the midband fre-
quency of the corona detector, and its bandwidth are shown as a function of
the resultant error. The implied calibration pulse waveform is of a fast rise
time, since it is intended to simulate the rise of an actual corona pulse. If, in
its travel from its injection point on the specimen to the detector input, the
wave-front of the excitation pulse is sloped to produce a wave front with a
time constant, r l , the error associated with this particular value of rl can be
obtained directly from the curves, because a corona discharge pulse will be
attenuated in the same manner. Thus, the value of r~ also effectively
represents the time constant of the front of an actual corona pulse.
It is evident that the data given in Fig. 4.1 provides a direct method for
determining whether a specimen (together with the detector) can be con-
sidered as a lumped circuit. Note that the value of rl can be determined by
observing the leading-edge rise time of a calibration pulse at the detector in-
CHAPTER 4--LUMPED CIRCUIT SPECIMENS 103
"r1 = TIME C O N S T A N T OF FRONT OF C A L I B R A T I O N WAVEFORM

fo = M I D - B A N D FREQUENCY OF C O R O N A DETECTOR = ~ / ~ -
50
20 NARROW BAND CORONA DETECTOR

f2/f I = 1 \
10
IDEAL WIDE BAND CORONA DETECTOR

f2/fl = 3
IDEAL WIDE BAND C O R O N A DETECTOR

f2/fl = 10
0.5
0.5
I
0.2 I I ~ K I t t F ll r
0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2
fo'rl
FIG. 4.1--Error associated with the rise time o f a calibration pulse (after Mole [1]).
put terminals, which is injected at the most remote part of the specimen from
the detector. For an accurate measurement of r~, a wide-band oscilloscope is
required, and a resistor must be used to develop the signal voltage drop at the
oscilloscope input. Alternatively, a Fourier analysis of the pulse could be
combined with the frequency/attenuation characteristics of the specimen to
determine the change in the time constant of the front of the pulse as it prop-
agates through the specimen.
From Fig. 4.1, it can be seen for example that for a wide-band detector
with a center frequency, f0, of 160 kHz and a ratio of cut-off frequencies
f2/fl of 2 having a band pass of 100 kHz, an increase in pulse rise time from
0.3 to 0.7 #s would cause the error to increase from 5 to 20 percent. Likewise,
for a narrow-band detector with f0 = 500 kHz and (f2/f~) = 1, an increase
in pulse rise time from 0.1 to 0.25/~s would also cause the error to increase
from 5 to 20 percent. Obviously, the limitation placed upon a lumped circuit
depends upon the degree of error permitted; this, in turn, depends upon the
use for which the data is intended. If the data is simply required for checking
against a given specification, a maximum allowable error of about 20 percent
could be considered as quite acceptable. It should be emphasized that in all
cases, the frequency spectrum of the calibration pulse should encompass the
center band frequency,f0, of the corona detector to be calibrated. Failure to
ensure this could lead to serious errors in the determined sensitivity values as
has been demonstrated by Bartnikas [2]; preferably, the maximum value of
the rise time of the calibration pulse should be less than 1/25f0.
Other factors also affect the error associated with Eq 4.1. The effect of the
corona pulse tail duration must be taken into account. The influence of the
tail duration, or the decay time of the detected corona pulse, can be deter-
mined by considering a pulse of a step-front having variable exponentially
decaying tails. In this regard, Mole [3] has shown that for a narrow band
detector, the relative response is given by
v" 1
(4.4)
--v-- = ( 1 + -1) ~/2
6002 ~'22
where v" represents the peak response to an instantaneous rise corona pulse
having an exponential decay, and r2 is the time constant of the exponential
decay. Assuming, that 60~r2is large compared with unity, Mole shows that the
corresponding relative response of an ideal wide-band detector can be ex-
pressed by
v" sin h-1602r2 -- sin h-160172

-- = (4.5)
v In 60--22
601
From the similarity of Eqs 4.2 to 4.5 for the effect of the rise and decay times
of the corona pulse, a close agreement between the relative response charac-
teristics of narrow- and wide-band detectors would be expected for for2 values
less than 10-L The plots offorE versus the percentage error 100 (1 -- v"/v) for
the cases of (f2/f~) ---- 1, 3, and 10 are mirror images of those forforl versus
100 (1 -- v~/v) portrayed in Fig. 4.1.
When the time interval between successive corona discharge pulses
becomes very short, pulse overlapping may occur and thus give rise to further
errors in addition to those previously discussed. Mole has used the calibra-
tion pulse repetition rate to examine this factor. His data fit the relation
G
Y = -- (4.6)
"r3Af
Here Y is the m a x i m u m value of the error (increase or decrease in response of

the second pulse due to the first pulse), r3 is the time interval between the
calibration or simulated corona pulses, and A f = (f2 --f~). The factor, (3, is
plotted on Fig. 4.2. For example, with a narrow-band detector having f0 =
500 kHz, A f = 10 kHz, and for r3 > 600 #s, the m a x i m u m error in the
response Y < 5 percent. Should the time interval change to r3 > 150 #s,
then Y < 20 percent. With a wide-band detector having f0 = 160 kHz, A f =
100 kHz, and for r3 > 70/~s, Y < 5 percent. Again a decrease in the time in-
terval to r3 -> 17 #s would raise the error value Y to < 20 percent.
The study of corona detection in cable specimens provides a helpful means
to demonstrate the transition point between lumped capacitance and
distributed parameter behavior of corona test specimens. It is known that ap-
preciable errors may occur during tests of cables when narrow-band detec-
tors are used. These errors arise due to the superposition of the incident and
reflected corona pulses in long cables, which act no longer as lumped
capacitances but rather as distributed parameter transmission lines. The er-
ror with wide-band detectors does not generally exceed the 6 dB value. This
error can be eliminated by terminating the cables in their characteristic im-
pedance, Z0, so that reflections do not occur. Mason [4] has shown that this
may be accomplished by using a discharge-free capacitor in series with a
resistor equal to Z0 (see Fig. 4.3). The method proposed by Mason is often in-
0.5--
r162
0
0.2 --
0.1 I ' I i I IIII I i I I I I IIII I I 1

0,02 0.05 0.1 0.5 1 2
RELATIVE BANDWITH ~-f/l o
FIG. 4.2--Derived relationship between the function G and the relative bandwidth Af/fo
DISCHARGEFREE--~
CAPACITORT C=Ccc
FREQUENCY
FILTER
FIG. 4.3--Method for eliminating reflections from the remote end of a distributed parameter
cable specimen.
convenient for factory tests and, therefore, is seldom used. Also, wide-band
detectors have a high sensitivity to extraneous noise in the factories and are,
consequently, difficult to use in production quality checks. Eager and
Bahder [5] describe techniques used in the factory to provide maximum sen-
sitivity together with maximum noise rejection. The circuit used is depicted
in Fig. 4.4. It will be noted that in their particular circuit, the band pass is
only 25 to 35 kHz and the power separation filter contains an inductance, L,
in series with a resistance, R, to provide near critical damping. The low fre-
quency provides a longer persistence time of the beam on the oscilloscope
than would a higher frequency and, therefore, an easier visibility of the
signal. The near critical damping provides better resolution of pulses than
would a high Q resonant circuit and permits the polarity of the discharge
signal to be determined. The polarity can often be related to the probable
locality of the discharge; negative polarity discharges occur on that electrode
which is increasing in potential with respect to the other, and vice versa.
Most commercially available corona detection circuits are of the RLC-type,
though their band pass may in some cases exceed that used by Eager and
Bahder. 3
Eager and Bahder have analyzed the effect of cable length and the detec-
tion circuit parameters on the signal observed and have shown that the
waveform of the corona signal can be represented as shown in Fig. 4.5. Here
A Vd' is an initial peak pulse voltage appearing at the end of the cable, which
lasts between 5 and 100 ns, depending upon the distance between the
discharge site and the end of the cable, as well as the frequency attenuation
characteristic of the cable. The voltage, A Vd", consists of a damped oscilla-
tion wave and is the natural oscillation of the RLC circuit; one cycle duration
is about 30 #s. The voltage amplitude, A Vd", has been shown to be propor-
3In the RLC or resistive-inductive-capacitive type circuit used by Eager and Bahder, the
detectionimpedanceitselfis of the RLC type.
CABLE SPECIMEN
/ FILTER
C~.~ ( 25 "l.~..tk Hz )[~...i
Z:O.1 H
I
~ -~L= 6mH
IFIER~ CRO
,c CS= p ~ r _ ~
3000 R = 50
POWER
SUPPLY
F I G . 4.4--Circuit diagram of narrow-band RCL-type corona discharge detector for use on

cable specimens.
' - ' ' AV~

5x104 9
4x104.
3x104.
->~
<3
~ 2 x 1 0 4.
O
>
lx104-
2x 10~
.lx10 z =>.a
<3
0 ; . : : : 0
O
lx102
O
:)
2x102
, , , .... /
: : I i i I I I : :
0.025 0.05 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
TIME (MICROSECONDS)
F I G , 4.S--Typical corona discharge transient waveform having a resonant frequency of 30

kHz obtained on a long cable specimen as detected using the RCL-type detector.
tional to the apparent charge. Since the A Vd' signal is too fast to have any
significant frequency components in the 25 to 35 kHz band pass, only the
value of A Vd" can be measured. Eager and Bahder make the claim that
detectors with a band pass extending to 300 kHz would respond to A Vd'
and, therefore, could produce deceptive results in estimating apparent
charge.
As the length of an electrically infinitely long cable is reduced, the
reflected waves from the remote end influence the result, and the sensitivity
tends to increase due to positive corona pulse superposition effects. As the
cable length is further reduced, a point is reached where the cable specimen
begins to act as a lumped circuit capacitance and the reflection effects disap-
pear. At this point, the detected corona pulse waveform assumes the stan-
dard decaying cosine transient shape characteristic of a typical RLC circuit.
In the case of the Eager and Bahder circuit, this corona pulse waveform may
be expressed as
z~v ,, = ~_4_Q( (c,+CtCic,)

Ct CtC4 'FC5 exp--(~L)tCOS27rft (4.7)
Ct + C4
The resonant frequency of the RLC circuit, including the lumped cable
specimen capacitance, C,, is given by
1 {LC, C4 + ~-1/2
f o = --~-~ \C-T-+ C 4 L C s j (4.8)
for 27rf0 > R/2L. Note that AQ represents the value of apparent corona
charge necessary to cause the A Va" voltage drop across the detection im-
pedance formed by Cs, L, and R in Fig. 4.4.
Another factor in the effect of distributed parameter specimen length is
the attenuation constant of the cable, a, for the high frequencies associated
with the pulse voltage A Vd '. At these frequencies, a has a value of about 1
dB/30.5 m (100 ft) of cable specimen length. Thus, the magnitude of the
predominant frequency components of A Va' should be reduced by a factor
of about 10 to 1 in a cable length of 305 m (1000 ft), assuming the signal
traverses from the far end of the cable to the near end and then back. Thus,
reflections become unimportant at cable lengths over 305 m (1000 ft), and
the net wave shape present at the detector terminals consists of A Vd" and the
first incident peak of the A Vd' pulse. As has been stated previously, the
A Vd' pulse, whose magnitude is dependent upon the value of apparent
change, AQ, and the distance from the discharge source to the detector ter-
minals, is effectively removed from the detected signal by the narrow band-
pass filter of the detector.
Eager and Bahder claim that, with their circuit, even long lengths of cable
can be calibrated in terms of apparent charge. Figure 4.6 shows that the
calibration would appear to be valid up to at least 1830 m (6000 ft) and,
therefore, even such long lengths of cables might be considered as lumped
capacitance circuits. There is, however, one complication. The apparent
charge, AQ, introduced into the detector by a discharge within a void
depends on the location of the void in the cable. When the void is situated
near the end of the cable, remote from the detector, one half of the charge is
only introduced into the detector; and when the void is near the detector, the
full apparent charge appears at the detector. Consequently, for lengths less
than 152 m (500 ft), the detector indicates the full apparent charge value,
while for lengths greater than 458 m (1500 ft), only half the charge is
measured. Thus, the calibration is valid for a 2 to 1 or 6 dB level, irrespective
of the specimen cable length.
As for dense corona pulse discharge patterns, the time separation between
discharges may be less than the integration time of the detector, 1/4f0, the
height of the detected signal may exceed that of the actual signal injected by
one discharge. This is a function similar to Mole's function of Eq 4.6. Eager
et al [6] gave the value of 9/~s as the integrative time of their circuit and
measured the response as a function of the repetition rate. The data are sum-
marized in Fig. 4.7. Mole's Eq 4.6, which gives the maximum error, would
2.6
/
_z |
tu f
r3
,,r 2
<[
3:
cO
<[
Z
OW
O~
O0
1.5
/
M
(J
w
0.5
I-
0
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 800
CABLE LENGTH ,IN FEET
F I G . 4.6--Detectable apparent corona charge versus cable length with the excitation pulse in-
troduced at the f a r end and the RCL detector connected at the near end as in Fig. 4.4 [15-k V
X L P E cable with 5, 6 m m (220-mil) insulation wall].
r i i
" I III''.,
I I t IJ i l l
+-I+/
I I IJfl[I
I I.AI[II
I/C IIII
1,4 IIII
~"~" 11
t-i
] b r [
:FjE
I I
I I II
IJ
IIJll
IIII
IIll
LIII
/
/I II Jill
/ IIII
102"1 10+
IIll lb.
Nu
PULSEREPETITIONRATE
NUMBEROFPULSESPERMILLISECOND
(PULSES/ms)
F I G . 4.7--Relative detected corona pulse height as a function o f the excitation or calibration
pulse repetition rate, using a rise time o f 50 ns (after Eager et al [ 6 ] ) .
predict three times the measured error at one sampled point. Evidently, there
appears to be some discrepancy in the two respective sets of test results.
4.3 Types of Corona Detection Circuits

The corona discharge pulse detection circuit delineated in Fig. 4.4
represents just one of several circuits, which may be used for measurements
on lumped capacitance type specimens. Figure 4.8 shows three basic circuits,
which are suited for such measurements. In these circuits, C, represents the
capacitance of the test specimen, and Ccc represents the capacitance of a
coupling capacitor that is discharge-free at the highest test voltage. Cs
represents the capacitance across the impedance, Z, and includes the
capacitance that is built into the inductor that is part of Zs and the
capacitance of the cable connecting ZI to the input of the amplifier. The
detection impedance, Zf, constitutes the power frequency separation filter; Z
represents an inductor in the high-voltage line between the test transformer
and the corona test circuit involving Cc~; and CvM is a capacitor that is part
of a voltmeter circuit. We shall first deal with the basic rules involved in the
design of the circuits depicted in Fig. 4.8a and b ; then, their possible ap-
plication to the design of the circuit of Fig. 4.8c will be obvious. Note that the
latter circuit is representative of the balanced mode of corona measurement.
Thus, C,, is a corona-free lumped capacitor equal in value to the specimen
V-/-1
I iTCcc 1
..L.
~ to voltmeter
, lmeos,,r,n instrument
0 !
0
_L Ct
to
voltmeter : measuring instrument
O' I
(b)
.- Ct 2
-~" Ct~ measuring instrument
0 f
%-
(c)
FIG. 4.8--Variations in the RCL-type corona detection circuitry.
capacitance Ct, in the opposite arm of the bridge. The respective detection
impedance arms are also equal in magnitude and phase.
The detection impedance, Z s, in Fig. 4.8a and b, almost always contains
an inductor between its terminals, which can be viewed as a series combina-
tion of a pure inductance, L, and a pure resistance, RL. It may also contain a
resistance across the terminals to control the ringing of the resonant circuit
comprised of the series combination of C, and C= across Z and Cs. One func-
tion of the inductor is to provide a low impedance path to ground for the
60-Hz charging current of the capacitor in series with Zs and between it and
the high-voltage bus. It is precisely for this reason that Zs is called the power
frequency separation filter. Its other primary function is to furnish a high im-
pedance to the frequency components of the discharge current. Note that the
inductor is not used when the radio interference voltage is being measured.
Further details on the latter case are provided in Ref 7 and by the ASTM
Standard Method for Detection and Measurement of Discharge (Corona)
Pulses in Evaluation of Insulation Systems (D 1868-73), ASTM Measure-
ment of Energy and Integrated Charge Transfer Due to Partial Discharges
(Corona) Using Bridge Techniques (D 3382-75), AEIC Standard 5, 4 IEEE
Standard 454, 5 IEEE Standard 48, 6 and IPCEA Standard T-24-380. 7
The 60-Hz voltage across Zy at the highest test voltage must be so small
that it never drives the input stage of the amplifier to cut-off. Thus, if the cut-
off voltage is Vco, the maximum allowable 60-Hz voltage drop across Z s is
determined by the relation
Vco >> ic ~/RL2 + 3772L 2 (4.9)
where ic is the charging current of the capacitor between Z i and the high
voltage bus. The limitation on L and RL can be greatly reduced if the
amplifier is provided with a capacitive input circuit that provides addi-
tional filtering of the 60-Hz voltage. For instance, a 1000-pF capacitor in
series with 100 k[2 to ground will reduce the 60-Hz component by 26 to 1
while passing frequencies above 25 kHz with better than 94 percent effi-
ciency. The value of L is also determined by the center frequency, f0, of the
amplifier by means of Eq 4.8 by substituting Ccc = C4 and CI = Cs. Thus,
after rearranging, we find
L : 1/4x2f02 ( CtCcc
\C, + C~ +
Cr (4.10)
The basic sensitivity to discharges is of course inversely proportional to Ct in

accordance with Eq 4.1. It is also proportional to the ratio of Ccc to CI + Ccc,
so that for maximum sensitivity, Cc~ should be as large as possible relative to
C I, while still maintaining the resonant frequency close to f0.
For corona pulse charge measurements, an amplifier and an oscilloscope
are used. The sweep of the oscilloscope is synchronized with the power fre-
quency, and a power frequency may also be applied to the y-axis to provide
an elliptical pattern. For tests on apparatus bushings and transformers, the
measuring instrument often is an RIV (radio interference voltage) meter such
4Specifications for Polyethyleneand Cross-Linked PolyethyleneInsulated Shielded Power

Cables Rated 5 through 69 kV, AEIC Standard 5, Association of Edison Illuminating Com-
panies.
5IEEE Recommended Practice for the Detection and Measurement of Partial Discharges
(Corona) during Dielectric Tests, IEEE Standard 454, Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers.
~ for High VoltageAlternating Current Cable Terminations,1EEEStandard 48, In-
stitute of Electrical and ElectronicsEngineers.
7Guide for Partial Discharge Test Procedure, IPCEA Standard T-24-380, Insulated Power
as the Stoddard type meter. The radio noise meter is most often tuned to the
frequency f0 of I MHz, using a band width of 10 kHz. This meter presents a
meter indication measuring the microvolt signal developed across Zy, which
is simply a 600-ohm resistor in this case. The RIV technique is used, partly
because the meter is portable, thereby greatly simplifying the measurements
in the field, and partly because freedom from radio interference is a definite
requirement on the performances of insulators and bushings.
The isolating impedance, Z, is only shown in Fig. 4.8a, but in fact it may
be used in all three circuits. If it is not used, the shunting capacitance of the
transformer winding becomes part of the capacitance shunting the high-
voltage bus to ground. This affects the sensitivity to discharges in the circuit
of Fig. 4.8a, but has little effect in the circuit of Fig. 4.8b. The primary func-
tion of Z is as a part of a filter for the elimination of the noise appearing on
the power line feeding the equipment. The other part of the filter is the
capacitance of the test specimen with the circuit of Fig. 4.8a that resembles
Eager Bahder's circuit. They specified a 1-H choke for Z, because in con-
junction with a full reel of cable, the line noise appearing across the specimen
would thus be reduced by a factor of 10 4. When testing full reels of cable, the
shunting effect of the transformer capacitance would be negligible. Z fi~ts
negligible filtering action when the value of Ct is less than 0.01 ttF, even
when it is as large as 1 H. Other means of reducing noise are considered in
Section 4.4.
Since the CIV value is sensitive to the magnitude of the crest voltage, and
the continuance of discharges is sensitive to the peak to peak voltage value, it
is better to provide a measuring instrument that reads in terms of the zero to
peak crest value than the root mean square value. Hence, a voltmeter
capacitor, CvM, is used to provide a source signal for such a measurement.
Normally, this capacitance is so large relative to the others in the circuit that
it has negligible effect on the corona measurements.
In any situation where the low-voltage lead of a high-voltage component is
connected to an impedance between it and ground, one must provide in-
surance that the low-voltage lead is never allowed to float far above ground
potential. For instance, if in Fig. 4.8a, Ccc fails, or in Fig. 4.8b, Ct fails, the
voltage value at the terminal of Z i becomes equal to the line voltage. The
technique usually employed to avert the situation makes use of a robust gas-
filled tube across the terminals of Zf; the tube is preset to ionize instantly at a
predetermined voltage. Incidentally, this protects the inductance, L, from
surges that would otherwise cause shorted turns; surges, of course, occur
wherever a specimen breaks down electrically. A driven station ground is
often used for all high-voltage circuits. If this ground is not properly bonded
to the ground of the power supply circuit, considerable potential may exist
between the different grounds during a breakdown or a flashover. That
would represent an unsafe and highly hazardous condition. In addition,
ground loops may contain high-frequency ground currents from equipment,
which interfere with sensitive corona detection. In order to effectively

eliminate the latter source of noise, it is good procedure to use a common
grounding point, which ideally is placed as close to the grounding point of Zi
as possible; this also reduces interference from radiated noise. The power
line noise may give rise to corona measurement problems. Some factories
use a motor generator set to provide power to the corona detector. This
is a very effective isolation technique and can eliminate the need for Z in
the circuits of Fig. 4.8. If the kilovolt-ampere requirement is small, line
filters are quite effective, providing attenuation of line noise up to 150 dB. At
the other extreme for very low kilovolt-ampere levels, shielded isolation
transformers are effective in eliminating common-mode noise from the power
lines.
Returning to the circuit delineated in Fig. 4.8c, it is to be observed that the
bddge.-type detection circuitry presented there is especially applicable to
cases where line noise problems are exceptionally severe and where the ap-
plied voltage waveform contains undesirable high-frequency components.
This bridge mode of corona discharge detection has been found to be well
suited for measurements where extreme sensitivity is required, as for instance
with large capacitance specimens. Evidently, in the face of a high sensitivity
requirement, line noise cannot be tolerated. As the test voltage is applied,
approximately equal charging currents flow through the identical capacitors,
C,, and C,,. These currents also flow through Zy, and ZI~, which are approx-
imately equal, producing nearly equal voltages. If either Zf, or Zj, is made
variable, then the voltages can be precisely balanced. Should line noise occur
under the balanced condition, it will produce equal voltages at the input of
the measuring instrument. The instrument is designed to compare the out-
puts of ZI, and Zi,, rejecting common information and accepting only that
information which is not common; since discharges in the specimen C,, do
not constitute common information, they therefore cause the instrument to
be actuated.
The balanced circuit is also used for impulse tests. The high-frequency
components of the impulse waves produce high currents through C,, and C,,,
which produce voltages at the measuring instrument that are difficult to
cancel. For instance, if Ct is 100 pF and the inductive portion of Zs, and ZI, is
10 #H, 250 V or so may appear across Zt, and ZI, during the rise portion of a
100-kV, 1.2 50/zs impulse wave. A 100 pC discharge would produce a
A V at Zf of slightly less than one volt at 5 MHz. It is important to lower the
250 V pulse, even if the sensitivity suffers. With a Zf composed of 0.1 #H in
parallel with 0.01 #F, the pulse would be reduced to 2 V (at about 250 kHz)
and a 100 pC discharge would give a A V at ZI of about 0.01 V at 5 MHz.
Filtering can improve the ratio of the two voltages. Precise circuit balance is
of course required. If corona occurs on the wavefront, it will also occur on the
wavetail. Here the equivalent frequency is much lower, and balancing is
relatively easy. Zener diodes, or gas tubes across the detection impedances
Copyright Z
by f,
ASTMand
Int'l Zi,, and
(all rights their
reserved); respective
Tue May 30 07:44:17 EDTshunting
2017 capacitances CI, and Cs~, will be
effective in limiting the voltage appearing at the input of the measuring

instrument during the voltage rises.
It may be helpful at this point to illustrate a corona discharge measure-
ment procedure using a commercially available corona detection set. As a
typical test specimen, let us consider a high-voltage bushing. A high-voltage
bushing is a lumped circuit, since it represents a simple capacitor of low
value varying from a few picofarads to a few hundred. In high-voltage
bushings, the electric field may be graded by the introduction of metal foils
into the structure so that the field lines are radial as in a cable and are effec-
tively controlled on the outer surface of the bushing. In this case, often a con-
nection is made to the metal foils and brought to the outer surface at the
bushing tap where the 60-Hz potential is low; hence a direct connection to
the power frequency filter of the corona detector can be made at this point.
Figure 4.9 shows such a connection.
During the measurement procedure, the voltage is graduaUy increased
across the bushing up to about 1.3 times the desired test voltage. If no
discharges are observed, the test is terminated. On the other hand, if
discharges are detected, then the applied voltage is gradually reduced to the
desired test voltage and the reading in either picocoulombs or microvolts is
made and compared with the specification. Should the discharges disappear
before the test voltage is reached, then the voltage at which they disappear,
and the picocoulombs or microvolts reading at the corona extinction voltage
value, are recorded. The rate of voltage drop, or the time spent at each ap-
plied voltage setting, has an influence upon the recorded result. It is difficult
to state rules for standardizing the recording or reading procedures. Some re-
cent discharge detectors incorporate circuits, which remove the guesswork by
defining a time window within which a discharge must occur to be counted.
Without such a circuit, it is usually sufficient to maintain a test voltage from
a minimum of 15 s to a maximum of 1 min. For maintaining detailed
records, it is appropriate to provide a table with columns labeled CEV (co-
rona extinction voltage) and microvolts (if the RIV is to be measured) or
stud point
Z grading radio noise meter
or oscilloscope
capacitance
bushing 9 -
bushing
capacitance I Ct
Cf L "-
FIG. 4.9--Bushing
Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); specimen
Tue May 30 07:44:17 connections for corona
EDT 2017 discharge tests.
picocoulombs at the test voltage and at selected multiples thereof. A special

remarks column may be provided for notations such as to whether the corona
discharges are sporadic in nature and whether or not the corona pulse
discharge patterns are unusually dense. Such remarks are especially useful if
the possibility exists that a retest may be required at some future date.
4.4 Examples of Lumped Capacitance Specimens

If we standardize on the center frequency and detector band width as one
with f0 of 150 kHz and a band width of 100 kHz, we can define a wide range
of devices as lumped circuits. On the other hand, for a detector with a higher
value off0 of 1 MHz and a narrow band width of 10 kHz, the number of
devices would become more restricted. However, if we use the first stated
criterion, power, communication and pulse cables having lengths <30.5 m
( _<100 ft) would fall into the lumped specimen capacitance category. Ob-
viously, capacitors up to several microfarads would fall into the same
category. However, electrolytic capacitors would constitute an exception,
since they exhibit a capacitance and loss that are strongly frequency depen-
dent, with the result that the corona discharge pulses tend to be rapidly at-
tenuated. Other common examples of lumped capacitance specimens are
bushings, cable accessories (such as terminations, splices, and separable
connectors), switchgear components (panel boards, supports, and breakers),
sonic transducers, electroluminescent panels, travelling wave tubes, hard-
ware for power supplies for use in space, and a host of other components.
Motor and generator coils are tested between phase-to-phase and phase-to-
ground for corona discharges with zero excitation current. Under certain cir-
cumstances, the coils may exhibit lumped capacitance behavior. Motors and
generators have been included despite the fact that the voltage distribution of
this equipment in use is considerably different from that which exists when
there is no excitation current in the windings. Therefore, the discharges
measured would be different from those under normal conditions. Trans-
formers can also be tested for freedom from voids in their interphase
insulation, but the restrictions on this become severe with high-voltage
transformers. Transformer specimens often tend to behave as distributed
parameter transmission lines (see Chapter 6). However, many circuits and
components are essentially lumped circuits, because they appear as
capacitors in the way they are tested. They have a measurable capacitance, so
that the A V measured may be related directly to the A Q value of the
discharge as a first approximation using Eq 4.1. For this purpose, suitable
calibration procedures may be utilized.
4.5 Corona Test Standards and Calibration Procedures

Much effort has been expended in the past in drawing up suitable test pro-
cedures and corona pulse calibration techniques intended for the evaluation
of electrical apparatus and associated electrical insulating systems. This
work was largely carried out by committees operating within certain
technical and standardization societies. Examination of the various stan-
dards reveals some differences in the accepted test procedures, particularly
as regards to the acceptable picocoulombs or the equivalent RIV levels.
4. 5.1 Requirements of Standards

It is well to examine, at this stage, the various technical and theoretical im-
plications, concerning certain accepted standards for corona discharge tests.
For example, we note that the IEEE Standard 48 requires that the apparent
discharge magnitude of a cable termination not exceed 3 pC at 1.5 times the
normal line to ground voltage. In contrast, we find that other standards on
different components and equipment set a maximum limit of S pC. Another
standard, notably the AEIC Standard 5, requires that no discharges occur
that exceed certain preset limits at various multiples of the operating voltage.
It specifies that the apparent discharge magnitude, at any voltage to three
times the normal line to ground, shall be below that described by a curve of
allowable picocoulombs charge versus the applied voltage [the apparent
discharge characteristic (ADC) curve]. In order to test to these requirements,
the commercial corona detector must be calibrated in accordance with either
the instructions provided by the supplier of the corona test set or along the
lines suggested by Mole [1] or Eager et al [5]. However, the meaning of the
measurement itself may be in question. For example, what does a measure of
the apparent discharge magnitude, A Q, really signify, and what is its rela-
tion to the actual discharge magnitude? How does the discharge magnitude
relate to the associated discharge energy loss, and, finally, how do all of these
experimentally determined quantities relate to the requirements of stan-
dards? These are only a few questions that must be satisfactorily resolved, if
one is to have meaningful corona test standards.
4.5.2 Relationship Between Apparent and the True Discharge Magnitude

In order to examine the relationship between the measured apparent and
the true picocoulomb values, we shall make use of the equivalent circuit
depicted in Fig. 4.10. The shown circuit, which is commonly used to repre-
sent a lumped capacitance specimen, is comprised of three capacitors. Here,
Cv denotes the capacitance of a void, C2 denotes the capacitance of the dielec-
tric in series with the void, and C, denotes the capacitance of the test
specimen and is much larger than Cv or C2. The first discharges will occur in
this circuit when the voltage applied, V, produces sufficient voltage, Vv,
across the void, Cv, to produce ionization within. When this occurs, a
I
ii "~ RESISTANCE
OFDISCHARGE
DISCHARGE
GAP ct 0_-.
I
FIG. 4.10--Equivalent R C circuit o f a void occluded within an insulating system.
charge, AQ, will flow through Cv charging C2 to a value close to that of the
applied voltage. This charge is given by
A Q = C2Vv (4.11)
and is equal in value to the charge measured at the specimen terminals. Dur-
ing each discharge, since C, and C2 are essentially in series and in parallel
with Cv, a discharge of Cv causes an internal charge flow, AQt within the
void that is given by
AQ,=
c,_q 1
C,+ c,+c2jV, (4.12)
Since Ct >> C2, the preceding expression reduces to
AQ, = (Cv + C2) V~ (4.13)
This value of AQ, can be considered to be the true charge associated with the
discrete corona discharge event. From Eqs 4.12 and 4.13, one obtains the
ratio of the apparent charge to the true charge as
AQ _ c2
a (2, C~ + C2 (4.14)
It is now observed that the ratio C2/(C~ + C2) is numerically equal to that of
Vv/V; hence, provided the value of Vv can be determined, the magnitude of
the true charge, AQ,, would follow since V is simply equal to the corona in-
ception voltage (CIV). It is interesting to note that the same result as given in
Eq 4.14 could also be obtained by considering the respective corona energy
loss expressions, since the energy should be the same whether it is expressed
in terms of the true or apparent charges. Since
1
Wl = ~ C2 Vv V (4.15)
and
1
W2 = "~ (Cv + C2) Vv2 (4.16)
Equating the values of W1 and W2, which are the energy values expressed in
terms of the true and apparent charges, respectively, again yields the result
of Eq 4.14.
Equation 4.15 shows that the energy decreases as C2 decreases, and in-
creases with V (which is the CEV). The two effects compensate each other as
insulation thickness is changed, and as expected equal energies are dissipated
in equal diameter voids at equal voltage stress. However, Eq 4.14 shows
that the measured apparent charge decreases with insulation thickness
(C2 decreases and Cv > C2). And as has been stated, the ratio of AQ to
AQt is equal to V v / V . It may be instructive to illustrate a few practical
cases of V J V ratios to underline just how indeterminant the measured
values of AQ actually are.
Consider a 178-mm 2 or 350-MCM (thousand circular mil) 15-kV cable with
a dielectric thickness of 4.4 mm (175 mils), with a permittivity, e ', of 2.4. For
such a cable the inner (d) and outer (D) diameters of the dielectric are 18.8
to 27.7 mm (740 and 1090 mils), respectively. For this analysis, we shall
neglect the fact that the voltage distribution is affected by the presence of a
void. Let us assume that the cable has a corona inception voltage, V;, of 15
kV. If the void happens to be an area of delamination between the inner ex-
truded semiconducting shield and the dielectric, the stress, S, in the void can
be approximated by
S~ EfVi (4.17)
Substituting the respective values into this expression, gives a value of 9.9
k V / m m (251 kV/mil) for S. Inspection of Fig. 4.11, which gives the V; values
for air gap spacings ranging from 0 to I mm (0 to 40 mils), shows that a stress
of 9.9 k V / m m (251 V/mil) will cause discharges in all gaps larger than 0.044
V/mil [
12kV/mm
300
250
200
180
160
< 140
120 - - - -
100
lo I
80 12 m
15 '
20 i I I ]
0.05 25 30 35 40 mils
~ T 1.o:
0.1
VOID SIZE (mm or mils)
FIG. 4.11--Breakdown voltage stress as a function of void thickness or diameter under

uniform field conditions (after Start, unpublished work).
mm (1.75 mils). Evidently, larger voids in the same location would have
resulted in lower values of Vi and smaller voids in higher values of Vi. Thus,
multiplying 0.044 (1.75 mils) by the calculated value of S, gives a value of Vv
equal to 439 V. Accordingly, the percent error [100 (Vi/Vv)] is found to be
equal to 3410. Repeating this process for a delamination between the dielec-
tric and the outer shielding, such that Eq 4.17 now becomes
e 'Vi
(4.18)
D D
S = [ 2 ln--~]
gives a value of S equal to 6.99 kV/mm (171 V/mil). Figure 4.11 indicates
that this stress corresponds to void depth of 0.1 mm (4 mil) and the
associated error is found to be 2200 percent.
Another common type of void occurs in the form of a spherical bubble.
The stress within such a void inclusion in a material having a permittivity of
2.4 is equal to roughly 1.33 times the stress in the remaining portion of the
material surrounding it. If the spherical void is located at the center conduc-
tor, the stress within the void is found to be 5.49 kV/mm (139 V/mil); for a
void located at the outer surface, the stress value would be 3.72 kV/mm (94.5
V/mil). From Fig. 4.11, the corresponding void sizes are determined to be
0.16 mm and 0.51 mm (6.3 mils and 20 mils), which give void voltages of 876
and 1890 V, respectively; the corresponding errors are calculated as 1713 and
794 percent.
The foregoing examples demonstrate rather lucidly the large differences
that may exist between the detected corona charge value, A Q~ and the actual
value AQt within the void inclusions in practical test specimens. It is quite
conceivable that there may be a particular void size and shape that would
produce even higher ratios of A Q,/A Q. Here, we have used a cable as an ex-
ample, because cables constitute particularly simple systems for analytical
purposes. A capacitor would be more difficult to deal with, since the field
around the electrode edges tends to be rather nonuniform. The highly
nonuniform character of the field would lead one to expect that if discharges
were to occur, they would predominantly appear at the electrode edges and,
therefore, would involve a large portion of the applied voltage. The value of
the ratio of V to V~ would thus be relatively small, so that A Q, would be ex-
pected to exceed A Q by only a relatively small amount.
A third system, which is instructive for analysis purposes, concerns an in-
sulated rectangular bar of a motor coil. If we, for the time being, neglect the
area where the insulated bar protrudes outside the slot, we are left with an in-
sulation system with high fields adjacent to the corners of the bar and small
fields in the fiats of the bar. Normally, the size of voids at the corners will be
smaller than the voids in the proximity of the fiats, unless the insulation has
been tightly molded to the bar surface. Intense ionization will occur within
the voids next to the flats, but since the stress is lower there, the voltage re-
quired to ionize these voids may be higher than the voltage required to ionize
the smaller voids on the corners. The shape of a plot of apparent discharge
magnitude A Q versus applied voltage, in such circumstances, can determine
the degree of void volume in the vicinity of the fats of the bar. In this par-
ticular case, it is apparent that the errors involved in assuming that AQ is
equal to AQ, will be larger for low-intensity discharges and smaller for high-
intensity discharges. In fact, the situation is similar to the cable specimen
case, where the larger errors were found to be associated with voids at the
conductor, as opposed to those characteristic of voids at the outer surface,
where the field was inherently smaller.
In the preceding example, it was assumed that the voltage appearing
across the void does not exceed the value given by Fig. 4.11. Often, especially
in small voids, the overvoltage can be large so that the error in estimating
AQ is changed. Since the error is V/Vv and Vv is increased, the error
decreases with increasing overvoltage. The largest overvolting observed by
the author was 2:1 and occurred with a 0.76 mm cylindrical void built
parallel to the faces of a 2.54 mm flat slab of polyethylene. The CIV was
twice the CEV, which was identical to the predicted CIV. Thus, one is
tempted to suggest in the particular instance that the ratio of CIV to CEV
represents a measure of the overvolting of the void.
4.5.3 Sensitivity and Ambient Noise

Present specifications on corona discharge detection in electrical equip-
ment, specify the detector sensitivity levels in terms of the apparent corona
charge, AQ. The permissible values of AQ have been decreasing steadily in
the past, with the result that the sensitivity levels of the available corona
detection apparatus have been on a constant increase. The increased sen-
sitivity requirements made the corona detection sets increasingly susceptible
to extraneous electrical noise. Part of this difficulty was offset by restricting
the bandwidth of the detectors. Attempts to reduce the ambient noise levels
in factories were somewhat less successful. For instance, the increased use of
solid-state devices in factories have given rise to additional noise problems.
This necessitated the use of power line filters on the power supply side of co-
rona detectors. In some cases, motor-generator sets are used to provide addi-
tional power line isolation. In addition, the large loops of test leads required
for testing high-voltage equipment tend to act as sensitive antennae for radio
signals and other radiated noise. Corona tests on large capacitance devices,
such as capacitors or long lengths of cable, require particularly low-input
noise levels. The most powerful method for eliminating extraneous noise
centers on the use of balanced corona detectors. A complete description of
such detectors may be found in Chapter 3.
4.6 Discharge Energy

There is no present specification or standard that requires a measurement
of the corona discharge energy. However, it is important to understand the
relationship between the measured apparent charge, AQ, and the discharge
energy. Neither the apparent charge, A Q~ nor the true charge, A Q,, is
directly related to the degradation of insulation, which is a direct function of
the corona discharge energy incident on the insulation surface. However,
both quantities are involved in the equation for estimating the energy of the
discharge, W. The initial energy in the series combination of Cv and C2 is
given by
1[ CvC2 I V ~
Wi = ~ LCv + C2J (4.19)
The final energy stored in the capacitance is
W f -~ 1 C2 V 2 (4.20)
The difference between these two terms thus represents the estimate of the
energy dissipated by the discharge
w= ~ - w s
(4.21)
=89
The same result can be obtained, if one starts with the assumption that the
discharge simply removes the overvoltage from the void.
When there are a large number of voids discharging during each cycle of
the applied voltage wave, it is possible to measure the integrated discharge
energy quite precisely with a bridge and thereby obtain a comparison be-
tween the calculated discharge power loss and the bridge estimate. In the
calculation procedure, the number of discharges per second of various
magnitudes are counted and, subsequently, the products of the number at
each magnitude times the magnitude times the corona inception voltage are
added. This product sum represents a rough estimate of discharge power loss
in watts. Widmann [8] discusses the measurement of corona power in some
depth. Dakin [9] shows that by measurements of the type discussed, the void
content of an insulation system can be quantitatively estimated (see Chapters
6 and 8).
Some considerable inaccuracies can be expected of conventional corona
energy or power measurements when the number of discharges per second is
low, so that the electrical integration of pulses becomes difficult when utiliz-
ing the bridge technique. However, new multichannel pulse discriminators
and counters make reliance on more conventional techniques obsolete (see
Chapter 9). For instance, Hirabayashi et al [10]
apply their method to mica
flake and reconstituted mica insulation on generator and motor coils and ob-
tain reasonable results. The method assumes that all voids are flat and
parallel to the conductor surface, that discharges do not spill from one void
to another, that the sparking voltage of a void is obtainable from Pashen's
curve for air, that the residual voltages across the voids are equal to zero, and
that the void depth and area distribution functions are continuous. They
describe any state of void distribution in terms of the functions or M(x, s)
M*( Vi, AQ), where x represents the air gap separation, s is the discharging
area, Vi is the corona inception voltage, and AQ is the measured apparent
charge. In terms of these functions, the total number of voids occluded
within any given insulating system is defined by N, and is expressed by
N,=~o~oM(X,s)dxds (4.22)
or
They show that the function M*( Vi, AQ) may be derived in terms of the
function N(V, AQ) d ( A Q ) , which represents the number of corona
discharges whose apparent charges lie between A Q and A Q + d (A Q ) dur-
ing a half cycle of the a-c voltage, V. Thus they find that
ION(V, AQ) _ 2N(V, AQ) +

M*(Vi, AQ)
L OV V
(4.24)
V---
2
93 V s m
N(V, A Q ) d v] V = Vi
Where V,m is the minimum voltage at which a corona discharge of apparent

charge A Q takes place. They used corona pulse height analysis techniques to
derive numerically the function M*(Vi, AO). Actually, the possibility of
discharge spilling was not considered. However, the void distributions (equal
concentration lines on the discharge area, void gap-spacing plane) show
discontinuities, which could easily be related to discharge spilling. These
discontinuities could be more significant to voltage endurance than to the
general trends of the distributions. The results are shown to correlate with
power factor tip-up measurements, and total void volume is somewhat less
than that predicted by other types of discharge measurements.
Okamoto [11] has studied also the pulse magnitude distribution of
discharges in generator stator windings, using a wide variety of concepts such
as the effect of void size on the recurrence frequency of discharges, the
distribution of void sizes, the relation between the apparent charge and the
void depth, and suggested a way to combine all these functions to provide an
insight into the meaning of the shape of the pulse magnitude distribution. He
has also handled the measurement problem with sensitivity to remove, or at
least place in proper perspective, the interpretation of the results. Using this
technique, he was able to rate nine different insulation systems including
several composites of mica with differing resins as well as aged systems for
void content and void size. Such measurements can yield a wealth of infor-
mation, although so far they are basically still considered as a research tool
and have not been dealt with in specifications or standards. However, corona
pulse-height analysis techniques are most useful when corona energy loss
measurements are involved. Thus, their use will continue to become more
significant as efforts are increasingly directed to gain more insight into the
relationship between the degradation rate of insulating materials and corona
energy loss.
4.7 Standards Philosophy

Most specifications require that the apparent discharge magnitude not ex-
ceed 5 pC for a voltage of 1.5 times the normal line to ground voltage (for ex-
ample, 13 kV for a 15 kV cable termination). However, IEEE Standard 48

specifies a level of only 3 pC on the principle that a specification concerning a
cable termination should be tighter than that involving cable specimens. This
constitutes a good criterion, in principle, even though the CEV values of
cables are substantially above those stated in the specifications following the
introduction of extruded semiconductor or shielding layers with the result
that the present specification limits pose no problem to manufacturers using
this type of shielding. Interfaces are created in the terminations of the cable
ends, and the specifications are not only intended to measure these but also
the quality of manufacture of the terminations themselves.
Specifications and standards, of course, apply only to finished products.
However, the manufacturers of component parts, which are not finished prod-
ucts until they are assembled in the field, such as a push-on stress cones or
cable splices, perform 100 percent quality checks on their products using co-
rona detection procedures to detect voids. They thus impose more stringent
standards on their products than those that would normally apply to the
finished product, requiring no discharges at 2.5 to 3 times normal line-to-
ground voltage. Part of the rationale for the preceding approach rests with
the fact that it ensures that the voids that would ionize under continuous
voltage in the field will not undergo ionization in a short time test, unless
considerable overvoltage is applied. Another reason for the approach is
associated with the fact that in molded or extruded parts, the voids may be
pressurized and gradually lose their pressure thereby, in effect, affecting a
lowering in CIV value. If the test is made directly following a molding pro-
cedure, it is commonly found that a higher CEV is obtained than would be at
some later time, suggesting a pressure decrease with time in the existing
voids.
4. 7.1 Future Standards

In the future as the combined drives to higher voltages and more compact
insulation structures force voltage stresses upward and maximum allowable
void sizes downward, the specification values of AQ will decrease proportion-
ately as the required value of Vi increases. As this tendency prevails, insula-
tion design engineers will continue to learn more about the proper designs
necessary to decrease void sizes and stress concentrations. Their discharge
data will eventually lead to improved forms of new specifications. Certain
trends can be predicted; as suggested, the maximum allowable AQ will
decrease. However, this will quickly be confronted with the limit of sensitivity
of the commercially available detection equipment. As pointed up previ-
ously, the sensitivity limits are partly determined by factory noise, partly by
radiated noise, and partly by the inherent limits of the detector sensitivity
itself. Manufacturers will face decisions relative to costs for noise isolation
and will probably accept such costs for increased sensitivity to the 0.5 pC
level. Beyond this, the chances are the sensitivity increase will not generate
significant information. Naturally, it is to be anticipated that the test method
details will change, with voltage surges applied to simulate service conditions
more closely than at present and with the requirement that the measure-
ments be made at the operating temperature extremes. As the maximum
allowable void size will decrease, the time delay, before discharges are in-
itiated in a void after the voltage stress conditions required for cumulative
ionization are imposed, will increase. This is partly due to the decreased prob-
ability that a free electron will appear in the void at the same time that the
stress on the void reaches that stress required for an electron avalanche to
form. Also, with smaller void sizes, surface films in even good insulating
materials can shunt and short circuit the voltage across the void at an applied
frequency of 60 Hz. With fast voltage surges superimposed on the 60-Hz
voltage, ionization may be initiated that will continue at the lower 60-Hz
operating voltage. The usual test technique without the applied surges will
not be able to detect this potentially dangerous situation.
Additionally, it seems reasonable to require measurements at temperature
extremes for several reasons. Void sizes and gas density in the voids will
change with temperature; electron availability may change also. Certainly,
the dielectric constant of the insulating material will change, thereby altering
the stress distribution across the voids. The morphology of the voids
themselves will also undergo change.
More emphasis will likely be placed on the stability of the CEV values. In-
sulation structures will be required to demonstrate stability of the values of
CEV during extremes of temperature and voltage related to service condi-
tions and applied for long periods of time. Load cycle testing will certainly be
required. More sophisticated techniques for determining the location of
discharges will have to be developed, so that quality control will provide in-
formation upon which sensible decisions can be formulated.
The manufacturer of high-voltage equipment must integrate the materials
technology with testing technology in order to arrive at the most cost effective
way to achieve higher voltage systems. Materials technology together with
processing will dictate the limits on freedom from voids and, consequently,
the value of the maximum discharge-free voltage that can be reproducibly at-
tained at a given cost. This work must be done with models that are at least
representative of large electrical apparatus. The estimated required costs of
testing full-sized equipment will have to be compared with this data to deter-
mine the proper course to take. The costs of alternative testing schemes will
also have to be considered.
The preceding projections for the future constitute simply suggestive in-
dications of a projected trend. Specific problems with a certain type of equip-
ment may lead to a particular direction that is different. For instance, if an
insulating material is introduced that has a low resistivity so that it grades the
potentials in high stress regions, and exhibits high dielectric absorption that
leads to significant amounts of trapped charge in the dielectric, it may be

found that discharge behavior becomes much more random" than is
characteristic of present day structures. The specifications, that will grow out
of this situation, must be ones that will yield a more statistical picture of the
corona behavior than exists at present. Discharge pulse distribution analysis
can readily generate such a picture and, moreover, this powerful tool is
presently available for application purposes.
4. 7.2 Some R e m a r k s on Current Standards
Present specifications require the value of the apparent charge, A Q, not to

exceed a given value at a specified level of applied voltage; hence in a certain
sense, the value of the corona discharge energy is being specified. The AEIC
Standard 5 on cable specifications is more sophisticated in that it requires
the value of A Q not to exceed various specified levels given by the ADC curve
as the voltage is increased between 1.5 and 3 times the normal operating
voltage. This is equivalent to specifying a curve of maximum allowable
discharge energy with larger levels allowed as the voltage safety factor in-
creases. In essence, the requirement is fulfilled only if certain types of voids,
which contain tangential voltage gradients, are controlled in size and stress,
or other types of voids, which reflect a porous condition of the dielectric, are
eliminated. It would be well to utilize this technique for other types of equip-
ment than only on cable specimens for which it was developed.
Much of the shortcomings of present-day corona discharge specifications
may be directly attributed to the fact that they are based upon an incomplete
and sketchy understanding of the nature of internal discharge processes and
the manner in which they produce damage in insulation structures. For in-
stance, attempts to show the way that the rate of damage or failure rate is af-
fected by frequency have resulted in ambiguous data where the failure rate
either is increased linearly with frequency or, in some cases, is actually
retarded. Until we can define the reasons for such anomalies, we are in a
poor position to predict trends in insulation system behavior in terms of cur-
rent corona specifications. There is a fruitful field for research in defining
why different materials interact differently to corona. A great improvement
in current specifications could be effected if one had precise information on
how the geometry of the void, the resistivity of the insulation material, and
the surface resistivity of the void affect the corona discharge process itself.
4.8 Damage Resulting from Corona Discharges

Discharge damage, of course, results from the interaction of discharge
energy with the material through which the discharge passes or upon which it
impinges. One would expect it to be directly proportional to the discharge
energy.
Discharge energy is a complex term comprising energy components of heat

and ionization; the latter is a function of the ionization potentials of the
gases in the void and the excitation states of atoms. The spatial concentra-
tion of the discharge energy is important in determining the ensuing damage
on the insulating material surface. In some cases, corona discharges alter the
material on which they impinge, rendering it partially conductive and
thereby removing the electrical stress from the area where the discharges
originally occurred; this causes the discharge process to either cease or
migrate to another site. The observed effect may be self-healing in some
cases, while in others, it can lead to a second stage of increased damage rate.
Perhaps it would be helpful to visualize the discharge damage mechanism
by considering the corona energy release concentration in terms of calories
per square centimetre of dielectric surface. It was shown earlier that the
discharge energy is equal to one half of the product of the apparent charge
and the corona inception voltage. Thus, if for example the CIV is 9 X 103 V
and the value of AQ is 10 pC, then the associated energy release is 4.5 X
10 -8 J. Although the calculated amount may at first seem miniscule, it is im-
portant to realize that it occurs in less than 10 -a s and that while the
discharge lasts, energy is expended at a rate of greater than 4.5 X 10 -s
J/10 -8 s or 4.5 W. In establishing the overall heating effect, it is important to
define the shape of the region within which the energy is dissipated. Raether
[12] has photographed a Townsend-type discharge and has shown that it is in
the form of a cone with a small angle. Meek [13] calculated the radius, r, of
the cone in air due to diffusion and found it to approximate the relationship
// X' ~ 1/2
r= ~0.133p) (4.25)
where r is the cone radius in centimetres, p is the pressure in millimetres of

mercury, and x is the length of the discharge. Thus, if the gap or void depth
is 0.05 cm, the radius component at sea level is 0.003 cm. If we then assume
that the 7.59 X 10-8 j (or a good portion thereof) impinges on the surface of
an insulating material in an area of 7r (0.003) 2, we have 1.59 X 10 -3 J/cm 2 or
3.8 X 10 -4 cal/cm 2. Indeed, if one assumes that the entire energy is con-
sumed in dislodging polyethylene molecules, with a bond energy requirement
of about 6 X 103 cal/mole of the hydrogen unit (CH2) formed, one can
estimate that the 4.5 10 -a J discharge would create a pit 1.0 10 -6 cm
deep. Actually, since it is known that some energy is absorbed in releasing
hydrogen in the process, the resultant pit depth would be expected to be
somewhat less than calculated. A rigorous dynamic thermal analysis would
define the surface temperature. A less complex but more rudimentary
analysis can demonstrate that discharges produce thermal spikes. Let us
assume that the corona discharge energy is dissipated in 10 -8 s and that the
temperature distribution about 10-a s after the event is only of interest. The
3.8 X 10 -4 cal available will heat a slice of polyethylene 10-s cm thick to

211~ producing an average temperature gradient of 4.22 107 ~
the resultant temperature gradient estimated from the thermal conductivity
is 4.75 X 107 ~ Thus, it seems reasonable to expect that the surface
temperature is increased momentarily by several hundred degrees.
The preceding analysis provides only a very rudimentary picture. Note
should be made that a large portion of the discharge energy is dissipated in
the gas phase as radiant energy and heat. Also, as the discharge impinges on
the insulation surface, it is transformed in a radially directed streamer
dissipating its energy over a much larger area than the tip radius of the
avalanche. Mason performed a similar analysis in which he estimated that
the average temperature in the region was of the same order as the
picocoulomb value of the discharge at a time of 10-s s after the discharge.
There are random factors in the nature of damage produced that drasti-
cally reduce the average rate of penetration of the dielectric by the discharges.
A multiplicity of pits such as a tree can be produced so that the average rate
of penetration is reduced by a large factor. When the pits get much longer
than their diameter, the discharge products pressurize the void so that fur-
ther discharges may not occur for several cycles of the applied voltage.
The preceding analysis of thermal factors was made not only for
theoretical purposes, but also to compare the calculated with the experimen-
tal results. The author has performed tests on a polyethylene cable having a
CEV value of 9 X 103 V and a discharge magnitude of 10 pC and discovered
that the time to failure was simply inversely proportional to the number of
discharges per second over a 2- to 1-V range. The actual time to failure value
was found to be equal to 7.2 108 cycles. Assuming that one discharge im-
pinged on the polyethylene per cycle, and knowing that the insulation
thickness was 0.25 cm, the average erosion rate was found to equal 3.5 X
10-10 cm per discharge. It was estimated that if all the energy were used to
thermally degrade the polyethylene, a pit of a depth somewhat smaller than
10 -6 cm would be produced. If the depth were taken as 0.5 X 10 -6 cm, then
the time to failure would be about 1/1500 of its actual value.
Despite this large difference between theory and practice, there are well-
known facts in dielectric technology that support the idea that the radius of
the discharge tip and thermal spikes on the dielectric surface in the tip area
constitute a factor in the rate of degradation. For instance, a discharge in
hydrogen tends to be much more diffuse than the discharge in air. Because in
many instances the discharges in the butt spaces of oil-paper cables occur in
a gas that may be predominantly hydrogen, the discharge energy release will
be more evenly distributed over the surfaces of the voids so that the induced
temperature rise will be relatively small. Since wax formation occurs due to
hydrogen abstraction and cross linking, the cable life of an oil-paper system
tends to be long. When the pressure is reduced, according to Eq 4.25, the
radius of the discharge increases and the life would be expected to increase
accordingly; in fact, this behavior has been observed in practice. The high
stability of silicone-rubber insulations is an indication that the strength of the
polymer backbone and its resistance to thermal degradation is a factor in
resistance to discharge attack. Even at 250~ under an intense discharge at-
tack, only a 10 percent reduction in the expected life of silicone-rubber in-
sulations has been observed; this life expectancy was extrapolated in terms of
the measurements made on the polymer hardness increase rates.
Kreuger [14] found that discharges having intensities exceeding 103 pC
caused PVC power cables to fail within hours at stresses of 6 kV/mm,
whereas discharges of 30 to 200 pC caused failure only after about one
month, and discharges below 5 pC were completely innocuous. Based on
foregoing and subsequent investigations, Kreuger et al [15] recommended
that the maximum permissible discharge magnitude in PVC and polyethylene
insulated cables should be related to the maximum values of stress in cables
at the operating voltage, V, as tabulated in Table 4.1. Below 10 kV/mm,
ethylene propylene and silicone rubbers have much greater resistance to
discharges than polyethylene and PVC [4,16]; it is to be emphasized that the
permissible discharge magnitudes for different polymeric materials at their
various operating conditions are not known.
4.9 Corona Degradation Studies

Beyond the few examples illustrated previously, the nature of observed co-
rona degradation with various geometries of voids seems to support the ther-
mal spike theory. The life of an insulation system can be foreshortened by
orders of magnitude by placing a dielectric surface parallel to the electric
field in an ionizing void. The electric strength along that surface is lower than
that in the gas phase so that the discharges tend to occur along the surface.
The charges left on the surfaces predispose the discharge to occur at the same
place each time and the damage is concentrated at the tip of the discharge
channel. Of course, if the surface carbonizes, the carbonized extension of the
TABLE 4.1--Permissible discharge magnitude versus

maximum operating stress.
Maximum Permis-
Maximum Stress sible Discharge
at Operating Magnitude at
Voltage, kV/mm 1.3 X V, pC
2.7 50
3.2 30
3.5 20
4.1 5
electrode will also concentrate the location of the discharge energy loss. Car-
bonization need not occur, however, for the effect to be noted. It has been
observed even with voids molded into ceramics, with the voids having a depth
of 1 mm and a 10-ram diameter formed in a dielectric slab of 2.5-mm
thickness. It is a well-established principle in dielectric practice to minimize
stresses along surfaces that abut electrodes, and to eliminate any surfaces
parallel to the field lines, especially in high-stress areas.
In the past, many investigators have attempted to determine quantitative
relationships between the corona characteristics and life. Yet thus far, the
common conclusion has been that no simple relationships exist and that the
most effective means to ensure against corona damage is to insist on the com-
plete absence of corona, that is, if one desires, for example, a 30-year life for
a given organic insulation system. The derivation of quantitative relation-
ships is extremely difficult. The exercise in seeking for such relationships will
continue, however, for it can be one of the most fruitful investigations in
dielectric science. Some of the ways such work assists in providing important
results are collated as follows. First, it helps in assigning voltage ratings to in-
sulation systems for short- and long-life applications. Second, it develops an
appreciation of the chemistry and physics of interactions between discharges
and dielectrics. For instance, the observation of wax formation in the butt-
spaces of paper-oil cables removed from service was explained as the conse-
quence of discharges; dehydrogenation and consequent polymerization in the
presence of discharges was the obvious cause. Differences in hydrogen ab-
sorption in the presence of discharges were recognized as a significant prop-
erty of cable oils. Similar observations in capacitors have led to im-
provements in capacitor dielectrics and tailoring of the chemistry for stability
in the presence of discharges. Through such studies, long-life materials for
use in the presence of discharges such as silicone rubber have been
discovered. Through periodic examinations of corona during an overvoltage
life test, which are in a sense an examination of the effect of discharges on
life, the accumulated data may be found to be extremely useful in the assign-
ment of the causes of the ensuing failure mechanisms.
The foregoing does not necessarily provide much assistance to the
engineer, who desires an immediate answer to a posed problem. He wants to
know either how to manufacture an insulation system with an adequate life
expectancy or to have knowledge on what failure rate to expect from different
available insulation systems. The rules expressed in the various specifications
are a help but they are an oversimplification, partly because they tend to be
specifically applied to a particular type of equipment. In addition, they are
incomplete and represent the s i n e q u a non. Corona tests, impulse BIL tests,
60-Hz withstand tests, direct-voltage withstand tests, and wet withstand tests
each represent a minimum acceptable test level, and each one of these con-
stitute a step in the ladder that leads to acceptable insulation system life.
4.10 Concluslon
The errors involved in measurements of apparent charge are related partly
to instrumentation, which tends to treat all specimens as lumped capaci-
tances. Thus when distributed parameter specimens are tested, the detec-
tion circuitry usually ignores the effects of reflections of discharge pulses
within the specimen as well as the effects of superposition of discharge
pulses. Corona detection circuitry using the narrow-band detection mode in
conjunction with a 25- to 35-kHz band-pass filter, has been found to be effec-
tive in eliminating factory noise. However, because of the resulting length of
detected pulses, it has serious drawbacks when measurements are carried out
on lumped parameter specimens having dense corona discharge patterns. In
such circumstances, serious superposition errors may arise. However, with
distributed parameter specimens, the limited band detection technique has
been found helpful in lowering the errors due to reflection effects. The reso-
nant frequency value of the RCL-type discharge detector plays a dominant
role in determining whether the detector views the specimen as a lumped or
distributed parameter circuit. Even with lumped capacitance specimens, the
measurement of the apparent corona pulse charge poses difficulty. Since its
value is dependent upon the specimen parameters, it may differ very ap-
preciably from the true charge values released within a discharging cavity.
For this reason, great care must be exercised when corona intensities of dif-
ferent types of specimen are compared in terms of their detected values of ap-
parent charge. There are also significant errors involved in assuming that ap-
parent charge has the same significance with respect to insulation damage in
one insulation system as in another. The errors arising from the assumption
that the apparent charge is somehow directly related to discharge damage
can be considerably minimized by dealing directly in terms of the corona
discharge energy. The value of the latter is a more fundamental quantity
than apparent charge, and thus direct comparisons may be made between
different specimens. Its value, although directly determined in terms of ap-
parent charge, represents a direct measure of the corona energy release
within the voids occluded in an insulating system. Unfortunately, at the
present no corona standards appear to consider this important point. Also in
terms of the calculated or measured corona discharge energy values, it is
possible to gain insight into the dimensions and geometry of the voids
undergoing discharge. For example, it is possible to estimate the total void
volume involved in the discharge process. The measurement of the corona
discharge energy loss and attempts to relate it with the degradation rate of in-
sulating materials exposed to corona discharges may yield useful test data in
insulation life evaluation procedures.
References
[1] Mole, G., Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Institute of Electrical and Elec-
tronics Engineers, Vol. PAS-89, Feb. 1970, pp. 198-204.
[2] Bartnikas, R., Transactions on Electrical lnsulation, Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers, Vol. EI-7, March 1972, pp. 3-8.
[3] Mole, G., Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Institute of Electrical and Elec-
tronics Engineers, Vol. PAS-89, Feb. 1970, pp. 204-212.
[4] Mason, J. H., Proceedings, Institution of Electrical Engineers, Vol. 112, July 1965, pp.
1407-1423.
[5] Eager, G. S. and Bahder, G., Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Vol. PAS-86, Jan. 1967, pp. 16-34.
Systems, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Vol. PAS-88, 1969, pp.
342-364.
[71 IEEE Committee Report, "Guide for Calibration of Test Equipment and Circuits for
Measurement of Corona Pulses," Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Institute
of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Vol PAS-86, Oct. 1967, pp. 1185-1191.
[8] Widmann, W., Electrotechnische Zeitschrift, Part A, Vol. 81, Nov. 1960, pp. 801-807.
[9] Dakin, T. W., Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, American Institute of Elec-
trical Engineers, Vol. 78, Oct. 1959, pp. 790-794.
[10] Hirabayashi, S., Shibuya, Y., Hasegawa, T., and Inuishi, Y., Transactions on Electrical
Insulation, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Vol. EI-9, Dec. 1974, pp.
129-136.
[II] Okamoto, H., Electrical Engineering in Japan, Vol. 84, May 1964.
[12] Raether, H., Zeitschriftfuer Physik, Vol. 107, 1937, pp. 91-110.
[13] Meek, J. M. and Craggs, J. D., Electrical Breakdown of Gases, Clarendon Press, Oxford,
1953.
[14] Kreuger, F. H., Proceedings, International Conference on Large High Tension Electric
Systems, Paper 209, Paris, 1966.
[15] Kreuger, F. H., Oudin, J. M., and Dehez, A., "Different Types of Aging in Plastic In-
sulated Cables," Conference Paper 69-CP99 PWR, Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers, 1969.
[16] Mason, J. H., Proceedings, Institution of Electrical Engineers, Vol. 107A, 1960, p. SS1.
STP669-EB/Feb. 1979
N. B. T i m p e I
Partial Discharge Measurements in

Distributed Parameter Systems:
Cables
5.1 Introduetlon
Problems of partial or corona discharges in cables were recognized
by a number of electrical engineering pioneers. As early as 1898, Fessen-
den performed experiments that showed the danger of air bubbles in solid
insulation. Perrine reported in 1902 that the failure of cable insulation
sometimes was due to the presence of spaces filled with tariffed gases [1]. 2
In 1912, Petersen called attention to the fact that air films in a dielectric
of specific inductive capacity or dielectric constant, k, are subjected to
a stress of k times that in the surrounding medium, and ionization may
therefore occur therein at comparatively low voltages [2]. He also stated
that ions are shot from these films into the surrounding medium. Dubsky
reported in 1919 that he had measured the dielectric strength of thin
air films between glass plates [3]. He then applied these data theoretically
to assumed gas spaces in solid dielectrics and showed the possible condi-
tions under which partial discharge was likely to occur. Shanklin and
Matson also reported in 1919 that they had measured the ionization volt-
age in actual insulation designs by the dielectric loss method [4]. In the
case of paper cables, evidence was given showing that a true ionization
occurs. However, the exact nature of this ionization, its position, and the
possibilities of serious damage were not shown. Many of the studies into
the nature of the partial or corona discharges began with the advent of the
cathode ray tube application in the 1930's. The purpose of this chapter is
to briefly describe the early experiences of partial discharge problems in
cables with the subsequent developments of methods of detection, and
1philadelphia Electric Company, Philadelphia, Pa. 19101.

134
Copyright 9 1979 by ASTM International www.astm.org

CHAPTER 5--PARTIAL DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS IN CABLES 135
then to discuss the techniques used to standardize partial discharge testing,

the measurement limitations, and finally to provide guidance for interpre-
tations of present-day measurements in cable systems.
The following definitions and descriptions have been included to help
clarify the use of terms as they relate to this chapter. The first three terms
have been used interchangeably, and often incorrectly, to describe partial
discharge studies and measurements in various publications. The term
ionization refers to a process by which an atom becomes electrically charged
due to losing or gaining one or more of its electrons. The term ionization is
often used in the industry when partial or internal discharge would be
more correct. It is used extensively in paper cable specifications. The single
word corona is commonly used to denote discharges occurring in a high
gradient electric field, such as the discharges occurring around a sharp
point electrode, where the field in the vicinity of the point is sufficiently
great to cause ionization of the surrounding gas and a local electrical
breakdown in the area of high field intensity. The terms corona discharge
or partial discharge are generally used to describe electrical discharges that
involve only a portion of the dielectric between two electrodes and that
do not bridge the electrodes. Between the discharge and one or both elec-
trodes, a good dielectric is interposed in the form of a solid, liquid, or
gaseous insulator. Examples of this type of discharge are: (1) discharges in
a cavity or void in a solid dielectric, often referred to as an internal partial
discharge (both electrodes are insulated by a solid dielectric); (2) dis-
charges on a surface (at least one electrode is shielded by a solid dielectric);
and (3) discharges around a sharp point at high voltage (the discharge
is shielded from one electrode by a column of nonionized gas). In all of
these discharges, gas molecules are ionized by impact of electrons. The
liberated electrons gain speed in the electric field, ionizing more atoms
by impact, so that an avalanche of electrons is formed. The electrons
in the avalanche and the ions left behind move toward the electrodes,
thereby forming a passage of current through the gas. Although the energy
dissipated with each discharge is small, as shown later in the text, these
partial discharges can cause deterioration and ultimate failure. Detection
of their presence is, therefore, essential. By the magnitude of partial dis-
charge is meant the amount of charge transferred to the conductor of a
cable during the partial discharges of voids and is expressed in pico-
coulombs (pC) (pC = coulombs X 10-12). The corona orpartial discharge
inception voltage (CIV) refers to the minimum root mean square voltage
at which partial discharges of 5 pC and above will occur as the applied
voltage is gradually increased. The corona or partial discharge extinction
voltage (CEV) is the minimum value of root mean square voltage necessary
to sustain discharges of S pC following their initiation at the CIV value.
Note that by definition the value of CEV is always less than that of CIV
as the applied voltage is decreased. It is furthermore to be emphasized
that the CIV and CEV points are always established with regularly re-
cuffing discharges and not with intermittent discharges.
5.2 Oil-Impregnated Power Cables

Early designers of oil-impregnated paper cables recognized the problems
of partial discharges in voids resulting from poor oil impregnation. Dis-
charges were referred to as ionization or glow discharges and were measured
by a plot of power factor versus voltage over an average voltage stress
range of 0.79 to 3.9 kV/mm (20 to 100 V/mil) on a typical cable. The
ionization factor (IF) was defined as the difference between the dielectric
power factor at 3.9 kV/mm (100 V/rail) and at the minimum power factor,
measured at 60 Hz. It is now known that the increase in power factor
at the higher voltage stress may result entirely or in part from partial
discharges in voids within the cable insulation. The maximum allowable
ionization factor, as specified by the Association of Edison Illuminating
Companies (AEIC) for the solid type impregnated-paper-insulated cables
(69 kV and below), is used extensively as a criterion to determine the
quality of manufactured oil-impregnated paper cables.
Solid type impregnated paper cables, when subjected to rapid changes
in loading, will form voids by the migration of oil from the butt spaces
between the paper tapes. Partial discharges in these voids give rise to ionic
bombardment of the oil and conversion of cable oil to cable wax with
a release of hydrogen and methane as gas byproducts. The wax formed
has a greater volume than the oil and, therefore, tends to fill the voids
causing the discharges to extinguish. The relatively small amount of liber-
ated gas is absorbed by the remaining cable oil without any serious conse-
quences. The wax replacement of oil slightly increases the power factor
of the cable, but with low-voltage cables this is quite tolerable. On cables
that are heavily load cycled, this wax can form in a very short time, even
over a one week period. If partial discharges are intense, so that the energy
dissipated results in an elevated temperature, conducting carbon can be
formed that can spread transversely between the paper layers and cause
tracking or treeing, slow deterioration, and eventually complete breakdown
of the insulation.
Higher voltage, oil-impregnated-paper insulated cables, above 69 kV,
must be designed with various combinations of low-viscosity oil, oil chan-
nels, and oil pressure control, so that voids are prevented from forming
by a continued supply of insulating oil to fill potential voids.
5.3 Rubber and Plastic Cables

The design of the early oil-base and butyl-rubber cables was based
on low electrical stresses and a selection of materials resistant to deterio-
ration by partial discharges. Resistance of insulating materials to attack by

partial discharges was determined by the development of elaborate test
methods, though the evaluation of results was difficult because of the
many variables such as the local intensity of energy dissipated with each
discharge, the number of discharges per cycle, and variations in humidity,
temperature, material properties, and surface conditions. However, with
heavy walls of insulation, low electrical stress, and high electrical loss
material, these cables performed satisfactorily at the lower voltages (up to
35 kV). Because of heavy-wall insulation and low operating temperature,
these cables were not economically competitive with the conventional oil-
impregnated-paper insulated lead-sheathed cables. Installations were
limited to special applications in stations and substation yards, where their
use eliminated the need for pressure terminals for cable oil containment.
The development of new controls in the chemical orientation of giant
or macro-molecules, as they are linked in chains, greatly enhanced the
properties that could be built into synthetic polymers. In the 1950's, these
developments resulted in cable insulations of polyethylene, cross-linked
polyethylene, and combinations of ethylene propylene-rubber, with greatly
improved properties. The increases in dielectric and mechanical strength
and in the allowable operating temperature, the reduction in insulating
wall thickness compared to paper-insulated cables, and the low costs of
material, fabrication, and installation, all resulted in rapid development
and growth of the solid extruded dielectric cables for distribution and low-
voltage transmission applications. However, these new materials were more
prone to damage from partial discharge than the oil base and butyl rub-
bers; and, hence, the voids had to be more carefully controlled, and the
detection of their presence with a nondestructive test method was essential.
5.4 Development of Partial Discharge Measurement Techniques

Developments of sensitive partial discharge measurement techniques
and rigid specifications to ensure complete freedom from partial discharges
at operating voltage were required for the meaningful evaluation of plastic-
insulated cables. This chapter discusses some of the developments in
partial discharge testing, limitations, and interpretations.
In the early development of partial discharge testing and measurements,
considerable research and investigational work was done by manufacturers
and users of the polymer materials. Early work in this field was largely
independent; each manufacturer and user of insulating material approached
the problem from his own point of view. Detection techniques were based
on various phenomena produced by discharge such as light, heat, noise
(ultrasonic and audible), chemical transformations, and impulses from
electric discharges.
5. 4. I Nonelectrical Techniques
Light Detection--Light detection can be used only on translucent dielec-
trics. The radiation is small but may be increased by increasing the fre-
quency of the applied voltage. The cable core under test is passed through
water, and light, emitted by discharges, is observed by means of photo-
multiplier tubes. This technique has the advantage of not being affected
by extraneous discharges but is limited to unshielded translucent cables
and is also limited in sensitivity. Mildner estimates that the attained sen-
sitivity is never better than 50 pC [5].
Heat Detection--Heat detection has been used to study mass-impregnated
cables. Thermocouples were placed at close intervals along the sheath, and
it was hoped that the place and instant of a breakdown could be predicted
by the temperature rise preceding the breakdown. However, this method
was not sufficiently sensitive, and the magnitude of discharges could not be
measured with acceptable accuracy.
Audio Detection--The audible sound of hissing or spitting from cable
and bushing discharges has been used for a long time. Also available
are ultrasonic detection techniques. While audible methods are excellent
for detecting discharges in the open air such as around bushings, potheads,
or aerial wire, they have limited sensitivity in detecting discharges in cables,
because the sound energy is greatly attenuated in the cable dielectric.
With a transducer-type microphone, however, the discharge point, when
detected, can be located quite precisely. A detailed treatment of this sub-
ject is given in Chapter 10.
Chemical Detection--Chemical detection has been used extensively in
oil-impregnated-paper cables, since wax is a byproduct of the discharges.
The presence of wax can often be detected by visual inspection or by the
more sensitive magenta dye test, which gives the paper tapes a bright
color except in places where wax has been formed. Since the specimen
must be destroyed for inspection, this method has a very limited applica-
tion.
5. 4.2 Electrical Techniques

Detection of corona discharge pulses has been the most successful tech-
nique for partial discharge measurement in cables to date. Since partial
discharges in electrical equipment caused serious static problems in AM
radio receivers, many of the early partial discharge studies used modified
receivers or tuned oscillatory circuits as detectors. While various detection
frequencies were used by different manufacturers, these early circuits can
be reduced to one basic diagram as shown in Fig. 5.1. The short cable
specimen is tested by applying a predetermined high voltage through an
electric filter. As the test voltage is increased, voids in the sample will
F I LTER
C02F~
CABLE
SAMPLE CONDUCTOR
KI COUPLING
CAPACITOR
,\ SHIELD
VARIABLE
HIGH VOLTAGE
SOURCE
Zd- DETECTION IMPEDANCE

0
A - AMPLIFIER
O-OBSERVATION UNIT USUALLY AN OSCILLOSCOPE
FIG. 5.1--Basic corona or partial discharge detection circuit.
discharge when the voltage stress reaches the voltage breakdown level
of the gas within the voids. This is known as the partial discharge inception
voltage and results in a steep wave-front charge transfer through the insu-
lation. These corona discharge pulse currents flow through the coupling
capacitor, K, which has a very low impedance to high frequency, and
appear across the detection impedance, Zd. One of two detection impedances
is commonly used: a resistor, R, shunted by a capacitor, C, or a parallel
LCR (inductive-capacitive-resistive) circuit. Amplifier A amplifies the
signal, and an observation is made at Unit 0, generally utilizing an oscillo-
scope and an X-Y plotter. Since the overall detection circuit is basically
of the LCR-type, the detected corona pulses appear as damped oscillatory
transients. Superposed upon a 60-Hz time base, they appear merely as
minute vertical blips.
Two methods used later were the scanning method and the full-reel
test method. The scanning method for detecting and locating cable voids
by partial discharge detection was first developed by Gooding and Slade [6]
and later pursued by Blodgett and Eigen [7]. The principle of the test,
which is illustrated in Fig. 5.2, is to pass the cable through a snugly-fitting
tube electrode during manufacture before application of the insulation
shield. The tube and cable are immersed in an insulating liquid, usually
TAPE LOOP
SYNCHing[RECORODPTIONA~L| READ YERASE

DRIVE ERASE
~~-"~ BIAS
IAMPLrFIERJ I
ER f
~MARKER
N COMMUTATOR
TUBE / ~HIGH VOLTAGE
ELECTRODE POWER SOURCE
FIG. 5.2--Diagram of corona discharge microscanner system (after Gooding and Slade [6],
Blodgett and Eigen [7]).
deionized water, so that the space in the tube is completely filled to elimi-
nate discharges in that area that might result in erroneous discharge
measurements. The cable conductor is at ground potential, and the tube
electrode is energized at the test voltage. Long reel lengths are tested
with the cable running through the tube at approximately 61.0 m/min
(200 ft/min.). As the cable travels through the insulating liquid bath, the
voltage between the conductor and the outer insulation increases from
ground potential to the test potential at the tube electrode in the center of
the bath and then returns to ground potential as the cable exits the bath.
Thus, the corona discharge intensity is greatest at the center of the tube
containing the high-voltage electrode; this allows location of the source
causing the given corona discharge. Placement of probes at various loca-
tions in the liquid bath can gather partial discharge information at pre-
determined voltages. The information is sometimes transmitted via a tape
loop to a paint marker that will mark the cable, indicating defective areas
where partial discharges fail to extinguish at predetermined voltages. The
scanner has advantages of locating the defect causing the partial discharge,
possibly greater sensitivity, and the elimination of the need for discharge-
free terminals. The disadvantage is that it tests only the insulated core
and not the completed cable. The completed cable must, therefore, be
tested again on a full-reel partial-discharge test set.
The early full-reel test method measured the corona discharge inception
or starting voltage (CIV) and the extinction voltage (CEV). The detectors
employed a number of different detection frequencies and used various
components such as RC and LCR as detection impedances, and both
narrow and broad band amplifiers3 [5]. Most of the industry favored the
full-reel technique, but there was no well-established basis for specifying
the required sensitivity of a detector used with long lengths of power cable.
The sensitivity of partial discharge inception and extinction voltage measure-
ments was determined by the success that each manufacturer had in elim-
ination of noise (extraneous electrical impulses). In the early commercial
detectors under factory conditions, where average noise was prevalent,
the minimum detectable partial discharge level was of the order of 40 pC.
Some manufacturers recognized the difference between discharge measure-
ments in equipment with lumped circuit parameters such as capacitors,
and equipment with distributed circuit parameters such as cables. Mea-
surements in circuits with distributed parameters must recognize the time
domain characteristics of discharges occurring at various places in the
cable. These pulse discharges divide their charges in half and travel in
each direction at a velocity of approximately 199 m//zs (650 ft/#s.) They
are minute traveling pulses on the conductor, which are greatly distorted
in magnitude and shape and are reflected from an open-ended terminal.
The corona pulses arriving at the detector during different time intervals
because of reflection from open-ended terminals or numerous discharges
in cables or both at different time intervals can cause serious errors in
measurements. These are known as superposition errors. In the most
serious case, some detectors may have a measurement from the first pulse
completely canceled by a second pulse arriving at a later time interval. This
can be controlled by observing the shape of the response of the discharge
detector, particularly the position of the highest peak. If the first peak
observed is the highest, the shape is known as an ~ response. Figure 5.3a
shows the response shape of a typical wide-band detector with an a response.
The superposition of pulses at different time intervals are shown in Fig.
5.3b, c, and d, and illustrate that only increase of initial pulse height can
occur.
In a second characteristic shape, known as fl response, the second or
later peak is the highest due to bandwidth limitations in the amplifier.
3Broad band amplifiersare generallyused with resistive-capacitive(RC) detectionimped-
ances; whereas narrow bandwidth amplifiersare preferred with inductive-capacitive-resistive
(LCR)detectionimpedances.
l^l
II ~1 "~I00%
__Ls J"
I . ~ i ~uoo%
--J I i t / "
Ilk./
(a) I ',.[~,Z
(c)
~mmmll
~llll
lllll
l~llll
I~i~
~
![H!
_ _
k.J ,.
(b) (dl
T i m e base: 2 # s per division
Vertical scale: arbitrary units
FIG. 5.3--Corona discharge response waveform obtained with a wide-band detection system
having c~-response characteristics (after CIGRE Committee No. 2 on Cables [8]). (a) Typical
c~-response pulse, where magnitude offirst peak (100% value) always exceeds that of succeeding
peaks. (b, c, and d) Illustrate superposition errors, which show that the resultant detected pulse
amplitude can only increase as in (b) and (d) or remain substantially the same as in (c).
Figure 5.4 shows the response shape of a typical /5 response. Figure 5.5
portrays the various responses including superposition errors that, in this
case, may either increase or decrease the observed peaks [8]. Figure 5.6
shows measurements made by injecting a calibrated pulse at various points
along the cable. The value of the injected charge, AQ, is given by
6 o = v~c~ (5.1)
where V, is the calibration pulse voltage, and C, is a coupling capacitor

in series with the pulse generator (usually < 150 pF). The signal charge,
AQ~ divides in half, and each half travels in opposite directions along
the conductor of the cable. A discharge detector with an c~ response as
shown in Fig. 5.3 has been used. The half signal charge, shown AQ/2,
later in Figure 5.10a, traveling toward the detector, decays only somewhat
due to attenuation. With terminations open circuited at the far end, the
signal starts to increase as the signal is inserted beyond 305 m (1000 ft)
and shows a doubling tendency resulting from coincidence of the incident
and open-end reflected transients.
Figure 5.7 gives the results obtained by injecting a calibrated pulse
at various points along the cable but with a /3 response detector having
characteristics as shown in Fig. 5.4. Both a tendency of doubling the
signal and a decrease of the signal are found. Figure 5.8 shows response
CHAPTER 5--PARTIAL DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS IN C A B L E S 143
0
>
f
j
-~2~s
FIG. 5.4--Corona discharge response waveform of a wide-band detection system having

E-response characteristics (after CIGRE Committee No. 2 on Cables [8]).
(n) (b) (el (d)
(e) (f) (g) (h)
FIG. 5.5--~-response superposition effects (after CIGRE Committee No. 2 on Cables [81). (a)
Wavefront of corona discharge excitation pulse at the terminals of the discharge site. (b) Corona
discharge response pulse across a resistive detection impedance at the discharge detector input.
(c) Corona discharge pulse at discharge detector output. (d) Superposition of incident and re-
flected corona discharge transients. (e) Response to a corona discharge transient as seen on the
60-Hz time base display of the discharge detector. (f, g, and h) Detector response to superposed
incident and reflected corona transients separated by various time intervals; note that resultant
response pulse amplitude may be either larger or smaller than that of the incident pulse.
~ 2.0
z
FAR END OPEN C I R C U I T E d / /
r
IO /
v- 0.7 FAR END TERMINATED BY
25 OHM RESISTANCEIN SERIES
w - WITH IOOnF BLO(~LKING CAPACITOR--
n~ 0.5
O 820 1640
FEET
DISTANCE OF INJECTION POINT TO DETECTOR " I = ' '
FIG. 5.6--Superposition error, measured with detector having ix-response characteristics, as
function of the excitation pulse injection distance. Test specimen : PE insulated power cable,
with characteristic impedance of 25 ~ and propagation velocity equal to 650 f t / # s or 200 m/tts
(after CIGRE Committee No. 2 on Cables [8]).
I.O
"x
== 0.7 "-x
l.g FAR END TERMINATED BY ~

30 OHM RESISTANCE
~_ 0.3
FAR END OPEN CIRCUITED
0.2
0 1640 3280 FEET
DISTANCE OF INJECTION POINT TO DETECTOR

F I G . 5.7--Superposition error, measured with a detector having a ~-response, as a function
of the excitation pulse injection distance. Test specimen cable with 30 ~ characteristic im-
pedance and propagation velocity equal to 190 m/#s (after CIGRE Committee No. 2 on
Cables [81).
shape of a typical narrow-band detector with a /3 response. Figure 5.9

shows an extreme case of superposition errors with the use of a narrow-
band detector with characteristics given in Fig. 5.8. From these illustra-
tions, it can be seen that partial discharge measurement can be radically
changed if the length of the cable is changed by cutting and retesting
(thereby causing the reflected wave from an open-end terminal to arrive at
the detector at a different time interval), or by removing some of the voids
that were contributing to the integrated charge transfer to the detector.
It also follows that detectors with an ct response are essential for mea-
suring partial discharges in cable and are a definite requirement when
measuring the partial discharge magnitude in cables.
Detectors used with a resonant frequency below 0.5 MHz have a response
time slow enough so that the picocoulomb charge, AQ, of the pulse rep-
resents the magnitude of the detector response. This slower response has
the advantage of allowing the detector to integrate the charge of the trav-
eling pulse signals arriving at the detector even though there has been
considerable pulse distortion. The traveling pulse signals have an area
proportional to the magnitude of the discharge, AQ, whereas the response
of the detector has a height that is proportional to the discharge magnitude,
AQ. This integrating circuit has the advantage that the attenuation of AQ
along the cable is minimized. A corona discharge pulse of very short dura-
tion (20 ns) is seriously distorted as it travels along the cable and may
arrive at the far end with a duration of the order of I #s and with a large
attenuation of its height. However, the area of the pulse is hardly affected,
so that the integrating circuit responds to nearly the full discharge. Mini-
mal attenuation was expected and has actually been found with the pro-
posed detectors. Full advantage of this phenomenon has been taken by
CHAPTER 5 - - P A R T I A L DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS IN CABLES 145
r [IAA /I/I/I/IA
i
AAJ ,,
Ill/IJ ,A
vvvIV II/l/ll /111/I/I/I/
l VV
l'v Ivvlv IlVvv'
--.4 5 ~s ~.--
FIG. 5.8--Typical fl response at the output o f a narrow-band detector (after CIGRE Commit-
tee No. 2 on Cables [8]).
1.0
z=o
0'3
~: 0.5
0.2 --'~[~-~ TERMINATED BY -i--J "~"~ I

- ~.j ~ ~0) 30 OHM I J
._t_ ~) RESISTANCE k . /
FAR END O P E N ~
0.1 CIRCUITED
0.05: v
I
O 1640 3280 FEET
DISTANCE OF INJECTION POINT TO DETECTOR
FIG. 5.9--Superposition error obtained on a cable as a function o f the injected excitation

pulse distance x f r o m the corona detector having a ~-type response similar to that depicted in
Fig. 5.8 (after C I G R E Committee No. 2 on Cables [8]).
Eager and Bahder, who carried out corona signal detection with long time
constants with practically no attenuation occurring in long lengths of
polyethylene cable [9].
The corona discharge transient voltage due to a single discharge in
a void in a long cable line has a shape at the location of the void, as shown
in Fig. 5.10a. The transient pulse has a steep rate of rise of approximately
several nanoseconds and a duration of approximately 20 ns. The charge
pulse, AQ., propagating along the cable, divides in half and each half
travels along the conductor in opposite directions away from the void. It is
indicated that the voltage amplitude (V~) of the traveling wave is attenuated
as it propagates along the cable. However, the charge, proportional to the
area of the pulse, does not attenuate greatly. The separator-filter type
AO/2 AO/2
AO/~__~_ AO/2
qhT/T
Z~012 _ _ . L
7~-~-~-..~v, < v ,
I
(a) I
I
~////////////Jf//////l
[//_////////////////////////////////~r
~,ocA'r,o.l
- OF VOIOJ
Eh Vs
CRO
T
..I_
(b)
T HIGH-VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER
Zh SEPARATINGIMPEDANCE;MINIMUM INDUCTANCE IS O.I HENRY.
Cc COUPLING CAPACITANCE, 3000 pF
C5 LOW-VOLTAGE CAPACITANCE, 3 0 0 0 pF.
L INDUCTANCEOF COIL, 6 mH.
R RESISTANCE OF COIL, 50 OHMS.
F FILTER; PASS-BAND, 25 TO 35 kHz.
A AMPLIFIER.
CRO OSCILLOSCOPE.
FIG. 5.10--(a) Corona pulse charge, AQ, at discharge site gives rise to two half-charge pulses,
which propagate in the opposite directions (after Eager and Bahder [9]). (b) Schematic circuit
diagram o f CLR corona discharge detector with cable specimen (after Eager and Bahder [9]).
detector circuit, such as shown in Fig. 5.10b, responds to such a charge by

producing a transient voltage pulse consisting of an initial peak followed
by a damped oscillation, as shown in Fig. 5.11.
Eager and Bahder [9] derived a mathematical expression for the detected
corona pulse voltage, AVe, depicted in Fig. 5.11, demonstrating that it
consists essentially of two superposed voltages, namely,
4 89 =~ 89189 (5.2)
where
AVa' = 2 V l e x p [ - - t / T l ] +
[(1-exp[-tI~--~2-~-lll//(
1 1 1
--T~/I (5.3,
0.05 ~
0.04
o o
>
>~ 0.03
I I
w 0.02
o o>
> 0.01 0.0002
b
0.0001
0
-0.0001
-0.O002
.025.05 5 I0 15 20 25 3 0 55 4 0 4 5 50 55 6 0
TIME- /~$
F I G . 5.11--Typical corona transient pulse obtained with detector having a resonant f r e -

q u e n c y o f 30 k H z and an u-response characteristic (after Eager and Bah der [9] ).
and
2 exp [--(R/2L)t] sin2rft

G CsJ~ ZAQ
AVd" = aTrf -~-b (5.4)
Here Vt represents the amplitude of the propagated corona discharge pulse

amplitude of time constant, T1, at the discharge site; T2 is the time con-
stant of the detection circuit including the cable specimen; and the circuit
parameters, G and Cs, are as defined in Fig. 5.10. Z is the characteristic
impedance of the cable. The resonant frequency, f , of the detection circuit
is given by
where C is the apparent capacitance of the cable under test at the frequency,
f. From the derived expressions, it is evident that the term AVd' is the
response across the detection impedance due to the incident charge pulse
across the end of the cable resulting from a discharge source somewhere
along the cable. Note that the amplitude of AVd' depends upon Ve, which is
attenuated as the pulse travels along the cable; Cc and Cs constitute a voltage
divider effect upon A'Ca'. In contrast, the term A Vd", which is a damped
oscillation at the natural frequency of the LCR detection circuit, is directly

proportional to the charge transfer, AQ~ occurring at the corona discharge
site in the void. Evidently, it is more expedient and meaningful to design
detection systems to detect corona discharges in terms of the oscillatory pulse
transient voltage, A Vd".
Should the length of the cable specimen be sufficiently short such that the
length of the cable in feet, 1 < 108/2f, then the reflected corona pulse signals
from the unterminated cable ends add to the incident pulse voltage, A Vd". In
effect, this represents an increase in sensitivity, provided one is not interested
in measuring accurately the value of the corona pulse charge, A Q. In such
circumstances, Eager and Bahder [9] show that the voltage, AVd", must be
modified to
Cc ) ---y-
A V d " = 4rf(~--~ T~ss ZAQ l,~0
(1 -- AQ')- exp [ - - ( R / 2 L ) (t -- nr)] sin [27rf(t -- nr)] (5.6)
+ (1 -- AQ ')-exp [--(R/2L) (t -- nr) sin [27rf(t -- nr)] 1

n=l
where AQ' is the portion of apparent charge, AQ, absorbed by the LCR
detection circuit, and r is the time taken for the incident corona discharge
pulse to propagate along the cable and return to the LCR detection circuit. It
is defined by r = 21(#'k ')1/2/v, where #' is the real magnetic permeability,
k ' is the real part of the dielectric constant, and v is the velocity of light. It is
evident, that when the cable becomes very short, it acts as a lumped circuit
parameter and Eq 5.6 reduces to the more recognizable form
+ + I xp, cos , (5.7)
It is apparent that when the cable specimen behaves as a lumped circuit

parameter, the term Va' in Eq 5.2 reduces to zero and A Vd = A Vd".
For cable specimens whose length is such that they neither represent
infinitely long transmission lines nor can be considered as lumped capaci-
tances, measurement errors can arise depending upon what corona discharge
parameter is being measured. In a discussion on Eager's and Bahder's work,
Costello and Bartnikas [9] showed that for intermediate cable lengths, the
reflected corona pulse transients are sufficiently displaced in time between
themselves and the incident transient pulse to be resolved as discrete events.
Furthermore, the detected response amplitudes of the first few reflected
pulses do not differ greatly from that of the incident pulse. Consequently,
under these conditions measurements on the total corona discharge pulse
count, pulse distribution, and overall corona discharge energy loss would be
gravely subject to error. However, these errors may be eliminated by ter-

minating the cable under test by a high-voltage characteristic impedance as
described in Chapter 9. It must be emphasized that these errors would have
no significant effects upon the routine go no-go corona discharge tests on
cables dealt with in this chapter.
The detector with an u response is designed to measure only the oscillatory
portion of the response, A Vd", which is in the microsecond range and is
directly proportional to the charge transfer, AQ, of the corona discharge
event. It intentionally ignores the initial crest A Vd' because the crest
magnitude would be dependent upon the void location (see Eqs 5.3 and 5.4).
The selective detection of measuring only the oscillatory portion of the wave
is accomplished by using a relatively narrow band-pass filter of 10 kHz in the
range of 25 to 35 kHz. The oscillatory portion of the wave peak to peak
amplitude of the first two oscillations (a to b) of this response is directly pro-
portional to the charge of the pulse ( Ii dt) of the wave of Fig. 5.10a. Since the
charge does not attenuate appreciably as it travels along the cable, commer-
cially available equipment permits accurate measurements, and the narrow
band detection gives a minimum of interference due to external noise.
Normally, in a long line of cable, many discharges are measured because
there are many voids that discharge within a microsecond time period. In
such a case, the amplitude of Curve ab of Fig. 5.11 is proportional to the
number of charges appearing in a select period of time called the integration
time, which in the detector described by Eager and Bahder is 9/zs [9]. The
oscilloscope deflection, Q, in picocoulombs represents the total charge that is
the integration of the charge due to the voids discharging during a period of
time equal to the integration time, T.
Q=A
~x=NITixdtdx
x=O 0
(5.8)
t=9
----A ] ] A Q ,
t=0
where Q is the total charge for a period of 9 #s, A is a constant dependent on
the circuitry, and N is the number of discharges in the voids during the in-
tegration time [10]. In case of many discharges during one-half cycle of the
power frequency, the detector, beginning with the first pulse, integrates all
pulses appearing during the integrating time interval. After the first response
of the detector is completed, it integrates all discharges in each subsequent
period of integrating time. Therefore, the detector samples the charge in
periods of time equal to the integrating time. When testing a full-reel length
of cable at final test, a suitable calibration pulse with a known charge is ap-
plied via a series capacitance at the far end of the cable, as shown in Fig.
5. lOb, and the detectable level of charge, in picocoulombs, of the detector is
ascertained in accordance with Eq 5.1. With the detector described in Ref 9,

it is possible to obtain levels of sensitivity of 4 pC with lengths of cable 458 m
(1500 ft) or more.
In early 1969, a test procedure was described [10] that defined the re-
quirements of the detector as having an ~ response, an integrating time of 9
#s, and a recommended sensitivity of 4 pC. It also proposed the plotting of
partial discharge magnitude versus voltage stress (corona factor curve) with
established limits. This was very similar to the ionization factor that has been
used as a standard test in oil-impregnated-paper cable insulation for many
years. The difference in the apparent charge due to corona discharges in the
cable between average insulation stresses of 2.37 to 6.32 k V / m m (60 to 160
V/mil) was defined as the corona factor. This was subject to the limitation
that the charge should not exceed 5 pC at 2.37 k V / m m (60 V/mil) and
that the charge throughout the indicated range of stress corresponding to
any specified corona level should not exceed the picocoulomb value as
specified in the following equation
Q = 5 + (S - 60) (5.9)
where S is the average stress in volts per mil.

The proposed equation is plotted in Fig. 5.12. Since cables tested with ex-
truded outer shield generally showed corona factor improvement, the AEIC
Cable Engineering Section increased the corona factor requirements in their
1969 AEIC Standard 5 (Interim) as shown in Fig. 5.12 and expressed as
(2 = 5 + ( s - 75) (5.10)
The measured charge transfer, Q, in picocoulombs as expressed in Eq 5.10

represents the total charge transferred and is proportional to the number of
voids discharging and the summation of these charges during the integrating
time of the detector. However, while the corona factor concept was based on
a detector with an integrating time of 9 #s, many cable manufacturers were
using detectors to plot corona factor data with various ranges of detection
frequencies and, consequently, different integrating times. Therefore,
depending on the time spread between discharges in the cable voids, it was
possible to obtain different readings from different detectors. The detector
with the shortest integrating time would tend to be the most lenient.
5.5 Standardization of Electrical Test Procedures

In 1970, an IPCEA-NEMA Corona Detection Task Force 4 was formed,
with a liaison representative from the Association of Edison Illuminating
4"f]le task force comprised members from both the Insulated Power Cable Engineers
Association and the National Electrical Manufacturers Association.
I00~
90-
8o-
70-
u 60-
-~ 5 0 -
40-
_~ 3 0 - 0%" /~-~""'b~"
~ 20-
0 I I I I I I I I I ~0 F I
0 50 I00 I
AVERAGE VOLTAGE STRESS-VIMIL
F I G . 5 . 1 2 - - X - Y recording of partial discharge pulse amplitude versus the average voltage

stress in a cable (corona factor curve),
Companies (AEIC), to study advanced techniques for measurement of co-

rona discharges in high-voltage cable insulation. Through the efforts of this
task force there was published in 1972 the IPCEA Standard T-24-380, s for
trial from July 1972, to June 1973. It represented a great advance toward
standardization of full-reel corona testing, including definition of terms,
uniform detector response time, allowable negative superposition error, and
a calibration detector for determining the required sensitivity and positive
and negative superposition. This guide was adopted in 1973 by AEIC and
IPCEA, and is presently used as the standard for partial discharge testing of
cables. This guide was revised in 1974 and the latest edition is described
here.
5.5.1 IPCEA Corona Discharge Test Method

The present IPCEA test applies to the detection and measurement of par-
tial discharges occurring in single-conductor shielded cables and assemblies
thereof and multiple-conductor cables with individually shielded conductors.
The test guide makes use of a number of rather specialized definitions. It
defines superposition as the summation response of the partial discharge
measuring device to either concurrent or time-spaced multiple discharges.
The magnitude of superposition is expressed by the percent it differs from
the response to known individual discharges. The term negative superposi-
tion implies a summation response less than the response to individual
discharges, and positive superposition is a summation response greater than
the response to individual discharges. Pulse resolution time signifies the
minimum pulse separation in microseconds, which produces 10 percent
positive superposition.
SGuidefor Partial-DischargeTest Procedure, IPCEAStandard T-24-380, InsulatedPower
The specified test apparatus consists of an a-c power supply having a

kilovolt-ampere capacity adequate for the length of cable under test. The
high-voltage circuit and the cable terminations are to be such that the basic
interference level does not cause an indication on the measuring device that
corresponds to a charge transfer of more than 4 pC. The voltmeter is con-
nected to the high-voltage side of the power supply and calibrated to indicate
root mean square voltage. The partial discharge measuring device used con-
sists of a primary detection stage that may be straight or balanced in form
with an amplifier whose output is displayed on the oscilloscope screen, using
a supply frequency time base. The electronic response time of supplementary
partial discharge meters and graphic recorders, when used, is not to exceed
2.5 ms, and the time to reach the corresponding full-scale deflection must be
less than 1 s. If logic circuitry is used, the response must be gated and based
on no more than ten consecutive half cycles of test voltage. A time-based elec-
tronic window may be used as a recording aid only if it can be verified that
the window is open between 0 and 90 deg and between 180 and 270 deg of the
applied test voltage wave form.
Calibration is carried out with a pulse generator and a series capacitor.
The generator must provide square pulses, which attain crest value in 0.5 ms
or less and have a duration of 200 ms or more; these pulses are synchronized
with the power supply frequency. The capacitance of the calibrating
capacitor falls in between 50 and 150 pF. The calibrating charge transfer in
coulombs is equal to the product of the coupling capacitance of the
calibrating capacitor in farads and the calibrating pulse amplitude in volts
(see Eq 5.1). With the cable under test connected both to the transformer
and to the primary detection circuit, the amplifier gain is adjusted so that
when a charge transfer of 20 pC is impressed across the far end of the cable,
one of the following primary display deflection requirements is met: (a) CRT
(cathode ray tube) trace, not less than 1 cm; (b) X-Y recorder, not less than 2
cm; or (c) charge transfer meter, not less than 20 percent of full scale. The
method emphasizes that when these or other supplementary measuring
devices are used, their indicated values of charge transfer should not differ
from one another by more than 15 percent. Last step in the calibration pro-
cedure consists in showing that a response is obtainable when a charge
transfer of 5 pC is impressed across the far end of the cable without changing
the amplifier gain. Linearity of the calibration curve must be such that when
the output pulse height versus the charge transfer is plotted, the pulse height
does not deviate from linearity by more than ___10 percent of the reading.
Unless the calibrating capacitor, C,, is rated for use at the test voltages in-
volved, it is necessary to disconnect the primary calibration circuit before the
power supply is energized. Following calibration, the amplifier gain is not
readjusted unless a means is provided for the continuous display of a suitable
calibrating signal throughout the test. In any event, the primary display sen-
sitivity is never reduced below 20 pC/cm.
Provision for the continuous display of a calibrating signal throughout the

test can be obtained by any of the following ways: (a) the calibrating
capacitor, which is corona-free (full-voltage rated) and forms part of the
primary calibration circuit, remains in the circuit as the power supply is
energized; or (b) a secondary calibrating pulse that is injected across the
detection impedance by means of a capacitor having a capacitance not
greater than 2000 pF. Here, the amplitude of secondary pulse response is
precalibrated against the primary calibrating circuit before the latter circuit
is disconnected and the power supply is energized.
In the test procedure, it is recommended that the partial discharge test
shall be made prior to the a-c voltage test. In the actual test, an a-c voltage
having a frequency between 49 and 61 Hz is applied between the conductor
and the metallic component of the insulation shield. The applied voltage is
then raised sufficiently to indicate detector response to partial discharge;
however, the voltage must never exceed the alternating current test voltage.
The voltage is subsequently lowered at a rate not more than 2000 V/s to
determine the partial discharge extinction level. If the existence of discharges
is not evident after the voltage has been raised to a value 20 percent above the
specified minimum extinction value, the cable is considered to have met the
requirements for the IPCEA corona discharge test. Care is to be exercised
that the applied voltage be not maintained for more than 3 min during any
single test. The double-pulse generator, depicted in Fig. 5.13 is employed to
calibrate the partial discharge measuring device for pulse resolution time and
superposition characteristics. The pulse generator provides two identical
I I0 pF
I IA o
,,ov " ~ I ----11 4pC
SOH" E~ Ii ~__.~V
25pF
Iwl2V ~ 0 0 --tl O
,o0c
,ooo 50pF
o
20 pC
500 IOOpF
6.2V
IW --~ IN37r7 ~ 40pC
~E
'0
FIG. 5,13--Schematic circuit diagram for variably spaced double pulse partial discharge
detector calibrator (after IPCEA Standard T-24-380).
variably time-spaced 40-pC discharges (pulses) whose separation time can be

varied from 1 to 100 #s. It has a rise time of the order of 20 ns (time from 10
percent of peak value to 90 percent of peak value) and an output impedance
of 1.4 k[2 ( + 2 0 percent). This device incorporates a stable trigger point
developed by a 12-V zener diode that triggers a small SCR (silicon controlled
rectifier). Thus, the first of the two pulses occurs at the same point on each
successive positive half cycle of the l15-V power source. A 2-kfl variable
resistor controls the charging rate of the 0.1-# F capacitor. The rate at which
this capacitor charges, in turn, determines the interval between the change in
the state of the first tunnel diode and that of the second tunnel diode. Each
time one of the tunnel diodes changes state, there is an extremely rapid
voltage rise of about 400 mV, and with a 100 pF output capacitor, a 40-pC
charge is delivered into a low-impedance load (the partial-discharge
detector). The 6.2-V zener diode is used only to limit the current applied to
the tunnel diode, and the neon lamp across the output shunts large static
charges that might remain on the detector power separation capacitor, thus
preventing failure of the tunnel diodes. The output can be selected to be 4,
10, 20, or 40 pC according to which output capacitor is used.
The open-circuit output of the double-pulse generator is measured using
an oscilloscope having an input capacitance of 47 ___ 3 pF. A decade
resistance box is connected across the output terminal, and its value is ad-
justed until the output voltage is reduced to half value. At this point, the
resulting resistance becomes 1.4 kfl ( _ 20 percent) and is equal to the output
impedance. The generator is terminated in its output impedance with the
same oscilloscope connected in parallel. The controls on the oscilloscope are
adjusted to 0.02 #s/cm and 0.1 V/cm. Rise time characteristics of the oscil-
loscope are short, in order to ensure good accuracy of the measurement.
An auxiliary oscilloscope having a time base of at least 5 #s/cm is used to
determine the pulse separation time. Initially, and at least once a year
thereafter, the aforedescribed pulse generator is connected to inject pulses
directly into the partial discharge measuring device through the terminals
to which cables being tested for partial discharges would normally be con-
nected. The auxiliary oscilloscope is connected in parallel with the input
to the partial discharge measuring device, with no cable specimen in the
circuit at this time. The pulse spacing is adjusted to maximum and syn-
chronized to give a stationary display on the partial discharge measuring
device oscilloscope. The amplifier gain on the measuring device is adjusted
to give a display height of 1 cm for the 40-pC pulses. Pulse spacing is then
varied without readjustment of amplifier gain and a graph plotted of pulse
height versus pulse separation time. Here the auxiliary oscilloscope is utilized
to determine pulse separation to within an accuracy of ___10 percent. Data
points are plotted at 1-#s intervals up to a 10-#s separation, at 10-#s inter-
vals up to a S0-#s separation, at 100-/zs intervals and finally at the point of
maximum negative superposition. Negative superposition is specified not to
TABLE 5. l--Partial discharge tests on completed cables.
Vr/VRc 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

Maximum permissible partial
discharge in picocoulombs
at all voltages 5 20 35 50
Line to ground, Test voltages (VT) in kV corresponding to

Rating, kV VRG VT/VR6 ratio
5 2.9 4.3 5.8 7.2 8.6
8 4.6 6.9 9.2 11.5 13.8
15 8.7 13.0 17.3 21.6 26.0
25 14.4 21.6 28.8 36.0 43.2 a
28 16.2 24.2 32.3 40.4 48.4 a
35 20.2 30.3 40.4 50.5 a 60.6 a
46 26.5 39.8 53.1 66.3 a a
69 40.0 60.0 80.0 a ...
aThe a-c factory test voltages as specified by AEIC Standards 5-75 and 6-75 shall not be ex-
ceeded.
exceed 15 percent, a n d t h e pulse r e s o l u t i o n t i m e s h o u l d b e between 4- a n d

6-#s s e p a r a t i o n .
5.5.2 Revision o f A E I C Specifications f o r Extruded Dielectric Cables

I n 1975, A E I C S t a n d a r d s 5-75 a n d 6-756 were revised. One of the m a j o r
revisions c o n c e r n e d the p a r t i a l discharge r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d was b a s e d on
I P C E A S t a n d a r d T-24-380. M e a s u r e m e n t b a s e d on volts p e r mil was
c h a n g e d to a test voltage b a s e d on t h e design voltage r a t i n g o f t h e cables as
shown in E q 5.11. Accordingly, t h e m a x i m u m p a r t i a l discharge, Q, in
p i c o c o u l o m b values a r e n o t to exceed those d e d u c e d f r o m E q 5.11 a n d given
in T a b l e 5.1, as t a k e n f r o m A E I C S t a n d a r d s 5-75 a n d 6-75
Q = 5 + (VVR~- 1.5) 30 (5.11)
where V r = test voltage, a n d VRO = r a t e d voltage, p h a s e to g r o u n d . Note

t h a t t h e f o r m u l a also applies when t h e q u a n t i t y in p a r e n t h e s e s is n o t less
t h a n zero.
6Specification for Polyethylene and Crosslinked Polyethylene Insulated Shielded Power

Cables Rated 5 through 69 kV, AEIC Standard 5-75, and Specification for Ethylene Propyl-
erie Rubber Insulated Shielded Power Cabins Rated 5 through 69 kV, AEIC Standard 6-75,
Association of Edison Illuminating Companies.
5.6 Termination of Cable Specimens

When testing any length of cable at the final test, it is particularly impor-
tant that terminations be free of partial discharge, since terminal discharges
cannot be distinguished from cable discharges. The simplest termination
method for low-voltage type cable is to remove the cable metal and semicon-
ducting shielding a distance of 152.4 to 304.8 mm (6 to 12 in.) and to cover
the exposed insulation carefully with a high-resistance serniconducting paint.
Another method is to remove the cable shielding as stated and place the cable
end in a plastic cylinder of insulating oil such as silicone oil. Still another
more sophisticated termination method, using deionized water, was recently
developed jointly by the General Cable Corporation and James G. Biddle
Company, and is illustrated in Figs. 5.14 and 5.15. This termination utilizes
the principle of controlled grading of high-voltage stresses over a safe
distance by means of conditioned water, which acts as a homogeneous
resistive element.
The termination system depicted in Fig. 5.15 consists of three major
subassemblies: the water conditioner unit and two terminal units. The water
conditioner or deionizer unit is an automatically self-contained system for
maintaining the initial charge of distilled water within the proper electrical
conductivity range and a safe operating temperature, and is designed for
continuous unattended operation after initial startup. It is interlocked so
that it will deenergize the test voltage power supply in the event of excessive
water temperature or loss of water pressure. One termination tube in Fig.
5.15 is elevated into position for testing while the other tube is in the lower
CENTER
CONDUCTOR
NEUTRAL GROUND \
CONDUCTOR / CORONA RI N G ~ . \
/ / GUARD ~ e"~/
/ / j/~TERM INAL HIGH-VOLTAGE ~' ~J
/ ,~p'~ ELECTRODE ~ ~.~]
[ 9 WATER OUTLET___ ~ j
( DEIONIZED WATER TO HEAT EXCHANGER -- --
\
SEM ICONDUCTING
SHIELD
F I G . 5.14--Cable test termination system f o r applied voltages up to 650 k V. Terminations are
used in pairs, one unit as shown f o r each end o f cable (courtesy o f the James G. Biddle Com-
pany).
FIG. S.15--Overallview of cable test termination apparatus (courtesy of the James G. Biddle
Company).
position for setup or teardown. In normal operation, each termination unit

would be positioned adjacent to the reel of cable under test while the water
conditioner unit would be located outside the high-voltage test area.
5.7~ Partial Discharge Field Tests

Partial discharge testing has been limited to factory and laboratory testing
except for testing of very limited lengths of cable in service under ideal condi-
tions. Recently, however, this situation has undergone significant changes as
exemplified by the following account [11].
In the fall of 1972, a field corona test was conducted to evaluate the condi-
tion of short lengths of 15-kV underground cables installed in a major
Philadelphia Electric Company substation between the circuit breaker and
reactor compartment, a distance of approximately 91.8 m (300 ft) [11]. Four
cable failures had occurred in the underground duct after six years of service.
The cable construction consisted of 380 mm2 (750 MCM or thousand circular
mils) copper conductor, semiconducting tape, 7.5 mm (0.297 in.) of butyl-
rubber insulation, an overlapped web bedding tape, an overlapped semicon-
ducting tape (with semiconducting material on only the outer side), two
tinned copper tapes, a woven nonconducting tape, and a PVC (polyvinyl
chloride) jacket. Examination of the faulted cable indicated that partial

discharges had eroded the outer surface of the butyl-rubber insulation. The
bedding tape between the insulation and the semiconducting tape indicated
that the eroded areas occurred at 76.2-mm (3-in.) intervals on the same
radial position of the cable, as shown in Fig. 5.16. A section of this cable con-
struction from an earlier failure with a number of eroded areas was removed
and tested, and partial discharges of over 100 pC in magnitude occurred
below the operating voltage.
It was necessary to prove the eroded areas to be the only source of the par-
tial discharges. A short section of the defective cable depicted in Fig. 5.17,
containing two eroded areas was tested. Typical test results obtained with the
dry cable are shown in Curve A of Fig. 5.18. The insulation shield of this sec-
tion of cable was removed and replaced with semiconducting paint and
semiconducting tape covered with copper braid, as shown in Fig. 5.19. The
cable with the reconstructed outer shield was tested and found to have a
corona initiation voltage of 26 kV as shown in Curve D of Fig. 5.18, there-
by proving the eroded areas to be the source of the partial discharges.
Since the cable was known to have been installed in a wet location, an ef-
fort was made to determine the effects of the ingress of moisture into the
eroded area on partial discharge measurements. Using a cable specimen
removed from service and known to have eroded areas under the insulation
shield, tests were made after 18 and 48 h of soaking in a water bath; corona
discharge test results are shown in Fig. 5.18, Curves B and C, respectively. In
all cases, upon partial discharge initiation, the magnitude of the partial
discharges increased rapidly to over 100 pC. However, inception and extinc-
tion voltage stress levels increased with ingress of moisture in the outer in-
sulation shield, eliminating partial discharges at operating voltage. Varia-
FIG. 5.16--Section of defective substation cable with factory-applied shielding removed

(after Timpe and Heyer [11]).
FIG. S.17--Section of defective substation cable (after Timpe and Heyer [11]).
=E
o
I00 A- DRY SAMPLE
0
o B- 18 HOUR SOAK
o.
A B- --C
C-48 HOUR SOAK
z
D - RECONSTRUCTED SAMPLE
LU
tY
X
ZO
Z
0
8
0 2 4 6 8 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
VOLTAGE IN KV
FIG. S.18--Partial discharge characteristics of a section of defective 15-k V substation cable

(after Timpe and Heyer [11]).
FIG. 5.19--Sections of defective substation cable with reconstructed outer shield (after
Timpe and Heyer [11 ]).
tions in partial discharge performance due to moisture must be considered,

therefore, in field testing.
Following the laboratory tests, it was decided to attempt a partial
discharge field test on the cable remaining installed. A maximum of 15 kV
phase to ground was applied after completing a d-c high-voltage test of 35 kV
for 15 min. It was recognized that a cable in poor condition could fail under
either of these tests. The first cable tested failed on the d-c test after 2 min
at 35 kV. The initial attempt to make a partial discharge field measurement
on a second cable was unsuccessful due to excessive background interference

(electrical noise) of approximately 500 pC. It was necessary to reduce this
noise to a workable level before meaningful tests could be conducted. Elec-
tromagnetic pickup from the terminals was proven not to be the source, since
less than 5 pC were measured by placing a length of open wire equal to the
length of the unshielded cable adjacent to the terminals.
The source of the interference eventually was found to be the grounds con-
nected to the cable shield. The cable was then ungrounded from the reactor
compartment and circuit breaker ground truck and connected directly to sta-
tion ground. The background interference diminished to 10 pC with sporadic
bursts of 150 pC. The partial discharge on the second cable were found to ap-
pear at 5.3 kV and extinguish at 4.8 kV, as shown in Fig. 5.20. However,
massive discharges of 500 pC or higher were observed.
Partial discharge measurements on a third cable specimen indicated
discharge inception at 9.1 kV and extinction at 8.6 kV, as shown in Fig.
5.21. While this cable did exhibit corona discharges at the operating voltage,
its performance was considered marginal, particularly since it was in a wet
location.
Following a several-day period of very heavy rain, it was decided to recheck
the second and third cables with a bridge-type circuit developed by the James
G. Biddle Co. Figure 5.22 shows a typical schematic of the circuit used for
this test. The advantage of the balanced system, shown in Fig. 5.22, is the
ability to control external disturbances. This is particularly effective in
checking a polyphase circuit when one phase can be balanced against one of
the other two. However, the signal observed is always from the cable with the
r 500 pc m INSTRUMENT
SATURATION
:E
3
0
0
a.
w
r
"r
o
_.1
z
0
I1:
12)
0 4.8 5.5
VOLTAGE IN kV
FIG. 5.20--Partial discharge characteristics of a second I5-kV substation cable (after

Timpe, unpublished work).
INSTRUMENT
SATURATION
I 0 0 pc
=E
q
0
0
~J
E
z
rr
.J
AMBIENT NOISE
z
0
0c
0
o
[llllllHlillUlllllllllllJlllll[IIIl[llllllll[lllllllllll
I I
0 8.6 9.1 kV
VOLTAGE IN kV
FIG. 5.21--Partial discharge characteristics of a third 15-kV substation cable (after

Timpe, unpublished work).
lower partial discharge inception voltage and higher discharge magnitude.

The problem cable can generally be detected by test comparisons with the
other two phases. The partial discharge characteristics for cables two and
three are shown in Fig. 5.23. From previous testing, cable two was known to
be the poorer cable. It is interesting to note that after the heavy rain the par-
tial discharge characteristics shown in this figure fall between Curves A and
B of Fig. 5.18, the dry and 18-h soak, which indicates the similarity of
moisture effects in the field when compared with the laboratory.
The control of external disturbances was expected to be better with the
balanced circuit than was actually obtained during this test. The ground
noise disturbance during the bridge detection test was so great that mean-
ingful measurement with a straight detection system would have been im-
possible at this time. The cables were in separate ducts about 152.4 mm (6
in.) apart, and it is believed that one of the cables was in a duct with con-
siderably more water than the other cable. This water provided an excellent
capacitive coupling for ground noise for one cable in comparison to the other
and, therefore, complete balance against ground noise was not accom-
plished. It is expected that under more favorable ground conditions, greater
success could be obtained in controlling external disturbances. These cables
were later removed from service and were dissected; eroded areas similar to
those shown in Fig. 5.16 were found.
5.8 Development of Field Testing Equipment

Under the sponsorship of the American Public Power Association, General
HIGH VOLTAGE
C$ CONDUCTOR T l- B0 CONDUCTOR
C H
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . T . . . . . . . .
R,R'; RESISTOR DECADE BOXES I TO 10,OOO .O.

Q : CAPACITOR BOX O TO I OR IO nF
E : BALANCING TRANSFORMER, METER BAT 2A, OR
DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER
F : AMPLIFIER
O : CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE
G,G': GAS DISCHARGE TUBES FOR PROTECTION
FIG. 5.22--Circuit diagram of a balanced-type corona discharge detector (courtesy of the

James G. Biddle Company).
Cable Corporation has developed a mobile laboratory for field testing in-
stalled extruded dielectric cable systems rated 5 through 35 kV [12]. It is
capable of measuring three cable characteristics; dissipation factor (tan 6),
partial discharges, and d-c insulation resistance. Measurement of these
characteristics is a very effective nondestructive test to check the deteriora-
tion of cable installed in the field from damage resulting from a number of
causes such as: mechanical damage in shipment, storage, handling during
installation, separation between the semiconducting shielding and insulation
and voids that can develop after load cycling on a poorly constructed cable,
and improperly constructed or incorrectly installed joints and terminals.
Such field testing could be further extended by periodically checking cable
parameters of very critical circuits. Information logged on these parameters
would clearly indicate any early deterioration, and correction could then be
instituted before a catastrophic in-service failure resulted. Details of the
mobile equipment components are provided in the following sections.
INSTRUMENT SATURATION
3 0 0 pc
O
tJ
2 0 0 pc
0,.
_z
I 0 0 pc
AMBIENT NOISE
z
0 Illlll[llllllllllllllllllllll
0
I I I
O 6 7 8
VOI T A G ~ " IN kV
FIG. 5.23--Corona discharge characteristics of second and third 15-k V substation cables
measured with bridge circuit (after Timpe, unpublished work).
5.8.1 Dissipation Factor Bridge

The conventional high-voltage power factor (dissipation factor) bridges
used for high-voltage cable testing at the factory require that the cable
metallic shields be insulated from ground during measurements. In field in-
stalled cables, these metallic shields are permanently grounded and rarely
can be ungrounded for a measurement9 Therefore, a special inverted bridge
was designed and built to operate so that the cable shield may be grounded
during measurement. Figure 5.24 shows a schematic of a conventional
transformer ratio power factor bridge and an inverted power factor bridge.
The balance condition for both bridges is given by
Cx = ( W2/ Wl)Cs (5.12)
tan ~ = 2~rfCR (5.13)
where Cx is the capacitance of the cable specimen at f = 60 Hz, C~ is the

standard capacitance, W1 and WE are the number of turns in the ratio arm
transformer, tan ~ is the dissipation factor value of the cable specimen, and C
and R are the phase balance capacitance and resistance values, respectively9
The special inverted bridge is a transformer ratio-type bridge, which is in-
verted with the balancing components and associated leads and shields at
test voltage; this permits measurements on installed cable systems where the
H.V POWER SUPPLY

!
TEST
~ . FF ~-Cs SPECIMEN I i Cx
W2 _--- WI
CONVENTIONAL TRANSFORMER
RATIO POWER FACTOR BRIDGE
ON BOTH CIRCUITS ON BOTH CIRCUITS
Cs= STANDARD CAP W2
Cx= UNKNOWN CAP Cx = ~ X Cs
R = PHASE BALANCE RESISTORS
C = PHASE BALANCE CAPACITORS TAN 8 : 2TrfCR
Wl,W2 = NO. OF TURNS IN TRANSFORMER
H.V. POWER SUPPLY

W2 ~ Wl
', Qo oo
Cs ~r-~_~ TEST i
SPECIMEN Cx
INVERTED TRANSFORMER
RATIO POWER FACTOR BRIDGE
FIG. 5.24--Circuit diagrams of conventional and inverted transformer ratio dissipation factor
bridges (after Bahder et al [12]).
shields are grounded. The maximum capability of the bridge is 50 A at 150

kV. However, the current capability can he increased by the use of an aux-
iliary transformer, which will permit use on a long circuit without signifi-
cantly affecting the accuracy. Operation in the field requires a 60-Hz ex-
ternal-voltage supply capable of providing the line to ground voltage of the
cable to be tested and of adequate capacity to accommodate the cable charg-
ing current. It is preferred that the voltage supply be obtained from a
variable source; however, it is possible to tap the voltage from the overhead
line or the primary side of the transformer to which the cable is connected.
CHAPTER 5 - - P A R T I A L DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS IN CABLES 165
5. 8.2 Partial Discharge Bridge

The partial discharge characteristics measurement may be made by a
special double-input balanced detector bridge, as portrayed in Fig. 5.25.
This is a special balanced-type bridge detector designed for partial discharge
measurements in the field where the cable shield is at ground potential. The
balanced bridge detector is equipped with its own partial discharge-free
variable high-voltage power supply rated up to 35 kV that operates at a fre-
quency of 0.1 Hz. The present kilovolt-ampere capacity of this unit is ade-
quate to test simultaneously two 5 through 35 kV cables approximately 1.6
km (1 mile) in length. The capability is achievable with a moderate-size
O.I HZ
GENERATOR[
-.L
.~-
Ca Cb
DOUBLE INPUT BALANCED DETECTOR
0.1 HZ }
GENERATOR
LI L2
Co
T
I C3 R2
SINGLE INPUT STRAIGHT DETECTOR
FIG. 5.2S--Circuit diagrams of low-frequency energized double input balanced and single in-
put straight type corona discharge detectors.
power supply since at 0.1 Hz, the kilovolt-ampere capacity needed to charge
a cable is 1/600 of that of the conventional 60 Hz supply.
For optimum interference noise rejection, it is desirable to operate the par-
tial discharge detector in its balanced mode whereby two cables, similar in
geometry and length, are tested simultaneously as shown in the upper por-
tion of Fig. 5.25. Normally this is accomplished readily by testing the two
phases of a three-phase circuit. In those cases where it is necessary to test
only one cable, the test circuit can be converted easily to a conventional
straight-type partial discharge detector, as shown in the lower portion of Fig.
5.25. In this mode of operation, the measurement sensitivity is limited by the
extraneous interference present. However, in many cases the sensitivity is
adequate to permit evaluation of the condition of the cable system. Com-
parison of typical partial discharge tests at 60 Hz and 0.1 Hz are shown in the
Table 5.2, where it can be seen that close agreement is obtained between the
low-frequency test values and those at 60 Hz.
5. 8.3 Insulation Resistance Test Set
Insulation resistance measurements in the field are carried out using a

high-quality, d-c resistance test set, incorporating a stabilized voltage source.
It has a test range up to 2.0 1016 ohms at applied voltages up through 1000
V. All mobile test equipment is normally installed in a van-type vehicle and
trailer for transportation to field test locations; a typical van/trailer arrange-
ment is shown in Fig. 5.26. Figure 5.27 shows the inverted transformer ratio
power factor bridge apparatus, depicted schematically in Fig. 5.24. This
bridge is installed in the trailer unit shown in Fig. 5.26.
5.9 Limitations of Partial Discharge Testing Techniques

The present-day factory partial discharge test has a S-pC sensitivity by
specification. Therefore, a 5-pC or higher charge must be transferred to the
detector to obtain a reading. This charge transfer can be the result of one
large void discharging or the sum of various size voids discharging
simultaneously or during the integrating time of the detector. While im-
TABLE 5.2--Comparisons of partial discharge measurements at 0.1 Hz and 60 Hz.
Discharge Inception Discharge Amplitude at

Voltage, kV Inception Voltage, pC
Length of
Cable Tested Cable, ft 0.1 Hz 60 Hz 0.1 Hz 60 Hz
25 kV XLPE Insulated
Cable 1000 10.0 10.5 300 310
15 kV PE Insulated
Cable 50 8.5 8.9 40 45
FIG. 5.26--Mobile testing laboratory (courtesy of General Cable Corporation).
proved sensitivity is very desirable, it is almost impossible to attain in a fac-

tory because of the extraneous electromagnetic interference. To determine
the limitations placed on the detector's ability to detect the presence of voids
in a cable system with a S-pC sensitivity constraint, it is necessary to examine
the charge existing in voids of various sizes at the time the voltage stress
reaches the partial discharge inception voltage.
5. 9.1 Effects of Void Size Variations

Many types of voids may exist in the walls of cable insulation having
various sizes, varying inner surface conductivity, irregular shapes, and con-
taining moisture and gases other than air. Accordingly, the discharge
behavior and generated charge transfer can vary greatly.
The spherical-shaped void is the most common to appear in the insulation
wall, because it is formed by steam or by the byproducts of gas generated in
the cable insulation curing. Therefore, spherically shaped voids will be con-
sidered for this analysis although it is also applicable to other shapes of void.
Atmospheric pressure is assumed, since this equilibrium state is usually
achieved by the time the cable is tested. Paschen's curve was used to deter-
(a) Cubical console.

(b) Connecting lead with standard capacitor.
(c) Bridge balancing controls.
FIG. 5.27--Overall view of inverted capacitance dissipation factor bridge apparatus.
mine the breakdown voltage using the following equation from Ref 5. The
stress in a spherical cavity is 3k '/(1 + 2k ') times that in the dielectric,
where k ' is the real value of the dielectric constant of the insulation wall. Us-
ing Paschen's curve and the preceding relation, the voltage required to break
down various-size spherical voids was calculated and is shown in Fig. 5.28.
The dielectric capacitance of the void was determined by assuming that the
spherical void was equivalent to a cylindrical capacitor with disk electrodes at
each end, equal in diameter and separation to the diameter of the void with
air as a dielectric.
Using the calculated partial discharge inception voltage as given in Fig.
CHAPTER 5--PARTIAL DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS IN C A B L E S 169
o IOOC
hi
9oc
80C
>0 700
600
I.-
n
ILl
o 500
z
LU
400
-r
7,
30O
.J
7-
zoo i ~ ~ ~ ; ,',
SPHERICAL VOID SIZE IN MILS
FIG. 5.28--Discharge inception voltage as a function of void diameter.
5.28, the maximum charge in picocoulombs was computed for various-size

voids by the conventional method. In Fig. 5.29, Curve A shows the maximum
calculated charge versus void size at the inception voltage. Curve B shows the
minimum number of voids versus void size that must discharge during the in-
tegrating time of the detector in a short length of cable and be transferred to
the detector to obtain a S-pC reading. However, the minimum number of
voids that must discharge simultaneously in a long section of cable to obtain
a 5-pC reading may be twice the number given by Curve B. This is because
the charge transfer from a void divides in half and travels in both directions
of the cable and must travel along the conductor to the far end terminal, be
reflected, and travel back the length of the cable to the detector, within the
integrating time of the detector, to have both halves integrated. The excep-
tion to this case would occur only if the discharges would take place exactly at
the far or near end of the cable specimen. Also, the calculations indicate
slightly greater sensitivity than could actually be achieved because of the
following assumptions: (a) the total charge is transferred without losses, (b)
the charge is somewhat larger than that actually represented by a spherical
void because of the slightly larger volume assumed, and (c) the void
discharges completely.
Even with these assumptions, as demonstrated in Fig. 5.29 (Curve B), it
would require almost 100 one-mil (0.025 mm) voids, 9 five-mil (0.127 mm)
voids, and 3 ten-mil (0.254 mm) voids to transfer a S-pC charge that could be
detectable with the present-day partial discharge detectors in a short section
I00 I000
90 800
80 600
70 500
I.-
400 _1
>i, 60 0
300 >
wl m 5O
200 z
~ ~o 0
I00 w
"5~ 30 (.)
80 z
n~ 60
50
w
z r 20 40
I1:
30
I
20 A
_~uJ
I0 I0
rr
8 I.-
~ a v
Q_
4
F-
3
5
2
m 4 7
0
z~ 3 1 x
8
Q. .6-
.5- z
.4-
.3- i,i
.2-
I
o
l l l l l [ l l l l . ~ _
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0
SPHERICAL V O I D SIZE IN MILS.
FIG. 5.29--1ntegrated corona pulse charge transfer versus void diameter size characteristics.
of cable. While the smallest undetectable voids should not give problems
because of partial discharges at operating voltage, a few of the large undetect-
able voids most likely would. From this point of view, the corona detector is
very lenient and would appear to allow considerable poor quality in cable to
be passed. However, in the problems observed, it seems that when something
in cable production malfunctions, it produces a large number of voids or a
large enough cavity to be detected and rejected. Although many of the
failures that occur are unexplained, they very probably could be caused by
one or a few undetectable voids that are large enough to result in cable failure
due to partial discharge.
While small voids should not cause problems due to the occurrence of par-
tial discharges at the operating voltage, they can become filled with water
during operation resulting in high stresses and are a suspected cause of elec-
trochemical tree initiation in plastic insulated cables.
5. 9.2 Pressure Effects

In actual practice, a cable does not often operate with a void at at-
mospheric pressure. During an increase in loading and cable temperature,
the pressure in the void rises and gas slowly diffuses through the insulation.
It is estimated that it may take as much as five to ten days for the pressure to
equalize within a void, depending on its location and the insulation wall
thickness. When the load is decreasing and the temperature of the cable is
dropping, the pressure in the void will decrease below atmospheric pressure,
and the air will slowly diffuse into the void. During the operation of cables at
some of the high-altitude cities in the United States, the pressure at times
could drop as low as 490 tort (mm Hg). The effects of these pressure varia-
tions on partial discharge inception voltage stress per mil and energy
discharges in microjoules per discharge were calculated and shown in the
shaded areas of Fig. 5.30.
Cables are factory tested at ambient temperature near sea level and at-
mospheric pressure. The calculated partial discharge inception voltage for
these test conditions and various void sizes are shown by the dashed line on
Fig. 5.30. The shaded area under the dashed line shows the calculated par-
tial discharge inception voltage variation due to the reduction of internal
pressure in spherical voids in cable operating at higher altitudes and load
transients. It is assumed that the extreme internal pressure change in a void
of a cable during factory testing to operation at high altitudes could result in
a reduction from atmospheric to 490 tort. This internal pressure change in
FIG. S.30--Corona energy loss characteristics of spherical voids.

PD. INCEPTION OF ] I ~
125 ~IL- rOD --~T AT-MbS-PHE~TPRES~URE- -
-J lO0
l
PD. 1INCEPTION O F I /
] / /
I
---- --~t. ------14- --4 - - ~1-1- . . . . .
"~ IOMIL VOID AT AT~I-~SPHERIC PRE URE
AT CONDUCTOR
I
" SHE
> 'IL ] 1 PD
, I!
INCEPTION O F I /
;l' / r
.
e) I IOMIL VOID AT REDUCED PRESSUR
E
50 I Ii ~I -I -i I
~."' ti I 1 1 1 t
u'J
I- 1 AEIC SPECIFICATIONS -~" 5 8=6
25 l~' I-INSULATION THICKNESS "A"
~_AT INSULATION
SHIELD ~-INSULATION THICKNESS"B"
I 1 I { ~ 15 416
0 5 8 15 25 28 3 69
DESIGN CABLE RATING IN KV
F I G . 5 . 3 1 - - C o r o n a discharge inception stress versus cable voltage rating, with void diameter
and gas pressure as parameters.
the voids would result in an associated reduction in partial discharge incep-

tion voltage of 10 to 20 percent respectively for a 1- to 10-mil (0.025 to 0.254
mm) diameter void. The AEIC cable specifications require for a cable under-
going the partial discharge test, that the defined partial discharge extinction
voltage be 150 percent of the cable design voltage. Since the extinction
voltage is below the inception voltage by approximately 15 to 25 percent,
there is still a margin of safety in the factory partial discharge test for cables
required to operate at these high altitudes.
5. 9.3 Discharge Energy Variation

Insulation damage as a function of the corona discharge energy in a given
application is dependent upon both the void pressure and void diameter, as
can be seen from the following analysis. This is because the inception voltage
itself is dependent upon the last two parameters. It has been experimentally
established by the author that the inception voltage stress per mil versus void
size between 2 and 10 mils (0.05 to 0.254 mm) in diameter may be expressed
approximately by the empirical formula
V = a d" (5.14)
where V is the voltage stress in volts per mil; a is a constant and is equal to
290 for 960 torr, 262 for 760 torr (atmospheric pressure), 200 for 490 torr; d
is the void diameter in mils; and n is a negative exponent equal to -- 0.435. It
is assumed that once partial discharges are initiated, the void discharges
completely. The corresponding energy equation can be expressed as
1
W = ~ CE ~ (5.15)
where W is dissipated energy loss in joules, C is calculated capacitance of the

void, and E is calculated partial discharge inception voltage. The inception
voltage is shown by the dashed line and adjacent shaded area of Fig. 5.30.
The microjoules dissipated per discharge versus void size between 2 and 10
mils (0.05 to 0.254 mm) is shown by the solid line and adjacent shaded area
of Fig. 5.30, and may be expressed approximately by another empirical rela-
tion determined earlier by the author as
W = b d" (5.16)
where W is microjoules per discharge; b is a constant equal to 7.5 for 960

torr, 6.5 for 760 torr (atmospheric pressure), and 3.5 for 490 torr; d is the
void diameter in mils, and n is an exponent equal to 2.11.
The amount of insulation degraded is proportional to the energy dissipated
with each discharge and is based upon the assumption that, upon reaching
inception voltage, the time to discharge voids of the various sizes is a con-
stant, amounting to a few nanoseconds, and also that the energy is dissipated
on a small irregular shape of an equal area in each void. Since discharge
energy is proportional to the square of the voltage, at lower pressures there
would be considerably less energy dissipated with each discharge and much
less degradation of cable insulation, as shown by the lower shaded area in
Fig. 5.30. This is particularly noticeable as the void size increases. The
energy dissipated in a 5 mil (0.127 mm) void can vary by a ratio of 3 to 1
depending on internal pressure at time of discharge.
The energy varies with void size, increasing as an exponential function of
the void diameter as shown in Eq 5.16. Comparison of energy dissipated for
various sized voids is interesting in that the energy of 940 microjoules is
dissipated in the discharge of a 10-mil (0.254-mm) void, compared to 7 #J
dissipated in a 1-mil (0.025 mm) void, a ratio of nearly 140 to 1. On this
basis, assuming the insulation deterioration proportional to the energy
dissipated, it is evident that the larger voids not only discharge at a lower
electrical stress, but also cause considerably more insulation damage with
each discharge.
5. 9.4 Effect of Void Location

Figure 5.31 is a series of bars showing the calculated maximum and
minimum electrical stresses based on designed sine-wave voltage peaks on
various voltage classes of cable with two different insulation thicknesses, A
and B, and the smallest conductors specified. The maximum stress occurs at
the conductor shield, while the minimum occurs at the insulation shield.
These insulation thicknesses are based on insulation thicknesses as specified
under Columns A and B of AEIC Standards 5-75 and 6-75. The voltage stress
in volts per mil is based on the cable operating peak voltage rather than the
root mean square value, since partial discharge initiation depends on actual
maximum instantaneous stress in the void. Inspection of the voltage stresses
in Fig. 5.31 shows that stresses vary from 25 to 143 V/mil (0.99 to 5.65
kV/mm), depending on the voltage class cable and the location radially be-
tween the conductor and insulation shield. The voltage stress is almost iden-
tical for cables rated 28 through 69 kV and varies from 53 to 143 V/rail (2.09
to 5.65 kV/mm). To avoid partial discharges when operating these cables at
high altitudes, theoretically it would be necessary to limit the range in void
sizes from 2 to 10 mils (0.051 to 0.254 mm) in the radial area between the
conductor and insulation electrostatic shields.
5. 9. 5 Pseudoglow Discharges
Another limitation with partial discharge testing is the minute pulses pres-
ent in what is defined as a pseudoglow discharge, which may not be suffi-
ciently large to be detectable on conventional partial discharge detectors,
although the discharge energy losses are of the same order of magnitude as
those resulting from true pulses or spark discharges. This limitation is
described by Bartnikas [13]. The magnitude of the small pulses present in a
pseudoglow discharge may not be sufficiently large to trigger conventional
corona detectors, thereby causing the corona discharge to remain
undetected. On the other hand, if only a portion of these pulses were suffi-
ciently great to actuate the corona detector, then the resulting detected
discharge pattern will not contain all the information and, consequently,
would not constitute a true replica of the actual discharge pulse density
distribution. It is thus evident that conventional discharge detectors will not
generally respond to certain types of discharges, often yielding an indication
unrepresentative of the actual discharge intensity. At present, it is not known
to what extent pseudoglow discharges are prevalent in practical insulating
systems; however, their possible occurrence should warn against in-
discriminate use of pulse type corona detectors in tests to ascertain the
presence or absence of corona discharges. More work is necessary on the
discharge mechanisms in physical voids to prevent misconstruction of the
corona measurements obtained with existing detection apparatus.
5.10 Conclusion
Past experience has demonstrated that partial discharge testing represents
a very effective nondestructive cable test [14-20]. A great deal of useful infor-
mation can be derived from discharge magnitude versus voltage plots. The
maximum information is obtained by selecting a practical voltage stress as
high as possible without causing cable damage. Unfortunately, there are
limitations because of detection problems with extraneous noise and the in-
ability of the present technique to measure discharge levels below 5 pC in fac-
tory production lengths. Calculations indicate that, with the allowable max-
imum stresses of 143 V/mil (5.65 kV/mm) under the AEIC specification,
void sizes should be limited to 2 mils (0.051 mm) or less to avoid partial
discharges. The sensitivity of present-day corona test sets requires the
simultaneous discharges of many 1 to 10 mil (0.025 to 0.254 mm) voids to ob-
tain a reading. The number of discharges must sum up vectorially and
transfer 5 pC to the detector. Also, the pulse-corona detector cannot measure
accurately pseudoglow discharges, although it is not fully known to what ex-
tent this type discharge is prevalent in cable systems. On this basis, testing
with a limit of 5-pC sensitivity gives only general assurance of a cable system
free of partial discharge.
Discharges measured at cable operating voltages are definitely indicative
of future problems. The amount of cable deterioration in a void is affected by
two factors, the partial discharge inception voltage and the energy dissipated
per discharge. Increasing the void size decreases the inception voltage and in-
creases the energy dissipated so that, for example, a 10-mil (0.254-mm) void
dissipates 140 times the energy of a 1 rail (0.025-mm) void.
The limitations and the difficulty in interpretation of the results of partial
discharge testing indicate strongly that the allowable voltage stresses with the
present wall thicknesses and voltage class as specified in AEIC Standards
5-75 and 6-75 have progressed to near maximum limits. The extension of
extruded-type insulations to higher voltage stresses requires a more sensitive
partial discharge testing technique and a greater understanding of the
deteriorating effects of various partial discharge intensity levels on each in-
sulation. Field testing of in-service cable is a very useful and informative
nondestructive test, but at the present time has the same, or greater, limita-
tions as factory testing.
5.10.1 Acknowledgment
The author wishes to express appreciation to the management and
engineers of Philadelphia Electric Company for their encouragement and
assistance.
References
[1] Perrine, F. A. C., Transactions, Vol. 19, 1902, pg. 107.
[2] Petersen, W., Archivfuer Elektrotechnik, Vol. 1, 1912, pg. 28.
[3] Dubsky, F., Transactions, American Institute of Electrical Engineers, Vol. 38-1, 1919, pg.
357.
[4] Shanklin, G. B. and Matson, J. J., Transactions, American Institute of Electrical
Engineers, Vol. 38-1, 1919, pg. 489.
[5] Kreuger, F. H., Discharge Detection in High Voltage Equipment, American Elsevier
Publishing Co., Inc., New York, 1965.
[6] Gooding, F. H. and Slade, H. B., TransacHons on Power Apparatus and Systems,
American Institute of Electrical Engineers, Part III, Dec. 1957, pp. 999-1009.
[7] Blodgett, R. B. and Eigen, D., Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Vol. PAS-87, June 1968, pp. 1492-1507.
[8] Committee No. 2 (HV Cables), Proceedings, International Conference on Large High Ten-
sion Electric Systems, Progress Report No. 21.01, Paris, 1968, pp. 1-35.
[9] Eager, G. S. and Bahder, G., Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Vol. PAS-86, Jan. 1967, pp. 10-34.
Systems, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Vol. PAS-88, 1969, pp.
342-364.
[11] Timpe, N. B. and Heyer, S. V., Transactions on Electrical Insulation, Institute of Elec-
trical and Electronics Engineers, Vol. El-12, April 1977, pp. 159-164.
[12] Bahder, G., Eager, G. S., Sufirez, R., Chalmers, S. M., ]ones, W. H., and Mangrum,
W. H., Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems. Institute of Electrical and Elec-
tronics Engineers, Vol. PAS-96, Nov./Dec. 1977, pp. 1754-1766.
[14] Graham, R. C., Duffy, E. K., and Foster, W. P., Transactions, American Institute of
Electrical Engineers, Vol. 67, 1948, pp. 1107-1117.
[15] Bahder, G., 1969 IEEE Special Technical Conference on Underground Distribution, In-
stitute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Conference Record 69C1-PWR (Supple-
ment), Anaheim, May 1969, pp. 157-168.
[16] Blodgett, R. B., Eigen, D., and Claytor, R. N., 1969 IEEE Special Technical Conference
on Underground Distribution, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Anaheim,
May 1969, pp. 169-178.
[17] Costello, D. A. and Bartnikas, R., 1969 IEEE Special Technical Conference on
Underground Distribution, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Anaheim,
May 1969, pp. 179-195.
[18] Dakin, T. W., 1969 IEEE Special Technical Conference on Underground Distribution, In-
stitute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Anaheim, May 1969, pp. 196-197.
[19] Mole, G., 1969 IEEE Special Technical Conference on Underground Distribution, In-
stitute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Anaheim, May 1969, pp. 198-211.
[20] Brookes, A. S., 1969 IEEE Special Technical Conference on Underground Distribution,
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Anaheim, May 1969, pp. 212-230.
STP669-EB/Feb. 1979
T. W. D a k i n ~
Measurement of Partial Discharges in

Inductive Apparatus: Transformers
and Rotating Machines
6.1 General Considerations

Much of the high-voltage inductive electrical apparatus such as
transformers, reactors, motors, and generators cannot be considered as a
simple lumped capacitance as is frequently done in the analysis of partial
discharge circuit measurements. Particularly when the discharge occurs at a
location remote from the accessible terminals for measurement of the equip-
ment, a significant, often high, inductance occurs between the discharge site
and the measurement terminals. Also, there is a distributed capacitance in
parallel with this inductance, and a distributed shunt capacitance to ground.
This is illustrated in Fig. 6.1. In practical apparatus, this inductive
capacitance network is not usually as uniform from one end to the other, as
Fig. 6.1 might indicate schematically, in an oversimplified way. This figure
indicates only a sectionalized winding, and much of the apparatus is usually
more complex than this. For example, no mutual inductance coupling is in-
cluded in Fig. 6.1; also, no interleaving of high- and low-voltage windings or
potential taps are indicated. These may introduce additional capacitance to
ground at certain locations along the high-voltage winding. The inductive
capacitance network of most windings, if analyzed in detail, is indeed very
complex.
It should be noted that as the voltage and, correspondingly, the size of the
apparatus is increased, the series and shunt capacitance values decrease due
to the increased spacing required for higher voltages. Conversely, with small
transformers, due to the high capacitance between input and output ter-
minals, the attenuation of a pulse signal from one high-voltage terminal to
the other will be small. In many such cases, the attenuation of the pulse will
depend on the ratio of the series capacitance terminal-to-terminal and the
]Research and DevelopmentCenter, WestinghouseElectric Corporation, Pittsburgh, Pa.
15235.
177
Copyright91979by ASTMInternational www.astm.org

, I( v l( ~ If t l( ,
r m Terminal Z
T TTT. . T. TTT
=_i_
T TTT T r r T
. . . . .
r
=__l.
FIG. 6.1--Schematic representation o f the distributed inductance and capacitance in an "in-

ductive apparatus.
shunt capacitance attached to ground at the receiving end of the winding;

these capacitances, terminal-to-terminal and receiving terminal-to-ground,
act as a capacitance divider circuit. The decreased series capacitance along
the winding in higher voltage apparatus would lead to greater attenuation of
pulse signals from internal discharge sites or from the other end of the wind-
ing--unless the shunt capacitance to ground is reduced in the same propor-
tion. Another feature to be considered in estimating parameter effects on the
pulse attenuation is the effective inductance and capacitance values at the
pulse frequency, or at least at the measurement frequency band. Thus,
greater attenuation may be noted if a higher frequency detection band is
used.
Winding resonances will be excited by the discharge pulse, which typically
can have a rise time of much less than a microsecond, unless it is a very large
and long discharge. These winding resonances can have many diverse fre-
quencies with coil sections resonating at higher frequency, with resonances
extending down to where the whole winding oscillates like a lumped induc-
tance and capacitance. Such varied oscillations will affect the measured level
of discharge, particularly when they fall within the frequency band accepted
by the discharge measurement circuit. They complicate accurate measure-
ment. In large complex apparatus, in particular, there are so many different
sites where partial discharges can occur that this greatly increases the dif-
ficulty of interpretation of measured discharge levels.
The foregoing considerations indicate that this chapter is to be divided into
several sections with an initial section on aspects common to many types of
apparatus, followed by sections that treat transformers and generators or
motors separately. This subject naturally divides itself for these two types of
apparatus, since the windings of transformers are uniquely different from
motors and generators. Also, many small discharges are usually tolerated in
generators and motors having micaceous (discharge resistant) insulation, but
are not tolerated to nearly the same extent in transformers. Although the
detection and measurement and interpretation of the significance of partial
discharges differ between these two classes of apparatus, the discharges
themselves have aspects that are common to both.
CHAPTER 6--INDUCTIVE ELECTRICAL APPARATUS 179
6.2 Partial Discharge Characteristics C o m m o n to Both Transformers or

Reactors and Generators or Motors
Partial discharges occur whenever a small part of the insulation structure
breaks down and the breakdown is localized, either by the divergence of the
electric field going away from the discharge site or by an intervening stronger
insulation barrier or medium that limits the discharge extension. Most com-
monly, the partial discharge site is a gas space in a surrounding liquid or
solid insulation medium. Another common partial discharge site is a metallic
or conducting point, where the local electric stress is high.
Gas spaces experience higher dielectric stress [1] 2 in liquid or solid media
as a result of their lower dielectric constant, eg' = 1. A gas space, or cavity,
whose diameter perpendicular to the electric field is appreciably larger than
its depth in the direction of the electric field, and when its depth is small
compared to the total insulation spacing, experiences an electric field
Eg : em 'Em (6.1)
where era' is the dielectric constant of the medium, and E m is the electric
stress in the medium. As the diameter of the cavity is reduced in proportion
to its depth in the electric field direction, the electric field concentration in
the cavity decreases. For a spherical gas cavity (depth = diameter)
3e 'Era (6.2)
E g - - 2e ' + 1
For a gas cavity, however, whose diameter is quite small in proportion to its
depth in the electric field direction, the electric field in the cavity approaches
nearly equal to that in the surrounding medium, Eg = Era. The electric stress
in cylindrical cavities of various depths and diameters is given in a paper by
Hall and Russek [2]. For prolate and oblate spheroidal cavities, the exact
electric stress in the cavities can be calculated from equations given by B6tt-
chef [3] and in other references on electric fields.
If the electric stress concentration in a cavity is obtained as just discussed
and the gas pressure and cavity depth in the electric field are known, the elec-
tric stress for onset of partial discharges in the cavity can be obtained from
the Paschen curve for the gas as given in Ref 4 or in other reference books on
gas breakdown. It should be cautioned, however, that the measured
discharge offset stress is usually somewhat lower (typically 10 to 30 percent
lower) than the predicted discharge breakdown stress. This is due to stress
concentration by surface charges left on the inside insulation surface of the
cavity by prior discharges (see Chapter 2). Also, the measured discharge
onset stress may be higher than predicted, due to the lack of initiating elec-
trons in very clean cavities. In spite of the lack of exact correlation between
calculated and measured discharge threshold stresses, such correlation is a
useful tool in making approximate estimates of cavity sizes from measured
discharge onset and offset stresses.
Another important site of partial discharges is a point in gas (or in liquid,
at much higher stress). In this situation, only in a few cases can the discharge
onset voltage be predicted. Equations for stress concentration have been
derived for hyperbolic, spheroidal, and ellipsoidal points. The stress concen-
tration factor (Em~x/E~v), at a conducting sphere surface in a uniform field
(either an isolated sphere or a spherical boss on a conducting plane surface)
is 3. The stress concentration factor for a conducting ellipsoidal boss on a
conducting plane or an isolated conducting ellipsoid [5] in a uniform field is
Emax __ 2n 3
(6.3)
E~v m In m + n 2n
m--n
where m is the ratio of the major to minor axes of the ellipsoid and n =
x/-m2m
2 -- 1. For a hyperbolic point to plane geometry [6] the stress concentra-
tion factor is
E . . . . 2d
(6.4)
The electric stress, however, varies rapidly going away from the tip of the
point, and the Paschen curve gas breakdown stress values must be modified
upward to account for the rapidly changing electric stress near the point,
since gas breakdown avalanches develop only over a finite distance. Em-
pirical correction factors for surface breakdown stress at cylinders and
spheres in air were introduced by Peek [7] in the form of, 1 + b/x/pgr, where
b is a constant differing for cylinders, spheres, etc., pg is the relative gas den-
sity (to 1 atm), and r is the radius of curvature of the surface. Thus, unless
one knows ahead of time the geometry of the points in an apparatus, useful
diagnostic interpretation .cannot be made from discharge threshold
measurements of such sources.
Conductor or electrode edges against a solid barrier are another common
site for partial discharges. For this case, empirical measurements have been
published by Dakin et al [8] showing that the discharge threshold voltage
varies as the ratio, db/eb ', of the barrier thickness, db, and its dielectric con-
stant Cb'. For edges of a known radius of curvature against a solid barrier, it
is also possible to calculate from Paschen's curve the discharge threshold
voltage.
The maximum pulse discharge magnitude (in picocoulombs or microvolts,

and its variation) above the discharge onset voltage are sometimes a helpful
means of diagnosing the nature of discharges in apparatus. Partial
discharges in cavities or discharges confined to a limited area show a con-
stant, or sometimes decreasing magnitude as in Fig. 6.2 (right), when the
voltage is increased above the onset voltage. Conversely, discharges at a point
or a conductor-electrode edge usually increase steadily with increasing over-
voltage as shown in Fig. 6.2 (left). The observed behavior helps to differen-
tiate the type of discharge source. The latter tendency is to be expected, since
the largest possible single discharge pulse in a cavity is one that would short
circuit all of the opposite surfaces. Except for large area cavities of small
depth, such maximum pulses occur fairly frequently but not usually in each
cycle. Pulses that discharge only a varying fractional part of the area also oc-
cur. The latter case is more common for cavities with large diameter to depth
ductor Edge, I/8"r .
104 h
E
o
o=
Q.
iO ~'-UI6" Deep Cavity

m
102 L I I I
4 8 12 16 20 Z4
I0/
FIG. 6 . 2 - - C o m p a r i s o n o f corona p u l s e heights versus applied voltage on a conductor edge

and in a sealed cavity.
ratios. Conversely, discharges from a point or edge, since they are not con-
fined, can spread over the barrier surface or into the gas or liquid volume to a
distance and area limited only by the amount of overvoltage, and the
capacitance to the opposite potential conductor from the discharge. In the
case of discharges spreading from an edge or a point, the increasing extent of
the discharge can, in principle, be related to the corresponding increasing
measured pulse magnitude, but, at present, it is not very practical to do so,
except empirically. However, when the discharge is limited in a small area
cavity, the relationship of the pulse size to the cavity size can be made more
quantitatively on theoretical grounds, as is discussed in the next paragraph.
Interpretation of the magnitude of the discharge, particularly the max-
imum pulse value in picocoulombs for a cavity, is guided by the basic rela-
tionship between the pulse charge, A Q, and the breakdown
zaQ = C, A V~a (6.5)
where C, is the capacitance between the area discharged by the pulse and the
conductors or electrodes facing the discharge site, and A Vbd is the
breakdown voltage of the cavity gap (as obtainable from Paschen's curve for
the gas). Note that in this case, the pressure must be known or estimated.
The effective capacitance in series with the discharge can, to a first approx-
imation, be estimated from the simple capacitance formula
A
Cs =em ' ~ o ~ (6.6)
where era' is the relative dielectric constant of the insulation medium in series
with the discharge, e0 is the dielectric constant of a vacuum (0.0885 10-~2
F/cm), A is the area of the discharge (in square centimetres), and d is the
total thickness of the insulation (in centimetres) between the discharge and
the facing conductors or electrodes. The area of the maximum discharge for
a small regular cylindrical cavity is about the same as the area of the bottom
of the cavity. Equation 6.6 is correctly applicable only in a uniform electric
field as for a cavity between parallel plates.
The approximate partial discharge magnitudes have been calculated by Eq
6.6 for various depths of cavities and discharge diameters and are graphed in
Fig. 6.3 (from Ref 9) to illustrate the order of magnitude of the maximum
discharge pulse in picocoulombs to be expected. No allowance has been
made for the effect of electric field divergence, as discussed in the next
paragraph. If the cavity occurs, however, in a region of higher than average
stress, as for a cavity near a conductor edge or point, then the effective
capacitance will be higher than that given by Eq 6.6, as discussed in the
paper by Dakin and Studniarz [10]. To correct for the electric stress concen-
tration effect on the effective capacitance from a discharging cavity located in
105
40, 000V
\ . lOr
4000V
~. lOr
~OOV
10a ,.32r
400V
.3?r
lo3
x"
~O00V
]oz
~.Olr
~OV
~.Olr
\%,r
.001 .01 0.1 1.0

d s, inches
F I G . 6.3--Corona pulse charge as a function of series insulation thickness, ds, f o r various
levels o f gap breakdown crest voltage and radii (in inches) o f discharge area. Dielectric constant
o f insulation barrier assumed to be 4.
a high-stress region, a detailed knowledge is needed of the electric field

distribution for the system. Approximations can sometimes be made, as
discussed in Ref 10. The additional capacitance factor for an area in a higher
stress region is higher, in proportion to the electric stress increase above the
average electric stress. This comes from the basic equation that the surface
charge per unit area is
Q, = e0em'E (6.7)
In addition to edge, point, and cavity discharges, other sources of

discharge can consist of suspended, charged conducting particles ap-

proaching an oppositely charged conductor or afloating insulated conduct-
ing object close to another conducting, possibly grounded, object. Because of
the likely greater capacitance in the latter case, the measured discharges
would be much greater than with suspended particles.
While discharges frequently, and most likely, occur in gas spaces, because
of the lower dielectric strength and higher stress in the gas space, partial
discharges can also occur with higher stresses in liquids in similar relation-
ships to solid barriers, where the initial discharge is a local breakdown of the
liquid. Although the initial discharge may be a local liquid breakdown, the
immediately subsequent discharges are very likely to take place in gas bub-
bles formed from the liquid breakdown. Since gas bubble discharges have a
lower threshold voltage, there is often in such cases a great hysteresis between
the onset voltage and offset voltage for discharges. The amount of such
hysteresis is dependent on the type of insulating liquid and its gas absorption
characteristics [8], the time of exposure to discharges, etc.
It should be clearly noted that the magnitude of partial discharge pulses
(either picocoulombs or microvolts) that are measured on inductive ap-
paratus is not always correlated with seriously damaging discharges in the
apparatus insulation, because of electrical interference sources not
associated with the insulation or discharges located in low-stress non-critical
areas of the insulation, and discharges in gas bubbles that are slowly ab-
sorbed and disappear, etc. When sizable discharges do occur, however, in
oil-insulated transformers, it may be desirable to establish their non-serious
effects by location, experience, or extended testing and diagnosis. In high-
voltage generators and motors, where small discharges are tolerated,
discharge measurements are usually only made to establish an insulation
quality level or a gross defect, as will be discussed in Section 6.4.
6.3 Partial or Corona Discharge Measurements on Transformers

Partial discharge measurements on transformers, particularly large power
transformers, are complicated by the practical precedent that discharge
measurements were initially made, and are still most commonly made, in the
power industry using radio noise meters and reporting microvolt values. The
radio noise or RIV (radio influence voltage) meters have detection
characteristics uniquely different from other common detection systems
usually measuring discharge pulse magnitudes in picocoulombs. The radio
noise meters measure over a selected narrow frequency band, while the
amplifiers, measuring picocoulomb pulse heights, usually have a wider fre-
quency band response.
Radio noise microvolt values are narrow-band quasi-peak pulse heights,
whose voltage is appreciably less than the true pulse peak voltage measured
with a broad-band detector [11]. When the pulse repetition rate is less than
about 120 pulses/second with American manufactured RIV meters, or even

greater for German RIV meters (whose meter decay time is shorter), the
quasi-peak value is also less than the true peak value, even for the same
amplifier band width [12]. This will be discussed in more detail in Section
6.3.3.3. Similar effects of low-pulse repetition rates are not unique to nar-
rowband RIV meters, since they are a result of the charging and discharging
time constants of the output indicating quasi-peak meter [12] and would oc-
cur even if such an output meter were used with a broad-band picocoulomb
detector amplifier.
The narrow-band width of the pulse detector-amplifier in the RIV meters
has a much greater effect on the magnitude of the pulse voltage measured.
The true pulse height and shape such as would be seen, for example, on a
wide-band oscilloscope is not measured by the RIV meter, but only a small
fraction of the original pulse is measured. The original discharge pulse has a
fast rise time, depending on the type of discharge, the medium in which it oc-
curs, and particularly its length. Short discharges in gaseous cavities, which
are probably more typical of all but major faults, have rise times that are less
than 100 ns, but long (several centimetres or more) streamer discharges in
transformer oil may have rise times of the order of a microsecond. The
positive discharge streamer velocity [13,14] in oil is about 2 10 s cm/s at
the threshold voltage, which should give a rise time of 5 #s/cm of discharge.
The streamer velocity in air is much faster, from 106 to 3 107 cm/s. With
overvoltage, the streamer velocity in oil increases rapidly to values similar to
those observed in air; of the order of 107 cm/s or faster. Long discharges in
oil have rise times of the order of 10/zs/cm of discharge streamer length. It
should be noted that the pulse rise is in terms of current. The voltage at the
conductors or electrodes facing the discharge site actually decreases suddenly
due to the discharge, which slightly increases the local capacitance. Thus, it
is, in a sense, a negative voltage pulse. It is assumed that the circuitry at-
tached to the discharge site does not affect the pulse rise time at the conduc-
tor nearest the discharge site, but may affect the rise time measured at a
remote terminal.
The decay time of the pulse is largely determined by the circuitry attached
to the discharge site. This circuitry includes that of the apparatus itself and
of the detection system. Typically in noninductive apparatus, with resistive
input impedance to the detection system, the pulse decay would have an ex-
ponential voltage shape
V = V0 exp t
RC (6.8)
When there are, however, inductive elements in series or parallel with the
discharge site, in the apparatus or in the detector input, the pulse tail has a
damped oscillation shape containing one or more damped resonance fre-
quencies. In the case of a single inductive element of equivalent series induc-

tance L, and resistance R,, the decay of the voltage pulse (at the discharge
site) has a shape
R,t
V = V0(cos o~t) exp 2L (6.9)
where zero time is at the crest after the initial rise caused by the discharge
previously mentioned and 00 = 2 w/~/L,C. This treatment is, of course, an
oversimplification of the situation of a discharge in the transformer. But it
does indicate why a narrow-band detector will give a lower magnitude result
(even though it does indicate the discharge) than a broad-band detector.
Study Committee 12 of the International Conference on Large High Ten-
sion Electric Systems (CIGRE) has been actively considering the problem of
partial discharge measurements on transformers for over 10 years and
published extensive recommendations for this [15]. In the CIGRE Pro-
ceedings for the years 1968 and 1974, there were a number of papers and
discussions on this subject.
6.3.1 Coupling of Detectors to Transformer Terminals During

High- Voltage Testing
Whatever the type of detector, whether an RIV meter or a broader-band
picocoulomb detector, coupling is done either with a high-voltage coupling
capacitor at a high-voltage terminal or with a high-frequency current
transformer, or a resistor shunted by an inductor, at a low-voltage terminal.
The transformer is often energized inductively by applying a voltage to the
low-voltage terminals (induced voltage test), as in Fig. 6.4(bottom), or ap-
plying voltage to the high-voltage winding with a separate high-voltage test-
ing transformer (applied voltage test), as in Fig. 6.4(top). The induced test is
more representative of this application, since it applies a voltage between
turns and sections or layers of the winding as would normally occur in ser-
vice. The induced test is sometimes done on large transformers using a third
harmonic of the power frequency voltage to permit overvolting the
transformer without saturating the magnetic core. This has the effect of in-
creasing the number of partial discharge pulses in proportion to the higher
test frequency. When making the induced test on a transformer with two or
three high-voltage bushings, one of the bushings may be grounded optionally
during the test. This will change the distribution of high voltage to ground or
low voltage and may help in locating a corona source, as will be discussed in
Section 6.3.4.
The applied voltage test is usually done on transformers where there are
two equivalent high-voltage terminals for the high-voltage winding, and there
is not a graded insulation, that is, all parts of the high-voltage winding are
(b High Voltage
OptionalGround
Connection High Voltage
FIG. 6.4--Application of voltage to a transformer for partial diseharge test.
equally insulated from ground. When the applied voltage test is applied to a
floating high-voltage winding, no current flows through the winding and high
voltage is applied only to the insulation between the high-voltage coil and
ground or low-voltage coil, which would be grounded in this test. Discharges
detected in the induced test might be either in the high voltage to ground in-
sulation or internally (section to section or layer to layer) within the high-
voltage winding. But in the applied voltage test, discharges due to voltage
gradients internally between parts of the high-voltage winding would not be
excited or detected.
High-frequency current transformer coupling can be applied at any lower
voltage terminal where it is convenient to connect such a transformer. Usu-
ally, it is done at a grounded terminal, as shown in Fig. 6.4(bottom). A low-
voltage neutral terminal of a three-phase transformer is an appropriate loca-
tion, as shown in Fig. 6.5. It might also be inductively coupled by an iron
core around the low-voltage lead, without opening the lead and inserting any
additional reactance.
Many high-voltage power transformers have potential bushing taps as in-
dicated in Fig. 6.5. These usually consist of an embedded capacitor foil that
is next to the outermost grounded foil or the flange of condenser (capacitor
graded) bushing. They are designed primarily as power frequency voltage
HIVoltage
Bushing 1 H.V.B. 2
Coup,ing y
" / /! -, wi. ing 2
- Bushing'I~-}~~___~__.
9 I: T .. . . Bushing
. . Tap 3
FIG. 6.5--Circuit schematic of a three-phase high-voltage transformer.
measuring terminals, but they also are convenient alternatives to a separate

coupling capacitor for making partial discharge or RIV measurements on
transformers. (Bushings of other high-voltage power apparatus, such as
power circuit breakers also often have these potential taps.) These bushing
taps have, typically, a much lower capacitance to the bushing stud or ter-
minal than to ground. These are, in effect, a capacitance voltage divider tap
with a ratio that increases with the voltage class of the bushing. Typically,
they provide a power frequency potential of about 7 kV when they are
isolated and the transformer is energized. When not connected through a
lower impedance device, they must be grounded to avoid sparkover. Also, it
is very important that the detector input circuit, which is coupled to the bush-
ing tap, provide an adequately low impedance, such as a small inductor shunt
for the power frequency applied to testing the transformer, to sufficiently
suppress the power frequency voltage capacitively coupled from the bushing
stud. Otherwise, the detector instrument may be damaged. This inductive
shunt can usually be made high enough in impedance so as not to affect the
high-frequency pulse discharge measurement circuit. L, in Fig. 6.10b is such
an inductor.
The capacitance of bushing taps to ground are of the order of about 1
103 to 1.5 104 pF, increasing with voltage rating. This provides a shunt
capacitance across a detector terminal connected directly to this terminal.
The effect of this capacitance on the detection sensitivity must be considered,
and the particular input detection circuit accommodated to it. In the case of
RIV meter connections to the bushing tap, special tuning circuits have been
developed to compensate for this capacitance, as indicated in Section 6.3.2
on RIV meter circuits. Impedance matching transformers are also used to
-I j HV HV I
~--~I i.:~I'oDetector ~I~/TaP 2 _--ToDetector

1 -- ,/Hvwinding I---
D~ector
,--t._
._T_ a b
(a) Sectionto section, capacitancecoupling.

(b) Mil to ground, capacitancecoupling.
(c) HV bushing, capacitancecoupling.
(d) At lead inductivelycoupled to detector.
FIG. 6.6--Transformer winding schematic circuit showing various calibration locations.
match this large capacitance to the detector input of broader-band detectors

(as, for example, the ERA detector3). Vogel [16] has used an air core
transformer at this terminal. His transformer had about ten turns of 1 in.
diameter on the primary and a larger number of turns on the secondary,
which resonates with the detector input capacitance at about 150 kHz, pro-
ducing a damped oscillation pulse. Another method of coupling a broad-
band picocoulomb detector to the bushing tap is to use a current to voltage
converting operational-amplifier circuit.
6.3.2 Calibration of Sensitivity of Detectors Coupled

to Transformer Terminals
In any of the various methods for coupling discharge detectors to
transformers, it is necessary to calibrate the overall detection sensitivity of
the circuit by injecting either a picocoulomb charge or, in the case of an RIV
meter (according to NEMA Standard 107) 4, a known level of microvolts at
the high-voltage terminal. RIV meter detectors are also sometimes calibrated
in terms of picocoulomb-pulse charge. The picocoulomb charge detection
calibration is similar to that described in ASTM Standard Method of Detec-
tion and Measurement of Discharge (Corona) Pulses in Evaluation of Insula-
tion Systems (D 1868-73) (Fig. 6.3) using a pulse step voltage connected
through a small calibrating capacitor of the order of 10 to 100 pF to the high-
3A corona pulse detector designed by the Electrical Research Association Group at
Leatherhead, England.
4Methods of Measurement of Radio Influence Voltage (RIV) of High Voltage Apparatus,
NEMA Standard 107, National Electrical ManufacturersAssociation, 1964.
voltage terminal of the transformer, which is usually the principal reference

point, as shown in Fig. 6.6c. IEC Standard 270 s also describes a number of
calibration procedures where charges may be injected at other terminals or at
points along the winding, as in Fig. 6.6a and b. Injection at these other
points will be discussed in Section 6.3.4 in connection with discharge location
techniques. Unless particularly used for purposes of discharge location in a
winding, the calibration pulse should always be inserted at the terminal to
which the detector is coupled, usually a high-voltage bushing.
Calibration can also be done at a terminal that is inductively coupled, for
instance, at a low-voltage lead shown in Fig. 6.6d. This is not yet, however, a
standard procedure. The neutral lead in a three-phase transformer is another
location of this type. An iron core grounding lead is still another possible low-
voltage terminal for inductively coupling and calibrating. A grounded ter-
minal of a low-voltage winding may also be used. At these low-voltage ter-
minals, to which detectors are connected, the calibration capacitor is ob-
viously connected at the ungrounded side of the inductive coupling.
In making calibrations, it is important that the calibrating capacitor be
located as close to the terminal, or point of calibration, as possible with any
cables between the pulses and the capacitors. The CIGRE 12-01 Working
Group, which has studied [15] and discussed calibration procedures for tests
on transformers, recommends that a calibration pulse repetition rate of twice
the power frequency be used, and that calibration be done in terms of
picocoulomb charge. Calibration of narrow-band RIV meters in terms of
picocoulombs does not, however, avoid the differences, and possibly causes
greater errors in the narrow-band versus broader-band meter detectors.
Simulation of discharges between sections or other parts of a winding can be
done [see Fig. 6.6a] with a small, floating battery-operated pulser, whose
capacitance to ground is kept minimal.
6.3.3 R I V Meter Measurement of Partial Discharges in Transformers

Historically this method was used first and is still the most prevalent
method for larger power transformers. Usually, a frequency of about I MHz
is used, with a 6-dB point receiver bandwidth of 4.25 to 9.35 kHz. The
characteristics of various commercial R i v meters are listed in Table 6.1 [14].
Radio noise meters, because they respond only to a small band of frequen-
cies of the wide-frequency spectrum of the input discharge pulse, have an
output voltage that is only a fraction (often small) of the peak discharge
pulse. This fraction may be as small as 1/1000 of the original pulse. The rela-
tionship between the response of these narrow-band detectors and wide-band
amplifiers is discussed in more detail in Section 6.3.3.3. The reduced
SPartial Discharge Measurements, IEC Standard 270, InternationalElectrotechnicalCom-

mission, 1968.
TABLE 6.1--RIV m e t e r characteristics [ 1 3 ] .
O
"1-
Calculated # VQP at I MHz for 1-V Peak "U
Kilohertz Detector Broad-band Corona Pulse at 60 PPS --t
I11
Bandwidths at 1 MHz Time Constants, RIV Meter High Impedance Coupled to a
msec Capacitor Across Which 1 V is Developed
Random Accuracy,
RIV Meter Input Impedance Noise 6dB Impulse Charging Discharging dB Random Noise 6 dB Impulse i
I
Z
E7
American C
Ferris 32D 10 pF built in -3.27 4,25 -4,58 1 (10) 600 - 630 (56 dB) 800 (58 dB) 900 (59 dB) O
---t
StoddartNM20B 10 pF or 509 adapters 5.2 -6.76 -7.28 1 600 - 1000 (60 dB) 1340 (62.5 dB) 1500 (63.5 dB) <
Stoddard NM22A 509 built in or 10 pF with high ira- 7.0 9.35 10.25 1 600 1400 (63 dB) 1900 (65.5 dB) 2000 (66 dB) I'll
pedanee adapter and antenna cou- Ill
pler r-
Singer-Stoddart 50fl built in or 10 pF with high im- 3.22 4.55 5.0 1 600 2 630 (56 dB) 900 (59 dB) 1000 (60 dB) I'll
O
NM28T pedance adapter and antenna cou-
:IJ
pler
European O
Siemens 3880 609 and 1500f2, with high impedance -6,92 9.0 -9,7 1 1600 700 (57 dB) 900 (59 dB) I000 (60 dB) t"
and Siemens 3840A of 15009 available
"u
"0
>
:IJ
--4
C
t.O
_.J.
response of these meters is compensated somewhat by their greater signal to

noise ratio. The relative advantages of narrow-band RIV microvolts versus
wider-band picocoulomb measurements of partial discharges in transformers
is still being debated. In specific cases, they can be approximately correlated,
and such a correlation has been published [12], showing that the ratio of
picocoulombs to microvolts increases in direct proportion to the effective
capacitance seen by the discharges at their particular location in the winding.
The ratio of picocoulombs to microvolts is about 1 for an effective
capacitance of 1000 pF and a discharge rate of 60 pulses/second (see Fig.
6.7). For the American Stoddart-Singer and Ferris meters, the ratio of
picocoulombs to microvolts increases by a factor of about 2 when the rate
declines to 10 pulses/second. With the Siemens (German) meter widely used
in Europe, the ratio of picocoulombs to microvolts increases to about 6 for a
discharge rate of 10 pulses/second. The increase in the ratio with decreasing
pulse rate is due to the decrease in quasi-peak microvolt reading with
decreasing pulse rate as shown in Fig. 6.8. These ratios neglect resonances
near 1 MHz.
100
Stodclart NM20B
Max ]0 pps ,
1 I 1 Ferris 32D and Singer-
Stoddart 25T I
S"
,,"Max pps
Siemens 3880
#JJ ~ I0
jJ#i#i
J
f
j ,bvere
t' # "J
Min 10011pps
,,, / .4,#,,"
1.0
-S
,
_
SS ///,, i ##S
f#J
~ / ~ ~OS~ H.V. Tr~ns,orme~s
0. I # ~ / I i I d I I I J J 1
I00 I0,000
Cx - pF
Capacitance Seen by Corona Generator
F I G . 6.7--Variation of ratio picocoulombs to microvolts with capacitance high-voltage

transformer windings.
CHAPTER 6 - - I N D U C T I V E ELECTRICAL APPARATUS 193
4u f ~'~'~' ._~?,,/" . ~ , < f S ~ , ' ~ , > ' S , ~ "~ _. . . . .

, SKO~ c.,~'~'~6~" .-Measured Using
/ //_g:>" S~- NM~B and_Square
I0 I00 1000
Pulses per Second
FIG. 6.8--Variation in QP readings at 1 MHz of RIV meters with pulse repetition rate.
6.3.3.1 Use o f the N E M A Coupling Capacitor Circuit f o r Testing

Transformers--The National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA)
introduced Standard 107 in 1940, which described a circuit for measuring
radio noise interference in the radio broadcast band from electrical ap-
paratus. This circuit and instrument were adapted for measuring corona or
partial discharges in apparatus, a related effect, but not the initial function
of the measurement equipment. This standard was revised in 1964, reducing
the resistor shunt at the input to the meter to 150 ohms and decreasing the
quasi-peak meter charging time constant to 1 ms. The present NEMA Stan-
dard 107 circuit is shown in Fig. 6.9. The shunt resistor of 150 ohms, con-
nected in series with the high-voltage coupling capacitor of 1000 pF, is made
up of two resistors in parallel; 800 ohms (noninductive) and a cable with a
characteristic impedance of 185 ohms, terminated with a 18S-ohm (nonin-
ductive) resistor at the radio noise meter, whose input impedance is very
much higher 6.
As shown in Fig. 6.9, the NEMA test connections are appropriate for an
applied voltage test on an unenergized transformer connected as the
specimen. If one wished, however, to apply the NEMA circuit to a
transformer in an induced test, it can be connected in place of the test
transformer in Fig. 6.9, and the connection to the specimen omitted.
Needless to say, the test transformer of Fig. 6.9, as well as all the high-
voltage leads, must be free of corona or partial discharges up to the max-
imum test voltage. When using this circuit for an induced transformer test,
the specimen transformer to be evaluated (which is connected in place of the
test transformer) would be the source of discharges, if they existed.
6A revisionis planned to make use of 50-ohm input meters and cables (see Fig. 6.9 inset).
~'J Testcircuit inductance

150~ mcableL.~_..
~ ( not deliberate)
I _J-z mny"
Proposedrevisionfer 50 C T Coupling
iohmcable and 50 ohm I ICa~citor
~j_Oput meters j
/ I-- --I
~ ] ~ S j Seeinset ab~ //
Transformer
FIG. 6.9--NEMA Standard 107 circuit for measuring RIV.
6.3.3.2 Use of R I V Meters Connected to the Bushing Tap--The use of the

high-voltage bushing tap as an alternative to a high-voltage coupling
capacitor has already been mentioned. The high shunting capacitance to
ground from the bushing tap reduces the RIV signal, unless it is compen-
sated by a parallel inductance. Methods for such compensation have been
described in papers by Narbut [I 7] and Brown [18] and, more recently, made
part of the NEMA standards [19]. As shown in Fig. 6.10, the tuning circuit
can be added either at the transformer end of a cable to the meter from the
tap or at the meter end. When testing very high voltage transformers, the
coaxial cables may attain lengths up to 100 ft or - 30 m. It is generally more
convenient to tune at the meter. The objective is to make the impedance from
the tap terminal to ground either as high as possible for meters having a high
input impedance, or alternatively to match it to the input impedance of the
meter for meters having low input impedances.
In tuning the circuit, the objective is to obtain a maximum ratio of the
radio frequency voltage, e,, at the high-voltage bushing terminal to the
voltage, es, at the meter input, which is usually at the end of a long coaxial
cable in the case of high-voltage transformer measurements. Narbut has
calculated the proper values of inductance to achieve maximum meter
voltage when the inductor is placed directly at the bushing tap
1
L, -- (6.10)
o~2(C1 + C2)
where C1 is the bushing capacitance to the tap, and C2 is the capacitance tap
CHAPTER6--INDUCTIVEELECTRICALAPPARATUS195
HiV9ngs ~Bushing
/Bushi Ta-
..L . . . . . ~ Is Rmrl
(a)
HIVng
Bushi
~L ~. BushinTap
g Ls
I.'j_'_~T'T_ ]' ]r I Lr !,r

(b)
(a) Tuning at bushing end of coax.
(b) Tuning at meter end of coax.
FIG. 6.10--Bushing tap circuitsfor measuring RIV voltage with tuned detector.
to ground. Due to the cable capacitance and other strays, the inductance is
tuned for each particular setup. For the more convenient case of tuning at
the remote meter end of the coaxial cable, the series cable impedance must
be considered. When the cable is terminated in a relatively low impedance, it
looks inductive from the sending (bushing tap) end, thus a capacitance load
at the terminal end is required for tuning. But to allow for easier tuning and
to accommodate different values of C1 and C2, the bushing capacitances, an
additional series choke, L,, was added in series with the tuning capacitance,
Cr. With the circuit of Fig. 6.10b, Narbut was able to prepare an empirical
calibration chart for the ratio of er/et a s a function of various values of C1
and C2. This covered the practical range of high-voltage bushing
capacitances; C~ varying from about 250 to 600 pF, and C2 from 2500 to
15000 pF, with 100 ft ( - 30 m) of RG 59/U type coaxial cable (73 ohms), and
L, ---- 20/zH. Cr is a small air capacitor. Since the required components for
tuning at the receiving end of the cable to the meter depend both on the cable
length and the bushing capacitance values, which vary from unit to unit, it is
probably easiest to approach this tuning empirically, starting from the Nar-
but's circuit of Fig. 6.10b. With this circuit he achieved values of er/e, vary-
ing from about 0.25 (for C2 = 15000 pF) to about 1.6 (for C2 ---- 2500 pF, us-
ing a high impedance RIV meter having a 10 pF input). Narbut employed a
series inductance L, ---- 20 #H and a series variable air capacitor, Cr, with a
100-ft ( - 30 m) length of 73-ohm cable in testing high-voltage transformers
[450 to 1800 kV, basic impulse level (BIL)]. Lr in Fig. 6.10 is an inductance
much larger in reactance at the RIV meter frequency than the tuning
capacitance, Cr (so as to have negligible effect on the detector voltage), but
low impedance at the power frequency to shunt that voltage at the meter in-
put.
Mykelbust and Hellman [20] have published a circuit for making
simultaneous measurements at the bushing tap, with a cable connection to a
broad-band corona pulse detector (ERA meter, with an adjustable pulse
transformer input) and a narrow-band RIV meter (see Fig. 6.11). There are a
variety of other circuits for accomplishing this. It should be borne in mind
that with all bushing-type circuits, the circuit used must be calibrated to
determine the ratio of the signal at the meter to the signal at the high-voltage
terminal. Often this is accomplished using a step voltage pulse injected
through a small capacitor as mentioned previously; however, it can also be
done using a continuous sine-wave voltage from a signal generator at the
desired test frequency.
6.3.3.3 Narrow-Band Detector Response to Pulses Having a Wide Fre-
quency Spectrum--It is relevant to understand how a narrow pass-band
amplifier meter responds to a transient pulse. It responds only to a fraction,
often small, of the pulse transient's wide band of frequencies, of varying
amplitude. The relationship between the frequency spectrum of a specific
pulse wave shape where voltage varies with time is obtained through Fourier
analysis, where variations in the time domain are transformed into
equivalent variations in the frequency domain. This transformation can be
done most easily by taking the LaPlace transform to the algebraic representa-
High VoltageTerminal
tBuh,ngTa
zH ;47 nF
i ~b=25p0F
f ]OOpH:
(a) Applied power frequency voltage.

(b) Broad-band picocoulombs (ERA-coupling).
(c) Narrow-band RIV.
FIG. 6.11--Circuit f o r simultaneous measurement.
tion of the voltage variation with time, during the pulse; this operation is
described in numerous texts on transient pulse analysis [21]. Several papers
[11,12] have discussed it in relation to pulses produced by partial discharges.
The pulse has been approximated by several different pulse forms: a simple
decaying exponential as in Fig. 6.12a, an exponentially decaying sinusoidal
oscillation as in Fig. 6.12b, and a sawtooth [22] wave as in Fig. 6.12c, with a
fast front and a slower decline in voltage. Also, a finite rise time can be added
to the front of the decaying exponential or the damped oscillation pulse (as
represented by the dashed lines in Fig. 6.12a and b. The rise time of the
pulse is usually so much faster than the inverse frequency of the detector that
its frequency spectrum can be neglected, but its effect on the spectrum is
shown for the saw tooth pulse. The corresponding pulse amplitude versus fre-
quency for these wave shapes is also shown schematically in Fig. 6.12.
The relation of the original pulse voltage, V0, to the pulse output, V,, of a
narrow-band amplifier of unity gain, is given for several cases by the relation-
ship
LogFrequency
For
,'=-
E
Rise
Time
a) Exponential decay pulse n
' 1
\
E
.,~ <:
IJ
0
b) Oscillatory decay pulse
at,,,= u
0
~ j fSlope=-]
ort 2 Slope=-2
~ E
"Xf for t I
c) Sawtoothpulse
FIG. 6.12--Partial discharge wave shapes attd their amplitude-frequency spectrum.
V-z" : A w A i K (6.11)
V0
where Aw is 27r times the band width of the amplifier,f in cycles/second; Ai

is the amplitude value, from Fig. 6.12, at the frequency of the narrow-band
amplifier; and K is a factor of the order of 0.3, partially theoretical, but also
depending on the amplifier characteristics. The narrow-band signal depends
on the band width and upon the decay time constant, or, of the pulse or the
rise and fall times of the pulse. It is assumed that the band width is small
compared to the center frequency of the detector amplifier pass band.
In the damped oscillatory discharge, the crest amplitude of the discharge
at the resonant frequency, f0, varies inversely as 1/2or. In Ref11, it was shown
as expected by the analysis that when the narrow-band detector amplifier is
set at the damped oscillation frequency, the narrow-band crest output
voltage increased inversely proportional to the decay constant. For com-
paratively long time decay constants, the crest narrow-band output pulse
voltage approaches close to the original crest pulse voltage. It is also clear
that the value of the narrow-band amplifier output voltage depends very
critically on the proximity of the amplifier-detector pass frequency to any
natural oscillation frequency in the pulse from a transformer. When the
narrow-band meter frequency is appreciably below the oscillation frequency,
the output signal will increase proportional to the frequency, and when it is
appreciably above the oscillation frequency, the output pulse will decrease
inversely with the frequency. The latter inverse variation of narrow-band
output to detector frequency is also typical of the exponential decay pulse
shape and the sawtooth pulse for frequencies less than the inverse rise time of
the pulses. Here a simple relationship holds approximately between the crest
pulse voltage
V _Kff (6.12)
Vo
where K is a constant about 0.2 to 0.5, Afis the frequency band width, a n d f
is the center frequency of the detector band. Note that A f is much smaller
than f. For example, with typical RIV meters, the value of V/Vo is of the
order of 1/1000 in the megacycle region of frequency, wheref is well below
the inverse time constant for the rise time of the pulse or well above any reso-
nant frequency. Since there may be quite a few resonant frequencies
associated with the transformer partial discharge pulse, as shown in the
oscillograms of Fig. 6.13, it is obvious that a simple relationship between the
output pulse of a narrow-band RIV meter and a pulse from a transformer
can only be approximate.
The quasi-peak output meter in the RIV meters reduces the response read
on the meter below that which would be seen at the input to the quasi-peak
(a) X2 terminal of low voltage winding.

(b) X 1 terminal of low voltage winding (location of discharge).
F1G. 6.13--Oscillograms of partial discharge pulse measured at two terminals of a
transformer, using a wide-band matched itlput oscilloscope (after Dakin, unpublished work).
output meter. This meter circuit charges a capacitor with each partial
discharge pulse through a resistor and rectifier, and the capacitor discharges
slower through another resistor. The meter thus reads an average voltage on
the capacitor. For a very high partial discharge pulse rate, the quasi-peak
reading approaches close to the true peak reading. For lower pulse rates, the
quasi-peak reading is less. The measured and calculated responses are shown
for various makes of RIV meters in Fig. 6.8. The ratio of the quasi-peak to
peak voltages both measured with a RIV meter can be estimated [23] from
Eq 6.13, for values less than unity
Vqp nT t~) (1 + T t2'~ (6.13)
where n is in pulses/second, tl and t2 are the RIV output meter detector

charging and discharging time constants, and T is 1/2 Af, the reciprocal of
twice the RIV meter random noise band width.
6.3.4 Location of Discharges in Transformers

If undesirable discharges are detected at one or more of the terminals of a
transformer, it is necessary to locate the discharges to be able to decide
whether they are in a critical area, or to be able to correct the possible faulty
condition that caused them. There are a number of electrical techniques
developed for doing this and they are discussed in the subsequent subsec-
tions. Also, there are sonic ranging and directional techniques for locating
the discharge sites. The sonic location techniques are covered in Chapter 10
of this book.
6.3.4.1 Use of Winding Attenuation to Locate Discharge Sites--The
magnitude of the pulses that are detected at the terminals of a transformer
are reduced if the discharges occur at a location closer to another part of the
winding or at another terminal or another connected or coupled winding (ex-
amples are another phase or a low-voltage winding). In using this technique,
measurements are initially made at as many terminals as are accessible
[15,24] (consistent with experience), and their pulse amplitude levels are
compared to determine at which terminal the calibrated signal is largest.
Presumably, the discharge site is closest to that terminal, unless the pulse
magnitude measurement is seriously altered by winding resonances close to
the measurement frequency. The latter is a particular problem with narrow-
band (RIV) meter measurements. For this reason, broad-band picocoulomb
pulse detectors are preferred for this type of location.
The attenuation of a pulse signal along the winding is most easily con-
sidered from the viewpoint of the capacitance coupled pulse [25]. The
capacitively coupled pulse is thefirst crest value that would be detected by a
very wide-band detector (for example, wide-band oscilloscope). As indicated
in Fig. 6.14, the initial crest value is best seen with the fastest sweep (0.1
#s/cm). It is later followed by a series of oscillations of various frequencies.
The attenuation of the fast capacitively coupled pulse can be understood by
assuming that the attenuation is due to a sequence of capacitance divider
steps, consisting of the shunt capacitance, Cp, from each section of the
transformer and the series capacitance, C,, between successive sections; this
is iUustrated in Fig. 6.1. The series inductance, which appears in parallel
along the winding with the series capacitance, has a relatively much higher
reactance than the capacitance, so it can be neglected in this analysis. The
attenuation on this basis can be analyzed by assuming it to be a transmission
line of series and shunt capacitor reactances
n Us
where V0 is the crest discharge pulse voltage at its location along the winding,
and n is the number of coil sections between that location and the terminal.
Vr is the pulse amplitude at the terminal. The ratio Vr/Vo can be measured
artificially by injecting a pulse to a coil edge at a location along the winding.
Such a measurement is illustrated in Fig. 6.15 (see Ref26). The signal was
measured with both a broad-band picocoulomb detector and a narrow-band
RIV detector. The much smoother attenuation curve measured with the
broad-band picocoulomb detector is obvious.
Harrold and Sletten [27] have used multiple measurements of the attenua-
tion at various frequencies and obtained average values. They have also
0
I
>
"U
o~
I
Z
C
0
.--t
m
m
r-
m
.-t
r-
"o
"u
-t
C
FIG. 6.14--Partial discharge pulse shapes resolved at different oscilloscope sweep speeds (Note that sweep is f r o m right to left-hand side) (after Dakin,
unpublished work). 0
I I I I I l I I I I I I 1 I I* ~ 104
IZlO
4OO
Oae~-t~ ~ 102
i~. l~)
40
CoilNumber
20 ql 1211 1231 l~51 I ~ l I~1 131l [331M
S F S F S F S F S ir S F S F S
Pointof PulseInjection
FIG. 6.IS--Pulse attenuation from discharge site to high-voltage bushing o f a shell form
transformer (after Moore et al [26]).
analyzed the transmission line analog of the transformer winding in more

detail, showing that, for a symmetric high-voltage winding with two ter-
minals, the ratio of the pulse voltage at the two-voltage terminals is
Vr' = exp I(N-- 2n) ~f-~p]

Vrz
(6.15)
or
log \Vr2/ cr -- 2n) (6.16)
where N is the total number of sections, and n is the section number between
the discharge location and Terminal 1. The variation in signal for various
locations along the winding is shown in Fig. 6.16 obtained from their paper
[27]. This illustrates the wide fluctuations in the magnitude signal detected
at the terminals from different narrow-band measurement frequencies.
These authors considered only the terminal reflections of the pulse signal in
their analysis, but there are also probably the internal reflection points,
which complicates the situation still further. Nevertheless, averaging the
40
30
20
!\
Ave rage
10
H X
I l
.z .4 6 .8 ;i1
Distance Along
-- -10
Transmission Line (JD
-Z0 U
-30
-40
F I G . 6,16--Average generator location prediction curve for a line with reflections (after
tIarrold and Sletten [ 2 7 [ ) .
values will certainly have the effect of smoothing out the fluctuations. A com-
parison of the averaged prediction location curve with curve using a wide-band
instrument shows it has somewhat the same effect as frequency averaging, as
is shown in Fig. 6.17 [28]. It is also possible to couple with a high-frequency
current transformer at one (low-voltage) terminal and capacitance coupling
at a second (high-voltage) terminal with either the wide-band detector or the
frequency averaged narrow-band detector, as shown in Fig. 6.18 [28]. Each
terminal must be calibrated separately as shown in Fig. 6.6. Calibrations are
always done with the transformer de-energized.
Injection of signals capacitively along a winding has been done with wind-
ings in air, prior to impregnation, with rather similar results to those
measured in oil as shown in Ref 25. This makes it possible to confirm ap-
proximately the attenuation and discharge location prior, or perhaps subse-
quent, to tests on the energized winding. Caution should be used in this case,
since the series to parallel capacitance ratio may vary with oil impregnation.
This technique should, however, be effective in determining effects of wind-
ing discontinuities by intermediate terminals or construction features. At the
same time, it should be emphasized that the technique can lead to quite am-
biguous results if there is more than one discharging source or sites in the
transformer. When there are two sources of different locations, one can be
closer to Terminal I while another could be closer to Terminal 2. In such cir-
cumstances, it is preferable to compare the pulse magnitudes at two ter-
minals with a dual-beam (not dual trace) oscilloscope using a slow sweep syn-
chronized to the power frequency. If there is a single source, all of the pulses
at one terminal over a power frequency cycle will have the same relative
20~ ,, I I I I I I
..~,~ ,Wideband l~kV Core Form

t ) ~-~,, / HISERCAP
~,~'t~ (in air)
9~ Frequency "~,
g~ o
-tO 9 ~ ~
Coil Number
-15 I I l I I I I "
H I0 20 30 40 50 60 X
Location ol DIs~:harge
FIG. 6.17--Comparison of frequency analysis and wide-band pulse peak detector to a

discharge within a transformer model (after Dakin [28]).
amplitude with respect to those at the other terminal. If there are two (or
more) sources, part of the pulses during a single cycle of power frequency will
have a different (higher or lower) relative amplitude than another group. By
careful adjustment of the gains of the oscilloscope or amplifier for each ter-
minal, the relative amplitude of coincident pulses from at least two, or
possibly three, sources can be compared. With a meter measurement (such
as RIV) without an oscilloscope differentiation, completely ambiguous
results would be obtained when there are two discharge sources, unless one of
the sources produces larger pulses at both terminals. In the latter case, cor-
rect results might be obtained for the one largest discharge site. Evidently,
the technique of location by pulse attenuation is of little value unless the
amount of attenuation from one terminal to the other is significant; this can
be easily checked by injecting a signal at one and detecting the level at
another terminal, before proceeding.
6.3.4.2 Use of the Traveling Wave Time Delay for Discharge Loca-
tion-The method for traveling wave time delay for the location of dis-
charged sites, proposed by Tangen [29] and studied by Thoeng [30],
Haraldsen et al [25], and other workers, has shown some value in certain
types of transformers, notably those with continuous low series capacitance
windings where the instant capacitively coupled signal is low, compared to a
peak signal that arrives later at the terminal. The effect as noted on an
I I 1 I
~ - Bushing Tap
Shell Form
- ~ Frequency Model _
O~nyysis tin air)
~l..Z 2O
._o -lO
Grounded Neutral
With Stoddart
Current Transformer
-20
Grounded Neutral
-30 I i I I raN" With ' B' Current
20 ~ 60 80 100 Transformer
Location of Discharge, percent of winding
F I G . 6.18--Comparison of frequency analysis and wide-band pulse peak detector to a

discharge within a transformer winding (after Dakin [ 2 8 ] ) .
oscilloscope is shown from tracings of oscillograms [30] in Fig. 6.19a for

discharges at varied distances from the transformer terminal. The delay time
is reported to increase linearly with distance or number of turns from the ter-
minal. In using the method, an oscilloscope with a dual beam is preferred,
with the signal from terminals at opposite ends of the winding coupled
simultaneously to the respective beams of a dual-beam oscilloscope. This is
illustrated in Fig. 6.19b by tracings of the oscilloscope pattern [30]. The dif-
ference in delay of arrival of the traveling wave at the two terminals appears
to be of the order of 8.5 #s in this case. Presumably, the delay time of the
whole winding can be measured by injecting a pulse at one terminal and
measuring at another.
Investigators who have tried the preceding method on windings with high
series capacitance have not been successful in distinguishing the traveling
waves, and it may thus not be useful in this application.
6.3. 4. 3 Location by Variation in the Applied Potential at the Discharge
Site, and Voltage Vector Analysis--The technique of varying the applied
potential at different ends of a winding to initiate discharges has already
been mentioned in connection with testing transformers by an applied
voltage test for the high-voltage winding that has two equal high-voltage
windings. With the applied voltage test, the voltage to ground or low-voltage
winding from every opposing part of the high-voltage winding can be made
10 [as
a. Discharges at different tappings; top to bottom

trace: 5, 3 and 1; detector at terminal (0).
bushing tap
lOps
b. Discharge at tapping 3; detector at terminal ( 0 ) :
upper trace; detector at terminal (12), bushing
tap: lower trace
FIG. 6.19--Tracings of oscillograms of traveling wave pulses from artificial discharges in a

transformer winding (after Thoeng [30]).
the same. Turn-to-turn discharges or section-to-section discharges would oc-

cur only in the induced test and can thereby be differentiated from
discharges due to stresses between the high-voltage winding and ground.
With an induced test having one terminal grounded, the other end would
have a high voltage to ground, and the center of the windings would have an
intermediate voltage to ground. Then the grounded terminal could be re-
versed. By judicious variation of the voltage in such testing, a discharge
source can be located.
The foregoing technique is even more powerful if the discharge inception
or offset voltage is consistently reproducible. The opportunities for varying
the potential to ground along the windings are greater with a three-phase
winding; this has been discussed in detail in a paper by Harrold [31]. With a
three-phase transformer having three high-voltage terminals, an applied
voltage test can be made, then an induced test with alternately grounded ter-
minals. This is particularly useful with delta windings. Details of varying the
induced and applied potentials at various parts of the windings are described
in Ref. 31. It is more precise if the partial discharge offset voltages are
reproducible. This condition can be confirmed by repeatedly varying the
voltage up and down through the detected discharge threshold voltage. Off-
set voltages are usually more reproducible. By determining the partial
discharge threshold voltage for two differently contrived voltage distributions

along the winding, as just described, the discharge site can be identified as
the high-voltage winding location where the potential to ground, or low
voltage, is the same with the two voltage distributions at the discharge
threshold voltage.
6.3.4.4 Location by Uniqueness of the Discharge Pulse Shape--The
oscillograms of Figs. 6.13 and 6.14 illustrate that the pulse shape as influ-
enced by the various winding resonances excited by different parts of the
winding are usually different for each location along the winding. It has been
suggested that this uniqueness can be used for location. To use this method,
it would be necessary to inject an artificial discharge pulse at various loca-
tions in the transformer until a pulse shape (and relative level) is obtained
similar to that observed from the actual discharge. This would probably in-
volve untanking the transformer to obtain access to the windings. A small
capacitively coupled calibration step voltage pulser might be used. While this
procedure is laborious, it may be worthwhile in the case of a very bothersome
discharge source, which must be located and eliminated.
6.4 Measurement of Discharges in Rotating Machine Insulation

High- and medium-voltage rotating machines are usually constructed with
a type of insulation that is resistant to partial discharges. The insulation is
usually micaceous (mica splittings or mica paper made from tiny mica flakes
impregnated and bonded with a resin). In higher voltage machines,
discharges outside the main insulation wall are avoided by coating the coils in
the slot portion with a conducting paint that is connected via a pressure con-
tact to the grounded slot iron. At the extremity of this conducting paint out-
side the end of the slots, a high-resistance semiconducting paint extension is
applied to grade the electric stress and avoid discharges at the edge of the
conducting paint. Conducting paints are not usually used on machines hav-
ing less than 6-kV rating; in such insulation structures, small discharges
usually exist at varying levels and are safely tolerated at the applied design
stresses.
For purposes of quality control and assurance that serious large discharges
do not exist, partial discharge tests are made, usually only on individual coils
rather than in the machine. These tests are not usually made, however, with
pulse discharge detectors but with capacitance and loss tangent bridges.
Since there may be many small discharges in this type of insulation,
discharge pulses will superimpose, and a measured pulse magnitude may not
be identified unambiguously with a layer discharge, since it may come from a
multiplicity of small discharges.
Smaller motors and machines usually operating at less than 1000 V, below
the discharge starting voltage, are not usually tested for partial discharges,
and there is little literature on the existence of such tests.
6.4.1 Measurement of Discharges in Machine Insulation with Loss Tangent

and Capacitance Bridges
The average or accumulated effect of all the discharges in a rotating
machine insulation can be related to the loss tangent and capacitance in-
crease with applied voltage. Discharges in electrical insulation cavities and
gaps occur usually in the first quadrant of voltage before crest voltage and ex-
tending down into the previous quadrant. Thus, they are partly in phase and
partly out of phase with the applied voltage, contributing both to the loss
tangent and the capacitance [32]. This relationship is analyzed in Ref. 32.
Curves of capacitance and tan ~ versus voltage from that reference are shown
in Figs. 6.20 and 6.21. These curves illustrate how the capacitance and tan
increase with applied voltage above the partial discharge onset voltage for a
specimen with a single large gas gap in series with the solid insulation.
Curves are shown for various air gap thicknesses. Examination of these
curves will indicate the principal features of the voltage dependence of the
capacitance and tan (5 due to discharges in internal cavities.
Below the discharge onset voltage, the C and tan (5 are constant with in-
creasing voltage. At the discharge onset voltage, both C and tan (5 start to in-
crease. The amount of this increase is greater with greater air gap thickness.
155 n
,NoGap
150 ~ -.-o--~,---o---,---o--~
~ ~ll2MilGap
o-'" - ' ~ 2.7

145 ~ ~ ~ 49
8
o_..a
r-.
135
I
"G
g- 130
3
125
120 l
115 .,c /
1100 4 8 I2 16 20 24 28
KV
FIG. 6.20--Capacitance versus applied voltage for various air gaps in series with a polystyrene
sheet (area 28.3 in. 2, thickness 107 mils) (after Dakin [32]).
CHAPTER 6 - - I N D U C T I V E ELECTRICAL APPARATUS 209
uo
17 Mil Gap
~10.?
~4.9
2.7
9 .8
1.3
0.5
0 Gap
4 8 12 16 20 24 28
KV
FIG. 6.21--Tan f versus applied voltage for various air gaps in series with a polystyrene sheet
(area 28.3 in. 21 thickness 107 mils) (after DaMn [32]).
Also, it should be noted that, below the discharge threshold voltage, the
capacitance is less due to the presence of the gas gap, which has a lower
dielectric constant than the solid, which it replaces. This effect is exag-
gerated in Fig. 6.21, since those measurements were made with a fixed solid
thickness and an increasing specimen thickness as the air gap was increased.
In a practical ease where the specimen thickness, d, would probably be fixed
and the amount of the gas gap, dg, increased (depending on the insulation
processing, etc.), the solid insulation thickness, d,, would decrease since dg
+ d, = d. When the gas gap is of equal thickness everywhere in the specimen
area, A, the capacitance of the specimen, below the discharge threshold
voltage, would be
Co-- C,Cg __ eoe,'A (6.17)

C, + Cg d, + dge,'
where e0 is the dielectric constant of a vacuum, and es' is the dielectric con-
stant of the solid. The equation applies strictly only for the case of a single
uniform gas gap, but it is also approximately correct for many small area
gaps, whose depth is small compared to the specimen thickness and are
distributed uniformly in the volume of the solid insulation. (See Ref 33

relating to this effect).
When discharges occur in the gas gap, they partially short-circuit the gap,
increasing the capacitance. Thus, at appreciable overvoltages above the
discharge threshold voltage, the capacitance approaches that of a specimen
without the gas gap, as is seen in Fig. 6.20. The specimen capacitance,
however, never quite reaches a level equal to that of a completely short-
circuited gap, even at the highest overvoltage. Above the threshold voltage
for discharges in all the gaps, the specimen capacitance behaves as if the
voltage across the gap remains constant, and the incremental rate of change
in charge, Q, on the specimen with increasing voltage is
dQ _ dC
d--V - - V d V = ( C, - - Co) (6.18)
where C, is the solid capacitance with gaps short-circuited, and Co is the low-
voltage capacitance, with no discharges occurring. The differential rate of
change of capacitance is dC/dV with voltage at the voltage level, V (above
the discharge threshold voltage).
The tan 6 increase (or tip up) with increase in voltage, as illustrated in Fig.
6.21, is also due to the individual discharges in phase with the applied
voltage as analyzed in Ref 32. The in-phase discharges contribute to dielec-
tric loss, and the tip up in loss tangent has been used more commonly in
quality control of generator insulation. As with the capacitance increase, the
tan 6 increase with voltage is related to the sum of the internal discharges per
cycle [32].
Capacitance and loss tangent measurements on machine insulation to
determine partial discharges are made with high-voltage bridges, as de-
scribed in the ASTM Measurement of Energy and Integrated Charge
Transfer Due to Partial Discharges (Corona) Using Bridge Techniques (D
3382-75). There are several varieties of these bridges, which commonly have
two adjacent arms connected to the high-voltage supply, consisting respec-
tively of the specimen to be tested and a high-voltage standard, usually low
loss, capacitor. In series with these arms respectively are two adjustable low-
voltage impedances to ground to balance the C and tan ~ values so that a zero
voltage difference is achieved between the junction points of the high- and
low-voltage arms.
In Europe, quality standards have been for generator insulation,
regulating the amount of tan ~ increase with voltage. In France, the EDF
(Electricit4 de France) state utility system desires a slope of tan /~ versus
voltage of less than 0.0025 per kV from 0.2 to 0.8 of normal rated voltage of
generator coil sections. Additional details about the limitation can be found
in 1969 EDF documents H103 and HNS1-E-01. (They also place a limit on
the quadratic rate level as measured by a pulse measuring meter where the
square of individual pulse magnitudes is taken and the resulting current

sums the pulses; this emphasizes the largest pulse amplitudes). In Germany,
VDE Standard 05307 gives a limitation of 0.005 for the difference in tan
between 0.6 and 0.2 of the rated voltage, U,. It also limits the Atan ~ per in-
terval of 0.2 U, to 0.005, in both cases for 95 percent of the coil sections.
Measurements of tan ~ and capacitance on generator or motor insulation
for high voltages are usually made, as the coil section is used, with a conduct-
ing paint over the coil insulation and with metal tape or conducting paint
guard rings at the end of the conducting paint electrodes. In some cases, the
guard ring electrode overlaps the measuring electrode with a thin insulating
film thereby isolating it from the low-voltage measuring electrode. In other
cases, it is butted close to, but not touching, the measuring electrode. The
most correct measurements are made with wide guard rings to avoid internal
tangential effects in the laminar insulation structure. This measuring system
largely avoids the effects of surface or external discharges, which are also
avoided in the higher voltage (usually about 6 kV or higher) machines. When
such methods are not used, and the low-voltage electrode is a machine slot or
a loose foil without guard rings, surface discharges (between the slot or foil
and the insulation wall and at the ends of these loose electrodes) affect the
results, and it is difficult to interpret correctly the condition of the solid in-
sulation wall.
Occasionally, other effects than discharges may cause changes in tan ~ and
C with voltage in the insulation. These include voltage dependent conduc-
tance. Also, in high-voltage machines, usually above 6 kV, a semiconducting
paint is applied over the surface of the coil insulation, extending from the
end of the low-resistance paint (in the stator slot) for some inches. This high-
resistance semiconducting paint grades the electric stress from the conduct-
ing paint edge, to avoid partial discharges there. The presence of this
semiconducting paint, which often has non-linear resistance characteristics,
prevents proper measurement of internal discharges with bridges, since the
paint also contributes to an increased C and tan/~ with voltage. Therefore, in
these machines, bridge measurements for corona discharge quality control
on coil sections must be made prior to the application of this high-resistance
paint. This also prevents satisfactory bridge measurments on assembled
machines, since the semiconducting paint is in place.
A particular type of bridge that presents a better indication of the
separated effects of internal partial discharges, especially for machine insula-
tion, is the capacitance bridge developed by Dakin and Malinaric [34]. In
this bridge, shown in Fig. 6.22, the low-voltage arms are primarily
capacitances, with only enough resistance to compensate the solid insulation
losses. In use, the bridge is balanced at low voltage, typically 1 kV, below the
discharge onset voltage, using a high-impedance input amplifier detector
7Determination of Losses and Performance, VDE Standard 0530, Part No. 2, Verein
Deutscher Elektrotechniker,196~.
Hi
Yoltaqe- i ImGt
# =~/mBSO
rapt9
9 " A--
Scope
ot
,--Dischorgmg
Per,o:s._..
FIG. 6.22--Capacitance bridge method for displaying the sum of partial discharges~cycle
(after Dakirt and Malinaric [34]).
display, with the horizontal sweep synchronized to the applied high-voltage

power frequency. At this low-voltage balance, the oscilloscope trace is a
horizontal line. As the applied voltage is raised slowly through the discharge
onset voltage, the display breaks into an approximate parallelogram with
horizontal top and bottom and stepped sloping sides as shown in Fig. 6.22.
The vertical height of the parallelogram, Q . . . . is proportional to the sum of
the discharge pulses each half cycle. The mean slope of the sides of the
parallelogram is proportional to dQ/dV or C,-- Co. Simons has published a
modified circuit, known as the discharge loss analyzer circuit, which presents
the same kind of oscilloscopic display [35]. Both the four capacitance arm
bridge and the discharge loss analyzer indicate, in addition to the sum of the
discharges per cycle, the watts loss per cycle due to all corona discharges.
The loss is proportional to the area of the (approximate) parallelogram
figure.
In these instruments, the Qmax or ~Oi for a cycle is calculated from the un-
balance voltage across C4, the capacitor in series with the specimen
~Qi : V4C4 - - C4Vsv

Asv (6.19)
where A,v is the vertical amplification factor for the oscilloscope display, and
V,v is the height of the parallelogram on the oscilloscope. The watts per cycle
is correspondingly
watts/cycle \ - - - ~ h / \ A,v / (6.20)

where Vpp is the peak-to-peak high voltage applied to the specimen, and
Vph/V~h is the ratio of the horizontal width (Vph) of the parallelogram to the
total horizontal sweep width (Vsh) on the oscilloscope.
The applicability of the foregoing technique at least up to a frequency of
several kilohertz has been verified, and it has been shown that the size of the
discharge parallelogram does not change with frequency from 60 Hz to
several kilohertz [32]. As the voltage is increased well above the partial
discharge threshold with many small discharge pulses, the vertical amplifier-
scope gain has to be reduced, and the evidence of the individual pulse steps
disappear into a continuous sloping line on the oscilloscope. An example
(photo reversed) of a series of parallelogram traces for a generator insulation
specimen at several voltage increments is shown in Fig. 6.23. Here it will be
seen that the sides of the parallelogram at different voltage levels blend
together. At the onset of discharges, in each cycle there is a short gradual
transition from the horizontal non-discharging period of the cycle to the
discharging period. This is due to the fact that there is a gradation of cavity
depths from greater to lesser, starting to discharge at different applied
FIG. 6.23--Charge-voltage oscillogram of discharges in a 13.8-k V generator insulation sam-

pie, sine wave sweep. (Top traces obtained at 5, 10, 15, a n d 2 0 k V root mean square; bottom
traces obtained at 5, 10. 15, 20, 25, and 30 k V root mean square) (after Dakhz and Malinaric
[34]).
voltages. As the sloping side becomes straight, only the number of discharges
per cycle in the same cavity sites is increasing.
6.4.2 Estimation of Total Cavity Volume from Bridge Measurements of

Discharges
In the previous section, it was shown that the parallelogram figure ob-
tained with the four capacitance arm bridge gave a measure of the difference
between the solid insulation capacitance (with cavities short-circuited), C,,
and the low-voltage capacitance without discharges, Co, as shown in Eq 6.18,
where dQ/dV is the sloping straight line portion (Fig. 6.23) side of the
parallelogram, which can be measured on the oscilloscope. Bennett has
developed a special circuit technique for simplifying this measurement [33].
Also, Eq 6.18 indicates that Cs -- Co can be obtained from the incremental
increase in capacitance with voltage (dC/dV)V, which can be measured on
other high-voltage bridges such as the Schering or transformer ratio arm
bridges). In this case, it is more difficult to visualize whether a sufficiently
high overvoltage has been reached such that the dQ/dV linear region has
been attained (see Fig. 6.23); however, graph of (dC/dV)V for several steps
of voltage would resolve the question.
When (C~ -- Co) is known, it has been shown [34] that the volume fraction
of the discharging cavities in the insulation can be calculated
volume of gas space _ (C, -- Co)

(6.21)
volume of solid r Co
Equation 6.21 assumes that the cavities collectively are equivalent to a single
gas gap extending over the whole area of the insulation. This simple assump-
tion has been shown to be fairly correct by a more detailed consideration of
different sized cavities [33]. Equations 6.18 and 6.21 furnish a much more
quantitative and useful relationship between the discharge effects measured
with bridges and the amount of internal cavity volume, than do the more
commonly used empirical tan 6 tip up quality control measurements.
6. 4. 3 Pulse Detector Measurements of Partial Discharges in Machine

Windings
In the introduction to Section 6.4 and in 6.4.1, it was pointed up that
pulse-type discharge detectors were less useful and discriminating in rotating
machine windings using micaceous insulation where some discharges are
usually tolerated. Superposition of many small partial discharge pulses can
simulate a larger pulse attenuation of pulses in a large winding and can
significantly reduce the original discharge level that reaches a measurement
terminal. Therefore, calibration of the winding attenuation for pulse

magnitudes is necessary to improve the accuracy of pulse magnitude inter-
pretation. This can be accomplished by capacitively coupling calibration
pulses at various winding locations in much the same way as with
transformers. There has been much less effort in this regard directed to
generators than to transformers, because of the multiplicity of small pulses in
generators and the reduced concern about their damage. Attempts to cor-
relate discharge levels to voltage endurance in micaceous generator insula-
tion have often been fruitless.
If pulse discharge measurements are to be made at generator and motor
winding terminals, it is best to sectionalize the winding as much as possible
and measure only parts of the winding at one time. The adopted procedure
will both reduce the attenuation and help isolate any undesirable large
discharges. In initial measurements of any winding, it will be instructive to
measure the attenuation of pulses from terminal to terminal, injecting a
capacitively coupled pulse at one terminal and detecting at another terminal.
Even such a measurement may be ambiguous, if there is a possibility of
direct capacitance coupling from terminal to terminal without transmission
through the winding. This could be the case, particularly with small
machines.
6.4.4 Electromagnetic Probe Measurement of Discharges in Large

Generator and Motor Stators
In large generators and motors, with fully insulated stator windings and
grounded iron slots, it is safe and convenient to energize the winding and
simultaneously use an inductively coupled detector probe across the slots of
the stator [36]. Capacitively coupled detector probes have also been used,
placed against the insulated coils usually outside the iron on the end turns
[37]. The latter is less safe and less accurate because of a difficulty in
reproducing the capacitance coupling. With such probes, the problems and
uncertainties of terminal measurements are reduced. The coupling to the
discharge site can be as close as one slot out of many. This reduces the
amount of superposition of many pulses and the amount of attenuation be-
tween the discharge site and the detector. As will be elaborated in the next
paragraphs, this technique can often isolate a larger defect to one coil in
one slot.
An inductively coupled probe is illustrated in Fig. 6.24. A soft iron finite-
core around which is wound a small pick-up winding is placed across the slot
iron. Either a narrow- or wide-band pulse detector-amplifier and quasi-peak
output meter is connected to the coil through a coaxial cable. Originally,
measurements have been made with a narrow-band radio noise meter tuned
to the resonant frequency of the coil and attached cable and detector
capacitance, and this works very well. The results of early tests with a
megahertz probe on an old water wheel generator are shown in Fig. 6.25. It is
obvious that slots with large discharge defects are clearly identified. Using
such a probe with an injected calibrating pulse, capacitively coupled with an
adhesive metal tape attached to the surface of an insulated coil on the end
turn of a turbine generator, the results of Fig. 6.26 were obtained. This
diagram shows quite clearly the way in which a pulse at one location goes
around and is attenuated in the winding, appearing with maximum intensity
at the closest slot, 28, and at next greatest intensity at Slot 10 when a con-
nected coil appears in the top of the slot. The pulse is also capacitively cou-
pled to the bottom coil of Slot 28 and appears with significant level where
Amplifier and
quasi peak meter
W! TOR
TION
ALTERNATE STR APE
OF EACH CONDU
ARE MICA INSUL
SO THAT NO T ) INSULATION
STRANDS TOU,
EACH OTHER LC BONDED MICA
AmPPLIE0 BY
~EFLY PROCESS
H CAMBRIC TAPE
:TOR
>ER
IG
FIG. 6.24--Partial discharge inductive pick-up detector probe for generator windings (after
Dakin et al [36]).
2OOO /' 1 ] J I
Failed DC Test
16(]0
1200
Failed in
Service
800
400
427 450 %v3 540 ).0 ~ 67

Slot Number - Top Coil Side Failed in
Service 10/62
F I G . 6 . 2 5 - - 5 MHz-corona probe tests on 38-year-old water wheel generator, 5 k V to ground

(after Dakin et al [36]).
SQ- Turbine End of Slot
9" , , , ~ _- ; ~ , ~ , . . . .
Center of Slot / ' ~
>o
u
100 Connection End of Slot \
023 21 19 17 15 13 11 9 7 5 3 1 35 33 31 29 Z'/ 25 23
Slot Number
"~ j,~ ,, to z
FIG, 6.26--Response o f 5. 6-MHz probe at indicated positions to pulse injected into end turn
o f top coil in Slot 28 in turbine generator (after Dakin et al [36]).
that coil is in the top of Slot 4. The diagram illustrates quite well the com-
plex, but logical, way in which individual discharge pu]ses spread through
the winding. It has been found, as might by expected, that lower frequency
components of the pulse spread through the winding with less attenuation,
and it is more difficult to isolate the origin of discharge sites with lower fre-
quency detectors. Detection frequency of about 5 MHz seems to work conve-

niently. Figure 6.26 also indicates that there can be significant attenuation
along a slot.
Inductive probes, illustrated in Fig. 6.24, with a half toroid core can be
conveniently constructed with a ferrite rod core, which may be more conve-
nient for use on different width slots. These probes are remarkably insen-
sitive to random electromagnetic noise and have been used without problems
in electrically noisy factories and generating stations. They can be calibrated
in picocoulombs by placing a small loop of wire in series with a calibrating
capacitor of 10 pF and a step-voltage pulser, within the arc of a half-toroid
and the probe. To simulate better the conditions in the application, the loop
of wire from the calibrator can be laid close along the top of a coil in a slot,
with the probe across the top of the slot.
A useful compact detector circuit has been suggested for use with such a
probe by L. E. Smith [38]; its schematic is shown in Fig. 6.27. The detector,
including a peak output meter, is housed in a hand-holdable box 4 by 65 by
2.5 in. The circuit has the characteristic of being very insensitive to occa-
sional random noise pulses, but reads at maximum proper amplitude with
pulses repeated at 10 pulses/second or more, independent of the pulse repeti-
tion rate. With only 3 pulses/second, the indicated quasi-peak reading is
down by a factor of more than 30, and with 1 pulse/second, the reading is
down by a factor of more than 1000. The meter output can be calibrated with
a picocoulomb calibrator. It is used with a probe coil and a coaxial cable
resonant at about 5 MHz. The amplifier detector itself has a wide band width
of 0.1 to 10 MHz, but acts like a tuned detector with the resonant cir-
cuit input.
6.5 Conclusion
In this chapter we have reviewed the various techniques available for co-
rona discharge measurement in transformers and rotating machine type in-
Flip Flap
Positive Pulse
~o,iti,eor , F I~ot l~ltby~ ~ ~-- to
NegativeInput | V~l. I ,I. Recorder
,nput Pre-amp 'wCIomparat

Ior 2": Transistor
Attenuator 26d8 tx20) I ~ Voltmeter
6aln I I CI Charge
Storage
To Capacitor
O$cllloscape
FIG. 6.27--Schematic diagram of peak pulse corona meter (after Smith [38]),
sulation systems. The subject matter dealing with these types of distributed
parameter systems was divided into two parts, namely, that relating to tests
on transformers and that to rotating machines, respectively. Thus in the case
of transformer specimens, a sizable section was devoted to the RIV measure-
ment techniques in view of their relegated historical importance; whereas
sections on rotating machine insulation necessarily involved the description
of bridge measurement techniques. Although routine type corona discharge
measurements are readily performed on transformer and machine coil in-
sulations, measurements requiring high accuracy are extremely difficult to
achieve due to the complexity of the distributed parameter structures of these
insulation systems.
References
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[2] Hall, H. C. and Russek, R. M., Proceedings, Institution of Electrical Engineers, Vol. 101,
1954, pg. 47.
[3] B6ttcher, C. J. F., Theory of Electric Polarization, Elsevier Publishing Co., Amsterdam,
1952, pp. 52-54.
[4] Dakin, T. W., Luxa, G., Oppermann, G., Vigreux, V., Wind, G., and Winkelnkemper,
H., Electra. No. 32, 1974, pp. 61-82.
[5] Bateman, H., Partial Differential Equations of Mathematical Physics, Cambridge Univer-
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[6] Eyring, C. F., Mackeown, S. S., and Millikan, R. A., Physical Review, Vol. 31, 1928,
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[7] Peek, F. W., Dielectric Phenomena in High Voltage Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1929.
[8] Dakin, T. W., Philofsky, H. M., and Devins, W. C., Transactions on Communications
and Electronics, American Institute of Electrical Engineers, Vol. 73, May 1954, pp.
155-162.
[9] Dakin, T. W., Proceedings, 7th Electrical Insulation Conference, Oct. 1967.
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[11] Dakin, T. W. and Lira, J., Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, American In-
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American Institute of Electrical Engineers, Vol. 76, Oct. 1957, pp. 797-802.
[17] Narbut, P., Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers, Vol. PAS-84, Aug. 1965, pp. 652-657.
[18] Brown, R. D., Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers, Vol. PAS-84, Aug. 1965, pp. 667-671.
[19] NEMA Publication TR1-Sec. 9.03, National Electrical Manufacturers Association, 1974.
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[21] Moskowitz, S. and Racker, J., Pulse Techniques, Prentice-Hall, Inc., New York, 1951;
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Publishers, Boston, 1965.
[22] Cowdell, R. D., Electronics, Sept. 2, 1968.
[23] Hylt~n-Cavallius, N., Proceedings, International Conference on Large High Tension Elec-
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[24] Gailhofer, C., Kury, H., Otterson, K., Robus, W., and Weinmann, T., Proceedings, In-
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[28] Dakin, T. W., Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers, Vol. PAS-89, Sept./Oct. 1970, pp. 1601-1602.
[29] Tangen, K. O., Electrotechnische Zeitschrift, Part A, Vol. 85, 1964, pg. 752.
[30] Thoeng, A. T., Proceedings, International Conference on Large High Tension Electric
Systems, Paper 12-02, Paris, 1968.
[31] Harrold, R. T., Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems. Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers, Vol. PAS-90, 1971, pp. 2339-2348.
[33] Bennett, A. I., 1974 Annual Report, Conference on Electrical Insulation and Dielectric
[34] Dakin, T. W. and Malinaric, P., Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. 79,
Oct. 1960, pp. 648-653.
[35] Simons, J. S., Proceedings, IEE Conference on Dielectric and Insulating Materials, April
1964; also, Proceedings, Institution of Electrical Engineers, Vol. 109A, Supplement 3,
1962, pp. 71-79.
[36] Dakin, T. W., Works, C. N., and Johnson, J. S., Transactions on Power Apparatus and
Systems, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Vol. PAS-88, March 1969, pp.
251-257.
[37] Starr, W. T., U.S. Patent No. 2,750,562, 1956.
[38] Smith, L. E., Minutes of the 37th Annual International Conference of Doble Clients,
Paper 37AIC70, April 1970.
STP669-EB/Feb. 1979
E . J. M c M a h o n 1
Corona Endurance Tests
7.1 Introduction
Shortly after the end of World War II, scientists and engineers started
to report on the mechanism of dielectric breakdown of solid organic insulat-
ing materials. During the first ten years, considerable effort was directed
toward the effects of corona (partial discharges) on the surface of candi-
date materials with little attention paid to internal degradation leading
to breakdown.
These early studies revealed the existence of a phenomenon, which we
now call electro-mechanical stress cracking. It might be more descrip-
tively termed corona-mechanical stress cracking. Effects of the ambient
surrounding the test electrodes on the corona intensities and resultant
degradation of the material being tested is of great importance. Test proce-
dures specifically designed to evaluate surface corona degradation will be
dealt with later in this chapter.
The mechanism of dielectric breakdown in solid insulation is extremely
complex. For this reason, one should review briefly the classical theory
of dielectric breakdown. This will provide background as to why some
researchers have abandoned uniform field electrode systems for this study
and are using sharp-pointed electrodes, which permit them to observe
the progressive development of channels referred to as trees or dendrites,
The practical organic insulating solid is polymeric in character, and
the individual building blocks are relatively large molecules rather than
atoms. This does not change the basic concept that all the components
are charged, and the distribution of the charge may be different. In some
instances, the center of gravity of the negative charges in a molecule may
be displaced permanently from the positive, and the molecule is said to
have a permanent dipole. In addition to the large molecules, there are
usually impurities, some of which are ions or are easily ionized due to the
1ExperimentalStation, E. I. duPontde Nemours& Co., Inc., Wilmington,Del. 19898.

Copyright*1979by ASTMlntcrnational www.astm.org

presence of loose electrons or charged heavier particles. In addition, there

are usually a few free electrons. Thus, the structure is not completely
homogenous throughout.
When such a solid is subjected to a dielectric strength test, force is
exerted on each charge in the structure. All of the charged components
are not equally well anchored, and failure takes place at the weakest point.
Typical failures are small channels pierced from one electrode to another,
and the channels are not necessarily straight. Thus, dielectric breakdown is
necessarily a weak-link phenomenon.
Much of the theoretical work on solid breakdown has revolved around
the intrinsic dielectric strength, which is the highest possible value that
can be attained by optimizing all of the test conditions. A great deal of
fundamental work has gone into studying the relationship between molecular
structure and breakdown in calculating theoretical values of dielectric
strength. It is important to point up that in basic engineering practice, the
conditions are such that the intrinsic dielectric strength of a solid is rarely,
if ever, reached. It is possible, to start an intrinsic dielectric breakdown in
the laboratory using extremely sharp-pointed imbedded electrodes sub-
jected to a high-voltage stress, with the result that a short hollow channel is
produced that contains gaseous decomposition products. The stress en-
hancement exists only at the point, and the mechanism of failure then
becomes one of corona degradation resulting from ionization of the gases
in the initiating channel. This chapter describes some of the practical
work on treeing and the accompanying corona discharge process published
by world-wide researchers in this field. Laboratory procedures are de-
scribed for studying electrical treeing using blocks of electrical insulation
with sharp-pointed embedded electrodes.
7.2 Surface Corona Effects
7.2.1 Indirect Electrodes

Over the years, experimenters have devised many test procedures to
study the effects of corona on the surface of insulating materials.
One early approach was to use indirect electrodes, which do not contact
the specimen surfaces. One such cell, often referred to as the French Cell,
due to its origin in France, uses two flat rectangular pieces of glass sepa-
rated around their edges by a flat gasket thicker than the test specimen.
The specimen is placed within the confines of the gasket, and the two
glass plates on each side are clamped together using any means available.
Metal foil electrodes covering only half the area of the glass plates are
placed on the outside surfaces of the cell opposite each other in such a
fashion as to cover only one half of the specimen. The electrodes can
be held to the glass surfaces using a very thin layer of petroleum jelly.
AASTM
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CHAPTER 7--CORONA ENDURANCE TESTS 223
the electrodes. Voltage and exposure time sufficient to develop degradation

on the specimen is determined experimentally.
Another approach is to use coaxial cylinders. For example, choose
two test tubes where one fits inside the other leaving a space between the
outside diameter of the small tube and the inside diameter of the large
tube with sufficient clearance to loosely hold the specimen. An aqueous
solution of sodium chloride poured into the inner tube serves as one elec-
trode and metal foil covering one half of the outside wall of the large
tube is used as the second electrode. When an a-c potential high enough to
generate visible corona is reached, results similar to the flat cell are ob-
tained.
The indirect electrode test methods provide a comparative method for
rating two or more materials of equal thickness when tested under identical
conditions to their resistance to corona and ozone (area under the elec-
trodes) and ozone alone (area beyond the electrode, but in the confines
of the cell). It is more appropriate for rubber insulation, where ozone
cracking or cutting is a problem, rather than for plastic compositions.
The indirect electrode tests do not produce a clear end point. For exam-
ple, dielectric breakdown does not occur because of the high impedance
created by the glass insulating barriers. The amount of degradation is
usually determined by performing physical tests after a predetermined
exposure period. The usual procedure is to measure the tensile strength
or porosity of the tested specimens or both and to compare these data with
measurements of the same properties on unexposed controls.
7.Z2 Direct Contacting Electrodes

The most often used electrode system in the United States, Canada, and
abroad is the direct contacting electrode system. Here the electrode size,
shape, weight, etc., all effect the test results.
Since both dielectric strength and corona are greatly affected by elec-
trode arrangement, we prefer to adopt the configuration shown in Fig. 7.1.
This apparatus is specifically designed for measuring the effect of corona
on thin, approximately 0.25-mm thick, films of organic insulating mate-
rials. The lower electrode is a stainless steel plate. The upper electrodes
consist of 12.5-mm diameter steel cylinders with a flat face having a 1.5-mm
radii edge weighted at 90 g. The specimen holder has five such electrodes
separated by 50 mm on a common plate; there are ten specimen positions
in two holders for each test.
With the foregoing electrode arrangement, corona appears at the periph-
ery of the upper electrode beginning under the edge of the electrode where
the 1.5-mm radii edge departs from the surface of the sample and extend-
ing out typically about 6 mm for a stress of 8 kV/mm. Essentially, no
corona occurs under the flat portion of the electrode.
High
Copyright by ASTM voltage
Int'l (all is provided
rights reserved); from
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EDT 2017
FIG. 7.1--Electrodeassembly.
tribution transformer, and the voltage is controlled by an autotransformer

in the low-voltage side. As each specimen fails, it is automatically dis-
connected and the time of failure recorded. OsciUograms show that failure
of one specimen in a group reduces the voltage on the other specimens for
only a few cycles of the line frequency, and the test voltage is rapidly re-
applied without overshooting. Ten specimens are tested simultaneously;
the time required for the fifth specimen failure (F 5/10) to occur is used in
plotting voltage-time curves. The facilities are designed for testing at room
and elevated temperatures, in liquids, in vacuum, and in gases.
7.2.3 Electro-Mechanical Stress Cracking (Low-Density, High Molecular

Weight Polyethylene)
Insulation is often subjected to a mechanical stress in addition to the
electrical stress. This is particularly true in high-voltage cable applications
where the cable may be bent sharply, or mechanical stresses may be intro-
duced in the insulation when three-phase cables are twisted during con-
struction. Corona cutting has been observed on rubber insulation when it
is subjected to corona discharges. The resultant cracking is accelerated
when the rubber is elongated. The damage, in the case of rubber, is a
function of ozone degradation, a reaction involving oxidation of the rubber
molecule. We shall be concerned in this discussion with electrical grade,
low-density, high molecular weight polyethylene resins, nonpolar plastics
that do not fail by the same mechanism as rubber.
Previously, we had loosely defined corona as a luminous discharge.
In this discussion, corona is more specifically defined as any electrically-

detectable, field-intensified ionization that does not result immediately in
complete breakdown of the insulation-electrode system in which it occurs.
7.2.3.1 Experiments and Results (Original Experiments)--Measure-
merits to determine if there is an effect of combined mechanical and elec-
trical stresses were made on covered wire specimens wrapped on mandrels
by McMahon and Perkins [1]. 2 The mandrels (Fig. 7.2) were 4.7-mm-
diameter stainless steel rods approximately 15 cm long. Small electric stress
bells were wound of plastic insulating tape leaving a 40-mm-long section
of uncovered steel on which to wrap the wire. Six mandrels were prepared
and wrapped with 12 turns of No. 14 wire covered with polyethylene insula-
tion having a wall thickness of 1.0 mm. Three of the wrapped mandrel
samples were exposed to an average electric stress of 8 k V / m m by applying
8-kV ac between the mandrel and the conductor. Corona was visible about
the coils. The other three wrapped mandrels were not electrified but were
stored nearby in the laboratory. The failures of the electrified specimens
took place in 18, 26, and 27 h. The damage was on the outside of the
coils approximately at the point of greatest tension, not next to the man-
drel that was the shortest path, as shown in Fig. 7.3. The three mandrels
that were not exposed to the electrical stress, but had been under mechani-
cal stress for one week (170 h), showed no cracking.
For comparison, straight lengths of the same polyethylene-covered wire
were loosely wrapped with tin foil to form an outer electrode. The same
electric stress of 8 k V / m m was applied. The test was disconnected when
no failures had occurred at 100 h, compared with 18, 26, and 27 h for the
mechanically stressed samples. This experiment was repeated many times
with substantially the same results. Thus, a preliminary proof of electro-
mechanical stress cracking in polyethylene under the influence of corona
was obtained.
7.2.3.2 Effects of Mechanical Stress Relaxation--The effect of
mechanical stress relaxation of the insulation on copper wire was investigated
by wrapping 20 mandrels as previously described. Ten of these mandrels
were immediately subjected to an electric stress of 8 kV/mm. The remaining
ten wrapped mandrels were held at room temperature 200 h before being
electrified. The results in Fig. 7.4 show that the time to failure was longer for
the specimens for which the insulating polyethylene was permitted to relax
mechanically. For the latter specimens, part of the mechanical stress had
been relieved.
7.2.3.3 Measurements on Films--In a mandrel test, it is very difficult to
measure the amount of elongation that a wire covering is subjected to when it
is bent, since the forces may be triaxial. Furthermore, the amount of elonga-
tion varies throughout the cross section of the wire covering, and the elec-
FIG. 7.2--Mandrel wrapped sample.
/FAILURE
/
STRESS
BELL 9 MANDREL
FIG. 7.3--Cross section of a typical failure.
trode geometry is complex. Polyethylene films can be prepared and strained

in such a fashion that the mechanical stresses are nearly uniaxial and
reasonably constant throughout the cross section of the sample.
A direct electrode method for corona degradation measurements on in-
sulating materials is described in the ASTM Test for Voltage Endurance of
Solid Electrical Insulating Materials Subjected to Partial Discharges (Co-
rona) on the Surface (D 2275-75). The method uses a rod-to-plane electrode
system. The flat plate electrode used for the ASTM study can be modified.
Clamps are provided so that the film can be elongated and secured under
stress for the duration of the test. Figure 7.5 shows the modified electrode.
The film, 2 in. wide and 14 in. long, is first secured by Clamp A and passed
through Clamp B, which is loose. The assembly is placed in a stretching rack
(see Fig. 7.6) in which the film is elongated slowly (1 in./min) and uniformly.
The amount of strain and the elongation in the film are recorded. The film
thickness is measured between the electrode and the strain cell grip and
Clamp B is tightened before the film is released from the grip. This thickness
has been found to be identical to the thickness of the film on the electrode. In
8~
IMMEDIAT~
TESTED
I I I I I 1 I 1
r
~' HELD FOR 200
[ HOURSBEFORE
~6- (~ BEING
ELECTRIFIED
~5
UJ
y
~4
~J
co3
I
I _t . . . . . 1 I I J___l I ,
10 20 50 40 50 60 70 80 90
HOURS TO FAILURE
F I G . 7 . 4 - - E f f e c t of m e c h a n i c a l stress relaxation. ( The measurements were made with an
electric s t r e s s o f 8 0 0 0 V / m m ).
FIG. 7.S--High-voltage c o r o n a t e s t electrode.
calculating the electric stress in kilovolts per millimetre, the thickness of the
elongated film is used.
The current that flows at the time of failure is limited to 40 mA by a
limiting resistance network so that a large hole is not made in the sample
when a test point fails. Large holes would relieve the mechanical stress on the
film. An individual fusing system (see Fig. 7.7) disconnects each individual
test point automatically at the time of its failure. Current flowing from the
electrode at the instant of failure passes through the voltage dropping
resistance to the fuse wire. This causes a voltage difference between the chisel
FIG. 7.6--Stretch rack.
point and the fuse wire that gives rise to an arc, burning the fuse wire that is
under tension. Before the fuse wire parts, however, current passes to ground
through the relay that sends a pulse to a strip-chart recorder to mark the time
of the failure.
7.2.3.4 Quantitative Effects of Mechanical Elongation--To determine
quantitatively the effect of different amounts of mechanical elongation on
polyethylene resins, measurements were made on films under an electric
stress of 8 k V / m m with 0, 15, 30, 50, and 65 percent elongation. Figure 7.8
shows that mechanical strain has a profound effect on the life of polyethylene
exposed to a mild corona discharge. The samples with higher elongation had
the shorter corona life. The corona energy in these experiments is low, the
applied voltage being approximately 2.4 k V / m m above corona ignition
voltage. The experiment was repeated many times.
7.2.3.5 Method of Expressing Results--Because of the great amount of
numerical data accumulated, a convenient method is needed for compressing
PAPERGAP
PROTECTIVE
~ j SPACER
es,szo --
DROPPING %~ ~/~ ~ r---
FROMLOW SIDEIE~ 6 ~ [~E
CHISEL/ ~) F--
POINT /
/
/. FOSEW,RE
ALII
_~ RELAYB " - - ~ I---
FIG. 7.7--Fuse disconnect system.

WE,GHT E 1
9
I 65% Elongation / 50% Elongation
87 f / / 30% Elongation
6 15% Elon "
8g 4
g
2
1
l I I I I I I I I I l 1
10 20 40 60 80 100 200 400
Hoursto Failure
FIG. 7.8--Quantitative effects o f electro-mechanical stress cracking. (Electric stress 8000
V / m m ).
it. The time of the fifth failure out of ten specimens appears to be the most
meaningful number to report. The expression, F (5/10) h, is used to
designate this quantity that is defined as the time in hours required for the
fifth failure to take place when ten points on a sample are exposed
simultaneously. Considerable time is saved by stopping the test after failure
of the fifth specimen of the ten areas exposed.
7. 2. 3. 6 Effect of Stress Annealing--The early measurements on the man-
drel samples indicated that the life of samples was increased when some
mechanical stress relaxation had taken place. A series of measurements were

made on samples that were annealed after they had been mechanically
stressed. The samples were mounted on the lower electrodes and clamped
when elongated 50 percent. One half of the electrodes and samples were
placed in an oven for 150 h at 70~ The results are shown in Table 7.1. The
samples that were relaxed mechanically through this heat treatment ex-
hibited the longer corona life.
A practical implication of this data is that the deleterious mechanical
stresses in cables due to manufacturing operations or flexing during installa-
tion can be relieved by heat. A practical way to relieve these strains is under
resistive heat loss in the conductor.
Z2.3. 7 E f f e c t o f A i r and Nitrogen on Corona L ~ e - - M e a s u r e m e n t s of
electro-mechanical stress cracking were made on many different polyethylene
compositions at room temperature in both an air atmosphere at approx-
imately 50 percent relative humidity and a nitrogen environment at atmo-
spheric pressure. Typical results are reported in Table 7.2. The measure-
ments made under an atmosphere of air always display a shorter corona
life than those measured under nitrogen. In all tests that were run in air,
regardless of mechanical strain, a white ring was observed on the film
around the discharge. Many samples tested were examined under an optical
microscope. Figure 7.9 shows a typical sample ( 5 magnification) measured
in air. The area affected by the corona discharges appears as an oval,
because the film has been removed from the clamps of the lower electrode
and has been allowed to relax. Figure 7.10 is a view of the same sample but
with a magnification of 200 diameters. Crystals were found to be present on
the surface of all films measured in air under standard laboratory conditions.
Infrared analysis of these crystals indicated that they were oxalic acid. In ad-
dition to the crystals, there are some cracks, which always appear at right
angles to the direction of elongation. It is of interest to note that S. I.
Reynolds of General Electric reported at the 1957 Conference on Electrical
Insulation and Dielectric Phenomena that he found oxalic acid crystals on
the inside surfaces of voids in polyethylene, which had been subjected to suf-
ficient voltage to cause internal corona discharges.
Figure 7.11 is a view at 5 magnification of the same material subjected
TABLE 7.1--Effect of stress annealing at 8 k V/mm with 50 percent initial elongation.
Material Treatment Failure, F (5/10) h

Polyethylene A Tested as received 36.6
Polyethylene A Stress relievedby annealing 61A No failures stopped at 400 h
days at 70~
Polyethylene B Tested as received 39.0
Polyethylene B Stress relieved as for Polyethyl- No failures stopped at 400 h
erie A
TABLE 7.2--Effect o f carbon dioxide, air, and nitrogen at atmospheric

pressure on electro-mechanical stress cracking branched polyethylene resin
with a mechanical elongation o f SO percent and an electric stress o f 8 k V/mm.
F (5/10) h
Specimen Condition CO2 Air N2
Dry 3.1 9 113

Wet 447 155 >> 500
FIG. 7.9--Surface o f polyethylene exposed to corona in air; standard laboratory conditions

( X 5 magnification).
to corona in a nitrogen atmosphere. This oval is smooth in appearance and

does not show the crystals that are observed in the air test specimen. Figure
7.12 represents a 200-diameter magnification view of the hazy area observed
in Fig. 7.11. There are no crystals apparent. There are, however, many very
fine surface cracks extending transversely to the direction of mechanical
stress. The mechanism of the failures under nitrogen is not yet completely
understood.
7.2.3.8 Effect of Water Vapor--Modifications were made to the test cham-
ber so that moist or dry air could be maintained over the electrode areas (see
Fig. 7.13). Scrubbing towers filled with water were used to moisten the air
that passed through the test chambers. The electrode systems were enclosed
FIG. 7. lO--Surface of polyethylene exposed to corona in air; standard laboratory conditions

( 200 magnification ).
FIG. 7.11--Surface of polyethylene exposed to corona in dry nitrogen ( 5 magnification ).
after water was poured on the floor of the box. A similar system was used to
obtain dry air using calcium carbonate in place of the water. Several
measurements were made on polyethylene in low (5 percent) and high (95
percent) relative humidity. The results, along with the data obtained at the
intermediate conditions, are plotted in Fig. 7.14.
FIG. 7.12--Surface o f polyethylene exposed to corona in dry nitrogen ( X 200 magnification ).
FIG. 7.13--Corona test chamber modified to permit testing in a water saturate atmosphere.
200
IOO
~ 80
U.
6O
U.
~ 20
IO
8
I I L i 5~ t 7tO t I
tO 20 30 4 0 0 60 80 90
% RELATIVE HUMIDITY
FIG. 7.14--Effect o f humidity on corona life o f polyethylene. ( The measurements were made
with an electric stress o f SO00 V / m m and at a mechanical elongation o f SO percent ).
An optical microscopic study was made of the surfaces of these films in the
corona discharge bombarded area. Figures 7.15 and 7.16 show photomicro-
graphs of the surface of the sample that failed in dry air. The sample failed
by surface cracking, the cracks being perpendicular to the direction of
elongation. There is no evidence of oxalic acid. Figures 7.17 and 7.18 show
samples tested under a relative humidity of about 20 percent. Both cracks
and oxalic acid crystals are observed. The oxalic acid crystals, however, are
quite small and many liquid droplets appear. Figures 7.19 and 7.20 are pic-
tures of samples that were measured at 50 percent relative humidity. Both
cracks and oxalic acid are observed. The cracks are larger than those shown
in the sample under corona at 50 percent relative humidity.
The fifth failure for the sample that had been exposed to a wet air (approx-
imately 95 percent relative humidity) atmosphere was 155 h. Figures 7.21
and 7.22 are photomicrographs of the surface of the film. Minute cracks that
were observed while the film was under tension are now hidden by wrinkles
on the top surface. The surface resistivity of the area affected by the corona
discharges ranged from 106 (wet surface) to 10H (dry surface) ohms per
square compared to 10 ~s ohms per square for the area not exposed to corona
discharges. The value of dissipation factor in the area of corona discharge
bombardment was determined to be less than 0.0001 at 1 kHz, indicating lit-
tle or no volume effect.
FIG. 7.15--Surface of polyethylene exposed to corona in dry air ( magnification).
7.2. 3. 9 E f f e c t o f Carbon Dioxide at A t m o s p h e r i c P r e s s u r e - - T h e results of

measurements of polyethylene in carbon dioxide at atmospheric pressure are
given in Table 7.2. The shorter life for the resin in dry carbon dioxide may be
attributed to the higher corona intensity obtained in this gas than for
nitrogen or air at the same voltage stress. The intermediate value obtained
FIG. 7.16--Surface of polyethylene exposed to corona in dry air (X 250 magnification ).

FIG. 7.17--Surface o f polyethylene exposed to corona in air at 20 percent relative humidity


( X 350 magnification ).


FIG, 7.21--Surface o f polyethylene exposed to corona in air at 95 percent relative humidity


for wet carbon dioxide may be the result of the formation of carbonic acid on
the surface of the film providing a protective semiconductive layer.
7.2.3.10 Voltage Endurance Testing Under Oil--Electro-mechanical
stress-crack measurements were made on polyethylene submerged in a Dow-
Coming silicone fluid having a dielectric constant 2.2 to study the effect of an
TABLE 7.3--Electro-mechanical stress cracking of branched poly-

ethylene resin for a film thickness of O.011 in. with an elongation of 50
percent under an electrode weight of 90. 0 g. a
Electrical Stress,
kV/mm Exposure Period, h Failures
16 504 None
24 504 None
32 500 None
40 500 None
48 3000+ None
aTested Under Dow Coming 200 fluid (2 cSt).
electrical stress in the absence of corona discharges. An initial voltage of 16

k V / m m was applied to the sample, which was elongated by 50 percent. The
results of this experiment are shown in Table 7.3. No failures were observed
at 16 k V / m m after an exposure of 500 h. The voltage was increased to 24
k V / m m , and every 500 h thereafter an increase of an additional 8 k V / m m
was made until 48 k V / m m (limit of the equipment) was obtained. Exposure
time has exceeded 3000 h at 48 k V / m m .
7.2.3.11 E f f e c t o f A n t i o x i d a n t - - T h e use of an antioxidant does not ap-
pear to improve the electro-mechanical stress crack resistance of poly-
ethylene resins. Samples of several base resins did not have significantly
different corona life when 0.1 percent of a conventional antioxidant such
as Santonox 3 (4,4' thio-bis(6-t-butyl-m-cresol) or JZF 4 (N,N'-diphenyl
p-phenylene diamine) was added.
7.2.4 Control o f I m p o r t a n t Test Variables

In measuring electro-mechanical stress properties of polyethylene films,
careful control of the electrode weight, test voltages, humidity, and
temperature are extremely important. All the samples must be of the same
thickness and the surfaces must be clean.
7.2.4.1 E f f e c t o f Electrode W e i g h t - - T h e upper electrode must make in-
timate contact with the film. If the electrode is too light, only a portion of its
surface makes contact with the film and the area exposed to corona bom-
bardment is not reproducible. In early experiments, an electrode that had a
total weight of 42 g was used. When this weight was found to be insufficient,
a 90-g electrode was adopted and has been found to be quite satisfactory.
The force is great enough to provide intimate contact without causing the
electrode to dent the surface of the film.
7.2.4.2 E f f e c t o f Electrode M e t a l s - - A l l direct electrode measurements
discussed in this study were made using electrodes of Type 410 stainless steel.
aTradename of the Hercules Chemical Co.
4Tradename of the Uniroyal Chemical Co.
A series of experiments were made to evaluate the effect on the corona life of
polyethylene for electrodes fabricated from other metals. Copper electrodes
showed the greatest difference from those of stainless steel. Preliminary
measurements in an atmosphere of wet air at 95 percent relative humidity
showed an increase in corona life from F (5/10) = 137 h for the stainless steel
electrodes to 217 h for the copper electrodes. A heavy deposit of black copper
oxide covered the latter electrode at the end of the test. The copper may
catalyze the oxidation reaction on the surface of the polymer, thus assisting
the formation of a protective semiconductive surface.
7.2.4.3 Effect of Voltage Variation--Supply voltage variation can be a
serious problem. The effect of voltage variation was studied by simulta-
neously exposing four identical samples to different voltages. It was found as
illustrated in Fig. 7.23 that a 10 to 15 percent decrease in voltage results in
about a 50 percent increase in life.
7.2.4.4 Need for Temperature and Humidity Control--The humidity of
the atmosphere in the corona life test chamber must be carefully controlled
for the reasons indicated in detail previously. It is well to record the humidity
and test temperature continuously. It is worthwhile to note that most
laboratory tests are conducted at 23 ~ and 50 percent relative humidity.
7.2. 4. 5 Preparation of Specimens--Careful specimen preparation is very
important. The width and thickness of the film should be the same for all
I I I I I I I I I
90
80
70
60
~: 50
~ 40
~ 30
0
LIED V/mm
20 - 9 7640 -~
o 8000 /
8360
9 8720
_ ~ ...... 9 __1 _ 1 ~___1__ I I I

10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
SEQUENCE OF FAILURES
FIG. 7 . 2 3 - - E f f e c t o f v a r i a b l e voltage on c o r o n a life o f p o l y e t h y l e n e . The measurements were
made with a mechanical elongation of 50 percent.
specimens tested. The rate of elongation must be low, for example at 1

in./min, and the amount of elongation must be accurately determined. A
load cell and recorder are used with the stretching device to record the stress
imparted to the film. Electrodes must be carefully cleaned and polished after
each test to free them from pits or burrs.
7.2.4.6 Cleaning of Specimens--The method of cleaning the specimen
before the test can definitely affect the corona life. For example, cleaning
polyethylene with methyl alcohol increases the corona life. Cleaning with
distilled water will also increase life slightly. Often, specimens are not
cleaned, but are used just as formed by extrusion. In such circumstances, it
is important that they should be protected to keep the surfaces free from
dust.
7.2. 5 Corona Studies on Polytetrafluoroethylene Resins (PTFE)

7.2.5.1 Experimental Results--Test results using PTFE are summarized
in a voltage-time curve shown in Fig. 7.24. The data were obtained in air at
room temperature (23 ~ and at a relative humidity of S0 percent. This curve
contains two distinct parts. Initially, the curve drops rapidly, followed by a
plateau at 66 kV/mm. Next, another steep drop approaching asymptotically a
8-kV/mm level where the sample appears to have an indefinitely long life.
The causes of the first steep drop in the voltage-time curve are not discussed
in this chapter, since the process is not directly related to the surface
discharge. The phenomenon causing the second steep drop in the voltage-
96 I I I I I
8O
48
~ 3Z
16
I I I I I
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 I000

HOURS TO FAILURE (F 5/10)
FIG. 7.24--Dielectriclife of polytetrafluoroethylene resin (PTFE).
time curve was found to be a relatively simple one. It was merely a result of
the bombardment of the surface by high-energy particles that caused a
mechanical erosion of the surface culminating in electrical failure of the
dielectric. The failure mechanism does not include oxidation or any other
chemical process or effects due to ultraviolet radiation.
A typical view of a surface damaged by corona discharges is shown in Fig.
7.25. The dark area in the center of the white circle was directly under the
electrode where no corona existed. Practically no corona damage is evident
under the electrode; nor is the surface of the specimen damaged beyond the
periphery of the electrode that was outside the corona field. Figure 7.26 is a
magnified edge view of Section MM in Fig. 7.25, showing the deeply eroded
region under the periphery of the electrode.
Z2.5.2 Verification of Failure Mechanism--If the second steep drop in
the voltage-time curve was caused by corona discharges, as had been postu-
lated, elimination of the corona discharges would prevent the occurrence of
the second dip in the curve. Figure 7.27 shows the voltage-time curve deter-
mined for specimens maintained in a vacuum. The curve drops rapidly in-
itially, asymptotically approaching a voltage gradient of 66 k V / m m . Below
66 k V / m m , life is indefinitely long. Within the limits of accuracy of the
measurements, essentially the same results were obtained when the corona
discharges were eliminated by immersing the samples in oil.
FIG. 7.2S--Erosion caused by corona bombardment on P T F E surface.

FIG. 7.26--Cross section through section M M of Fig. 7.25.
96~ , I I I
IN OIL OR VACUUMWITHOUT CORONA
r~
48 "-.
cf) 9
32 9
IN AIR WITH CORONA

16
0 I I I t I
0.001 0.01 0.I I I0 I00 1000
HOURSTO FAILURE(F 5/10)
FIG. 7.27--Dielectric life of PTFE in absence of corona.
To further verify the previous conclusion, the samples were subjected to

higher intensity of corona. This was accomplished by decreasing the air
pressure during the test. As shown in Fig. 7.28, the lower part of the voltage-
time curve was sensitive to corona discharge intensity, further substantiating
the original hypothesis. Not only was the life decreased at each voltage by in-
creased corona discharge intensity, but the second low asymptotic value was
made still lower because of the lower corona starting voltage.
After correlating the second drop in the voltage-time curve with the corona
discharge activity, a further study was made to determine what actually
96 I I I I I
80
48
REDUCED MOSPHERI
PRESSURE~~ PRESSURE
C
m 32
16
I I I I I
0
0.001 0.01 0.l 1 10 100 I000
HOURS TO FAILURE(FS/10)
FIG. 7.28--Dielectric life o f PTF]Z in corona (effect o f air pressure).
caused the breakdown. The mechanism of failure in many insulating

materials has been attributed to a rapid oxidation by ozone formed by the
corona discharge. Ozone was eliminated by performing the tests in the inert
gases, nitrogen and argon. The results, as shown in Fig. 7.29, agree
reasonably well with the original results.
Z2. 5. 3 Effect of Mechanical Strain--Since cable insulation is always sub-
jected to varying degrees of mechanical strain, the life of trifluoroethylene
resins was determined at a fixed electrical field intensity and a varying tensile
strain at a relative humidity of 50 percent. The results are shown in Fig. 7.30.
The life of a polyethylene resin, tested under the same conditions, has been
plotted for comparison. When a strain of about 20 percent is imposed on the
test specimen, as occurs frequently in practical installations, the life of the
polyethylene resin decreases by more than an entire order of magnitude; the
life of the PTFE resin, however, does not exhibit such a decline.
The reduction of life due to corona discharges with mechanical elongation
for the polyethylene resin is explained by a phenomenon referred to in
previous work as corona-mechanical stress cracking (see ASTM D 2275-75).
No evidence of corona-mechanical stress cracking has been found in tri-
fluoroethylene resins.
7.2.5.4 Effect of Humidity--To determine whether humidity influenced
the corona degradation process, the preceding corona-mechanical stress
crack tests were repeated in dry air, and the results are shown in Fig. 7.31.
While the lower relative humidity had no appreciable effect on the life of
fluorocarbon resins, the life of the polyethylene resins was significantly
961 , , , , ,
80
E
E
~ 64
NITROGEN~IR
16 ARGON~~,=.
I I I I I
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 I0 I00 I000

HOURS TO FAILURE(F5/IO)
FIG. 7.29--Dieleetric life o f P T F E in corona (effect o f inert gases ).
'~176176 ' ' ' ' ' 1

_~~176\ ~ Z ~27~;~~176176
~ ~ ~ THICKNESS-O.OI2"
~ s 0 ~
o
= POLYETHYLENE
10 I I I I I I
10 20 30 40 50 60
PERCENTELONGATION
FIG. 7.30--Effect o f elongation on corona life at 50percent relative humidity (comparison o f
P T F E to polyethylene).
1000I I I I I I I
5oo ELECTRIC STRESS-8000 V/mm

NOMINAL SAMPLE
SS-0.012"
I.x_
PTFE
_J
100
0
I---
oo 50
"T-
, , , ~THYLE, NE
IO
10 20 30 40 50 60
PER CENT ELONGATION
FIG. 7.31--Effect of elongation on corona life in dr), air (comparison of PTFE with
polyethylene ).
decreased. As explained in earlier work, moisture is desirable in the case of

polyethylene, because a chemical reaction between the moisture and
degradation products of polyethylene deposit a semiconducting material in
the area of corona activity. This semiconducting material reduces the corona
intensity and damage by grading the electrical stress at the periphery of the
electrode. In dry air, this phenomenon does not occur, and hence the corona
discharge activity is severe.
7.3 Electrical Treeing

Generally, a dielectric strength failure has been considered to be
catastrophic in nature, with the insulation at one moment intact and at an in-
stant later punctured. There has been accumulating evidence that in many
failures the final disruption may have been preceded by a long time pro-
gressive development of one or many minute branched hollow channels and
that the ultimate failure followed one of these channels. As mentioned
previously, these minute channels are referred to as trees or dendrites.
Figure 7.32 shows a breakdown where it is known that the formation of a
tree preceded the failure. The broad tube-like channel is the path of the
disruptive current at ultimate failure. The trees growing out of the side of the
tube are the remains of an initial complete tree structure that grew from the
FIG. 7.32--Cross section of a complete failure in polyethylene initiated by surface discharges.
top of the picture downward. Figure 7.33 shows a tree that was not allowed to
grow to the ultimate failure condition. Had this gone to failure, the main
channel would have followed the trunk of the tree. A number of investigators
have studied this phenomenon. Among them are D. W. Kitchen and O. S
Pratt [2], M. Olyphant [3], E. J. McMahon and J. R. Perkins [4], and B.
FIG. 7.33--Tree showing partial failure.

Yoda and Y. Sekii [5], to name only a few. All of these workers agree that the
trees are the result of corona discharge bombardments.
Trees can be grown readily in insulations by exposing them to localized ex-
cessively high gradient fields, while the average voltage gradient remains at a
reasonable value. This localized field can be produced in several ways. One
simple way is the insertion of a sharp needle into a solid and using it as an
electrode; the high field gradient is localized and is due to the minute radius
of curvature at the tip of the needle. A piece of conducting dirt projecting
into the surface of the specimen or embedded in the body of the material can
serve the same function. Another starting point can be a void within an in-
sulation or an intense source of gaseous ionization at the surface of the in-
sulant.
Investigators disagree as to the exact nature of the mechanism of starting
an electrical tree. The probable cause is bombardment of the surface of the
insulation by high-speed electrons; the source of the electrons being high-
intensity ionization in a void or field emission from the surface of a metal
point with very small radius of curvature. Once a tree is initiated, the growth
proceeds by a series of sporadic bursts of activity. Branching becomes more
frequent as the tree progresses. As the tree becomes more bushy, the rate of
growth slows down until the outermost twigs approach the opposite elec-
trode. Then if failure is initiated, it occurs rapidly.
Channels have been observed that developed the entire distance from one
electrode to the other without resulting in the destructive failure of the
specimen (see Fig. 7.34). The discharges that take place in the narrow chan-
nels of the tree are unusual in their erratic and sporadic behavior. Perhaps
FIG. 7.34--Trees in polymethyl methyculate ( PMMA ) growing from both electrodes without
resulting in failure.
one explanation is the very small volume of the discharge coupled with its
very large surface area. Another reason suggested is the buildup of static
charges along the inside of the tubes that can trap ions. Still another possible
cause in the case of some materials is repolymerization of some of the gaseous
decomposition products, thereby narrowing still further the already tiny
channels. A more likely cause is pressure of the gases from the decomposition
of the insulation. Pressures can be reached that will extinguish the discharge
and no further discharges will occur until these pressures are reduced by dif-
fusion through the polymer or by leaking along the needle-polymer interface.
The development of methods for studying the high-voltage behavior of wire
and cable insulating compounds can make practical use of trees. It is logical
to assume that a compound that has the least tendency to grow trees under a
standard test condition would be the best to use in cables or other high-
voltage apparatus.
Z 3.1 Laboratory Procedures for Studying Treeing

7.3.1.1 Single-Needle Remote Ground Tests--Perhaps the best known of
all the laboratory treeing tests is the single-needle remote ground test first
described by D. W. Kitchen as depicted in Fig. 7.35 [2]. This is a procedure
in which a sharpened sewing needle is partially embedded in a block of in-
sulating material. The specimen is usually in the form of a block 2.5 cm
square and 6.5 mm thick. It is mounted so that there is a 12.75-cm gap be-
tween the surface opposite the needle point and a grounded metal plate. An
electrical connection is made from a high-voltage source to the portion of the
needle projecting from the block. Experiments are run to determine the
voltage (50 or 60 Hz) required to initiate a tree at the tip of the needle when
exposed to that voltage for 1 h.
The procedure has been used and modified by many investigators.
Molded-in needles with very careful control of the radius of the needle point
have become widely used. Originally these tests were always run in air.
Recently, some experimenters have chosen to totally immerse the specimens
and ground plate in oil. This tends to reduce the errors caused by some ad-
ditives that can exude to the surfaces of the block. If these materials are par-
tially conductive, they will form a Faraday shield and thus remove the stress
from the needle point. This is important when evaluating voltage stabilizing
compounds [6]. The single-needle remote ground test is limited in that it
determines only the conditions required to initiate a tree. It does not provide
information as to what happens after the tree has been started. For this
reason other methods have been developed for observing the breakdown pro-
cess after the tree has started. This is a double-electrode interior ground test.
7.3.1.2 Double-Electrode Interior Ground Test--The double-electrode
interior ground test is a method for measuring high-voltage breakdown in-
itiated by a divergent field where: (a) the high voltage and ground electrode
FIG. 7.35--Kitchen's single-needle remote ground test setup [2].
are both molded or carefully inserted in the sample, (b) treeing time-rate
studies can be made, (c) specimen surface conditions have little or no effect
on the test results, and (d) measurements can be made on opaque specimens.
The original work using double electrodes used two sharpened sewing
needles. It was often found that two trees started, one from each electrode.
Using one sharpened sewing needle as the high-voltage electrode and one
blunt (as received) for the ground helped, but did not solve the problem until
alternative electrodes systems were devised.
Electrodes can be made using a steel wire 1.0 mm in diameter cut to rods
approximately 3 cm long (Fig. 7.36). To make a pair of electrodes, a cone-
shaped point is ground on the end of one rod at a 30-deg included angle with
a tip radius of 3 #m. This is used as the high-voltage electrode. A 0.S-ram-
radius hemisphere is ground on one end of another rod to make the ground
electrode.
FIG. 7.36--Double-electrode interior ground electrode system molded in polyethylene.
7.3.1.3 Time-Rate Studies on Polyolefins

7.3.1.3.1 Explanation of method--The rate of progression of a tree in
polyolefin resins involves a slow intermittent process across the volume of the
intervening gap space. To demonstrate this, let us describe the progressive
breakdown of a typical low-density high-molecular-weight polyolefin resin.
In this case, the actual electrode gap separation was 2.4 mm with 20 kV ap-
plied between the electrodes, and the test was run under silicone oil to lessen
the chance for surface discharges.
Treeing started as soon as the test voltage was reached, and within 2 min
progressed 0.6 mm across the gap. At this point the growth slowed down and
an additional 70 min were needed for the next 0.3-mm progression step. An
additional 100 min was needed for the next. As the tree grew closer to the
ground electrode, the rate increased until the specimen finally failed.
7.3.1.3.2 Suggested explanation of intermittent growth of tree--When a
tree is in the process of growing, it can be assumed that gaseous decomposi-
tion products are formed. These gases can increase in pressure until corona
extinction conditions are reached. There will be no further growth of the tree
until these gases leak along the needle-polymer interface or diffuse through
the polymer or both until the pressure is low enough for corona ignition to
recur. This analysis indicates that the total testing time is important and
that, consequently, turning the voltage off would not extend the life, but
could shorten the life by allowing the gas pressure to decrease to atmospheric
pressure.
7.3.1.3.3 Test of progression theory--To test the preceding theory, three
different experiments were run on specimens from the same sample as
presented in Fig. 7.37. In the first experiment, a specimen of high-molec-
ular-weight low-density resin was tested as just described at 20 kV. The test
voltage was not interrupted for the duration of the test. Four hours were
needed to cause failure. In a second experiment, another specimen was
tested under the same stress, but this time the voltage was turned off for 1 h
Io I FA/tueOVEePOWEeN/C
I TjOF/: Meorr//
~ ~ POWE/?ONCONT/NUOU,tV
81~ANCHEDPE
i | I
0 !
0 ! 2 3 4
TIME,HOUI~S
FIG. 7.37--Test of tree growth rate theory.
(note tick mark) after 2 h of exposure. The specimen failed in less than 1 h
after the electric stress was reapplied. In a third experiment with all the con-
ditions the same as before, the test voltage was turned off after 1 h (note tick
mark) and left off overnight. The specimen failed one-half hour after the
voltage was reapplied.
In these experiments, it is apparent that the gases of decomposition play
an important role in the growth of a tree. In all subsequent tests where
materials were compared for their resistance to treeing, the test voltage was
applied continuously and the tree examined only after the test had ended.
7.3.1.4 Analysis of Time Rate Studies--The preceding time rate studies
clearly demonstrate that the pressures of the gases of decomposition strongly
affect the rate of growth of a tree. This is important. In a cable, there can
be trees formed at the conductor where they would be easily vented to
the atmosphere. On the other hand, if a tree starts from an occlusion in
the center of the insulating structure, it might take a very long time for the
gases of decomposition to diffuse through the insulation to the atmosphere.
7.3.1.5 Nonvented Treeing Studies--The most important type of treeing
from the practical point of view is that produced in the two-electrode
nonvented system. The reason is that in high-voltage cables, trees often start
from particles or voids completely surrounded by the insulation material,
and the gases of decomposition cannot escape to the atmosphere. An exam-
ple of such a tree is shown in Fig. 7.38. It must be pointed up, however, that
the nonvented double-needle electrode test is perhaps the most difficult one
to perform because of the many variables that must be controlled.
7. 3.1.6 Variables that Affect Treeing Studies--The factors listed in the
following paragraphs can have an effect on the initiation and growth rate of a
tree when using the two-needle electrode system.
FIG. 7.38--Example of nonvented trees in a power cable: (a) trees growing from a particle
completely surrounded by the insulation in a cable, (b) close-up showing details of the trees.
7.3.1.6.1 The sharpness of the high-voltage electrode--The tip radius of

the high-voltage electrode must be the same for all specimens. A cone-shaped
point is ground on the end of the electrode to a tip radius of 3/xm. This was
chosen after an extensive study showed that points of smaller radius often
broke while cleaning and also when molding the electrodes into the in-
sulating material. Points of larger radius did not produce the high divergent
field required for this test.
7.3.1.6.2 The shape of the grounded or earthed needle electrode--The
earthed electrode is made by grinding a 0.5-mm-radius hemisphere on the
end of a 1.0-mm steel rod. This must be ground using a fine grit wheel to pro-
duce a smooth surface. A rough surface can create sites for electron emission
to occur and start a tree. The contour of the hemisphere must be such that it
blends smoothly to the rod.
7.3.1.6.3 Cleaning the electrodes--Any suitable method may be used to
clean the electrodes. It is extremely important that they be free from oil, and,
of course, any small particles. As a final step, cleaning the electrodes and
chase in an ultrasonic bath with a suitable solvent after they have been
assembled is recommended.
7.3.1.6. 4 Gap between electrodes--Any electrode gap may be used, but it
must be the same for all specimens and samples when comparisons are to be
made. A practical gap is 3 ram.
7.3.1.6. 5 Quality of the molding--This represents a major problem. The
presence of the thin needle-like electrodes projecting into the mold requires
that special techniques be used. As an example, the chase is loaded with
resin and the press platens brought into close contact with the top plate
without pressure. The mold is preheated long enough to melt the cubes and
allow the resin to flow around the needles before applying pressure. Pressure
is then applied and the mold is cooled at a standard rate.
The moldings must be carefully examined for electrode contact. If optical
examination is possible, poor contact between the electrode and resin can be
seen with reflected light. If the resin is opaque, the quality of the electrode-
resin contact can be estimated by applying a tensile force tending to
withdraw the needle electrodes. With polyolefin resins, the needle electrodes
will withstand a proof test of 14 kg. Other compounds may require a higher
or lower force to establish the quality of the electrode-resin contact.
7.3.1.6.6 Applied voltage--It is difficult to decide on a most informative
test voltage. Indeed, it must be high enough to produce a tree; however, us-
ing a voltage that gives a higher average stress than is used in an operating
cable may give misleading results. The physical structure of a tree varies as
the voltage is increased. Obviously, the same voltage must be used with the
same electrode gap when comparing two or more materials (see Fig. 7.39).
7.3.1.6. 7 Continuity of test voltage--While it is possible to obtain tight
fits for the needle electrodes in polyolefin resins, the bonds are not perfect.
Gases of decomposition can leak out slowly along the needle/polymer inter-
face. For this reason the test voltage preferably should be maintained con-
tinuously during the test. If the voltage is turned off, gases can leak out and
shorten the time for the tree to grow to completion (see Fig. 7.37). It is possi-
ble to make daily observations, however, by turning the voltage off and plac-
ing the specimens under a microscope, but all specimens must be subjected
to the same time period without voltage.
7.3.1.6.8 Frequency of test voltage--Noto et al [7] and [8] reported in his
papers on treeing tests by frequency acceleration that the growth of trees is
not accelerated by an increase of test frequency for applied voltages above 6
kV using a single-needle electrode in a voidless system. We were surprised to
find that there was a significant decrease in the time, by a factor of 3, to grow
trees to failure using the double-needle electrode system when measurements
were made at 360 Hz compared to 60 Hz with an applied, voltage of 10 kV.
FIG. 7.39--Effect o f applied voltage on tree structure.

Also, there was a considerable difference in the appearance of the trees

generated at 360 Hz as compared to those at 60 Hz.
Figure 7.40 shows the electrode systems used by Dr. Noto. He uses a
single-needle high-voltage electrode, which is inserted perpendicular to a
silver painted electrode on the end of the block that constitutes the ground
electrode. This electrode system is extensively used in Japan and, for all in-
tents and purposes, should be the same as the double electrode system. Dr.
Noto examined two systems. A specimen without a cavity that he calls
voidless and one in which he withdrew the electrode to leave a cavity 0.5 mm
long. Figure 7.41, shows no significant difference in tree growth rate between
50 Hz and 300 Hz. His data for specimens with a cavity inclusion (Fig. 7.42)
shows a significant difference as a function of frequency, but not as great as
has been reported using double-needle electrodes.
Z 3.1.7 Typical Results for Nonvented Electrode Test--Typical results for
measurements of the time to grow a tree across a 3-mm gap using nonvented
double electrodes are shown in Fig. 7.43. Each point represents a failure of a
single specimen. It is the time required for the tree to completely traverse the
gap and finally cause a dielectric breakdown. The curves show data for two
separate tests on specimens of the same material. Figure 7.44 shows four pic-
tures of a typical progressive breakdown. Note that the third picture shows
very fine channels in contact with the earthed electrode, even though the
failure had yet not occurred. The fourth picture, showing the final failure,
was taken after failure ensued on reapplication of voltage.
For comparison purposes, Fig. 7.45 shows data for a crosslinked
polyethylene. The object here is to demonstrate that while there is some scat-
ter in the data for specimens of any one sample, differences between two dif-
ferent types of materials are clearly seen. The average time to reach the fifth
II
5ram
4ram
T
'
" 14mm -~
r paint
FIG. 7.40--Single-needle direct ground contact electrode system (voidless and with void ).
1.5
1.0
v
~_ 0.5
m / SPECIMEN WITHOUT CAVITY

APPLICATION TIME OF VOLTAGE: 60 MIN.
0 I I L l I
5 7 9 11 13 15
Applied Voltage (kV)
FIG. 7.41--Effect of frequency and voltage on specimen without a cavity (after Noto et a/[7],
courtesy of lEEJ ).
t~
i I I I i I
7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Applied Voltage (kV)
FIG. 7.42--Effect of voltage and frequency on a specimen with a cavity (after Noto et al [7],
courtesy of lEEJ ).
failure for the branched resin was 8 h, while the average time for the
crosslinked resin was 24 h under identical test conditions.
7.3.1.8 Vented Electrode Studies--Dielectric breakdown failures by tree-
ing often occur in power cables insulated with a solid dielectric material.
These trees may start at the semiconducting layer on the conductor or at the
insulation shield. In these cases, the gases of decomposition are not usually
BRANCHED POLYETHYLENE
16 IlV - 3MM CAP
i i i i
I0
9 9 = t ST TEST
g o = 2ND TEST
I I I i I I I , I l I
I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 IO
TIME - HOURS
FIG. 7.43--Time to failure across a 3-mm gap in a nonvented electrode system (branched
polyethylene ).
FIG. 7.44--A typical progressive breakdown.

CROSSLINKED POLYETHYLENE
16KV 3MM GAP
10
9 : = lst. Test /
= 2nd Test
8
" 6
ID
m 3
1
I I I I | I I I I I
16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34
TIME HOURS
F I G . 7.45--Time to failure across a 3-ram gap in a nonvented system (cross/inked
polyethylene ),
trapped and are free to escape rapidly. This can result in a much faster grow-
ing tree.
One simple approach to the vented electrode problem was to withdraw the
high-voltage needle-like electrode and reinsert it. Thus, the bond between
the polymer and the needle was sure to be broken and the gases could escape.
This was completely unsuccessful. The data given in Fig. 7.46 shows that in
one case the time to failure was somewhat reduced; the second curve is no
different from that obtained from the nonvented experiment (see Fig. 7.43).
7.3.1.9 Controlled- Void Vented-Needle Electrode--A controlled-void
vented-needle electrode system is suggested as follows. Moldings are made as
described earlier using a sharp-pointed needle high-voltage electrode and a
hemispherically shaped end on the earthed electrode. The sharp (high-
voltage) electrode is then withdrawn from the specimen before starting the
test. This sharp electrode is subsequently replaced by an electrode similar to
the earthed electrode (hemispherical end), but with a flat ground along the
length of the shaft. The latter is pushed in until the hemisphere end contacts
the cone-shaped void left by the sharp electrode. This results now in a sharp-
pointed void with a metal electrode contacting the walls. The flat, which was
ground on the shaft of the electrode rod, allows the gases of decomposition to
escape easily (see Fig. 7.47).
Results of measurements made using the controlled-void vented-needle
electrode are shown in Fig. 7.48. Note that the time to failure is less than 1 h.
BI?ANCHEDPOLYETHYLENE
16EV'-3MMCAP
/0 . . . . . . . .
9 * = fET TEET ~
2
/
I I I I I I I I L ~
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 tO
TIME-HOURS
FIG. 7.46--Time to failure across a 3-mm gap in a semivented electrode system.
GI~OUNDNEEDLE-O,6MMDIAMETEr?
WITH03MMI?ADIUETIP
OMM
~ CONTI~OLLED
,~, ~ VOID
POLYMEI~SAMPLE FLATSUI?FACE/:ORVENT
2.5x 2..5CMx 6,,5MM O,16MMDEEP
HIGHVOLTAGENEEDIE-O~6MMDIAMETER
WITHO.3MM i~ADIU~TIP
FIG. 7.47--Double-needle test specimen with a vented controlled void.
7. 3 . 1 . 1 0 E l e c t r o c h e m i c a l ( W a t e r ) T r e e i n g - - T r e e s may be caused by other

phenomena, in addition to corona, under the application of electric stress.
Water trees or electrochemical treeing have posed considerable concern
among power cable manufacturers and electric utilities.
aI~ANCHED POLYE.THYLENE.
16 EV- 3MM CAP
10 , ~ , i i ~ i , ~ I ' i ~ i i t ~ r r [ ~ i i ~ i f f r i i
9 9 I~T TE~T
g o 92ND TE~T
~ 5
I
, ,,, 1 , , ,, I , , , , I , , , L I, i t J I ' ' , , I
IO 20 30 40 50 60
TIME.-MINUTE~
FIG. 7.48--Time to failure across a 3-ram gap with a vented electrode system.
FIG. 7.49--Section o f a 600 V control cable showing sulfide trees (after Tobata et al [9],
courtesy o f the Institute o f Electrical and Electronics Engineers ).
FIG. 7.50--Close-up of one of the sulfide trees. Fanlike structure grows on top of single stem
(after Tobata et al [9], courtesy of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers).
Water trees can usually be identified as appearing diffuse when observed

under a microscope and often can be made to disappear by heating. Many
researchers in this field claim that water trees can be generated at con-
taminants or at faults along the conductor shield or ground shield without
measurable corona discharges at relatively low stress; however, there must be
an associated electric field in addition to the presence of water.
Japanese observers have reported on sulfide trees [9]. They claim hydrogen
sulfide from the environment can enter into solution with the water in which
the cable is immersed. This solution can diffuse through the cable insulation
to react with the copper conductor to form cuprous sulfide. The cuprous
sulfide forms crystals, which penetrate the insulation in the shape of a tree
and can subsequently grow to produce a failure.
Figure 7.49 shows a slice cut through a section of cable. These structures
were formed in a 600-V control cable having a 1-mm-thick insulation. Thus,
the stress is so low there is little probability for corona discharges to occur.
Figure 7.50 shows a close-up of one of these trees. According to the author,
they all start with the bush-like structure at the bottom, then fan out to form
the tree. These are not hollow channels of the type formed by electrical trees,
but are filled with the chemical crystals. This problem is being solved by the
use of a sulfide capture sheath.
One of many papers [10] describes an organized research program on tree-
ing wherein the main effort is directed to trees generated at the site of con-
taminants within the insulation. Prior investigation of the treeing

phenomena in branched polyethylene (PE) and crosslinked polyethylene
(XLPE) cables, removed from service, showed that properly designed and
manufactured cables are free from the deleterious effect of trees initiating at
the shields. Numerous attempts made to determine the nature of the small
foreign particles from which electrochemical trees originate within the in-
sulation have been unsuccessful; this is due to the difficulty in isolating and
examining small contaminants. An extended study with previously identified
contaminants was undertaken to explore this low order tree growth; it is
believed that electrochemical trees from contaminants do not significantly af-
fect the normal expected service life of PE or XLPE cables.
It has been suggested that contaminants contribute to gap formation or
weak boundary layers at the polymer-contaminant interface and that these
regions are of greater significance in electrochemical treeing than any
microvoids or voids. Gaps are believed to result primarily from poor adhesion
or wetting at the contaminant-polymer interface. The ability of the contami-
nant to alter the crystallization of the PE, or XLPE, when cooled from the
melt, may play a secondary role. Hydrophilic contaminants are particularly
harmful, as they can facilitate moisture collection.
In general, most investigators consider electrical trees to be disastrous.
The effect of water trees or electrochemical trees on cable life is uncertain. In
the past few years, many papers have been written on this subject, each mak-
ing contributions to the state of the art. An excellent survey of literature on
the subject of treeing and electrical discharges in solid electrical insulation
has been prepared by R. M. Eichhorn [11], which includes 144 references.
Eichhorn starts his literature research with a 1912 reference when E. H.
Rayner [12] first reported an investigation of electrical breakdown in the
presence of discharges. E. H. Reynolds et al [13] credit D. M. Robinson with
the original investigation of this subject, but in his book [14] Robinson cites
considerable work by others. Eichhorn's survey covers the years from this
beginning up to 1976. Obviously, more work must be done in this extremely
complex study of discharges and treeing in organic insulating materials.
A word of caution is directed to those embarking on breakdown studies. It
must be kept in mind that this is a weak-link phenomenon. A large number
of experiments must be made to be sure a reasonable statistical sampling has
been obtained. We do not have all the answers to this problem yet. There is
much to be done in this extremely interesting phase of insulating materials
research.
References
[1] McMahon, E. J., Maloney, D. E., and Perkins, J. R., Transactions on C o m m u n i c a t i o n s
a n d Electronics, American Institute of Electrical Engineers, Vol. 78, Part I, 1959, pp.
654-62.
[2] Kitchen, D. W. and Pratt, O. S., Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Institute
of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Vol. 81, June 1962, pp. 112-121.
[3] Olyphant, M., Insulation, Vol. 9, Nos. 2, 3, and 4, February, March, and April 1963.
[4] McMahon, E. J. and Perkins, J. R., Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, In-
[5] Yoda, B. and Sekii, Y., Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Institute of Elec-
trical and Electronics Engineers, Vol. PAS-90, Nov./Dec. 1971, pp. 2682-2691.
[6] McMahon, E. J. and Perkins, J. R., Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, In-
[7] Noto, F., Kawamura, K., and Ono, F., The Fourth Symposium on Electrical Insulating
Materials, Institute of Electrical Engineers of Japan, 1971, pp. 35-38.
[8] Noto, F. and Yushimura, N., 1973 Annual Report. Conference on Electrical Insulation
and Dielectric Phenomena, NAS/NRC, Washington, D.C., 1974, pp. 274-281.
[9] Tobata, T., Iwata, H., Fukuda, T., and Iwata, Z., Transactions on Power Apparatus and
Systems, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Vol. PAS-91, Jul./Aug. 1972,
pp. 1354-1360.
[10] Katz, C. and Bernstein, B. S., 1973 Annual Report, Conference on Electrical Insulation
and Dielectric Phenomena, NAS/NRC, Washington, D.C., 1974, pp. 307-316.
[11] Eichhorn, R. M., Transactions on Electrical Insulation, Institute of Electrical and Elec-
tronics Engineers, Vol. EI-12, Feb. 1976, pp. 2-18.
[12] Rayner, E. H., Journal Institution of Electrical Engineers, Vol. 49, 1912, p. 3.
[13] Reynolds, E. H., Hinde, R. M., and Black, R. M., 1972 Annual Report, Conference on
Electrical Insulation and Dielectric Phenomena, NAS/NRC, Washington, D.C., 1973, pp.
125-132.
[14] Robinson, D. M., Journal. Institution of Electrical Engineers, Vol. 77, 1935, p. 90.
STP669-EB/Feb. 1979
E. H. Povey t
Corona Measurements Using

Bridge Methods
8.1 Introduction
Bridge methods are so important in the measurement art that it is not
surprising to find them employed in the evaluation of corona or partial
discharge activity. Bridges for this purpose must work at the high voltages
at which discharge measurements are commonly made. In this chapter,
consideration will be limited to bridges operating at high alternating volt-
ages with frequencies in the power or audio range. Treated first is the
evaluation of discharge activity from two bridge measurements, only one
of which includes the discharge activity. Then a special bridge is described
that uses an oscilloscope to produce a parallelogram-like trace from which
more direct measurements of discharge activity may be obtained. The
parallelogram trace technique has certain advantages in the sense that
it may be effectively used to measure the energy loss due to pulse or pulse-
less type corona discharges. The measurement of the latter type of dis-
charge can only be properly effected using the bridge approach. The term
pulseless corona is commonly applied to the occurrence of true-glow and
pseudo-glow discharges [1].2 A conventional corona pulse detector fails
to respond adequately to a true-glow discharge due to the absence of
corona pulses within the glow region of the breakdown voltage wave (see
Chapter 2); likewise, the pulse detector cannot respond to pulses whose rise
times are unduly long such as produced by a pseudo-glow discharge. The
concluding paragraphs deal with the use of the bridge method to facilitate
measurement of pulses produced by corona or partial discharges.
An understanding of the measurement of discharge activity in insulation
systems grew out of early work on discharges in gases. A characteristic
curve of voltage versus current for a discharge in a gas between a pair
of electrodes is shown in Fig. 8.1. In relating this information to discharges
1Doble Engineering Company, Watertown, Mass. 02172.

264

CHAPTER 8--BRIDGE METHODS 265
hi
LIJ (.9
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= I =
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LOG OF CURRENT
F I G . 8.1--Characteristic curve o f an electrical discharge occurring in a gas.
in small inadvertent gas inclusions as found in some practical insulation

systems, the initial or low-current portion of the curve is most relevant.
This is because the current density in gas inclusions is limited by the bal-
lasting action of the surrounding insulation (see Chapter 1).
The characteristics of discharges in a predominantly solid insulation
system were studied more directly with the aid of model systems. The
design of a simple model system was based on a two-electrode capacitor of
a parallel plate or concentric cylinder configuration. One electrode was
entirely covered with insulation that extended to within a short distance of
the second electrode (see Fig. 8.2). The intervening air or gas space would
ionize when sufficient voltage was applied between the electrodes, and the
resulting current in the ionized gas would be limited by the impedance of
the solid insulation. In Fig. 8.3 are shown curves of voltage gradient versus
current density existing in the air film of a model system at three different
gas pressures. As the current density in the gas increases in response to
the voltage applied to the system, the voltage gradient in the gas rises
linearly until the ionization value is reached, and then levels off with fur-
ther increase in current density. The maximum gradients are roughly
proportional to the gas pressure.
While such a model system is an approach to an actual system, differ-
ences exist that warrant consideration. The most serious difference is
that the gas in a model system is in a uniform field, with edge effects
FIG. 8.2--Model system for studying discharges in gaseous media.
eliminated from the measurement by guard circuits. In a practical system,

the irregular shapes of the gas inclusions lead to nonuniform gradients in
the gas. All inclusions may not ionize at the applied voltage, so that the
relation of discharge activity with voltage may not be as simple as that for
the model system. Furthermore, all the gas in a given inclusion may not
ionize at the same instant. An incomplete discharge will cause further
distortion of the gradient, promoting discharges along the surfaces of the
inclusion. The effect of such discharges may account for some of the time-
related changes in discharge characteristics observed on some practical
insulation systems [2].
Despite obvious differences between the model and practical insulation
systems, tests on model systems have yielded valuable information. A
model system facilitated a measuring method for separating discharge
losses in the gas from losses in the solid insulation [3]. Bridge measure-
ments were used to determine the charging current and loss of the model
over a wide range of test voltages. Then the electrode system was altered to
eliminate the gas space, and determinations were made of losses in the
solid insulation for various charging currents. The difference between the
loss in the complete model and the loss in the solid insulation only was
considered as the loss in the gas for that charging current. It was found
that the loss in the solid insulation varied almost exactly as the square of
the applied test voltage. The loss in the gas was found to be practically
zero until the test voltage reached the ionization inception value. Above
that value, the loss in the gas had an almost linear relation to the test
voltage. The linear relation appears to be predictable from the shape of the
curves in Fig. 8.3, which indicates that the voltage across the gas space
tends to remain constant once ionization begins.
The relationship between the dissipation factor of the model system and
the applied test voltage, reflecting these two different loss characteristics,
35
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IM
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._1
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_J
400
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MICROAMPERES PER SQUARE CM
FIG. 8.3-- Volt-ampere characteristic o f an air gap.
is shown by the curve of Fig. 8.4. The dissipation or power factor, tan 6, is
seen to be relatively constant up to the discharge inception voltage. As
the test voltage increases further, the dissipation factor rises rapidly to
a maximum value, and then slowly decreases. In practical insulation sys-
tems, the maximum dissipation factor is seldom approached, even at
moderate overvoltages. Practical systems, therefore, may be considered to
operate on the rising portion of the dissipation factor curve, and the in-
crease in dissipation factor can be used as a measure of discharge activity.
8.2 Bridge Measurements over a Voltage Range

Two bridges for the measurement of capacitance and dissipation factor
are well-suited to the evaluation of discharge activity. These are the high-
voltage Schering bridge and the transformer ratio-arm bridge. Basic cir-
cuits for these bridges are shown in Fig. 8.5 and 8.6. In both circuits, the
specimen is compared with a standard of negligible loss, typically a gas-
0.24
0.20
y -
0.16
rr
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U-
0.12
rr
i,i
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0.08
0.04
J
0
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KILOVOLTS
FIG. 8.4--Power factor curve o f a model system containing a gas cavity.
Cx = specimen capacitance.
Cs = shielded standard capacitor.
R4 ~---capacitance-balance resistor.
C3 = dissipation factor-balance resistor.
R5 = guard balance resistor.
FIG. 8.5--Form o f Schering bridge.
Cs Cx
L ~-
Ns, Nx = coils of ratio-arm transformer.

Cs = shielded standard capacitor.
Cx = specimen capacitance.
R2, C2 = phase shifting balance components.
FIG. 8.6--Transformer ratio-arm bridge.
insulated capacitor. Bridge balance is indicated by the null reading of a

detector tuned to the frequency of the test voltage.
Bridges such as the Schering bridge and the transformer ratio-arm
bridge will respond to changes in capacitance and loss, which result from
discharge activity in the test specimen. All specimen losses are supplied by
the voltage source, and therefore must be supplied at test voltage frequency.
Discharge losses, although not sinusoidal, are repetitive at the test voltage
frequency and can cause a response in the bridge detector tuned to that
frequency. In order to balance a bridge when there are discharge losses
in the specimen, a compensating sinusoidal loss current must appear in the
standard arm. In the bridges of Figs. 8.5 and 8.6, the loss component of
current is provided by the phase-shifting circuit in the standard branch.
Discharge activity also causes the capacitance of the specimen to increase
during portions of each cycle. The required change in the capacitance
balance of the bridge is in response to, but not a direct measurement of,
the cyclic capacitance increases.
Evaluation of discharge activity at a specified test voltage may be made
from the contribution that the discharges make to the measured dissipation
factor. One method for evaluating the contribution is based on the assump-
tion that the entire increase in dissipation factor with test voltage can be
attributed to discharge activity. This assumption has some justification
when there is a probability that discharge activity might exist and when
there is no other known cause for a significant increase. Under the foregoing
assumption, the contribution that discharge activity makes to the dissipation

factor is the increase, or increment, in dissipation factor as the test voltage
is raised from a low value to a specified test value. The dissipation factor
is the tangent of the defect angle, iS, the angle by which the phase angle
between the voltage applied to the specimen and the resulting current falls
short of ~r/2. The increment in dissipation factor is often written as A tan
6, and called, delta tan delta. If the dissipation factor measured at low
voltage is tan 6L and the dissipation factor measured at the specified test
voltage is tan ~ r, then
A tan ~ = tan 6r -- tan ~L (8.1)
For instruments that measure power factor rather than dissipation

factor, the corresponding term for the increment in power factor is power-
factor tip-up) Power factor is the sine of the defect angle, and for the
small defect angles usually encountered in insulation measurements, tan
and sin 6 have approximately the same values. Power-factor tip-up and A
tan/i may, therefore, be considered equivalent.
To provide a more comprehensive picture of discharge activity, a curve
of dissipation factor versus voltage can be plotted as shown in Fig. 8.7. A
voltage range of from 25 to 110 percent of the operating voltage is fre-
quently used in such plots. Test specimens made from materials suscepti-
ble to damage from partial discharge activity are not expected to show
a significant increase in dissipation factor as the test voltage is raised to
operating value. On the other hand, specimens made from materials more
immune to discharge damage, such as mica and porcelain, may show
an appreciable increment in dissipation factor at a safe operating voltage.
The increment in dissipation factor is not a sensitive indicator of dis-
charge activity. A relationship can be derived between the increment and
the total charge transferred per half cycle by discharge activity. The ap-
proximate loss [4] due to discharges that produce an increment in dissipa-
tion factor of A tan ~ for a specimen of capacitance, Cx, at a test voltage E
(root mean square) and frequency, f , is as follows
Loss = 2 r f E 2 C~ (A tan 6) (8.2)
This expression for loss is compared with that found from the charge,
Qt, transferred each half cycle, by a method described later in this chapter,
namely
Loss = vc O , f ---. 2 E Q , f (8.3)
3RecommendedPractice for Measurementof Power-FactorTip-Up of Rotating Machinery

Stator Coil Insulation, IEEE Standard 286, Institute of Electrical and ElectronicsEngineers.
0.08
~ 0.06
o.o, / t_
A tan 6
P.E T~P-UP
~, 0.02
FEW VOIDS"
0
0 2 4 6 8 I0
TEST V0LTAGE- kV
FIG. 8.7--Dissipation factor versus applied voltage curve.
In Eq 8.3, Vc is the peak-to-peak value of the discharge inception voltage.

For the approximation, Vc has been assumed equal to 2E, where E is the
root mean square value of the test voltage. Using this approximation,
Eqs 8.2 and 8.3 combine to yield
Q, = 1rE Cx (A tan 6) (8.4)
Equation 8.4 shows that for a specimen of 100 pF energized at 10 kV,

a charge transfer of over 3000 pC per half cycle is necessary to produce an
increment in the dissipation factor of 0.001. Obviously, dissipation incre-
ment is not adequate for specimens in which a discharge of a few picocou-
lombs represents a failure hazard. The method is more applicable to speci-
mens in which a substantial amount of discharge activity is normal. It has
proven useful for detecting excessive void formation in individual mica-
insulated asphalt-impregnated coils for rotating machines [5]. An entire
machine winding has sufficient losses in its insulation, however, so that
losses from a few large discharges may not increase noticeably the loss
or dissipation factor measurement. 4 In such an application the method
is used only to evaluate total discharge activity. An early application in
which this method was helpful was in the analysis of discharge activity
(ionization) in oil-paper cable insulation [3].
4A m o r e a c c u r a t e expression for d e t e r m i n i n g this loss is: loss (watts) = 2~rfE 2 (Cx tan/~ --
Cx' t a n f i ' ) , where Cx a n d t a n t5 are the m e a s u r e m e n t s at test voltage E , a n d Cx' a n d tan
6 ' are the m e a s u r e m e n t s at a low voltage.
8.3 The Transformer Ratio-Arm Bridge

Of the two bridges suggested as suitable for the preceding method, the
Schering bridge has a longer history and is described in several texts [4, 6].
The transformer ratio-arm bridge has more recently come into usage
for high-voltage measurements, so that a brief description of one such
bridge may be useful. As shown in Fig. 8.8, the current, I,, from standard
capacitor, C,, flows through N, turns of one winding of the ratio-arm
transformer. A magnetomotive force 1,1V,, is created that tends to produce
a flux in the transformer core. Similarly the current, Ix, from the specimen,
shown as capacitor Cx, flows through Nx turns of a second winding. The
direction of current flow in the windings is such that the magnetomotive
forces, IxNx and L N,, oppose each other. If the two magnetomotive forces
can be balanced by adjusting the number of turns, N, or Nx, so that I,N,
equals IxNx, there will be no flux in the core. The balance condition (zero
flux) is recognized by the null response of a detector connected across
a third winding on the core.
At balance, the only voltage appearing across winding N, or Nx is the
product of the current through the winding and an impedance determined
by the resistance and leakage reactance of the winding. In a well-designed
transformer, the winding impedance is quite low, which accounts for a
principal advantage of the transformer ratio-arm bridge: capacitances of
the shielding system can appear across a winding without significant effect
on the magnitude and phase of the current through that winding. Thus,
a guard balance need not be provided to attain good accuracy.
Because of the low impedance of the windings at balance, the voltage
drops across the windings are insignificant, and the entire test voltage
may be considered to be impressed across both the standard and specimen.
The currents in the bridge arms (Fig. 8.8) are
L = Eo~ C, (8.5)
and
L = E00 Cx (8.6)
The balance equation is

LN, =LNx (8.7)
From Eqs 8.5, 8.6, and 8.7, it follows that
N,
Cx = C , ~ (8.8)
T Cs cx
FIG. 8.8--Basic circuit of transformer ratio-arm bridge.
A complication arises when the specimen has losses, but the standard
is practically loss free. The currents, L and Ix, and consequently the magne-
tomotive forces, I~% and IxNx, will not be in phase. A minimum deflection
of the detector can then be found by varying Nx or N,, but a null balance
cannot be obtained unless the two currents can be brought into phase.
One method for obtaining a null balance is to add elements R2 and C2 in
the standard arm of the bridge as shown in Fig. 8.6. These elements form
a phase shifting circuit that permits a null balance to be obtained by
shifting the phase of that portion of/5, which flows through N2 by an angle
equal to the defect angle of the specimen. The phase shifting circuit is
readily calibrated in terms of tan &, as is shown by the following expression
tan & = 27rf R2' C2' (8.9)
The term, R 2', is the sum of resistance R 2 and the resistance of the N, wind-
ing turns at balance. The winding resistance can usually be neglected. The
term, C2 ', is the sum of capacitance C2 and the capacitance of the shielding
system protecting the low-voltage plate of the standard capacitor, and the
lead connecting is to the bridge. For a given frequency and for a specific stan-
dard capacitor and lead, a value of C2 can be selected so that tan/~ is equal to
the ohmic value of R2 multiplied by a power of ten. At balance, the
capacitance Eq 8.8 holds, with Cx representing the equivalent series
capacitance of the specimen as in the case of the Schering bridge.
8.4 Bridge Measurements Using Two Detectors

A variation of the preceding method avoids the assumption that the
dissipation factor of the specimen remains constant with voltage except for
the effect of discharge activity. The increment in dissipation factor is found
from two bridge measurements made at the same specified test voltage.5 One
measurement is made with the bridge balanced in the normal manner with a
tuned detector. The second measurement is made with the bridge balanced
with the aid of an oscilloscope. The vertical input terminals of the
oscilloscope are connected to the detector terminals of the bridge. Horizontal
deflection is made linear with time and is synchronized to the frequency of
the alternating test voltage.
If there are no partial discharges in the test specimen, the oscilloscope
trace at balance is a horizontal line. The bridge reading obtained with the
oscilloscope balance will be identical to that obtained with the tuned detector
balance. With both dissipation factor readings the same, the increment in
dissipation factor is therefore zero.
If there are partial discharges in the specimen, the dissipation factor
reading obtained with the tuned detector will include the effect of the
discharge losses. The oscilloscope trace at this balance point will be a sine
wave broken in portions by pulses as shown in Fig. 8.9. The bridge is then
rebalanced so that the unbroken portions of the sine wave are reduced to
straight horizontal lines, as shown in Fig. 8.10. The balance thus obtained
gives a dissipation factor reading regarded as the dissipation factor that the
specimen would have if it were free of discharge activity. The amount by
which the dissipation factor obtained with the tuned detector exceeds that
obtained with the oscilloscope balance is thus the increment in dissipation
factor A tan 6 due to partial discharges.
8.5 Paralleilogram Method

A method known as the loop trace, charge-voltage trace, or parallelogram
method [using IEC Standard 270 and ASTM Measurement of Energy and
Integrated Charge Transfer Due to Partial Discharges (Corona) Using
Bridge Techniques (D 3382-75)] has some of the features of the two-detector
method. An oscilloscope is used to obtain balance, and at balance those por-
tions of the trace during which no discharge occurs are horizontal. The com-
plete trace resembles a parallelogram, from which the charge transfer per
half cycle and the discharge energy per cycle are readily found.
A bridge circuit for this method is shown in Fig. 8.11. A distinguishing
feature is a capacitor, C4 in the low-voltage arm of the specimen branch. The
fraction of the test voltage, which appears across C4, can be balanced at the
detector terminals by an equal voltage across variable capacitor C3 in the
standard branch. The high-voltage arm of the standard branch consists of
discharge-free capacitor, C1 in series with variable resistor R1 for phase
Spartial Discharge Measurements, IEC Standard 270, International Electro-Technical
Commission.
FIG. 8.9--Wave form at normal balance.
F I G . 8.]O--Wave form with oscilloscope balance.
O]
q t
~t
CI
/
Ro
f
CX
~ PE
T1
T
-~~- C4I R4
F I G . 8. l 1--Bridge circuit for parallelogram method.
balance. A capacitor, C,, appears across the test voltage source. Both C4 and
Ct have capacitance values large in comparison with the capacitance of the
specimen, Cx.
The vertical deflection input of an oscilloscope is coupled to the detector
terminals of the bridge. Because of the oscilloscope grounding requirements,
the coupling circuit includes a differential amplifier or, as in Fig. 8.11, a
transformer, T. The horizontal deflection input of the oscilloscope is ener-
gized by a fraction of the test voltage as derived from a resistive divider (Rn,
RL) or capacitive divider (CH, CL).
A preliminary balance of the bridge is made at a low test voltage, which
produces no partial discharges in the specimen. The sinusoidal test voltage
across C4 is balanced at the detector terminals by adjustment of C3 and R ~.
There will then be no voltage to cause a vertical deflection of the trace, which
will be a horizontal line generated by the fraction of the test voltage applied
to the horizontal input of the oscilloscope.
When the test voltage is raised to a value at which discharges occur in the
test specimen, the capacitance of C, and C4 in series is sufficiently large in
comparison with specimen capacitance, Cx, to effectively maintain the
voltage across the specimen during the momentary discharge periods. To
maintain voltage during a discharge, capacitors C, and C4 must furnish the
necessary charge transfer. The total charge transfer per half cycle is
measured by its effect on the voltage across C4. This measuring method is in
contrast to that used in pulse measuring circuits in which the charge transfer
is supplied by the specimen itself, with a corresponding sudden voltage drop
across the specimen terminals.
The charge transfers that occur during a portion of one half cycle of the
test voltage are integrated by C4 and increase the voltage across its terminals.
During a corresponding portion of the subsequent half cycle the direction of
charge transfer reverses and reduces the voltage on C4. If more charges flow
in one direction than in the other, a net charge will accumulate on C4 and will
produce a dangerous voltage. This danger is avoided by the use of drainage
resistor R4. The value of R4 is selected to give a time constant R4C4 long in
comparison with a period of the alternating test voltage, so that R4 does not
interfere with the integration function of C4.
The non-sinusoidal voltages produced across C4 by the discharges cannot
be balanced by the discharge-free standard branch, and appear at the detec-
tor terminals to cause vertical deflections of the oscilloscope trace. The ver-
tical and horizontal deflections combine to form a recurrent trace resembling
a parallelogram. The sloping sides correspond to those portions of the test
voltage wave in which discharges occur. The horizontal top and bottom cor-
respond to those portions of the wave in which no discharge occurs. Any
slope to the top and bottom of the trace should be eliminated by a readjust-
ment of the bridge balance. An idealized trace is shown in Fig. 8.12.
In order to obtain quantitative information from the oscilloscope trace, the
i j
Dxl
_1
-I
DX ,,.
FIG. 8.12--1dealizedtrace of bridge circuit for parallelogram method.
vertical and horizontal deflection sensitivities must be determined. The sen-

sitivities are usually adjustable by controlling the gains of the amplifiers in
the oscilloscope input channels. When the approximate discharge
characteristics of the specimen are known, the controls can be preset. Other-
wise, the specimen is first tested and the controls adjusted to produce a trace
of satisfactory size. The sensitivities are subsequently determined for the con-
trol settings used in producing the trace.
A fundamental method for determining the vertical deflection sensitivity,
Sy, requires a known calibrating charge of Qc coulombs to be injected at the
specimen terminals, usually with no test voltage applied. The sensitivity is
found from Qc and the resulting vertical deflection measured in terms of
some convenient unit.
The usual technique for injecting a charge uses a square-wave generator
operating at a frequency of the same order as that of the test voltage source.
The generated peak-fo-peak voltage, Ec, is coupled to the specimen ter-
minals through a calibrating capacitor of C~ farads. Each time the generated
voltage changes level, a charge is injected that is equivalent to a charge
transfer in the specimen of
Qc = Ec Cc coulombs (8.10)
An upward and a downward deflection of Dyc units will be produced at the

front and trailing edge of the square-wave voltage. The vertical deflection
sensitivity is found as follows
Q~
Sy = Dy. (8.11)
Once the vertical sensitivity is determined, it is used with the measured

vertical height, Dy units, of the trace that the specimen produces, to find Qt,
the total charge transfer in the specimen per half cycle
Qt ~-- DySy coulombs (8.12)
In the calibration method just described, the square-wave generator must

operate ungrounded. Also, a high-voltage calibration capacitor must be used
unless the capacitor is disconnected when the test voltage is applied. If the
calibration capacitor is disconnected, its capacitance must be very small
compared to that of the test specimen to avoid a measurement error.
An alternate calibration method calls for the calibrating charge to be in-
jected across C4 (Fig. 8.11) rather than Cx. In this method, the square-wave
generator is grounded. The calibration capacitor, Co, is not subject to high
voltage. When the capacitance of Cc is very small compared to that of Cx, in-
jecting the charge across C4 is equivalent to injecting it across C~. The in-
jected charge can be calculated with good accuracy by Eq 8.10.
The alternate method assumes that resistor R 1 in the standard branch in-
hibits that branch from affecting the charge measurement. To assure that
the standard branch will have no appreciable effect on the measurement, the
capacitance of C1 should be very small in comparison to that of C,. Other
capacitance relations should be observed in the design of the bridge. To keep
the fraction of the test voltage that appears across C4 at a low value, the
capacitance of C4 must be very large compared with that of the specimen, Cx.
For good sensitivity, the capacitance of Ct must be large compared with that
of C4.
In order to determine the energy per cycle J dissipated by partial
discharges, both the vertical deflection sensitivity, Sy, and the horizontal
deflection sensitivity, Sx, must be known. The procedure for finding S~ is to
energize the bridge with a known test voltage and to measure the resultant
horizontal deflection of the trace. If the known test voltage has a value of Epp
volts peak-to-peak, and the horizontal deflection is found to be D~c units in
length, then the horizontal deflection sensitivity is
Sx = ~-~=.voltsper unit horizontal deflection (8.13)
The energy per cycle J may now be found
J = ASxSy joules (8.14)
where A is the area enclosed by the trace, measured in the same unit system
used to measure Dxc and Dye. A derivation of this equation has been
presented earlier [7].
When the trace is a good approximation to a parallelogram, the area may

be calculated from the base and height of the parallelogram. If the base
measures Dxi units (see Fig. 8.12), and the height is Dy units, the area, A, is
D~aDy, and Eq 8.14 becomes
J : DxiDySxSy joules (8.15)
As a dimensional check on energy, the parallelogram may be considered as

representing a transfer of charge, Q, = D:,Sy, each half cycle through a
voltage differential, V; = DxiSx. The energy required is
j, 1 1
= --f V~Q, = --fOx~OySxSy (8.16)
Doubling Eq 8.15 to obtain the energy for a complete cycle results in Eq

8.15.
An examination of the parallelogram indicates that during those portions
of the voltage wave in which charge transfers are forming the sides of the
parallelogram, the capacitance of the specimen is apparently increased. The
magnitude of the increase, AC, may be found from the charge transfer per
half cycle, Q,, and the change in voltage, A V, during the discharge period
a c = Q' (8.17)
AV
The voltage change, AV, is the difference between the peak-to-peak value of
the applied test voltage, V~, and the discharge inception voltage, Vi. Refer-
ring to Fig. 8.12
Va : DxaSx (8.18)
Vi : DxiSx (8.19)
From Eqs 8.18 and 8.19
A V = Va -- Vi = (Dxa -- Dxi)Sx (8.20)
From Eqs 8.12 and 8.20, the increase in capacitance can be written
AC = DySy (8.21)
(Dx. -- Dxl)Sx
The increase is associated with the effective short-circuiting, by discharge ac-

tivity, of gaseous inclusions (voids) in the dielectric circuit of the specimen.
The ratio, A C/Cx, where Cx is the capacitance of the specimen as measured
by a bridge at low voltage, can serve as an index for comparing the void con-
tent of similar specimens. The increase in capacitance that occurs during
portions of the applied voltage cycle should not be directly compared to the
increase in capacitance found by ordinary bridge measurements that take the
entire cycle into account. The ratio, A C/e Cx, where e is the relative permit-
tivity of the solid insulation, has been suggested as equivalent to the ratio of
the integrated volume of the voids to the volume of the solid insulation. The
accuracy of this suggestion depends on assumptions regarding the shape and
distribution of the voids [8].
8.5 The Bridge in Partial Discharge Pulse Measurements

A bridge may be used in the evaluation of partial discharge pulses for the
purpose of substantially eliminating power-frequency voltages from the pulse
measuring device. The test specimen forms one high-voltage arm of the
bridge and is balanced against a discharge-free capacitor in the other high-
voltage arm. Coupled to the bridge at the detector terminals is a pulse
measuring device. The bridge readings do not enter into the pulse measure-
ment, although in some cases a determination of the ratio of the capacitances
in the high-voltage arms is useful. A schematic diagram for this use of the
bridge is shown in Fig. 8.13.
The elimination of power-frequency voltages at the detector terminals
when the bridge is in balance simplifies the design of the coupling circuit by
relieving it of the necessity of handling any significant amount of power-
frequency current. The bridge also reduces the effect of voltages of other fre-
quencies that may be present in the test voltage source. The test voltage wave
is usually not a pure sinusoid. It may contain harmonics of the fundamental
frequency, and may also contain pulses or high-frequency components in-
troduced by nonlinear loads including partial discharges.
CI Cx
PULSE
MEASURING
DEVICE
T ,-y..y~ 1
,R3
Re
FIG. 8.13--Bridge circuit f o r use on corona p u l s e m e a s u r e m e n t s .
When the loss-frequency characteristic of the specimen differs from that of

the standard, the bridge may be completely balanced for only one frequency.
Thus, only one frequency can be completely rejected or eliminated. A read-
justment of the balance settings may result in a more complete rejection of
those frequencies within the bandpass of the pulse measuring device. A
method of assuring an effective rejection of unwanted components in the test
voltage wave is to balance the bridge using a voltage source such as a square
wave generator that contains frequencies in the bandpass range.
Maximum rejection of all frequency components in the test voltage wave is
obtained when the specimen is balanced against a capacitor in the standard
arm that has the same loss-frequency characteristic as the specimen. The
standard capacitor must be discharge-free in order to definitely attribute any
observed discharge pulses to the test specimen. Two similar specimens may
be used to form the bridge if the object of the test is limited to show that
neither specimen has partial discharge pulses above a specified magnitude.
A disadvantage to this bridge method, common to all bridge circuits
energized by test voltage sources referenced to ground, is that neither ter-
minal of the specimen can be at ground potential. Furthermore, neither ter-
minal of the detector is at ground potential. A pulse measuring device
referenced to ground can be coupled to the detector terminals through an
isolating transformer. The transformer must be capable of operation over the
frequency range to which the pulse measuring device responds. The
transformer can be designed with a turns ratio to provide an impedance
match between the bridge and the measuring device. If the measuring device
has a very high impedance, a turns ratio can be selected to increase the
voltage at the device terminals and provide an optimum signal-to-noise ratio.
The circuit then achieves maximum sensitivity.
Any of the usual pulse measuring devices may be coupled to the detector
terminals of the bridge. A common device uses an oscilloscope set to produce
an elliptical trace synchronized with the test voltage. The pulses are superim-
posed on the trace. The pattern may not be steady, since the discharges that
produce the pulses may not occur at exactly the same voltage each cycle. It is
possible to determine from a photograph of the trace, or to estimate by obser-
vation, the number of discharges per cycle, their location on the voltage
wave, and the magnitude of the largest discharge.
There are at least two methods of calibrating the bridge circuit to evaluate
partial discharges in the test specimen. As in most circuits for partial
discharge evaluation, a preferred method is to apply a calibrating pulse
directly across the test specimen, as explained in the discussion of the
parallelogram method. Another calibration method, peculiarly adaptable to
the bridge circuit, is to apply the calibration pulse directly across the detector
terminals. As may be seen from Fig. 8.13, this is equivalent to applying the
pulse across the series combination of Cx and C,.
When the calibration pulse is applied at the detector terminals, a relation-
ship must be found between the magnitude of that pulse and the magnitude
of a discharge pulse occurring in the specimen. A calibration pulse of charge,
Q~, applied at the detector terminals will produce a voltage pulse of peak
magnitude, Ec, calculated as follows
Ec = Qr + c,) (8.22)
GC, + G G + C,G
where Cp is the effective stray capacitance appearing across the detector ter-
minals. If Cp is very small in comparison with C~ and C,
Ec = Qc(C, + G ) (8.23)
GCx
A partial discharge of the same magnitude occurring in the specimen will

produce at the detector terminals a voltage pulse, Ed, of lesser magnitude
G(c, + G)
(8.24)
Ed = C,,C, + C,,G + G G
To obtain an accurate measurement of a discharge in the test specimen, the

value of the calibrating charge as derived for Eq 8.10 must be reduced by a
factor, K, equal to Ed/Ec, or
K = C, + Cp (8.25)
G+G
If capacitance Cp is small in comparison with G, it can be neglected in Eq

8.25, and K then becomes
C, 1
K -- C, + C--------~-- 1 + Cx (8.26)
C,
Equation 8.10 can now be rewritten for a calibration charge injected at the
detector terminals
Q~ = KEcCc (8.27)
8.6 Charge Transfer

Charge transfer is an important measure of individual pulses. Total charge
transfer per half cycle is measured in the parallelogram method. An
understanding of charge transfer and its significance is aided by the common

representation of a void (gaseous inclusion) within a specimen shown in Fig.
8.14. The void is represented by capacitance, Cv, and the capacitances that
couple C, to the specimen terminals is represented by the single equivalent
capacitance, Co.
A test voltage applied to the specimen and raised to the inception voltage,
Vi, provides the minimum gradient to ionize the occluded gas. Immediately
preceding ionization, the charge on C~ and Cc is
Q, = v,F. k CCvCc
. ~ j1 (8.28)
Ionization effectively short-circuits Cv, dissipating its charge and connec-

ting Cc directly across the specimen terminals. A charge, Q~, must be
transferred through the discharging void to add to the initial charge, Q~, on
Cc and raise its voltage to Vi. Then
Qi d- Qt : vi (8.29)
Cc
From Eqs 8.28 and 8.29, the magnitude of the transferred charge is
ViCe2 (8.30)
Q'-cc+C,
The energy, Jr, stored in the void and dissipated by the discharge is, from J
= Q2/2C and Eq 8.28
v,2[ ; Cv 1 (8.31)
J~ = T L(Cc + c.)2J
T T
T
Cv --- void capacitance.
Cc = coupling capacitance.
Ca >> Cv > Cc
FIG. 8.14--Equivalent circuit representation of specimen containing a void.
Combining with Eq 8.30
Jv= 2 (8.32)
Since Cc is usually small in comparison with Cv

1
J, = T v i o , (8.33)
Equation 8.33 shows the importance of transferred charge as one of the two
major factors in the evaluation of energy dissipated by discharges.
8.7 Conclusion
This chapter has been devoted to a presentation of several bridge measur-
ing techniques having certain special application uses in the field of corona
discharge measurements. It has been shown that the usefulness of the bridge
measurement techniques is of particular value in areas where the normal type
of corona discharge pulse detector technique has serious drawbacks: such as
when glow or pseudoglow discharges are involved or when measurements are
carried out on dense corona discharge patterns as in the case of alternator or
motor coil insulation structures. Likewise, they have been found to be very
helpful in separating the corona discharge loss component from the dielectric
loss component associated with solid or solid-liquid type insulations [9].
References
Publishing Co., New York, 1965.
[3] Dawes, C. L., Reichard, H. H., and Humphries, P. H., Transactions, American Institute of
[4] Harris, F. K., Electrical Measurements, Wiley, New York, 1952.
[5] Louttit, C. C., Brearley, R. G. A., and Findley, D. A., Transactions, American Institute of
[6] Hague, B., Alternating Current Bridge Methods, Pitman Publishing Corp., New York,
1938.
[7] Dakin, T. W. and Malinaric, P. J., Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems,
American Institute of Electrical Engineers, Vol. 79, Oct. 1960, pp. 648-653.
[9] Bartnikas, R., Proceedings, International Conference on Large High Tension Electric
Systems, Paper 202, Paris, 1966, pp. 1-37.
STP669-EB/Feb. 1979
R. Bartnikas 1
Corona Pulse Counting and Pulse-

Height Analysis Techniques
9.1 Introduction
In the detection of pulse-type corona discharges in voids occluded within
the insulating systems of electrical apparatus, the corona pulse amplitude
and repetition or discharge rate represent two basic quantities upon which
much of the present state-of-the-art of corona measurement and interpreta-
tion rests. In the past, however, much more attention has been paid to the
measurement of the corona discharge pulse amplitude than to that of the
pulse recurrence rate. This underlying fact is well borne out by the present
specifications, concerning commercially available corona detection sets for
use on transformers, capacitors, and cables, which are based in their entirety
upon the detectable apparent corona pulse charge expressed in pico-
coulombs. In so far as the corona testing techniques presently in use invoke
the measurement of the corona inception and extinction voltages, they must
be regarded ipsofacto as go no-go type test methods in the sense that they
merely indicate the presence or absence of corona pulse discharges above cer-
tain preset sensitivity levels expressed in picocoulombs. In order to character-
ize the corona discharge pulse behavior in a given insulating system, it is
necessary to go further and measure the discharge quantities of both the co-
rona pulse amplitude and repetition rate. Quantitative information concern-
ing the corona pulse pattern density is obtained in terms of the overall corona
discharge rate measurements. However, additional meaningful data is read-
ily obtained if the corona discharge rate is measured as a function of the co-
rona pulse amplitude. The resulting corona pulse-height distribution spec-
trum is proportional to the total discharge energy dissipated and, therefore,
represents essentially afingerprint typical of the corona discharge behavior
in the insulating system under the given applied voltage and elapsed time
conditions of the test. Evidently, this form of corona pulse-height analysis
1Department of Materials Science, Hydro-Quebec Institute of Research, Varennes, Quebec,

Canada.
285

constitutes a very powerful tool for assessing the corona discharge intensity in
the insulating systems of electrical apparatus.
In the early corona discharge work, when corona measurements were
generally limited to a visual display of the discharge patterns upon the
cathode ray tube screens utilized, a great deal of painstaking effort was spent
in recording visually the most intense corona discharge peaks. This exercise
posed considerable practical difficulty for the observer, since he was faced
with making reading estimates in terms of the usually highly time dependent
corona discharge patterns. Great significance was attached to making these
readings as it was believed with perhaps some justification [1],~ that the most
intense discharge pulse at corona onset may give some indication on the pos-
sible life expectancy of the insulating system subjected to the corona
discharge. Evidently, such readings were highly subject to human error and
with the advances in high-speed photography, it became customary to obtain
the required information more accurately by photographing the entire co-
rona discharge pattern over a 60-Hz time base. This provided a permanently
defined peak of the corona discharge pulse free from observer error. Coin-
cidentally, the photographic replicas of the corona discharge patterns (see
Fig. 9.1) also yielded a rudimentary measure of the corona pulse-height dis-
tribution, since in terms of these types of replicas one could with some
tedium decipher the individual corona pulse heights and arrive at a pulse-
height distribution representative of the corona pulse train at the time of the
photographic record. One obvious difficulty with such simple forms of co-
rona pulse-height analysis was that due to the appreciable variation with time
of the corona discharge patterns, the finitely exposed photographic plates did
not provide a clearly resolved picture of the corona pulses. That is to say, the
resulting visual resolution between adjacent corona pulses left much to be
desired nor were the peak corona discharge values themselves clearly
delineated. To improve the latter would have required an increase in the
cathode ray tube brightness setting, but this would have adversely affected
the pulse resolution characteristics. Secondly, instantaneously derived photo-
graphic records by their very nature did not constitute a statistical measure-
ment so as to be truly representative of the corona pulse-height distribution
characterizing the particular corona discharge sequence under study.
With the advent of nuclear pulse spectroscopy, electronic pulse counters
became commercially available in the 19S0's. This provided an excellent op-
portunity for workers in the corona field to use electronic pulse counters to
carry out corona discharge rate measurements as well as cumulative corona
pulse counting. Furthermore, with the help of discriminator type circuits, it
was now possible to carry out rudimentary forms of corona pulse-height
analyses. The next decade brought forth a variety of multichannel pulse-
height analyzer sets, and these were subsequently applied to corona pulse-
2The italicnumbersin bracketsreferto the list of referencesappendedto this chapter.

CHAPTER 9--PULSE COUNTING AND PULSE-HEIGHT ANALYSIS 287
FIG. 9.1--Corona discharge pulse pattern over two contplete cycles o f the 60-Hz wave ob-
tained on an oil-paper cable at twice the corona inception voltage.
height analysis work to provide statistical data on the corona discharge pro-
cess.
Photomultiplier tube circuits were extensively used in some of the earlier
corona pulse count studies, particularly in the field of point to metallic plane
gas discharges [2,3]. Berg and Dakin [4] carried out a study of the corona
discharge process between a point and a transparent electrode deposited
upon a glass substrate. This type of approach was later extended to deter-
mine the corona discharge rates in artificial polyethylene cavities [5]. The
most extensive use of photomultiplier techniques appears to have been made
by Bashara et al [6, 7], who investigated the corona discharge behavior be-
tween dielectric surfaces and recorded a number of manually derived pulse-
height distribution curves. On the basis of his test data, Bashara was able to
make certain fundamental inferences concerning the discharge process; for
instance, he showed that the number of photons involved in each spark
discharge could range from 10 4 to 10 7.
With physically real voids occluded within the insulating systems of elec-
trical apparatus, the voids are not readily accessible to visual examination,
and it is thus not feasible to use photomultiplier techniques to measure the
corona pulse count or the corona pulse-height distribution. This evidently
means that suitable pulse shaping circuitry must be substituted for the
photomultiplier circuits, whose function is to shape the externally detected
corona pulses into a form acceptable to the input of the pulse counter or
pulse-height analyzer circuit. The purpose of this chapter is to provide a
complete description of the various circuits and techniques available for car-
rying out corona pulse count and corona pulse-height distribution measure-
ments on the insulating systems of electrical apparatus. It is perhaps most
appropriate and fitting to state at this point that in the chronological context,
corona pulse counting and pulse-height analysis techniques not involving
photomultiplier tubes were first undertaken by Starr at the General Electric
Laboratories in Schenectady; although very little of Starr's work on this sub-

ject was published [8], there are numerous antecedent internal General Elec-
tric reports attesting his early pioneering work [9,10]. To circumvent the un-
availability of commercial analyzer apparatus at his time, he developed a
rather elegant procedure to obtain the pulse-height distribution curves. His
analyzer produced two d-c voltages: one of which was directly proportional to
the corona pulse magnitude, while the other was a direct measure of the
number of pulses having this pulse amplitude. These voltages were applied to
the deflection plates of an oscilloscope, and a polaroid camera was used to
record the locus trace of the resulting pulse-height distribution. The resul-
tant curve could be traced over a 1-min time interval.
9.2 Corona Pulse Count Measurements

As mentioned previously, if one examines the corona discharge pulse pat-
terns displayed on a 60-Hz time base, then (apart from the individual pulse
amplitude differences) one will notice that some discharge patterns are more
dense than others. In other words, the corona pulse discharge rate equal to
the number of corona discharge pulses per unit time or the corona pulse den-
sity of the corona discharge pattern tends to vary with the applied voltage and
its application time as well as with the individual specimen undergoing test.
There are a number of techniques available that may be employed to obtain a
measure of the pulse density of the visually observed corona discharge pat-
terns. For instance, all the corona discharge pulses above a certain preset ap-
parent charge value may be counted by means of an electronic counter, with
the preset charge value being determined by the sensitivity of the corona
detection apparatus used. Figure 9.2 shows an early schematic circuit ar-
rangement for carrying out total pulse count or discharge rate measure-
ments, in conjunction with a typical resistive-inductive-capacitative (RLC)
type corona detection circuit [11,12]. In performing corona pulse count mea-
surements, suitable pulse forming or shaping circuitry must be employed to
reshape the corona pulses appearing across the detection impedance prior to
their application across the electronic counter. In the common RLC-type
detection circuit shown, a discharge occurring within the specimen, Cp,
under test, causes an instantaneous charge, AQ, to appear on Cp. The result-
ing abrupt voltage change across Cp sets the circuit into oscillation at its nat-
ural frequency determined by the circuit parameters 6"9, Co, L, and Cd. If the
capacitance, Cd, shunting the detection coil, L, is much smaller than the
blocking capacitance, Cc, then the voltage wave form appearing across the
detection coil, L, approaches the form
e(t)=----" -~pQexp [ ( - - --~-) tl c~ (-~C~ + L--~p

)1\1/2t (9.1)
c~H.T supply R000;;/

l zbl:Corona-f
ree9 tOr
ckingcOpOcl scilloscope
I =
c-l- T c- --. u. !
--'- SpecirnePn~De:;
' _ ~ _ OA5i
,on
impedance Sofety orcud
J~
__j Attenuators[[ ~ []Oemodul
circuitatio~n
ILLlllll
Electronic
i counter
FIG. 9.2--Schematic connection diagram of an earlier type of circuit for the measurement of
the corona discharge rate (after Bartnikas and d'Ombrain [12]).
where R represents the equivalent circuit resistance and the polarity of the
exponentially decaying cosine transient depends upon the polarity of the co-
rona excitation pulse. This wave form applies strictly to lumped circuit
specimens of capacitance Cp, such as capacitors and short cable lengths.
With longer cables and transformer-type insulating systems (assuming that
they are terminated by their characteristic impedance), secondary resonance
effects would be superposed and the wave form would become more complex.
However, it would still retain its basic exponentially damped sinusoidal or
cosine-like character, so that essentially identical pulse shaping procedures
could be applied regardless of the superposed wave form mutations before
applying the corona signal to the electronic pulse counter.
The decaying cosine wave transient appearing across the detection coil is
subsequently amplified and demodulated, with the demodulated wave
emerging as a positive pulse envelope having a superposed r-f ripple, whose
frequency is the same as that of the original signal (that is, the resonant fre-
quency of the RLC detection circuit). A simple detector circuit shown
in Fig. 9.3 may be effectively used to demodulate the oscillatory corona tran-
sient pulse appearing across the detection impedance of the RCL-type cir-
cuit. Evidently, its resistive-capacitative (RC) time constant should be
suitably adjusted so that the capacitor, C, does not discharge completely
prior to the next alternation upswing of the oscillatory corona pulse tran-
sient. Since the unidirectional corona pulse emerging from the output ter-
minals of the demodulation circuit still contains an appreciable radio-
9;
RI o
F I G . 9.3--Simple diode detector circuit used for demodulating the corona signals appearing
across the detection impedance of an RCL-type corona detection set.
frequency (r-f) ripple of the original wave, it is passed through an audio-

frequency (a-f) amplifier that filters out completely the ripple and presents
the electronic counter with a smooth pulse having the general form A t
exp[--ca]; here A and ot are characteristic parameters determined by the
components of the measuring circuitry. The attenuator in Fig. 9.2 serves the
purpose of discriminating against pulses below a certain magnitude so that
information may be obtained on the magnitude distribution of the recorded
pulses. Figure 9.4 illustrates the pulse shaping sequence steps. Note that the
use of a resonant circuit circumvents one of the difficulties inherent with the
relaxation or RC-type detection circuits, which give rise to relatively narrow
unidirectional pulses with both positive and negative polarities depending
upon the polarity of the corona discharge. In such circumstances, it would be
necessary to invert the negative pulses prior to their application to the elec-
tronic counter, as the latter responds only to pulses of positive polarity. It is
to be emphasized that with the pulse shaping circuitry of Fig. 9.2, some error
will occur when negative polarity corona transients are demodulated, since
the demodulation circuit will respond only to the second oscillation swing in-
to the positive polarity of the originally negative polarity corona transient.
However, the errors due to the negative corona pulse transients will generally
be quite negligible with underdamped signals.
When highly damped transient signals are being demodulated, then the
use of a simple RC demodulation circuit could conceivably result in an ap-
preciable error in the demodulated amplitudes of negative corona pulse tran-
sients. This would follow from the fact that with highly damped transients,
the second oscillation peak is significantly lower in magnitude than the initial
signal peak value. In such circumstances, it would become necessary to use a
slightly different pulse shaping procedure. A damping resistance would have
to be inserted across the detection coil L (see Fig. 9.2) with its value adjusted
to yield a critically damped condition. The resultant nonoscillatory unidirec-
tional transients could then be applied to the negative pulse-inverter circuit
shown in Fig. 9.5 to yield a train of positive polarity unidirectional pulses. In
the circuit shown, the critically damped pulses appearing across the detec-
tion impedance are preamplified and then put through an operational
amplifier having a bandwidth of 1 MHz. The emerging pulses are subse-
quently applied to a polarity sorting detector circuit, which also elimi-
(a) Corona response wave form across detection coil.

Scale: 10 #s/division
0.05 V/division
(b) Corona response wave-form emerging from demodulation circuit.
0.5 V/division
(c) Corona response wave-form after a-f amplifier.
1 V/division
FIG. 9.4--Corona pulse response wave-forms at various circuit points of the corona discharge
rate measuring apparatus given in Fig. 9.2 (after Bartnikas and Levi [ 14], courtesy of American
Institute of Physics).
nates some of the residual superposed ringing on the single positive and
negative polarity signals. The resultant signals are then applied to a differen-
tial amplifier, which inverts the negative pulses and yields a series of smooth
unidirectional positive pulses at the electronic pulse counter terminals. The
buffer amplifiers provide impedance isolation between the detector and dif-
ferential amplifier stages. Note that a differential amplifier works well only
by virtue of the phase relationship existing between the positive and negative
polarity discharges. As has been pointed up already in Chapter 2, the positive
polarity discharges occur along the ascending portion of the 60-Hz wave,
while the negative polarity pulses recur on the descending portion of the
wave. By virtue of this particular property, the positive pulse train remains
well separated in phase from the negative polarity pulse train.
Due to the critical damping feature, the pulse resolution characteristics of
the pulse shaping circuit of Fig. 9.5 are relatively good and fall in the range
of 15 to 30/~s. These figures compare favorably with the range of 30 to 80 #s,
normally achieved with little damping using the circuitry of Fig. 9.2. It
should be emphasized, however, that the latter circuit due to its inherently
low damping characteristics has an appreciable better sensitivity response.
In the total pulse count mode, it is common to set the attenuator shown in
(Cd - 560pF)
Coaxial detection cable
_ _ (~
~. ,Jr IN4751 ..L
500p.H L )~R ; ~ Zener diode
" 1200s T sofety shunt
_L Detection
impedance
T--~ ~4 _L 500k~
430pF M~ I TO PHA or
electronic
t"~082-2800 ~ ' counter
lHP~0e2_2e0
0 ~ DiferentiOlomplifer
To
430pF .0. oscilloscope
monitor
_L3000pF t5pF IM,~

Polarity sorting Buffer _~
diode detectors amplifiers ---
FIG. 9.5--Pulse inverting and shaping circuit for use with critically damped corona pulse
transients (after Bartnikas and Morin, unpublished work).
Fig. 9.2 to zero, so that all corona pulses capable of being detected by the cir-
cuit are recorded. With the circuit in Fig. 9.5, this condition corresponds to a
suitable adjustment of the r-f preamplifier gain for proper signal level range
selection. Thus for example, if pulses with an apparent corona charge level,
AQ(Os) -> 5 pC are counted over a given time interval, then the total pulse
count, N, will be a measure of the overall density of the corona pulse
discharge pattern per cycle or 60 cycles or to whatever the count time interval
is set. Letting ni[AQ(O)] denote the recurrence rate of a corona discharge
pulse occurring at t h e j t h discharge epoch, 0j, of the power frequency wave
having the units of pulses per unit time, we have [13]
N[AQ(0j) _> 5 pC]
At
j=m
= nI[AQ(01)] n2[AQ(02)] . . . d- nm[AQ(Om)] : Y n~[AQ(Oi)] (9.2)
j--1
where At is the count time interval, which is normally set to 1 s or 10 s for

averaging purposes. At the usual power frequency, this corresponds to die
counting of all discharges occurring over a 60 and 600 cycle interval, respec-
tively. Figure 9.6 shows a typical discharge rate versus applied voltage curve
obtained on a 15-kV oil-impregnated-paper insulated power cable, with all
discharges above 5 pC being counted. The curve slopes gradually upward
with the applied voltage as the discharge rate at the individual discharge sites
increases and the number of voids and discharging sites having higher
breakdown voltages commence ionizing with increasing applied voltage. If
3000 I II I I
b
c
8
8
tO
CL
8 2000
g
o
g
8
o 1000
'a
8o
E
O I I Ii I I
O 5 ,10 15 2o 25 30
Applied vottoge (kV rms)
F I G . 9.6--Typical corona discharge rate characteristic o f a 15-kV oil-impregnated-paper

power cable (after Bartnikas and d'Ombrain [12]).
one were to assume that all voids were of equal diameter and under the same
pressure, then the voltage gradient distribution within the cable dielectric
would cause the voids adjacent to the conductor to undergo ionization at a
lower voltage than those further radially removed. Note that the behavior
observed in Fig. 9.6 differs appreciably from the quasi-linear behavior
observed with single discharge sites involving parallel-plane electrodes (see
Chapter 2).
It is evident that in the previously discussed integral counting mode, the
limiting charge value may be easily extended above 5 pC by the simple use of
attenuators so as to yield a series of pulse-count-per-unit-time (pput) values
for any discharge magnitude above a desired preset pulse amplitude. Figure
9.7 shows a typical curve obtained by the use of the attenuator setup depicted
in Fig. 9.2. Differentiation of the curve in Fig. 9.7 provides the pulse height
distribution characteristic portrayed in Fig. 9.8. From the latter, it is seen
that the magnitudes of the recorded discharge voltages or associated charge
transfers exhibit considerable variation. This variation is to a large extent at-
tributable to the variations in the diameter of, and the vapor pressure within,
the voids as well as changes in the discharge voltage at the discrete discharge
sites. An alternative means for obtaining the curve in Fig. 9.7 and the derived
characteristic of Fig. 9.8 is to utilize a discriminator circuit with a variable
input level, whereby all incoming corona pulses above a given preset level are
counted. This technique has been employed by Starr and Johnston [10], who,
as already mentioned, were perhaps the first to use corona pulse-height
analysis techniques in conjunction with a resonant type of corona detection
circuit.
When highly dense corona discharge patterns are encountered, it is often
necessary to use corona pulse count circuits having high pulse resolution char-
acteristics. For example, with the circuitry described in Fig. 9.2, the corona
800 I I I
~i 700
0 ~
Eo
z~ 500
=6
40C
0 Z~Q 2AQ 5AQ 4AQ
Minimum relative signal intensity
ot counter input
FIG. 9.7--Corona discharge rate versus minimum signal intensity o f recorded or counted
pulses for an oil-paper insulating system tested at an applied voltage 7.0 k V above the C1V
point.
,~ 400
500
~ 200
*6 100
..Q
z 0
0 AQ 2AQ 3AQ 4AQ
Relative signal intensity at counter input
F I G , 9.8--Relative corona pulse-height distribution characteristic obtained by differentiating
the curve displayed in Fig. 9. 7.
pulse widths applied to the electronic counter range generally from about 30
to 80/zs. In this circuit, the actual pulse width is determined by the reso-
nant frequency and the internal resistance of the RCL detection circuit as
well as the time constant of the a-f amplifier used to finally shape the pulses.
If we consider the pulse width of 70 #s given in Fig. 9.4c, then at a power fre-
quency of 60 Hz, only 60 pulses per quadrant may be resolved without in-
tegration. Although, due to the exponential nature of the pulse, some pulse
integration may be permissible in practice without giving rise to serious er-
rors.
In order to obviate some of the pulse integration errors occurring at high
corona discharge rates, a circuit has been designed to provide pulse widths of
0.5/~s at the electronic counter input. This circuit [14], which is delineated in
Fig. 9.9, is capable of resolving 8 103 discharges per quadrant without any
signal integration at the power frequency of 60 Hz. Note that in this par-
ticular type of high resolution circuit, the monostable multivibrator replaces
the commonly employed pulse shaping a-f amplifier, and a diode bridge is in-
cluded to invert the negative corona discharge pulses. Secondly, the intrinsic
resolution limit of the RLC detection circuit itself is improved by shunting a
resistor in parallel with a capacitor across the detection coil, L. As in the case
of the less sophisticated circuitry described in Fig. 9.5, the value of the
resistor is set to provide approximately critical damping, thereby eliminating
the lengthy oscillatory portion of the signal shown in Fig. 9.4a. The shunting
capacitor, Cd, is used to reduce the magnitude of the parasitic oscillations
superposed at the wave front of the corona signal. Note as already men-
tioned, the introduction of the shunting resistor and capacitor reduces rather
appreciably the basic sensitivity level of the detection circuit. With these
changes in the detection impedance, the corona discharge transient assumes
the form of a unidirectional pulse, with its polarity corresponding to that of
H.V supply RF choke

o ~00000 l _l_Cc
o ~J~ / T =~176176
Cp_J_ 1 I Oscill~oscope
5_ specimenT L~ ., l~ 1
= p00p.H ~ 200D,: cd_L-
11 [ oo~
200 ~ Line Safety circuit
)
t:2
Pulse transformer
follower Attenuatorsl J L,/ RFamplifier

_L (4OkHz- 4MHz
Rectifier bridge [
l ~ Monostable
- [multivibratorj - J
Emitter
follower lll Ill
4OMHz
EIecu'
rn~c
FIG. 9.9--High pulse resolution corona discharge rate measuring circuit (after Bartnikas and
Levi [14]).
the actual corona discharge transient very much the same as in the circuit of
Fig. 9.5.
Returning to the schematic connection diagram shown in Fig. 9.9, it can
be perceived that a 200-9 cable is used to match the damping resistor value of
200 9. An emitter follower amplifier is inserted at the end of the matched
cable to ensure proper isolation of the detection circuit from the attenuator.
The corona transient emerging from the emitter follower is subsequently at-
tenuated or amplified as required. The resultant output pulse is applied to an
isolating amplifier in tandem with a bridge connected rectifier, whereby the
negative pulses are inverted to ensure that all pulses applied to the
multivibrator are of positive polarity. The attenuator setting and the r-f
amplifier gain are adjusted to maintain the necessary minimum signal level
of the discharge transients applied to the multivibrator. The multivibrator in
turn provides a constant amplitude square pulse, which is applied to the elec-
tronic counter via a suitable emitter follower. Figure 9.10 shows the circuit
diagram of the multivibrator with its emitter follower that is designed to pro-
vide a square output pulse of 0.5-#s duration having a fixed amplitude of 6 V
and requiring a minimum signal input of 1.3 V. In the delineated circuit, the
time constant, C1R 1, determines essentially the duration of the output square
pulse; the emitter follower serves as an isolation circuit between the
multivibrator and the electronic counter. Figure 9.11 gives the corresponding
pulses at the electronic counter input due to a positive and a negative corona
47~ 'F~~~ +8V

RI 5320s5320s 470,0.
T'~)S]~ Oufput
2N7
2T~ 2N708 2N708
FIG. 9.10--Monostable multivibrator circuit with emitter follower preceding the corona pulse
counter unit (after Bartnikas and Levi [14]).
(a) Negative and positive corona pulses across detection impedance.

Scale: 0.5 #s/division
1.0 V/division
(b) Output response at output of monostable multivibrator due to
negative and positive corona pulses.
Scale: 0.S #s/division
1.0 V/division
FIG. 9.11--Corona response pulse wave-forms at input and output of the high pulse resolu-
tion circuit of Fig. 9. 9 (after Bartnikas and Levi [14], courtesy of American Institute of Physics).
response pulse appearing across the detection impedance formed by the com-
ponents L, R, and Cd as given in Fig. 9.9. Figure 9.12 illustrates the useful-
ness of the described measuring circuit when excessively high discharge rates
are recorded (up to 25 103 discharge pulses per second). The curves show
total cumulative pulse counts of all corona pulses having peak intensity levels
in excess of 2.5 pC.
A bridge-type circuit, depicted in Fig. 9.13, has been developed by Hogg
and Walley [15] for integral count measurement applications. The circuit
consists basically of a Schering bridge with associated electronic circuits for
recording cumulative corona discharge counts above a given preset discrimi-
nator level. In place of the standard RCL-type detection impedance, the co-
rona signals are detected across the two RC bridge arms shown. Due to the
RC nature of the corona detection circuit, a pulse resolution of between 0.5
#s and 0.8 #s is readily obtainable and with considerable amplification, sen-
sitivities of up to 0.5 pC with specimen capacitances in the range of 50 to 250
pF are possible. The capacitances, C~ and C3, are discharge-free up to the re-
24
x403
,,, ',/' 22OHz
2O
/
o
/
g
.-~
"o
12
t
8 /
8
"6 8 ;/ 6OHz
20Hz
O
I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 t0
Apparent voltage across gap (kVrms)
FIG. 9 . 1 2 - - C o r o n a discharge rate as a function o f the apparent applied voltage across brass-
P V C electrodes using a 0.20-ram air gap at atmospheric pressure with voltage source frequency
shown as the parameter (after Bartnikas and Levi [ 141).
H.T.variable frequencysupply(50-125OHz)
Ca ~ Cp
25p1~/~ ~ f Spec,men _C,
/ ^ "x~l__.Calibrating - "250pF
K~'~ C~Cs(~I capacit~ divider
Voltage
circuit To vo~meter
_:c
X~Dif ferential
amplifier
Amplitude ~ _ ~ P u i s e counters
I inverter t - Idiscriminatorl -=.l--J and timer
FIG. 9.13--RC-type bridge circuit for the measurement of the corona discharge rate (after
Hogg and Walley [15]).
quired operating voltage. The capacitance, C3, forms part of a voltage

divider and at the same time its purpose is to supply a compensating charge
to the specimen capacitance, Cp, following a discharge. The actual detector
impedance formed by Cd and Rd is suitably varied to ensure that the detect-
able corona pulse widths fall within the range of 0.5 to 0.8 #s. By varying Cd
from 100 to 2000 pF, discharge magnitudes falling in the range from 0.5 to 6
X 103 pC may he recorded. Since a discharge occurring within the specimen
also gives rise to a pulse response across the impedance formed by R 1and C1,
the latter must be set to a value that would make this pulse response negligible
in comparison with that appearing across Rd and Cal. This condition is
satisfied when C1 >> Cd and C3 >> C2. The test frequency is balanced out at
CpRd ": C2R1 (the bridge balance condition). Hogg and Walley have used
their circuit to study corona discharge aging effects in the frequency range
from 50 Hz to 1.25 kHz. Their results indicated that although the corona
pulse intensities over the cycle are test frequency dependent, the total in-
tegrated corona charge per cycle exhibits little charge. This behavior was
mainly attributed to a reduction in the time available per cycle for surface
charge conduction with increasing test frequency.
When use is made of discriminators in any of the previously described
methods, the following corona pulse counting procedure may be found to be
of practical value. In reference to Eq 9.2, should we desire to record only the
recurrence rat~ of thejth discharge of amplitude, AQ(0~), that is, to obtain a
measure of nj[AQ(Oj)], then we would have to resort to a differential counting
mode. This could be achieved by employing an upper and a lower level
discriminator whereby a fixed window width would be provided to restrict the
electronic counter to accept discharge pulses having a magnitude equal to
AQ(Oj) + ~AQ. Note that the value of 2~AQ, by definition, corresponds to
the fixed window width, and for good resolution, the condition, ~AQ <<
AQ(0i), must hold. This type of measurement is usually carried out in con-
junction with the total pulse count to obtain a normalized count. Basically,
the normalized count provides a measure of the fraction of corona pulses
above a certain magnitude as compared to the total number of corona pulses
of all intensities present under a given set of discharge conditions. Evidently,
with dense corona discharge pulse patterns, this ratio
nA/'O(O~)] ~= nAAQ(Oj)] << 1 (9.3)
When the corona discharge patterns contain several unusually large

discharge pulses, then the preceding ratio, or the so-called normalized count,
is particularly useful in assessing the relative magnitudes of the corona
energy dissipated within the larger voids characterized by the more intense
discharge pulses.
9.3 Single-Channel Corona Pulse-Height Analysis

It is probably clear to the reader at this point that a more effective measure
of the corona pulse discharge pattern density can be achieved by making use
of two voltage discriminators having not fixed but rather adjustable window
or voltage threshold levels. With this type of setup, measurements may be
repeated at various window thresholds to obtain a corona discharge rate-
amplitude spectrum of all the corona pulses present in a given discharge pat-
tern. It should be mentioned, however, that this single-channel pulse-height
analysis (PHA) technique is rather time-consuming in that it requires con-
siderable time to complete the numerous window level excursion steps in
traversing the entire pulse amplitude spectrum. Due to the latter disadvan-
tage, the method will tend to suffer somewhat from errors that might arise
from any time dependence of the corona discharge patterns resulting from
changes in the discharge characteristics within the voids themselves. Never-
theless, as long as the tedium of point-by-point recording is not objec-
tionable, single-channel corona pulse-height analysis will be found to be
quite adequate, because in many instances the time dependent errors may
not vary appreciably over the usual length of the measurement time intervals
involved.
Figure 9.14 shows a schematic diagram of a single-channel pulse-height
analyzer that is suitable for use in conjunction with an RCL-type corona
detection circuit [16]. Note that in this particular case, the elements con-
stituting the detection impedance are the same as those given in Fig. 9.9; this
arrangement again ensures a high resolution of the detected corona dis-
charge transients (see Fig. 9.10a). The details on the electronic circuitry are
provided in Fig. 9.15. The respective back-biased diode lower and upper
level discriminators, D1 and D2, constitute a differential discriminator to
which unidirectional corona pulses of the form depicted in Fig. 9.1 la are ap-
H.Vsupply RFchoke
T _Lcc
/ T 3OOOpF
ooo oooo
I Cd "t~_~sOC'~ ~,rcult
- 200,0, Line
_1_
Isolation
amplifier (44MHz) ,x -= H4MHz) ]
] ..~ Multivibrotor[ I ~ I,
dl~i:ePr~L" ~ if ier ' ' ~ifier ~ t
FIG. 9.14--Schematic circuit diagram of a single-channel corona pulse-height analyzer (after

Bartnikas and Levi [16]).
plied. The amplifier, in tandem with DI and D2, is operated in the saturation
mode. Including the threshold of these amplifiers, the effective and constant
bias level of D1 is fixed at 1.0 V and that of D2 at 1.2 V, thus yielding a fixed
window width of 200 mV at a constant input impedance at the input ter-
minals of D~ and D2. The square pulse emerging from the multivibrator
across D~ has a width of 0.75/~s; after differentiation, its positive spike is
removed so that the remaining negative spike represents an approximate
phase delay of 0.75/zs.
The negative spike is allowed to trigger a second monostable multivibra-
tor, which provides a smooth square pulse of 0.5/xs duration that is in turn
applied to an emitter follower. The monostable multivibrator in tandem with
D2 produces a pulse of 1.5/~s width, whose polarity is reversed by a single-
stage amplifier to provide a pulse exceeding in amplitude by 2.0 V the
amplitude of the positive pulse at the output of the D1 circuit. An exclusive
OR gate function is obtained by interconnecting the emitter follower of D~
with the output of the amplifier of D2 as shown in Fig. 9.14. Consequently,
when the input corona pulse amplitude exceeds the level of D2, a negative
pulse of 1.5-#s duration emerges from the circuit in line with D2 and blanks
the 0.5-#s pulse at the output of the circuit in line with D1. The phase rela-
t.Sp.H
0
Ikl~ .d-lO00 --L t000
83o
0
~ + 4700pF t.8kD.~~ Z}>
200Q 2~Og
' 7~ ,Detection i ~ OVL-j Attenuat~
j =o J impedance --- Amplifier--
__lL. ~" _1_ t 0 0 0 . - L 1000 (t4MHz) o)
- T pF T pF c
Isolation 3o
..L rn
_-= amplifier E
Ill
Z
,+tOY --I
'0tIP " NE-447Q .O.t.p.Ft.3ks162 36ki1
: " " " 4.TkD~ k~
~N708
I --'~- 6V 2N708~-'-'~ 2k'ld~2NT08 2N708 W t kn I
Discriminator D, Amplifier Multivibrator Differentiator Multivibrator
(=~-~ Emitter follower
F NE-44ro .C~.F t.3ka 3~.a
~ -': ~ II ~ t ikat 5~kat 4.7k~ ttka "~4k~a .o, I L!!j I i
_.L--I Electronic counter I
, ] ~ 6v 2N708~ ~Y2N708 2N708W ~47k~ I
Discriminator D2 Amplifier Multivibrator Amplifier
FIG. 9.15--Circuit details o f single-channel PHA for use in conjunction with an RCL-type discharge detector (after Bartnikas and Levi [16]).
CHAPTER 9 - - P U L S E COU NTING A N D PULSE-HEIGHT ANALYSIS 303
tionship between the two output pulses is such that the positive count pulse
falls approximately in the middle of the negative 1.5-#s blanking pulse,
which evidently also sets the pulse resolution limit of the overall single-
channel pulse-height analyzer.
The circuitry preceding the discriminators, D1 and DE, consists of an iso-
lation amplifier used to isolate the detection impedance of the corona
discharge detector circuit from the input of the attenuators. Note that the in-
sertion of the attenuators and the linear amplifiers in front of the differential
discriminator, formed by DI and D2, alter the effective position and width of
the window. The linear amplifier between the clipping diode circuit and the
attenuators is of the push-pull type and has single-ended outputs to permit
the separate spectrum analyses of both positive and negative corona pulses.
The amplification of the linear amplifiers is kept constant, and the window
position and width are changed by manipulation of the attenuators. The
single-channel pulse-height analyzer is suitably calibrated to ensure that no
overlapping or gaps occur between the adjacent resulting window settings. It
has been found convenient under all corona signal intensities [16] to main-
tain the window width at a value equal to roughly 10 percent of the peak co-
rona signal magnitude across the detection impedance. Figure 9.16 shows a
number of typical corona pulse distribution spectra obtained with the
described analyzer using metallic-dielectric electrodes in helium with the gap
separation as a parameter. The experimental results provide a lucid illustra-
tion of the effect of artificial void thickness or gap separation upon the
magnitude distribution of the negative corona discharge pulses at a voltage of
10 kV root mean square applied across the entire specimen insulation (in this
t50 I I
7mr
9mm
|
IO0
a.
so tOmm
0
0 50 t00 150 200 250
Detected discharge voltage - AEL(mV)
FIG. 9.16--Negative corona discharge pulse distributions at an applied voltage o f lO-k V root
mean square, obtained on an artificial void containing helium at atmospheric pressure with void
thickness as a parameter (after Bartnikas and Levi [16]).
particular case a cable). Increasing the gap length is seen to reduce the
distribution peak magnitude and cause a displacement of the peak maxima
towards the region of higher discharge values. The observed displacement
results from the larger breakdown voltages, Eb(Oj), associated with the longer
helium gaps. The attenuation in the peaks themselves follows directly from
the fact that, due to the larger breakdown voltages, less corona discharges
per cycle are permitted to occur.
If total pulse count distribution curves were desired with the present cir-
cuitry, then the linear amplifier with the single-ended output and the asso-
ciated clipping diode circuit would have to be replaced by a normal linear
amplifier followed by a diode-rectifier bridge. Otherwise, we would have to
carry out manually a point-by-point addition of the positive and negative co-
rona pulse distribution characteristics.
9.4 Multichannel Corona Pulse-Height Analysis

Much of the tedium associated with the previously described single-
channel corona PHA techniques can be resolved by the use of multichannel
pulse-height analyzers [17-19]. A number of commercial multichannel
pulse-height analyzers became available during the 1960's, largely as a
spinoff from the large volume of work carried out on nuclear pulse spec-
trometry. Commercial pulse-height analyzers may have typical options of
128, 256, 512, 1024, 4096, and 8192 channels coupled with the necessary
memory and circuit capability of digitizing the input corona pulse data with
dead times in the order of only a few microseconds. For example, if a given
analyzer is operated at a 1024-channel capacity, then the incoming corona
pulses having different amplitudes are sorted by an analog-to-digital con-
verter into one of 1024 possible heights. In effect, the multichannel analyzer
compiles a statistical corona pulse distribution characteristic in which the in-
dividually respective channels, namely 1, 2, 3 . . . . 1024 correspond to par-
ticular corona pulse charges, while the total corona pulse count in each chan-
nel, Nj, given by
Nj = nj[AQ(0j)] At (9.4)
equals the number of discrete pulses whose peak amplitude, AQ(0j), cor-
responds to the channel in question. Note that here the count interval, At,
over which each corona pulse train is analyzed, can be made sufficiently long
to derive a truly statistical charge-amplitude distribution of the pulse train.
Due to the large number of channels involved, the corona pulse count versus
the corona charge amplitude curve provided by a multichannel analyzer is by
its very nature a nearly continuous characteristic. Since the multichannel
analyzer provides essentially a continuous curve of the distribution of the fre-
quency of occurrence of the corona charge pulse heights of a train of pulses
associated with a given corona discharge pattern, the integral of the

generated curve is thus dimensionally equivalent to the total corona current,
I, within the discharging voids, namely
oo
I = 10 -12
i 0
n d(AQ)
where I is the corona current in amperes, n is the recurrence rate in pulses
(9.5)
per second, and AQ is the apparent corona charge in picocoulombs. It is evi-

dent that the expression given in Eq 9.5, when multiplied by the applied
voltage value, yields a quantity proportional to the total corona energy loss or
power dissipated by the discharges. For this very reason, corona pulse-height
analysis carried out as a function of time may provide very useful information
on the relationship between the corona energy loss and the ensuing degrada-
tion of the insulating material subjected to the corona discharge.
Essentially, the corona pulse-height distribution curve, as displayed on the
cathode ray screen of the multichannel analyzer, may be regarded approx-
imately as a probability density function of a random variable. Since we are
analyzing a train of pulses having variable heights or apparent corona
charges, our random variable is the corona pulse-height, AQ, normally ex-
pressed in picocoulombs. Hence, the probability of occurrence (or the
relative frequency of occurrence) on the vertical axis is thus given as a func-
tion of the random variable, AQ, on the horizontal axis. Accordingly, we can
define the probability density function, P(AQ), of the random corona pulse
charge variable, AQ, as the set of numbers associated with each possible
value of AQ whose total is equal to unity, that is
I =
oo
P(AQ)d(AQ) = 1 (9.6)
or
j=m
Pj(AQ) = 1 (9.7)
j=l
for the condition where P ( A Q ) > 0. However, it ought to be emphasized

that in pract!ce the corona pulse discharge spectra are not normalized to suit
the form of Eqs 9.6 and 9.7. In fact, the vertical scale of the experimentally
obtained corona pulse discharge spectra is actually a locus of points
representing the number of corona pulses, nAAQ(Oi) ] At, contained in the
individual channels and not that of the probability, Pj(AQ). As the corona
discharge process is significantly time dependent, the measuring time inter-
val is usually set to 1 min or less in order to minimize any errors due to any
possible time dependent effects. Were the corona discharge process invariant
with time, then the longer the multichannel analyzer were kept in operation
the closer the resultant plot would approach the true replica of a probability
density function.
In performing corona pulse-height analysis measurements, there are a
number of points that must be kept in mind if measurement errors are to be
averted. When capacitors and short cable lengths (which behave as lumped
capacitance specimens) are tested, then corona pulse distribution measure-
ments are relatively straight forward, unless the specimen capacitance
is too high to permit corona detection (see Chapter 3). When the speci-
mens under test behave as distributed parameter circuits, then care must
be exercised to eliminate any possible reflection effects. With long cable
specimens that behave as pulse transmission lines, the cables must be ter-
minated by a high voltage impedance as shown in Fig. 9.17. The long cable is
seen to be terminated at the far end by a resistor, R0, equal in value to the
characteristic impedance of the cable. This prevents corona pulse reflection
and ensures that each corona discharge is recorded as a single event. A high-
voltage capacitor, C, is placed in series with Ro in order that it may assume
the 60-Hz voltage drop and thus prevent the voltage source from being short
circuited by R0. The value of C is usually made approximately equal to that
of the blocking capacitor, Co, so that C also represents a low impedance path
to the high-frequency corona pulse transients. With transformer specimens,
the problem is more complex, since a transformer will not only act as a
transmission line but, in addition, errors will be introduced due to signal
coupling between windings and other secondary ringing effects. Corona
fl
H.V
Power
amplifier
irmr Fch~
i - 2 Blocking
5- 50OOHz
Filh
--'- r"-] I amp
Cablespecimen
Calibration_L_ ~ T ] Detection
I impedance
capacit~I Cs<<Cc~~ ~'cVjc:)citR~
~
Square
pulse
generator impedance_x
Characteristic
matchingresistor
OscilIOoscop
e ~__
[~Pulse shaping
[ Demodulation
circuit ~ Mu/~!i!g/D
t ~ Teleprinter]
or magnetic
topeunit
F I G . 9.17--Typical high-voltage characteristic impedance termination at the far end of a

cable specimen undergoing test (after Bartnikas [20]).
pulse-height distribution measurements carried out on transformer speci-

mens can thus be subject to appreciable error.
Although the question of corona detection set calibration was dealt with
extensively in Chapter 3, some additional remarks are in order concerning
the corona pulse-height distribution measurements. Since corona measure-
ments are carried out in terms of the apparent corona-pulse charge, the
horizontal scale of the multichannel analyzer must be calibrated directly in
picocoulombs [20]. The calibration pulse charge is usually injected across the
terminals of the test specimen via a small series coupling capacitor, C,, using
a pulse generator as a voltage source as depicted in Fig. 9.17. If the pulse
generator has a square pulse output voltage of the form
e(t) = E,[u(tl) -- u(t2)] (9.8)
then the injected apparent corona charge of positive polarity at the front of
the square excitation pulse and of negative polarity at the trailing edge of the
excitation pulse will be given approximately by
AQ = CsEs (9.9)
where Es is the square pulse amplitude in volts. Note that the width and
separation of the square calibration pulses have to be sufficiently large to
prevent response pulse integration. With distributed parameter specimens,
such as cables, it is common practice to inject the excitation pulse at the far
end of the cable in order to take into account attenuation as well as rise time
degradation effects as the incident corona pulse propagates along the cable
length. It has been previously demonstrated that the rise time of the injected
calibration or excitation pulse should not exceed a value of 1/25f0, where f0
is the resonant frequency of the RCL corona sensing circuit [21]. In addition,
it was shown that the rise and decay times of the calibration pulse must be
equalized to ensure a single distribution peak response on the multichannel
analyzer. A value of 0.1 #s for both the rise and decay times of the excitation
pulse has been found to be the optimal choice in practice [20]. Figure 9.18
shows a typical corona response pulse at the multichannel analyzer input due
to a 0.1-~ rise time calibration pulse, using the pulse shaping circuitry
depicted in Fig. 9.5. Prior to each measurement, the overall amplification of
the measuring circuitry must be adequately adjusted to set the lower and up-
per pulse amplitude spectrum limits between which a particular corona pulse
train is to be analyzed. Following this adjustment, one can commence with
the actual calibration procedure whereby successively diminishing values of
apparent charge are injected via the calibration capacitance, Cs, by varying
the amplitude, Es, of the square excitation pulse provided by the pulse
generator. Figure 9.19 portrays a number of typical multichannel analyzer
responses to a sequence of calibration pulse steps, covering a pulse amplitude
FIG. 9.18--Corona pulse response due to a square calibration pulse. Upper trace: 40-pC
square excitation pulse with O.15-#s rise and fall times. Lower trace : simulated 40-pC response
pulses across multichannel analyzer input. Time base : 50 #s/division.
spectrum up to about 40 pC for a particular amplification setting 'with the

analyzer resolution capacity as a parameter. Since the multichannel analyzer
scale calibration is obtained in terms of the mean value of the distributed
response peaks, the sampling time used in conjunction with the particular
excitation pulse repetition rate must be sufficiently long to ensure: a well-
defined distribution peak. It can be discerned from Fig. 9.19 that as the
number of channels or the analyzer resolution capacity is drastically in-
creased any small nonlinearities normally present in the overall measurement
system become greatly exaggerated. The observed nonlinearity induced dis-
tortions in the calibration peak distributions at the 4096 and 8192 channel
settings are further enhanced by any inequality in the calibration pulse rise
and decay times as well as pulse jitter. However, this asymmetry in the cali-
bration pulse distributions is eliminated when the resolution capaciLtyis re-
duced to 1024 channels. If proper precautions are taken, the multichannel
analyzer screen may be quite readily calibrated to an apparent pulse charge
accuracy of + 5 percent. Note should be made, however, that the overall ac-
curacy of the charge calibration may be appreciably degraded from this value
due to poor resolution as a result of a small number of channels used. For
this reason, the achievement of sufficiently adequate resolution in practice
entails the use of generally not less than 1024 channels.
Because of the nearly linear amplification systems employed in the
previously described corona pulse shaping circuits, it is not possible to carry
out a simultaneous spectrum analysis of very low intensity discharges in the
presence of some intense discharges without overdriving the system. In such
circumstances, overall corona spectrum analysis must be carried out in
several steps: the respective analysis of the low, intermediate, and l~igh co-
rona intensity spectral regions. Logarithmic amplifiers may in part circum-
vent this problem. At the same time, it must be borne in mind that due to the
ambient noise problems in electrical apparatus manufacturing areas, it is
generally not practicable to extend the PHA below an apparent charge level
FIG. 9.19--Multichannel analyzer response to a series o f calibration steps o f different corona

charge values with the analyzer resolution capacity shown as a parameter (measurement time in-
terval: 20 s).
of 1 pC. When corona PHA is being carried out in an area with appreciable
electrical noise background, it is often helpful to run a PHA on the specimen
with no applied voltage in order to obtain the noise pulse spectrum itself.
This background noise spectrum is subsequently subtracted from the overall
pulse spectrum obtained at a given test voltage to yield the actual corona
pulse spectrum (assuming no integration effects between the respective co-
rona and extraneous noise pulses).
The proper interpretation of the corona pulse discharge spectra entails a
thorough understanding and insight into the corona discharge process itself.
Much of this pertinent detail has been already provided to some extent in
Chapter 2. It might be, however, appropriate at this point to underline cer-
tain salient features that must be kept in mind whenever corona pulse
distribution patterns are examined. It has been pointed up previously that
whenever the a-c voltage developed across a discharge site within a void ex-
ceeds an integer value of its breakdown voltage, recurring discharges take
place. If we assume a true pulse or spark discharge process, then at the in-
stant of each pulse or spark discharge the voltage across the discharge site
falls abruptly by an amount equal to [Eb (Oj) -- Er(0y)], where in accordance
with the earlier designation Eb(Oj) and Er(Oj) refer respectively to the
breakdown and residual voltages at the j t h discharge epoch, 0i. By defini-
tion, the value, Er(Oj), reduces to zero only when the discharge site is com-
pletely discharged by the spark; with the involvement of dielectric surfaces,
this obviously presents an unlikely condition. Moreover, for sites with dielec-
tric boundaries, Eb (Oj) and Er (Oj) have been shown to be functions of the ap-
plied voltage polarity, discharge epoch, and the nature of the discharge site
itself. It is thus apparent that even with a single discharge site contained
within a given dielectric void, the corona discharge pulse train arriving at the
multichannel analyzer input (when considered over only one complete power
frequency cycle) will be characterized by pulses of varying magnitudes
represented by a set of values proportional to
[Eb(0~) -- Er(0,)l, [Eb(02) -- E,(02)I . . . [Eb(Oj) --

(9.10)
g,.(Oj)] . . . [Eb(0,,,) -- Er(O,,,)]
The external corona pulse sensing circuit will not indicate the exact value of
these individual abrupt voltage decrement steps, but rather only a fraction
thereof, namely
AE(Oj) = K[Eb(Oj) -- Er(0S)] (9.11)
where the factor K is determined by the capacitative networks of the detec-

tion circuit and of the insulating system containing the discharge site as well
as the attenuation characteristics in the case of distributed parameter
specimens. Since corona detection units are calibrated to measure the ap-
parent corona charge, AQ(0s) of the detected pulses in picocoulombs, the
peak values in picocoulombs of the pulse train will not only depend upon the
voltage step, [Eb(Oi) -- Er(Oi)], but also upon the capacitance being
discharged, that is, the capacitance in series with the discharge site [22].
Thus, discharge pulses having low picocoulomb values will tend to emanate
from discharge sites where the discharged dielectric area and the capacitance
in series with the discharge site are small.
If we consider a hypothetical discharge site, which sparks over once in each
polarity of the a-c voltage wave and the voltage fall, [Eb(Oy) - - Er(0j)], as well
as the capacitance discharged are equal in the two polarities, then this will
give rise to two corona pulses of equal magnitude per cycle of the power fre-
quency. When these pulses are applied to the multichannel analyzer input, a
single point or a relatively narrow distribution peak response will be in-
dicated depending upon how constant the amplitude of the pulses remains
with time. In practice, this situation is rarely established. Even with idealized
cavities having metallic electrodes, the discharge voltages change from
polarity to polarity as well as within the same polarity. As an example, Fig.
9.20 shows the corona pulse-height distribution spectra obtained on a
metallic electrode spark gap, exhibiting one discharge in the positive and
negative polarity, respectively, at corona onset. The two unequal discharge
pulse amplitudes in the two polarities with their respective small temporal
variations in amplitude are seen to give rise to two separate pulse-height
distribution peaks. The difference in dispersion between the two distribution
peaks indicates that the temporal variation of the discharge pulses in the two
opposite polarities is different. The relatively high discharge values
associated with the two distribution peaks reflect the large capacitance
discharged by the spark within the metallic electrode gap. Such high-
Measurementtime interval = 60 s
Base line = 100 channels
Resolution capacity= 1024channels
FIG. 9.20--Corona pulse amplitude distribution characteristic of a discharge between
metallic electrodes at CIV (after Bartnikas [13], courtesy of Institute o f Electrical and Elec-
tronics Engineers).
intensity discharges could, for instance, occur in faulted porcelain insulators

of pot heads, and are thus much more intense than those occurring within
the small voids occluded within the insulating system of electrical apparatus.
When discharges involve dielectric surfaces, a single discharge is quite
unlikely to discharge the entire electrode surface due to the finite surface
resistivity of the dielectric. More often, several discharge sites are required to
discharge the overall surface area and the corona pulse train emanating from
the cavity is given by the summation
j=m
E Ai
j=l
where Ai represents the ith discharge site characterized by a set of corona

pulse charges given by
AQ(0,), AQ(02), AQ(03) . . . AQ(O~) . . . AQ(0,,,) (9.12)
Evidently, with the occurrence of several discharge sites within a physical

void or an artificial void with dielectric electrodes, the overall corona pulse
distribution characteristic will be comprised of a superposition of the in-
dividual pulse spectra characterizing the individual discharge sites. Figure
9.21 represents a typical corona pulse distribution spectrum obtained using
an artificial cavity having metallic-dielectric electrodes. It can be clearly
perceived that the introduction of more than one discharge site leads to an
appreciably more complex distribution characteristic as compared to that
obtained with a single discharge site (see Fig. 9.20). Here the relatively large
corona pulse charge values are again indicative of the rather large
capacitances discharged at the discharge sites of the artificial cavity.
In our preceding discussions we have confined ourselves to idealized
cavities and physical voids containing one or more discharge sites. Evidently,
in the testing of practical insulating systems, one is confronted with the
analysis of pulse distribution spectra representing the cumulative effect of
numerous discharge sites within numerous void inclusions dispersed within
the insulating systems under test. Under such circumstances, the overall co-
rona pulse train over one cycle of the power frequency will be comprised of
sets of corona pulse charge-amplitude values expressed by the double sum-
mation
I=m i=m
/=1 i=1
where the first summation refers to all the voids undergoing ionization, and
the second summation concerns the individual discharge sites within the
discrete voids themselves. The double summation term indicates that in the
case of practical insulating systems, the resulting corona pulse density spec-
tra may assume a variety of forms depending upon the number of ionizing
Measurementtime interval = 60 s
Resolution capacity = 1024channels
FIG. 9.21--Corona pulse amplitude distribution characteristic of a discharge between
metallic-polyethylene electrodes placed 0.15 mm apart in air at 2.0 k V above the CIV value
(after Bartnikas [13], courtesy of Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers).
voids involved and their individual discharge characteristics. Figure 9.22

shows a series of typical corona pulse distribution patterns obtained with an
ethylene propylene rubber (EPR) cable specimen with the applied voltage as
a parameter. At corona onset, the spectrum consists primarily of a small
number of low-intensity discharge pulses and probably involves either a
single or only a small number of discharging cavities. As the applied voltage
is increased, the discharge rate of the voids already undergoing ionization is
enhanced and additional voids commence discharging, as is well illustrated
in the subsequent corona pulse distribution patterns obtained at voltages
above the CIV point. The spectra are seen to peak over the low-intensity
discharge region; although over the major portion of discharge intensities,
the distribution approximates an exponential form. Note that as the applied
voltage is increased above the CIV level, the spectrum extends markedly into
the larger pulse intensity values, and the number of low-intensity discharges
also increases appreciably. The increase in the area under the corona pulse
count versus the corona pulse intensity curve increases with the voltage, in-
dicating an increase in the corona energy dissipated. It should be observed
that the quasi-exponential decrease of corona pulse count with apparent co-
rona pulse charge at the more elevated values of test voltage appears to be a
characteristic property of solid dielectric insulated cables in which the corona
Measurement time interval = 60 s

Resolution capacity = 1024 channels
(a) at CIV
(b) at 2.0 kV above CIV
(c) at 8.0 kV above CIV
FIG. 9.22--Corona pulse-height distribution characteristics as a function of applied voltage
obtained on a 25-k V EPR insulated power cable (after Bartnikas [13], courtesy of Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers).
discharge patterns are determined by a large number of voids and discharge

sites undergoing ionization. This predominant behavior strongly suggests
that with most solid-type cables the occurrence of single localized voids is
unlikely. It is thus quite conceivable that the observed discharge patterns
result from minute voids distributed along and between the extruded
semiconductor shield and insulation interfaces. It must be said, however,
that it is not too uncommon to find cable specimens that can show ap-
preciable deviation from the near exponential behavior observed in Fig. 9.22;
one such case is illustrated in Fig. 9.23.
Corona pulse-height distribution measurements may be used to study the
aging or degradation processes of insulating materials and systems exposed
to corona discharges. The fact that all corona pulse-height distribution pat-
terns obtained under constant voltage test conditions undergo change with
time is indicative of physical and chemical changes occurring within the voids
as a function of time. The experimental data accumulated thus far indicates
that the total corona energy loss, that is, the area under the corona pulse-
height distribution curve, may either increase or decrease with time; in some
cases, it may also exhibit little change over relatively short test time periods.
Figure 9.24 shows a series of corona pulse-height distribution spectra ob-
tained on a cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) cable stressed constantly at 3.0
kV above the CIV level. It can be perceived that the area under the curves
diminishes with time, indicating a decrease in the overall corona discharge
energy dissipated. Whether the corona energy increases or decreases with
time depends mainly upon the discharge characteristics of the voids involved.
The latter are governed to a large extent by the surface resistivity of the
discharging void walls, being in effect determined by the physical and
chemical degradation rates of the exposed dielectric material itself. In fact, a
diminishing discharge intensity suggests that the discharge products formed
within the voids are gradually short-circuiting the discharge sites. Should this
process continue, then it is quite conceivable that failure at a particular void
site might be more a result of dielectric heating due to the conductive
discharge products than due to the continuance of the discharge itself.
At our present state of knowledge, it is still quite difficult to predict insula-
tion system life in terms of the initial corona pulse-height distribution curves.
Considerably more experimental life test data must be gathered on a variety
of insulating materials before we can be in a position to predict insulation
failure in terms of Certain tendencies observed in the pulse-height distribu-
tion spectra with time. At the same time, it must be emphasized that corona
pulse-height analysis provides more of a corona finger-print characteristic
than can be derived from any other type of corona discharge measurement.
In this respect, if properly interpreted, corona pulse-height analysis may lead
ultimately to some important test results and deductions that would be im-
possible to achieve otherwise. Recently, an extensive study using pulse-height
analysis techniques has been reported by Mathes [23]. Employing an RC-
Measurement time interval = 60 s

(a) at CIV
(b) at 1.6 kV above CIV
(c) at 3.6 kV above CIV
(d) at 5.6 kV above CIV
FIG. 9.23--Corona pulse-height distribution characteristics obtained on a 1 5 - k V X L P E

power cable as a function o f applied voltage (after Bartnikas, unpublished work).
CHAPTER 9--PULSE COUNTING AND PULSE-HEIGHT ANLAYSIS 317
M e a s u r e m e n t t i m e interval = 60 s
(a) at b e g i n n i n g of test (t = 0)
(b) at t i m e t = 30 min
(c) at t i m e t = 1 h
FIG. 9.24--Corona pulse-height distribution characteristics o f a 15-kV X L P E insulated

power cable stressed at 3. 0 k V above the C I V value (after Bartnikas [13], courtesy o f Institute
o f Electrical and Electronics Engineers).
type corona detector in conjunction with a multichannel analyzer, he found a

relationship between the corona pulse-height distribution and the gases
evolved from a number of hydrocarbon insulating liquids and impregnated
papers subjected to corona discharge. In another investigation, Miller and
Black [24] were able to demonstrate that the corona pulse-height distribution
in voids within epoxy specimens remains nearly constant in the frequency
range from 0.1 to 50 Hz. Their observation in effect justifies the use of low-
frequency corona testing techniques in field applications. Their corona
detection circuit is interesting in the sense that it incorporates a
discriminating network that eliminates the influence of extraneous noise
upon the corona measurements. The circuit is depicted in Fig. 9.25, and it is
basically a bridge type circuit. In the schematic connection diagram shown,
C2 functions as a blocking capacitor and Z1 and Z2 are the measuring im-
pedances across which a discrimination unit is connected. When a discharge
takes place in the specimen capacitance, Cp, the pulses detected across Z~
and Z2 are of opposite polarity; this is in direct contrast to any interference
pulses that are always seen as of the same polarity. The discrimination unit
makes a comparison of these pulses and operates a gate that in turn
transmits to the PHA only those pulses that emanate from the specimen
capacitance, Cp. The purpose of the pulse stretcher is to increase the width of
the pulses to 40 #s to facilitate viewing of the corona discharge pulses upon
the oscilloscope screen.
Note that in all of the preceding corona pulse-height analysis circuits, the
test voltage source need not always be confined to the power frequency. Often
it is desirable to carry out accelerated life tests at frequencies above 60 Hz or
HE low frequency supply
Amplifiers
To P H A
and
i=
display
Discrimination =
Ii ~176 I Control "-
FIG. 9.25--Schematic diagram o f a corona pulse-height analyzer circuit incorporating a noise

discrimination unit (after Miller and Black [24]).
alternatively to study the discharge process and sequence at low frequencies.

For this purpose, variable frequency power amplifiers usually provides the
best flexibility, and there is generally no difficulty in obtaining these units to
cover the range from 5 Hz to 10 kHz. When variable frequency tests are per-
formed, the measured value of applied voltage should be corrected for any
possible voltage drop across the r-f choke or filter system isolating the power
source from the corona detection circuit.
9.5 Corona Pulse Separation-Interval Distribution Measurements

With the application of multichannel analyzers to corona discharge
measurements, another option of measurement has become available. This
option pertains to the measurement of the time interval between two con-
secutive discharge pulses. Perhaps most of the development work in this area
has been carried out by Mayoux and his coworkers at the University of
Toulouse [25-28]. To obtain their corona pulse time-interval distribution
characteristics, they made use of a time-amplitude converter circuit in con-
junction with a pulse-height analyzer system. Most commercial multichannel
analyzer systems incorporate various types of time-amplitude plug-in units as
possible options.
A common time-interval analysis circuit used extensively in the past [26] is
depicted in Fig. 9.26. Note that a detection impedance of 50 f] is utilized in
conjunction with an operational amplifier and a synchronization unit. Here,
the purpose of the latter is to pass corona pulses of positive polarity only. The
operational amplifier is employed for pulse shaping purposes and, in addi-
tion, provides a window width of 2 to 3 mV at a sensitivity of 3 mV. The time-
amplitude converter unit transforms the time interval between the incoming
Relay
HT suppl
~ S Power
pecimen C frequency
/ / filter
Cc_-
Blocking
capacitor
Relay winding Detection I J

control and impedance ~
safety circuit Window setting
control
Multichannel[ ]
I Synchronisotion I I Time-amplitude pulse-height J
I unit [ ~ , converter analyzer l
FIG. 9.26--Simplified schematical circuit for corona pulse time-htterval distribution mea-
surements (after Bapt and Mayoux [26]).
o60V
~ i I
I Current
source
1-t
I
Coupling Output
Input copocitor a im
rejectionfilter_.~
-t2V
FIG. 9.27--Time-amplitude converter circuit (after Bapt et al [26,27]).
pulses into a proportional voltage output, which is then readily analyzed by

the multichannel PHA circuitry. The time-amplitude converter circuit por-
tion [28] is depicted in detail in Fig. 9.27. It consists basically of a current
source and high-speed switching transistor, T2, which remains shut in the
absence of discharge pulses at the input. It is precisely during this shut-off
time that the capacitor, C, obtains its charge from the constant current
source. Upon the arrival of a corona pulse at the base input, T2 opens and C
discharges through the resistance, R2 '. Since the capacitor, C, is linearly
charged, the amplitude output across C is directly proportional to the separa-
tion time between two consecutive incoming corona discharge pulses. Note
that the circuit is only operational with positive pulses, so that all incoming
corona pulses require rectification.
An alternative method for measuring the separation time between corona
discharge pulses involves the use of commercially available time-to-
amplitude converter circuits. For this purpose the corona signals must be
unidirectional having pulse widths generally in the range from 10 to 50 ns.
Assuming that all incoming corona signals are unipolar of positive polarity,
the signals are first inverted as shown in Fig. 9.28a. A delay line is used to
provide a delay (At '), roughly equal in time to the width of the incoming co-
rona pulse. This provides the time-to-amplitude converter with a reference
pulse of delay time, At ', so that the peak value of the square pulse output of
the time-to-amplitude converter is given by
Eout : [At0 -- At'] (9.13)

m
where m is the slope of the line in Fig. 9.28b, and At0 is the separation time
between two consecutive pulses. Note that in terms of Fig. 9.28b
At0 : At" + At' (9.14)
where At" is the difference between the pulse interval time, At0, and the time
delay, At'. Rearranging Eq 9.13, we obtain the pulse separation time, At0,
namely
At0 = mEout + A t ' (9.15)
When the time-to-amplitude conversion circuitry is not available, there ex-

ists still another technique that may be utilized to obtain the corona pulse
separation distribution spectra or the N = f(At0) curves. This would involve
the use of timer unit in lieu of the more conventional time-to-amplitude con-
version circuitry [29]. In this arrangement, the timer unit is employed to
measure the pulse interval distribution, N = f(At0), in relation to a fixed
chopper pulse train.
When the horizontal scale of a multichannel PHA is to be calibrated for
pulse time-interval measurements, two procedures may be used. First, when
the pulse width of the excitation pulse is not set equal to the separation time
of the excitation pulse, then two separate response peaks will be observed.
One peak will be a measure of the response time interval between the pulse at
the front and that at the trailing edge of the excitation square pulse. Thus,
the location of the second peak with respect to the origin will be a measure of
the time interval between the response pulse at the trailing edge of the excita-
tion pulse and that at the front of the next excitation pulse. In this case, the
pulse count for both distribution peaks will be directly proportional to the
repetition rate frequency of the calibration generator. Second, if the pulse
I~= ~ == ~ _ _ Outer
Q
At
b
Eout
FIG. 9.28--(a) Schematic circuit diagram showing delay line arrangement of the time-
amplitude conversion technique. (b) Relationship between the output voltage (Eout) and the co-
rona pulse separation time (At + At ') of the time-amplitude converter circuit of (a).
width of the calibration generator pulse is always adjusted to equal the pulse
separation time, then evidently only one distribution peak will result with a
magnitude proportional to two times the repetition frequency of the
generator. In practice, the latter procedure is found to be more convenient.
The interpretation of the corona pulse time-interval distributions is con-
siderably more complex than that of the corona pulse amplitude distribution.
Nevertheless, it appears presently that some useful information can be
deduced from the corona pulse time-interval distributions concerning the in-
sulation degradation and breakdown processes. In this regard, Bapt and
Mayoux [27] have obtained some data that suggests a definite relationship
between the void surface resistivity and the corona pulse time-interval
distribution characteristics. Since the void surface resistivity is inevitably
related to the aging characteristics of the void walls exposed to the corona
discharge, one must therefore conclude that information on aging and subse-
quent failure can be derived from the corona pulse time-interval test data. At
the same time, it is apparent that in so far as the pulse time-interval distribu-
tion characteristic is not directly related to the corona energy loss, its rela-
tionship to aging due to corona degradation will remain necessarily more
obscure than that of the pulse-height distribution characteristic.
Corona pulse separation distribution spectra bear considerable similarity
to those of the corona pulse amplitude distribution notwithstanding the basic
differences in their respective natures. Figure 9.29 shows typical pulse inter-
val distribution spectra obtained by Bapt and Mayoux [27] on a cavity within
an epoxy resin specimen subjected to an applied voltage of 8 kV root mean
square, with testing time as the parameter. The N = f(At0) curves are seen
to exhibit appreciable change in time, which has been attributed to changes
in the void surface resistivity. Since the number of discharge pulses and their
time interval separation is a function of the applied voltage, the form of the N
= f(At0) characteristics is also significantly altered with any variation in the
value of the applied voltage.
z 20001 I I
"a
400
Z 01 I I I
85 445 220 85 445 220 85 445 220
Corona pulse i n t e r v a l - Ato(U.S)
(a) t =25h (b) t = 4 8 4 h (c) t = 5 4 4 h
F I G . 9.29--Corona pulse interval distribution spectra of an epoxy specimen cavity stressed at

8 k V root mean square, with testing time as a parameter (after Bapt and Mayoux [27]).
9.6 Corona Pulse Phase Distribution Measurements

A logical extension of the pulse interval distribution, N = f(At0), is the so-
called pulse phase distribution, N = f(O). It can be readily obtained if the
pulse interval measurement procedure is synchronized with the applied
voltage along some portion of the wave; this is usually done either at the crest
of wave or at its voltage zero. Most of the work on pulse phase distribution
measurements has been reported by the active Finnish school, where
multichannel analyzers of limited capacity (512 channels) have been now in
use for quite some time [29-31]. Figure 9.30 shows a block diagram of their
circuit used for the measurement of the pulse phase distribution
characteristics. Recently, use of a similar circuitry has been made by Kelen
[32], who carried out phase distribution measurements on high-voltage
generator insulations.
Since the corona discharges tend to occur along the ascending and de-
scending excursions of the applied voltage wave, the measured phase
distributions will center around the voltage zeros of the wave. Furthermore,
since positive polarity discharges occur along the ascending portion and
negative polarity along the descending portion, two separate phase distribu-
tions representing the corona pulses of opposite polarity will be obtained.
This is schematically illustrated in Fig. 9.31. From the arbitrary phase
distribution shown, it can be discerned that in fact one does not really
measure the phase of the recurring pulses in radians but rather in time with
respect to the applied voltage wave. In this regard, the term, phase distribu-
tion, is a misnomer. However, it is used with expediency to distinguish it
from the true time interval distribution. In some respects, the so-called pulse
phase distribution can provide more information than the pulse time interval
distribution in that it may reveal data pertinent to applied voltage polarity ef-
fects. The latter become significant when corona discharges are studied be-
tween two dissimilar electrode materials. Under such circumstances, the
Linear
pulse shaping
~ pMuuanalyzer
lltsiehc-ehiagnhntell
~"
9Detection ,.__] / I
..~ Chopper
pulse troin
unit
FIG. 9.30--Block diagram of a circuit for the measurement of the corona pulse phase
distribution, N : f(0), in accordance with Kiirkkiiinen [29].
V I / - - AppLied voltoge f = 60Hz
f 3/2f t (S)
i\ /J !
i /r r
r i i
/-Pulse - phase
I I / distribution
N ..... I... - [t .-'r-..
d I "'~ ::t": N = f(e)
g't v-...i 9 9 "l
.."t.-il[I
N+ ,~ I I " "1
0 t/2f I/f 3/2f t (S)
FIG. 9 . 3 1 - - A n arbitrar2 phase distribution of positive (N + ) and negative (N - ) corona pulses

with respect to the applied voltage wave.
number and individual pulse separations of the positive and negative polarity
discharges over the respective portions of the applied voltage wave may differ
appreciably.
In our discussions on the corona pulse amplitude and time interval
distributions, we did not delve into the question of the multichannel PHA
counting errors. Our neglect has been justified in the sense that due to the
relatively large corona pulse separation time as compared to the dead time of
the multichannel analyzers, the counting errors were of no practical
significance. However, when pulse phase distributions measurements are
carried out, significant count errors may occur. K~irkk~iinen [29] points up
correctly that in the N = f(O) measurement mode, only one pulse at max-
imum is counted into each channel during a single sweep, with the conse-
quence that when the pulse intervals are shorter than the channel width,
some of the pulses remain unaccounted for. To correct this error, he derived
the equation
(9.16)
where N / i s the corrected pulse count value, Np is the number of sweeps cor-
responding to the number of counted a-c cycles, and Nj is the number of
recorded pulses in thejth channel. If the correction is not applied during the
pulse-phase distribution measurements, then the recorded pulse count values
in the respective channels will tend to be below normal when high pulse
repetition rates are encountered.
9.10 Conclusion
In this chapter, we have presented the fundamentals on corona pulse-
height analysis and have dealt with a variety of circuits and measurement
techniques suited for different modes of pulse-height analysis. The field of
corona pulse-height analysis has changed very markedly from its early days
of infancy when research workers in the field were obliged to design their own
pulse counting circuitry. The increasing availability of lower cost pulse-
height analysis apparatus and mini computers has now given to many
research workers an opportunity to undertake corona pulse-height analysis
studies. The resulting concentrated activity has perhaps been largely respon-
sible for making corona pulse-height analysis one of the most rapidly expand-
ing areas in the overall field of corona measurement. As more pulse-height
analysis data is accumulated and analyzed, we can expect to see a rise in the
number of applications to evaluate the corona performance of electrical in-
sulating systems. A case in point concerns recent use made of a very fast co-
rona pulse-height analysis method on stator coil insulations [33].
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[15] Hogg, W. K. and Walley, C. A., Proceedings, Institution of Electrical Engineers, Vol. 117,
Jan. 1970, pp. 261-268.
[16] Bartnikas, R. and Levi, J. H. E., Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement, In-
stitute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Vol. IM-18, Dec. 1969, pp. 341-345.
117] Costello, D. A. and Bartnikas, R., Proceedings, Conference on Underground Distribution
(supplement), Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Anaheim, Calif., May

1969, pp. 179-195.
[18] Atkins, J. M., Gingrich, R. L., and Mathes, K. N., paper presented at the IEEE Winter
Power Meeting, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, New York, Jan./Feb.
1973, unpublished.
[19] Bartnikas, R., Transactions on Electrical Insulation, Institute of Electrical and Electronics
[20] Bartnikas, R. and Levi, J. H. E., Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement,
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Vol. IM-22, Dec. 1973, pp. 403-407.
[21] Bartnikas, R., Transactions onElectricallnsulation, Institute of Electrical and Electronics
[22] Whitehead, S., Dielectric Breakdown of Solids, Oxford University Press, London, 1953.
[23] Mathes, K. N., Transactions on Electrical Insulation, Institute of Electrical and Elec-
tronics Engineers, Vol. EI-11, Dec. 1976, pp. 164-180.
[24] Miller, R. and Black, I. A., 1976 IEEE International Symposium on Electrical Insulation,
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Conference Record 76CH1088-4-EI,
Montreal, June 1976, pp. 307-310.
[25] Bapt, J. C., "Etude du vieillissement des isolants soumis h des d6charges partielles h partir
de la distribution des dur6es entre d~charges successives (chronogrammes)," thesis No.
444, University of Toulouse, France, 1974.
[26] Bapt, J. C., Bui-Ai, and Mayoux, C., 1973 Annual Report, Conference on Electrical In-
sulation and Dielectric Phenomena, NAS/NRC, Washington, D.C., 1974, pp. 282-288.
[27] Bapt, J. C. and Mayoux, C., 1975 Symposium International de la Technique de la Haute
Tension, Association Suisse des Electriciens, Zfirich, 9-13 Dec. 1975, pp. 276-280.
[28] Hoang-The-Giam, "Contribution ~ l'6tude de la caract~risation des d~charges partielles
dans les isolants solides," thesis, University of Toulouse, France, 1969.
[29] K~lrkkIlinen, S., "Internal Partial Discharge-Pulse Distributions, Physical Mech-
anisms, and Effects on Insulations," D. Tech. thesis, Helsinki University of Technology,
Finland, 1976.
[30] Matikainen, K., Proceedings, International Conference on Large High Tension Electric
Systems, Paper 21-06, Paris, 1968, pp. 1-9.
[31] Matikainen, K., SMik6--Electricity in Finland, Vol. 41, Dec. 1968, pp. 333-338.
[32] Kelen, A., Proceedings, International Conference on Large High Tension Electric Systems,
Paper 15-03, Paris, 1976, pp. 1-4.
[33] Kurtz, M. and Stone, G. C., 1978 IEEE International Symposium on Electrical Insulation,
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Conference Record 78 CH 1287-2-EI,
Philadelphia, June 1978, pp. 73-77.
STP669-EB/Feb. 1979
R . T. H a r r o l d 1
Acoustical Techniques for Detecting

and Locating Electrical Discharges
10.1 Introduction
Acoustical detection of electrical discharges was perhaps the earliest tech-
nology used by man as he became aware of lightning flashes and the associ-
ated sound of thunder during rainstorms. Presumably, for millions of years
man knew that the sound of thunder gave an early warning of an ap-
proaching storm (Lucretius (95-55 BC) was aware that lightning is seen
before thunder is heard [1]). 2 But not until more recent history, when man
could record time accurately and measure the velocity of sound waves in air
(Marsenne (1588-1648) measured the speed of sound in air using a pendulum
and reported a value of 316.46 m/s [2].), could he estimate the distance to
the lightning discharge that caused the sound waves (DeLisle [3] in 1738).
With the dawn of the electrical age (circa 1874 [4]), it was apparent that
high-voltage sparks in air produced acoustic emissions in a similar fashion,
but on a much reduced scale, to lightning. As increasingly higher voltages
were used, electrical coronas at highly stressed regions on electrical ap-
paratus, such as the uninsulated conductors of high-voltage power lines,
could be seen by eye in the dark, and their associated acoustic emissions
heard by ear.
It was soon recognized that corona or partial discharges could be very
harmful to electrical insulation and possibly cause failure of electrical power
apparatus, and, in the early days of electrical engineering design, when dis-
charges often occurred in air, the human ear served as a valuable discharge
detector and locator of surprising sensitivity. Later, microphones and ultra-
sonic transducers more sensitive than the ear at high frequencies ( >_20 kHz)
were developed, but they were not used much for detecting discharges,
1Research and Development Center, Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Pittsburgh, Pa.

15235.
327

because electrical techniques with narrow-band 3 and broad-band 4 amplifier

detectors were found to be more sensitive and reliable. However, in the last
two decades, with the introduction of increasingly larger and more complex
electrical power apparatus, acoustical methods of detecting and locating dis-
charges have proved very valuable. Sensitive piezoceramic materials are
readily available for transducers, and coupled with low noise solid-state
amplifiers, in favorable circumstances, the sensitivity of the acoustical detec-
tors approaches that of the electrical techniques. Acoustical sensors, cor-
rectly designed, are unaffected by electrical induced noise, and for this
reason are very useful for verifying the existence of a discharge. They are now
used routinely for detecting and locating discharges within power trans-
formers and for finding radio interference sites caused by discharges associ-
ated with high-voltage power lines. More recently, acoustic methods have
been used to detect disch0rges and particles within high-voltage compressed
gas insulated transmission systems and substations, to locate voids in the in-
sulation of large rotating apparatus, monitor discharge activity within high-
voltage capacitors, and the feasibility of detecting discharges during testing
of spacecraft apparatus at low pressure and vacuum has been established. In
addition, a promising field that is being explored is the application of
acoustic wave guides to extract the ultrasonic emissions from electrical dis-
charges deeply buried in complex insulation structures.
10.2 Measuring Units

Acoustic emissions from electrical discharges are usually monitored by
devices that measure sound pressure levels. The sound pressure level in
decibels is [5] Lp = 20 log (P/Pref), where P is the measured effective sound
pressure and Pref is the reference effective sound pressure. The unit of pres-
sure in the SI (Systeme International) system is called the pascal, s after
Blaise Pascal, 1623-1662, who discovered that pressure in a liquid is prop-
agated equally in all directions (Pascal's Law). However, the microbar unit is
still quoted, and two reference sound pressures commonly used are: (a) P~f
= 0.0002 #bar (2 10 -s Pa or 2 10 -5 N/m2), which is the thermal noise
pressure due to random movement of air molecules at a frequency of 1 kHz
and temperature of - 2 0 ~ and (b)Pref = 1 #bar (0.1 Pa or 0.1 N/m2). The
former is used for sound level measurements in air (gases) and liquids, and
the latter for calibration of transducers. It is worth noting that the two
3Methods of Measurement of Radio Influence Voltage (RIV) of High Voltage Apparatus,

NEMA Publication 107, National Electrical Manufacturers Association, 1964.
4Partial Discharge Measurements, IEC Standard 270, International Electro-TechnicalCom-
mission, 1968.
5In the past, pressures were generally recorded in either mm Hg or torr. By definition, 1 mm
Hg or 1 torr is equivalent to 133.322 Pa. Although these units are being gradually phased out,
they are often referred to due to their extensive use in earlier literature.
CHAPTER 10--ACOUSTICAL TECHNIQUES 329
reference levels are 74 dB apart, and that l0 s Pa = 105 N / m 2 = 106

dyne/cm 2 = 1 bar = 14.503 lb/in 2.
Measurements within the frequency range of human hearing ( - 15 Hz to
- 2 0 kHz) are usually classified as sonic, while lower frequencies (less than
15 Hz) are termed infrasonic and the higher frequencies (above 20 kHz) are
known as ultrasonic. The science of sound is referred to as acoustics.
10.3 Acoustical Devices for Detecting Electrical Discharges in Air

In this space age with highly sophisticated and sensitive electronic instru-
mentation available for detecting electrical discharges, it is surprising to find
that the human senses are still useful for detecting quite low level electrical
discharges occurring in air. Austen and Hackett [6] found that the dark-
adapted eye (30 min in complete darkness), for example, can see the light
emitted by a 20-pC 100-pulses per second (pps) discharge within an air cavity
in transparent insulation; and the nose can sense [7] ozone concentrations as
low as two parts per hundred million, which, based on an estimate by the
author, corresponds to the approximate ozone quantity generated [8] by a
1000-pC negative discharge. It is interesting to note that for an electrically
stressed tungsten wire 0.076 mm (3 mil) in diameter, the ozone generated
from negative corona is about seven times greater than that from positive cor-
ona. Considering all the senses, hearing is perhaps the most useful for detec-
ting electrical coronas.
10.3.1 The Human Ear

The human ear can detect sound emissions over the frequency range from
15 Hz to - 20 kHz (the audio frequency band), whereas the ears of other
creatures are also sensitive [9] at ultrasonic frequencies ( > 20 kHz), for ex-
ample, dogs, 15 Hz to 50 kHz; cats, 60 Hz to 60 kHz; bats, 1000 Hz to 120
kHz; moths, 3000 Hz to 150 kHz; and porpoises, 50 Hz to 150 kHz.
Although these frequency responses are different, the sensitivities of the ears
of man and animals are similar, and the unaided human ear has an average
threshold (depending on the age of the listener) sensitivity of approximately
0.00008 #bar at 3 to 5 kHz. This is the approximate pressure due to thermal
noise in air, and is about 8 dB [10] below the thermal noise pressure at 1 kHz
(which is about equal to the accepted reference root mean square sound pres-
sure of 0.0002 #bar or sound intensity of 10 -16 W/cm2). It is estimated
[10,11] that at the lowest (0.00008 #bar) sound pressure level, the eardrum
movement is about 0.1 ,~ (less than the diameter of a hydrogen molecule).
The human ear is a remarkable device that can detect the sound intensity of a
mosquito buzzing (10 -17 W) [11,12] a few feet away, yet also respond without
damage to a sound intensity 1013 times stronger. Where electrical discharges
are concerned, Austen and Hackett [6] determined it is possible to hear the
acoustic emissions from a 40-pC air discharge at a distance of 1 m. However,

this sensitivity was most likely attained in a quiet environment, and in a noisy
factory the author estimates the ear sensitivity could be around 1000 to
10 000 pC.
10.3.2 Stethoscope and Listening Tube

An ordinary medical stethoscope combined with an insulating tube of
- 0.5 cm inside diameter and any convenient length can provide a very sim-
ple and sensitive inexpensive means of detecting the acoustic emissions from
electrical discharges. A system, developed by A. I. Bennett of Westinghouse
Research and Development Center, utilizing a 1-m long Plexiglas tube of
0.65 cm inside diameter, has been used to detect and pinpoint small surface
discharges. Its sensitivity to a-c point discharges is in the region of 10 pC.
This simple system can be effectively used in noisy areas because of the
long tube that acts as a shield against unwanted sonic signals and the dis-
criminating ability of the human hearing system. In addition, the tube
operates as an acoustic wave guide (discussed in detail in Section 10.8.8) that
will trap and transmit the ultrasound to a sensor before the acoustic wave has
spread and diminished in pressure level.
10.3.3 40-kHz Microphone

As will be discussed later (Section 10.7.3.4), it is usually best to measure
the acoustic emissions from air discharges with narrow-band microphones
operating near 40 kHz. A simple sensitive system using a 40-kHz microphone
(about 2.5 cm diameter by 2.5 cm deep, obtainable from the Massa Corpora-
tion), an impedance matching amplifier [13], and a Singer-Stoddart NM12T
radio noise meter is illustrated in Fig. 10.1. With this system, it is possible to
detect ultrasonic emissions from a 50-pC a-c point discharge at a distance of
1 m. The microphone is quite directional ( - 50-deg beam width at points 6
dB below maximum response), which helps for the pinpointing of discharge
locations. If this microphone is combined with a wave guide (for example, a
3.8-cm inside diameter tube by - 1 m long), a Quantec 206C low noise
preamplifier, and a Tektronix 1A7A oscilloscope amplifier, it is readily
possible to detect the acoustic emissions from a 20-pC negative point
discharge, and it can be estimated that a 5-pC discharge should be detect-
able.
10.3.4 The Parabolic Microphone

In order to increase the sensitivity of the 40-kHz microphone, a parabolic
reflector may be positioned so that sound waves striking the parabolic sur-
face will be reflected and converge on the microphone crystal that is located
FIG. lO.1--40-kHz microphone and radio noise meter arranged for detecting corona dis-
charges in air ( after Harrold [8]).
at the parabola focus. As will be discussed later in Section 10.8.9, using the
reflector, a signal gain proportional to the ratio of the parabola and crystal
surface areas might be expected, but is not attained in practice. Typically,
with practical size reflectors [about - 6 1 cm (24 in.) diameter], as used for
detecting the acoustic emissions from power line corona, a signal gain of 20
dB (10:1) may be expected with a directional beam width near 10 deg.
10.4 Transducers for Detecting Acoustic Emissions

Electromechanical transducers commonly used for detecting acoustic
emissions are made from Rochelle salt, ammonium dihydrogen phosphate
(ADP) and lithium sulphate crystals, barium titanate, and several variations
of a lead zirconate-lead titanate ceramic (PZT4 and PZT5 manufactured by
Vernitron). These materials (that is, the ceramics after a polarizing treat-
ment) have the property of piezoelectricity (pressure electricity) and develop
electricity on the application of pressure, or pressure waves on the applica-
tion of a voltage pulse, or a sinusoidal voltage at the resonant frequency of
the transducer. The crystals and ceramics are available in numerous shapes
and sizes, often in the form of disks or rings, and cover a wide acoustic fre-
quency range from - 0 . 1 Hz to - 2 5 MHz. They may be broad-band and
cover a wide frequency range, or resonant with an order of magnitude of
greater sensitivity and covering a narrow frequency band. The actual
operating frequencies of these devices may be modified by the mass to which
they are affixed and the type of fixtures used when acoustic emissions are be-
ing detected, and, for these reasons, the operating frequencies should be
checked for different measurement situations (see Section 10.8.3.1). The fix-
tures also add to damping of the transducer response to a received acoustical
signal, which is important when discrimination between signals closely
spaced in time is desired.
The piezoelectric crystals and ceramics should be handled with care while
being mounted in housings, and carefully selected for particular measure-
ment situations, for example, lithium sulphate crystals easily shatter when
dropped and are soluble in water. Another feature of the piezoceramic
materials is their Curie Point (named after Pierre and Jacques Curie who
discovered piezoelectricity), a temperature above which the ceramics suffer
permanent and complete loss of their piezoelectric properties. This
temperature may range from - 7 0 ~ for lithium sulphate to - 5 0 0 ~ for
quartz.
It is interesting to note that piezoelectric effects may be responsible for the
strange sounds, approaching the intensity of thunder, heard near sand dunes
in the desert [14]. These mysterious sounds were heard by Marco Polo on his
travels through the desert; he reported loud and strange sounds even when no
winds were present. The speculation is that piezoelectricity associated with
the quartz in the grains of sand generates such noises. Perhaps the movement
of sand grains results in the build-up of an electrical charge and, conse-
quently, the associated sound pressure waves when discharge occurs. On the
other hand, quartz is an excellent sound wave guide, and noises due to inter-
nal stresses deep within a sand dune may be transmitted to the air via the
sand grains.
10. 4.1 Important Properties of Ceramic Transducers

Two important constants, the d constant and the g constant, describe
several of the properties of piezoelectric ceramics. The d constant is a
measure of the amount of charge caused by a given force expressed in
picocoulombs per newton (pC/N), or the deflection caused by a given
voltage. While the g constant denotes the field produced by a given stress,
that is, g = (volts per meter)/(newtons/meter 2) and is usually expressed in
the form 10 -3 m-V/N. Based on the orthogonal axes X, Y, Z (for conve-
nience 1, 2, 3) of a crystal, the constants are expressed as tensors, for exam-
ple, d31 or g33. Consequently, d3~ is interpreted as the deflection along X(1) in
response to a voltage applied in the Z(3) direction, while g33 means the elec-
tric field in the Z(3) direction caused by mechanical stress applied in the
same direction.
The d and g constants are related by the expression
g = d/keo (10.1)
where k is the dielectric constant for the ceramic, and e0 is the permittivity of
free space, - 9 X 10 -12 F/m. Generally, when piezoceramics are used as

sources of ultrasound, a large d constant is required, but when they are used
as ultrasound detectors or microphones, a high g constant is necessary.
10. 4.2 Sensitivity

The sensitivity of a transducer is expressed in microvolts per microbar
(/zV/#bar), usually in the form --dB versus 1 V//zbar or --dB with regard to
1 V//zbar, for example, --80 dB versus 1 V / # b a r is interpreted as 80 dB
(10 000 to 1) below 1 V/ttbar, or 100/zV/#bar. Typical sensitivities range
from approximately 30/~V//zbar to 2000 #V//zbar for resonant transducers
and, depending on frequency, at least an order of magnitude less for
nonresonant broad-band devices. In Fig. 10.2, the output versus frequency
for an - 22 kHz resonant microphone used in air is shown, and in Fig. 10.3,
the information for a broad-band transducer ( - 100 kHz to - 2 MHz) used
in liquids is given.
10. 4.3 Directivity

The beam width within which a transducer can transmit and receive
acoustic energy most efficiently defines its directivity. More recently, it is the
angle between points on the transducer directional pattern that are 10 dB
(3.16 to 1) below the maximum. However, it is common practice to quote the
6-dB (2 to 1) point. Usually, the higher the measuring frequency, the nar-
rower the beam width, for example, a 22-kHz transducer may have a beam
-40 l-
b
-50
2000taV/labar
o
-60 --
I
20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Frequencyk H z
FIG. l O.2--Frequency response o f - 2 2 k H z resonant transducer f o r use in air ( Vernitron
PiezoelectrW Division).
-100
- 3 pV/pbar ] ' ~
-110
= -120
= -130
-140
-150 I I ,t~lll III[ I [ I~

0. I 0.2 0.4 1 2 3
f, MHz
F I G . lO.3--Approximate frequency response of lithium sulphate disk (2.3 cm diameter by

O.15 cm) used as broad-band transducer in liquids.
width of 70 deg (see Fig. 10.4) and a transducer operating at 1 MHz, less
than a 10-deg width (see Fig. 10.5).
10.5 Transmission and Attenuation of Ultrasound in Different Media

The form of acoustic wave propagated and the attenuation of ultrasound
in different media, particularly when passing from one medium to another,
are very important factors to be considered when acoustical techniques are
used for detecting and locating electrical discharges in power apparatus. If,
for example, a discharge occurred within a void in solid insulation immersed
in a liquid insulant inside a steel tank, then acoustic emissions from the
discharge must pass from a gas through a solid, through the liquid, and
eventually through the steel to reach a transducer that is acoustically coupled
to the tank outer wall. As a result, the form of the propagated acoustic wave
may change considerably. Usually, it is the amount of acoustic energy
reflected at each interface, which depends on the characteristic impedance of
each medium, that limits the overall efficiency of acoustic discharge detec-
tion systems.
10.5. I Acoustic Waves

The following descriptions are based on information available in a treatise
on the subject of ultrasonic technology [15].
I0. 5.1.1 Longitudinal Waves--Longitudinal waves in a medium consist of
alternate compressions and rarefactions of the medium in the direction of
propagation. The particles in the medium vibrate back and forth about their
rest positions parallel to the axis of the wave, and, although these waves can
4O#/eoei4Xis
20 lo o p 20
3o ?o~ ,e,
5 0 ~ k ll "~ 50~
" ~ "-20 dB
~ -40 dB
'-30 dB
Beam Width (typical) 70~ lOdB Points

F I G . lO.4--Directional pattern for - 2 2 kHz resonant transducer for use in air (Vernitron
Piezoelectric Division).
200 kHz 600 kHz 1 MHz
- - ~ - 10 dB
i .~i0
~
Beam Angles Less at 10 dB Points
F I G . lO.5--Approximate directivity of transducer main lobes at selected frequencies, for

lithium sulphate disk (2. 3 cm diameter by O.15 cm) used as broad-band transducer in liquids.
occur in solids, liquids, and gases, they are normally the only type of wave
that can propagate in gases and liquids.
10.5.1.2 Transverse or Shear Waves--In transverse or shear waves in
solids, the particle motion is perpendicular to the direction of propagation,
for example, similar to vibrations in a string. A necessary condition is that
sufficient force of attraction exists between particles, so that as each particle
moves back and forth, it pulls its neighbor with it. The reason that these
waves do not generally occur in gases and liquids is because of the small at-
tractive forces between molecules; consequently, longitudinal waves that are
easily propagated by molecular collision prevail. Typically, the shear waves
travel at half the velocity of longitudinal waves, for example, for aluminum,
the shear wave velocity is 3080 m/s and longitudinal wave velocity 6260 m/s.
10.5.1.3 Rayleigh or Surface Waves--Rayleigh or surface waves, which
can only travel in solids, are a complex form of longitudinal and shear too-
tion with each particle moving in an elliptical path. These waves travel on the
surface of a material, attenuate rapidly at a depth of one wave length, and
have a velocity of propagation about 90 percent of the shear wave velocity, for
example - 2 8 0 0 m/s for aluminum.
10.5.1.4 Lamb Waves--Lamb waves, which occur in thin sheets of solid
material, consist of a complex form of elliptical particle movement, an
analogy of which is the propagation of an electromagnetic wave along a wave
guide.
Usually in the acoustic detection and location of electrical discharges,
longitudinal waves are detected in liquids and gases, and shear waves in
solids (metals). Longitudinal waves are measured from discharges in air (see
Section 10.7.1) and from discharges in mineral oil (see Section 10.7.2),
whereas the major signal detected in the aluminum sheath of a compressed
gas insulated transmission (CGIT) system due to a mechanical shock
(analogous to internal electrical flashover) is a lower velocity shear wave (see
Section 10.8.4). Some confusion can arise when longitudinal waves in a li-
quid impinge on a metal surface and different waves, such as shear waves,
occur in the metal to which an acoustic sensor is coupled (see Section
10.8.2.2).
10. 5. I. 5 Wave Velocity--For longitudinal waves in solids, two velocities
are usually quoted, that is, the longitudinal bar velocity and the plate (bulk)
velocity. This is because, for a bar having a large diameter/wavelength ratio,
the wave can propagate within the bulk of the material, but as the diameter
approaches the wavelength, reflections from the material surface cause a
change in the wave velocity. Generally, the longitudinal bar velocity is the
value for a small diameter/wavelength ratio and the bulk velocity for a large
diameter/wavelength ratio, and typically the longitudinal bar velocity is
about 80 percent of bulk velocity. Also, it should be noted that the velocity of
propagation of shear waves is usually of the order of 50 percent of that of the
bulk waves.
10. 5.2 Characteristic Impedance

The characteristic impedance or specific acoustic impedance of a material
depends on the product of the density (p in kg/m 3) of the material and veloc-
ity (c in m/s) of sound in that material, and is expressed as pc in kg/m2/s. As
might be expected, there is considerable difference between the characteris-
tic impedances of solids, liquids, and gases, for example, the respective
figures for steel, water, and air are - 3 9 . 4 , 1.48, and 0.0004 X 106 kg/m2/s.
In order for ultrasound to pass without loss from one medium to another,
it is necessary for the characteristic impedances of the media to be identical.
As an example, two liquids that match well are water and castor oil that have
similar values for pc (1.48 X 106 for water, 1.43 X 106 for castor oil) even
though they have different densities, because castor oil, which is lighter than
water, transmits sound at a higher velocity. However, castor oil is quite

viscous (986 cP compared with 1.0019 cP for water at 20~ 6 and, conse-
quently, ultrasound will attenuate more rapidly within it. Obviously, the
more two media are acoustically mismatched, the greater the reflection of
ultrasonic waves at the media interface, and this effect is described by the
reflection coefficient.
10.5.3 Reflection Coefficient

The reflection coefficient (R0) at the interface for ultrasound traversing
two media, 1 and 2, is the fraction or percent represented by the difference
and sum of the characteristic impedances, that is
R o _ P l C l --p2c2 (10.2)
plcl -t-p2c2
This is for longitudinal waves and assuming normal incidence. Typical ex-
amples of reflection coefficients are: 89 percent for steel and mineral oil,
- 1 0 0 percent for mineral oil and air, and 14 percent for polystyrene and
mineral oil. A compilation by Ogihara [16] of the reflection coefficients for
various materials is given in Table 10.1. Although the data for mineral oil
and steel indicates little transmission through the steel, this is not true if the
sheet thickness is near one half wave length of the transmitting frequency, in
which case, quite high transmission is possible.
10. 5. 4 Attenuation
Apart from losses at media interfaces, ultrasonic waves attenuate as they
traverse a medium. The attenuation is due to a combination of wave diffu-
sion losses and losses due to molecular collisions, viscosity, and heat conduc-
tion. Usually, in gases and liquids, the diffusion losses are dominant,
whereas in solids, considerable ultrasound transmission losses can occur
because of heat generation.
10. 5. 4.1 Diffusion Losses--Generally, in gases and liquids, acoustic emis-
sions are assumed to propagate as spherical waves from a point source and,
consequently, at distance d from a source, in theory, the sound intensity is
reduced by a factor inversely proportional to d 2, and the sound pressure level
is inversely proportional to d. In practice, when considering ultrasonic
signals from electrical discharges, a true point source rarely exists and the
pressure level of the propagating wave for different situations in liquid, for
example, may experience attenuation [17] varying by a factor inversely pro-
portional to between d 1/4 and d 2.
6Note that the dynamicviscosityunit of 1 cP is by definitionequal to 10 Pa-s.

Go
Go
O
O
"-rl
O
z
TABLE lO.1--Acoustic reflection coefficient at interfaces of various materials [16].
E
m
Reflection Coefficient a (~ (Normal Plane Wave Incidence) (D
Longitudinal Sound Re-
E
3O
Wave Propaga- Density, sistance Trans- Poly- m
tion Velocity P 3 Densitav' tormer Ebon- Bake- sty- Organic Quartz Alumi- E
Materials c (10S c m / s ) (g/cm) pc(10 v) Air Oil Water ite lite rene Glass Glass Brass Copper Steel num m
z
--t
Aluminum 6.35 2.69 1.71 100 74 72 52 42 Sl 45 0.7 16 16 20 0
Steel 5.88 7.7 4.53 100 89 88 78 73 78 74 27 0.5 0.5 0
Copper 4.40 8.93 3.93 100 88 87 75 69 75 71 21 0 0 ...
Brass 4.64 8.54 3.96 100 88 87 76 69 75 71 22 0 . . . . . .
Quartz glass 5.57 2.6 1.49 100 70 67 46 36 45 39 0 . . . . . . . . .
Organic glass 2.82 1.18 0.333 100 20 16 0.9 0.2 0.7 0 . . . . . . . . . . . .
Polystyrene 2.67 1.06 0.283 100 14 11 0.02 2 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bakelite 2.59 1.4 0.363 100 23 19 2 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ebonite 2.30 1.2 0.276 100 13 10 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Water 1.43 1.0 0.143 100 0.3 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Transformer oil 1.39 0.02 0.128 100 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Air 0.331 0.0012 0.00004 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
plCl--p2C2
a Reflection coefficient: R 0 -- - -
plcl + p2c2
10.5.4.2 Losses Due to Molecular Absorption, Viscosity, and Heat Con-

dition--In gases, molecular collisions, temperature, and the presence of
moisture all contribute to the attenuation of acoustic waves. Knudsen [18],
who studied the propagation of sound in the atmosphere found that attenua-
tion was greatly dependent on the humidity and air temperature, and he
described the cold winter air of the Arctic as being acoustically transparent
with no appreciable sound attenuation from molecular collisions. On the
other hand, in the hot and dry ( - 2 . 4 percent relative humidity) summer air
of the desert, the sound attenuation at 3 kHz is 0.14 d B / m and at 10 kHz is
0.48 dB/m. Knudsen and his colleagues also measured the sound attenua-
tion in air due to small particles, such as dust, smoke, and fog in suspension.
They describe fog as a sound absorber, the attenuation of which is dependent
on the fog particle size (typically, from 3.2 10 -3 cm to 5.4 10 -a cm
diameter).
It is interesting to note, that of the gases, nitrogen, for example, has a
small and calculable sound absorption, but the absorption in oxygen con-
taining small amounts of water vapor is about 200 times larger. Also, carbon
dioxide is a gas that can often be identified because of its characteristic high
absorption of sound waves. Kneser who worked with Knudsen, developed a
theory of sound absorption and dispersion in polyatomic gases, based on the
exchange of translational and vibrational energy between colliding
molecules. Knudsen tested this theory using a large variety of pure gases and
gas mixtures, and found that it gave a good account of the experimental
results. It is interesting to note that sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) appears to be
a sound absorbing gas, as the author has found that at 40 kHz, the attenua-
tion was about 20 times that of air (see Table 10.2).
Generally, the attenuation of ultrasound in air at a constant temperature
and humidity increases with increasing frequency, f, by a factor greater than
f , but less t h a n f 2. In fluids, attenuation is usually proportional t o f 2, while
for solids attenuation is roughly proportional to f . Values estimated from
data by Kaye and Laby [19] of ultrasound attenuation in air, and some solids
and liquids of interest in electrical work, are given in Table 10.2. An example
of sound attenuation in air increasing at the higher frequencies is the dif-
ferent sounds of thunder, close to and far from, the lightning strike.
Thunder, which is comprised of a wide spectrum of frequencies ( - 60 to
-2000 Hz) rumbles when heard from a distance, but [20] cracks sharply
when heard up close, presumably due to greater attenuation of the higher
frequency sounds with distance. Although it is believed that the reason [20]
thunder is seldom heard over 25 km from a lightning strike, is because of the
upward curve of sound waves resulting from temperature gradients and wind
shear.
From the data listed in Table 10.2, it is evident that at frequencies in the
megahertz range the softer solids, such as neoprene and butyl rubber, se-
verely attenuate acoustic waves and transmission would not be expected. On
TABLE lO.2--Attenuation of longitudinal wavesin air, SF6, and some solids and liquids.
Attenuation of
Temperature, Longitudinal
Medium Frequency ~ Waves, (dB/m)
Air 50 kHz 20-28 (40% R.H.) 0.98
Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) 40 kHz -26.0
Distilled water 50 kHz i6 0.00027
Sea water 50 kHz 0.oo5
Castor oil 3 MHz ii.; 426.0
Cyclohexane 8.5 MHz 20 106.0
Kerosene 6-20 MHz 25 49.0
Aluminum 10 MHz 9.0
Steel 10 MHz 21.5
Polymethylmethacrylate 2.5 MHz 250.0
Neoprene 2.5 MHz loo0.0
Polystyrene 2.5 MHz 100.0
Butyl rubber/carbon (100 parts)/
(40 parts) 350 kHz 600.0
the other hand, the harder materials, aluminum and steel, offer several
orders of magnitude less attenuation, and, based on an extrapolation, very
little attenuation of lower frequency ( - 50 kHz) waves would be expected. At
this frequency in water, the losses are extremely low, and only wave diffusion
need be considered, but with castor oil, absorption losses are dominant. At
50 kHz and above in air, molecular absorption is significant, and should be
considered together with diffusion losses.
10.5.4.3 Attenuation o f Ultrasound Traversing Mineral Oil, Mineral Oil
Impregnated Pressboard, and Steel Sheets
10. 5.4.3.1 Mineral oil--Mineral oil or transformer oil has acoustic prop-
erties similar to water (see Table 10.1) and experiments [1 7] have shown that
for different types of electrical discharges the acoustic emissions within the
frequency range from - 150 kHz to 2 MHz may attenuate with distance, d,
by a factor inversely proportional to between d 1/4 and d 2. Presumably,
molecular absorption is not a significant factor when ultrasound traverses
mineral oil.
10.5.4.3.2 Mineral oil impregnated pressboard--Where mineral oil im-
pregnated pressboard is involved with ultrasound transmission, provided the
waves impinge normal to the surface, the pressboard is almost acoustically
transparent. As an example, experiments by J. H. Thompson at the Westing-
house Research and Development Center, using a set of six sheets (30.5 by
30.5 cm or 12 in. by 12 in.) of oil impregnated pressboard of total thickness
- 1 cm (7/16 in.) suspended in a mineral oil-filled Plexiglas tank, showed
that normal incident 20 kHz (broad beam - 120 deg) ultrasonic waves were
attenuated by only 0.5 dB. Maximum attenuation of 6 dB occurred when the
waves reached the pressboard at an angle of 45 deg.
CHAPTER IO--ACOUSTICAL TECHNIQUES 341
10.5.4.3.3 Steel sheets--Similar experiments to those of Section

10.5.4.3.1 were made with suspended steel sheets - 0 . 3 cm (0.115 in.) and
0.9 cm (0.350 in.) thick. For normal incidence, the attenuation was - 4 dB
for the thin sheet and 11 dB for the thick sheet. At 50-deg incidence, the
respective values of attenuation reduced to 3 dB and 6 dB. Further ex-
periments with liquid-immersed steel sheets are described in Section
10.5.4.3.4.
10.5.4.3.4 Thin sheets--A feature of thin sheets of material immersed in a
large body of liquid is their high transmission of acoustic waves of certain fre-
quencies, even though the characteristic impedances of the sheets might be
considerably different from the liquid, and reflection of ultrasound would be
expected. This effect occurs when the sheet thickness is approximately one
half wave length, or multiples thereof, of the ultrasound wave length.
Calculations by Ogihara [16] of ultrasound transmission at different frequen-
cies through steel of thicknesses up to 1 cm immersed in mineral oil are il-
lustrated in Fig. 10.6. These penetration coefficients, t, the ratios of the
ultrasound pressure, P,, after penetrating the steel plate to the ultrasound
pressure, P0, of the incident wave, were presumably estimated from the
following formula
Pt/Po ~- 1/[1 + 1/4 (m -- l / m ) 2 sin 2 27rd/h] 1/2 (10.3)
where, m is the ratio of the acoustic impedances of mineral oil and steel, d is
the sheet thickness, and h, the ultrasound wave length in steel.
The writer tried an experiment using two broad-band ( - 0.1 to - 2 MHz)
lithium sulphate crystal transducers immersed in mineral oil, with one
pulsed and acting as an ultrasound emitter, and one acting as a receiver with
its spectral response detected using a narrow-band radio noise meter. In Fig.
~, 300 kH; 500 kHz

100kHz
o
~ 1.0
o.8!
._o E 0.6
~. 0.4
~ o.2
o 9 _ -~=
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Thickness of Steel Wall - cm
FIG. lO.6--Transmission o f ultrasound at different frequencies through various thickness

steel sheets immersed in transformer oil (after Ogihara [16]).
10.7, the frequency spectra is illustrated with and without a 6.35 mm (0.25
in.) thick steel plate between the two crystals. It can be seen that at most fre-
quencies, the steel plate attenuates the transmitted ultrasound by - 2 0 dB
(10:1), but at certain frequencies ( - 4 5 0 kHz, - 9 5 0 kHz, and - 1.45 MHz),
the reduction is only - 3 . 0 dB ( - 1.4:1). The increment between these fre-
quencies is - 5 0 0 kHz that, from the velocity of ultrasound in steel plate
(bulk velocity of - 6 0 0 0 m/s), gives a half wave length of 6mm, which is
very close to the thickness of the steel plate.
10.5.5 Diffraction
When estimating the degree of attenuation of ultrasonic waves by barriers
in liquids, diffraction could be an important consideration. Diffraction [21]
is the distortion of an acoustic wave front by an object in the sound field and
is characterized by the interaction of incident and reflected waves, such that
regions of maximum and minimum sound pressure levels are generated near
the object. This occurs when the dimensions of the ultrasound sensor are
comparable to the ultrasound wave length, for example, in mineral oil when
detecting 80 kHz (X ---- 1.75 cm) acoustic emissions with a 2.5 cm diameter
transducer. Also, when sound waves pass close to an object, diffraction may
occur and cause the waves to bend [22] and change direction; this can give
misleading results when sonic ranging techniques are used for locating sound
sources.
Without Steel Plate

60 '%
50
\
~, 40
~k
== 30
' I L1 L
20 tWith 0.25 inch[ 6.35 rnmIl~J' k. ~'
v Thick Steel Plate Between- - ~_
UltrasoundTransmitter and Receiver ~UI
I "
I 1
10
0
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.5 2
Frequency - MHz
FIG. lO.7--Transmission o f ultrasound through steel plate immersed in mineral oil (after
Harrold, unpublished data).
10.5.6 Refraction
Ultrasonic waves passing from one medium to another experience refrac-
tion, or deviation of direction, which depends on the velocities of ultrasound
in the two media. Refraction at an interface is defined by the following for-
mula
sin 0~ _ cl (10.4)
sin 0z c2
where 0~ and 02 are angles of incidence and reflection (as used in optical ter-
minology), and Cl and c2 are the velocities of acoustic waves in the medium
of incidence and medium of refraction. As an example, consider a steel plate
(c = - 6 0 0 0 m/s) immersed in mineral oil (c = - 1 4 0 0 m/s) with a sound
wave striking the plate at a 10-deg angle of incidence. The wave reflected in
the steel will be at 48 deg to the normal, and the wave emerging into the oil at
the other side of the plate will again be at 10 deg to the normal. In this exam-
ple, with a ratio of sonic velocities of 1400/6000 = - 0 . 2 3 3 , at -13.S-deg
angle of incidence, 02 = 90 deg, total refraction should occur, and no energy
should pass the oil/steel interface. Another consideration, the ratio of the
acoustic impedances of the two media, shows that if this ratio is large due to
reflection of ultrasound waves at the media interface, ultrasound transmis-
sion cannot occur (see Section 10.5.2).
10.5. 7 Methods of Acoustically Coupling Ultrasonic Transducer to the

Medium in Which Ultrasound Exists
In the simple case of piezoceramic microphone in still air at one at-
mosphere, the acoustic coupling is unimpeded as the pressure waves from an
ultrasonic source directly strike the ceramic. The acoustic coupling cannot be
improved, although the response to a given signal can be increased with a
more sensitive ceramic, better directivity, and by using a parabolic reflector
(see Section 10.8.9). However, in the situations when ultrasonic emissions are
monitored from electrical discharges within liquid insulation inside steel
tanks, for example, power transformers, acoustic coupling of external sen-
sors is extremely important.
Basically, except for the situations in which the tank wall thickness is
related to the half wave length of the ultrasonic sensor frequency, the cou-
pling of ultrasound between two media depends on their respective acoustic
impedances and the resulting reflection of ultrasound at the media interface,
(see Section 10.S). A simple means of acoustically coupling an ultrasonic sen-
sor to the outside of a liquid-filled steel tank is to use putty or glycerin be-
tween the transducer surface and steel wall. Often, it is useful to insert a thin
insulating film (for example, 1 mil thick Mylar) as well, to prevent interfering
electrical signals arriving via ground loops. Another effective way of
acoustically coupling, which includes electrical isolation of the sensor, is to

place the sensor within a thin plastic bag filled with degassed mineral oil, and
press the bag against the steel wall, see Section 10.8.2.2.
An interesting way of acoustically coupling to a liquid-filled steel tank is
that devised by J. H. Thompson when at the Westinghouse Research and
Development Center (see Section 10.8.9), in which a cylindrical piezoceramic
sensor is located at the focal point of an aluminum parabolic reflector filled
with castor oil and sealed with a neoprene face. The neoprene face is coupled
to the tank wall with glycerin or a similar fluid, and sound waves passing
through the steel wall are reflected at the parabolic surface to converge on the
sensor. Also, although the acoustic impedance (see Section 10.5.2) of castor
oil matches that of the mineral oil inside the tank, it is far more viscous and,
consequently, it acts as an ultrasonic energy absorber that tends to improve
the sensor response. An alternative, very useful means, of acoustically coupl-
ing external sensors to receive ultrasound from electrical discharges buried
inside complex electrical insulation structures, is to use acoustic wave guides
to extract the desired signal (see Section 10.8.8).
10.6 Acoustical Spectrum Signatures of Electrical Discharges

When acoustical techniques are employed for the detection and location of
electrical discharges, it is extremely important to have some knowledge of the
spectral distributions of the acoustic emissions. Otherwise, even though very
sensitive detectors may be used, their operating frequency may be in a region
where, for a particular type of discharge, the acoustic emission is negligible.
Numerous different types of discharges may be associated with the insulation
of electrical power apparatus, for example, the breakdown of gas in voids
within solid insulation, tracking on solid insulation and positive or negative
streamers in gases and liquids, and glow discharges in vacuum insulation.
Commonly used gases are air at atmospheric pressure and compressed
sulphur hexafluoride (SF6), while popular liquid insulants have been mineral
oil for power transformers and polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) for high-
voltage capacitors, although due to environmental considerations, PCB is
gradually being replaced by other liquids, such as isopropylbiphenyl.
Obviously, with such a variety of insulants in use, the detection of acoustic
emissions is complex, because of different attenuation and reflection charac-
teristics of the media, which places even further emphasis on the importance
of a knowledge of the spectrum signatures of the electrical discharges.
10.6.1 Lightning
Lightning can he considered a gigantic electrical discharge with acoustic
emissions (thunder) that are easily identified. The thunder results from the
rapid heating and expansion of air in the lightning path, and according to
Arabadzhi [23], most of the acoustic energy is radiated in the infrasonic

region (below 15 Hz, which is approximately the lower audible limit of the
human ear) at 0.25 to 2 Hz, with, an appreciable amount radiating in the 64
to 2000 Hz region. It is believed by Arabadzhi that the audible sound is an in-
tegration of acoustic emissions from the lightning stepped leader process
(each step lasting from - 100 to - 2 0 0 #s), while the infrasonic radiation is a
result of the overall duration of the lightning of 1.55 s on an average. A
typical acoustical spectrum [23] of thunder from lightning is illustrated in
Fig. 10.8.
It should be emphasized that there is considerable disagreement on
whether the majority of acoustic energy from lightning is radiated in the in-
frasonic or the sonic region. For a detailed account of sound measurements
from lightning, see Uman's book on lightning [20].
10. 6. 2 Electrical Power Transmission Lines

Usually, at voltages above 110-kV rms electrical coronas [24] are associ-
ated with the conductors of electrical power lines. These discharges vary with
the weather conditions and considerably increase (by an order of magnitude
or more) in the rain. The buzzing or crackling sound generated by the cor-
onas can be heard by ear, and for power lines operating in the 500-kV to
1200-kV region that are situated near highly populated areas, the audible
noise in rain or just after a rain shower can be so severe that a change in the
transmission line route is demanded by local residents. Electrical discharges
can also occur on the insulators supporting the conductors of transmission
lines, but the resulting acoustic emissions are rarely a source of annoyance.
10.6.2.1 Conductor Corona--The electrical discharges associated with the
30
25
>2o Sound Heard

by Ear
.>_" Sound in Infrasonic

Region O. 25 to 2 Hz.
Not Heard by Ear
I I [
I0
LI I t
102
II
lo3
IT ,,
io4
FrequencyHz
FIG. lO.8--Acousticalspectrum of thunderfrom lightning (after Arabadzhi [23]).
uninsulated conductors of electrical power transmission lines operating

above - 110 kV are sources of acoustic emission. With three-phase lines, the
discharges occur along the length of each phase and on both the positive and
negative half cycles of the power frequency. Usually, the positive discharges
(streamers) are largest and, consequently, the source of the acoustic emis-
sions heard by ear. At 60-Hz power frequency on three-phase systems,
positive streamers occur in bursts repeated 180 times per second and change
considerably in magnitude with different weather conditions. With a-c lines,
the acoustic emissions from positive streamers may increase by an order of
magnitude in heavy rain (this may not seem so with the background noise of
the falling rain and the wind), but with d-c lines, there is a different effect. In
fair weather, the familiar buzzing and crackling sound from streamers on the
positive conductors of d-c transmission lines can be heard, but, unlike a-c
lines, in rainy conditions, the sounds cease and only a gentle hiss is heard as
the conductor corona has changed from a streamer to a glow condition.
With transmission lines now operating at 500 and 765 kV ac, and higher
voltage lines planned, due to environmental considerations, the measure-
ment of acoustic emissions from power line corona has become very impor-
tant. y
It should be noted that the conductors of transmission lines may be only
- 9 m (30 ft) above the ground at mid-span and up to - 2 5 m (80 ft) high at
the towers, and the acoustic emissions measured via a microphone and re-
cording systems may be an integration of the emissions from streamers along
an appreciable length of line. Usually, acoustic emissions are measured with
a directional microphone with a wind shield, and at a distance of - 15 m (50
ft) from the outer conductor at mid-span. The microphone amplifier system
is A-weighted, which means it has a response similar to the human ear.
Measurements are made in octave frequency intervals from - 6 0 Hz to 8
kHz, and a typical audible noise frequency spectrum [25] from a 775-kV a-c
power transmission line in rain is given in Fig. 10.9.
At higher frequencies in the ultrasonic region (for example, - 2 0 to - 3 0 0
kHz) data is lacking, but corona streamers on power lines are likely to have a
similar spectral content to that of an a-c stressed point in air (see Section
10.6.5). Although the magnitude of the acoustic emission from the point
discharge falls with increasing frequency at a rate of - 10 dB (3 to 1) per oc-
tave, if power line corona has a similar spectra, then, when measurements
are made at a distance of, say, - 15 m (50 ft) from the conductor, the spec-
tral magnitude will fall much faster with increasing frequency,f, because the
attenuation constant [26] in decibels per foot for ultrasound in air is approx-
imately proportional t o f 2.
7Measurement techniques, instrumentation, typical data, and analysis of results are well
described in an IEEE publication (74CH097-0-PWR) that covers the proceedings of the "Work-
shop on Power Line Noise as Related to Psychoacoustics," organized by a special task group of
N. Koleio, R. M. Morris, V. L. Chartier, M. G. Comber, W. Janischewskyj, and G. Elder.
75 I I I I I I I 1
"~ 70 95~ ~ Indicates the Percentage of Time

.~ ~ That the Audible Noise Level is
o ~ Below the Ordinate
65 X
3,~ 7 -
= 55- /,~'-.'~z-..~--~ . . . .
9~ - 1 5~0~" l
"=~ 45 t-/ Microphone 15 Meters From Outer Conductor

4011 I I l I I ' I I I
63 125 ?.50 500 1000 2000 4000 BOO0" A " Wei, ~ted
Frequency - Hertz
FIG. lO.9---Audible noise frequency spectrum measured on Applegrove 750 k V Project (after
Kolcio et al [251).
10. 6.2.2 Discharges on Power Line Insulators--There is a lack of data on

the spectra of ultrasonic emissions from discharges on power line insulators,
and most measurements have been made at a frequency of 40 kHz. Often,
but not always, the ultrasonic signal levels from insulator discharges are pro-
portional to electrical (NEMA RIV) measurements, and in Fig. 10.10, data
taken by Allan and Kashani [27] demonstrates that the 40-kHz ultrasonic
a- 11 kV pin - 9m [ Distance from insulator

to ultrasonic sensor]
b - 11 kV pin glazed - 13.5m
c! - 33 kV pin - 9m
100
c 2 - 33 kV pin - IBm
-d-33kVp~e,tal-13.Sm ,Z / . _~
~ 8o
o
9 60
a cl ,,',
~ 40
._u =o C~o
~ 2o
0 I I I I I I
0 20 40 60 80 ]00 120
NEMA RIV level - d B reL to 1 la V at 1 MHz
FIG. lO.lO--Relationship between the level of 40-kHz ultrasonic emissions and NEMA R I V
microvolt values for discharges associated with high voltage insulators (after Allan and Kashani
[271).
Insulated
Conductor
~9 ~ /~ Bare N'~I~
,~'2 70
~>,
J ~.~-Conductor I,.'LL I i:
80 I I V" I /
.~,~ ~ / ~ I
~ ~o ]
~ 40
30 i ." L J I I
20 40 60 80 100
DetectionFrequencykHz
F I G . IO.ll--Ultrasonic frequency spectra due to discharges associated with an electrically
stressed bare conductor, with and without, a loose fitting insulated sleeve (after Strong et al
[28]).
emissions from discharges associated with ll-kV and 33-kV pin-type in-
sulators can be proportional to the electrical RIV measurements. An indica-
tion of the possible ultrasonic spectra of discharges associated with insulating
surfaces can be seen in Fig. 10.11. The spectra, measured by Strong et al
[28], are from discharges associated with both a bare conductor and an in-
sulated conductor, with the bare conductor spectrum falling considerably
from 10 to S0 kHz, and the insulated conductor spectrum having peaks at
- 45 and - 75 kHz.
10.6.3 Discharges in Solid Insulation

It is possible to monitor acoustic emissions from partial discharges occurr-
ing in cavities within solid insulation, provided the sonic sensor has adequate
sensitivity and the sensor is acoustically coupled to the insulation surface
without causing external discharges. Ultrasonic signals from discharging
cavities have been measured [29] using low frequency sensors in the 20- to
70-kHz region and also at higher frequencies from 150 kHz to 2 MHz [30]. A
unique feature of the acoustic spectra in voids, Fig. 10.12, is the constant fre-
quency increment between the peaks and valleys for a given cavity size. This
is believed to be due to the void acting as an acoustically resonant cavity and
is a unique feature that is useful for identifying the presence of a cavity and
also for estimating the cavity size. Investigation [30] of these resonance
phenomena by the author revealed a link between the spacing between the
crests in the frequency spectra and the spark length within the cavities. For
example, a spark length of -1.27 to 1.34 cm occurred within a glass-
enclosed air-filled cavity, and the spacing between peaks in the frequency
spectra was 1S kHz on an average. Taking the velocity of sound in air at
- 2 0 ~ as 340 m/s this frequency gives a half wave length of 1.13 cm.
Similar results from other voids are tabulated in the following:
Void Length, Spark Length, Average Frequency, )~/2,

mm mm Increment, kHz mm
19.0 12.7-13.4 15 11.3

6.35 6.35 27.8 6.1
3.18 3.18 57.5 2.97
These results suggest that discharges within insulation voids create an ef-
fect similar to that from acoustically resonant cavities, and the spark length
within the cavities can be determined by examination of their ultrasonic fre-
quency spectra. This agrees well with sonic theory where a closed gas-filled
tube in vibration has, due to reflections, nodes at each end, and the half wave
length of the fundamental frequency is equal to the tube length. It is for-
tunate that the velocity of sound in a gas is independent of pressure and pro-
portional to the square root of the absolute temperature. Therefore, for a
wide range of gas pressures within a cavity or void, the spark path length
within may be calculated from the void ultrasonic spectrum signature, as
long as the gas and approximate temperature of the surrounding media are
known. Also, sonic velocities in gases may be found.
10. 6.4 Discharges in Liquid Insulation

Utrasonic emissions from electrical discharges occurring within insulating
I I I I I t
_ 523kHz
405kHz 460kHz ~" Void ~[~1 578kH
-- ill I
Void1 x . i ]
i0 -- mm
0
~ 3"Void [19mml
10
0
380kHz Frequency 600 kHz
FIG. lO.12--Typical X-Y records of part of ultrasonic spectra from air-filled cavities within
Plexiglas (after Harrold [30]).
201- Point ~ _
]0l- to Plane ........
O| ' i i
!
301- Sphere
~ O-- I I .
" 30 Electrically ~ "
20 Floating
~= l0 Electrode
I 0 i
to~ void ,-4 15kH, ,

.,-, 30
10-
o
30 - Formation
20" of
1"
1 0 - ~ Void
015 t L
9 32 .75 1.75
f, MHz (all spectra N. T. S. )
F I G . 1 0 . 1 3 - - U l t r a s o n i c spectrum signatures o f corona sources in mineral oil (after Harrold

[3o1).
liquids are usually easy to detect because the fluids, such as, mineral oil, of-
fer little attenuation to ultrasound and allow efficient acoustic coupling to an
immersed transducer. Also, external acoustical interference is negligible
because of attenuation at the gas-solid (oil container) interface, and the oil-
gas (oil surface) interface. In mineral oil, the acoustical spectrum (Fig.
10.13) of spark-type discharges from closely spaced 60-Hz sphere gaps ex-
tends over a wide frequency range to 2 MHz, and probably further, and is
analogous to the electrical spectra from rapid rise pulses. Presumably,
resonances are not evident in the spectra because of the small gap ( - 1 0 mil,
-0.25 mm) and the absence of an enclosed cavity, even though it is believed
that the discharges occur in gas (hydrogen) in very small' mineral oil gaps.
For a point-to-insulated-plane discharge in mineral oil, the acoustical spec-
trum falls rapidly (Fig. 10.13) and does not appear to extend much beyond
300 kHz. It is believed that this type of spectrum is associated with positive
streamers emanating from the point.
10.6.5 Discharges in Gaseous Insulation

Ultrasonic emissions from electrical discharges in air can often be
monitored at frequencies in the region of - 2 0 to 100 kHz. Sparks (ac and
de) and positive streamers are rich in these components as well as other fre-
quencies. In Fig. 10.14, the frequency spectrum from 20 to 50 kHz as-
sociated with an a-c point discharge in air is shown. These measurements,
which were made several years ago by C. B. Durgin at the Westinghouse
Research Laboratories, show a declining signal level with increasing frequen-
cy and a periodicity that will be discussed later. A falling signal level with in-
creasing frequency is also evident in Fig. 10.11, which illustrates the ultra-
sound spectrum from discharges associated with a bare conductor. A study
[31] by H6roux and Trinh in which they recorded part of the acoustic fre-
quency spectrum associated with a positive 45-deg cone stressed at 165 kV in
air (Fig. 10.1S) also indicates a reduced signal level with increasing fre-
quency, and a pronounced periodicity that will be examined later.
10.6. 6 Discharges at Low Pressure and in Vacuum Insulation

There does not appear to be any published data regarding the spectrum of
the acoustic emissions from electrical discharges at low pressure and
vacuum, except for that by the author from a recent study [32] for NASA (see
Section 10.8.7 and Ref 77). As part of this study, some ultrasonic spectral
measurements from - 2 0 to - 8 0 kHz, of the emissions from a point-to-
insulated plane (Fig. 10.16) and a sphere-to-insulated plane (Fig. 10.17),
were made over a pressure range from - 1 torr to atmospheric at a-c voltages
of 2.8 and 4.2 kV, respectively. Although only a small frequency range is
covered, it is clear that at low pressure ( - 100 to - 1 torr) the level of the
ultrasonic emissions falls considerably with increasing frequency, f, and is
roughly proportional to f -4. At higher pressures ( - 760 to -300 torr), the
-40
-70 20 30 40 50
FrequencykHz
FIG. I0.14--Ultrasound spectrum f r o m an a-c point corona discharge (after Durght, un-
published work).
-- [ l I I I I I I I "-t
#t I\
,,--~ ! I I
I I r .o
' :I -'', f ",-
_ - ..... Measured _~
] l J I I
Calculated
I I I [
/
l kHz/div
F I G . l O.15--Comparison between measured and calculated spectral density of audible noise
from positive streamers emanating from a 45-deg cone stressed at 165 k V (after H~roux and
Trinh [311).
10 3
A ,0
0
>
:3. p~f 9
~ I02
'%
5
100
cr
.o
= 10
._~
-~ 1
g=
I
0.1
10 20 30 40 60 80 100
(f) - Frequency - kHz
F I G . lO.16--Frequency spectra of the sonic emissions from discharges from a point stressed
at 2. 8 k V rms and spaced 1 mm above an insulated plane in varying degrees of vacuum (after
Harrold [32]).
103
~
~ I02
I0
._~
~ 1
i
i
0.1
10 20 30 40 60 80 100
(f) Frequency - kl-tz
F I G . lO.17--Frequency spectra o f the sonic emissions f r o m discharges f r o m a 2.5 cm diam-

eter sphere stressed at 4.2 k V rms and spaced 0.1 m m above an insulated plane in varying
degrees o f vacuum (after Harrold [321).
reduction in signal with frequency is not so pronounced and is similar to that

for discharges at one atmosphere, for example, see Figs. 10.11 and 10.14.
10.6. 7 Estimation of Cavity Size and Spark Path Length from Acoustical
Spectrum Signatures
As explained earlier in Section 10.6.3, a unique feature of the acoustic
spectra from discharges in voids (see Fig. 10.12) is the constant frequency in-
crement between the peaks and valleys for a given cavity size. This is believed
to be due to the void acting as an acoustically resonant cavity and is useful for
identifying the presence of an insulation cavity and for estimating its size.
10.6. 7.1 Sealed Gas-Filled Spark Gap--A small, sealed 800-V Siemen's
gas-filled spark gap, triggered at - 6 0 pps, was immersed in mineral oil and
the resulting acoustic emissions were monitored via a - 1 . 2 7 cm (0.5 in.)
diameter Pyrex glass wave guide (see Section 10.8.8.2) 40 cm (16 in.) long
that coupled the acoustic emissions to a broad-band ( - 0 . 1 5 to - 2 MHz
main response) lithium sulphate crystal transducer and a tunable narrow-
band detector. Although the electrodes within the cylindrical glass cavity
( - 7 mm inside diameter by 5 mm deep) were spaced only - 1 . 5 mm (60

mil), it is believed that when a spark occurs between the electrodes, the spec-
trum of the resulting acoustic emissions is modulated at the acoustic reso-
nant frequency of the gas cavity. The acoustic spectrum signature (Fig.
10.18) clearly indicates peaks and valleys, with an average frequency incre-
ment between the main peaks of - 2 6 kHz. If the gas in the cavity is neon,
acoustic velocity - 4 3 5 m/s, then, using 26 kHz, an acoustic half wave
length of - 8 . 3 6 mm is calculated. This is near the 7-mm cavity diameter,
or even closer to the maximum gas column length in the cavity of - 9 mm
from the top rim, through the electrodes to the lower rim.
10. 6. 7. 2 S t r e a m e r s in A i r - - T h e acoustic spectrum signature, recorded by
H6roux and Trinh [29], from a 45-deg cone 40 cm above a ground plane in
air, and stressed at 165 kV positive is shown in Fig. 10.15. This has similar
peaks and valleys to the signatures of cavity discharges and an average fre-
quency increment of - 1 . 3 4 kHz. Using this frequency and the velocity of
ultrasound in air, 330 m/s, a half wave length of 12 cm is calculated. This
suggests that as a positive streamer propagates from the 45-deg cone into the
100
80
40
2O
-g
o
~
6
1
50 60 l0 80 90 100 120 140 160 180 200
Frequency- kHz
FIG. lO.18--Ultrasonic spectrum signature from electrical discharges in sealed gas-filled
spark gap immersed in mineral oil (after Harrold, unpublished work).
40-cm gap, the repeated heating and expansion of air causes formation of an
acoustic resonant column equal to a streamer length of 12 cm. Adding
credibility to this theory, is the photographic data [33] taken by the author of
the plume (streamer) lengths from conical rivets attached to simulated power
line conductors. With a 2.54-cm-diameter aluminum tube having a conical
protrusion from its surface about 2.5 mm in length, and an applied voltage of
200 kV rms, maximum plume lengths ranging from 7 to 10 cm were
measured.
10.6. 7.3 Lightning--The spectrum of thunder from lightning shown in
Fig. 10.8, indicates a large peak at 200 Hz in the audio frequency range, and
also sound not heard by ear that is in the infrasonic region at a frequency be-
tween 0.25 to 2 Hz. Interpreting this data in a similar way to that for small
sparks, it is speculated that the half wave length calculated from the in-
frasonic frequencies, - 160 to - 1700 m, represents the total lightning path
from cloud to ground; while the 1.65 m calculated for 200 Hz corresponds to
the radial distance that the rapidly heated air and associated shock wave
must travel from the lightning channel before a sound wave is formed.
Several investigators [34] have calculated, or experimentally measured, a
radial shock wave travel of a few meters.
10.6. 7. 4 Meteors Entering Earth's Atmosphere--Using arrays of
capacitor microphones (0.1 to 10 Hz), Donn and Balachandran [35] have
recorded the acoustic emissions from meteorites entering the earth's at-
mosphere. The dominant recorded energy is in the 0.3- to 3-Hz frequency
range and from analysis of the data, the meteor trajectories can be estimated,
and in the future, it is hoped to locate the meteor impact sites. It is in-
teresting to note the similarity in the infrasonic frequencies recorded from
lightning and meteors, and that the 0.3- to 3-Hz frequencies, when analyzed
on a resonant basis, perhaps correspond to a 55- to 5S0-m radial shock wave
travel associated with a meteor passing through the atmosphere.
10.7 The Relationship Between Ultrasonic and Electrical Measurements of

Discharges
The magnitude of the ultrasonic emissions from electrical discharges in
both gases and liquids can vary considerably, even though the electrical pulse
charge value may not change for a given situation. As an example, for a con-
stant value a-c discharge in mineral oil [17], over a ten-to-one variation in
ultrasound pressure level was recorded. This may be due to the formation of
gas in the oil, and the intermittent occurrence of discharges with similar
charge values, both in the gas and in the oil, but with different acoustic emis-
sion levels. The variations described are typical for discharges in liquids and
gases, but for many situations, the ultrasonic pressure level is approximately
proportional to the electrical pulse charge.
10. 7.1 Discharges in Air

Ultrasonic measurements taken by the author using a 41.5-kHz directional
microphone 80 cm from a 0.075 mm (3 mil) diameter tungsten wire energized
at negative voltages to 10 kV, are shown in Fig. 10.19. It can be seen that
over a pulse charge, Q, range from - 1 0 0 to - 2 0 0 pC, the ultrasound
pressure level is proportional to Q. Leslie and O'Beirne [36] obtained similar
results illustrated in Fig. 10.20, when they recorded the acoustic emission
level and the NEMA microvolts quasi-peak associated with different forms of
simulated extra high voltage (EHV) power line corona sources. They used a
10- to 20-kHz microphone with a - 6 1 cm (24 in.) diameter parabolic reflec-
tor and found that, as might be expected, for positive streamers initiated by
conductor contamination, acoustic signals were only received on the positive
half cycle of power frequency, while for spark gap-type corona sources,
similar magnitude acoustic signals occurred on both half cycles.
10. 7.2 Discharges in Mineral Oil

Ogihara [16] measured the ultrasonic pressure levels at a frequency of
around 100 to 300 kHz from numerous a-c point discharges having pulse
values ranging from 10 to 104 pC in mineral oil. Although there is a large
scatter in the data, Ogihara estimated that the ultrasound pressure levels are
approximately proportional to the square root of the electrical pulse charge.
Similar data taken by the author, using a transducer with a 30- to 90-kHz
frequency range (Fig. 10.21) confirms this relationship for discharges rang-
ing from < 10 to - 200 pC, a region in which bubbles are not visible to the
naked eye. However, for larger discharges ranging from - 2 X 103 pC to
105 pC where bubbles were visible, the ultrasound pressure level appears to
be directly proportional to the electrical pulse charge.
102 ~ i r,i ~ i ~1 ' ~ ''1 ~ ~'t ~
u~
PositiveCoronaMeasured f- P = Q in this
10 - with Microphoneat 25cm , ~ Range
:1
B
,,/
Correctedto 80 cm , / "
1 m
/
/
.~_
..~ o/o ~. Negative?orona
- Measured
~3~/ J 9 with Microphoneat 80 cm
I Arab ~ | Ambient
Q,.
0.1 , ,,.~1 , , ,,I i i k~l , ~ J~l i L I
1 10 102 103 104 105
Q, ElectricalPulseCharge pC
FIG. 10.19--41.5 kHz acoustical measurements of dc corona f r o m 0.003 in. diameter
tungsten wire stressed at from 0 to - 1 0 k V (after Harrold [8]).
100 I I I I I
go --
80
~=
E
7o
=>
6O
50
10 20 30 40 50 60
C - Coronaphone Reading - Arbitrary Units (riB)
FIG. lO.20--Relation between R I V and coronaphone readings [10 to 20 kHz} f o r different

forms o f extra high voltage power line corona sources (after Leslie and 0 "Beirne [36]).
~ 1000 t I I [
'~
-- 100 - Point to Plane. ~
Corona Discharges in Mineral Oil
With Source 100 cm From Transducer
~, 10 - Electrically Floating
Metal - ~ _ / /
"~ / ~4~."''''~" P~:O

;ubbles
' I p~,:,:0 ] ] 2 ....... [Jnstable Large Bubbles
I
1 10 100 1000 10, 000 100, 000
(O) - Electrical Pulse Charge, pC
FIG. lO.21--Acoustical signal, P, versus electrical pulse charge, Q, for electrical discharges
in mineral oil, with source 1O0 cm from transducer (after HarroM [ 17]).
10.7.3 Practical Sensitivities of Ultrasonic Detection Systems and

Theoretical Limitations
10.7.3.1 Piezoceramic Crystals--As discussed in Section 10.4.1, an im-
portant aspect of piezoceramic crystals [37] is the g constant, and for a
PZT5A ceramic sensor (lead zirconate, lead titanate), the g constant is 24.8
x 10 3 V - m / N . From g = (volt per meter)/(newtons per meter2), and since
105 N / m 2 is equal to 1 bar, it can be calculated that for a PZT5A ceramic
disk crystal 2.54 cm diameter by 1.27 cm (1 in. diameter by 0.5 in.) deep,
31.5 #V will be generated across the flat surfaces by a pressure of 1 #bar.

This is the voltage generated away from the resonant frequency of the crystal,
and the response at resonance is much greater. For PZT5A ceramic, the
mechanical Q is 75, and thus
Q,~=Q
= f.V[27r f.Z~ C( f 2 _ f2)] (10.5)
where fro a n d f , are frequencies of maximum and minimum impedance; Zm is

the minimum impedance; and C is the crystal capacitance; and for the value
of Q, the response at resonance for a practical system (mounting the crystal
for practical use introduces damping and reduces the Q) is at least an order
of magnitude greater than that away from resonance. Consequently, for a
PZT5A piezoceramic disk 2.54 cm diameter by 1.27 cm deep (1 in. diameter
by 0.5 in. deep) (resonant frequency in the 60 to 80 kHz region), the response
at resonance should be about 300 #V/#bar. With this information, the pres-
sure levels associated with the ultrasonic emissions measured from electrical
discharges can be approximately estimated from the voltages generated by
the ceramic disks.
In the following section, the acoustic pressure levels from different value
discharges in mineral oil are estimated, interpreted in acoustic microvolt
values and compared with the associated electrical microvolt (NEMA)
values. This type of analysis was first performed by J. H. Cronin, when he
was with the Westinghouse Medium Power Transformer Division, Sharon,
Pa., in 1967.
10.7.3.2 Sensitivity in Mineral O i l - - T h e s e pressure levels can be
estimated more accurately if the ultrasound sensing system is calibrated with
pressure waves of known magnitude. From an extensive study [17] by the
author of the 30- to 90-kHz acoustic emission levels from a-c point discharges
in mineral oil (Fig. 10.21), it is estimated that the 45-kHz pressure level 10
cm from a - 10 pC (0.03 #J) discharge, on an average, is 5.5 #bars, while the
average pressure level associated with a - 100 pC (0.6 #J) discharge is - 17
#bars, and the average pressure level from a ~ 1000 pC (10 #J) discharge is
approximately 55 #bars. Ogihara [16] measured the ultrasonic emissions in
the 100- to 300-kHz frequency range 10 cm from a-c point discharges in
mineral oil, which ranged in magnitude from ~ 15 pC to 6 103 pC. He
developed an empirical formula relating the ultrasound pressure level and
the electrical pulse charge, namely
P = 6 X 10 3 [Q]I/2 (10.6)
where P is in grams and O is in coulombs. With a ceramic disk of 2 cm

diameter, as used by Ogihara, it can be calculated that the pressure level in
mineral oil at 10 cm from a 1 pC discharge is - 2 #bars, and from a lO pC

discharge - 6 #bars, and these values are of the same order as those
measured by the author.
In a practical situation, such as discharge detection within liquid insulated
power transformers, the ultrasound attenuation (diffusion) through the li-
quid to the tank wall and through the tank wall to the sensor may be of the
order of 10 to 1. Even so, (based on the ceramic response at resonance of
- 300 #V/#bar) approximately 50 #V peak (broad band, as measured on an
oscilloscope) would be detected 100 cm from a 1 pC point discharge. In terms
of narrow-band microvolts, for example, as measured using a radio noise
meter, this would translate to about 6 #V quasi-peak (#VQP), which com-
pares very favorably with the average value of approximately 0.5 #VQP [36]
(NEMA) for 1 pC found with electrical pulse measurement of transformer
discharges. However, it should be remembered [see Sections 10.5 and
10.7.4.2] that acoustic signals from discharges within gas trapped within the
liquid insulated transformer structures, or from discharges within insulation
voids, will be considerably less. This is because of the loss in acoustic energy
at the gas/oil or gas/solid interface.
Generally, for liquid insulated electrical power apparatus enclosed in steel
tanks with the ultrasonic sensor located on the tank outer surface, discharges
in liquid of - 10 pC in value are readily detectable [17], but for well-hidden
discharges occurring within insulation voids, the minimum value discharge
readily detected may only be in the 1000-pC range. However, in an
unobstructed liquid environment, ultrasonic sensors are surprisingly sen-
sitive, and as discussed earlier, it is estimated that 300 #V (oscilloscope
reading) at - 80 kHz would be measured at a distance of 10 cm from a 1 pC
discharge in mineral oil. With pressure level proportional to Q1/2, it would
seem that with low noise amplifiers, or by extracting the signal from the
noise, the ultrasonic emissions from 0.001-pC discharges would be detect-
able. However, as will be discussed later, it is likely that electrical discharges
less than - 1 pC in value do not occur in mineral oil.
10. 7.3.3 Sensitivity in Air--Highly directional microphones with a reso-
nant frequency of 40 kHz are readily available for detecting the acoustic
emissions from electrical discharges in air. A typical sensitivity is 1000
#V/#bar, and based on numerous measurements by the author, it is
estimated that the sound pressure level 10 cm from a 1 pC positive spark-type
discharge in air would be approximately 0.0001 #bar, which is 20 000 times
less than that for the mineral oil, and also less than the 1 kHz reference
sound pressure level (0.0002 #bar) due to molecular noise [10]. Generally,
with this type of transducer, the acoustic emissions from S0-pC discharges
can be detected in air at a distance of 1 m. This can be improved, at least by
an order of magnitude, if a parabolic reflector is used.
I0. 7. 3.4 Acoustical Pressure Levels from Electrical Discharges in Mineral
Oil and Air (Microsparks to Lightning)--Where extremely large electrical
discharges (lightning) are involved, it seems obvious that a large amount of

the acoustic energy (thunder) is radiated at audible frequencies, and prac-
tical measurements (Fig. 10.8) have demonstrated a dominant radiating fre-
quency near 200 Hz. This frequency can be predicted approximately using
the following empirical formula developed by Dawson et al [38] for
estimating the dominant radiating frequency region for different energy
sparks
( p )l/2
f = c~.~J (10.7)
w h e r e f i s the dominant frequency in Hz, c is the speed of sound in m/s, P is

the ambient pressure in N/m 2, and W the discharge energy in J/m. Applying
this formula to lightning (W ---- - l0 S J/m), a dominant frequency of 330 Hz
is calculated, and for a 4-m laboratory spark (W = 5 10 a J/m) where
dominant acoustic radiations between 1350 and 1650 Hz were measured, a
frequency of 1476 Hz is calculated. It is apparent that this formula gives
realistic results over a very wide range of spark energies, 3 10 a to l0 s J/m,
and length, 4 m for the spark and 1000 m (which is typical for lightning). Ex-
tending these calculations to very small discharges, for example, 0.0063 cm
(2.5 mil) spark gap ofS0 #J, results in a dominant frequency of - 117 kHz in
the ultrasonic region. This suggests that most of the acoustic energy from
very small sparks is radiated at ultrasonic frequencies, and, consequently, a
good estimate of the maximum sound pressure level associated with a
discharge can be made using ultrasonic sensors. As an example, using a
40-kHz sensor, the sound pressure level at 10 cm from a 0.0063-cm 50-vJ a-c
spark in air was estimated to be about 5 #bars, but with a microphone A
weighted (similar response to human ear) the estimated sound pressure level
was only 0.06 #bars.
It is interesting and informative to plot the sound pressure levels versus
electrical discharge energy, for both air and mineral oil discharges, covering
the range from microdischarges to lightning size discharges as in Fig. 10.22.
The pressure levels in air were measured at 40 kHz and at a distance of 10 cm
from sparking gaps ranging in spacing from 0.0063 cm ( - 2 . 5 mil) to 0.025
cm ( - 10 mil) and applied a-c voltages from - 1 to 4.4 kV. In addition,
sound pressure levels were measured from discharges associated with various
pieces of wire stressed at - 9 and 45 kV, and a 0.0075 cm (3 mil) diameter by
15 cm long tungsten wire at 5 kV. The audible frequency pressure levels from
a 4 m spark gap (Dawson [38]) and from lightning (Few [34] and Newman
[34]) are also shown.
The mineral oil sound pressure level data is based on a combination of
Ogihara's [16] measurements (at 100 to 300 kHz) and those of the author
(Fig. 10.21) taken at 30 to 90 kHz. Also, the pressure level, measured by
109 i I i i I t I i I E I i i i l l i I I [
108
/ " - Impulse Corona in Tap Water
10 / ~ [Naugof'nykhl
p~tightnmg
106 1 Atmosphere [Barl / s/ " IFew, Newman]
az= A/ ,.t,\(b.- I" 4 N~eter Spark [Dawsonl

~ [ 9 Calculated From 9 y8 1 .
'~ I gJ:,f "~ ,/" ..,o ,.r,

~.
~ ~ lO3~ ~ *9 ,. . " - - . . . . .re. .I10002ppars
140d8
.~ 102
~.~ s~,,~ / lOmil S~rk Gap, 4.4kV, 16,363pC
loll ?o ~8~"" o / ~ Wire, d5kY 1500pC
-----~ [ IpC~ ,Jp'f ' .,~'-~~//: 2. 5 rail 5 par'k Gap L2kV -50 0~0pC
_1 / i ~/~ [ - - - - Edge Discharge, 21kV 60pC

10 [- I ,r hted --3mildiarnWlre, 10kV' lOOpC
! -lpC\ , .~'... leer] ~3mldiamWire 5WV lOOpC
-2" "~- - .-"~- ~ .... ' "
~--~ 10 ~- I ~ - - - - _ _ - - ~ W l r e , gkV, 20pC
,~ I , ~.~r~#~, ~ W i r e 3mildiam SkY lOpC
10-3 b-- I '~ ~ ' ' '
E I- iI C~~ Reference Sound Pressure Level
10-4 ~-. i -- - - ~-~-2-1J ~ r s
is ', /~,ooz,j
IO-6[ i i I'~I i , I J I I t i ~ I 1 i i i i I
I0-0 10-4 10-2 1 I0 102 103 104 10.5 106 107 108 tOg 1010 1011 1012 1013 1014
[p]l Electrical Energy, WE
lO.22--Approximate sound pressure levels at lO-cm distance from electrical discharges

FIG.
in mineral oil and air (after Harrold, unpublished work).
Naugol'nykh and Roi [39], from a very large (200 J) discharge in tap water is
indicated.
Generally, over an extremely wide range of discharge energy magnitudes
(0.001 #J to l0 s J) the pressure levels (P) are approximately proportional to
x/WE, although in certain energy regions, - 1 to 100 t~J for air, and from 10
to 104 #J for oil, P is directly proportional to WE. Also, a flattening of both
curves is evident at very low energy levels, 10 -1 to 10 -3 #J, which infers that a
certain minimum acoustic pressure level exists for the smallest microdis-
charges that occur in both mineral oil and air.
I0. 7.4 Discharge Energy: Electrical and Acoustical

10. 7.4.1 Mineral Oil and Energy o f M i n i m u m D i s c h a r g e - - T h e total
energy (WE) in an electrical discharge can be readily calculated from a
knowledge of the applied voltage (V), and pulse charge (Q), and it can be
shown [40] that WE = 0.7 Q Vrmsjoules. In a recent investigation [41] of posi-
tive streamer velocities in mineral oil, the author measured the pulse charge
and inception voltages of discharges ranging in magnitude from - 1 0 to
-105 pC. From these data the curve (Fig. 10.23) of electrical pulse charge
versus electrical energy in microjoules is obtained (note the agreement with
106 I lit I J fir I r ill I I I II I r II~l .I rim I I rl~
Point-to-Insulated Plane Pos,!,ve Streamer~

lOmm, 30 kV ~) ~v "/-I
105
15mm Series Insulation ~ a l v i ~ ~'~" -~
i
104 Point Discharge~.X" Point-to---J

11kVlOg]hara] ~ InsulatedSI
= . 0.811 \ #4P PlanelOmm,-
103 g "E ~ '3"6'kV';m~ ~
Series.
D
Insulation
102
o .,../" ~ P o i n t Discharge
.. 8 kV [Ogihara]
i
o-
10
.,."
1
_l
,'~ For 1 pC the Estimated
-i
, DischargeEnergyis ~ O.002laJ
0.1 ) 1,1[ t aLt) J t~,) J ,,,I i lit[ I JiLl t *
10-3 10-2 10-1 I I0 102 103 104
[WE] DischargeEnergy - Microjoules [pJl
F I G . lO.23--Relationship between electrical charge and electrical energy for a-c point
discharges in mineral oil (after Harrold, unpublished work).
data from Ogihara [16] and Talvio [42]), and it can be projected from the
curve that a pulse charge of 1 pC in mineral oil has an input energy of
- 0 . 0 0 2 #J, and it is evident that Q is proportional to (We) ~ The acoustic
energy associated (WA) with these discharges can be estimated from the
measurements described in Section 10.7.3, and the following formula
4 7rr2p 2 t
WA -- 10 -7 J (10.8)
2pc
where P is the peak pressure level in dynes/cm 2, t is the time in seconds dur-
ing which the sensor responds to the acoustic emissions, p is the density of the
sound transmitting medium in g/cm 3, c is the velocity of the ultrasound in
cm/s, and r is the distance in centimetres between the ultrasound source and
the sensor. Based on a sound pressure level of 2 #bars (2 dynes/cm 2) (see Sec-
tion 10.7.3.2 and Fig. 10.22) 10 cm from a 1 pC electrical discharge in
mineral oil, it can be calculated that the associated acoustic energy (WA) is 2
X 10 -7 izJ, which is only 0.01 percent of the input electrical energy of 2
10 -3/zJ. This type of analysis can be applied to all the data presented in Fig.
10.22, and the acoustic energy (WA) expressed as a percentage of the input
electrical energy (WE) over an extremely wide range, 10 -3 to 1011/zJ (see Fig.
10.24).
It can be seen from Figs. 10.23 and 10.24 that for the smallest discharge
"6
aa
-,~ 1
~,,' ' IMin'eral' 0il ' ,,II Discharge in Tap VVat'er --
- ~ 1 to ~ 105 pC . .'. .[Naugol'ny~h]
... . .... -
o.,
- /" ,,," Lightning in Air -
_- / / [Spsecs Peak Pressurel-
/ j -
o.ol _~ Mineral /~
.__. w O. 001
~ t o ~ 2 105 pC -
< 11.111101 r] L l I I ] I =1 I I L I I I
10-2 1 10 102 1@ 106 l08 101~
[WEI Electrical Energy - Micro joules [pJl
F I G . lO.24--Acoustic energy expressed as percentage of electrical input energy for electrical

discharges in mineral oil and air (after Harrold, unpublished work).
estimated, - 1 pC (0.002/.tJ), the percent acoustic energy is only 0.01 per-

cent. This decreases to 0.002 percent at 1/~J of electrical energy, but there-
after gradually increases to reach 0.2 percent at 200 J of electrical input
energy. Apparently, most of the input electrical energy in a mineral oil
discharge is converted to heat, light, and electromagnetic energy. The exact
mechanisms by which electrical discharges are initiated in mineral oil are not
fully understood, but from study of Figs. 10.21 and 10.22, it is evident that in
the region of - 1 to 10 pC discharges there is little change in the radiated
sound pressure level. This suggests that the pressure levels measured in this
region are due to a different process than a positive streamer producing
acoustic emissions.
It is possible that this process is cavitation, as it has been shown [43] that
in all liquids microscopic dust particles are present that entrain gas in the
form of extremely small bubbles (10 -s to 10 -4 cm radius) that are stabilized
and kept from going into solution. Also, from cavitation [43] studies of li-
quids, it has been demonstrated that these stable microbubbles are cavita-
tion sites, and in mineral oil the power required for cavitation [43] at 25 kHz
is about 14 W/cm 2 for a 100 #s pulse. Using this pulse data, it can be
calculated that for a bubble radius of 10 -5 cm, the acoustic energy required
for cavitation is approximately 2 10 -6/~J. This is near the region of the
acoustic energy associated with - 1 to - 5 pC discharges, that is, - 2 10 -7
to - 1 0 -6 #J, which lends credibility to the hypothesis [44] that electrical
discharges in mineral oil begin with cavitation of microbubbles attached to
dust particles, and that the smallest discharge in mineral oil has a charge
value in the 1 to 5 pC region.
10. Z4.2 Air and Energy of Minimum Discharge--In an analysis similar
to that performed for discharges in mineral oil, over a range of air discharges
from - 3 to - 104 pC, although the data is scattered, the pulse charge values
are approximately proportional to electrical energy as seen in Fig. 10.25
(note the agreement with data from Talvio [42]). It is estimated that a 1 pC
positive streamer discharge in air (if it existed) would have a total energy
(We) of 0 . 0 0 2 / d (Fig. 10.25), and in Section 10.7.3.4 and Fig. 10.22, it was
demonstrated that an approximate 1 pC discharge in air would yield a
pressure level of approximately 0.01 /zbars (0.0002 #bars is the reference
level) at a distance of 10 cm. This converts to a total acoustic energy level of
0.1586 10 -7 #J, which is only 0.0008 percent of the total input electrical
energy of 0.002 #J. As the electrical discharge energy increases (Fig. 10.24),
it can be seen that, similar to the mineral oil data, less energy appears as
acoustic, and, at 0.1 #J, the acoustic energy comprises only 0.002 percent of
the total, but, at 104/zJ, the percent has increased to 0.2. This 0.2 percent of
total energy in the form of acoustic energy continues for larger value
discharges all the way to 1011/~J (lightning).
It is interesting to note that the percent acoustic energy for both air and
mineral oil discharges is similar over a wide range of input energies, - 10-3
to - 10 ]1 #J, except that at low energy levels ( < 1/zJ), the oil discharges have
an order of magnitude greater acoustic energy. Based on these measurements
for air discharges, the minimum value discharge that can be detected in
mineral oil due to trapped gas can be approximately estimated as described
in the following.
[- i0 mil SparkGap.
I- 4 rail Spark Gap 4. 4 RV /
-- lO 2. 5 mil Spark ,
i /I -Positive Streamer~ ~ \
~ Wire 45 kV
/o ,'N,-
l- 4. 5 kV [Talvio] " ~ , . ~ - Positive Streamer
"B I-- E--e
og Dischar ge " / ' ~,.,-- 12 kV [Talviol
-~ 102 ~" 3 k V [ T a l v i o ] \ / "---3mil-Wire].O-kV-
"~ ~ . %/ I ".Edge Oi~,argezl kv
* g" x ......
$ t- ../\,m,,wire,kv ....
1 F' ;0; 1 pC the Estimated

_ ~ Discharge Energy is ~ O.002 pJ
O.]ii i , iI , iiJl i *iiI J [lil ! lJ,l z iz
lo"3 zo-Z lo-1 1 lo zo2 I@
[W E] Discharge Energy - liJ
FIG. lO.25--Relationship between electrical charge and electrical energy for a-c discharges in
air (Harrold, unpublished work).
Consider that in mineral oil it is predicted, as in Fig. 10.22, that the sound
pressure level at 10 cm from a 1 pC discharge would be - 2 #bars, which
represents an acoustic energy level of - 2 10 -7 /~J. With a transducer
crystal sensitivity of - 3 0 0 #V/#bar (see Sec. 10.7.3.1) and assuming a 20 #V
(broad-band) signal is readily detectable, then an acoustic energy level of
2 10 -7 = 0.36 10 -7/.tJ, should be detectable (becausep oc
Q~/2). However, for a discharge within gas trapped within mineral oil insula-
tion (typically pressboard), the transfer of acoustic energy to the oil is
theoretically very low, 1/1000, see Section 10.5.2 (pc for air is 430 kg/m2/s,
and for impregnated pressboard - 2 106 kg/mUs). Due to this poor
energy transfer, the acoustic energy in a void discharge would need to be at
least 1000 0.364 10 -7/zJ to be detectable. This corresponds to - 3 #J of
electrical energy for an air discharge, or - 800 pC as in Fig. 10.25.
This 800-pC value estimated for the minimum acoustically detectable
discharge from trapped gas in mineral oil, is based on the sensor located 10
cm from the discharge. In a practical situation, such as a discharge within a
large power transformer, the reduction in acoustic signal by attenuation
through the oil and insulation structure before reaching the tank wall,
perhaps S0 cm distance, may be 5 to 1, and the attenuation through the tank
wall to an external sensor, typically 10 to 1. Assuming this 50 to 1 loss is
counteracted by using modern signal averaging techniques (Section
10.8.2.2), and because, as will be shown later, the loss at gas/pressboard in-
terfaces is less in practice than predicted theoretically, it appears that 800 pC
is the minimum detectable void type of discharge in mineral oil. With an
average relationship [45] between picocoulombs and microvolts (narrow-
band NEMA at 1 MHz) of approximately 2 pC//zV, 800 pC corresponds to
400 #V, thus, it is likely that discharges in the region of say, 200 to 400 #V
and due to trapped gas in mineral oil, would be extremely difficult to detect
using acoustic techniques.
A practical example of the reduced acoustic signals from discharges in gas
cavities within pressboard in mineral oil is evident from studies illustrated in
Figs. 10.21 and 10.26. In Fig. 10.21, which indicates the 30- to 90-kHz
acoustic signal level at 100 cm from a discharge in mineral oil, the signal for
a 1000-pC discharge is - 2 0 mV, whereas for a similar detection system, the
acoustic signal from a 1000-pC cavity in pressboard immersed in mineral oil
(Fig. 10.26) is - 0 . 4 mV, which is a difference of 50 to 1. For a 10-pC
discharge, the difference can be estimated to be 250 to 1, which is closer to
the 1000 to 1 estimated from theory. Even if only 100 to 1 is taken as a typical
loss factor for the transfer of acoustic energy from within a pressboard void,
then discharges with NEMA microvolt values in the approximate S0 to 100
#V region would probably still be extremely difficult to detect with acoustic
techniques.
10.7.4.3 Sound Pressure Level from Lightning--It is interesting to
estimate the sound pressure levels associated with lightning as heard by ear.
I I I I I I I I I
Pressboard Voids ~ /
50 cms From 7 4 /
Transdu~,/ / ///
V1
<C
.~ ~ / ~'Extrapolation
0r
/ ,e/ Transduce
/
/
#
,/
/
/
/
0.1 It' I I I [ t I I I
1O0 1000 10, I~0
(O) - Electrical Charge, pC
FIG. lO.26--Acoustic signal, P, versus electrical pulse charge, q, for discharges within air-
filled cavities in pressboard sandwiches immersed in mineral oil (after Harrold [17]).
Typically, the energy in a lightning strike is 105 J / m [46] and a cloud-to-

ground strike may traverse 3000 m. However, if it is assumed that for an
observer 100 m from a lightning strike, the sound pressure experienced is
contributed mainly by 200 m of lightning path length from ground, then, the
energy involved is 105 200 J : 2 107 J. Now, from Fig. 10.22, the sound
pressure 10 cm from the lightning path is estimated to be 8 107/~bars, but
due to wave diffusion, at 100 m distance, this reduces to 8 104/~bars, or
172 dB relative to the reference sound pressure level of 0.0002/zbars. This is
higher than the pain threshold of the human ear, which is considered to be
140 dB. It is fortunate that for discharges in air, only a fraction of input
energy is converted to acoustic energy; otherwise, the thunder from lightning
would be unbearable. In a different situation, such as an underwater energy
discharge of a similar magnitude, the resulting sound pressure waves could
be an order of magnitude greater (Section 10.7.4 and Fig. 10.24).
10.8 Acoustical Detection and Location of Partial Discharges in Electrical

Power Apparatus
Over the past two decades, acoustic techniques have been increasingly ap-
plied for the detection and location of partial discharges associated with elec-
trical power apparatus. At first, the techniques were applied to liquid-filled
power transformers and high-voltage power lines, but are now used for
diagnostic tests on large rotating apparatus, compressed gas insulated trans-
mission systems and substations, high-voltage capacitors, bushings, switch-
gear, and other electrical apparatus. In this section, the application of these
techniques to a variety of electrical apparatus will be discussed.
10. 8.1 Rotating Apparatus

In the last few years, some work concerning the application of ultrasonic
sensors for detecting electrical discharges associated with rotating apparatus
has been reported [47,48]. The author, during diagnostic tests [48] on a
30-year-old waterwheel generator at Grand Coulee Dam, measured acoustic
emissions from a high power factor coil removed from the machine. Due to
the high voltage applied to the coil, it was necessary to use an insulating
acoustic wave guide as a probe to transmit ultrasound from the coil surface to
the transducer. The measurements were made at a frequency of - 2 0 kHz
and the wave guide was in the form of a 25 cm (10 in.) long, 1.27 cm (0.5 in.)
inside diameter acrylic tube filled with mineral oil and sealed at the ends.
Acoustical contact was made at the c0il surface and at the transducer using
glycerin, and by probing the surface of the coil, regions where voids or
cavities were present within the insulation could be located. The system sen-
sitivity that mainly depended on the depth below the insulation surface at
which the voids were located and the acoustic mismatch between the gas in
the cavities and the insulation material, was around 2000 pC. The insulating
material was mica-asphalt - 0 . 5 cm ( - 0 . 2 in.) thick, but the actual depth
below the surface at which the cavities were located was not determined. The
measuring frequency, f , was 20 kHz and as no signals were recorded at 60
kHz, it appears that in mica-asphalt the attenuation of ultrasound is high
(attenuation in solids is approximately proportional to f2). A typical picture
of the sonic signals recorded oscillographically is shown in Fig. 10.27, where
it is seen that identification is easy because the pulses repeat each power fre-
quency half cycle. As a further verification, when the probe is removed from
the insulation surface, no signals should be received. It is best to use a wave
guide probe with a dielectric constant close to that of the coil insulation, to
prevent the possibility of surface discharges occurring.
With the high attenuation of acoustic energy in mica-asphalt, it is unlikely
that sonic probing for insulation cavities in coils within generators in the field
would be worthwhile, but with modern mica synthetic resin insulation that
should have much less attenuation of ultrasound, useful practical data
should be attainable by probing the end turn insulation of rotating machines
in service.
When discharges occur external to the insulation, sensitive microphones
can be used for detection and location. In England the Central Electricity
Generating Board uses 40-kHz microphones as a maintenance aid [47] for
scanning motor stator end-windings for discharges, because they believe this
is the region most likely to fail. The sensitivity of the system used is estimated
to be 50 pC, and in Fig. 10.28, a comparison is made between the frequency
FIG. lO.27--Sonic signal from voids within mica-asphalt coil insulation stressed at 7.5 k V
rms (after Harrold [481).
FIG. lO.28--Ultrasonic spectrum signature o f surface discharges associated with the end-
windings o f a motor stator (after Wilson [47]).
spectra (15 to 100 kHz) of background noise and the acoustic signals from
discharges associated with motor stator insulation. It can be seen that
acoustic emission from discharges with a frequency content in the 40 kHz
region is clearly distinguishable from the background noise.
10. 8.2 Power Transformers

Ultrasonic techniques are ideally suited for the detection and location of
discharges in liquid-filled power transformers, because for low value
discharges (1 to 200 pC), compared with air, an order of magnitude of more
energy is converted to acoustic energy (Fig. 10.24). Also, very little attenua-
tion of the ultrasound waves occurs in the liquid. For over 20 years, the
techniques have been widely used for diagnostic tests during both impulse
and power frequency voltage tests. Although throughout the early history of
the electrical power industry (1874-1920) it was probably known that elec-
trical breakdown in oil-filled power apparatus could be heard by ear,
especially with the aid of a listening rod [for example, a 2.54-cm (1-in.)
diameter wood rod] with one end at the ear and the other end held against
the tank wall, the first published use of an ultrasonic sensor seems to be by
Kimura et al [49] in 1939 who used an oil-immersed crystal microphone to
detect acoustic emissions from both a-c and d-c corona in oil at sensor fre-
quencies from 14.5 to 50 kHz. This was followed by Beldi [50] in 1950 who,
with a sensor inside the tank, detected low-frequency (around 30 Hz)
acoustic emissions during impulse testing of power transformers. In 1956,
Anderson [51] greatly improved the technique for impulse testing of
transformers by using more sensitive detectors operating at ultrasonic fre-
quencies.
10. 8.2.1 Tests Under Impulse Voltages--Anderson used barium-titanate
sensors, of both flat and cylindrical form, immersed in the oil and covered on
the outside by a grounded conducting material that acted as a shield against
electrical induced interference. The frequency response curve for the oil im-
mersed barium-titanate cylindrical transducer used is given in Fig. 10.29,
where it can be seen that it is reasonably constant from - 5 0 to 150 kHz and
the sensitivity is 100 # V / P a ( - 10 #V/#bar) at 100 kHz. After amplification,
signals from the transducer are fed to an oscilloscope previously triggered by
a pulse from the impulse generator. An experimental arrangement used by
Anderson to detect and locate impulse corona on an oil-immersed rod gap is
shown in Fig. 10.30. From the Time Delay A, between triggering and arrival
of the acoustic wave at the sensor, by using the velocity of ultrasound in
mineral oil ( - 1400 m/s at 25~ the distance from the transducer to the im-
pulse corona is calculated. Using additional transducers, or by relocation of
the transducer, the exact corona site can be found by triangulation.
Although Anderson thought that ultrasonic magnetostrictive noise,
(sometimes called Barkhausen noise) produced in the steel cores of
transformers by impulse surges, and factory noises would make the applica-
tion of ultrasonic techniques to transformer production testing of doubtful
value, the method is now used extensively worldwide. More sensitive
transducers are used, normally acoustically coupled to the outside of the
transformer steel tank and of a resonant frequency in the - 50 to - 300 kHz
range. Core noise and the arrival at the transducer of ultrasound from
devious paths can be a problem, but with the ease and accuracy of triggering
the oscilloscope from the impulse wave, with experience, it is usually possible
to locate the impulse corona source. If the corona occurred even 40 #s after
the crest of the impulse wave (and corona at crest was assumed), the location
error would only be about 5.7 cm (2.2 in.). Another variable is the decrease
in velocity of ultrasound in transformer oil with increase in temperature, but
this should not significantly influence the sonic range in accuracy, as from 20
-90 I I I I l [ l l i l l
~ -95
o -1D0
~-105
o -110
== -115
I I [ [ I ~ L I I L ~
50 ~ 70 ~ ~ l~ 110 120 130 1~ 150
FrequencykHz
FIG. lO.29--Frequency response curve of an oil-immersed barium titanate cylindrical

transducer (after Anderson 151]).
From Imp SweepInitiation

Incoming Gen Shunt Une Impulse
Generator CROTube
[~1 Line From AmP I
Typical CROTubePattern
FIG. IO.30--Use of the ultrasonic technique to detect and locate impulse corona on an oil-
immersed rod gap (after Anderson [51]).
to 90~ the reduction in velocity is only about 10 percent [51], from approx-
imately 1430 to 1270 m/s.
1 0 . 8 . 2 . 2 T e s t s U n d e r P o w e r F r e q u e n c y V o l t a g e s - - A similar ultrasonic
technique to that used for detecting and locating impulse corona can be ap-
plied during power frequency testing of transformers. Generally, the acoustic
signals to be detected are much smaller than those occurring during impulse
testing, but the most difficult problem is triggering of the oscilloscope at the
correct instant. This is because power frequency discharges in mineral oil can
be capricious, for example, the phase relationship between the power fre-
quency voltage and the discharge may change from cycle-to-cycle, the
magnitude of ultrasonic emissions may change considerably [17] although
the pulse charge value is constant, and multiple discharges often occur.
Nevertheless, ultrasonic techniques are universally applied for diagnostic
purposes during transformer power frequency tests, and several studies have
been performed and numerous papers [52-59] written over recent years.
Anderson [51] describes an arrangement using several transducers in dif-
ferent locations, whereby the first arrival of ultrasound at any transducer will
simultaneously trip all the sweeps (for example, oscilloscope time bases) used
to display the acoustic signals. From the subsequent arrival times of ultra-
sound at the various transducers, the fault location can then be estimated.
Ogihara [16] used several transducer positions outside the transformer
tank, but acoustically coupled by placing the sensor in a small oil-filled con-
tainer attached to the tank wall. This method of coupling prevented external
interfering ultrasound from reaching the sensor, as it would be reflected at
the container external surface. A variation of this coupling method is to place
the sensor in a thin plastic bag [60] touching the tank wall and filled with
degassed mineral oil. Ogihara used a triangulation procedure for locating
transformer discharges, but from each sensor location constructed two
spherical discharge location paths, one assuming the ultrasound velocity for
a transformer tank filled with steel, and one assuming the ultrasound velocity
for a tank filled with oil. This is a simple and useful procedure, because often
a pressure wave from an internal discharge will travel partly through liquid
and partly through steel on its journey to an ultrasonic sensor. An example of
this technique applied by Ogihara to locate a 10 000 pC discharge between
the high-voltage and low-voltage windings of a transformer is given in Fig.
10.31.
Allan et al [61] proposed an alternative approach for acoustically pinpoint-
Dataof CoronaLocation
"rime Maximum Minimum
delay distance distance
(ps) (steel)(cm) (oil)(cm)
80 48 ll
TestI 200 120 28
400 240 56
120 72 17
TestII 250 150 35
280 168 40
250 150 35
TestIll 3~3 180 42
380 230 53
(~: positionof detector)
~ ~ ~ ~'/- ~raakst~mer
I CoronaLocation
TestI TestII TestIII Result
FIG. 10.31--Acoustical ranging appliedfor locating powerfrequency discharge within 20 k V

oil-immersed transformer (after Ogihara [16]).
ing a transformer discharge, in which several transducers are positioned in a

horizontal line along the face of a transformer tank and the position of the
sensor that first receives an acoustic signal (minimum time delay) is recorded
(Fig. 10.32). Repeating this procedure with a vertical transducer array and
horizontally on another face of the transformer tank, should yield sufficient
data for estimating the discharge location. It is claimed that this m e t h o d is
independent of which acoustic signal reaches the transducers first, that is,
the oil pressure wave, the steel pressure (presumably longitudinal) wave, or
the steel shear wave. It would appear that with cooling systems and fans at-
tached to a transformer tank, the techniques might be difficult to apply.
In order to overcome the problem of triggering on the correct electrical dis-
charge (responsible for the received acoustic signal) and also avoid reflection
of acoustic waves, Allan et al [61] also describes a slow surge technique [62]
in which the transformer is energized by an applied voltage wave ( - 500 to
1000 ~ts rise time and - 1000 #s decay) so that the voltage distribution in the
transformer will be closely related to the normal power frequency voltage
distribution. If the discharge is activated by this slow surge, a clear acoustic
signal should be received by a sensor, and an accurate time delay measured.
Transformer
Tank
x Discharge
S~e
9 TransducerPositions
Time
Delays
Transducer Positions
FIG. 10.32--V-curve obtained on the tank surface, using acoustic delay times f o r different
sensor positions (after Allan et al [61]).
Another approach for improving acoustic ranging techniques, which is

described by Boyles and Hinton [63], is an electronic means of recovering
acoustic signals from noise and identifying the related electrical pulses and
acoustic signal. Basically, the data from several acoustic sensors and the
related electrical pulses are recorded on high-speed magnetic tape during
numerous power frequency cycles when electrical discharges are active. The
tape data is played back over a period of time in an electronic system, and by
integration, weak acoustic signals can be recovered and related to particular
electrical discharge pulses. A similar system, employing a storage signal
analyzer and oscilloscope display, was devised by Tan [64] for locating par-
tial discharges in transformers and reactors.
In a recent paper by Austin and Marshall [65], a system using transient
recorders and a mini-computer for signal averaging and cross-correlation of
electrical and acoustical signals is described. They discuss the problems of
triggering and interference, and give practical details of the system perform-
ance in the presence of considerable interference (Fig. 10.33). Although
costly ( - $ 4 0 000), if pursued, with further development and reduced cost,
the system should prove valuable.
In regard to magnetic tape recordings of electrical and ultrasonic signals,
Hickling [66] describes a technique in which initial records were made on
magnetic tape (time resolution - 3/~s), and subsequently replayed at 1/30th
speed using an ultraviolet-sensitive paper oscillograph. The records, Fig.
10.34, attributed to J. W. Wood, clearly illustrate the phase relationship be-
tween the electrical discharge pulses, the acoustic signals, and the power fre-
quency voltage.
FIG, 10.33--Signal averaging applied for acoustical location of oil-immersed electrical dis-
charge sited 64 era from tank wall (after Austin and Marshall [65]).
FIG. 10.34--Electrical and ultrasonic [200 kHz] pulse records from discharges in mineral oil,
recorded initially on magnetic tape, but shown after replaying at 1/30th speed using an
ultraviolet sensitive paper oscillograph (after Hickling and Wood [66]).
Howells and Norton [59] detected and analyzed the acoustic emissions
from electrical discharges within power transformers using an ultrasonic
sensing system with the capability to transient record (digital oscilloscope),
signal enhance by cross-correlation or averaging (correlator), and frequency
analyze. Practical data acquired with t h i s system indicate, for the
transformers and types of discharges examined, that ultrasound from the
transformer core (magnetostrictive noise or Barkhausen noise) is
predominantly in the 40-kHz region, while the acoustic emissions from the
electrical discharges were in the 100- to 150-kHz frequency region. As it is
known that many forms [30] of transformer discharges have a wide ultrasonic
frequency spectrum, it would appear that the frequency records of Howells
and Norton can be attributed to a particular type of discharge, possibly
similar to a point-to-insulated plane. Also, it would seem likely that core
noise characteristics would vary with different transformer designs, yet the
dominant 40-kHz ultrasonic emissions were measured from the cores of both
core form and shell form transformers. In the author's experience, ultra-
sound from transformer cores can sometimes be detected at frequencies from
60 to 80 kHz, but can usually be identified, as it does not often incept at the
same voltage as the discharges.
A promising technique being explored by the author is the application of
acoustic wave guides [67] to extract the ultrasonic emissions from electrical
discharges deeply buried in complex insulation structures, such as power
transformers. See Section 10.8.8, in which the merits of acoustic wave guides
are discussed.
10. 8.2. 3 Diagnostic Tests on Transformers in Service--Ultrasonic sensors
are attractive for diagnostic testing of transformers in service (or as incipient
fault indicators), because when correctly applied, the sonic system is unaf-
fected by electrical induced noise that can be high near substations and EHV
power lines. Train et al [58] devised an ultrasonic detection system for
diagnostic testing of 138 kV potential transformers in service. They simply
used a transducer (upper frequency limit of 200 kHz) acoustically coupled to

the transformer tank wall with the ouput fed via a 10-kHz high pass filter to
an oscilloscope display. The system was insensitive to background ultrasound
from magnetostriction, cooling fans, and transmission line or bushing cor-
ona, and out of 200 transformers tested in service, four gave significant
ultrasonic emission levels. These four were removed from service, and on
subsequent partial discharge tests, the existence of internal discharges was
confirmed. The acceptance level for these potential transformers was 100 pC
or 250 #VQP, and higher levels would be a reason for removing the
transformer from service. The authors quote a sensitivity of 70 pC/mV, of
sonic signal, but, of course, the sensitivity depends on the discharge location,
and both the electrical pulse and acoustic wave attenuation properties of the
transformer winding and structure.
Howells and Norton [59] believe that the ultrasonic sensing and analyzing
system they assembled and described earlier is well suited for the inspection
of transformers in service; presently, they are progressing with field trials of
their system. It is difficult to assess the sensitivity of their system (records
from a 200-pC discharge are illustrated), as they quote charge sensitivity in
pulses per second, rather than pulse magnitude.
10.8.3 Overhead Power Transmission Lines

Directional microphones operating at a resonant frequency in the 20 to 40
kHz range are often used to detect and locate electrical discharges (usually
associated with insulators) on both low-voltage and high-voltage power lines.
As low-cost 40-kHz sensors were available (used for operating garage doors
and for locating gas leaks from high pressure lines), they were mounted [68]
on the ends of long insulating rods or tubes and used to locate troublesome
discharge sites (often sources of radio noise) on low-voltage lines ( - 3 . 3 t9
- 38 kV) at the side of highways. The long rod enabled probing to be carried
out close to groups of insulators and line hardware, and thus helped to pin-
point a discharge, but as this appears unwieldy and perhaps dangerous, it
would seem better to use the combined sensor and parabolic reflector [36, 69]
developed for locating discharge problems on power lines operating at 110
kV and higher. A different form of directional microphone that may be
useful is the Shotgun Sound Snooper [70] that uses 37 2.54-cm (1-in.) diam-
eter aluminum tubes from 2.54 cm (1 in.) to 91 cm (36 in.) long, and
responds to selected frequencies.
Similar parabolic microphones were developed by Leslie and O'Beirne [36]
(called a coronaphone and operating in the 10- to 20-kHz frequency range) as
depicted in Fig. 10.35, and Pakala and Thompson [69] (called a coronagun
and operating at approximately 35 kHz) as depicted in Fig. 10.36. The device
of Leslie and O'Beirne uses a capacitor-type microphone at the focal point of
a - 6 1 cm (24 in.) diameter radar antenna. The focal length is - 2 5 cm (9.75
FIG. lO.35--Photograph of coronaphone, showing parabolic microphone assembly and box

containing electronic circuitry and batteries. Operating frequency 10 to 20 kHz (after Leslie and
0 "Beirne [36], Courtesy of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers).
FIG. lO.36--Corona gun with operating frequency - 3 5 kHz (after Pakala and Thompson
[691).
in.), and a gun site is mounted at the edge of the parabolic reflector to help
the operator locate or identify noise sources. After amplification, the
microphone output is measured with a quasi-peak detector similar to that of
radio noise meters. The parabolic microphone is very directional, the 6-dB
beam width at 10 kHz being 4.2 deg, and the authors claim the directivity is
sufficient to enable a skilled operator to locate a noise source - 3 0 . 5 m (100
ft) away within about - 3 0 . 5 cm (1 ft) and to separate sources that are - 1 m
(3 ft) apart. Laboratory measurements on high-voltage insulation indicated a
good proportionality between RIV microvolt (NEMA circuit) and cor-
onaphone readings, and extensive measurements in the field at a distance of
approximately - 3 0 . 5 m (100 It) from a 230-kV power line pinpointed many
noise sources, such as, insulator clamps, dampers, and joints. The authors
present the acoustic data in decibels re 0.0002/zbar, measured at a distance
of - 3 0 . 5 m (100 ft), and typically, the readings range from 40 to 50 dB, or
0.02 to 0.06 #bar. Based on the relationship between sound pressure level
and picocoulombs (Figs. 10.20 and 10.23), the 0.02 to 0.06/~bar readings are
equivalent to electrical discharges at the power line ranging from 104 to 4
104 pC. As a 104 pC spark source can be heard by ear at a distance of several
feet, these readings seem reasonable.
The parabolic microphone of Pakala and Thompson uses a piezoceramic
crystal sensor resonant near 30 kHz, but otherwise, operates in a similar
fashion with a similar performance to that of the device described. The
higher operating frequency has the advantage of less interference from am-
bient noise, both devices are valuable for locating power line noise sources or
sources in high-voltage laboratories when used by a skilled operator, but are
difficult to use outside in windy weather, because of wind noise and the wind
directing the ultrasound waves away from the detector.
10.8.4 Cables
Kreuger [29] investigated the use of a contact microphone on the surface of
cable insulation, as a probe to detect the acoustic emissions from electrical
discharges within insulation cavities and to pinpoint the cavity location.
After narrow-band amplification, the sensor signals were viewed oscillo-
graphically, and Kreuger found that the acoustic frequency spectrum had a
maximum at the characteristic frequency, f , of the elastic system and that
1
f- 2rx/~ (10.9)
where m is the mass of the microphone, and 1/s is the elasticity of the column
of insulating material under the microphone. This equation was found to be
valid, that is, at four times the original microphone weight, the microphone
resonated at half its original frequency.
Practical detection frequencies are of the order of 2 kHz, and voids were
located in PVC and polyethylene insulation to a depth of 8.5 mm. As might
be expected, the received signals reduced as the cavity was deeper within the
insulation, about 2 to 1 from about 5 mm to 8.5 mm. The sensitivity was
about 5 pC with the contact sensor on the cable core, but is reduced con-
siderably with layers of conducting material on the core, for example, 2 to 1
(6 dB) with a layer of carbon black paper, and 10 to 1 (20 dB) with a 1-mm-
thick lead sheath. Consequently, a practical sensitivity of about 100 pC
seems the best attainable, but Kreuger indicates that movement of the con-
tact probe when searching for a cavity location causes the generation of noise
that makes the system rather impractical for routine use.
10.8.5 Compressed Gas Insulated Substations and Transmission Lines
Compressed gas insulated transmission (CGIT) systems and substations

are attractive compared with conventional air-insulated systems, as they are
much smaller, use less land, have reduced radio interference, are less af-
fected by weather conditions, and offer a practical means of transmitting and
controlling large amounts of power within major size cities. One problem
associated with these systems is particle initiated breakdown, and although
they are assembled under clean conditions, both factory and field tests at
high voltage are necessary to check for electrical discharges associated with
both conducting particles and the insulated spacers. The use of acoustic
techniques for detecting and locating these discharges has been reported,
and these appear to be very useful for locating particle movement.
Graybill et al [71] tried a small commercially available ultrasonic contact
probe on the outside of the metal sheath (Fig. 10.37) for diagnostic discharge
tests on CGIT systems in the field. They describe the system as very sensitive
and capable of pinpointing internal noise within - 3 0 cm (1 ft or two). It is
pointed up that care is needed in interpretation of the results, since anyone or
anything rubbing against the metal sheath will cause a detector response.
FIG. lO.37--Ultrasonic detector being used to locate internal noise in gas insulated bus (after
Graybill et al[ 71], courtesy of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers).
The best way of confirming that a detected ultrasonic signal originated from
an internal discharge was to vary the test voltage applied to the system and
examine the ultrasonic detector response, that is, if the signal disappears at
low voltage, appears at an intermediate voltage, and increases with voltage,
this is a good indication of an internal discharge. No details are given of the
detector sensitivity or frequency response.
K6nig [72] describes the application of acoustic techniques for diagnostic
tests on metal-enclosed SF6 gas insulated high-voltage switchgear. An ac-
celerometer operating in the 30 Hz to 20 kHz range is mounted externally on
the metal enclosure (Fig. 10.38) and its output fed to a commercial amplifier
and octave filter, with an indicating meter and additional options of a
loudspeaker and headphones. Surprising sensitivity is claimed, and the
results versus applied a-c voltage of simultaneous electrical (microvolts ac-
cording to IEC Standard 270) and acoustical measurements from an internal
insulator polluted by a film of silicon grease containing metallic dust and
covering 2 cm 2 is given in Fig. 10.39. It can be seen that the acoustic sensor
gives an indication of discharges at a lower electrical stress than the electrical
microvolt sensing system, and at 100 kV the electrical measurement is 10/zV
and the acoustic reading 40 dB re 0.0002 #bar, or 0.02 #bar. From Section
10.7, Figs. 10.22 and 10.25, from which the sound pressure level versus
picocoulombs 10 cm from discharges in air at 1 atmosphere can be
estimated, 0.02 #bar is equivalent to - 2 5 pC, which seems reasonable in
relation to the 10 #V measured. It is not clear which path the ultrasound
takes in reaching the sensor on the metal sheath, that is, through the com-
pressed gas or through the internal insulator. However, it is possible that as
sound transmission in a gas is approximately proportional [73] to pressure,
Acoustic P.D.-measuring device

Amplifier and
[30 Hz to 20 kHzl OctaveFilter
Acoustic Sensor
(Accelerometer)
L- \ ~ 1 ~ ' ] ~] I
F, Jk .o. "X
i J U
9 I --!J,^.,-r-'ll 9 9 .
I I ,,,,.v.. i TestModel 1
Electrical P.D. - measuring --"

device
FIG. l 0.38--Electrical and acoustical partial discharge monitoring system for gas-insulated
high-voltage apparatus, 30 Hz to 20 kHz (after K6nig [72]).
iI
10 I i II ~Ill i IV
I
I
laV 1
,' :/!/
I
I I I I i~/l it [I , I
,Oll
0 20 40 60 80 kV 100
U
II Ill IV ,t
dB
2O
! ,,////~ ' Acoustic
!
10 ] I t II I~ I I l I ]
0 20 40 60 80 kV I00
U
FIG. lO.39--Electrical and acoustical measurements from discharges associated with

polluted insulator (Fig. 10.38) within high-voltage gas-insulated apparatus (after K6nig [72]).
then in the compressed S F 6 at 5 atmospheres, much more ultrasound is

transmitted than at 1 atmosphere, which could account for the high acoustic
signal measured from an apparently small magnitude (10 #V) discharge,
even though the reflectivity of acoustic waves at the gas/metal sheath inter-
face should be high.
Another aspect of this high detection sensitivity is the high attenuation of
ultrasound in SF6 that the author found in some recent experimental work
(Table 10.2). In 1 atmosphere of SF~, compared with air, the velocity of 40
kHz ultrasound was about half (156 m/s) and attenuation, about 20 times
greater ( - 2 6 dB/m). However, at frequencies near 5 kHz, the author has
found [74] that the sound attenuation in SF6 is much less than in air, which is
the likely reason why the low frequency sensor [72] has been successfully used
on CGIT systems. Obviously, investigation is needed regarding the acoustic
properties of SF6 and the paths that ultrasound from electrical discharges
will follow in CGIT systems, that is, through the gas or along the metal
sheath.
Although metallic particles that strike solid surfaces (spacers) within
CGIT systems will most likely generate ultrasound that will be transmitted
via the solid spacer to a sensor on the exterior of the metal sheath, it is
unlikely that the acoustic emissions from spark-like discharges close to the
spacer surface will follow the same route. Most of the acoustic energy from
these types of discharges will occur in the compressed gas, and as the
acoustic wave spreads, it should mainly reflect at the gas/sheath interface
and travel along the transmission system via the gas (high attenuation in
S F 6 ) . For this reason, in order to acoustically detect small spark-type of
discharges in CGIT systems, sensors inside the metal sheath may be
necessary.
Obviously, the highly sensitive acoustic detectors can be used for locating
arcing or flashover sites in buried CGIT systems, by applying sonic ranging.
However, the length of CGIT systems to which this can be applied with
acoustic sensors only at the terminations, depends on the discharge acoustic
energy present in the gas and metal sheath, and the attenuation frequency
characteristics of both. In addition, a knowledge of the sound pressure level
(SPL) versus frequency for different types of discharges is needed, together
with data on the other parameters discussed. It is interesting to note that for
a spark in atmospheric air within a 2.54-cm (1-in.) diameter steel tube with a
-0.03-cm (1/8-in.) thick wall at 80 kHz, the author found that the SPL in
the wall was less than 1/100 of that in the gas. Also, an approximate estimate
of the ultrasound attenuation along a gas-filled pipe can be obtained from
the following formula by Kirchoff [75]
attenuation ~ = 27.6 1 0 - 5 I ~ ldB/cm (10.10)
w h e r e f i s in cycles per second, and R is the pipe radius in centimetres. Ob-

viously, less attenuation occurs at low frequencies, and B. Pederson in a
study performed at the Westinghouse CGIT Laboratory, used low-frequency
sensors ( - 1 to 6 kHz) acoustically coupled, but electrically isolated, from the
aluminum sheath of a CGIT system, and effectively located an internal
flashover site. He used a sensor near both terminals of the system and
estimated the difference in arrival time of the acoustic signals from the
flashover site. In experiments with signals mechanically applied to the
aluminum sheath (hit with steel bolt and a nylon-tipped solenoid operated
hammer), he observed reception of two acoustic waves at the sonic sensor.
With the steel bolt striking the sheath, a low level longitudinal wave at - 5
kHz arrived first with a velocity of -5000 m/s, followed by a - 5 kHz shear
wave about four times larger at a velocity of -3000 m/s. The nylon-tipped
hammer produced an approximate 1.6 kHz sensor response. Another feature
of Pederson's measurements was the nonlinear shear wave attenuation with
distance along a - 18 m (60 ft) long aluminum sheath [ 2-24 cm (9.5 in.) out-
side diameter with - 0 . 7 6 cm (0.3 in.) thick wall]. Typically, the attenuation
in the first - 3 m (10 ft) would be approximately 3 to 1 ( - 10 dB), in the sec-
ond - 3 m (10 ft), - 1 . 4 to 1 ( - 3 dB), until at - 1 5 m (50 ft), little further
attenuation with distance appears to occur. The author has noticed this ef-
fect in liquid-filled wave guides, and this is discussed in Section 10.8.8.
An experiment was performed by the author using a 20 kHz ultrasonic sen-
sor acoustically coupled to a flat aluminum plate 0.3 cm (0.125 in.) thick,
and the ultrasonic signals, S, were recorded as wire-like metal particles of
various weights, M, were dropped from different heights, Fig. 10.40. These
data are useful for estimating the acoustic signals, S, to be expected from
bouncing metallic particles, and it can be seen from Fig. 10.40 that S is ap-
104 , I r I I t] I I q I '1 I Ir I , i
D-
E
-_- 103
._~
8/.
"~ ]0~ ~p=p o Particle Dropped5 cm
8 9 Particle DroppedO.64 cm
10 , I tll i t tll I I IJl I I tl[ I l t
to-1 1 10 102 103 lo4

[MI Weight of Wire-like CopperParticles - mgrn
F I G . 1 0 . 4 0 - - 2 0 kHz acoustic levels detected in 3-mm-thick aluminum plate due to different
mass wire-like copper particles impinging from different heights (after Harrold, unpublished
work).
proximately proportional to ML Also, from this curve, it is projected that

movement of particles weighing only 10 #g would be detected. It is in-
teresting to note that 10 #g is the weight of a copper particle having a
diameter of approximately 10/~m.
10. 8. 6 High- Voltage Capacitors

As ultrasonic sensors are commonly used for detecting and locating elec-
trical discharges within liquid-filled power transformers, it is natural to con-
sider their use for discharge detection in liquid insulated high-voltage
capacitors. Surprisingly, there is a lack of literature regarding this applica-
tion, but the author and colleagues have found ultrasonic techniques very
valuable for discharge detection in both large microfarad value energy
storage and a-c capacitors [76]. The reason why ultrasonic techniques are at-
tractive is because of the difficulties encountered in detecting electrical pulse
signals from small discharges (1 to 20 pC) within the large capacity value
( _>1/zF) capacitors. These problems arise because the high-frequency pulses
from internal discharges tend to be short circuited by the high capacitance,
and only a very small pulse will reach an external pulse detector. Conse-
quently, special equipment (balanced circuits) and a shielded room is needed
for discharge measurements, and this is uneconomical for routine factory
tests.
10. 8. 6.1 Energy Storage Capacitors--During an investigation to find the
failure mechanism for a 2.4-kV, 40-/~F energy storage capacitor used for d-c
pulse application, the use of ultrasonic techniques was explored for monitor-
ing internal discharges and related activity. To ensure good acoustic coupling
and freedom from ambient ultrasound, the capacitor and sensor were im-
mersed in a container of mineral oil, and ultrasonic signals (20 kHz) were
monitored during capacitor charging and discharging, and also during the
CHAPTER 10--ACOUS'FICAL TECHNIQUES 383
FIG. lO.41--Typical sonic pulse recorded during capacitor discharge (20-kHz transducer)
(after Harrold, unpublished work).
application of positive d-c. To ensure that a detected acoustic signal was

from a discharge within the capacitor, and not a result of electrical induced
noise, it was only necessary to remove the sensor from the oil, which should
cause a very large drop in signal level because of the large acoustic energy loss
at the oil-air interface. It is possible that an acoustic signal may be detected
from the high-voltage connection external to the capacitor case, but often
this would be indicated by gas bubbles in the mineral oil. Alternatively, to
avoid this problem, the high-voltage connection region could be located in
the air above the oil.
The acoustic techniques used for the diagnostic tests on the energy storage
capacitor were applied during life testing when the capacitor was continually
charged and discharged. A typical oscillographic picture of the 20-kHz sonic
pulse recorded during capacitor discharge is shown in Fig. 10.41. The sonic
pulse is extremely large ( > 2000 mV), which is several orders of magnitude
greater than that typically obtained from partial discharges within oil-filled
power transformers, for example as in Fig. 10.21. Furthermore, this
magnitude did not change after several thousand charge/discharge opera-
tions, which indicated that the sonic pulse was most likely from mechanical
movement of the capacitor metallized film structure as the capacitor
discharged, and this large sonic pulse was masking any acoustic emissions
from partial discharges.
The oscillographic pictures taken during capacitor charging were more in-
formative (Fig. 10.42), which indicates that 1-mV sonic pulses (possibly from
partial discharges at the edges of the capacitor metallized film) start at a
voltage of - 1 kV, then increase in magnitude before reducing considerably
FIG. lO.42--Typical sonic pulses recorded during capacitor charging (20-kHz transducer),
following -22 000 charge~discharge operations (after Harrold, unpublished work).
as the capacitor becomes fully charged. It is suspected that partial discharges

of this nature are from gas trapped between the capacitor metallized film
layers at the edges, because although the sonic pulses were more numerous
and increased slightly in magnitude during 8 h of charge/discharge opera-
tion, with capacitor de-energization overnight, the pulse activity began at a
lower level and followed the same pattern the next day. This would be ex-
pected if the discharges in the silicone oil-fiUed capacitor generate gas
(hydrogen) that disperses in the fluid and is absorbed overnight.
Occasionally, during the capacitor charging process, a pop type of sound
was heard by ear, which indicated that a clearance or self-healing breakdown
of the capacitor dielectric had occurred. Such clearings occur following a
breakdown through the capacitor film, and this breakdown is followed by an
arc current from one metallized electrode to the other. The heat from this arc
current is sufficient to melt and possibly evaporate the thin metal connecting
to the fault, thus isolating it. With a 2.4-kV positive voltage continually ap-
plied to the capacitor, numerous clearances could be heard by ear and easily
detected by a variety of acoustic sensors whether situated in oil or air, and by
long-term monitoring of these clearances, an approximate estimate can be
made of the capacitor life.
I0. 8. 6.2 Power Capacitors--Large microfarad value ( _>1/~F) liquid-filled
a-c power capacitors are usually of sufficient physical size that readily
available ultrasonic transducers can be acoustically coupled (with glycerin,
for example) to the outside of the thin steel case, and acoustic signals from
internal electrical discharges monitored. A variety of detectors can be
employed for monitoring the signals from the ultrasonic sensor, such as, a
narrow-band radio noise meter or a broad-band amplifier with an indicating

meter or oscillographic display. Although further studies are required, it
seems best to use acoustic sensors resonant in the - 60 to - 80 kHz region for
capacitors with large case sizes, and - 2 0 kHz sensors for capacitors with
small cases, for example, - 2 4 5 to - 3 2 7 cm 3 (15 to 20 in. 3) of volume. To
reduce unwanted ultrasound being conducted into the capacitor case, it is
best to place the capacitor on sheets of cork or similar sound insulating
material.
A system of this nature can be very sensitive, and in a factory environment,
it is readily possible to detect electrical discharges of 10 to 20 pC in value oc-
curring at the foil edges of liquid-insulated large value power capacitors. To
check the validity of a measurement, it is only necessary to remove the sensor
from the case or insert an acoustic barrier between the sensor and case and
the signal level should reduce considerably. An example of the results ob-
tained when ultrasonic techniques are employed for capacitor diagnostic
testing is illustrated in Fig. 10.43. Two capacitors, one poorly impregnated
and one well impregnated, were subjected to increasing electrical stress until
failure occurred, and the ultrasonic corona readings were monitored
throughout the tests. It can be seen that the ultrasonic sensor system clearly
detected the difference between good and inadequate impregnation of the in-
sulation with corona incepting at a stress of 1 kV per section for the poorly
impregnated capacitor and failure occurring at 3 kV per section. Whereas,
for the well impregnated capacitor, corona did not incept until 3 kV per sec-
tion and failure occurred at 5.5 kV per section, or 2.3 times the operating
stress. The corona level at inception was approximately 20 to 40 pC, and the
rapid increase in discharge magnitude for only a small increase in the applied
voltage past inception is typical for many forms of electrical discharges in
both gases and liquids.
10.8. 7 Acoustical Emissions from Electrical Discharges Associated with

Metallic Particles and Slivers in Mineral Oil
Although great care is taken during the construction and processing of li-
quid-insulated electrical power apparatus, on occasion, small metallic par-
ticles or slivers weighing in the region of a few milligrams may be in-
advertently trapped within the insulation structure and may cause electrical
discharges during high-voltage tests.
10.8. 7.1 Particles--Metallic particles can be a cause of discharges,
because as the electrical stress is increased between two electrodes containing
a small (0.5 to 10 mg) metallic particle, the particle will acquire an electrical
charge, and when the electrostatic forces overcome the gravitational forces,
the particle will lift off and, under a-c power, will start to bounce with spark-
ing [77] occurring on each touch down. Studies [78, 79] of the motion of
metal spheres, wire-like metallic particles, and slivers in mineral oil, and
kV/Sectlon
l Z 3 4 5 6
IP I I I I I I I
j Failed ~,/
/
I
I
! t
/ ,
10?
E Poorly~ / -
Imprecjn~ed/ ~,~ Weilgnatecm
_
.E
~101
&
5
l I I I I I I
5{]0 lO00 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Volts/Mil/Section [FilmEqulvalentl
FIG. 10.43--Ultrasonic corona measurements on capacitors in the factory (after Harrold et al
[76]).
measurements of the associated electrical and acoustic signals have yielded

some surprising results. As an example, a copper particle weighing 3.5 mg
bounced at a stress of 16 kV rms/cm (40 V/mil) and the associated
discharges that occurred randomly in relation to the 60-Hz voltage, ranged in
apparent magnitude from - 1 to - 10 pC, compared with calculated values
of - 1 0 0 pC. It is believed that this discrepancy occurs because the charge
transfer to the external detection circuit is limited by the series capacitance,
which in this case, is the small capacitance of the particle to the distant elec-
trode. Acoustic measurements can, in these situations, allow a better
estimate of the true discharge magnitude to be made, and the maximum
80-kHz ultrasonic signal at about 15 cm from a 3.5 mg wire-like copper par-

tide in the bouncing mode was found to be - 3 mV, which gives an estimated
electrical pulse charge value of -100 pC. (The 80-kHz transducer yielded
about 850 #V for a SPL of I #bar, so 3 mV converts to a SPL of - 3 . 5 #bars,
or 5 #bars at 10 cm from the particle. From Fig. 10.22, this is the SPL from a
discharge of - 0 . 8 tzJ electrical energy, which, from Fig. 10.23, is the energy
associated with an - 100 pC discharge). When the particle was dropped onto
the electrode from a height of - 1 mm (reached in bouncing), but without
voltage, the acoustic signal was < 0.1 mV. Actually, when dropped from 10
mm, the acoustic signal was - 0 . 3 mV, and when dropped 5 mm, only - 0 . 1
mV. Consequently, the 3-mV acoustic signal recorded previously was from a
streamer discharge occurring as the charged particle approached the elec-
trode surface, and not mechanical impact noise from the particle.
10.8. 7.2 Slivers--With metallic particles weighing in the 0.5- to 10-mg
range, at electrical stresses of - 2 4 kV/cm ( - 60 V/mil), the pulse charge
values calculated [79] for the bouncing mode vary from approximately 50 to
several hundred picocoulombs. As the particles are bouncing, they tend to be
ejected from stressed regions of electrical apparatus, particularly at higher
stresses, and probably remain lodged in safe regions, but with metallic
slivers, the situation is different.
Metal slivers resting on the bare metal lower electrode of an insulated gap
in mineral oil can begin to move, become erect, and join together to bridge
[79] the gap at very low electrical stresses. A cluster of aluminum slivers [79]
of assorted lengths and 10 mg total weight, within a 2.54-cm (1-in.) insulated
gap in mineral oil, were found to combine and bridge the gap at a stress less
than 1 kV rms/cm ( - 2 V/mil), which resulted in sparking at the lower
sliver/electrode interface as the erect sliver chains danced, and the resulting
electrical pulse charge values were in the region of 10 000 pC. The slivers
lifted off at low electrical stress because of their length and large surface area
with respect to mass, and it is believed that the very large discharge values
(orders of magnitude greater than calculations based on mass) are due to a
partial short-circuiting of the gap capacitance as each spark occurs. In Fig.
10.44, the variations of the 60-kHz acoustical emissions and the electrical
pulse charge with electrical stress are illustrated. It can be seen that at elec-
trical stresses between approximately 1 and 3 V/mil, the electrical and
acoustical signal levels increased by two orders of magnitude as sparking
began, after which the levels remained fairly constant as the stress was in-
creased to - 1 2 V/mil. At the higher stresses, multiple discharges occurred
throughout the power frequency cycle and profuse quantities of gas were
generated by the sparking, and although very active, unlike the metallic par-
ticles, the slivers remained within the gap. Obviously, metallic slivers,
especially of low density metals, such as magnesium and aluminum, are
undesirable in high-voltage liquid-insulated electrical power apparatus.
Although the discharges associated with metallic particles and slivers can
kVrmslcm
1.2 2.4 3.6 4.8
1 I 1 , - - lOP
Electrical
~lcr
,II 9 104
E
~ ]o3 i" /
/
x ~ x
Ultrasonic
"
x x
103~
m
"E
g
tx
..~ 102 102
i0
[ I I I I I I I i i i i i
1 2345 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 1314
Electrical Stress on 0il Gap, v01ts/mil
F I G . lO.44--Electrical pulse charge and ultrasonic signals recorded from discharges

associated with 10 mg o f assorted aluminum slivers electrically stressed within an insulated oil
gap (after Harrold [ 7 9 ] ) .
be detected with both electrical and ultrasonic sensors, acoustic techniques

can be more sensitive than the electrical, especially in situations where only a
fraction of the pulse charge is transferred from a discharge site within elec-
trical apparatus to an external sensor.
10. 8. 8 Acoustical Emissions from Electrical Discharges at Low Pressure and

Vacuum
As sound waves require a medium in which to propagate, it is obvious that
transmission cannot take place in a pure vacuum. It is not so obvious at
which air pressure the transmission of ultrasound is still feasible, nor its form
of propagation, because theoretically [73], transmission is proportional to
pressure. In air at atmospheric pressure, ultrasonic waves form and prop-
agate by molecular collisions, and as the pressure is reduced, this mode of
transmission continues, with a velocity independent [73] of pressure, until
the mean-free-path between the normal molecular collisions is greater than
the ultrasound wave length, when wave transmission is not possible.
However, according to Bolt et al [80], sound can still propagate by direct
flight of molecules from the transmitter to receiver without collision, in what
isASTM
Copyright by known
Int'l (all as
rightsthe geometrical
reserved); relaxation
Tue May 30 07:44:17 EDT 2017 regime.
The degree of ultrasound transmission at low pressure is important where

the detection of the ultrasonic emissions from electrical discharges is re-
quired, as in space test chambers, and the objective of a recent exploratory
study [81] for NASA was to determine the feasibility of detecting the ultra-
sonic emissions from electrical discharges at low pressure and vacuum. In the
study, the relationship between electrical pulse charge, ultrasonic emissions,
and pressure was examined for typical air discharges, and, based on inter-
pretation of the data, a 40-kHz parabolic microphone suitable for operation
in rarefied gases was designed and tested.
10.8.8.1 Characteristics of Low-Pressure Discharges--Electrical
discharges at low pressure and vacuum are unique [82] in that the electrical
pulse from a small point discharge in air at atmospheric pressure may
enlarge 10 to 100 times in a glow region that occurs when the pressure is
reduced in the - 100 to 10 torr range, and then fall to near its original size at
lower pressures near 1 torr. In this glow region, the a-c point discharge has
the appearance of slightly wandering multiple ribbons of blue light extending
to grounded regions, and the tendency is for the discharges to spread over a
large volume of the vacuum chamber, provided the power supply can furnish
the necessary current.
The spreading feature of low-pressure discharges can lead to problems
when ultrasonic sensors are used within vacuum chambers, as the ionized air
may reach the sensor and cause erroneous readings. To prevent this from oc-
curring, the sensor should be placed in a remote or field-free region; with the
apparatus used (Fig. 10.45) for the study discussed here, although the sensor
system was shielded from electrically induced noise to ensure the validity of
acoustic measurements, they were repeated with the sensors acoustically
shielded with felt.
10.8.8.2 Choice of Sensor Frequency--Several factors influence the
operating frequency selected for an acoustic sensor used at low pressures.
The attenuation of sound waves in air increases with frequency, f , and in
theory [83], the attenuation constant, a, is proportional to f 2. Also, the
magnitude of the ultrasonic emissions from several types of corona
discharges in air fall [27, 31] with increasing frequency. These factors suggest
that the sensor frequency should not be above approximately 100 kHz, which
would restrict the sensor operation to pressures greater than about 1.5 X
10 -2 torr (equivalent to an altitude of - 8 0 X 103 m), below which wave
transmission is not possible, because the mean-free-path between molecular
collisions is greater than the ultrasound wavelength. At lower frequencies,
for example, 20 kHz, acoustic sensitivity is better, and operation to pressures
of 3 X 10 -3 torr ( - 9 0 103 m altitude) is theoretically possible, but am-
bient noise can be a problem. A compromising choice for the sensor opera-
ting frequency is - 4 0 kHz, which is about the frequency of large signal levels
for many forms of discharges in atmospheric air (see Section 10.6.5), and
theoretically, a sensor of this frequency can be used in pressures down to - 6
Copyright byXASTM
10 Int'l
-3 (all
torr
rights( reserved);
- 8 5 Tue X May
10330m altitude).
07:44:17 EDT 2017
To Vacuum Pump
and Gauges
To High Voltage
7
i,.iiiiii 9 -
Plane
-
,oco
I
-2
Sonic Sensor
_-2"
l
"N
R.F.
Tektronix 556 Shielding
~ ~ _ ELECT_____R
ICAL I mpedance
Matching
IL,._ILJI To High Amplifl'~-~='"
V.oltiage NarrowbandTunable '
ulv oer AmplifierWith
I ndicatin.c~e_t_e_r___.
=~] 2.5 mH Inductor,
Protective Diodes ~'--~f,-"
and SparkGap . ............
Amplifiers Isolated
SONIC FromGround and
Battery Operat~l
FIG. 10.45--Schematic of apparatus and instrumentation for monitoring the acoustic emis-
sions from electrical discharges at low pressure and vacuum (after Harrold [ 3 2 ] ) .
10.8.8.3 The Interpretation of the Acoustic Emissions Detected from

Low-Pressure Electrical Discharges--In Figs. 10.46 and 10.47, the variations
of the average ultrasonic emissions at frequencies of - 2 1 , - 4 1 , and - 7 3 . 5
kHz, together with the variations in electrical pulse charge as they relate to
pressure, are illustrated for both point-to-insulated plane and sphere-to-
insulated plane discharges. The data plotted have been corrected for com-
parison, so that each sonic detector has an assumed sensitivity equivalent to
that of the 41-kHz sensor, that is, - 1000 ~tV/gbar.
It can be seen from these curves that the lower frequency ultrasound is of
large amplitude and more easily detected at low pressures. For both types of
discharges, the electrical pulse charge, although less than 1000 pC in value at
atmospheric pressure, increases by over two orders of magnitude when the
pressure is reduced to near 10 torr, but diminishes as the pressure is reduced
further near - 1 0 --1 tort, to approximately the original value for the point
discharge, and ten times the original value for the sphere discharge. The
growth of the electrical pulse charge at low pressure more than compensates
for the reduced ultrasound transmission, so that a modest discharge ( - 100
pC) at atmospheric pressure should be more easily acoustically detected at
lower pressures.
The ultrasonic signals measured all peak sharply in glow regions near 102
torr and 10 torr for the point discharge, and near 50 torr for the sphere
E 106
~0 3 _ _
- -Highly V i s i b l e ~ a
Streamer and - - '
Glow Region ]
,/t / Electrical - E
cy 102 \ ~'t Pulse 105

o
21RHz SONIC ' / I '~,~,~.~ E
(4~ / kJ" ",~'~ i
o V ._=
~E
10 104
r / ' ~ :
4] kHz, /
o
c
// 149 cmllY
1 _ ,. I / / ~735kHz(43cm) ~ ]03
- [,,I .,/ SONIC -
...... L- l
- Noise Level of Sonic Sensor
0. I l ~ ~ ~I ~ ~ ~ ~ J ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~i 102
10- I 1 101 102 103
Pressure -Torr
FIG. lO.46--Average sonic emissions at 21 kHz, 41 kHz, and 73.5 kHz, and average electrical
pulse charge versus pressure f o r electrical discharges f r o m a point stressed at 2. 8 k V rms and
spaced 1 m m above an insulated plane (after Harrold [32]).
1 i , ,
~" 103 Highly Visible7 I 106

streamer end ~ - " " - I. . . . .
N 102 s = --,, Pulse~ 105'~

g ,' g
9. - g
l SONICllk 73.5kH 143cm1 \ 103 .~

(49 cm)
x_ Noise Level of Sonic Sensor

- 0.] ] I I [ L l I I I I L 1 I I I ] I l I zoz
10-1 1 101 102 103
Pressure -Torr
FIG. 10.47--Average sonic emissions at 21 kHz, 41 kHz, and 73. 5 kHz, and average electrical
pulse versus pressure f o r electrical discharges f r o m a 2.5-cm diameter sphere stressed at 4.2 k V
rms and spaced 0.1 m m above an insulated plane (after Harrold [32]).
discharge, thereafter falling considerably in value, except for the 21 kHz

ultrasound from the sphere discharge. Study of ultrasound levels versus
pressure, using pulse microphones as noise sources (Fig. 10.48),
demonstrated the theoretical relationship of ultrasound transmission propor-
tional to pressure, except the received 41-kHz signal reduced considerably at
pressures between 100 tort and 10 torr, and the 21-kHz ultrasound detected
remained constant from - 1 tort to 0.003 tort. The 21-kHz measurement at
pressures below - 1 torr suggests that the sound transmission is in the
geometrical relaxation regime, where no wave transmission is possible and
molecules travel from the sound transmitter to receiver with few collisions,
but theoretically, this should not occur until the pressure is reduced to 0.003
torr.
The study also revealed that attenuation of ultrasonic waves with distance
at low pressure is similar to that at atmospheric pressure, that is, the main
attenuation is by wave diffusion, and the sound pressure level is inversely
proportional to distance. In addition, it was demonstrated that ultrasound
waves will reflect from solid surfaces at low pressure, and, consequently,
parabolic reflectors can be used to increase the sensitivity of microphones
operating in rarefied atmospheres.
10. 8. 8. 4 Parabolic Microphone for Use in Rarefied Atmospheres--A low-
cost 40-kHz, highly directional ( - 15 deg beam angle) parabolic microphone
can be constructed from a 2.54-cm (1-in.) diameter microphone (Model MK
104 _ i , ,, i
S=P /-
%
~ 103
Cr
~
o
._.
102 21 kHz < ///
77 kHz
.E 10 41 kHz I .,"
Same AmpLitude
at 0.003 Torr
S oc p3 I I
"----,d
/
I
I
0.1 I I I I I II i I I I i I 1 I i i
10- 1 l 10 102 103

(p) -- Pressure --Torr
FIG. lO.48--Response of 21, 41, and 77 k H z sensors versus air pressure when 25 cm f r o m
pulsed ultrasound sources o f similar microphones activated by 90 V pulses (after Harrold [32]).
109-C, Type 40 from MASSA Corporation) and the 10-cm diameter (orange
peel shape) reflector from a solar cigarette lighter (Fig. 10.49). This small
reflector increased the sensitivity of the 40-kHz microphone by more than
four times, and obviously, a much greater increase is attainable with a larger
diameter reflector.
Using the 40-kHz microphone and 10-cm-diameter reflector for measuring
the ultrasonic emissions from electrical discharges in rarefied air during the
NASA [81] study, it was demonstrated that it is feasible to detect the acoustic
emissions from low order (20 to 50 pC at atmospheric pressure) discharges in
air at a distance of 1 m, over a pressure range from atmospheric to below 1
torr, which corresponds to an altitude of - 46 000 m ( - 150 000 ft).
10.8.9 Acoustic Wave Guides for Detecting and Locating Electrical

Discharges
When a spark-like electrical discharge occurs in air, a spherical acoustic
wave front is propagated and the sound pressure level diminishes inversely in
proportion to distance d. This rapid diffusion of the acoustic wave means
that, at only a few meters distance, very sensitive parabolic microphones are
necessary for detecting and locating even modest value ( - 100 pC) electrical
discharges associated with air-insulated high-voltage apparatus. One way of
greatly increasing the ultrasound pressure level at a remote sensor is to use an
acoustic wave guide [67], for example, a long Plexiglas tube of about - 2 . 5 4
cm (1 in.) inside diameter. With one end of the tube close to the discharge,
FIG. lO.49--40-kHzparabolic microphone (afterHarrold [32]).

ultrasound waves will enter the tube where they cannot diffuse and will travel
along the guide to the ultrasonic sensor located at the far end. The losses that
occur as the wave travels are due to friction on the tube walls and are rela-
tively low, for example, for a - 2 . 5 4 - c m (1-in.) inside diameter Plexiglas tube
in air, - 9 d B / m at a frequency of 40 kHz. This means that with a guide
- 2 m in length, the sound pressure level at 1-m distance from a source is
eight times less than that at 1 cm. However, without the wave guide, the
sound pressure level would be 200 times less. Thus, in this simple example,
the use of a wave guide improved the system performance by a factor of
- 2 5 . In practice, a gain of - 1 0 is found rather than 25, possibly due to
reflections at the sensor surface terminating the wave guide.
10.8.9.1 Wave Guides in Air--Apart from the increased signal levels at-
tainable with acoustic wave guides, further benefits are shielding from un-
wanted ultrasound and the capability of pinpointing a discharge site. As
discussed in Section 10.3.2, simply by using a 1-m length of 5-mm inside
diameter guide in combination with an ordinary medical stethoscope, - 1 0
pC discharges can be located.
Experimental results using different diameter Plexiglas wave guides to im-
prove the sensing of the 40 and 80 kHz ultrasound from air sparks are il-
lustrated in Figs. 10.50 and 10.51. The curves are plotted in the form of the
ratio, ultrasound received with wave guide and ultrasound without wave
guide, versus distance from the spark. It can be seen from Fig. 10.50 that the
received 40-kHz signal at a distance of 2 m is increased 10 times using the
2.54-cm (1-in.) inside diameter Plexiglas tube, but with a - 6 mm (0.25 in.)
tube is reduced almost 10 times, because of less sound entering the small
tube and the greater attenuation within it. Also, plotted on Figs. 10.50 and
10.51 are theoretical curves for wave guides with different attenuation con-
stants, and these exhibit a similar trend to the practical curves. At a higher
frequency of 80 kHz, as might be expected, because of greater attenuation,
the gain of the wave guide system is less, as demonstrated in Fig. 10.51. In
theory, the attenuation of ultrasound within a pipe is directly proportional to
the square root of frequency and inversely proportional to the pipe radius,
and approximate attenuation values can be calculated using the following
formula by Kirchoff [75]:
a = 27.6 1 0 - S ~ d B / c m (10.11)
w h e r e f is frequency in cycles per second, and R is the pipe radius in centi-

metres. This formula is only approximate, because the ratio of the pipe wall
thickness to diameter and the pipe material (hardness) influence the attenua-
tion. Mason [84] has published attenuation curves for various diameter (0.74
to 1.72 cm) tubes in air for frequencies from 200 Hz to 4 kHz, which are
shown in Fig. 10.52. He shows excellent agreement between calculated and
102 I I I I I /
40 kHz
Spark in Air
~,~
/1/// :o.,_
r- //
t .~--~,, lInchTube
lO
\ "99 1/2 Inch Tube

Jz \ 9
\ 9
\
%\ 9 --
y ''~ ', ' ,0r 8
I1"
.o
to
cc /', ',, -V',
~ 8dB/lO cm '~ 4.SdB/lO
,, <\ . .,,.= , :0.,
,o<,,
,c-._O. 4 x oc =0.7
O.l I I I ~ I I 1 ~J I I I I
20 40 60 80 I00 120 140 160 180 200 220 240
Distance From Spark - c m
FIG. lO.50--Ratios of 40 kHz ultrasound received with wave guides and without wave guides,
versus distance from spark in air using different inside diameter Plexiglas tubes (after Harrold
[67]).
measured attenuation values, and notes that for a 2-cm-diameter tube in air,
the attenuation at 1 kHz is - 1.6 dB/m, but for a similar tube in water, only
0.065 d B / m is calculated.
10.8.9.2 Wave Guides in Mineral Oil--Where tubes are used as
ultrasonic wave guides, an important property for efficient transmission is
the acoustic impedance (pc) of the tube material and its relation to the
acoustic impedance of the media in which it operates. This is important
because ultrasound will pass without loss from one medium to another if they
have similar acoustic impedances, but there is considerable acoustic reflec-
tion at the media interface if their acoustic impedances are mismatched.
From Table 10.3, for example, it is evident that Plexiglas and air are con-
siderably mismatched; consequently, ultrasound within a Plexiglas tube in
air will stay inside. On the other hand, with a Plexiglas tube in mineral oil,
/ @/" 80
kHz
V ~ / ~ t'~ Spark In Air
"~g I'v~'~' ,"'''

I
l"B/~Oc2"~ =0.9
"~ ,5'," "-.
IO -~, "-.
h,;' / ~ ~ ".~.<,~.
Inch Tube -
7,1", ,, x<,,-, I
~ 1
\ \x
7 ~ \ \~ \~ ~, 1/2 inch Tube
.o ~ ~ 1/4InchTubeX\
/?, \_ , ,,
- Calculated '~. ~%,x \
t, SdB/iOc m ~,x 4.SdB/IOcm \,==0.7
O.l I I I
',:<:o.,
I I
",~:<-o.b I 3dB,,lOcm
1 ~1 ~
I
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240
FIG. 10.51--Ratios of SOkHz ultrasound received with wave guides and without wave guides,
versus distance from spark in air using different inside diameter Plexiglas tubes (after Harrold
[67]).
ultrasound will tend to leave the tube through the walls because the acoustic
impedances of mineral oil and Plexiglas are somewhat similar. In mineral
oil, it is obvious that a steel tube, for example, will be a better ultrasound
wave guide, because the acoustic impedances of mineral oil and steel are
mismatched.
Ultrasound will travel through fluid-filled wave guide tubes more effi-
ciently than through gas-filled guides, because of less attenuation in the li-
quid as illustrated in Figs. 10.53 and 10.54. In these figures, curves are shown
of the ratio, ultrasound received with wave guide and ultrasound received
without wave guide, versus distance from a discharge under mineral oil for
sensor frequencies of 40 and 80 kHz, and using steel tube wave guides. As for
the Plexiglas tubes in air (Figs. 10.50 and 10.51), a large increase in received
signal is achieved at a distance of 2 m, but the most striking difference is the
-~ .05 I I l I i l I l i I ' I ' l I I ' I '
Radius of Tube = . 37l cm o

o o_
.04 oo
E
.03
.02
"-~ .01
Radius of Tube = .851 cm
o i I i I I 1 r l i I i l t l ' i ~ I
400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200 3600 4000
Frequency - Cycles
FIG. lO.52--Attenuation of sound in tubes (after Mason [84]).
signal level received with only - 6 mm (0.25 in.) I.D. diameter guide. At 40
kHz in air with - 6 mm (0.25 in.) inside diameter Plexiglas tube, an order of
magnitude decrease in signal occurs at 2 m, compared with a - 6 mm (0.25
in.) inside diameter steel tube in mineral oil, which results in approximately
a ten times increase in signal. It is possible that this effect is due to the small
diameter steel tube acting as a rod wave guide with low attenuation. Another
difference is that the - 2 . 5 4 - c m (1-in.) diameter steel tube is not as efficient a
wave guide as the smaller diameter tubes, which suggests that other factors,
such as the ratio of tube wall thickness to tube diameter, influence the at-
tenuation, and the attenuation formula (Eq 10.11), can only be used as an
approximate guide.
Where it is desirable to extract ultrasound from within liquid insulated
high-voltage electrical apparatus, obviously metal wave guides should be
avoided. As both metallic and insulating rods can be used as wave guides,
rods of insulating material are an obvious choice for use in electrical ap-
paratus, provided they are flexible and dielectric constants can be approx-
imately matched. Ultrasound transmission through rods is best achieved
when Poisson's ratio, o, (the ratio of the change in diameter to the change in
length of a longitudinally stressed rod) of the rod material is less than 0.26,
because then at certain angles of incidence at the rod inner surface, lon-
gitudinal waves are completely converted to shear waves and vice versa, so
that less wave attenuation occurs along the rod. Some values of the Poisson's
ratio for differ#nt materials are listed in Table 10.3, and it can be seen that
quartz glass, Pyrex glass, zinc, and especially beryllium (toxic material) are
attractive materials for ultrasonic wave guides.
It can be seen from Fig. 10.54 that a - 1.27 cm (0.5 in.) diameter Pyrex
glass rod is an attractive ultrasound wave guide for use in liquids, performing
better than a - 1.27 cm (0.5 in.) inside diameter steel tube (see Table 10.4).
At 80 kHz, the attenuation is only 3 dB/m, and a flexible form of guide with
TABLE lO.3--Acoustic properties o f some solids, liquids, and gases associated with electrical
power apparatus.
Longitudinal Acoustic Poisson's

Solid, Liquid, Wave velocity, Density, Impedance, Ratio,
or Gas c(m/s) p(g/cm 3) p c(kg/m 2/s) o
Beryllium 12 890 1.87 24.1 X 106 0.05

Aluminum 6 400 2.7 17.28 X 106 0.355
Zinc 3 810 7.1 27.00 x 106 0.21-0.25
Steel 6 000 7.8 39.39 x 106 0.25-0.33
Brass 4 280-4 700 8.6 -38.61 X 106 0.374
Copper 4 720 8.9 42.00 x 106 0.26
Silver 3 650 10.5 38.32 106 0.38
Gold 3 240 19.3 62.53 X 106 0.42
Platinum 3 960 21.45 84.94 X 106 0.303
Extra dense
flint glass 4 000 6.1 24.40 X 106 0.22-0.26
Pyrex glass 5 000 3.0 15.00 X 106 0.16-0.24
Quartz glass 6 000 2.6 15.60 x 106 0.17
Polyethylene 2 000 0.90 1.80 X 106 0.458
Polystyrene 2 350 1.056 2.48 X 106 0.405
Nylon 6-6 2 620 1.11 2.90 x 106 0.400
Polymethyl-
methacrylate
(Plexiglas,
Lucite Per-
spex) 2 680 1.18-1.2 3.19 X 106 0.400
Poly-Tetra-Fluo-
roethylene
(Teflon) 1 350 2.1-2.3 3.00 X 106
Elm 1 010 0.57 0.5757 X 106
Oak 4 100 0.80 0.3280 106
Cork 500 0.24 0.1200 x 106
Balsa wood 3 750 0.12-0.2 - 0 . 6 X 106 very low
Pressboard
(impregnated
with mineral
oil) - 2 000 -0.9-1.3 - 2 . 2 X 106
Water 1 484 0.999 1.48 X 106
Mineral oil 1 390 0.90 1.25 X 106
Polychlorinated
biphenyl 1 470 1.38 1.02 X 106
lsopropyl-
biphenyl 1 450 0.985 1.43 106
Castor oil 1 500 0.95 1.425 X 106
Perfluoro-carbon
(fluorinert) 475-710 1.63-1.94 0.774-1.36 106
Air, 0~ 1 atm 331 0.001293 0.000428 106
Nitrogen 333 0.001250 0.000416 X 106
Oxygen 315 0.001429 0.000450 x 106
Carbon dioxide 260 0.001977 0.000510 X 106
Hydrogen 1 286 0.0000899 0.000116 106
Sulphur hexa-
fluoride (SF6),
1 atm 25~ 140 0.006602 0.000924 X 10~
Neon 435 0.000999 0.000434 X 106
102 [ I I % /.,.~1 I I I I I I
d-,"
40 kHz
Glass- Sealed (;as Spark
In Mineral Oil
-- /1~//I
~2is "-. **: o.9
/,.. .... l/2.1nch Tul

d~
;?!,: p,,, --. _
.C: ~ \xx ~xxxx Inch Tube

I
t \ \
l \ 2dBIIO cm
\
\ \
Calculated
/\, \ \
~ =0.4 ~ *= = 0 , 6 ~\*= =0.7
8dB/lO cm ~ 4.5dB/lO cm 3(IB/lO cm
O.1 L 1 I q I I ',1 t I I !
20 40 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 ?40
Distance From Spark -cm
FIG. lO.53--Ratios of 40 kHz ultrasound received with wave guides and without wave guides.
versus distance from spark in mineral oil using different inside diameter steel tubes (after Har-
told, [67]).
a similar performance (Table 10.5) is an - 0 . 6 3 5 cm (0.25 in.) diameter

fiberglass light guide with 5880 fibers. These types of wave guides are very
useful, because the ultrasound can be transmitted around bends and from
liquids to gases without introducing losses. A brief examination of the fre-
quency characteristics of the 1.27 cm diameter Pyrex rod wave guide revealed
useful transmission of ultrasound over a frequency range from - 20 to - 300
kHz, but a more detailed investigation into the attenuation/frequency char-
acteristics of the different forms of guides is needed.
10. 8.10 P a r a b o l i c M i c r o p h o n e s
As discussed in Sections 10.3.4, 10.8.3 and 10.8.8.4, parabolic reflectors

are very useful for increasing the gain and directivity of ultrasonic
microphones used in both gases and liquids. Sound waves impinging on the
102 I I I I I~.'~I ] 1 f I I I
6, *" 80 kHz
.~,/," tO"
_.~.~,~.~
~,y
Glass-Sealed Gas Spark
, ~ ~" _-- In Mineral 0il _
!-
"~ ii1,, = _
t- ///
}R' " - " . . ;. . " ' ,~ '_ ...o-"" - ~ - ~ I'~TI~Z Pyrex
L-. J ,
"~'-- "" " ,, - IInch lube
_X -
i
E
~-~/, f ~ X ~=-0 8
I %\ \9
15
.o
t~ \\ Xx X
Calculat~ ~ 8dB/10cm \ \ or = 0 . 6 ~9162= 0 . 7

I
t~ =0.4 \ 4.5 dB/10cm 3dB/10cm
0.1 I I J I [ I \I I I I i
Z0 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240
FIG. l O.54--Ratios of 80 kHz ultrasound received with wave guides and without wave guides,
versus distance from spark in mineral oil using different inside diameter steel tubes and a Pyrex
glass rod (after HarroM [67]).
parabola made from sound reflecting material (most smooth solid surfaces in
air) will reflect to converge at the focus, and increase the received signal level
very approximately in proportion to the ratio of the reflector area and the
area of the ultrasonic sensor on which sound waves impinge. The basic equa-
tion for a parabolic reflector i s y 2 = 4 ax, and as shown in Fig. 10.55, a is the
focal length, F is the focal point, h is the mirror depth, and r is the aperture
radius.
It can be shown [85] that the parabolic reflector radius
r = ~/-2ph (10.12)
where p is twice the focal length, and h is the mirror depth. Also, for reflec-
tors designed for use in liquids, the m a x i m u m gain (when h = 1.4 a) for a
given ultrasound wave length X is equal to 4.6a/X. An approximate formula
TABLE lO.4--Attenuation of ultrasound in wave guides.
Approximate Attenuation
of Ultrasound, dB/m
Type of Waveguide and
Transmission Medium 40 kHz 80 kHz
0.635 cm (0.25 in.) inside diameter plexiglas tube

in air 25.5 30
in air 13.5 17.1
in air 8.9 13.5
0.635 cm (0.25 in.) inside diameter steel tube in
mineral oil 8.5 10.75
1.27 cm (0.5 in.) diameter pyrex glass rod in mineral
oil or air 3.0
0.317 cm (0.125 in.) diameter fiberglas/epoxy rod
in mineral oil or air -3.0
TABLE lO.5--Comparison of wave guide ultrasound transmission at 80 kHz (relative to

transmission of Pyrex glass rod).
Relative
1.27 cm (0.5 in.) Diameter Rod Wave Guides Transmission Medium
Pyrex glass 1.000 Mineral oil

Steel 0.375 Mineral oil
Fiberglas 0.350 Mineral oil
Plexiglas 0.060 Mineral oil
Relative
1.27 cm (0.5 in.) Inside Diameter Tube Wave Guides Transmission Medium
Steel 0.500 Mineral oil

Lead glass 0.105 Mineral oil
Pyrex glass 0.090 Mineral oil
Plexiglas 0.083 Mineral oil
Concentric plexiglas tubes with air barrier 0.068 Mineral oil
1.27 cm (0.5 in.) diameter pyrex glass rod 1.000 Air or mineral oil
0.635 cm (0.25 in.) diameter fiberglass light
guide with 5880 fibers 0.870 Air or mineral oil
0.317 cm (0.125 in.) diameter fiberglass/epoxy
rod 1.000 Air or mineral oil
~.~ h
Mirror ~-
Acoustic Waves
~176..... i___J
r [ApertureRadius]
a ~1~ FocalPoint
L FocalLength y2= 4ax
FIG. lO.55--Parabolic reflector geometry.
for the maximum geometrical gain r of a parabolic microphone used in li-

quids is
rgmax = 4.6a/X (10.13)
Using this formula, the gain of the 40-kHz parabolic microphone described
in Section 10.8.8.4 and Fig. 10.49, is calculated to be - 2 8 (29 dB), which
should be compared with the actual gain of - 4 (12 dB). The low gain for this
parabolic microphone design is to be expected, because of the aluminum
shield around the 40-kHz sensor (Fig. 10.49) that restricts the sound imping-
ing on the ceramic sensor surface.
Little [86] used acoustic sensors for sound studies in ornithology, and his
calculations of the theoretical gain of a parabolic reflector (Fig. 10.56) in-
dicate low gain at frequencies less than 1 kHz high, but variable gain, from
- 1 to 10 kHz, and constant high gain in the 10 to 100 kHz frequency range.
Similar results were found in practical measurements by Little [86] (Fig.
10.57) where the gain-frequency characteristics of a spun aluminum reflector
- 9 1 . 5 cm (36 in.) diameter with a - 3 0 . 5 cm (12 in.) focal length, are il-
lustrated. The large peak near 200 Hz is due to cavity resonance of the
parabolic reflector. Little also examined the performance of a nylon fabric
collapsible umbrella having a bonded reflecting surface of aluminized mylar.
The diameter was about -101.6 cm (40 in.) and focal length - 3 0 . 5 cm
( - 12 in.) and the gain-frequency characteristics is illustrated in Fig. 10.57,
where it can be seen that the performance is comparable to that of the solid
reflector, although the gain is less due to reduced reflectivity and the im-
perfect parabolic shape of the fabric umbrella.
Other important aspects of parabolic reflectors discussed by Little, are
that the size of the focal region for a parabolic reflector is proportional to the
I I I
1 10 100
Frequency (kHz)
FIG. lO.56--Theoretical gain versus frequency for parabolic reflector (after Little [86]).
Spun AluminumReflector
20
0~
10 A
u
l mn
iz
iedPlastic
.~ 20E /~efJector
,3 lg'
-I0 ~ V I I I
1 10 100
Frequency(kHz)
FIG. 10.57--Practical gain versus frequency for approximate 1 m diameter parabolic reflec-
tors made from spun aluminum and aluminized plastic (after Little [86]).
square root of the sound wavelength, and that the limit of directional resolu-
tion for a - 9 1 . 5 cm (36 in.) diameter aluminum reflector with a - 3 0 . 5 cm
(12 in.) focal length using a - 2.54 cm (1 in.) diaphragm at the focus is about
10 deg at frequencies above 5 kHz. Also, to avoid deep cavity resonances, for
example, 200 Hz in Fig. 10.57, the microphone should be placed outside the
plane of the reflector rim, but to suppress sounds from behind the reflector,
the microphone should be inside the rim. A compromise is to place the
microphone in the plane of the rim, but for measurements at ultrasonic fre-
quencies, cavity resonances are no problem as the low frequencies can be
filtered out.
Where parabolic reflectors are used for ultrasound detection in conjunc-
tion with liquids [17], it is convenient to use a cylindrical transducer ceramic
(resonant in the radial mode) at the focal point. It is interesting to note that
in the reverse application, when ultrasound is transmitted, a ring-shaped
transducer is used [85], because within the area of the ring, waves that are
reflected twice from the parabolic mirror are parallel with the incident waves.
A parabolic microphone (with a cylindrical transducer ceramic at the focal
point) filled with castor oil and designed by J. H. Thompson when at the
Westinghouse Research and Development Center is illustrated in Fig. 10.58.
The frequency response of this device covers the 30 to 100 kHz range, with a
peak response near 45 kHz, and the sensor is very useful for detecting inter-
nal electrical discharges when acoustically coupled to the outer steel walls of
- - 8cm-~
-Aluminum
Riled With
Castor Oil
BNC 12 mm
Senso~,,,,,,~.~ .
e~
~ 5 . 3 cm . Z
FocalLength
4 Aluminum Support
Members6mm Diam.
F I G . lO.58--Liquid immersed ultrasonic sensor (30 to 90 kHz) with parabolic reflector (after
Thompson, unpublished work).
the tanks of fluid-insulated electrical power apparatus. With this parabolic

sensor, the acoustic emissions from internal electrical discharges of a few
picocoulombs in value can be detected.
10.9 Conclusions
A proper understanding of the subject of acoustical detection of electrical
discharges, requires that the reader be fully acquainted with acoustical wave
transmission behavior and the operation of acoustical detection devices.
Therefore, a substantial portion of this chapter was devoted to a presentation
of the fundamentals in acoustics. This was necessarily followed by detailed
discussions showing the relationship between the acoustical parameters and
the corona discharge quantities themselves. The remainder of the chapter
was devoted to the description of the various acoustical techniques for the
detection and location of corona discharges in electrical apparatus such as
rotating machines, transformers, capacitors, cables, transmission lines, and
other specialized insulating systems. It is generally agreed that the location of
discharges in electrical apparatus has overbearing practical importance;
since the acoustical methods have shown most promise in this particular
area, the field of acoustical methods for the detection of discharges will
continue to play a most important role wherever the location of the discharge
sites is of prime concern.
I0. 9.1 Acknowledgment

The author would like to acknowledge the help and advice of Dr. A. I.
Bennett of the Westinghouse Research and Development Center, and J. H.
Thompson of the Westinghouse Defense and Oceanic Division. He also
wishes to thank L. E. Ottenberg, who assembled numerous acoustic sensors
and assisted with much of the experimental work.
References
[1] Lucretius, T., On the Nature of Things, Book VI, translation by H. A. J. Monro, Great
Books of the Western World, William Benton Company, Chicago, 1952, p. 81.
[2] Beranek, L. L., Acoustic Measurements, Wiley and Sons, New York, 1949, p.3.
[3] Uman, M. A., Lightning, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1969, p. 182.
[4] "Engineering, the Electric Century," Electrical World, Feb. 1973 to Feb. 1974.
[5] Beranek, L. L., Acoustic Measurements, Wiley and Sons, New York, 1949, p. 27.
[6] Austen, A. E. W. and Hackett, W., Journal Institution of Electrieal Engineers, Vol. 91,
Part I, 1944, pp. 298-322.
[7] "Air Quality Criteria for Photo Chemical Oxidants," NAPCA Publication No. AP-63, U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., March 1970, pp. 8-38 to 8-40.
[8] Harrold, R. T., "The Effect of Electric Fields on Plants and Animals," EPRI Project RP
129, 1975.
[9] Stevens, S. S. and Warshofsky, F., Life Science Library. volume on Sound and Hearing,
Time Incorporated, New York, 1967, pp. 194 and 195.
[10] Beranek, L. L., Acoustic Measurements, Wiley and Sons, New York, 1949, p. 195.
[11] Wood, A., Acoustics, Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York, 1941, p. 463.
[12] Stevens, S. S. and Warshofsky, F., Life Science Library, volume on Sound and Hearing,
Time Incorporated, New York, 1967, p. 9.
[13] Salvati, M. J., Electronics Design News, 5 March 1973, pp. 87-89.
[14] Criswell, D. R., Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 80, Dec. 1975, pp. 4963-4974.
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[17] Harrold, R. T., Transactions on Electrical Insulation, Institute of Electrical and Elec-
tronics Engineers, Vol. EI-11, March 1976, pp. 8-11.
[18] Knudsen, V. O., Journal Acoustical Society of America, Vol. 18, July 1946, pp. 90-96.
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Green and Co., New York, 1956, pp. 59-64.
[20] Uman, M. A., Lightning, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1969, p. 196.
[21] Hueter, T. F., and Bolt, R. H., Sonics, Wiley and Sons, New York, 1955, pp. 59 and 66.
[22] Gordon, D., Ultrasound as a Diagnostic and Surgical Tool E & S Livingstone Ltd., 1964,
p. 351.
[23] Arabadzhi, V. I., Soviet Physics-Acoustics, Vol. 14, July-Sept. 1968, pp. 92-93.
[24] Harrold, R. T., Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers, Vol. PAS-90, July/August 1971, pp. 1837-1847.
[25] Kolcio, N., Ware, B. J., Zagier, R. L., Chartier, V. L., and Dietrich, F. M., Transactions
on Power Apparatus and Systems, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Vol.
PAS-93, May-June 1974, pp. 831-840.
[26] Beranek, L. L., Acoustic Measurements, Wiley and Sons, New York, 1949, pp. 68, 69.
[27] Allan, D. J. and Kashani, K., Conference on Diagnostic Testing of High Voltage Power
Apparatus in Service, Institution of Electrical Engineers, Publication No. 94, Part I,
March 1973, pp. 20-25.
[28] Strong, N. G., Davis, N. E., and Melville, D. R. G., Conference on Diagnostic Testing of
High Voltage Power Apparatus in Service, Institution of Electrical Engineers, Publication
No. 94, Part 2--Discussion, pp. 23-28.
Publishing Company, Inc., New York, 1964, pp. 50-52.
[30] Harrold, R. T., Transactions on Electrical Insulation, Institute of Electrical and Elec-
tronics Engineers, Vol. EI-10, Dec. 1975, pp. 109-112.
[31] H~roux, P. and Giao Trinh, N., A Statistical Study of Electrical and Acoustical Character-
istics of Pulsative Corona, Conference Paper A76 122-2, presented at the 1976 IEEE
Winter Power Meeting, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, New York.
[32] Harrold, R. T., "Ultrasonic Corona Sensor Study," Contract MAS9-14808, April 1976, for
the NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, Houston, "rex. (see also Ref 73).
[33] Pakala, W. E., Taylor, E. R., and Harrold, R. T., "High Voltage Power Line Siting
Criteria," Vol. I, Technical Report No. RADC-TR-66-606, March 1967, pp. 148-150, for
Rome Air Development Center, New York.
[34] Uman, M. A., Lightning, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1969, pp. 194-195.
[35] Donn, W. L., and Balachandran, N. K., Science, Vol. 185, Aug. 1974, pp. 707-709.
[36] Leslie, J. R. and O'Beirne, H., Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Vol. PAS-83, May 1964, pp. 495-500.
[37] "Piezoelectric Technology Data for Designers;" Arndt, J. P., "'Procedures for Measuring
Properties of Piezoelectric Ceramics;" Jaffe, B., "A Primer for Ferroelectricity and Piezo-
electric Ceramics;" publications by Vernitron Piezoelectric Division, Vernitron Corpora-
tion, Ohio, 1965.
[38] Dawson, G. A., Richards, C. N., Krider, E. P., and Uman, M. A., Journal of Geophysical
Research, Vol. 73, 1968, pp. 815-816.
[39] Naugol'nykh, K. A. and Roi, N. A., Soviet Physics-Acoustics, Vol. 13, No. 3, Jan./Mar.
1968, pp. 352-359.
Publishing Company, Inc., New York, 1964, pp. 24-25.
[42] Talvio, E., Sahko, Vol. 2, 1968, pp. 50-53.
[43] Hueter, T. F. and Bolt, R. H., Sonics, Wiley and Sons, New York, 1955, pp. 225-242.
[44] Harrold, R. T., "The Electro-Acoustic Energy Relationship of Partial Discharges in
Mineral Oil and Air," paper submitted for the 1977 Conference on Electrical Insulation
and Dielectric Phenomena, 17-20 Oct., Colonie, N.Y.
[45] Harrold, R. T., and Dakin, T. W., Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, In-
stitute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Vol. PAS-92, No. 1, Jan./Feb. 1973, pp.
182-198.
[46] Uman, M. A., Lightning, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1969, p. 194.
[47] Wilson, A., Electrical Times, Feb. 1976, pp. 13-27.
[48] Harrold, R. T., Fort, E. M., and Goodwin, T. A., Transactions on Power Apparatus and
Systems, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Vol. PAS-92, Nov./Dec. 1973,
pp. 1935-1944.
[49] Kimura, H., Tsumura, T., and Yokosuka, M., ElectrotechnicalJournal of Japan, Vol. 4,
1940, pp. 90-92.
[50] Beldi, F., The Brown Boveri Review, Vol. XXXVII, No. 6, June 1950, pp. 179-193.
[51] Anderson, J. G., Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, American Institute of
Electrical Engineers, Vol. 75, Dec. 1956, pp. 1193-1198.
[52] Carpenter, H., Kresge, J. S., and Musiek, C. B., Transactions on Power Apparatus and
Systems, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Vol. PAS-84, Aug. 1965, pp.
647-651.
[53] Yakov, S., Honey, C. C., Madin, A. B., and Keil, C., Proceedings, International Con-
ference on Large High Tension Electric Systems, Paper 12-06, Paris, 1968.
[54l Vora, J. P., and Foster, S. L., Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Vol. PAS-84, Aug. 1965, pp. 707-714.
[55] Meador, J. R., Kaufman, R. B., and Brusfle, H. H., Transactions on Power Apparatus
and Systems, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Vol. 85, Aug. 1966, pp.
893-900.
[56] Haraldsen, S., and Winberg, L., Proceedings, International Conference on Large High
Tension Electric Systems, Paper No. 12-09, Paris, 1968.
[57] Wood, J. W., Hickling, G. H., Hindmarch, R. T., and Raju, B. P., Conference on Dielec-
tric Materials, Measurements and Applications, Institute of Electrical Engineers, July
21-25, 1975, Cambridge, England.
[58] Train, D., Mercier, A., and Thorne, D., Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems,
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Vol. PAS-93, Nov./Dec. 1974, pp.
1909-1916.
[59] Howells, E., and Norton, E. T., "Detection of Partial Discharges in Transformers using
Acoustic Emission Techniques," Paper No. F 77 585-3 presented at IEEE Summer Power
Meeting, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, July 1977.
[60] Cerino, L. E., Ackerman, E., and Janes, J. M., Journal, Acoustical Society of America,
Vol. 40, 1966, pp. 916-918.
[61] Allan, D. J., Forrest, J. A. C., Howitt, E. L., and Petchell, A. B., Conference on
Diagnostic Testing of High Voltage Power Apparatus in Service, Institution of Electrical
Engineers, March 6-8, 1973, Publication No. 94, Part 1, pp. 65-70.
[62] Allan, D. J., British Patent Application No. 4491/69.
[63] Boyles, C. R. and Hinton, R. A., "Seven Years of Corona Testing," Conference Paper 70
CPI20-PWR, presented at IEEE Winter Power Meeting, Institute of Electrical and Elec-
tronics Engineers, New York, Jan. 25-30, 1970.
[64] Tan, T. T., Brown Boveri Review, Vol. 8, 1972, pp. 399-403.
[65] Austin, J. and Marshall, P., "Difficulties Encountered in the Acoustic Location of Partial
Discharges: Can Signal Processing Help?" Paper A77-172-0, presented at the IEE Winter
Power Meeting, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, New York, 30 Jan. to 4
Feb. 1977.
[66] Hickling, G. H., Conference on Diagnostic Testing of High Voltage Power Apparatus in
Service, Institution of Electrical Engineers, 6-8 March 1973, Publication No. 94, Part 2,
pp. 59-62.
[67] Harrold, R. T., "Acoustic Waveguides for Sensing and Locating Electrical Discharges
Within High Voltage Power Transformers and Other Apparatus," paper submitted for the
IEEE Winter Power Meeting, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, New York,
1978.
[68] The Ultrasonic Detection Handbook, Hewlett Packard Company/Delcon Division, 1966,
p. 7.
[69] Pakala, W. E. and Thompson, J. H., United States Patent No. 3, 253, 457, 1966.
[70] Hollinger, J. R. and Mulligan, J. E., Popular Electronics, June 1964, pp. 51-54.
[71] GraybiU, H. Q., Cronin, J. C., and Field, E. J., Transactions on Power Apparatus and
Systems, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Vol. PAS-93, Jam/Feb. 1974,
pp. 404-413.
[72] K6nig, D., Special Report of Group 23 [Substations], Proceedings, International Con-
ference on Large High Tension Electric Systems, Vol. I, pp. 74-80, Paris, 1972.
[73] Gray, D. E., Ed., American Institute of Physics Handbook, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New
York, 1957, Section 3, p. 64.
[74] Harrold, R. T., "Acoustical Properties of Insulating Liquids and Gases," paper submitted
for the 1978 IEE International Symposium on Electrical Insulation, Institute of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers, Philadelphia, June 1978.
[75] Lord Rayleigh, Theory of Sound, Vol. II, McMillan, London 1929, p. 312.
[76] Harrold, R. T., Dakin, T. W., and Mercier, G. E., Ultrasonic Sensing of Partial Dis-
charges Within Microfarad Value AC Capacitors," paper submitted for the IEEE Winter
Meeting, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, New York, 1978.
[77] Birlasekaran, S. and Darveniza, M., Transactions on Electrical Insulation, Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Vol. EI-11, Dec. 1976, pp. 162-163.
[78] Dakin, T. W. and Hughes, J., 1968 Annual Report, Conference on Electrical Insulation
and Dielectric Phenomena, NAS-NRC, Washington, D.C., 1969, pp. 68-72.
Phenomena, NAS-NRS, Washington, D.C., 1976, in press.
[80] "Sound Propagation in Rarefied Gases," Bolt, Beranek, and Newman, Inc., Cambridge,
Mass., Report No. bbn-1169, for USGRDR, Nov. 1964.
Phenomena, NAS-NRC, Washington, D.C. (1977), in press. (This study was performed
under Contract MAS9-14808 for the NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, Houston,
Tex.).
[82] Dakin, T. W. and Works, C. N., Measurement of Dielectric Properties Under Space Con-
ditions, ASTM STP 420, Philadelphia, 1967, p. 18.
[83] Gray, D. E. Ed., American Institute of Physics Handbook, McGraw Hill Book Co., New
York, 1966, pp. 3-64.
[84] Mason, W. P., Principles and Methods of Physical Acoustics, Vol. I, Part A, Academic
Press, New York, 1965, pp. 359-361.
[85] Hueter, T. F. and Bolt, R. H., Sonics, Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1955, pp. 263,
264.
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STP669-EB/Feb. 1979
R. J. D e n s l e y 1
Partial Discharges Under Direct-

Voltage Conditions
11.1 Nomenclature
The following symbols are commonly used in d-c corona or partial dis-
charge terminology. These symbols will be used throughout the course
of this chapter.
C~ Capacitance of healthy part of dielectric

Cb Capacitance of dielectric in series with cavity
Cc Capacitance of cavity
Cd Capacitance of detection impedance
Ck Capacitance in parallel with test specimen
Co Stray capacitance of calibrator to ground
Cq Calibration capacitance
Ec Mean electric stress cavity (peak, alternating or direct)
Eci Discharge-inception stress of cavity
Ed Stress in dielectric remote from the cavity
f Discharge-repetition rate
2h Depth of circular-cylindrical or oblate-spheroidal cavity
Mean stress in cavity/stress in dielectric remote from cavity
(direct voltage)
K --
Mean stress in cavity/stress in dielectric remote from cavity
(alternating voltage)
t Total thickness of dielectric
Ld Inductance of detection impedance
m Ratio Ed/Eci
n V./Vi
p Cd + C. + Ck
1PowerEngineering Section,NationalResearchCouncil, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.

409

P Mean power dissipated per discharge site

Q Calibration charge
q Apparent discharge magnitude
r Radius of circular-cylindrical cavity
Ra Resistance of healthy part of dielectric
Rb Resistance of dielectric in series with cavity
Rc Resistance of cavity surface
Rd Resistance of detection impedance
R, Resistance of capacitance (Ck) in parallel with test specimen
$ Radius of oblate-spheroidal cavity
t Time
V~ Voltage applied across test specimen
Vc Voltage across cavity
vc(t) Voltage across cavity at time t
Vr Voltage across cavity at time t due to combined alternating and
direct voltages
Vd Voltage across detection impedance
ve Remanent voltage across cavity after discharge is extinguished
(=0)
vi Voltage across cavity at discharge inception
Vi Voltage across test specimen at discharge inception (direct voltage)
Viac Voltage across test specimen at discharge inception (alternating
voltage)
Vp Peak value of applied alternating voltage
Vq Calibrator voltage pulse
VR Peak value of alternating voltage superimposed on direct voltage
W Energy dissipated by a discharge
e0 Absolute permittivity (=8.85 X 10 -12 F/m)
e~ Relative permittivity of cavity ( = 1 for gaseous cavity)
~2 Relative permittivity of dielectric
av Volume conductivity of dielectric
0 Temperature
(Llp 1 2-)'~
4Rd2p
Time constant
11.2 Introduction
Partial discharges can occur in insulation containing gaseous or liquid-
filled cavities subjected to high direct voltages. Such insulation is used in
HVDC power transmission systems, equipment operating in the space and
airborne environment, and in apparatus such as X-ray machines that utilize
high direct-voltage sources.
CHAPTER 11--DIRECT-VOLTAGE CONDITIONS 411
The first commercial system to transmit electrical power by high-voltage

direct-current (HVDC) was established in 1954 between the mainland of
Sweden and the Island of Gotland. The power capacity was 20 MW at
100 kV. Since that time, several other HVDC systems have been constructed
throughout the world and, by 1976, power and voltage ratings have in-
creased to 1440 MW and +400 kV, respectively, with further increases
predicted [1]. 2 HVDC can compete economically with high-voltage alter-
hating-current power transmission (HVAC) and also offers some advantages
over HVAC for particular applications, for example, in long underground
or submarine cables, very long overhead lines, and as interconnections
between large a-c systems. The number of HVDC-transmission schemes
might increase in the future, especially if a reliable d-c circuit breaker is
developed and the cost of rectification can be reduced.
Although the use of HVDC is increasing, there have been few studies of
the mechanisms of the long-term deterioration of electrical insulation sub-
jected to direct voltages. One of the main forms of insulation deterioration
under alternating-voltage conditions is that produced by partial discharges
or corona. Many studies have been made to determine the discharge resis-
tance of materials and the effects of partial discharges on the life of power
apparatus for alternating voltages [2-4].
The number of discharges per second in a particular cavity within a solid
dielectric subjected to alternating voltages is dependent on the magnitude
and frequency of the applied voltage. It can be shown using a simple model
that, at the discharge-inception voltage (DIV), there are four discharges
per cycle so that at 60 Hz there will be 2 10 7 discharges per day. The
repeated action of the discharges gradually causes erosion of the cavity
surfaces that continues until the discharges tend to concentrate at particular
sites. The discharges then produce electrical trees in the insulation that
propagate rapidly through the insulation to complete the breakdown and
failure of the equipment. In liquid dielectrics, the a-c breakdown propa-
gates more rapidly. Partial discharges, occurring within a gaseous bubble,
cause the bubble to expand in such a direction that the discharge bridges
the electrodes.
As will be shown, the frequency or repetition rate ( f ) of partial dis-
charges in insulation under direct-voltage conditions is usually several
orders of magnitude less than for alternating voltages operating at similar
stresses. As a result, d-c partial discharges are often considered to have
little influence on the life of the insulation, and there have been compara-
tively few studies of d-c partial-discharge characteristics. However, d-c
partial discharges occur more frequently at higher stresses, and the repeti-
tion rate is also increased by temperature, polarity reversals, and if the
cavity is adjacent to an electrode. As operating voltages and stresses in-
2The italic numbers in brackets refer to the list of referencesappended to this chapter.
crease, d-c partial discharges will have an increasing influence on the life
of the insulation.
Direct-current partial discharges also occur in electrical equipment oper-
ating in an airborne, space, vacuum, or partial vacuum environment
[5,6]. High operating temperatures coupled with vacuum can produce
partial discharges in cavities in an insulation at voltages much lower than
are necessary to produce partial discharges at room temperature in air at
atmospheric pressure.
11.3 Theoretleal Conslderatlons

In this section, a gas-filled cavity in a solid insulation subjected to direct
voltages is examined. The results derived also apply to or can be modified
to include a liquid-filled void in a solid or a gaseous bubble in a liquid
dielectric.
As the voltage is raised across an insulation containing one or more cavi-
ties, part of the voltage will appear across the cavity according to the
dimensions and location of the cavity within the insulation. If the voltage
developed across the cavity is sufficiently large, the gas in the cavity breaks
down, the breakdown voltage depending on the type of gas, gas pressure,
and the size and shape of the cavity. The breakdown voltage is assumed
to follow Paschen's Law. In this section, the voltage or stress distribution,
discharge magnitude, and the discharge-repetition rate will be examined.
11.3.1 Voltage or Stress Distribution

The equivalent circuit that is used to represent a cavity within an insu-
lating material is shown in Fig. 11.1. The cavity has a capacitance, Co, and
a surface resistance, Rc. Cb and Rb represent the capacitance and resis-
tance of the dielectric in series with the cavity, respectively. The remainder
of the insulation has a capacitance and resistance of Ca and R a, respectively.
11.3.1.1 Alternating Voltages--For alternating voltages, the voltage
across the cavity is determined by the capacitances, C,, Cb, Cc, as the
c:7 t
I
(o) Cavity in Dielectric (b) Equivalent Circuit
FIG. l l . l - - C a v i t y in a dielectric and its equivalent circuit.
resistances, Ra, Rb, Re, are usually very large compared to the capacitive
reactances. However, repeated discharges can reduce Rc sufficiently so that
it effectively short circuits the cavity and produces extinction of the dis-
charges. The capacitances, Cb and Co, are determined by the shape and
size of the cavity and the relative permittivities of the solid dielectric and
the gas in the cavity, the latter having a value close to unity. As the per-
mittivities are independent of temperature, the voltage across the cavity
will not be affected by the temperature of the insulation unless the cavity
shape and dimensions are temperature dependent.
Consider a cylindrical cavity having a radius, r, much greater than its
depth, 2h, embedded in an insulation of thickness, e, much greater than
2h, and relative permittivity, ~2. The voltage across the cavity, v~, is given
by
where
~1 = relative permittivity of the gas (liquid) inside the cavity, and
Vp = peak value of the applied a-c voltage.
If the cavity depth is much greater than the diameter, v~ becomes
vc = 2Vv ( h ) (11.2)
For cavities having a ratio of diameter to depth (r/h) that is neither very
small nor very large, or for cavities of other shapes, the voltage across the
cavity may be calculated from a knowledge of the electric stress distri-
bution. The stress in a spherical cavity of diameter, 2s, in an insulation of
thickness, e, with e >> s, is
Ec=( el +3E22~2J Ed (11.3)
where
Ed = stress in the dielectric remote from the cavity.
The mean stresses in cylindrical, oblate-spheroidal and elliptical-cylindrical
cavities for various ratios of diameter to depth have been calculated and
verified experimentally by various authors [7-11]. Figures 11.2 and 11.3
show the relationship between the mean stress along the axis of oblate-
spheroidal and cylindrical cavities, respectively, for two values of dielectric
2.0 ~ h : r
I0
, Slh = oO
1.8 =~ ~ 9
8
6
1.6- , z iO
~ g6
1.4 ~ 5
4
t?. ~ 3
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
(0)E2=2 Alternoting-Voltoge Conditions (b) E2--*oo Direct-Voltoge Conditions
FIG. l l . 2 - - M e a n electric stress in oblate spheroidal cavity (el --- 1) in solid dielectric (after
Salvage [7]).
I0
o ~ t/h = c~
9
8
7
,o 6
w
,~ 5
to
4
3
I
2
I i
0 O.t 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.4 0.5
h/~
(o) Ez=2 Alternoting-Voltoge Conditions (b) 6z-,'c~ Direct-voltoge Conditions
FIG. l l . 3 m M e a n electric stress in cylindrical cavity (e = 1) in solid dielectric (after

Mitra and Salvage [10]).
constant, e2 = 2 to represent polyethylene and e2 -- oo to represent direct-

voltage conditions.
11.3.1.2 Direct Voltages--The voltage distribution under direct voltages
will be dependent on time. As the voltage is raised across a specimen
similar to that shown in Fig. 11.1, the distribution is determined by the
capacitances, Cb and Co, as for alternating voltages, but subsequently
assumes a distribution dependent on the surface and volume resistivities
of the cavity and the volume resistivity of the solid dielectric in series with
the cavity. This can readily be seen by considering the equivalent circuit
shown in Fig. 11.1. The voltage across the cavity in the absence of any
discharges is given by
V.R~
v~(t) -- Rb + R~
Cb
+V~ Cb+C. Rb + R, exp -- RbRc(Cb + Cc) (11.4)
where
Va = applied voltage across the test object.
When t = 0
VaCb
v~(O) -- Cb + C, (11.5)
and when t is very large
VaRc
v,(oo) -- Rb + R~ (11.6)
as shown in Fig. 11.4. For gaseous cavities within a solid dielectric, and
e >> 2h, Rc/(Rb + Rc) is usually much greater than Cb/(Cb + Co), so that
the voltage across the cavity follows Curve (a) of Fig. 11.4. However, if the
surface conductivity of the cavity has been increased by the action of pre-
vious discharges or if an oil-filled cavity in pressboard insulation is con-
sidered, the voltage across the cavity will decrease with time, that is,
R J ( R b + Rc) << C j ( C b + CA, as shown in Curve (b) Fig. 11.4.
The mean stress in the cavity under direct-voltage conditions can also be
determined from the calculations used for alternating voltages by con-
sidering the relative permittivity of the solid dielectric to be very large.
Curves for oblate-spheroidal and cylindrical cavities are shown in Figs.
l l . 2 b and ll.3b. For an oblate-spheroidal cavity having a large ratio of
major to minor axes (s/h) >> 1, (h/O << 1, or a cylindrical cavity having
a large ratio of radius to depth (r/h) >> 1, (h/O << 1, all the applied
voltage appears across the cavity. The stress in the cavity is then given by
V~
E~ -- (11.7)
2h
Insulation is sometimes subjected to both alternating and direct voltages

simultaneously, or the direct-voltage can contain an a-c ripple component.
V0 Rc
j Rb+ Rc
Cb
Gb*Gc
o
Cb
o
O Gb+Cc
vo Rc
Rb+Rr
0 Time offer volfoge opplied
FIG. ll.4--Variation of voltage across cavity with time (in absence of discharges).
The a-e voltage would be capacitively distributed across the cavity within a
dielectric, and the total voltage across the cavity in this case would be
the sum of the direct- and alternating-voltage components.
11.3.2 Discharge Repetition Rate (f)

The a-c breakdown of a gas bounded by insulating surfaces is approxi-
mately equal to the voltage between metal surfaces separated by the same
gap spacing and follows Paschen's Curve [2-4]. There is no difference in
the value of the breakdown voltage of short gaps for direct and alternating
voltages, and Fig. 11.5 shows Paschen's curve for air [3].
Consider a cavity within a test specimen and a direct voltage, raised
linearly to a level, Va, well above that necessary to produce discharges.
The voltage across the cavity will rise according to Eq 11.4. If VaCb/
(Cb + Co) is above the discharge-inception voltage, vi, one or more dis-
charges will occur as the voltage is raised as shown in Fig. 11.6. When a
discharge occurs, the voltage across the cavity will collapse rapidly to the
discharge remanent voltage, Ve, often assumed negligible, and rise again.
When the voltage has been raised to its steady-state value, the voltage
across the cavity will be
V=Cb
Vc ~" Cb -I- Cc g(vi -- re) (11.8)
where
g = the number of discharges.
2000
I00 I000
\
\ 500
50'
\
A
>
\
=-- 2 0 stress 200 E
voltoge m
~ ~0 \ _ ,oo ,~
o>
%
z 5 % 50 m
3 z
o \
o o
x Q
g a 20
t=J
oc
1.0
0.5 '~ "'" ~ 5
0.2 2
01 ~ I
.0Ol .oo2 .005 .ol .o2 .o5 o.I 0.2 0.5 1.0 2 5 I0
I/~m IO/r IO0~m
CAVITY DEPTH ( r n m )
FIG. 11.5--Paschen's curve for air at atmospheric pressure (see Ref 3).
The voltage will then rise towards VaR~/(Rb + Re) with a time constant
[RbRc/(Rb + Rc)](Cb + C~). When the voltage across the cavity reaches vi,
another discharge occurs reducing the voltage to v,. The voltage will again
increase towards V, Rc/(Rb + R~) according to the following equation
V~Rc I VaR~ ve] exp [ _ ( t ~ ] (11.9)

v~(t) -- Rb d-R~ L'R~-~-Rc J L \~'/J
where
RbRc
T - - R b "t- R c (Cb -I- Co) (11.10)
Discharges will recur every time vc(t) reaches vi. The time interval, tl,
between discharges can be found from Eq 11.9
tl = --r In \ R b + Rc
ya.Rc ~i~/( gaRc
// \Rb + Rc -- ve
~1 (11.11)
/J
vo
~V'c(o)
/
Vo Applied volfoge
g u~ to) Voltoge ocross covity, no dischorge, Vo<V..
v~(b) . . . . . . with dischorges
ned Dischorge detector voltoge
l .-o-^ Voltoge ocross covity, dischorge
. . . . L..... %:~
[1[__ V Y__ V __L V __V V V V JZ_%

__~ ~ k [ [ [ [ ~ ~ [ L__%
Time
FIG. 11.6--Discharge sequence for direct voltage.
The discharge-repetition rate, f, is
f : -I/TInL~,R-bT-R~ //\R, + R~ Ve)] (11.12)
As ve is usually very small
f= --1~tin 1 V. \ Re = --l/tin [
1 - - - ~ - - ~ ] (11.13)
as
ViRc
vi -- Rb + Rc (11.14)
where
Vi = voltage across the test specimen at discharge inception.
In practice, the insulation thickness is usually much greater than the
depth of the gaseous cavity so that Cc >> Cb and as R c >> R b initially then
r = RbCc (11.15)
and the discharge-repetition rate becomes

f = 1/RbCclnll----~1 (11.16)
IfV~=nV;andn >> 1, t h e n
n (11.17)
f- RbCc
For cylindrical cavities of large diameter and e >> 2h
= -- (11.18)
or,,
where
ov = the volume conductivity of the dielectric in series with the cavity,
(11.19)
Ed = stress in the dielectric remote from the cavity, and

Eci = discharge-inception stress of the cavity.
These expressions have been derived previously [11,121. Melville et al
[12] have used the following expression
Rc (Cb + Cc) -- K (11.20)

(Rb + Re) Cb
where
mean stress in cavity/stress in dielectric remote from cavity

(direct voltage)
K =
mean stress in cavity/stress in dielectric remote from cavity "
(alternating voltage)
Values of K for oblate-spheroidal and cylindrical cavities having different

dimensions are shown in Figs. 11.7 and 11.8, respectively. The time con-
stant, z, is now given by
= (~o~2~
r -- K (11.21)
\or/
and
f = --ffv/c:oe_2K
I
In 1
vi (Rb+Rc)]
Va Rc
Ed
= --av/r162
E, (11.22)
If
Ed =m (11.23)
Eci
then
(11.24)
f = r
If
m >>1
dc
3,0
S/h = ~o
2.5
K G2=2
K
2.0 ~,
1.5 . 4
I I I I I I I I I
0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
h/~ h/.e
(o) Cb)
FIG. ll.7--Variation of K with h / f for oblate spheroidal cavity (after Melville et al [12]).
6 Go
4
L
K 3
0 I t I I I
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
h/z
FIG. 11.8--Variation o f K with h/e for circular cylindrical cavity, e2 "~- 2 .
then
= ratio of the stress in the cavity to the stress in the dielectric

under direct-voltage conditions and is given in Figs. l l . 2 b
and l l . 3 b for oblate-spheroidal and cylindrical cavities, re-
spectively.
Expressed in terms of voltage
f = --tlv/eoe2K In [1 -- VilVo] = avnleoc2K (11.25)
if
V,
=n>>l
Vi
and
m = n (11.26)
dc
The variation in the number of discharges per site per hour with the
stress ratio, m ( = E d / E c i ) , for oblate-spheroidal cavities is shown in Figs.
11.9 and 11.10 for relative permittivities 2 and 5, respectively. Figure 11.11
shows the variation in the discharge-repetition rate with m for cylindrical
8 S/h=O0 8
E, 7
to S/h = cO
"~' 7
& 6 I0
~
._m 2
:6 2
x:
,7
~z
4
o, 7,
=o
2
E
i i = i i i i i i i
0
0 4 8 12 16 20 0 4 8 12 16 20
(0) h/,g = 0 . 0 5 , O-v = 10-15Sin -I, 6 z = 2 (b) h/~ =o J, O-v : IO-15Sm -I, 8 z : 2
&
t,o~ S/h= co,10,8,6
x:
4 4 S/h = oD
c=.
ta~ 3 L
o
-g
:'6 2
I t
E
z
J i i i I I
% 'o'., ' o'.2' o'.3' 0'4 'o's
h/~,
(d) O-V= IO-15Sm-I, 8z= 2
(c) h/~ = 0 . 2 5 , e v = iO-mSrn -', 8 z = 2
FIG. ll.9--Variation of discharge-repetition rate with stress ratio m ( = E d / E c i ) a n d cavity

dimensions for oblate spheroidal cavity, ~2 = 2.
cavities for a relative permittivity of 2. Figures 11.12 and 11.13 show

the variation in the discharge-repetition rate, f , With the voltage ratio,
n(= V,/Vi), for oblate-spheroidal and circular cylindrical cavities, respec-
tively, for a relative permittivity of 2. The volume conductivity, ~v, used in
Figs. 11.9 to 11.13, was 10 -15 S/re. As can be seen from Eqs 11.24 and
-~ 684 _ ~6
~ 5
% S/h=~
~ ~ 1 0
:6
, ~ '~ ' ,~' , ~ ' ~
(o) h#, = 0.05, (Tv = 10-tSsm -I, 62 = 5 (b) h / g = O . I , o- v =lO-15Sm-I, G z = 5
~ Slh : co
~g2 6i
g=
~-,~ =10
~
~ i i i i i
4 8 12 16 20
z~ ~ o'., o12 0.3
h/z
o.4 0'.5
(c) h[g = 0 . 3 , o-v=10-mSm-~, ez= 5 (d) m = I0, o-v = IO-mSm -I, 62 ~ 5
o
45
~4
~'2 ~ o
"6
E
~ o:, ' o'.~' 0'.3' oi~' o'.~
(e) m = 20, O-v = I O - m S m - ~ , 6 2 = 5

Ed
FIG. ll.lO--Variation o f discharge-repetition rate with stress ratio m (= Ea/Eel) and

cavity dirne~ions for oblate spheroidal cavity, e2 = 5.
B ~=co
i r/h=(O i 0
8, 6
I
-o :G
~ 5 ~ I
g
m
:6
"6
z
2
o . . . . .
4 8
,'2 ' ,; ' '
20
i
z
3
I
4
i i I
8
I '
12_
i i
16
i t
20
(o) h/.~ =0 05,0- v =lO-15Sm -I, 6z= 2 (b) h/~ =0. I, o-v = lO-'SSm-' 6z=2
r/h = oo J0,8,6,4,2
~ i '
= ~ 4 . r/h=e~
=6 ,~2
~ ~ a ,~ ,~ 20 ~ 'o:, 'or2' o'~' o'4' oi~

h/.~
m(: ~ ) (d, o-~=,o-'%~-', G~=2
(c) h/~ = 0.3 ,O'v-- IO-PSSm-t, 6z = 2
FIG. l l . l l - - V a r i a t i o n of discharge-repetition rate with stress ratio m ( = Ed/Eci) and

cavity dimensions for circular cylindrical cavity, e2 = 2.
S/h=l
| 3,0 3.0
2 2
:6
~. 2.o ~_2.o
4
~ LO
6
lO
8
x:
~ I.O
S
Z
0 o . . . . . . . '6'2'
4 8 12 16 20 4 8 12 I O
n = n Vo
(o) h/s = 0.05, o-v = lO-15Sm -I, (~z = 2 (b) h/~ =O.I, o-v = IO-~ -I, 6 2 = 2
S/h=l
~3C 6,8, 0 (o
~_~.o
"a
z
0 ~ 4~ l 81 , 121 ' 161, I 210
(c) h/s = 0 . 3 , O~v=lO-'SSm-',e2=2
Gz= 2
FIG. l l . 1 2 - - Variation of discharge-repetition rate with voltage ratio n ( = Va/Vi) and

cavity dimensions for oblate spheroidal cavity, ~2 = 2.
~3.0 3.0
in
%=t %=j
o
2. 2
~- 2.o o-2.0
4
a:: 4
6
Q.
6
8
Lo I0
15
"6
E
2" 0 0 i i i i i i i i i I
4 8 12 16 20 0 4 8 12 t6 20
n =VT- n=VO
(v,)
-15 -I
(o) h / s o-v=lO Sm ,%=2 (b) h / ~ = 0 . 1 , cr v = 1 0 - ' S S m - l , 6 z = 2
~o ; 3 0
/~ 4 6, 8 ,
h = I
, I0, O0
x:
~: 1.0
E
2
0 i t i i i I I I I I
4 8 12 16 20
(c) h / g = O 3, 0-v=tO-15Sm-t, Gz= 2
FIG. ll.13--Variation of discharge-repetition rate with voltage ratio n ( = V a / V i ) and

cavity dimensions for circular cylindrical cavity, ~2 = 2.
11.25, f is proportional to ov so that if av is increased to 10 -12 S/m, the

discharge-repetition rate would be increased by 103 .
11.3.3 Comparison of Discharge-Repetition Rate Under Direct- and Alter-

nating Voltage Conditions
Consider two cavities, one spherical and one cylindrical within a dielec-
tric, 1 cm thick, having a relative permittivity of 2 and a volume conduc-
tivity of 10 -15 S/m. The diameter of the spherical cavity is 0.25 mm, and
the cylindrical cavity has a diameter of 2.5 mm and a depth of 0.25 mm.
From Pasehen's curve, Fig. 11.5, the breakdown stress is found to be
7.0 kV/mm.
If it is assumed that the number of discharges for the alternating voltage
is four discharges per cycle at the inception voltage, that is, there is only
one discharge site in the cavity, the number of discharges per hour for
each cavity at the inception voltage is 8.6 l0 s discharges. Table 1 lists
the number of discharges per hour per discharge site for the two cavities
under alternating- and direct-voltage conditions. The discharge-repetition
rate is several orders of magnitude lower with direct voltages even at 10
and 20 times the stress in the dielectric used for alternating voltages.
From Fig. 11.6 and Eq 11.13, it can be seen that, if the applied voltage
is equal to the discharge-inception voltage, the time interval between dis-
charges becomes infinite. This creates a difficulty in attempting to define
a partial-discharge-inception voltage under direct-voltage conditions.
Namely that at the inception voltage the discharge-repetition rate is theo-
retically zero and increases very slowly as the voltage is raised above the
inception value.
11.3. 4 Discharge Magnitude

The discharge magnitude, q, measured at the terminals of the test speci-
men can be determined from Fig. l l . l b
q =
E cbcc]E
CQ + C b + C c " Cb +Ca
] vi (11.27)
It is assumed that i"i, the voltage across the cavity when a discharge occurs,
is the same value for both direct and alternating voltages (peak value).
CQ, Cb, and Cc represent the capacitances described previously.
The discharge magnitude is independent of whether alternating or direct
voltage is applied to the specimen. However, the voltage across the cavity
and the dielectric in series with the cavity is distributed capacitively under
alternating voltages and obeys a resistive distribution for direct voltages.
TABLE 11.1--Comparison of discharge repetition rates for alternating and direct voltages.
Alternating-Voltage Conditions Direct-Voltage Conditions
Stress in Number of Stress in Number of

Dielectric, Discharges Dielectric, Discharges
Cavity shape kV/mm per Hour kV/mm per Hour
Spherical 5.9 8.6 10 s 59 4

118 8
Cylindrical 3.9 8.6 10 s 39 4
78 8
vi : Vi Rb + Rc t E cbJ
= Via~ Cb + Cr (11.28)
For direct voltages
q -- C a + Cb + Cc Cb + Ca Rb + Rc Vi (11.29)
11.3.5 Discharge Current

The current flowing through the terminals of the test specimen is given by
i=ic+iq (11.30)
where
ic = conduction current, and
iq = current due to all the partial discharges occurring in the cavities
within the test specimen.
The discharge current can be expressed as
iq = ~'1=f'q~ (11.31)
where
f = discharge-repetition rate of the discharges of magnitude qi occurring
at discharge site/.
It has been shown in the section on the discharge-repetition rate that
j~ can be very small and is dependent on time, applied stress, and tem-
perature. The discharge magnitude, ql, can also vary considerably with
time.
The current, ic, is usually larger than iq, making it difficult to measure
iq unless a bridge-type circuit is used to eliminate it.
11.3. 6 Discharge Energy and Power Loss

The energy dissipated by a discharge is
W = 1A ICe + CaCoCb ] (vi2 _ ve2)

"t- Cb J
(11.32)
where
ve = remanent voltage across the cavity when the discharge is extin-
guished and will be considered to be negligible.
For direct-voltages, using Eq 11.28
W=l/i c+ Co+Cb Rb+Rc Vi2 (11.33)
From Eq 11.29
W = 1/2 Rb + Re" Cb qVi (11.34)
Using the ratio, K, as defined previously, the discharge energy becomes
W = 1/2 K q V i (11.35)
The mean power dissipated per discharge site can be calculated from a
knowledge of the discharge energy, W, and the discharge-repetition rate, f,
given by Eq 11.25. The mean power dissipated per discharge site, P, is
P " - --1/2 tTvqVi/EoE2 In [1 - - Vi/Va] (11.36)
If Va >> Vi
P = 1A \e0ez/ V. (11.37)
11.4 Factors Affecting the Discharge Repetition Rate, f

The discharge-repetition rate under direct-voltage conditions is con-
trolled by several factors. This section will describe these factors.
11.4.1 Discharge Sites

The cavity surface is not usually completely discharged during a single
discharge. For alternating voltages, several discharge sites can occur
within a cavity, and the larger the cavity diameter, the greater the number
of discharge sites. The discharge-repetition rate under direct-voltage con-
ditions is greater than predicted from theory. This has been interpreted to
infer that there is more than one site per cavity from which discharges
occur. Tangential stresses along insulating cavity surfaces produced by
individual discharge sites can also initiate further discharges. If the ad-
jacent surfaces of a cylindrical cavity are made conducting, the discharge-
repetition rate is approximately equal to that predicted by Eq 11.13, the
time interval between discharges gradually becoming constant with time
under voltage. However, for a cavity of the same dimensions having ad-
jacent insulating surfaces, the discharge-repetition rate is significantly in-
creased and the time intervals between successive discharges are not
constant.
The discharge-repetition rate for a cavity adjacent to an electrode is
different to that for a cavity totally enclosed within a dielectric [13-15].
11.4.2 Conductivity of Dielectric

The resistances, Ra, Rb, Re, shown in Fig. l l . l b , which represent the
resistances of the dielectric and cavity, do not remain constant. The con-
ductivity of a solid dielectric changes by several orders of magnitude during
the application of a direct voltage [11,16]. The volume conductivity or, is
initially high and decreases with time to reach a steady-state value as
shown in Fig. 11.14. The steady-state value is considered to be the true
conduction of the material, whereas the initial high conductivity is mainly
due to absorption phenomena within the material and gives rise to a cur-
rent that obeys the empirical relation [I 7]
I = Bt -b (11.38)
where
I = current,
t = time of application of the voltage, and
B, b = constants.
The exact cause of the anomalous conductivity is not always known;
dipole polarization, charge accumulation at inhomogeneities within the
material or close to the electrode surfaces are some of the mechanisms that
may give rise to this effect [17].
The discharge-repetition rate, f, given by Eq 11.24, also varies with time
I000I
g
.2
o
u I
O.I
Time of voltoge opplicotion (arbitrory units)
FIG. 11.14--Typical variation of volume conductivity of solid dielectric with time of voltage
application.
in a similar manner as o,, as has been observed experimentally in several

materials such as polyethylene [11,18] and oil-impregnated paper [19].
However, the volume conductivity of the solid dielectric in series with a
cavity might not exhibit the behavior just described. The series dielectric is
subjected to a constant applied voltage and also a step voltage every time
a discharge occurs in the cavity. The volume conductivity will be deter-
mined by these two voltages, having one component due to the applied
voltage that will reach a steady-state value according to Eq 11.38, and the
other component due to the step voltage produced by the discharge in the
cavity that will be more transitory. The latter component would produce
an increase in the conductivity of the dielectric immediately after a dis-
charge and would gradually decrease with time. No measurements of the
conductivity under these conditions have been reported.
If the voltage across a specimen is raised in steps, discharges are more
numerous for a short time after the voltage has been raised as shown in
Fig. 11.15. This can be explained as due to a combination of the increase
in anomalous conductivity with the change in applied voltage in addition
to the voltage change initially being distributed capacitively in the insu-
lation and gradually changing to resistive with time.
The final steady-state conductivity of a dielectric is dependent on the
applied electric stress and temperature, tending to increase as the stress or
temperature or both are raised. For polyethylene in the temperature range
of 50 to 85~ Lawson [16] observed an exponential increase in conduc-
tivity with electric stress and temperature as shown in Fig. 11.16 and
11.17, respectively. The mechanism of conduction in insulating materials
has been the subject of many studies, and several theories have been pro-
posed and are described by O'Dwyer [20]. No further details will be
,II
D
I Time I I
I I'
I
Time
,v~ - dischorge detector voltoge
FIG. 11.15--Discharge sequence when voltage raised in steps.
AS,- f~lm electrodes
10 -14
U3 2
i_;,o-,5
o
>
i0 -~6 I I I I I I
eO 90 100 II0 120 130 140 150
Electric stress (kV/mm)
FIG. ll.16--Variation of volume conductivity, Or, with electric stress for polyethylene
(after Lawson [16]).
i 0 f3
Grophite e l e c t r o d e s
0 kV/mrn
2
7 ~0-I4
E
oo 2
\
\
\
\
\
z I/T \
90"C 80"6 70% 60"6 50*C
to-'~ I ,I ,I I
I II I \ I
2 7xlO"3 2BxlO -3 29x10 -3 30xlO -3 3.1xlO-3 3.2xlO -3 3.3x10-3
(K-')
FIG. 11.17--Variation of volume conductivity, or, with temperaturefor polyethylene (after
Lawson [16]).
presented here except to emphasize that the volume conductivity has a

marked dependence on time, temperature, and stress.
An increase in the applied electric stress causes an increase in the
discharge-repetition rate in two ways: (a) by increasing m in Eq 11.24,
and (b) by causing an increase in the volume conductivity as it is stress
dependent as shown in Fig. 11.16.
The increase in conductivity with temperature will produce a subsequent
increase in the steady-state discharge-repetition rate for direct voltages.
It is evident from Fig. 11.17 that the discharge-repetition rate will increase
by = 103, if the insulation temperature is raised from 20 to 80~ The
number of discharges per cycle for alternating voltages is independent of

the insulation temperature.
Electrical insulation in practice is often subjected to temperature gradi-
ents. The resistive losses of cable and bushing conductors causes the insu-
lation adjacent to the inner conductor to be at a higher temperature than
the outer insulation. In space and airborne applications, the temperature
of the outer insulation increases when exposed to solar radiation. The tem-
perature gradient results in a change in the volume conductivity of the
insulation, which in turn affects the direct-voltage or stress distribution.
For example, in a coaxial cable at constant temperature, the maximum
stress occurs at the inner conductor, whereas if this same conductor be-
comes hot, causing the temperature of the insulation around the conductor
to rise, the maximum stress occurs at the outer surface [21]. This is referred
to as stress inversion and can occur in any insulation subjected to a tem-
perature gradient under direct voltage. The change in direct-voltage or
stress distribution with temperature gradient will affect the discharge-
repetition rate in some cavities in addition to causing discharges in the
cooler part of the insulation due to the higher stress produced by the
temperature gradient. There have not been any detailed studies reported of
the effects of temperature gradient on direct-voltage partial-discharge
behavior.
The resistance of the cavity, Re, also varies with time. Repeated dis-
charges within a cavity produce an increase in the surface conductivity of
the cavity walls. The increase in conductivity under alternating voltages
is sufficient to produce discharge extinction [22]. Under direct-voltage
conditions, a reduction in Rc will result in a decrease in the discharge-
repetition rate and, if VaRc/(Rb "Jr-Re) falls below vi, no further discharges
will occur. As the discharge-repetition rate for direct voltages is usually
several orders of magnitude less than for alternating voltages, it is ques-
tionable whether the surface conductivity of the cavity surfaces increases to
a value high enough to extinguish discharges. However, discharge extinc-
tion may occur at very high direct stresses or elevated temperatures when
the discharge-repetition rate is increased.
11.4.3 Increase in Gas Pressure Within the Cavity

Partial discharges within a totally enclosed cavity increase the gas
pressure in addition to changing the composition of the gas within the
cavity. If the product of the gas pressure and the cavity depth is above the
Paschen minimum, Fig. 11.5, the increase in gas pressure will raise the
discharge-inception voltage of the cavity and could result in the complete
extinction of the discharges. Discharges would recur when the pressure
has decreased by diffusion of the gas into the insulation. The discharge-
repetition rate for the direct voltages is usually so low that the rate of
diffusion of the gas generated could be comparable to the rate of gas

generation.
Electrical equipment operating in an airborne or space environment is
subjected to high temperatures and partial or high vacuum [5,6,23-25].
As the discharge-inception voltage of a gaseous cavity obeys Paschen's law,
a reduced gas pressure will produce a change in the inception voltage. The
gas pressure inside a cavity within a cast- or extruded-solid dielectric will
gradually decrease when the dielectric is exposed to vacuum. The rate of
decrease of pressure will depend upon the position of the cavity within
the insulation, diffusion of the gas, rate of outgassing, etc. From Fig.
11.5, the minimum on the Paschen Curve for air at atmospheric pressure
occurs in a cavity of =6 #m depth. For cavities smaller than this depth,
a reduced gas pressure will produce an increase in the inception voltage.
The inception voltage of cavities of depths > 6 / ~ m is above the Paschen
minimum so that a reduction in gas pressure results in a lowering of the
discharge-inception voltage towards the Paschen minimum. If the product
of the gas pressure and the cavity depth falls below the Paschen minimum,
the discharge-inception voltage increases.
11.4. 4 Alternating Voltage Superimposed on Direct Voltage

HVDC equipment is usually subjected to direct voltage containing a
superimposed alternating voltage ripple, whereas other apparatus operate
under alternating voltage with a direct-voltage bias. The ripple voltage, VR
sin cot, will be distributed capacitively across the cavity, so that the alter-
nating voltage component across the cavity is VRCb/(Cb + Co) and is
superimposed on the direct voltage. The voltage across the cavity, v~(t),
in absence of discharges is then given by
vcc(t) = vc(t) + LC b + c~ sin cot (11.39)
where vc(t) is given by Eq 11.4.

If the alternating-voltage component, VRCb/(Cb + Co), exceeds the
discharge-inception voltage, discharges will occur during every cycle inde-
pendent of the magnitude of the direct voltage. These discharges are, in
fact, a-c discharges and can theoretically persist if the alternating voltage
is decreased to half the inception voltage.
The peak value of the alternating voltage, VRi, applied to a dielectric
to initiate discharges in a cavity is given by
VRi = KV, (11.40)
where K and Vi have been defined previously.

If the alternating-voltage exceeds K / n of the applied direct voltage,

V,, (Va = nVi), discharges will occur during every cycle of the alternating
voltage. For the spherical cavity (0.25 mm diameter) and circular cylindri-
cal cavity, (0.25 mm depth, 2.5 mm diameter), embedded in a dielectric,
(er = 2, 1 cm thick), considered previously, the alternating stress, required
to produce steady discharges, expressed as a percentage of the applied
direct stress, is tabulated in Table 2.
TABLE 11.2--Combined a-c and d-c stress to initiate steady discharges.
Peak Alternating Stress as Percentage

of Direct Stress, % Direct Stress
in Dielectric,
Spherical Cavity CylindricalCavity kV/mm
ll.7 7.7 50
5.8 3.9 100
If the ripple voltage is not sufficient to produce continuous a-c dis-

charges, the discharge-repetition rate will nevertheless increase, as the
peak-alternating voltage will be superimposed on the direct voltage in the
cavity. A discharge will occur when the sum of the peak-alternating voltage
and the direct voltage reaches the discharge-inception voltage for the cavity.
The direct voltage across the cavity must increase to vi - VRCb//(Cb -1- Cc),
to initiate a discharge. The discharge-repetition rate, given by Eq 11.13,
must be modified in the presence of a superimposed alternating voltage so
that
f= --1/zln 1-- Vo KV,
= --ov/eoe2Kln [ 1 - - 1 ( 1 - - K---~)t (11.41)
where K, n, Vi, and Vo have been defined previously.

The discharge-repetition rate becomes infinite when VR = K V i , that is,
when the alternating-voltage, VR, reaches the discharge-inception value. In
practice, the amplitude of the superimposed alternating voltage is some-
times proportional to the direct voltage, Vo. Figure 11.18 shows the in-
crease in the direct-voltage discharge-repetition rate in an oblate-spheroidal
cavity for various values of alternating voltage for different cavity sizes.
The discharge-repetition rate increases rapidly at the larger values of n
where the alternating voltage is larger.
Number ofdischorges per hour per dischorge site
Number of d~schorges per hour per dischorge s~te 0 -- -- ro r~ ~ oJ
o ro 4~ m ,co ~ ~ 4, o b~ b L~ b b~ o b~
o i i i i i i
~ o i i I i i i i
p p
2
II
a{. 5 Z22-~ ii
~' ~1#
3, i
~x,i','\\\ \ ~
c~ 0
g~ iI
I
bp # p o o<
r~
'?oC,;xo\
~c 0 ,, 0 0 '--
O~Oo ,, #~,
- \V # o<~ o< m
# -m
II II
~" 8 ~ I
m
Number of discharges per hour per dlschorge site Number of discharges per hour per dischorge site 0
-I
o ~ o~ c0 ~ ~ .~ 0~, o ro 4~ m, m 8 ~ ~ k
o i , i I i i i i .g o i i I i i i i
0
r-
-t
~'~ Q
ii
o m
o5 0
~q 0
< Z
~1# _ m II <~1~o
ii 0
p .-4
o
# Z
m cn o
II
b H b
f~
<
o
11.4.5 Sudden Change in Voltage, Polarity Reversal

Consider a flat cylindrical cavity in a solid dielectric so that the equiva-
lent circuit shown in Fig. 11.1 is valid and assume that Cb = Cc and Rc
>> R b. If the voltage across the test specimen is raised in a series of steps,
the variation of the voltage across the cavity with time will be similar to
that shown in Fig. 11.19. The rate of rise of the step voltage is less than
the time constant of the insulation ( = e2/av). As the voltage across the
test specimen is changed, the voltage or stress distribution in the dielectric
is initially determined by the capacitance of the insulation as for alternating
voltage, but changes with time to be governed by the insulation resistance.
Figure ll.19b shows the variation in the voltage in the absence of dis-
charges. The voltage increases or decreases linearly as the applied voltage
changes and changes exponentially with a time constant, Rb (Cb + C~), to
reach a steady-state value when the applied voltage is constant. The varia-
tion in the voltage across the cavity in the presence of discharges is shown
in Fig. 11.19c. The first discharge occurs during the second voltage step,
when the voltage across the cavity reaches vi. The discharge-repetition rate
can be seen to increase at the higher applied voltages. If the voltage is
decreased in similar small steps, the discharge sequence is as shown, the
number of discharges decreasing at the lower voltages.
If the voltage is increased to V,, where Va >> V,., maintained at this
voltage for some time, and then suddenly decreased to zero, discharges of
the opposite polarity are observed having a gradually decreasing repetition
rate. These discharges persist for some considerable time after the applied
voltage has been removed. A possible explanation for these discharges is as
follows.
When a direct voltage is applied, polarization charges and charge leaked
through the insulation will accumulate on the adjacent cavity surfaces. If
R c >> R b, all the applied voltage will develop across the cavity. When the
voltage across the cavity reaches the discharge-inception voltage, a discharge
will occur, generating electrons, negative and positive ions in the gas. The
charged particles move to the adjacent cavity surfaces reducing the voltage
across the cavity to a very small value, re. The charged particles do not
neutralize the charges already present on the cavity surfaces due to the
applied voltage. After the discharge has extinguished, the voltage across
the cavity increases exponentially with a time constant, Rb (Cb + Co).
Another discharge will occur when the voltage across the cavity reaches
v, causing additional charges to be deposited on the cavity surfaces. The
charges deposited by the discharges and those due to the applied voltage
do not necessarily recombine but can remain on the cavity surfaces or be-
come trapped within the bulk of the dielectric. A certain amount of recom-
bination can occur by the charges leaking along the surfaces of the cavity,
that is, Rc becomes finite. The amount of charge accumulated will depend
u I I i
I
I j I I
or i I I l I I ~'---i~
v cell_ _x _ _1 I__ I__ ~ _[_
I I
I II I IIIIIIIIIIII Ill Time

If I
(o) opplied voltoge,Vo
(b) voltage ocross cavity, (no dischorges), vc
(c) voltoge ocross covity, (with dischorges), vc
(d) dischorge pulses
FIG. 11.19--Variation in cavity voltage with time, voltage applied in steps. (Cb -----Co,
Rc >> Rb).
upon the number of discharges, applied voltage, material, trapping density,

etc. If the direct voltage is removed, the charge due to the applied voltage
gradually leaks away along with the charge accumulated due to the dis-
charges. The latter charge causes a voltage of opposite sign to build up
across the cavity and a reverse discharge can occur when this voltage reaches
--vi. Discharges will continue until sufficient charge has leaked from the
bulk of the dielectric and the cavity surfaces so that the steady-state volt-
age across the cavity is less than --vi. Reverse discharges can be detected
several hours after the applied voltage has been reduced to zero. A typical
discharge sequence is shown in Fig. 11.20.
In Figs. 11.19 and 11.20, it is assumed that Cb ---- Cc and Rc >> Rb.
For cavities having a depth much smaller than the insulation thickness,
Cc is usually much greater than Cb, so that the capacitive change in voltage
across the cavity would be smaller than that shown in Figs. 11.19 and
11.20. With repeated discharges or in humid conditions or both, R~ is
reduced causing a reduction in the discharge-repetition rate while the
voltage is applied and reducing the number of reverse discharges due to
charge recombination, after the voltage has been reduced. For certain
materials and geometries Cb = C~ and Rb >> Rc, as for example in an
oil/pressboard composite in a parallel-plane geometry. The voltage across
the oil gap would vary with time according to Fig. 11.21. The initial voltage
across the oil gap due to the capacitive-voltage distribution is greater than
the steady-state voltage that is determined by the insulation resistance, as
(a)
,~ l [lil[l[i[[L[LL[[
(o) opplied voitoge,Vo
(b) voltoge ocross covity, (no discharges), vc
(c) voltoge ocross cavity, (with dischorges), vc
(d) dischorge pulses
FIG. 11.20--Variation in cavity voltage with time. (Cb = Co, Rc >> Rb).
shown in Fig. 11.21a a n d f . Most of the steady-state voltage is developed

across the pressboard, so that discharges are more likely to occur during
the raising or lowering of the applied voltage, Fig. 11.21c and g. Reverse
discharges can occur as the voltage is lowered but are unlikely to occur
after the voltage has been reduced to zero because of the higher charge
mobility in the oil.
Similar phenomena take place if the voltage is reversed in polarity rather
than suddenly decreased to zero. Polarity reversals can produce (a) dis-
charges due to the voltage changes across the cavity produced by capacitive
coupling; (b) an increase in the conductivity of the dielectric in series with
the cavity that, for gaseous cavities, will result in an increased discharge-
repetition rate after the voltage has been reversed until a new steady-state
conductivity is reached; and (c) an increase in the discharge-repetition rate
as the reversed polarity will further increase the voltage across the cavity
due to the trapped charges on the cavity surfaces and within the dielectric
close to the cavity. These effects are usually temporary, so that the dis-
/-t
(o) ]
I
J , I ~ L ~ ,~
1
I I I
_k c~)IA IA IA [ i I I
V V ~ Y
J I
of)~ II
I
v; ~ ~_1~2_
- ]
-v; __ --~
(h) li[ (
Time V~
o,e opplied voltoge,Vo
b, f voltage across cavity, (no discharges), vc
c,g voltage across cavity, (with discharges), vC
d,h discharge pulses
FIG. ll.21--VaHation in cavity voltage with time. (Cb > Co, Rb > Re).
charge-repetition rate will increase during the polarity reversal and sub-
sequently decrease slowly with time to the previous steady-state value.
11.5 Discharge Detection

Partial-discharge testing equipment is used to detect, measure, and locate
discharges within insulation. The equipment, usually referred to as a dis-
charge or corona detector, has to (a) determine whether or not discharges
are present, (b) give the magnitudes of the discharges, and (c) give the
position of the discharge sites.
The latter is important in discharge tests on large transformers and
long underground cables. As the discharge-repetition rate is usually smaller

under direct voltage than alternating voltages, it is even more important in
direct voltage tests to eliminate or reduce interference that could be in-
terpreted as discharges.
Methods to detect partial discharges can be divided into two broad
groups, nonelectrical and electrical.
11.5.1 Nonelectrical Methods

The light, heat, and sound produced in cavities by partial discharges
under alternating voltages has been measured to detect discharges in in-
sulation. These techniques are not affected by electrical disturbances but
can only be used in specific applications and are not usually very sensitive.
The light emitted by partial discharges in a cavity within polyethylene
subjected to direct voltage has been measured using a photomultiplier by
Rogers and Skipper [11]. The output pulses from the photomultiplier were
counted to yield information on the discharge-repetition rate, f. Although
insensitive to stray electrical disturbances, this technique is limited to
transparent or translucent materials, and difficulties arise when calibrating
the detection system.
Ultrasonic-discharge detection has been used to detect and locate dis-
charges in transformers [26] but has not been used to detect discharges
under direct-voltage conditions.
Detecting the heat produced by partial discharges is very insensitive
and would not be suitable at the low discharge-repetition rates experienced
with direct voltages.
11.5. 2 Electrical Methods

The detection of the electrical pulses produced by partial discharges tends
to be more convenient and sensitive than the nonelectrical methods. Typical
discharge-detection circuits for both alternating- and direct-voltage condi-
tions are shown in Fig. 11.22. Xd represents the detection impedance,
Ca is the test specimen, and Ck is the capacitance in parallel with the test
object and the detection impedance. Ck provides a low-impedance path
for the high-frequency current of a discharge. The detection impedance
can be connected to the low-voltage terminal of Ck rather than Ca. The
response of the detection impedance to a discharge in the test specimen
is amplified, measured, displayed, and counted.
Discharge detectors that are commercially available are designed for
use with alternating voltages. They can detect and measure the magnitudes
of individual discharges or measure the total energy per cycle dissipated
by the discharges. Straight or singled-ended and bridge-type systems similar
to those shown in Fig. 11.22 are available. The discharges or discharge
(o) Stroight Circuit

R
G
--
, I
q Do~o
Acquisition I
Sy$1em J
(b) Bolonced Circuit
FIG. l l .22-- Typical A C/DC discharge-detection circuits.
energy are usually displayed on an oscilloscope. A meter that reads the

maximum discharge magnitude occurring in a specified number of cycles
is sometimes included. More sophisticated systems use (a) logic circuitry
to eliminate discharges occurring in components other than the test speci-
men [27], (b) signal-recovery techniques to detect small discharges buried
in noise [28], and (c) techniques to count all the discharges occurring per
cycle [29].
Under alternating-voltage conditions, discharges can occur regularly
during every cycle, and it is possible to measure the energy dissipated by
the discharges per cycle [30]. However, for direct voltages, the discharges
are much less frequent and occur randomly with time. Consequently, direct
voltage discharge-detection systems do not measure the discharge energy
but detect and measure the individual discharges or discharge current.
11.5.3 Detection Impedance

The detection impedance can be either a resistive-capacitative (RC) or
resistive-capacitative-inductive (RCL) type, Fig. 11.22a. The RC type gives
a undirectional-pulse output, whereas the output for the RCL type is a
damped oscillation. The voltage across a RC-type detection impedance
for a discharge of magnitude, q, in the test specimen is given by
Va = q Ca + Ca + exp - - Rd Cd + 6". + Ck (11.42)
The voltage across an RCL-type detection impedance is
Va = q Ca 4- Cd 4- ~ /
c~
9oxp [-,/2R,(c~ +Ca + c . / j cos ~t (11.43)
where
o: = 4Ra2p2 (11.44)
and
( CoCk )
p ---- Ca 4- \C[T--Ck (11.45)
The sensitivity can be increased by decreasing C, and Ca and making Ck

as large as possible.
The voltage across the detection impedance of a straight detection system
shown in Fig. 11.22a due to the applied voltage is VaRd/(R. + Rd), where
R~ is leakage resistance of the test specimen connected in series with the
detection impedance. If the detection impedance is connected in series
with C,, the voltage across Rd due to the applied voltage is V, Rd/(Rk + Rd),
where Rk is the leakage resistance of Ck. This voltage must be kept as
small as possible to prevent overloading of the amplifier connected across
the detection impedance. It is preferable to insert the detection impedance
in series with the capacitance having the higher leakage resistance.
The time constant of the detection circuit must be sufficiently small to
provide adequate resolution of the individual discharge pulses. A time
constant of 10 #s has been found satisfactory [31]. Any ripple superimposed
on the direct voltage will be distributed capacitively between Cd and the

capacitance in series with Cd, that is, Ca or Ck. To make this voltage small,
Cd should be much larger than either Ca or Ck, but Ca cannot be made
too large, otherwise the sensitivity of the detection system will be too low,
as can be seen from Eqs 11.42 and 11.43.
In summary, the values of the components of the detection impedance
for a straight-detection system must be chosen such that: (a) the voltage
across the detection impedance due to a discharge in the test specimen is
as large as possible, (b) the voltage across the detection impedance due to
the applied voltage is as small as possible, (c) the voltage across the detec-
tion impedance due to the alternating-voltage ripple is small, and (d) the
time constant allows adequate resolution of individual discharges.
As some of these constraints are conflicting, a compromise in the actual
values of the components used must be reached. A list of the values of the
components used for the detection impedance is tabulated in Table 3.
The detection impedance for a bridge-type circuit can also be of the
RC or RCL types. However, a differential amplifier connected across the
low-voltage arms of the bridge has also been used [14,34,35].
11.5. 4 Discharge Measurement

The output pulses from the detection impedance are amplified and the
amplified signals processed in different ways. A wide-band amplifier is
used with a RC-detection impedance and a narrow-band amplifier is coupled
to a RCL-detection impedance. The center frequency of the amplifier is
matched to the resonant frequency of the detection impedance. The am-
plified signals are suitably shaped so that they can be counted [14,23,32,
34,36-38], recorded on magnetic tape [33], or displayed on an oscilloscope
and photographed [14,35].
Salvage [32] used a pulse-shaping amplifier so that the discharge pulses
could be counted by a 70-channel pulse-height analyzer. The maximum
gain of the amplifier was S0 000 and the width of the rectangular-output
pulses was 1.2 #s. The sensitivity of the system was 4 pC. To avoid the use
of an expensive multichannel pulse-height analyzer, Melville and Salvage
[33] shaped the discharge pulses so that they could be recorded on tape.
TABLE l l.3--Detection impedances used by various authors.
Ca, Ck, Ca, Rd,

pF pF pF M~ Reference
20 570 1,000 1.2 [33]

= 200 80,000 100 .25 [31]
20 570 10,000 1.2 [32]
The amplifier had a maximum gain of 1000 and the width of the output
pulse was 100 #s, enabling 10 000 pulses/second to be counted. Limited
equalization of the tape recorder was used as normal equalization intro-
duced oscillations and, consequently, spurious counts. The results of tests
of up to 40 min could be recorded on a tape, and the sensitivity was 1 pC.
The tape was later played back several times to enable pulses above specified
magnitudes to be counted by a single-channel counter. To eliminate stray
pulses, filters were incorporated in the high-voltage and tape-recorder
circuits, and the test specimen and low-voltage leads were shielded. Muller
[34] prefers a balanced-discharge detection system to eliminate the stray
pulses. A differential amplifier, connected across the low-voltage terminals
of the bridge, amplifies the discharge pulses that are subsequently counted.
Franke and Czekaj [37] utilize a wide-band operational amplifier and a
voltage comparator that allows discharges above a specified magnitude to
be recorded. Several detector circuits can be combined to produce a pulse-
height analyzer having a small number of channels. This system, which
makes use of logic circuitry, is much less expensive than a commercial
pulse-height analyzer. Zwass [23] and Burnham et al [38] have developed
a five-channel counter that is connected to the output of a conventional
alternating-voltage discharge detector. Improved regulation and filtering
was necessary to suppress external interference in the discharge-measuring
system under direct voltages. The sensitivity of each of the five channels
could be adjusted to count partial discharges from a fraction of a pico-
coulomb to 1000 pC. The pulse resolution of the counter was 50 #s, and
each channel could record 19 999 discharges.
Shihab [14] and Kind and Shihab [35] have used a balanced system as
shown in Fig. 11.22b. The output of the differential amplifier, connected
across the low-voltage arms of the bridge, is coupled to a counter and an
oscilloscope. A camera records the pulses on the oscilloscope. Guarded
electrodes were used, and the whole circuit is placed inside a Faraday Cage
to eliminate interference. For additional details on corona pulse counting
and pulse-height analysis techniques, the reader is referred to Chapter 9.
11.5.5 Calibration
Discharge-detection circuits are usually calibrated so that the output
can be measured directly in picocoulombs. To calibrate the detector, a
known pulse of charge from a calibrator is injected into the test circuit
and the response of the detector measured. By comparing the detector
responses due to a calibration pulse and a discharge within the test object,
and considering the detection-circuit parameters, the magnitude of the
discharge within the test object can be evaluated. The calibration charge
can be injected across the test object, with no high voltage applied, or
across the detection impedance so that calibration pulses can be displayed
with high voltage applied to the test object. Additional details on the
various calibration procedures and possibilities can be found in Chapter 3.
11.5.5.1 Across the Test Object--The circuit is shown in Fig. 11.23a.
The calibrator that supplies voltage pulses, Vq, through a capacitor, Cq,
is connected across the test object, C~. The magnitude of the calibration
charge can be varied by changing Vq or Cq. The calibration capacitance,
Cq, is usually much smaller than Ca so that the change in potential at the
terminals of Ca due to the calibration pulse is CqVq/C~, and the voltage
across the detection impedance is given by
vdcot = [VqCqCU(CaCk + CkCd + CdCo)]
coc,
The voltage across the detection impedance due to a discharge within the
test object is given by Eq 11.42.
If the detector voltages are equal,
Vd~l = Vd (11.47)
and
q = VqCq = Q (11.48)
Errors can be introduced if the following are true.

(a) The calibrator has significant capacitance to ground, (Co, in Fig.
11.23a). This effectively changes the value of the detection impedance
capacitance, Cd, so that the voltage across the detection impedance for a
specified Q will be smaller than predicted. This error can be reduced by
making the size of the calibrator as small as possible.
(b) If the test object is physically large, long leads will have to be used
to connect the calibrator to the test object. The leads will introduce extra
inductance and increase the capacitance of the test object. The inductance
could produce oscillations in the calibration pulse.
(c) If Cq is comparable to the test object capacitance. In this case, the
discharge magnitude is given by
q = Q
(c~Cq
Ca + (11.49)
11.5.5.2 Across Detection Impedance--The calibrator is connected

across the detection impedance as shown in Fig. 11.23b. The voltage across
the detection impedance due to the calibration charge, O, is given by
ro-
Lcl
II
Isl
Iul
. _J_
bK "-1~ ,v $i T
"~-""]~ ~To Amplifier
i~l l
ILl /
tyf /
"TJ__3
(o) Colibrotor connected ocross Test Object
/c o
Icl
SI r ~L- T ~ TO Amplifier
Ipl |
I~1 . LIv qq),
hi T .-~-~
T. ?~d
/ -I-1
(b) Calibrator connected across Detection Impedance
FIG. l l.23--Calibration of straight discharge-detection circuit.
O(Co + C,) C.Ck ) ] (11.50)

Vd~.t : CoCk + CkCd + CdC~] e x p [ - t/Ra(Cd+ c. + c k
The voltage across the detection impedance due to a discharge in the test
object is given by Eq 11.42.
If the voltage pulses are equal in magnitude
q : O(1 + C./C,) (11.51)
If Ck >> Ca, then q = Q. Usually Ck cannot be determined accurately,

as it includes the stray capacitance of the high voltage leads to ground.
11.5.5.3 Sources of Calibration Errors--If the test object and the test
circuit are physically large, considerable errors in calibration can be in-
troduced by the effects of stray capacitance and inductance. This subject
requires further study, especially as the size of power equipment will tend
to increase as higher voltage ratings are utilized.
Long cable lengths and insulator strings must be considered as having
capacitance and inductance per unit length (that is, distributed parameters)
for partial-discharge tests. This introduces problems of discharge calibra-
tion and measurement. A discharge occurring in a long cable will cause a
pulse to travel in both directions away from the discharge site. The pulses
are attenuated as they travel to the terminals of the test object and will
also arrive at different times depending on the location of the discharge
site. Unless the test object is terminated by its characteristic impedance,
reflections will occur that can produce amplitude errors [39]. The charac-
teristic impedance is connected to the test object through a capacitor to
block the high voltage. The velocity of pulse propagation through the test
object is 300/x/~-m/#s, where e is the relative permittivity of the dielectric.
If the length of the test object is such that the time for pulse propagation
is much less than the period of the highest frequency of the discharge
detector, the test object behaves as a capacitance.
11.6 Results of Previous Investigations

This section will give details of the results of previous investigations,
and is divided into two parts, materials and components for use in power
systems or the space environment.
I1.6.1 Materials
I1.6.1.1 Polyrners--One of the most common arrangements to evaluate
the partial-discharge performance of polymeric materials is the three-layer
specimen that is tested between parallel-plane electrodes. The material
is used in sheet form, the middle sheet having a hole of known diameter
punched at its center. By placing the sheet containing the hole adjacent to
an electrode, specimens with cathode or anode adjacent voids can be
evaluated. The three-layer sample enables the cavity size to be controlled
accurately.
Of the polymeric materials, polyethylene has received the most attention.
Polyethylene is relatively cheap, can be processed readily, and has an
application as an insulant in high-voltage apparatus. Rogers and Skipper
[11] tested specimens comprising three polyethylene sheets, 0.005 cm thick,
the middle sheet having a hole 0.16 cm diameter at its center. Voltage was
quickly raised to the test value, and the test duration was about one week.
Discharges were observed as the voltage was raised due to the initial ca-
pacitive-voltage distribution. The discharge-repetition rate was measured
using a photomultiplier at stresses of 300 and 600 kV/cm and compared
to the theoretical values. The measured repetition rates were greater than
predicted by theory, and this difference was attributed to more than one
discharge site within the cavity. The discharge-repetition rate was greater
for 600 kV/cm than 300 kV/cm and decreased with time in a similar
manner as the conductivity. The steady-state values were < 10 discharges
per hour and <0.4 discharges per hour for 600 and 300 kV/cm, respec-
tively. The authors preferred to use alternating voltage at similar stresses
to those used for direct voltages to accelerate the aging. From the results
of the short-term alternating- and direct-voltage tests, a cable operating

at 150 kV/cm was predicted to have a useful life of 40 years.
Salvage and co-workers [18,32,33,40-43] have made extensive studies
of the discharge-repetition rates in cavities enclosed within high- and low-
density polyethylenes (HDPE and LDPE). The results qualitatively follow
the theoretical predictions. For a cavity enclosed in low-density polyethyl-
ene at 21~ and subjected to stresses below 600 kV/cm, the number of
discharges per second greater then 1 pC decreased with time to a steady
value after a time between 10 and 200 h. The steady-state value is of the
same order as observed by Rogers and Skipper [11] for a cavity of similar
dimensions. The variation in the steady-state discharge-repetition rate with
applied stress is shown in Fig. 11.24. Above 600 kV/cm, the number
L 9OOkV/cm
800
700
500
w
0.
r
io-'
t~
m
.o 1.9mm
E
Z -2
IO
"T_O.42mm ~O.,5mm 500
I I
iO -3. , ' , , i,a,' , , , ,, Illi , t , ,, till
0.1 1.0 I0 I00
Time (hours)
FIG. ll.24--Variation of discharge-repetition rate with time for polyethylene (after Beg
and Salvage [40]).
of discharges per second above 1 pC remained relatively constant for times

up to 200 h. However, the number above 9 pC tended to increase with time
for stresses greater than 900 kV/cm. The steady-state repetition rate also
depended on the cavity size, with discharge extinction occurring in cavities
less than 0.25 cm diameter at stresses less than 400 kV/cm.
The higher volume conductivity at elevated temperatures produced a
corresponding increase in the steady-state discharge-repetition rate. Three
stages were noted with time as shown in Fig. 11.25. At 70~ the discharge-
repetition rate for a cylindrical cavity, 1.9 mm diameter and 0.13 mm
deep, increased slightly for stresses from 500 to 800 kV/cm during 1 to 2
h. This is the first stage. During the second stage, the discharge-repetition
rate decreased steadily to reach the steady-state value, the third stage,
within 20 h. At 45~ the first stage lasted about 10 h and the discharge-
repetition rate increased slightly during this time for stresses above 800
kV/cm and decreased slightly for stresses below 700 kV/cm. The third
stage, the steady-state condition, was reached after about 100 h compared
with 10 h at 70~ These different stages were explained by an increase in
the surface conductivity of the cavity surfaces during the first stage and the
collapse of the adjacent surfaces of the cavity due to attractive electrostatic
forces and the softening of polyethylene at high temperatures during the
103 m
"o
8
2
.o10
c
o
v
m
B00 kV/cm
Q.
o
g
"10
.o -~O.Smm 500
E
z
I , I
O, 1.0 I0 Ioo
Time {hours)
FIG. 11.25--Variation of discharge-repetition rate with time for polyethylene at 70~ (after
Beg and Salvage [41]).
second stage. The tests at 45~ and 70~ at stresses of 800 to 900 kV/cm
resulted in breakdown in times less than 150 h. It is possible that the
collapse of the cavity would cause the discharge-inception voltage to de-
crease (the product of pressure and the gap spacing is reduced), requiring
a short time for the cavity to charge up, resulting in a higher discharge-
repetition rate. This counteracts the decrease in the discharge-repetition
rate produced by the decrease in the conductivity immediately after the
voltage is applied. Consequently, the first stage, during which there is a
slow change in the discharge-repetition rate with time, may be due to the
collapse of the cavity, and the second stage, the more rapid decrease in
the repetition rate, is caused by the change in conductivity in addition to
an increase in the surface conductivity of the cavity walls.
High-density polyethylene gave the same general results as low-density
polyethylene, except that the discharge-repetition rate is about an order
of magnitude lower and the times to breakdown were longer. No break-
downs were recorded at 70~ after 200 h at stresses up to 1000 kV/cm,
whereas a low-density polyethylene specimen failed after 6 h at 900 kV/cm.
At 90~ a breakdown was recorded in high-density polyethylene after
150 h at 1000 kV/cm.
Douglas et al [13] have studied the effects of discharges on low-density
polyethylene having totally enclosed and electrode-adjacent cavities. The
effects of polarity reversals were also investigated. The cavity diameter
was 2 mm, the depth 0.25 mm, and the total thickness of the specimen
was 0.38 mm. The specimens consisted of sheets of polyethylene or were
molded. The tests using single polarity revealed that the life of cathode-
adjacent cavities was about 1 h at 400 kV/cm and about 1000 h for anode-
adjacent cavities at the same stress. The lives of cavities enclosed in the
polyethylene and electrode-adjacent cavities subjected to polarity reversals
were between these values of 1 and 1000 h. Replacing the air of the cavity
by nitrogen increased the life significantly.
Counts were also made of the discharges above 50 and 500 pC. In air-
filled, cathode-adjacent cavities, the discharge-repetition rate increased
steadily with time up to breakdown. However, this behavior was not ob-
served in molded specimens for which the repetition rate above 50 pC de-
creased and above 500 pC increased slightly with time. This latter behavior
was also observed in totally-enclosed and anode-adjacent cavities in speci-
mens made up of sheets. The difference in behavior between molded speci-
mens and those made up of sheets was attributed to conducting deposits
on the cavity surface adjacent to the cathode. The conducting deposits
spread between the sheets, effectively increasing the area of the cavity
and reducing the resistance of the dielectric in series with the cavity. The
decrease in resistance increases the discharge-repetition rate and results in
shorter times to breakdown. The conducting deposits are produced by the
action of partial discharges in air on polyethylene and do not occur if the

gas in the cavity is nitrogen.
Shihab [14,35] and Kind [15] have also made extensive investigations
of partial discharges in polyethylene under direct voltages. Kind and Shihab
[35] used a specimen 3 mm thick having a totally enclosed cavity 5 mm
diameter and 2 mm deep. The alternating-voltage discharge-inception volt-
age was 8.2 kV, whereas for direct voltages, the discharge-repetition rate
was one discharge per minute at 100 kV. The discharge magnitudes were
slightly smaller for the direct voltage. During the linear increase in the
direct voltage to the test value, the partial discharges were numerous, as
predicted by theory. At the test voltage, corresponding to a stress of 270
kV/cm, the number of discharges decreased with time to a steady-state
value of 0.2 discharges per minute. Shihab [14] used cavities 3 mm diam-
eter and 0.3 mm deep enclosed within low-density polyethylene, 1 mm
thick. The variation in the discharge-repetition rate with time for totally-
enclosed, cathode- and anode-adjacent cavities at 40~ are shown in Fig.
11.26. The discharge-repetition rate decreased from 2000 discharges per
minute to less than 100 discharges per minute during the first 2 h and
thereafter more slowly. The discharge frequency was greatest for the
totally-enclosed cavity followed by the cathode-adjacent and anode-adja-
cent cavities. For molded cavities, Douglas et al [13] observed the highest
repetition rate for cathode-adjacent cavities followed by totally-enclosed
-.~ ~ - 3ram
IOOO
-g
iiJ
Q.
~_ I00
0
~ covty'i
E
Z ,onocle - .
odjocent cowry
I0 I I I I I I
I 2 3 4 5 6
Time (hours)
FIG. ll,26--Variation of discharge-repetition rate with time for enclosed and electrode-
adjacent cavities in polyethylene (after Shihab [14]).
and anode-adjacent cavities. Fig. 11.27 shows the similar variation with
time of the discharge-repetition rate and volume conductivity of a low-
density polyethylene (ldpe) and voltage-stabilized polyethylene (vspe).
The variation of the breakdown voltage with temperature for a voltage
increasing at 500 V/s is shown in Fig. 11.28, for totally-enclosed, cathode-
adjacent, and anode-adjacent cavities. The breakdown voltages for totally-
enclosed and anode-adjacent cavities are approximately equal and less than
for the cathode-adjacent cavities. For steady direct voltages, Douglas et al
[13] observed shorter times to breakdown for the cathode-adjacent cavities.
The stresses in the series insulation at breakdown that can be calculated
from Fig. 11.28 are similar to the breakdown stresses measured in the
long-term tests at high temperature made by Salvage and Beg [41]. Table
4 compares the results. There is some agreement if the breakdown stress
in the series insulation is considered rather than the stress in the remainder
of the dielectric. The values obtained with the ramp voltages are greater
than those obtained with a long-term constant voltage. The results indi-
cate that there is a small long-term deterioration by partial discharges
under direct voltages, but it should be pointed up that Table 4 compares
Jmm
j_ -'1 I'-
Imm ~--'-E'O 2ram
3000 1 T -
"" f (vspe) iO-ll

I000
w "~ f (Idpe) ~="

c
.g
o-v ( v s p e ) ~ ~--- ,... ~ ~
-12 ,~
~ too - . l0 ov
E
z _ (Idpe)
o , I I i , I, i , i , 10
-13
0 40 80 120 160 200 240
Time {minutes)
FIG. ll.27--Variation of discharge-repetition rate and volume conductivity with time for
two types of polyethylene (after Shihab [ 1 4 ] ) .
Romp Voltoge 0.5 kV/s

3ooF _L. -'1 I"-3ram
/ ~\! T --t-O.2mm
ca ~ 1 7 6 1 7 6 1 7 6 1 7~ 6
'F
~" ~5o
, I L
50 [ cavity
o I I I I I I, I
0 I0 20 30 40 50 60 70
Temperature (~
FIG. l l.28--Variation of breakdown voltage with temperature for enclosed and electrode
adjacent cavities in polyethylene (after Shihab [14]).
the results of different investigations using different grades of polyethylene

that could in turn influence the breakdown voltage.
Long-term breakdown tests at room temperature revealed that no break-
down occurred later than 1 h after energization according to Shihab [14],
as shown in Fig. 11.29. The times to breakdown decrease rapidly with
stress for stresses above 750 kV/cm, but no breakdowns were observed
below this value. The results indicate that the long-term deterioration by
partial discharges under direct-voltage conditions is small, which can be
TABLE 11A--Breakdown stresses for various test conditions.
Stress in
Dielectric
Stress in in Series
Dielectric with Cavity
Temperature, at Breakdown, at Breakdown, Type of Voltage
~ kV/cm kV/cm Applied Reference
20 2100 3000 Ramp 0.5 kV/s [14]

45 1200 1700 Ramp 0.5 kV/s [14]
70 930 1300 Ramp 0.S kV/s [14]
20 1000 1800 Constant 100 h [41]
45 800-900 1400-1600 Constant 25-125 h [41]
70 800 1400 Constant 6 h [41]
25 400 1200 Constant 1 h [13]
explained by the low steady-state discharge-repetition rate. However the

frequency of the discharges is increased under certain conditions [13,40,42]
and breakdowns have been recorded in times up to 1000 h.
The results of further investigations would verify whether a relationship
exists between long-term constant voltage tests and ramp-voltage tests for
polymers containing cavities. If such a relationship can be established,
a ramp-voltage test represents a convenient method of evaluating polymeric
insulation for use in direct-voltage equipment. If the probability of break-
down is greatest during the initial hours under test, a step-voltage test,
so that the voltage is maintained at each level for 1 or 2 h before being
increased to the next level, might be preferred. The variation of the dis-
charge-repetition rate with time during this type of test would provide use-
ful information in predicting the performance under direct voltages. There
is a marked effect of temperature on both the long-term and short-term
breakdown stresses on insulation containing cavities subjected to direct
voltage, so that any proposed test must include the evaluation of the in-
sulation at various temperatures.
Reversing the polarity produces an increase in the discharge-repetition
rate as the voltage is changed. The increase is usually temporary and the
repetition rate decreases to a steady-state value, as can be seen in Fig.
11.30, which shows the variation in the discharge-repetition rate with time
for an electrode-adjacent cavity when the polarity is reversed every 2 h.
The dotted line shows the large frequency of discharges while the voltage
is changed. The results indicate that polarity reversals have little long-
term effect on the insulation life.
Shihab [14] also verified experimentally that the presence of a superim-
posed alternating voltage had little effect on the direct-voltage discharge-
repetition rate, provided the amplitude of the alternating-voltage was below
that necessary to initiate alternating-voltage partial discharges. This has
been predicted from theory. Salvage et al [43] have examined the surfaces
150
p IO0
~ 5o I-,m _LO.3mm
CD
o I I , ,JlJ~l
O.i I.O I0 I00
Time (hours)
FIG. ll.29--Variation of breakdown voltage with time for cavity in polyethylene (after
Shihab [14]).
CHAPTER 1 1 - - D I R E C T - V O L T A G E C O N D I T I O N S 457
+ + +
6000
+
I
5000
3
C
E
. 4000
u 3000
II
II
2ooo II
li
\
E
Z II
II
I000
0
0 6 8 10 12 14 16
Time (hours)
F I G . ll.30--Variation of discharge-repetition rate with time in polyethylene, polarity
reversed every 2 h (after Shihab [14]).
of a cavity embedded in epoxy resin using a scanning-electron microscope.

A direct stress of 300 kV/cm was applied at 60~ and discharges of 100
pC were recorded. No visible signs of deterioration were observed.
The results reported in this section illustrate that different phenomena
can occur in research laboratory test models and the insulation used in
actual apparatus. For example, Salvage and Beg [41] noted a collapse in
a cavity in polyethylene sheets when tested at high temperatures. This
collapse might not have occurred if the cavity was embedded in much
thicker insulation. The use of sheet specimens can cause areas greater than
the cavity surfaces to be discharged. Also, the use of very thin test speci-
mens results in a much higher stress to be developed in the insulation in
series with the cavity when a discharge occurs. For the test specimen of
Douglas et al [13], the total applied voltage, developed across the series
insulation when a discharge occurred, resulted in a stress of 1200 kV/cm
in this part of the insulation compared to 400 kV/cm in the insulation
remote from cavity. For the same size of cavity embedded in a much thicker
insulation, for example in the polyethylene insulated cable proposed by
Douglas and Parr [36], the stress in the series dielectric would be increased
to 416 kV/cm. Little is known of the effect of this increase in stress in the
series insulation on the times to breakdown.
Table 5 summarizes the cavity dimensions, temperature range, stresses,

and materials used in the investigations reported in this section.
11.6.1.2 Oil~Paper Composite--In addition to the studies of polyethyl-
ene, Salvage and co-workers [19,31,44,45] have investigated direct-voltage
partial-discharge characteristics of oil-impregnated paper. The paper in-
vestigated was similar to that used in high-voltage cables, having a thick-
ness of 0.09 mm, a density of 0.76 g/era 3, and an air impermeability of
1.2 106 Emanueli units. The test specimen consisted of three sheets, the
middle sheet having a hole of 2.5 mm diameter punched in its center. The
impregnant was scraped from each sheet before assembly.
The discharge-repetition rate decreased with time of voltage application
similar to the behavior of polyethylene specimens. The decrease in the
discharge-repetition rate is probably due to the change in volume con-
ductivity with time, although Badran et al [19] speculate that semiconduct-
ing deposits on the cavity walls are responsible.
The effect of electric stress on the discharge-repetition rate is shown in
Fig. 11.31. At any particular stress, the discharge-repetition rate decreases
with time, the effect becoming less pronounced at the higher stresses. The
magnitude of the largest discharge measured also varied with stress, in-
creasing from 15 pC at 150 kV/cm to 40 pC at 600 kV/cm. Breakdown
through the cavity occurred at 800 kV/cm after 6 h. Elevated temperatures
also caused the repetition rate to increase in accordance with the increase
in the volume conductivity at higher temperatures. At 70~ and stresses of
400 kV/cm and above, the discharge-repetition rate increased with time
to a maximum and then decreased. This discharge was attributed to the
migration of impregnant into the cavity due to electrostatic forces. Cavities
of larger diameter yielded higher discharge-repetition rates indicating more
than one discharge site per cavity. The discharge-repetition rate and the
volume conductivity is lower and the times to breakdown longer for speci-
mens made with paper washed in deionized water rather than normal
filtered water.
On lowering the temperature from 293~ to 90~ the discharge-repeti-
tion rate and discharge magnitudes for a cavity within oil-impregnated
paper decrease as shown in Fig. 11.32. The decrease in the repetition rate
is expected as the volume conductivity is also reduced at lower temperatures.
Takahashi et al [46] have studied the breakdown and partial-discharge
characteristics of oil-immersed pressboard for direct, combined alternating
and direct voltages, and voltages of reversed polarity, using visual inspec-
tion and a conventional a-c discharge detector. Parallel-plane electrodes
with a sheet of pressboard 3.2 mm thick, covering one electrode were
used. The oil-gap spacing was either 3 or 5 mm. For the combined alter-
nating- and direct-voltage tests, the alternating voltage was applied 30 rain
after the direct voltage. The alternating voltage was increased in incre-
ments of 10 kV (root mean square) until steady discharges were observed.
TABLE l l.5--Experimental conditions and specimen sizes in parallel-plane tests.
Cavity Size
Specimen 0
Stress range, Temperature Type of Diameter, Depth, Thickness, I
Reference kV/cm Range, ~ Material mm mm mm "D
Ill
[11] 300-600 Room LDPE a 0.16 0.05
Temperature
[18, 32, 32, 40-43] 300-1000 20-70 LDPE 1.3-1.9 0.13 0.3-0.42 I
20-90 HDPE b
0.38 :I]
[13] 300-600 Room LDPE 2.0 0.25
m
Temperature
[14] 300-1500 20-70 LDPE 3.0 0.2-0.3 0.7-1.0
[15] 270 Room LDPE S 2 3 O
Temperature I-"
-t
1431 300 60 EPOXY 2.0 0.13 1.5
m
aLDPE = low-density polyethylene. 0
b HDPE = high-density polyethylene. 0
z
-I
z
Oa
tad
1.0 500 kV/cm.
u
x
iiJ
0,1
'~ / 2.5 m m
i I I I I I
0"010.1 1.0 I0 I00
Time { hours)
F I G . ll.31--Variation o f discharge-repetition rate with time for oil-impregnated-paper at

22~ (after Badran et al [9]).
The a-c discharge-inception voltage remained constant at 75 kV (peak) and

100 kV (peak) for the 3- and 5-mm oil gaps, respectively, for direct-voltages
from 40 to 240 kV. The discharge magnitudes were 104 and 105 pC for
the two oil gaps. The stress distribution for direct and alternating voltages
are governed by the conductivities and permittivities of the oil and the
pressboard. The conductivity of the oil is ten times that of the pressboard
so that only 10 percent of the applied direct voltage appears across the
oil gap. As the relative permittivities of the oil and the pressboard are
similar., approximately half of the applied a-c voltage appears across the
oil gap. As a result, the direct voltage has little effect on the alternating-
voltage partial-discharge characteristics.
For the polarity-reversal tests, a direct voltage is applied for 30 min
before the voltage is suddenly decreased to zero for 3 s. If no partial dis-
charges are observed, the original voltage level is reapplied for 3 min. The
voltage is then switched to 10 kV of the opposite polarity for 3 s, and,
if no partial discharges occur, the original voltage is again reapplied for
3 min before switching to 20 kV of the opposite polarity. This cycle is
repeated, increasing the reversed-polarity voltage in increments of 10 kV
until partial discharges occur. The partial discharges were observed visually
immediately after the polarity reversal but not thereafter. The change in
voltage across the oil gap during the polarity reversal produces a sufficient
voltage due to a capacitive voltage distribution to initiate a discharge. After
the polarity reversal, the voltage distribution becomes resistive resulting
in no further discharges.
2mm
t 0 -I _
~ m.
~ '0-2
-.~
295K
10-3 \ ~
~ 1200kV/cm
~ ~"~- 90K
\
400kV/cm.
~90K
n- , I i I i I L I , I i I
1~40 2 4 6 8 I0 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Dischorge mognifude (pC}
F I G . 11.32--VaHation of discharge-repetition rate and discharge magnitude in oil-impreg-

nated-paper with temperature and applied field as a parameter (after Salvage et al [44]).
11.6.2 Components
11.6.2.1 Bushings--Salvage and co-workers [19,31] have investigated
the direct-voltage partial-discharge behavior of paper-insulated bushings.
The discharge-repetition rate decreased with time at a particular voltage
with a tendency to complete extinction at lower voltages. At higher voltages,
the discharges were intermittent, with complete extinction occurring for
some hours at a time. The discharge-repetition rate and discharge magni-
tude also increased with the test voltage. These results again illustrate
the difficulty in trying to define a direct-voltage discharge-inception voltage.
The initial discharges could be attributed to the capacitive voltage distri-
bution or the greater volume conductivity or both when the voltage is first
applied. The voltage distribution becomes resistive and the volume con-
ductivity decreases with time resulting in a significant reduction in the

discharge-repetition rate.
Passing current through the conductor of the bushing increases the
temperature and volume conductivity of the insulation near the conductor.
The stress in the insulation nearest the conductor will be reduced, tending
to decrease the discharge-repetition rate, whereas the increased volume
conductivity will tend to raise the discharge-repetition rate. In the outer
insulation, the increased stress might introduce new discharge sites or in-
crease the discharge-repetition rate in cavities already discharging. Similar
phenomena can occur in d-c cables.
I1.6.2.2 Cables--On passing a current through a 33 kV paper-insulated
cable, Salvage et al [19] noted a decrease in the discharge-repetition rate.
This was explained by an expansion of the impregnant reducing the number
of cavities in the cable. When the cable conductor was cooled to room
temperature, the discharge-repctition rate increased to its original value.
Douglas and Parr [36], in their evaluation of a 100 kV polyethylene-
insulated cable, did not detect any discharges above 1 pC in an 8-m test
length subjected to heat cycles between 15 and 70~ at voltages up to
--160 kV. At --200 kV, there were five discharges per minute at 70~
indicating there was more than one discharge site. No detectable damage
was observed after tests at twice the rated voltage and temperatures up to
70~
11.6.2.3 Space Environment--As discussed previously, apparatus used
in the space or airborne environment are subject to partial discharges be-
cause of the exposure to reduced gas pressure, which can decrease the
discharge-inception voltage in accordance with Paschen's Law.
Burnham and Buritz [47] have investigated the mechanisms of failure
in high-voltage mica-paper capacitors. Direct voltages of between nine to
ten times the peak-alternating discharge-inception voltage were applied
to produce one discharge every few minutes.
Toroidal transformers used in the space environment operate with a
direct voltage superimposed on the alternating voltage. Burnham et al
[38] and Zwass [23] have subjected transformers to simultaneous alternating-
and direct-voltage stresses. Using a three-channel counter to count dis-
charges, a decrease in the number of discharges was observed as the direct
voltage was raised while the applied alternating voltage was above the
discharge-inception level. However, at higher direct voltages, the number
of larger discharges starts to increase. The a-c discharge-inception voltage
is not affected by direct voltage. Later, Burnham et al [48] studied invertor
transformers with known defects. The d-c discharge-inception voltage was
defined as the voltage at which the product of the total number of counts
in each of the three channels and the minimum detectable channel level
exceeded 9000 pC in 0.5 min. The ratio of the direct to the peak alternating
discharge-inception voltage was 2.7. The direct voltage superimposed on
the alternating voltage had little influence on the alternating-voltage dis-

charge behavior until the direct-voltage discharge-inception value was
reached. If this occurred, low magnitudes of alternating voltage produced
a significant increase in the frequency of discharges.
Burnham et al [5] also used the three-channel counter to examine the
behavior of cables for use at high altitudes. The a-c discharge-inception
voltage was about 30 percent that for direct voltage. The number of dis-
charges increased with altitude up to the height corresponding to the
minimum on the Paschen Curve (25 to 35 km) when a further increase in
height reduced the number of discharges. The discharge-inception voltage
decreased up to this critical height and then increased again.
11.7 Conclusions
The theoretical considerations show that the partial-discharge behavior
in insulation under direct-voltage conditions is determined by the volume
conductivity of the insulation in addition to the conductivity of the cavity
surfaces, whereas under alternating-voltage conditions (see Chapter 2), the
discharge behavior is governed primarily by the permittivities of the insula-
tion. As the volume and surface conductivities are temperature, stress,
and time dependent, the latter have a pronounced effect on the direct-
voltage partial-discharge characteristics. Experimental results qualitatively
support the theory.
The following general conclusions can be drawn:
(a) The discharge-inception voltage under direct-voltage conditions is
difficult to specify as, at the theoretical inception value, the discharge-
repetition rate is zero. In practice, the inception voltage is taken as either
(1) a certain number of discharges exceeding a particular magnitude per
unit time, for example, one discharge per minute as in the ASTM Standard
Method for Detection and Measurement of Discharge (Corona) Pulses in
Evaluation of Insulation Systems (D 1868-73); (2) when the sum of the
products of the number of discharges counted in each channel per unit
time and the minimum discharge magnitude that can be counted in that
channel exceeds a particular value, that is, the total charge transferred
per unit time exceeds a certain limit; or (3) the direct current flowing
through the insulation exceeds a specified limit. These limits have been
chosen more or less arbitrarily, depending on the type of equipment, etc.,
and much work needs to be done in this area. As more operating experience
is acquired, a more meaningful discharge-inception voltage may be defined
for materials operating in a particular environment.
When a direct voltage is applied to a dielectric, the voltage distribution
is initially capacitive, slowly changing to resistive with time. In an insula-
tion system where the permittivities are similar but there is a large dif-
ference in the conductivities, for example, in an oil/paper series combina-
tion, the initial capacitive distribution would yield sufficient voltage across
the oil to produce discharges, but the long-term resistive distribution
would produce a small voltage across the oil resulting in few, if any, dis-
charges. For such an insulation system, the time at which the discharges
were measured would be important, as the discharge-repetition rate could
be high initially decreasing to a low value with time.
(b) It is not possible to define a discharge-extinction voltage, as dis-
charges can occur some time after the applied voltage across the insulation
has been decreased to zero.
(c) The direct-voltage discharge-repetition rate is usually several orders
of magnitude less than that for alternating voltages. However, under cer-
tain conditions, for example, at very high stresses and elevated tempera-
tures, the discharge-repetition rate can approach the alternating-voltage
value.
(d) At low stresses, the discharge-repetition rate decreases with time
in a similar manner as the variation of the volume conductivity with time.
(e) The discharge-repetition rate increases at elevated temperature.
This can be explained qualitatively by an increase in volume conductivity
with temperature.
(J) At low stresses, the complete extinction of the discharges can occur.
(g) Reversing the polarity causes a temporary increase in the discharge-
repetition rate.
(h) The discharge-repetition rate is usually greater than that predicted
from theory. This is due to the presence of more than one discharge site
per cavity, and in general, the larger the cavity diameter, the greater the
number of discharges.
(i) Provided the direct voltage is below the discharge-inception value,
superimposing a direct voltage on an alternating voltage does not change
the a-c discharge-inception voltage. However, the number of a-c discharges
is sometimes reduced by the presence of a direct voltage. If the direct
voltage is above the discharge-inception value, a small alternating voltage
will significantly increase the discharge frequency.
(j) In apparatus such as cables, bushings, etc., which usually operate
with a temperature gradient in the insulation, stress inversion can occur,
for example, the maximum electric stress moves to the part of the insula-
tion with the lowest conductivity (low temperature regions). Consequently,
the discharge-repetition rate in cavities already discharging is changed in
addition to the possibility of discharges occurring in other cavities.
(k) Tests on specimens of small thickness can introduce conditions,
that might not occur with thicker specimens. The following conditions can
occur. (1) If the ratio of the cavity depth/total thickness of insulation
is high, a discharge in the cavity will introduce a very high stress in the
insulation in series with the cavity. The larger the ratio, the higher the
stress in the series insulation when a discharge occurs. (2) The collapse
of adjacent cavity surfaces due to electrostatic forces is likely to occur in

some materials if thin specimens are used, especially at higher tempera-
tures. This can introduce variations in the discharge-repetition rate, stress
distribution, and discharge magnitude. (3) There is a possibility of dis-
charges extending beyond the cavity area in specimens made up of sheets.
This increases the discharge-repetition rate.
(/) The discharge-repetition rate and the times to breakdown differ
according to whether the cavity is totally enclosed within the insulation,
or adjacent to either the anode or cathode. Cathode-adjacent cavities
have shorter times to breakdown for steady direct voltages than either
anode-adjacent or totally-enclosed cavities. The lives of totally-enclosed
cavities are between those of the anode- and cathode-adjacent values.
(m) Direct-voltage power equipment, operating at stresses similar to
those used for alternating voltages, will experience very little deterioration
due to partial discharges.
(n) Further studies are necessary to determine: (1) the effects of mechani-
cal stresses on the deterioration of insulating materials subjected to d-c
partial discharges, (2) the d-c partial-discharge characteristics of insulating
materials operating at cryogenic temperatures, (3) the short- and long-term
effects of the space charge generated by d-c partial discharges in a dielec-
tric, (4) the effects of partial discharges on the deterioration of insulation
subjected to very high d-c stresses, and (5) the effect of temperature gradi-
ent on d-c partial-discharge behavior.
References
[1] Ellert, F. J. and Hingorani, N. G., Spectrum, Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers, Vol. 13, No. 8, Aug. 1976, pp. 37-42.
[2] Mason, J. H. in Progress in Dielectrics, Vol. 1, J. B. Birks and J. H. Schulman, Eds.,
Wiley, New York, 1959, pp. 3-58.
[3] Kreuger, F. H., Discharge Detection in High Voltage Equipment, American Elsevier,
New York, 1965.
[4] Kelen, A., Acta Polytechnica Scandinavica, Vol. El 16, 1967, pp. 1-138.
[5] Burnham, J., Buritz, R. S., and Zwass, S., 1972 Annual Report, Conference on Elec-
trical Insulation and Dielectric Phenomena, NAS-NRC, Washington, D.C., 1973,
pp. 284-290.
[6] Parker, R. D., Buritz, R. S. and Burnham, J., Transactions on Industrial Electronics
and Control Instrumentation, Vol. IECI-22, 1975, pp. 146-151.
[7] Salvage, 8., Proceedings, Institution of Electrical Engineers, Vol. 111, No. 6, June
1964, pp. 1162-1172.
[8] Hall, H. C. and Russek, R. M., Proceedings, Institution of Electrical Engineers,
Vol. 101, Pt. II, 1954, pp. 47-54.
[9] Sakr, M. M. and Salvage, B., Proceedings, Institution of Electrical Engineers, Vol. 111,
June 1964, pp. 1176-1179.
[10] Mitra, G. and Salvage, B., Proceedings, Institution of Electrical Engineers, Vol.
113, May 1966, pp. 931-935.
[11] Rogers, E. C. and Skipper, D. J., Proceedings, Institution of Electrical Engineers,
Vol. 107A, June 1960, pp. 241-254.
[12] Melville, D. R. G., Salvage, B., and Steinberg, N. R., Proceedings, Institution of
Electrical Engineers, Vol. 112, Sept. 1965, pp. 1815-1817.
[13] Douglas, J. L., Meats, R. J., Shroff, D. H., and Stannett, A. W., 1967 Annual Report,
Conference on Electrical Insulation and Dielectric Phenomena, NAS-NRC, Washington,
D.C., 1968, pp. 173-177.
[14] Shihab, S., "Partial Discharges in Voids in Polymeric Insulating Materials Using
HVDC," thesis submitted to University of Braunschweig, Germany, 1972.
[15] Kind, D., "Deterioration of Plastic Insulation by Partial Discharges," 6th Symposium
on ElectricalInsulating Materials, Institution of Electrical Engineers of Japan, 1973.
[16] Lawson, W. G., British Journal of Applied Physics, Vol. 16, 1965, pp. 1805-1812.
[17] Ademec, V., Proceedings, Institution of Electrical Engineers, Vol. 112, Feb. 1965,
pp. 405-407.
[18] Salvage, B. and Steinberg, N., Electronics Letters, Vol. 2, Nov. 1966, pp. 432-433.
[19] Badran, I. M. S., El-Assi, O. M. B., Riazi, S., and Salvage, B., Proceedings, Interna-
tional Symposium on High Voltage Technology, Munich, 1972, pp. 396-402.
[20] O'Dwyer, J. J., The Theory of Electrical Conduction and Breakdown in Solid Dielectrics,
Oxford University Press, 2nd Edition, Oxford, 1973.
[21] Kojima, K. and Matsuura, K., Direct Current, Voi. 1 (new series), 1969, pp. 55-72.
[22] Rogers, E. C., Proceedings, Institution of Electrical Engineers, Vol. 105A, Dec. 1958,
pp. 621-630.
[23] Zwass, S., 1975 IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conference, Conf. Record 75
CHO 965-4-AES, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, June 1975, pp. 38-42.
[24] Parker, R. D., 1975 IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conference, Conf. Record 75
CHO 965-4-AES, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, June 1975, pp. 43-50.
[25] Lalli, V. R., Mueller, L. A., and Koutnik, E. A., Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers, June 1975, pp. 51-61.
[26] Train, D., Mercier, A., and Thorne, D., Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems,
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Vol. PAS-93, Nov/Dec 1974, pp.
1909-1915.
[27] Black, I. A., Proceedings, International High Voltage Symposium, Ztlrich, Switzerland,
1975, pp. 239-243.
[28] Wilson, A., Proceedings, Institution of Electrical Engineers, Vol. 121, Sept. 1974,
pp. 993-996.
[29] Karkainen, S., Proceedings, International High Voltage Symposium, Z0rich, Switzerland,
1975, pp. 244-249.
[30] Dakin, T. W~, and Malinaric, P. J., Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems,
American Institute of Electrical Engineers, Vol. 79 Part Ill, 1960, pp. 648-653.
[31] Salvage, B. and Sam, W., Proceedings, Institution of Electrical Engineers, Vol. 114,
Sept. 1967, pp. 1334-1336.
[32] Salvage, B. in Gas Discharges and the Electrical Supply Industry, Butterworths,
London, 1962, pp. 439-446.
[33] Melville, D. R. G. and Salvage, B., Proceedings, Institution of Electrical Engineers,
Vol. 112, May 1965, pp. 1071-1073.
[34] Milller, K. B., Electrotechnische Zeitschrift, Part A, Vol. 93, March 1972, pp. 153-156.
[35] Kind, D. and Shihab, S., Electrotechnische Zeitschrift, Part A, Vol. 90, Sept. 1969,
pp. 476-478.
[36] Douglas, J. L. and Parr, D. J., Direct Current and Power Electronics, Vol. 2, Sept. 1971,
pp. 100-103.
[37] Franke, A. E. and Czekaj, E., Transactions on Electrical Insulation, Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Vol. EI-10, Dec. 1975, pp. 112-116.
[38] Burnham, J., Buritz, R. S., and Zwass, S., Proceedings, IEEE Workshop on Applied
Magnetics, Institute of Electrical and Electronics" Engineers, 1972, pp. 32-37.
[39] Bartnikas, R. and Morin, R., 1976 IEEE International Symposium on Electrical Insula-
tion, Conf. Record 76 CH 1088-4-EI, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers,
Montreal, June 1976, pp. 76-79.
[40] Beg, S. and Salvage, B., Electronics Letters, Vol. 4, No. 24, 1968, pp. 530-531.
[43] Salvage, B., Hiley, J., El-Gendy, O. A., Sturrock, J. R., and McGuinnes, A. M.,
Proceedings, International High Voltage Symposium, Ztlrich, 1975, pp. 665-670.
[44] Hossam-Eldin, A. A., Pearmain, A. J., and Salvage, B., Proceedings, International
Symposium on High Voltage Technology, Munich, 1972, pp. 403-408.
[45] Hossam-Eldin, A. A. and Salvage, B., lEE Conference on High Voltage DC and~or AC
Power Transmission, Conf. Pub. No. 107, Institution of Electrical Engineers, London,
1973, pp. 47-52.
[46] Takahashi, E., Tsutsumi, Y., Okuyama, Y., and Ogata, F., Transactions on Power
Apparatus and Systems, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Vol. PAS-95,
1976, pp. 411-420.
[47] Burnham, J. and Buritz, R. S., Proceedings, 20th IEEE Electronics Components
Conference, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 1970, pp. 419-431.
[48] Burnham, J., Wong, E., and Ota, H. N., Proceedings, 1974 IEEE Power Electronics
Specialists Conference, Conf. Record 74 CHO 863-1-AES, Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers, June 1974, pp. 40-50.
STP669-EB/Feb. 1979
R. J. Densley t
Partial Discharges Under Impulse-

Voltage Conditions
12.1 Nomenclature
Throughout this chapter, the following symbols will be used.
Ca Capacitance of healthy part of insulation

Cb Capacitance of insulation in series with cavity
C, Capacitance of cavity
Cd Capacitance of detection impedance
Cq Calibration capacitance
Cr Capacitance of test specimen
Ct, C2 Capacitances of high-voltage arms of bridge circuit (CI = Cr)
C3, C4 Capacitances of low-voltage arms of bridge circuit
Ec Mean stress along axis of cavity
Ed Stress in dielectric remote from cavity
2h Depth of cavity
g Total thickness of insulation
q. Apparent discharge magnitude
qr True discharge magnitude
o Calibration charge
Ra Resistance of healthy part of dielectric
Rb Resistance of dielectric in series with cavity
Rc Resistance of cavity
r Radius of circular cylindrical cavity
$ Radius of oblate spheroidal cavity
t Time
v. Peak alternating voltage applied across test specimen
vd Voltage across detection impedance due to discharge
vi Peak alternating voltage across test specimen at discharge inception
v, Peak value of applied impulse or surge
Vq Calibration voltage
1PowerEngineeringSection,National ResearchCouncil, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.

CHAPTER 12--IMPULSE-VOLTAGE CONDITONS 469
V,(t) Instantaneous voltage across test specimen due to applied impulse

VaPeak alternating voltage across cavity
Vc Voltage across cavity
vc(t) Instantaneous voltage across cavity at time t
1Je Remanent voltage across cavity when discharge ceases ( = 0)
Vi Peak voltage across cavity at discharge inception
Vp Peak voltage across cavity due to applied impulse
VR Reverse voltage across cavity due to discharges after impulse is ap-
plied
vs(t) Instantaneous voltage across cavity at time t due to applied impulse
lJsi Instantaneous voltage across cavity due to applied impulse at
discharge inception
W Energy of discharge
~0 Absolute permittivity (8.85 10 -12 F/m)
E1 Relative permittivity of gas or liquid in cavity ( = 1 for gas)
~2 Relative permittivity of insulation
av Volume conductivity of insulation
Pv Volume resistivity of insulation = 1/~v
12.2 Introduction
Although the behavior of electrical insulation subjected to partial
discharges under alternating-voltage conditions is well documented [1,2], 2
there have been very few studies under impulse- or surge-voltage conditions,
or when subjected to unidirectional pulse voltages.
Electrical power equipment such as transformers, cables, and capacitors
are intermittently exposed to high-voltage transients. The transients consist
of lightning impulses and switching surges.
Lightning impulses are produced when lightning strikes an overhead line
causing voltage pulses to be transmitted along the line in both directions.
The impulse travels along the line and enters the transformer or
underground cable connected to the end of the line. Lightning transients are
unidirectional having rise times to 10/~s and decay times of 30 #s to some
hundreds of microseconds. A standard impulse wave shape to simulate
lightning for testing purposes is 1.2/50/~s (that is, with rise time = 1.2/~s
and decay time half value ----50/~s).
Switching surges are created by the opening or closing of a reactive circuit.
The surge is usually much slower than the lightning impulse, the rise time be-
ing of the order of hundreds of microseconds and the decay time some
milliseconds. The amplitude of the switching surge is proportional to the ap-
plied voltage so that higher transmission voltages will result in switching
surges of greater magnitudes. Throughout this chapter, lightning transients
will be referred to as impulses and switching transients as surges.
When insulation is subjected to transient voltages, the resulting high

stresses will produce partial discharges in cavities or in the oil of oil/paper
composites. However, little is known as to the characteristics of these
discharges, for example, the discharge-inception and extinction stresses, or
whether they can produce sufficient deterioration to induce premature
failure of the insulation. It is possible that a transient voltage superimposed
on an alternating voltage will initiate partial discharges that will persist dur-
ing the alternating voltage even though the amplitude of the latter is below
the discharge-inception value.
Insulation can also be exposed to continuous pulses, either unidirectional
or oscillatory, for example, in pulse transformers and particle accelerators.
Partial discharges within cavities contained in the insulation could produce
gradual deterioration of the insulation with time. Consequently, a knowledge
of the short- and long-term discharge characteristics is essential in determin-
ing the optimum operating stress in the insulation.
In this chapter, the theoretical aspects of partial discharges under
impulse-voltage conditions will be considered, the techniques to measure the
partial, discharges will be described, followed by a brief review of the results
obtained.
12.3 Theory
In this section, a gas-filled cavity enclosed in a solid insulation subjected to
either a unidirectional impulse, a train of pulses, or a damped oscillation will
be considered. The results could also apply to a liquid dielectric or to a
gaseous bubble in a liquid dielectric, although the size of the bubble would
change due to the action of the discharges. The voltage or stress distribution,
the discharge sequence, discharge magnitude, and physics of the discharge
will be discussed.
Consider, as an example, a circular cylindrical cavity embedded in a solid
dielectric shown in Fig. 12.1a and an impulse having a double exponential
waveshape shown in Fig. 12.2 is applied to the insulation. Part of the voltage
will appear across the cavity and when this voltage reaches the breakdown
l r
i
(o) Covltyin Insulotion
ii%1 t 1
(b) Equ[volent Circutt
FIG. 12.1--Cavity in insulation and its equivalent circuit.

CHAPTER 12--IMPULSE-VOLTAGE CONDITIONS 471
[- 7
tgo-t~o
~1/~2/us impulse
tl = L67 ( t g o - t 3 0 ) p s
~2 = lime obove O.SVp,/Us
FIG. 12.2--Typicalimpulse voltagewaveform.
value of the gas in the cavity, a discharge occurs, causing the voltage across
the cavity to collapse. The discharge-inception voltage will depend on the
type of gas, gas pressure, cavity dimensions, and wave shape of impulse.
12.3.1 Voltage or Stress Distribution

The equivalent circuit of a cavity enclosed in an insulation is shown in Fig.
12.lb. Cc represents the capacitance of the cavity having a surface resistance
of R c, Cb and R b are the capacitance and resistance of the insulation in series
with the cavity, and Ca and R, denote the capacitance and resistance of the
remainder of the dielectric, respectively. Provided the rate of change of the
applied voltage is greater than Vpav/~oe2 (where Vp is the peak voltage of the
impulse, av and e0e2 are the volume conductivity and permittivity of the in-
sulation, respectively), the voltage across the cavity will be determined by the
capacitances, Cb and Cc. The capacitances, Cb and Co, are dependent on the
cavity dimensions, thickness of the insulation, and the relative permittivities
of the gas, usually unity, and of the solid insulation. Unless the cavity dimen-
sions are temperature dependent, the temperature will have a negligible ef-
fect on the voltage distribution under impulse-voltage conditions.
For circular cylindrical cavities having a large ratio of cavity diameter (2r)
to cavity depth (2h), the voltage across the cavity is given by vc(t) =
(2E2h/e~e) V,(t), where el is the relative permittivity of the gas in the cavity,
2 is the relative permittivity of the solid dielectric, and eis the total thickness
of the insulation. If the depth is much greater than the diameter, the voltage
across the cavity is 2 V,(t) [h/e]. For intermediate diameter/depth ratios, the
voltage across the cavity can be determined from the distribution of the elec-
tric stress in the cavity. The calculation of the electric stress in cavities of dif-
ferent shapes such as oblate-spheroidal, elliptical-cylindrical, and circular-
cylindrical has been performed by several authors [3-5] and also verified ex-
perimentally [6]. Figures 12.3 and 12.4 show the variation of the mean stress
10 0,1 0.2 0 3 0.4 0.5

h/x
(o) f'z = 2 (b) C z = 5
I0
9 s/h = co
7~
" ~u 5
w
4
I0 ol.I O12 i
0.3 ~0 4 '
0.5
(c) 6 z = 10
FIG. 12.3~Mean electric stress in oblate spheroidal cavity in solid dielectric (after Salvage [4]).
along the cavity axis for oblate-spheroidal and circular-cylindrical cavities for
different relative permittivities. The relative permittivity of the gas in the cav-
ity is unity. The curves show that: (a) for large ratios of diameter/depth (s/h)
for an oblate-spheroidal cavity, the mean stress along the axis of the cavity is
similar to that for a circular cylindrical cavity having a large ratio of r/h ; (b)
for spherical cavities in a thick insulation, (s/e) << 1, the stress in the cavity
is [3 e2/(1 + 2e2)] Ed, where Ed is the stress in the dielectric remote from the
cavity; (c) for cylindrical cavities o f large diameter/depth ratios, (r/h) >> 1,
in a thick insulation, (h/g) << 1, the stress in the cavity is e2Ed; and (d)
for cylindrical cavities having a diameter/depth ratio much less than unity,
the stress in the cavity is Ed.
Figures 12.5 and 12.6 show the variation of the stress in the dielectric, Ed,
at discharge inception with the cavity dimensions for spherical and circular-
cylindrical cavities, respectively. The thickness of the insulation is 1.0 cm.
For large diameter cavities in a high permittivity dielectric, there is a
2.0 ~ h = C O 3,0 r/h = co
18 - 0
2.5 i
6
t.6- i
tff "~ 2 0
1.4
I
1.5
1.2
1.0 I 1.0
O O.I 0.2 O.3 0.4 0.5 0.1 O.2 0,3 0.4 0.5
~/.~
[a) s = 2 (b) 6 z = 5
I0
r/h : CO
9
8
7
4 68
3
2 i
,I0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

i
0.5
(c) 8 z = I0
F I G : 12.4--Mean electric stress in circular cylindrical cavity in solid dielectric (after Mitra
and Salvage [ 5 ] ) .
minimum value OfEd that will produce discharges. For example, discharges
will occur in cavities of 1 mm diameter and 100 to 200 # m depth embedded
in a dielectric, e2 = 10, when the stress, Ed reaches 2.1 kV/mm. Stresses
above 2.1 k V / m m will initiate additional discharges in cavities less than
100/zm and greater than 200 #m deep.
12. 3.2 Physics of the Discharge

The breakdown voltages of small air gaps between dielectric surfaces
under alternating-voltage conditions obey Paschen's Law [1,2]. Studies of the
wave shape of the discharge current indicate that the breakdown can be
either of a Townsend or streamer type depending on the overvoltage across
the cavity at the onset of breakdown [7-9]. The Townsend mechanism in-
volves the generation of a number of avalanches that ultimately leads to
I000 \
(o) G Z = 2 s/h =1
\ (b) E;z = 2 slh -'co
(~ \ (c) (~z = ~0 s/h = I
- ~k (d) 62 = I0 slh-,co
E
o
w ~, t = I.Ocrn.
'~ ~oo
Q: Poschen's curve
o c
Q
g
I I I 1
2 5 IO 20 50 IO0 200 500 IOOO IOO00
Imm 2 5 10mm
CAVITY OEPTH~2h,(M-rn)
F I G . 12.5--Variation of stress in dielectric at discharge inception with cavity depth, for oblate
spheroidal cavities ( ac and impulse).
breakdown. In the streamer mechanism, the first avalanche generates suffi-

cient electrons and ions that the electric field set up by this space charge pro-
motes further ionization.
The temporal distribution of either type of discharge can be divided into
two parts. First, the time for an initiatory electron to appear in a suitable
position in a volume of gas while the voltage across the electrodes is equal to
or above that to produce ionization of the gas. The initiatory electron can be
generated by natural irradiation or some other source. For alternating and
direct voltages there is sufficient time for the natural irradiation to produce
favorably positioned electrons even in the small cavities in which partial
discharges occur. However for short-duration impulse voltages, an initiatory
electron might not be produced during the time the voltage across the cavity
is above the ionization potential and, consequently, no discharge will occur.
The background current required to produce one electron per microsecond
in a circular cylindrical cavity 1 mm diameter is 1.25 10 -il A/cm 2, which
is several orders of magnitude greater than the background current due to
natural irradiation ( < 10-is A/cm2). Raising the applied voltage well above
the ionization potential can generate electrons by electron emission from the
cathode surface. This will depend upon the stress at the cathode surface, type
of cathode material, temperature, and whether the surface is rough or
smooth. The time measured from the moment the voltage across the cavity
exceeds the ionization potential to the appearance of the initiatory electron is
referred to as the statistical time lag. Secondly, the time for the discharge
IOOO
A
E
E
(o) 2r = IOpm
~,\ _ . , (b) 2 r = IO0,um
w
IOO
z
X~ /b
L~
IO
z
L~
i I I I I I I I I I I I
5 IO 20 50 100 200 500 IO00 IO000
Imm 2 5 IOmm
CAVITY OEPTH~ 2h, (~m)
(0) 62 = 2
(o) 2r = tOpm
/~Poschen'S curve (b} 2 r = IOOpm
L \ ~ (c) 2r = IOOO,um = tram
,o
,00| "\ ~ t = I.Ocm.
I I I I I I I I I I I I I
2 5 1O 20 50 100 Z00 500 1000 i0 000
Imm 2 5 I0 mm
CAVITY DEPTH, 2h~(/um)
( b ) 6 2 = 10
FIG. 12.6--Variation of stress in dielectric at discharge inception with cavity depth, for cir-
cular cylindrical cavities (ac and impulse).
once initiated, to develop across the cavity is known as the formative time
lag. The latter can be measured from the rise time of either the current flow-
ing through the cavity or the collapse of the voltage across the cavity. In order
to measure the true shape of the current pulse produced as the cavity breaks
down, the time constant of the measuring circuit must be less than the rise
time of the current pulse, otherwise distortion of the pulse shape arises. To
achieve a time constant of about 1 ns, special test cells are used and the
dimensions of the measuring circuit are kept as small as possible [7-9]. The
rise times of the current pulses measured using these techniques vary from
less than 1 ns to some tens of nanoseconds depending on the type of
discharge observed. (The duration of the pulse is usually less than 100 ns).
The observed pulse shapes have indicated that the discharges consist of
single and multiple avalanches.
Single avalanches obey the classical Townsend theory of gas discharges.
When the discharge strikes the dielectric surfaces, high transverse stresses
are set up along the surface resulting in secondary surface discharges.
Multiple avalanches occur as a result of photoionization in the gas or at the
cathode surface, that is, similar to the Townsend or the streamer type
discharge. The type of breakdown is dependent on the size and shape of the
cavity, the magnitude of the overvoltage, and the previous discharge history
in the cavity.
The preceding discussion indicates that voltages much greater than the
theoretical discharge-inception value must be applied to produce discharges
during short-duration impulses. When a discharge does occur, the voltage
across the cavity collapses rapidly in the order of nanoseconds so that, unless
the rate of change of the applied voltage is of the order of hundreds of volts
per nanosecond, the applied voltage does not change appreciably during the
discharge. In the analyses of the discharge sequence, it will be assumed that
the applied voltage does not change during a discharge.
12. 3. 3 Discharge Sequence

The discharge sequence will be examined for (a) short duration pulses ap-
plied one every second or at a slower frequency, (b) unidirectional pulses ap-
plied at a much higher frequency, (c) damped oscillations, and (d) unidirec-
tional pulse superimposed on alternating current.
As the voltage across an insulation containing a cavity is raised, the voltage
across the cavity increases following a capacitive distribution. When the
voltage across the cavity exceeds the discharge-inception value, a discharge
can occur, provided an initiatory electron is present in the cavity. The voltage
across the cavity collapses to a small value during the discharge and then
refollows the applied voltage. Another discharge will take place when the
voltage across the cavity again reaches the discharge inception value, pro-
vided, of course, an initiatory electron is present.
12.3.3.1 Short Duration Impulse--Assume the standard 1.2/50 #s is ap-

plied to a dielectric containing a cavity of known dimensions. A typical
discharge sequence is shown in Fig. 12.7 [I0]. The first discharge is assumed
to occur at a voltage much greater than the discharge inception value because
of the low probability of the occurrence of a suitably positioned electron in the
cavity due to natural irradiation while the voltage across the cavity exceeds
the ionization level. The voltage across the cavity collapses rapidly during the
discharge to the remanent voltage, ve (usually assumed negligible), and, once
the discharge has ceased, refollows the applied voltage. This first discharge
will be referred to as the main discharge. Physically, the charges created by
the discharge are deposited on the adjacent walls of the cavity, cancelling the
effect of the polarization charges due to the applied voltage. As the applied
voltage is reduced, the polarization charge is reduced allowing the voltage
across the cavity to increase in the opposite direction as shown in Fig. 12.7.
When the reverse voltage across the cavity reaches --vi, a reverse discharge
occurs and the voltage again collapses to a small value. The charges pro-
duced by the main discharge will be the source of the initiatory electron for
the reverse discharge so that the inception voltage will be close to the a-c
discharge-inception stress, --vi. Further reverse discharges will follow until
the applied voltage is zero, resulting in a reverse voltage, VR, across the cav-
ity. If another impulse of the same polarity is applied before the reverse
voltage has had time to decay, the effective voltage across the cavity will be
the applied voltage less yR. If another impulse of the same polarity is applied
before the reverse voltage has had time to decay, the effective voltage across
the cavity will be the sum of the applied voltage and YR.
The simplified discharge sequence just described assumes that the whole
~...~,./-opplied impulsewoveshope
.~.I ~176176
ross covlty ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~. ~
-%"8
-'~,z
r r ,......~ r,. r r r l'--

reversedischorges
FIG. 12.7--Discharge sequencefor impulse voltage.
of the cavity is discharged during the discharge. For both alternating and
direct voltages, it is known that several individual discharge sites occur, the
number depending on the size of the cavity. For impulse voltages, it has been
shown that during the main discharge, when the voltage across the cavity is
usually greater than the ionization potential, the whole of the cavity is
discharged by individual sites discharging simultaneously, but individual
discharge sites less than the area of the cavity occur for the reverse dis-
charges [11]. Consequently, more reverse discharges are observed in practice
than are predicted theoretically but are smaller in magnitude.
12.3.3.2 Unidirectional Pulses Applied at a Much Higher FrequencymIf
a train of unidirectional pulses is applied, the probability of a discharge oc-
curring when the voltage across the cavity reaches the inception voltage~
-----vi, is much greater than for a single unidirectional pulse. Consequently,
the first discharge will be observed close to the peak of the voltage waveform.
The voltage collapses to the remanent voltage and refollows the applied
voltage. As can be seen in Fig. 12.8a no further discharges occur, and this
has been verified experimentally [12]. If the applied voltage is raised, it is
~ pphed
voltage
(o) single discharge
~ oppliecl
v Y V-
(b) recurrent discharges
FIG. 12.8--Discharge sequence for unidirectional pulses.

possible for reverse discharges to occur close to the voltage zero as shown in
Fig. 12.8b. In practice, there are more than one forward or main and reverse
discharges originating from various individual sites in the cavity. According
to Mason [12], the peak value of the pulses has to be greater than 1.7 V,.
before steady discharges are observed.
12.3.3.3 Damped Oscillations--A typical discharge sequence for an ap-
plied voltage in the form of a damped oscillation is shown in Fig. 12.9. Once
an electron has initiated the discharge, the discharge sequence is similar to
that for alternating voltages. The occurrence of more than one discharge site
per cavity would increase the number of discharges per quadrant.
12.3.3.4 Unidirectional Pulse Superimposed on Alternating Voltage--
Equipment used in electrical power transmission is frequently subjected to
unidirectional impulses caused by lightning or switching operations superim-
posed on the power frequency. It is possible that partial discharges initiated
by the high-voltage transient would continue even though the alternating
voltage is below the discharge-inception value. This section derives the
discharge sequence for an impulse applied at an angle, 0, on the sinusoidal
wave form, Fig. 12.10, and determines the conditions necessary to obtain
continuous discharges [13].
The following assumptions are made: (a) the inception voltage for
alternating-voltages, Vi, is the same for both polarities; (b) the equivalent
circuit shown in Fig. 12.1 is valid; (c) the presence of the alternating voltage
does not affect the partial discharge characteristics during the application of
an impulse voltage, that is, the effect of the discharges during the impulse is
o_'~e ~
- ~e ~ "~R
FIG. 12.9--Dischargesequencefor damped oscillation.

----. 0 t---
FIG. 1 2 . 1 0 - - I m p u l s e s u p e r i m p o s e d on alternating voltage.
to set up a reverse voltage, vR, across the cavity (as described in section
12.3.3.1 and shown in Fig. 12.7); (d) the alternating voltage does not change
for the duration of the impulse; and (e) the cavity is completely discharged by
every discharge.
Consider a negative impulse applied during the negative half cycle of the
sinusoidal waveform as shown in Fig. 12.11, that is, 7r < 0 < 2 r . Using the
preceding assumptions, it can be shown that discharges can continue in-
definitely during the alternating voltage if either of the following conditions
are satisfied
va[1 -- sin (0 -- rr)] ___ 2 v i - VR -- 1)e (12.1)
or
v.[1 -- sin (0 -- z)] > vR + v~ (12.2)
as shown in Fig. 12.11b and d, respectively.

If Eq 12.1 is not fulfilled but
vo s i n (O - - 7 0 --> Vi - - VR (12.3)
a single discharge will occur in the negative half cycle but no subsequent
discharges as shown in Fig. 12.11a.
- -A m , ~ ~ ~ . . . . . . .
. . . . . ,-
/-o..,,.. \\ I I \
\ / ,olios, \XJ/
\I \-," \.-I
-,ifd., . . . . . . . . . . .
yo sin (8-~) > ~J.'A - ,l,'.'lt ~
' ~ [ I - s i n i 8 - , ) ] > Z4r~ - q..., - q/e
~'~ ~ 4#o0{I +Sin (8-it)] >~ - "lfR T "lfo [ I + sin ( 8 - ~|] > /I#'+Z -/l#'R
~ [ I - sin (0-~r)] < ~rR + ,V"e ~'o[I-s,n (0 -~)] >.lrR + n/e
(C) (d)
FIG. 12.11--Discharge sequence for negative impulses applied during negative half cycle of
alternating voltage (after Densley [13]).
If Eq 12.2 is not satisfied but
v,[1 + sin (0 -- 7r)] _> v i - VR (12.4)
a single discharge will occur in the positive half cycle but no subsequent
discharges as shown in Fig. 12.11c. No discharges will occur during the alter-
nating voltage if Eq 12.4 is not satisfied.
If a negative impulse is applied in the positive half cycle of the alternating
voltage, that is, 0 < 0 < lr continuous discharges will occur as shown in
Figs. 12.12b and d, respectively, if
v.[1 -4- sin O] -> VR + V~ (12.s)
or
v,[1 -- sin 0] >_ ve - vR (12.6)

~n [ I cov;ty "ItRI I A
II/%-ooo.,.~ ,&
I I / / ' ~ ' o.~ #/"N\
I.,r,,
v I ~
/,t-x
/ / t \
I.I/ V vo''~ // ~', II \ //I x /
~_~L \\ // \~,/I-V:,,-\---I/-L-,,-'-~::Z--
~'~-[-
"~ "~0 [I " $in e] > " / ~ -- "~'R - ~" = L - - ' "If~ [I - Sir} O] > 'qf~ - / / f R ' - -
vo{{*sin8 ] < .v,R +,u"e ~ ~o[t + sinO] 9 VR+ -~re
(o) (b)
"zfx.
A
. . . . . . . .
"W "u'aD e] >-%:+~r R %[q*sinO] > ~r~:+~ R

% [i - s,n 0] +"~R < "V'e ~o [I -s~n 0] +'u"R >,U-e
(c) (d)
FIG. t2.12--Discharge sequence for negative impulses applied during positive half cycle of
alternating voltage (after Densley [13]).
If Eq 12.5 is not satisfied, a single discharge will occur in the positive half
cycle, Fig. 12.12a, but none thereafter if
v,[1 -- sin 0] _> vi - - vR (12.7)
If Eq 12.6 is not satisfied, a single discharge will occur in the negative half
cycle, Fig. 12.12c, but none thereafter if
v~ + sin 0] >_ v i + VR (12.8)
No discharges will occur during the alternating voltage if Eq 12.8 is not

satisfied.
The corresponding conditions for discharges during the alternating voltage
for a positive impulse are given in the following.
For a positive impulse applied during the positive half cycle, that is, 0 <
0 < 7r, continuous discharges will occur if
v~[1 + sin O] >_ 2 v ~ - VR -- Ve (12.9)
or
va[1 -- sin 0] >_ vR + Ve (12.10)
va sin 0 >_ vi -- VR (12.11)
a single discharge will occur in the negative half cycle but none thereafter.
va[1 + sin 0] _> v i - vR (12.12)
a single discharge will occur in the positive half cycle but none thereafter. No
discharge will occur during the alternating voltage if Eq 12.12 is not
satisfied.
For a positive impulse applied during the negative half cycle, that is, ~r <
0 < 27r, continuous discharges will occur if
va[1 + sin (0 - - lr)] >_ vk + Ve (12.13)
or
Va[1 -- sin (0 -- 7r)] _> ve -- vR (12.14)
If Eq 12.13 is not satisfied, a single discharge will occur during the

negative half cycle but none thereafter if
v=[1 -- sin (0 - - lr)] > vi- vR (12.15)
If Eq 12.14 is not satisfied, a single discharge will occur during the positive
half cycle but none thereafter if
va[1 + s i n ( 0 - - It)] _> vi + vR (12.16)
Experimental results show that the discharge-inception voltage of an aged

cavity subjected to impulses is similar to the alternating-voltage value. Con-
sequently for an aged cavity, a discharge can occur when the sum of the im-
pulse and alternating voltages reaches the a-c discharge-inception level. As a
result, no reverse discharges will occur while the impulse is decreasing, so

that the voltage across the cavity when the impulse has decreased to zero will
be (v,~ -- ve) where v,i is the instantaneous value of the impulse voltage across
the cavity when the main discharge occurs. Equations 12.1 thru 12.4 and
12.9 thru 12.12 will be valid for an aged sample, provided VR is replaced by
( l~si - - 1)e)"
12. 3. 4 Discharge Magnitude

The apparent and true discharge magnitudes can be calculated from the
equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 12.1 and are essentially the same as for
alternating-voltage conditions. The discharge magnitude as measured at the
terminals of the test object, is given by
qa = [Ca + CbCc/(Cb + Cc)] [Cb/(C, + Cb)] (Vsi -- Ve)

(12.17)
= Cb(Vsi -- lye)
where Ca, Cb, and Cc represent the capacitance shown in Fig. 12.1, p,i is the
applied voltage across the cavity when the discharge occurs, and Ve is the
voltage across the cavity when the discharge ceases. For an unaged cavity, v,i
will be greater than for alternating voltages resulting in a discharge of larger
magnitude. For an aged cavity, when the discharge-inception voltage for
both impulse and alternating voltages are equal, the discharge magnitudes
are also similar.
The charge transferred across the cavity, qr, is given by
q r = [Cc + C b C J ( C ~ + Cb)] (V,; -- re) (12.18)
As has been mentioned previously, for an unaged cavity, vi will be greater

than for alternating-voltage conditions, so that q r will also be larger.
12.3.5 Energy Dissipated by Discharges

The energy dissipated by a discharge is
W : 1//2 [Cc .q!_ C a C b / / ( C b .~- Cc)] (vsi 2 - - Ve 2) (12.19)
For an unaged cavity, the energy dissipated will be larger than that
dissipated by discharges during alternating voltages. The main discharge oc-
curring during an impulse consists of individual discharges occurring
simultaneously [11], so that the discharge energy is expended at several sites
rather than one site that would result in greater deterioration.
12.4 Discharge Detection

The methods of discharge detection can be classified into two broad
groups, nonelectrical and electrical.
12. 4.1 Nonelectrical

Nonelectrical methods of discharge detection usually involve the detection
and sometimes the measurement of the heat, light, and sound produced by
partial discharges in cavities within insulation. The techniques have been
used primarily with alternating voltages, and, although unaffected by elec-
trical disturbances, they are not very sensitive, difficult to calibrate, and can
only be used in specific applications, for example, the light generated by par-
tial discharges can be detected in transparent or translucent materials only.
There have been no attempts to measure the heat produced by partial
discharges under impulse-voltage conditions. It is improbable that a heat
detection system would be sensitive to the heat produced by the small
number of partial discharges generated during a short-duration impulse.
Beldi [14] developed an ultrasonic transducer that measured the change in
pressure due to a discharge in the oil of a transformer subjected to impulses.
Although the method was more sensitive than visual observation, the location
and measurement of the discharges was very difficult. The discharges could
be located using triangulation techniques involving more than one ultrasonic
transducer [15]. Partial discharges in a 69-kV oil-immersed reactor subjected
to full and chopped 1.5/45/zs impulses were detected using this method.
The disadvantages of ultrasonic-discharge detection include: (a) Com-
posite insulations have various degrees of attenuation so that a signal from a
discharge site within a large structure such as a transformer might be se-
verely attenuated on reaching the transducer. (b) The different propagation
velocities in a composite insulation introduce errors when locating the partial
discharges. (c) The applied impulse produces magnetostriction in the steel
core of transformers. (d) The transducers are sensitive to ambient noise. The
sensitivity can be controlled to a certain extent by the choice of frequency of
the transducer. The ambient noise coupled with the interference due to
magnetostriction seriously limits the sensitivity during impulse tests on
transformers. (e) There is difficulty in calibrating or determining the sen-
sitivity of the system.
Vogel [16] tested models of oil-immersed transformers using 60-Hz and
1.5/40-/~s impulses. The a-c partial discharges were detected by the observa-
tion of gas bubbles in the oil and audible noise. The insulation was visibly in-
spected for deterioration due to partial discharges after every hundred im-
pulses at each voltage level. The onset of visible deterioration determined the
discharge-inception voltage. Montsinger [17] also used the generation of gas
bubbles in the oil as a measure of the onset of partial discharges in models

of oil-immersed transformer insulation subjected to repeated 1.5/40-txs
impulses.
The light emitted from sharp points in air subjected to impulses has been
measured using a photomultiplier, the output of which is connected to an
oscilloscope [18,19]. Although similar techniques have been used to study
partial discharge phenomena in transparent dielectrics under alternating-
voltage conditions [20], there have not been any studies using impulse
voltages. The technique could only be used for transparent or translucent
materials.
12. 4.2 Electrical

Electrical methods of detecting and measuring partial discharges tend to
be more convenient, sensitive, and easier to calibrate than nonelectrical
methods.
For alternating voltages, the detector separates the high-frequency signal
produced by a partial discharge from the applied voltage. This is usually
achieved by ensuring that the range of frequency to which the detector
responds to be significantly different from the frequency of the applied
voltage. However, the frequency spectrum of an impulse having a rapid rate
of change of voltage as, for example, a 1.2/50-/~s impulse, approaches that of
the discharge pulse so that separation of the discharge pulse from the applied
impulse becomes more difficult. This difficulty has been the main reason
that there have been very few studies of partial discharge characteristics
under impulse-voltage conditions.
Discharges occurring during impulses having slower rise and decay times
(greater than tens of microseconds) and during unidirectional sinusoidal
pulses are easier to detect as the frequency spectrum of the applied voltage is
significantly different to that of the discharge pulse. Conventional a-c
discharge detectors, either narrow band or wide band, can usually be used
for these pulses.
Moore and English [21] tried to separate the corona pulses generated by a
needle/plane-electrode system in air from the applied high-voltage rec-
tangular pulses using a bridge circuit. The bridge consisted of capacitors in
the high-voltage arms and resistors in the low-voltage arms. A pulse
transformer was used as a detector. Stray capacitances and inductances
prevented a good balance of the applied pulse. Hagenguth and Liao [22] used
a similar bridge circuit to examine partial discharges in insulation subjected
to 1.5/40-/~s impulses. It was not possible to balance out the charging cur-
rent during the wave front of the impulse even though the time constant of
each branch of the bridge was made equal. The voltage across the detector
was fed through a pulse amplifier to an oscilloscope. The out-of-balance
signal due to the applied voltage could be reduced if adequate shielding of
the impulse generator and connecting leads was undertaken. However, for
tests with physically large impulse generators and test objects, adequate
shielding was not possible.
The frequency spectrum of the discharge pulse extends beyond 100 MHz,
whereas frequencies beyond 100 KHz are not significant for the standard im-
pulse (1.2/50 #s) [23]. A narrow-band detector having a center frequency
above 0.1 MHz but below 100 MHz will attenuate the applied impulse but
will respond to partial discharges within the test specimen. Such a detector
has been developed by Salvage et al [24]. A bridge circuit comprising four
capacitors was used as shown in Fig. 12.13. The bridge can be theoretically
balanced at all frequencies. The best balance is achieved if the two high-
voltage capacitors, one containing a cavity of known dimensions, the other
discharge-free, are of approximately equal capacitance. The low-voltage
capacitors were chosen so that the maximum voltage across them does not
exceed 200 V. A variable capacitor was included in one low-voltage arm of
the bridge for use in balancing the bridge. The detector consisted of a pulse
transformer connected across the low-voltage terminals of the high-voltage
capacitors, a terminated 75-fl cable, a narrow-band-pass filter (75 fl), a
preamplifier (Tektronix 1121), and an oscilloscope (Tektronix 551 dual
beam) displayed the discharges. The filter had a bandwidth of 4 MHz and a
center frequency of 13.5 MHz. Both the applied impulse from a voltage
divider and the discharges were displayed on the dual beam oscilloscope so
that the time lag between the start of the impulse and the occurrence of the
discharge pulse could be measured. It was not possible to completely balance
the applied voltage from the oscilloscope trace of the detector voltage result-
ing in a small pulse corresponding to the start of the applied impulse. This
small pulse provided a convenient zero for the measurement of the time lag.
The sensitivity for test capacitances of 30 pF was 5 pC. The low-voltage
capacitors, the pulse transformer and terminating resistor were housed in a
IMPULSE
GENERATOR Duol Beom
Ci C2 Oscilloscope
Terminotino ~. Tektronix 551
Resistor
Colibtollon
Pulse
,l i'-), |
Generotor
;ond- Poss Filter
FIG. 12.13--Discharge detection circuit used by Salvage et al [10,14].

grounded metal box to reduce the effect of external interference. Using an

improved band-pass filter, Densley and Salvage [10] improved the sensitivity
to 3 pC for a test capacitance of 50 pF and, if the filter was removed,
resulting in a larger out-of-balance pulse during the wavefront of the im-
pulse, the sensitivity was about 0.2 pC. The resolution of the discharges was
0.75/~s. For the circuit shown in Fig. 12.13, the magnitude of the voltage
pulse across the detector for a discharge in C~ is given by
qa
(12.20)
c3c, ilc, c3c,
1 + C2(C3 + C4 (C3 "]- C4)
As C3 = C4 and C1 = C2 and C3 >> CI
qa
Vd = ~-- (12.21)
G3
The voltage appearing at the terminals of the detector is inversely propor-

tional to the capacitance of the low-voltage arm of the bridge. The bridge cir-
cuit is very convenient for detecting discharges in a test specimen of small
physical size and capacitance under impulse-voltage conditions. However, it
is probable that similar detection techniques for test objects of larger
capacitance such as high-voltage cables and transformers would not result in
a good balance of the applied impulse across the detector terminals, and ex-
ternal interference would limit the detector sensitivity. The bridge circuit also
requires the use of a high-voltage discharge-free capacitor.
To calibrate the circuit, a step voltage, Vq, was injected through a cou-
pling capacitor, Cq, across a low-voltage arm (C3 in Fig. 12.13) of the bridge.
The amplitude of the voltage pulse at the detector terminals is given by
Vd = Cq Vq (12.22)
Cq +C3
If Cq << C3
"Ca = Cq Vq = Q (12.23)
C3 C3
When the amplitudes of the discharge and calibration pulses are equal
q.=CqVq=Q (12.24)
Densley [11] also investigated the errors involved due to stray capacitances
if the circuit was calibrated by injecting the calibration pulse (a) across the
detector terminals, (b) across a high-voltage arm of the bridge, and (c) into
the test capacitor. The effect of the stray capacitance between the calibrator
and ground was significant in each case but was negligible when the
calibrator was connected across the low-voltage arm of the bridge.
Izeki et al [25] have reviewed several methods to measure the discharge
magnitude, energy, and frequency of the discharges occurring in insulation
under impulse-voltage conditions. The methods consist of a pulse current, a
circuit, measuring net apparent charge, and measuring residual charge.
(a) The pulse-current method utilizes a resistance in series with the test
specimen. The current across the resistance consists of the charging current
in addition to the current due to partial discharges. The charging current is
very large during the wavefront of a standard impulse, and any current due
to partial discharges within the first 2 #s would be swamped by it. However,
any partial discharges occurring after the first 2 #s would be detected and
measured,
(b) A circuit uses the charge-voltage Lissajous figure. The circuit is shown
in Fig. 12.14a: the charge on the test specimen is applied to the vertical
deflection plates of an oscilloscope, and the horizontal deflection is propor-
tional to the applied voltage. If no partial discharges occur, a straight line is
observed as shown in Fig. 12.14b. When discharges occur in the test
IMPULSE
GENERATOR
Resistive
Divider
(o) C~rcult to meosure Lissojous F~gure
v v
( [] no portiol discharges (2) with parflol discharges
(b) Typicol troces observed on oscilloscope
FIG. 12.14--Circuit to measure partial discharges using charge-voltage Lissajous figures

(after Izeki et al [25]).
specimen, a loop is traced as indicated in Fig. 12.14b. The sensitivity of this

method is low, with the minimum detectable discharge given by
qmin : 0.05 CTVp (12.25)
where
Cr = capacitance of test object, and
Vp = peak value of the applied impulse.
Comparing the sensitivity with that of the bridge circuit of Salvage et al
[24], for a test capacitance of 50 pF and voltage of 15 kV, q mi. = 35 000 pC
compared to 3 pC for the bridge circuit,
(c) The net apparent charge transferred is measured in a test capacitance,
Cr, by recording the charge stored in a capacitor, Cd, connected in series
with CT. If Ca >> CT, the charge on Cd is equal to the net apparent charge,
q., in Cr when the applied impulse has decreased to zero. The charge can
either be measured using a ballistic galvanometer or by measuring the
voltage across Cd. The insulation resistance, p v, of the measuring
capacitance, Ca, must be sufficiently high that the time constant of the
capacitance, ~0~2/ov, must be much longer than the time taken to measure
the voltage across Ca after the impulse has been applied. As the
measurements are made after the impulse is applied, the method is indepen-
dent of the wave shape of the impulse. The measured charge is the net ap-
parent charge transferred across the cavity. In practice, as both main and
reverse discharges occur, the difference between these two is recorded and no
indication of the total apparent charge is given.
(d) The residual charge is measured on the insulation surface deposited by
partial discharges [26]. An electrometer is connected in series with the low-
voltage electrode of the test capacitance after the impulse has decreased to
zero to measure the residual charge. A switch short circuits the electrometer
during the application of the impulse. The method has the advantage of be-
ing independent of the wave shape of the impulse. The difference between
the charge transferred by the main and reverse discharges is measured and
not the total charge. The sensitivity of this method is not very high.
The Methods c and d do not give any indication of the temporal distribu-
tion of the partial discharges. To overcome this, Izeki et al [25] have used
Method a and either c or d simultaneously to measure partial discharge
characteristics in transformer insulation.
In some investigations of the effect of impulses or damped oscillations on
insulation deterioration, the number of impulses or trains of pulses to cause
breakdown were recorded without any attempt to monitor the partial
discharges [27,28]. Hessen and Lampe [29] investigated the partial discharge
characteristics of typical transformer insulation geometries subjected to
100/2000 #s surges superimposed on an alternating voltage. Partial
discharges were measured using a straight discharge detection circuit as used

for alternating voltages. 3 The discharge pulses were counted using a four-
channel counter, counting pulses between 20 to 100 pC, 100 to 1000 pC, 1000
to 10 000 pC, and > 10 000 pC, respectively. In addition, a radio noise meter
measured the radio interference voltage. Care must be taken when using a
radio noise meter to measure discharges in picocoulombs as the meter
responds to the repetition rate in addition to the magnitudes of the discharge
pulses or the calibration pulses or both.
12.5 Results
This section reviews the results of previous investigations and is divided in-
to two parts, materials and components used in high-voltage equipment.
1ZS.1 Materials
Investigations into the partial-discharge behavior of materials have the ad-
vantage that tests can be performed on relatively small capacitances, which
increase the sensitivity of measurement and reduce the effects of external in-
terference under controlled laboratory conditions.
Typical test specimens, particularly polymeric materials in sheet form, are
made up of three layers, the middle layer having a hole of known diameter
punched at its center. In this way, a circular cylindrical cavity of known
dimensions enclosed within the material can be fabricated and tested be-
tween parallel-plane electrodes enabling a comparison between the theo-
retically calculated and experimentally measured values of the discharge-
inception and extinction stresses in the dielectric and the cavity. Molded test
specimens containing an artificial cavity can also be used.
The high-voltage capacitors of the bridge circuit used by Salvage and co-
workers [10,24,30,31] and Densley [13] were made from low-density
polyethylene sheets as described in the previous paragraph. The capacitors
were immersed in insulating fluid to prevent edge discharges. The effects of
the following parameters on the discharge-inception and extinction stresses,
discharge magnitude, and time lag were examined:
(a) Impulse waveshape (1.2/50 #s and 500/3000 tzs).
(b) Cavity diameter (0.5 to 3.8 mm) and depth (0.08 to 0.3 mm).
(c) Repetition rate (one impulse every 2 s to one impulse every 20 s).
(d) Polarity reversal.
(e) Cavity adjacent to an electrode.
The voltage was raised in small increments and 50 negative impulses were
applied at each level. As the voltage was raised, the percentage number of
3Partial Discharge Measurements, IEC Standard 270, International Electro-TechnicalCom-

mission.
impulses producing discharges increased from 0 to 100 percent as shown in

Curve 1 of Fig. 12.15. The 50 percent impulse-inception stress, defined as the
stress at which 50 percent of the impulses produced discharges, was con-
siderably above the a-c discharge-inception stress. On decreasing the stress,
a hysteresis effect was evident (see Curve 2, Fig. 12.15). With repeated im-
pulses above the 100 percent impulse-inception stress, the 50 percent
impulse-inception stress decreased as shown by Curves 3 thru 5 in Fig. 12.15,
until a constant extinction and reinception stress was reached. The initial 50
percent impulse-inception stress depended on the cavity dimensions as shown
in Fig. 12.16, the stress increasing for decreasing cavity depth and diameter.
The dependence of the inception stress on the cavity dimensions was prob-
ably due to the lack of electrons produced by natural irradiation to initiate
the discharge. The increased volume of the larger diameter cavities, or the
larger surface area if surface defects are responsible for electron generation,
increased the probability of the occurrence of an initiating electron, resulting
in a lower discharge-inception stress.
The minimum discharge-inception stress corresponded to the a-c inception
stress and was in accordance with Paschen's Law. The surface charges
deposited on the cavity walls by previous discharges provide a source of in-
itiatory electrons, reducing the discharge-inception stress. Many thousands
of impulses producing discharges were required to reduce the 50 percent
(I) f,rst increase in voltage

~9
re (2) lit'st decrease in voltage cavity diameter 1.3mm
|3)-(6) subsequentdecreasesin vottage cavity depth 0.25 nYn
a ~00
o~ e0
~ 6o
6 51 ~4) t: (I)
~ 4o
~uJ 20
xx xx x x xXx~
-_ _ I I
x x
0 I
0 iO 20" 30 40
PEAK STRESS IN THE CAVITy (kV/mm)
FIG. 12. IS--Hysteresis effect in cavity in polyethylene subjected to 1/50-gs impulses (after
Densley and Salvage [t01).
7O
E
~ 60
> imtiol
u 50 inception,
z stress
\ ~ cavity
diameter
~ 4o
g
~z 30
~ 2o
i
minimuminceptionstress -~'~........,~.8mm
(oll diameters)
I0
0 I I I ! I J
0.05 0.1 O.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
CAVITY DEPTH(mm)
FIG. 12.16--Variation of initial minimum 50 percent impulse inception stresses with cavity
dimensions for polyethylene, 1/50-#s impulses (after Densley and Salvage [10]).
impulse-inception stress to its minimum value. If a cavity was rested, the

impulse-inception stress increased towards the initial value.
Two types of discharges were observed during the impulse, (a) a single
large discharge usually occurring near the crest of the impulse and referred
to as the main discharge, and (b) numerous small discharges occurring on
the wavetail. These discharges were opposite in polarity to the main
discharge and are referred to as reverse discharges. The reverse discharges
have also been observed in oil-immersed transformer insulation [22, 25]. The
occurrence of the main and reverse discharges is in agreement with the
discharge sequence shown in Fig. 12.7. The results of tests using cavities
bounded by photographic plates indicated that the main discharge consists
of a number of individual discharges occurring within the resolution time of
the detector rather than one discharge channel. A single channel would prob-
ably have a more damaging effect on the insulation. When the main
discharge ceases, the voltage across the cavity follows the applied impulse, so
that a reverse voltage develops across the cavity and reverse discharges occur
when this voltage reaches --vg. When the impulse has decreased to zero, a
reverse voltage, vR, remains across the cavity (see Fig. 12.7). With repeated
discharges, the surface conductivity of the cavity walls increases, so that
charges, deposited on the walls during the discharges can move and recom-
bine. The reverse voltage, due to the charges remaining on the adjacent sur-
faces, will be reduced, and when the cavity is well aged, that is, the impulse-
inception stress is approaching its minimum value, the voltage is negligible
by the time the next impulse is applied. Consequently, as the reverse voltage
is negligible, and there are initiatory electrons readily available, the
minimum impulse-inception stress is equal to the a-c discharge-inception
stress.
The variation of the magnitude of the main discharge with the time lag is
shown in Fig. 12.17 [30]. The time-lag is the time between the start of the im-
pulse and the occurrence of the main discharge and is approximately equal to
the statistical time lag mentioned in Section 12.3.2. The time-lags can be in-
itially very long, up to 50 #s, but decrease with repeated discharges as in-
itiatory electrons become more readily available so that discharges occur on
the wave front or crest. The curve has the shape of the applied impulse, and
the discharge magnitude can be expressed by
qa = Cb(vsi - VR) (12.26)
where
v,i = instantaneous applied voltage across the cavity at discharge incep-
tion, and
Cb = capacitance of series dielectric of the area discharged. The area is
t200 -
~=lO00
800
~J
Peak stress in cavity 30.4 kV/mm
Cavity diameter 2.5mm
Cavity depthO.2mm
Q
~ 400
200
I I I I I I I I I
I0 20 30 40
TIME LAG (~s)
FIG. 12.17--Variation of discharge magnitude with time lag for cavity in polyethylene.
1/50-1~s impulses (after Densley and Salvage [10]).
approximately equal to the area of the cavity for the cavity sizes in-
vestigated.
The magnitude of the reverse discharges show that each discharge pulse
only discharges a part of the adjacent cavity surfaces for cavities above 0.5
mm diameter.
The discharge-inception stress was independent of the repetition rate for
impulses applied one every 2 s and one every 20 s. The time lags of the
discharges tended to be longer for the slower repetition rate. The 50 percent
impulse-inception stress for 500/3000 # s surges was lower than for 1.2/50 # s
impulses but higher than for alternating voltages [31]. With repeated
discharges, the impulse-inception stress decreased to the value correspon-
ding to Paschen's Curve. The apparent discharge magnitude/time lag
characteristic was similar in shape to the applied surge as was observed for
the 1.2/50 #s impulses. The time-lags were up to 1750 /~s initially but
decreased with repeated discharges.
The reverse voltage across a cavity has a pronounced effect if the polarity
of the impulse is reversed. Consider an impulse of sufficient magnitude to
produce discharges in a dielectric containing a gaseous cavity. If a second im-
pulse of the same polarity is applied, the impulse must overcome the reverse
voltage so that the voltage across the cavity will be vs (t) -vR, where Vs (t) is
the instantaneous voltage across the cavity due to the applied impulse. If,
however, the second impulse is of the opposite polarity to the first, the reverse
voltage is of the same polarity as the second impulse, resulting in an increas-
ed voltage across the cavity and a higher probability of the occurrence of a
discharge. Figures 12.18 and 12.19 show the effect of the polarity reversal on
the apparent discharge magnitude and discharge-inception stress with and
without a conditioning impulse of half the full voltage every time the polarity
is changed. In Fig. 12.18, ten impulses of one polarity were applied followed
by ten impulses of the opposite polarity. Once a discharge occurred, the first
impulse immediately after a polarity reversal usually produced discharges.
At much higher stresses, discharges occurred during more than one impulse
at each voltage level until every impulse produced a discharge. The
magnitude of the first main discharge after a polarity reversal was much
larger than subsequent discharges during impulses of the same polarity. This
larger discharge can be explained by the reverse voltage increasing the
voltage across the cavity during the first main discharge but reducing the
cavity voltage in subsequent impulses of the same polarity. For an unaged
cavity in low-density polyethylene, the reverse voltage, calculated from the
apparent discharge magnitude, varied between 50 and 80 percent of the
breakdown voltage from Paschen's curve. In Fig. 12.19, a conditioning im-
pulse of half the full voltage was applied every time the polarity was changed.
Once discharges initiated, the conditioning impulse usually produced a
discharge, the magnitude of which was considerably less than if no condition-
FIG. 12.18--Effect of polarity reversal on discharge magnitude, 1/50-tts impulse (after

Densley and Salvage [10]).
FIG. 12.19--Effect of conditioning impulse on polarity reversal, 1/50-tts impulse. Condition-

ing impulse is 50 percent of full voltage (after Densley and Salvage [10]).
ing impulse was applied. If the conditioning impulse did not induce a
discharge, the discharge during the first impulse of full voltage was about the
same magnitude as when no conditioning impulse was applied. The condi-
tioning impulse is effective in reducing the discharge magnitude only if a
discharge occurs during the conditioning impulse. The discharge-inception
stress was approximately equal for both polarities. If a cavity was well aged
by the action of repeated discharges so that the reverse voltage is negligible,
the first main discharge after a polarity reversal was the same magnitude as
those during subsequent impulses of the same polarity. The conditioning im-
pulse had no effect for aged cavities.
Cavities adjacent to a metal electrode exhibited the same general behavior
as totally enclosed cavities except that the 50 percent impulse-inception stress
was lower and the inception stress decreased at a faster rate with repeated
discharges. No significant difference in the magnitude of the main discharge
was observed for positive and negative impulses.
Densley [13] also investigated the partial discharge behavior of cavities
within low-density and cross-linked polyethylenes when 1.2/50-#s impulses
were superimposed on alternating voltage (60 Hz). The same general
behavior of the partial discharges during the impulse was observed as men-
tioned in the preceding paragraphs. Figure 12.20 shows the variation in the
total peak inception stress with peak alternating stress. The impulse-
inception stress is not significantly changed if the alternating voltage is less
than 50 percent of the discharge-inception value. Above this voltage, the 50
percent impulse-inception stress decreases with increasing a-c voltage. For
an alternating voltage of 90 percent of the inception value, the impulse-
inception stress was less than 50 percent of its original value. The reduction is
due to a single a-c discharge that reduces the reverse voltage across the cavi-
ty. The single a-c discharge was predicted from theory. When the alternating
voltage was above the discharge extinction but below the discharge-inception
value, discharges, initiated by the impulse, persisted for some seconds but
usually extinguished before the next impulse was applied, that is, 5 s. The
number of cycles containing discharges was independent of the amplitude of
the applied impulse, increased with increasing alternating voltage and
decreased as the cavity was aged by the action of previous discharges. Kind
[32], using switching surges superimposed on alternating voltage, observed
that discharges in cavities in molded low-density polyethylene and epoxy
resin specimens could persist if the alternating voltage was above the
discharge-extinction value. Discharges continued for periods of 1 rain and
sometimes indefinitely if the alternating voltage was close to the discharge-
inception value.
Mason [12] applied rectified alternating voltage (half wave) to poly-
ethylene, oil-impregnated paper and mica specimens containing artificial
cavities. If the amplitude of the rectified ac was the same as the full-
wave alternating voltage at discharge-inception, V,-, one discharge occurred
on the first voltage peak and none thereafter. Continuous discharges were
recorded when the peak rectified voltage was increased to 1.7 V;.
Alston and Dawson [27] measured the times to breakdown of two low-
density polyethylene sheets containing an artificial cavity subjected to
unidirectional impulses and trains of oscillatory pulses. No attempt was
made to measure the partial discharges although the applied stress was about
ten times the a-e discharge-inception value. The life curves for 1/50-/~s im-
pulses is shown in Fig. 12.21, the hatched area indicates the scatter in the
C
5 0 m 0
~25
5
~2o
z
o.
covity d=omefer 2.Smm
z covity depth O.15mrn
0 ] I I I I
0 2 4 6 8 I0
PEAK ALTERNATING STRESS IN CAVITY (kV/mm)
FIG. 12.20--Discharge inception stress for 1/50-tts impulse superimposed on alternating

voltage (after Densley [13]).
results. The life was independent of the impulse repetition rate that was
varied between one impulse per second to five impulses per second, and also
independent of the wave shape of the impulse for times to peak from 0.2 to
300/~s and times to half value from 0.5 to 1000/~s.
12.5.2 Components
The sensitivity of partial discharge measurements under impulse-voltage
conditions, as for alternating voltages, is determined by the capacitance and
physical size of the test object, the larger the capacitance or physical size or
both the lower the sensitivity.
12. 5.2.1 Transformers--Izeki et al [25] report the results of impulse tests
on models of oil-immersed transformer insulation and a dry-type current
transformer. The apparent discharge magnitude increases linearly with the
test voltage for the oil/paper insulation so that, by extrapolation, the
discharge inception voltage could be determined. The smallest discharge
detected was about 200 000 pC. For the gas-insulated current transformer, a
combination of two techniques were used, the Lissajous figure and the pulse-
current methods. The inception voltage for the two methods was 30 and 10
z
olE.
I0 F
0
Q
IO4
~ ~o3
jO z
i~J
r
z I01
,oo
0 20 40 60 80 I00
STRESS ( k V / m m )
FIG. 12.21--Ltfestress curve for polyethylene, 1/50-#s impulse (after Alston and Dawson
|271).
kV, respectively, indicating the superior sensitivity with the pulse-current

method.
Impulse tests on power transformers involve the comparison of the neutral
current flowing for reduced and full impulse voltage levels. If the shape of the
two current osciUograms are sufficiently different from each other, the
transformer is considered to be faulty. This test is relatively insensitive to
partial discharges.
Hessen and Lampe [29] subjected models of transformer insulation to
100/2000-#s surges superimposed on an alternating-voltage. Continuous
partial discharges were recorded during the ac if the alternating voltage was
above 0.75 times the discharge-inception value and a surge greater than 1.7
times the peak a-c discharge-inception value applied to initiate the
discharges. Tests on an actual transformer showed that surges of three times
the peak a-c discharge-inception voltage superimposed on an alternating
voltage of 0.8 times the inception value were needed to maintain continuous
partial discharges. The authors concluded that the a-c discharge-extinction
voltage is not lowered by discharges produced during a switching surge.
12.5.2.2 C a b l e s - - I m p u l s e tests on cables or cable models involve testing
to breakdown without measuring partial discharges. Rhodes et al [28], in
their study of the suitability of gas-filled polyethylene-taped cables, observed
a decrease of greater than 30 percent in the impulse strength with repeated
1/50-/~s impulses. The decrease was attributed to deterioration by partial
discharges. The impulse strength of tapes lapped with a 50/50 registration

were significantly lower than a 65/35 registration. The 50/50 registration
allowed discharges on both sides of the tape, and if all the butt gaps are
discharging, there is an increase in the stress in the polyethylene by 100 per-
cent. Polarity reversal tests produced breakdowns up to 20 percent lower
than for single polarity tests. The results verify that partial discharges play a
considerable role in the impulse breakdown of gas pressurized polyethylene-
taped cables.
12.6 Conclusions
The detection and measurement of partial discharges under impulse-
voltage conditions is very difficult especially in large apparatus such as
transformers and cables. This is because of the large capacitive charging cur-
rent that swamps the discharge currents, and also the frequency spectrum of
an impulse having a wave front < 1 #s approaches that of the discharge pulse
so that it becomes difficult to separate the discharge pulse from the applied
voltage. For transmission systems operating at the higher voltage levels, the
switching surge behavior is very important in the design of the insulation for
the various components. The slower rise times of the switching surges make
partial-discharge detection and measurement easier than for 1.2/50-#s im-
pulses.
Bridge circuits have been used successfully for studies on small capac-
itance specimens, but the effects of stray inductance and capacitance
introduce problems in balancing the bridge and lowers the sensitivity when
testing large components. Measuring the residual charge remaining after the
impulse has decreased to zero has some advantages but can yield misleading
results and is difficult to perform in physically large test specimens such as
transformers. The use of low-loss fiber-optics might be considered to isolate
the discharge pulse from the applied impulse. The light guide could be
embedded in large test objects to locate the discharges deep in the insulation.
There will be problems in calibrations, but these are not insurmountable.
Tests using rectified alternating voltage or continuous pulses show that the
discharge-inception stress is greater than 1.7 times the inception stress for
full alternating voltage. For short duration impulses (1.2/50-#s) applied at a
much slower repetition rate, the impulse-inception stress in unaged cavities
(that is, cavities with little or no previous discharge history or a cavity that
has been rested for some hours) is much greater than the a-c discharge-
inception stress and is dependent on the impulse wave shape and cavity size,
increasing with decreasing cavity diameter and depth and impulses of shorter
duration. With repeated discharges produced by impulse, switching-surge,
or alternating voltages, the impulse-inception stress decreases to reach a
minimum value that is similar to that for alternating voltages (that is, a
hysteresis effect is evident). The hysteresis effect is probably due to the
absence of an initiatory electron to initiate the discharge while the voltage is

above the ionization level of the gas in the cavity, but the electrons become
more readily available with repeated discharges.
Impulses produce two types of discharges: (a) a main discharge that con-
sists of a number of discharges occurring within the resolution time of the
detector and completely discharges the cavity; this discharge pulse usually
occurs near the crest of the impulse, and (b) the reverse discharges that are
opposite in polarity to the main discharge and occur on the tail of the im-
pulse. The difference between the charge transferred by the main discharge
and the sum of the reverse discharges sets up a reverse voltage across the
cavity. For aged cavities, the reverse voltage decays to a negligible value by
the time the next impulse is applied.
The first impulse after a polarity reversal produces a discharge of larger
magnitude than subsequent discharges of the same polarity. The magnitude
of the first main discharge can be reduced if a conditioning impulse of re-
duced magnitude is applied when the polarity is reversed. To be effective, the
conditioning impulse must produce a discharge. The conditioning impulse
has no effect on aged cavities, as the magnitude of the main discharge after a
polarity reversal is the same as during subsequent impulses of the same
polarity.
The apparent discharge magnitude is proportional to the amplitude of the
applied impulse unlike for alternating voltages where the frequency of the
discharges increase with voltage but their magnitudes do not change.
When an impulse or switching surge is superimposed on alternating
voltage, the discharge-inception stress is not affected by the alternating stress
provided the a-c stress is less than 50 percent of the discharge-inception
value. Above this stress, discharges in the alternating voltage reduce the
reverse voltage across the cavity resulting in an impulse of lower amplitude to
produce discharges. Discharges, initiated by an impulse, can persist or ex-
tinguish under alternating voltage depending on the amplitude of the latter.
If the alternating voltage is close to the discharge-inception value, discharges
may be continuous. The time during which the discharges persist under the
alternating voltage is independent of the amplitude of the impulse and
depends on the previous discharge behavior, the discharges tending to ex-
tinguish in an aged cavity.
Impulse-voltage and switching surge test levels of high-voltage apparatus
are sufficiently high that partial discharges will occur in cavities or in oil that
do not discharge at the normal working alternating stresses, that is, unaged
cavities. Practical difficulties prevent these discharges from being measured,
particularly for rapidly rising impulses. The exact role of partial discharges
in the impulse and switching surge breakdown mechanism of transformers
and cables is not known, and further research is needed.
For oil/solid composite insulations, the partial discharge behavior for im-
pulses or switching surges superimposed on an alternating voltage is par-
ticularly important as it has significant practical and economic importance

with regard to power transformers, capacitors, and cables. A partial
discharge in the oil subjected to an impulse might generate sufficient gas to
produce self-sustaining partial discharges at the lower aoc voltage level
resulting in a discharge extinction voltage much lower than the inception
value. The behavior will depend on the rates of gas evolution and absorption,
geometry of the electrodes, magnitude and shape of the impulse, etc. No fun-
damental studies have been undertaken to characterize the behavior and to
determine, for example, if additives can increase the impulse-inception stress
or the a-c extinction stress. Such studies can be made on simple geometries
incorporated into a bridge circuit. The results would aid in specifying
impulse- and switching-surge test voltages in addition to determining a pos-
sible mechanism of deterioration for power transformers, capacitors, and
cables.
References
[1] Kreuger, F. H., Discharge Detection in High Voltage Equipment. American Elsevier, New
York, 1965.
[2] Kelen, A., Acta Polytechnica Scandinavica, Vol. El-16, 1967, pp. 1-138.
[3] Hall, H. C. and Russek, R. M., Proceedings, Institution of Electrical Engineers, Vol. 101,
Part II, 1954, pp. 47-54.
[4] Salvage, B., Proceedings. Institution of Electrical Engineers, Vol. 111, June 1964, pp.
1162-1172.
[5] Mitra, G. and Salvage, B., Proceedings, Institution of Electrical Engineers, Vol. 113, May
1966, pp. 931-935.
[6] Sakr, M. M. and Salvage, B., Proceedings, Institution of Electrical Engineers, Vol. 111,
June 1964, pp. 1176-1179.
[7] DeAns, J., C., Greenhaus, H. L., Johnston, D. R., DuPont, F. Y., Lynn, A. L., Pletenik,
A., and Pfeiffer, H. G., "Research and Development on Corona Resistant Materials,"
ASD Technical Report No. 61-693. 1962.
[8] Degn, D., "Partial Discharges in Solid Dielectrics," thesis presented at Technical Univer-
sity of Denmark, Lyngby, 1971.
[9] K/irkk/iinen, S., "Physical Mechanisms of Partial Discharges," Publication No. 6,
Technical Research Center of Finland, Electrical and Nuclear Technology, Helsinki, 1974.
[10] Densley, J. and Salvage, B., Transactions on Electrical Insulation, Institute of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers, Voi. EI-6, June 1971, pp. 54-62.
[11] Densley, J., "Electrical Discharges in Gas-Filled Cavities Within Solid Dielectrics Under
Impulse-Voltage Conditions," thesis presented at University of London, England, 1967.
[12] Mason, J. H., Proceedings, Institution of Electrical Engineers, Vol. 100, Pt. IIa, 1953, pp.
149-158.
[13] Densley, J., Transactions on Electrical Insulation, Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers, Vol. El-S, Dec. 1970, pp. 96-103.
[14] Beldi, F., Brown BoveriReview, Vol. 37, No. 6, 1950, p. 179.
[15] Anderson, J. G., Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, American Institute of
Electrical Engineers, Vol. 75, Part III, Dec. 1956, pp. 1193-1198.
[16] Vogel, F., Transactions on Electrical Engineering, American Institute of Electrical
Engineers, Vol. 57, Jan. 1938, pp. 34-36.
[17] Montsinger, V. M., Transactions on Electrical Engineering. American Institute of Elec-
trical Engineers, Vol. 57, April 1938, pp. 183-195.
[18] Saxe, R. F. and Meek, J. M., Nature, Vol. 162, Aug. 1948, pp. 263-64.
[19] English, W. N., Physical Review, Vol. 77, No. 6, March 1950, p. 850.
[20] Bashara, N. M., Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, American Institute of
Electrical Engineers, Vol. 80, Pt. III, April 1961, pp. 115-119.
[21] Moore, D. B. and English, W. N., Journal of Applied Physics, Vol. 20, April 1949, pp.
370-375.
[22] Hagenguth, J. H. and Liao, T. W., Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems,
American Institute of Electrical Engineers, Vol. 71, Part III, Jan. 1952, pp. 461-465.
[23] Miles, J.-G., Metropolatan Vickers Gazette, Vol. 25, Sept. 1954, pp. 367-369.
[24] Salvage, B., Mitra, G., and Sakr, M., Proceedings, Institution of Electrical Engineers,
Vol. 112, May 1965, pp. 1056-60.
[25] Izeki, N., Kurahashi, A., and Matsuura, K., ElectricalEngineering in Japan, Vol. 85, No.
4, 1965, pp. 51-62.
[26] Anderson, J. G. and Kresge, J. S., Transactions on Communications and Electronics,
American Institute of Electrical Engineers, Vol. 76, Part I, 1957, pp. 449-454.
[27] Alston, L. L. and Dawson, P. G., Proceedings, Institution of Electrical Engineers, Vol.
112, April 1965, pp. 814-817.
[28] Rhodes, R. G., Wootton, R. E. and Nugent, H., Proceedings, Institution of Electrical
Engineers, Vol. 112, Aug. 1965, pp. 1617-1624.
[29] Hessen, P. and Lampe, W., Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Vol. PAS-91, 1972, pp. 1225-1234.
[30] Densley, J. and Salvage, B., Electronics Letters, Vol. 2, Nov. 1966, pp. 430-432.
[31] Densley, J. and Salvage, B., Electronics Letters, Vol. 3, July 1967, p. 312.
[32] Kind, D., "Deterioration of Plastic Insulation by Partial Discharges," 6th Symposium on
Electrical Insulating Materials, Institute of Electrical Engineers of Japan, 1973.
STP669-EB/Feb. 1979
Subject Index
A Stethoscope, listening tube, 330,
394
Acoustic detection techniques Tests on transformers, 359
Attenuation, 334, 337, 339, 340, Thin sheet behavior, 341
346, 359, 367 Transducers, 331,353, 403
Characteristic impedance, 336, Transmission line spectra, 345,
337, 395 348
Corona charge, 355, 358, 361, Transverse shear waves, 335
365 Units, 328
d-constant, 342 Void size estimates, 353
Diffraction, 342 Wave velocity, 335
Diffusion losses, 337 Acoustic emission, 329, 334, 344,
Directivity, 333, 377, 399, 403 346, 351,380
Discharge energy, 334, 359, 360, Acoustic location techniques
365, 380 Attenuation, 368, 380, 389, 392,
Gas insulation spectra, 350 394, 397
g-constant, 332, 357 Averaging and cross correlation,
Human ear, 329 373
Lamb waves, 336 Cables, 377
Lightning spectra, 344, 355, 359, Capacitors, 382
364 Corona gun, 375
Liquid insulation spectra, 349 Delay time method, 372
Line insulator spectra, 345, 348 Electronic data retrieval, 373
Longitudinal waves, 334 Impedance, 397
Low pressure effects, 351, 388 Parabolic microphone, 392, 399
Microphones, 330 Particle emission, 385
Molecular absorption, 339 Reactors, 373
Point discharge spectra, 346 Reflection effects, 372
Point source, 337 RIV measurements, 375
Rayleigh surface waves, 335 Rotating machines, 367
Reflection coefficient, 337 Sensitivity, 367, 375, 377
Refraction, 343 SF6 cables, 378
Resonance in voids, 349, 402 SF6 switchgear, 379
RIV relationship, 365, 377, 379 Sound snooper, 375
Sensitivity, 329, 330, 331, 333, Transducer mounting, 367, 369
357 Transformers, 368, 370
Solid insulation spectra, 348 Transmission lines, 375
Downloaded/printed by 5O5
Copyright*1979 by ASTM International www.astm.org

Triangulation method, 371 Breakdown mechanisms, 25, 27,

Wave guides, 393,395 473, 476
Acoustic resonant column, 355 Breakdown potential, 24
Acoustic velocity, 354 Breakdown voltage, 35, 38, 41, 45,
Air, 16, 24, 52, 123, 129, 230, 340, 50, 310, 416
359, 364, 393, 398, 453 Bushings, 115, 118, 434, 461
Aluminum, 336, 338, 340, 355, Butyl rubber, 136, 157, 339
381,387, 398, 402
Ammonium dihydrogen phosphate, C
331
Anode, 26, 28, 452, 454 Cables, 12, 116, 136, 145, 157, 261,
Antioxidant, 239 313, 315, 378, 462
Apparent corona charge, 101, 106, Cable corona tests
108, 117, 119, 123, 135, 140, s-response, 93, 141,149
181,310, 312, 427, 484, 490, Acoustic methods, 377
494, 498 Attenuation, 108
Apparent discharge curve, 117, 127 B-response, 93, 141
Apparent/true charge ratio, 118, Calibration, 142, 149
120 Characteristic impedance, 105, 306
Apparent voltage across void, 37 d-c methods, 434
Arc discharge, 9 Detected pulse shape, 106, 146
Argon, 24, 244 Discharge pulse reflection, 105,
Avalanche (see Electron avalanche) 108, 148, 169, 306, 448
HV cable and: terminations, 156
Length effects, 106, 108
B
Pulse integration, 109, 149
Bakelite, 338 Pulse superposition, 108, 141
Balanced bridge networks Termination impedance, 105,
Common rejection ratio, 97 149, 306
Double input balanced type, 97, Void location methods, 139, 377
165 Calibration capacitor, 70, 149,
Low frequency bridge, 165 152, 189, 278
Wye-delta transformation, 98 Calibration procedures
Ballast impedance, 4 Bandwidth effects, 75
Barium titanate sensor, 331, 369 High voltage mode, 73
Barkhausen noise, 369, 374, 485 Injected charge value, 76
Basic impulse level (BIL), 114, 196 Low voltage mode, 77
Beryllium, 397 Pulse rise time, 75, 152
Blocking capacitance, 69, 110, 288, Pulse shape, 74, 152
318 Capacitors, 13, 116, 382, 384
Bridge test methods, 264, 265, 442, Carbonic acid, 238
486 Cathode, 26, 28, 453, 476
Bond energy, 128 Cavities (see Voids)
Brass, 338, 398 Ceramics, 131,331
INDEX 507
Characteristic impedance, 105, 306, Discharge energy, 429

336 Discharge inception voltage,
Charge content or transfer, 36, 68, 411,427, 436, 463
94 Discharge magnitude, 427, 458,
Charging current, 111, 164, 486, 461
489 Discharge rate, 416, 418, 422,
Charging of particles, 19 429, 436, 449, 453, 458,
Conducting paint, 207 461
Conduction current, 428 Discharge sequence, 418, 432,
Copper, 338, 382, 386, 398 438
Copper oxide, 240 Discharge site, 430, 462
Corona cutting, 224 Electrical stress, 414, 419
Corona discharge (definition), 3, Gas pressure changes, 434
135 K-value, 419
Corona discharge pattern, 116 Oil/paper tests, 458
Corona energy loss (see Discharge Polarity reversal, 438, 440, 452,
energy loss) 456, 458
Corona extinction voltage (CEV), Pulse counting techniques, 445
115, 122, 125 Polyethylene tests, 449
Corona factor, 150 Ramp voltage relationship, 456
Corona inception voltage (CIV), Remnant (residual) voltage, 416,
37, 113, 118, 121, 135, 153,. 429
313, 411, 427, 463, 476 Stress inversion, 434
Corona mechanical stress cracking, Superimposed alternating volt-
221 ages, 435, 456, 462
Cross linking, 129 Temperature influence, 433
Crystallization, 262 Time constant, 418, 419, 438
Curie point, 332 Time interval, 417
Cyclohexane, 340 Voltage change effects, 438, 456
d-c insulation resistance, 162, 430
Dendrites (see trees)
D
Detection coil, 288
Damped oscillation transient, 139, Detection impedance, 111, 139,
288 289, 290, 300, 442
d-c corona discharges Detection of discharges
Airborne apparatus tests, 462 Acoustic methods, 137, 138, 327
Anomalous conductivity, 432 Basic circuit, 69, 71
Bushing tests, 461 Chemical method, 138
Breakdown voltage, 416 Heat detection method, 138
Cable tests, 462 Light detection method, 138
Calibration methods, 446 RC circuit, 30, 70, 141, 298, 318
Conductivity effects, 430 RIV method, 111,115, 347
Detection circuits, 442 RLC circuit, 70, 106, 139, 141,
Discharge current, 428 288
Under d-c conditions, 99, 409, Metallic-dielectric, 32, 48, 51,

441 303
Under impulse conditions, 485 Parallel-plane (metallic), 24, 41,
Detection system sensitivity, 68, 45, 311
122, 125, 444, 488, 490, 498 Point-to-plane (metallic), 9, 19,
Dielectric constant (permittivity), 23, 350, 374, 486
29, 419, 471 Point-to-point (metallic), 10
Discharge Sphere-to-plane, 351
Area, 181 Electro-mechanical stress cracking,
Degradation rate, 36, 122, 127, 221
130, 137, 158, 215, 315, Electron
322, 454, 458 Capture, 8
Energy, 36, 54, 58, 63, 118, 122, Charge, 8, 26
127, 136, 266, 305, 315, 360, Collision, 24
429, 484 Emission, 248
Epochs, 37, 41, 42, 45, 310 Free, 26
Intensity or magnitude, 36, 135, In streamer discharge, 28
140, 181,310, 312, 427, 484, In Townsend discharge, 28
490, 494, 498 Ionizing, 26, 179, 475
Pit depth, 128 Kinetic energy, 24
Pulse repetition rate (see Rate) Mean free path, 16, 26, 388
Power loss, 60, 270, 429 Recombination, 8, 493
Rate, 40, 43, 45, 124, 293, 416, Regeneration probability, 27
429, 436, 495 Trapping, 32, 438
Sites, 32, 47, 51, 58, 63, 179, Velocity, 28
294, 310, 312, 315, 375, 430, Electron avalanche, 7, 26, 28, 32,
478, 484 473
Time, 40, 47, 145, 185 Electrostatic
Directional pattern, 333 Paint spray, 19
Dissipation factor of discharge, 62, Precipitator, 19
136, 162, 209, 214, 266, 270 Separation, 17
Dissipation factor tip-up, 124, 270 Elmo's Fire, Saint, 3
Distilled water, 241,340 Endurance tests
Distributed parameter systems, 80, Ambient air/nitrogen effects, 230
85, 105, 141,306 Carbonic acid formation, 238
Double pulse calibrator, 153 Copper electrodes, 240
Dust particles, 363,378 Corona degradation of polyeth-
ylene (PE), 224, 226, 228,
230, 234
Corona degradation of polytetra-
E
fluoroethylene (PTFE), 241
Ebonite, 338 Direct electrode-contact method,
Electrodes 223
Dielectric, 31, 323, 449, 458 Effect of antioxidant, 239
INDEX 509
Effect of carbon dioxide, 235 G

Effect of electrode weight, 239
Gases
Effect on tan/~ value, 234
Air, 16, 24, 52, 230, 340, 359,
Indirect electrode method, 222
364, 393, 398, 453, 486
Intrinsic dielectric strength, 222
Argon, 24
Humidity effects, 231, 240, 244
Carbon dioxide, 231,235, 398
Mechanical elongation effects,
Helium, 24, 56, 303
228, 244
Hydrogen, 24, 128, 136, 350,
Mechanical stress relaxation,
225, 230 384, 398
Oxalic acid crystals, 230 Methane, 136
Neon, 24, 354, 398
Ozone effects, 224
Nitrogen, 16, 18, 24, 230, 244,
Plastic insulation, 223
339, 398, 453
Rod-to-plane electrodes, 226
Rubber insulation, 223 Oxygen, 18, 24, 52, 65, 339, 398
Silicone fluid immersion, 238 Ozone, 4, 12, 17, 223, 244, 329
Specimen preparation, 225, 240 Sulfur hexafluoride, 16, 52, 339,
Stainless steel electrodes, 239 344, 380, 398
Stress annealing effects, 229 Geiger counter, 18
Stress cracking, 221 Generator coils, 116, 123, 177, 184
Generator insulation, 211,323, 325,
Surface cracks, 230, 234
367
Surface resistivity changes, 234
Tree growth, 221 Geometrical relaxation r6gime, 388
Weak-link phenomenon, 222 Glow discharges, 52, 58, 64, 99,
Epoxy resins, 318, 322, 497 346, 389
Glycerin, 343,367, 384
Equivalent void circuit, 34, 118,
283,412, 470 Ground interference, 160
Erosion rate, 129
Ethylene propylene rubber (EPR), H
130, 137, 313
Half toroid core, 218
Helium, 24, 56, 303
High frequency current transformer,
186
Hook-up wire, 12
F Human ear, 329
Fiberglass, 399, 401 Hydrogen, 24, 128, 136, 350, 384,
Field test equipment, 161 398
Field tests, 157 Hydrophilic contaminants, 262
Foil edges, 385
Formative time lag, 476
I
Franklin, Benjamin, 3
French cell, 222 Impregnated paper, 129, 136, 271,
Full cable reel tests, 139, 141, 151 293,431,458, 470
Impregnated pressboard, 340, 365, Inverted tan6 bridge, 163

415, 439, 458 Ionization, 5, 7, 26, 474
Impulse corona discharges Ionization factor, 136
Cable tests, 499 Ions
Calibration method, 488 Bombardment, 13, 135
Conditioning impulse, 495 Column or avalanche, 26
Damped oscillation condition, In streamer discharge, 30
479 In Townsend discharge, 30
Detection methods, 485 Traps, 32, 248, 458
Discharge duration time, 476 Velocity in discharge, 28
Discharge energy, 484, 489 Isolating impedance, 113
Discharge inception voltage, 476,
483
K
Discharge magnitude, 484, 489,
494, 498 Kerosene, 340
Discharge mechanism, 473
Discharge rate, 488, 491,495
L
Discharge sequence, 476
Discharge sites, 478, 484 Laminar insulation, 211
Main discharge, 493 Lead titanate sensors, 331,357
Polarity reversal, 491, 495, 500 Lead zirconate sensors, 331,357
Polarization charge, 477 Lightning, 327, 344, 355, 359, 364
Polyethylene tests, 491 Lightning rod, 3, 17
Remnant (residual) voltage, 477 Line dampers, 377
Residual charge, 490 Line filters, 114
Reverse discharges, 477, 493 Line joints, 377
Sensitivity, 488, 490, 498 Line noise, 114
Shielding, 487 Listening rod, 369
Superimposed alternating volt- Lumped capacitance specimens,
age, 479 116, 289, 306
Transformer tests, 498 Lumped parameter systems
Wavetail discharges, 493 Definition, 101
Impulse wave, 114, 369, 469 Lumped to distributed parameter
Induced voltage tests, 186 transition, 105, 148
Inductive shunt, 188 Test criteria, 102
Inductively coupled probe, 215
Infrasonic frequencies, 329, 345
M
Insulating liquids, 334
Insulation resistance tests, 166 Machine coils, 207, 271
Insulator clamps, 377 Machine slots, 207
Insulator strings, 448 Magnesium, 387
Integration time, 149 Magnetostrictive noise (see Bark-
Interference rejection, 166 hausen noise)
Internal partial discharges (see Mean free path, 16, 26, 388
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(all rights reserved); Tue May 30 07:44:17 EDT 2017 Metallic particles, 380, 385
INDEX 511
Metallized films, 383 Oil-impregnated cables, 136, 293

Meteoric acoustical emission, 355 Oil-paper insulation, 129, 271,458,
Methane, 136 470
Methyl alcohol, 241 Organic glass, 338
Mica-asphalt insulation, 367 Overhead power lines
Mica synthetic resin insulation, 123, a-c corona, 15, 327, 345, 356,
178, 207, 367 375
Microbubbles (in oil), 363 Acoustic emission, 345
Microphone detectors, 330 Corona power loss, 15
Moisture effects, 12, I58, 161, 167, d-c corona, 346
232, 234, 240 Insulator corona, 345, 347, 377
Motor coils, 116, 121,123, 177, 184 r-f interference, 15, 20, 377
Motor insulation, 211,367 Oxalic acid, 4, 230, 234
Multichannel analyzers, 304, 320, Oxygen, 18, 24, 52, 65, 339, 398
445 Ozone, 4, 12, 17, 223, 244, 329
Mylar film, 343
N
P
Narrow band detectors
Attenuation, 147 Parabolic acoustic reflector, 330,
Cable length effects, 148 359, 392
Calibration method, 102 Parallelogram technique (Dakin
Corona pulse integration, 104 bridge)
Critical damping, 106 Calibration method, 277
Definition, 102 Capacitance increase, 279
Detected corona charge, 107, 147 Corona charge transfer, 278, 282
Noise rejection, 106 Corona pulse display unit, 280
Pulse decay time effects, 104 Energy per cycle, 278
Pulse form, 107, 147 Frequency rejection, 281
Pulse rise time effects, 102 Isolating transformer coupling,
Relative response, 102 281
Sensitivity, 113 Parallelogram trace, 276
Negative polarity discharges, 42, Sensitivity, 278, 281
303,323 Specimen capacitance, 279
Negative resistance, 8 Standard capacitor, 274, 281
Neoprene, 339, 343 Particle accelerators, 470
Nitrogen, 16, 18, 24, 230, 244, 339, Pascal's law, 328
398, 453 Paschen curve, 25, 123, 179, 416,
Nitrogen oxide, 18 434, 463, 495
Paschen's law, 24, 168, 412, 462,
473
O
Peak pulse corona meter, 218
Oil, 184, 337, 340, 343, 350, 353, Phase shifting circuit, 273
355, 358, 360, 362, 364, 385, Photoelectric emission, 27
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(all rights reserved); Tue May 30 07:44:17 EDT 2017 Photo-electrons, 7
Photomultiplier circuit, 287, 449, Discharge rate-voltage curve, 293

486 Discriminator circuit, 294, 299
Photons, 27, 287 Electronic counters, 286, 288
Piezoelectric ceramics, 331 Emitter follower circuit, 296
Piezoelectric crystals, 331 High resolution circuit, 295
Piezoelectricity, 331 Isolating amplifier, 296
Pin type insulators, 348 Monostable multivibrator, 295
Plasma channel, 28 Normalized counting mode, 299
Plastic films, 17 Parasitic oscillations, 295
Plexyglass, 393,395, 401 Photomultiplier methods, 287
Poisson's ratio, 397 Polarity sorting circuit, 291
Polarization charge, 477 Pulse inverter circuit, 290
Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB), Pulse resolution, 292
344 Schering bridge type circuit, 298
Polyethylene (PE), 4, 13, 17, 30, 33, Total pulse count circuits, 288
121,128, 137, 224, 255, 262, Pulse detection networks, 78
377, 398, 414, 431,442, 449, Pulse-height analysis techniques
491 Analog to digital converter, 304
Polymers, 17, 137, 240, 449 Calibration procedure, 307
Polymethylmethacrylate, 340 Clipping diode circuit, 303
Polyolefin resins, 251 Commercial multichannel ana-
Polystyrene, 337, 340, 398 lyzers, 304
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), 241 Corona charge pulse heights, 304
Polyvinyl chloride, 130, 157, 377 Corona current, 305
Porcelain insulators, 312 Corona energy loss, 305
Positive polarity discharges, 42, 323 Corona pulse distribution spec-
Potential bushing taps, 187 tra, 303
Potential difference, 5 Corona pulse integration, 307
Potential transformers, 374 d-c corona tests, 445
Power factor tip-up, 124, 270 Dead time, 304
Power frequency separation filter, Differential pulse-height distribu-
110 tion, 294
Precession of discharge epochs, 38, Distributed parameter specimens,
45, 47 306
Pseudoglow discharges, 52, 55, 64, Early high speed photography,
99 286
Pulse counting techniques Effect of time on pulse spectra,
Corona charge level, 293 315
Corona pulse shaping, 289, 445 Emitter follower circuit, 301
Corona pulse width, 294 Exclusive OR gate, 301
Critical damping, 290, 295 Isolation amplifier, 303
d-c corona tests, 445 1-f bridge type analyzer, 318
Demodulation circuit, 289 Metallic-dielectric electrode spec-
Differential counting mode, 299 tra, 312
Diode
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rights reserved); Tue May 30 295
07:44:17 EDT 2017 Metallic electrode spectra, 311
INDEX 513
Monostable multivibrator circuit, Radiated noise, 114, 125

301 Radio noise meters, 190, 196, 330,
Noise pulse spectrum, 309 377, 491
Power amplifier source, 319 Radius of discharge, 128
Pulse distribution peak, 311 Random noise, 218
Pulse shaping circuit, 307 Rate of voltage rise, 153
Pulse spectra of epoxy resins, RC detection network
318 Amplifier bandpass, 83, 85
Pulse spectra of EPR cables, 313 Amplifier input impedance, 85
Pulse spectra of impregnated Component capacitances, 82
papers, 318 Extraneous interference, 85
Push-puU amplifier, 303 Frequency response, 84
Single channel analyzer, 300 Frequency spectrum, 83
Starr analyzer method, 288 Pulse energy content, 83
Test frequency, 318 Pulse form, 81,444
Upper and lower level discrimina- Pulse resolution, 85
tor, 300 Specimen capacitance effects,
Window width, 301 82, 85
Pulse phase distribution Superposition effects, 86
Counting errors, 324 RC detection systems, 81,290, 298,
Distribution curve, 324 318, 443
Measuring circuit, 323 Reactor coils, 177, 485
Pulse propagation velocity, 141 Recurrence frequency of discharges
Pulse separation-interval distribu- (see Discharge rate)
tion Relaxation oscillator, 11
Calibration method, 321 Repetition rate (see Discharge rate)
Chopper pulse train, 321 Residual (remnant) voltage, 37, 41,
Operational amplifier, 319 45, 50, 123, 310, 416, 429,
Pulse separation spectra, 322 477
Synchronization circuit, 319 Reverse discharges, 439, 477, 493
Time-amplitude converter, 319 r-f choke, 319
Timer unit, 321 RLC detection network
Pulse transformers, 470 a-response, 93, 141,149
H-response, 93, 141
Q Bandwidth, 91, 93
Circuit parameters, 87, 288
Quantum of radiation, 6 Frequency response, 92
Quartz, 332, 338 Frequency spectrum, 89
Q-value of acoustic sensors, 358 Pulse energy content, 91, 96
Q-value of detection networks, 91 Pulse form, 89, 141,288, 444
Pulse resolution, 90, 93, 95
Q-value, 91
R
Resolution time, 94
Radial shock wave, 355 Resonant frequency, 89, 91, 144,
Radiant energy, 129
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Sensitivity, 91, 94, 150 Saturation current, 8

Signal to noise ratio, 94 Scanning method for cables, 139
Time constant, 88 Schering bridge, 267, 273, 298
Transformer detection imped- Secondary electron emission, 27
ance, 95 Semiconducting paint, 207, 211
RLC detection systems, 87, 288, Semiconductor shielding, 156, 315
295, 300, 443 Separator-filter, 145
Rochelle salt, 331 Sequence of discharge, 36, 47, 49,
Rotating machine tests 418, 432, 438, 476
Capacitance increase, 208 Shunt resistor (RIV tests), 193
Capacitance-tan6 bridge method, Silicone grease, 379
208 Silicone oil, 156
Charge-voltage parallelograms, Silicone rubber insulation, 130
212 Silver electrodes, 255, 387
Corona charge per cycle, 212 Single channel analyzer, 300, 303
Corona power loss per cycle, 212 Slivers, 385
Corona pulse detector measure- Soft ion finite core, 215
ments, 214 Sonic frequencies, 329, 345
Dakin capacitance bridge, 211 Sound wave guides, 332
Degradation studies, 215 Space charge, 11, 28, 32, 474
Discharge loss analyzer bridge, Spacer insulators, 379
212 Spark discharges, 26, 28, 32, 54,
Electromagnetic probe method, 349, 380, 394
215 Specimen capacitance, 69
Gradation of void depths, 213 Statistical time lag, 474, 494
Guard rings, 211 Stator slots, 215
Peak pulse corona meter, 218 Steel, 337, 340, 343, 398, 401
Pulse superposition effects, 207, Stray capacitance, 70
214 Streamer discharges, 28, 30, 185,
Rate of corona charge change, 344, 346, 350, 354, 356, 361,
210 364, 387, 473
Semiconducting paint effects, 211 Stress concentration factors, 180
Specimen coil tests, 211 Stress cones, 125
Surface or external discharges, Surface carbonization, 130
211 Surface charge distribution, 30, 32,
Tan6 increase, 209 179, 183,492
Test frequency limits, 213 Surface discharges, 32
Test specifications, 210 Surface resistivity, 29, 31,312
Void volume, 214 Surface resistivity time constant, 29
Surface temperature, 129
Switchgear components, 116
S
Switching surge, 469, 497
Safety circuit, 113 Synthetic rosin bonded papers, 32
INDEX 515
T Applied voltage influence, 254

Contamination effects, 262
Tangential discharges, 32, 476 Controlled void vented-needle
Temperature effects, 126 method, 258
Temperature gradient, 129 Corona initiated treeing, 248
Test standards, 116, 150, 155 Double electrode interior ground
Thunder, 327, 344, 355, 359 test, 249
Townsend discharge Electrode resin contact, 254
Breakdown criteria, 27 Electrochemical (water), trees,
First ionization coefficient, 26 259
Mechanism, 25 Frequency of test voltage, 254
Pulse form, 30, 473 Gap length effects, 252
Second ionization coefficient, 27 Gas pressure effects, 252
Transformer ratio arm bridge, 163, Grounded electrode geometry,
267, 269, 272 253
Transformer tests Intermittent tree growth, 251
Acoustic tests, 359, 368, 370 Molding considerations, 253
Attenuation, 177, 200 Needle test method, 249
Calibration procedure, 189 Non vented electrode test, 255
Detection circuit connections, 186 Particle effects, 252
Discharge pulse shape method, Point electrode sharpness, 253
207 Stress initiated treeing, 248, 252
Distributed parameter behavior, Sulfide trees, 261
177, 306 Tree branching, 248
Fourier spectra of pulses, 197 Tree channels (tubes), 249
Frequency response of RIV me- Tree propagation in PE, 246, 247
ters, 196 Treeing in polyolefins, 251
Impedance matching, 188, 194 Treeing in XLPE, 255
Location of discharges, 199 Vented electrode test method,
Pulse decay waveform, 186 256
Pulse reflection, 202 Voltage continuity considerations,
Quasi-peak to peak ratio, 199 254
Quasi-peak values, 184, 192 True discharge amplitude, 117
RIV bushing tap circuit, 194 Two-detector bridge method, 273
RIV coupling capacitor circuit,
193 U
RIV measurements, 184, 190, Ultrasonic emission, 348, 358
193 Ultrasonic frequencies, 329, 346
Time decay method, 204 Ultrasound velocity, 354
Voltage vector analysis method,
206
V
Winding resonances, 178
Tree growth mechanisms van deGraff generator, 19
Velocity of sound, 327, 348 Surface resistivity, 29, 169, 315,

Void size effects 322, 414
Charge integration, 169 Vapor pressure changes, 125,
Charge magnitude, 169 294, 434
Discharge energy, 172 Voltage-current characteristic,
Discharge potential, 168 264
Insulation degradation, 173 Voltage waveforrn across void,
Minimum detectable charge, 169 35, 47, 52, 56
Pseudoglow discharges, 174 Volume, 121,214
Vapor pressure, 171 Volume conductivity, 419, 422,
Water ingress, 170 430, 431,458, 461
Voids (cavities) Volume resistivity, 414
Alternating breakdown voltage,
23, 179, 304
W
Alternating voltage stress, 22,
119, 168, 179, 413, 472 Water, 170, 338, 340, 395, 398
Cylindrical geometry, 121, 168, Wax formation, 129, 131, 136, 138
179, 182, 413, 419, 422, 427, Wide band detectors
436, 438, 470, 472, 491 Amplitude errors, 102
Depth, 124, 303, 435, 439, 471 Calibration, 102
Direct voltage stress, 414, 419 Corona pulse integration, 104
Discharge process, 53, 294, 312, Cut-off frequencies, 102
315, 348 Definition, 102
Distribution, 123 Mid-band frequency, 102
Elliptical-cylindrical geometry, Pulse decay time effects, 104
413, 415, 419, 421 Pulse rise time effects, 102
Flat-shaped, 22, 119, 179 Relative response, 102
Oblate-spheroidal geometry, 413,
415, 419, 421,436, 472
X
Overvolting, 122, 476
Size, 124, 353, 451 Xerography, 19
Spherical geometry, 23, 120, 168,
179, 413, 427, 436
Z
Surface conductivity, 415, 419,
451,493 Zinc, 397
STP669-EB/Feb. 1979
Author Index
A Boyles, C. R., 373

Brown, R. D., 194
Allan, D. J., 347, 371,372 Buritz, R. S., 462
Alston, L. L., 497 Burnham, J., 446, 462, 463
Anderson, J. G., 369, 370, 371
Arabadzhi, V. I., 345
Austen, A. E. W., 35, 329 C
Austin, J., 373 Costello, D. A., 148
Craggs, J. D., 28, 29
Cronin, J. H., 358
B
Curie, J., 332
Badran, I. M. S., 458, 460 Curie, P., 332
Bahder, G., 106, 108, 109, 145, Czekaj, E., 446
146, 147, 148
Balachandran, N. K., 355
D
Bapt, J. C., 319, 320, 322
Bartnikas, R., 40, 41, 46, 48, 51, Dakin, T. W., 74, 83, 123, 180,
52, 53, 56, 57, 59, 63, 64, 182, 199, 201,204, 205, 208,
65, 74, 75, 99, 104, 148, 174, 209, 212, 213, 216, 217, 287
289, 291,292, 293, 296, 297, Dawson, G. A., 360
298, 301,302, 303, 306, 311, Dawson, P. G., 497
313, 314, 316, 317 Densley, J., 481, 482, 488, 491,
Bashara, N. M., 287 492, 493, 494, 496, 497, 498
Beg, S., 450, 451,454, 457 Devins, J. C., 29
Beldi, F., 369, 485 d'Ombrain, G. L., 41, 46, 63, 64,
Bennett, A. I., 214, 330 289, 293
Berg, D., 287 Donn, W. L., 355
Black, I. A., 318 Douglas, J. L., 452, 453, 454, 457,
Blodgett, R. B., 139, 140 462
Bolt, R. H., 388 Dubsky, F., 134
BOttcher, C. J. F., 179 Durgin, C. B., 351
E J
Eager, G. S., 106, 108, 109, 117, Johnston, L. W., 294
110, 146, 147, 148
Eichhorn, R.M., 262
K
Eigen, D., 139, 140
English, W. N., 486 Karkkainen, S., 323
Kashani, K., 347
F Kaye, G. W. C., 339
Kelen, A., 323
Franke, A. E., 446 Kimura, H., 369
Friedlander, E., 32, 33, 34 Kind, D., 446, 453, 497
Kitchen, D. W., 247, 249
G Knudsen, V. O., 339
K6nig, D., 379, 380
Gemant, A., 34, 37, 38 Kreuger, F. H., 85, 86, 95, 96, 98,
Gooding, F. H., 139 130, 377, 378
GraybiU, H. Q., 378
Gross, B., 32
L
ti Laby, T. H., 339
Hackett, W., 35, 329 Lampe, W., 480, 499
Hagenguth, J. H., 486 Lawson, W. G., 431,432, 433
Hall, H. C., 24, 179 Leslie, J. R., 356, 357, 375, 376
Haraldsen, S., 204 Levi, J. H. E., 48, 291, 296, 297,
Harrold, R. T., 200, 203, 206, 342, 298, 301,302, 303
349, 350, 352, 353, 354, 356, Liao, T. W., 486
357, 361, 362, 363, 364, 368, Little, R. S., 402
382, 383, 384, 386, 388, 390, Lucretius, T., 327
391,392, 393, 395, 396, 399,
400
M
Hellman, P. A., 196
H6roux, P., 351,352, 354 Malinaric, P., 211,212
Hessen, P., 490, 499 Mason, J. H., 27, 33, 105, 479, 497
Heyer, S. V., 158, 159 Mason, W. P., 394, 397
Hickling, G. H., 373, 374 Mathes, K. N., 315
Hinton, R. A., 373 Matson, J. J., 134
Hirabayashi, S., 123 Mayoux, C., 319, 322
Hogg, W. K., 298, 299 McMahon, E. J., 225, 247
Howells, E., 374, 375 Meek, J. M., 28, 29, 128
Melville, D. R. G., 419, 445
Mildner, R., 138
I
Miller, R., 318
Izeki, N., 489, 490, 498 Mitra, G., 414, 473
INDEX 519
Mole, G., 74, 101, 103, 104, 105, Rhodes, R. G., 499
109, 117 Robinson, D. M., 262
Montsinger, V. M., 485 Rogers, E. C., 442, 449, 450
Moore, D. B., 486 Roi, N. A., 361
Moore, H. R., 202 Russek, R. M., 24, 179
Morin, R., 292
Mailer, K. B., 446
Mykelbust, R., 196 S
Salvage, B., 414, 445, 450, 451,
454, 456, 457, 458, 461,472,
Narbut, P., 194, 195 473, 487, 488, 490, 491,492,
Nasser, E., 99 493, 494, 446
Naugol'nykh, K. A., 361 SchSnhuber, M. J., 24
Norton, E. T., 374, 375 Sekii, Y., 248
Noto, F., 254, 255, 256 Shanklin, G. B., 134
Shihab, S., 446, 453, 454, 455, 456,
457
O Simons, J. S., 212
O'Beirne, H., 356, 357, 375, 376 Skipper, D. J., 442, 449, 450
O'Dwyer, J. J., 431 Slade, H. B., 139
Ogihara, H., 337, 341, 356, 358, Sletten, A. M., 202, 203
360, 362, 371 Smith, L. E., 218
Okamoto, H., 124 Starr, W. T., 30, 31, 120, 287,
Olyphant, M., 247 294
Strong, N. G., 348
Studniarz, S. A., 182
P
Pakala, W. E., 375, 376, 377
Parr, D. J., 457, 462
T
Pascal, B., 328
Peek, F. W., 180 Takahashi, E., 458
Perkins, J. R., 225, 247 Talvio, E., 362, 364
Perrine, F. A. C., 134 Tan, T. T., 373
Petersen, W., 134 Tangen, K. O., 204
Pratt, O. S., 247 Thoeng, A. T., 204, 206
Thomas, A. M., 32
Thompson, J. H., 340, 344, 375,
R
376, 377, 403, 404
Raether, H., 28, 128 Timpe, N. B., 158, 159, 160, 161,
Rayner, E. H., 262 163
Reed, J. R., 32, 33, 34 Tobata, T., 260, 261
Reynolds, E. H., 262 Train, D., 374
Reynolds, S. I., 230 Trinh, Giao N., 351,352, 354
U Widmann, W., 123

Wilson, A., 368
Uman, M. A., 345
Wood, T. W., 373,374
V
Y
Vogel, F. J., 189, 485
Yoda, B., 248
von Philipoff, W., 34, 37, 38
Z
W
Zwass, S., 446, 462
Walley, C. A., 298, 299
Whitehead, S., 35, 40, 41, 45

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Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); Tue May 30 07:44:17 EDT 2017

ASTM SPECIAL TECHNICAL

List price $42.50

AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING AND MATERIALS

Printed in Baltimore, Md.

This publication is Volume I of a series entitled Engineering Dielectrics.

Spreading Resistance, STP 572 (1975), $3.55, 04-572000-46

Direct-Current Hysteresisgraphs, STP 526 (1973), $6.00, 04-526000-06

Direct-Current Magnetic Measurements for Soft Magnetic Materials, STP

1979 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, PaX 39 (1979), $33.00,

1979 Annum Book of ASTM Standards, PaX 40 (1979), $38.00,

CHAPTER 1--Some General Remarks on Corona Discharges--

CHAPTER 2--Corona Discharge Processes in Voids--R. BARTNIKAS 22

CHAPTER 3--Fundamentals of Partial Discharge Detection:

CHAPTER 4--Detection of Corona Discharges in Lumped Circuit

CHAPTER 5--Partlal Discharge Measurements in Distributed

CHAPTER 6--Measurement of Partial Discharges in Inductive

CHAPTER 7--Corona Endurance Tests--E. J. MCMAHON 221

CHAPTER 8--Corona Measurements Using Bridge Methods--

CHAPTER 9--Corona Pulse Counting and Pulse-Height Analysis

CHAPTER 10--Acoustical Techniques for Detecting and Locating

CHAPTER ll--Partlal Discharges Under Direct-Voltage

CHAPTER 12--Partial Discharges Under Impulse-Voltage

Subject Index 505

Author Index 517

The ASTM book series on Engineering Dielectrics is devoted to a com-

Copyright* 1979 by ASTM lntcrnational www.astm.org

tion to measurement. Chapter 1 has been included to provide a historical

Some General Remarks on Corona

1.1 Historical Background

Copyright* 1979 by ASTM International www.astm.org

1.2 Effects of Corona

1.3 Some Basics on Corona Discharges and Their Nature

1.3.1 Gaseous Ionization

1.3.2 Ionization by Collision

1.3. 3 Gas Discharge Characteristics

A gas discharge that, on a constant voltage difference, will build up the

1.3. 4 Corona Discharge Behavior

No avalanche effects are experienced in this range of applied voltage. Satura-

1.3.5 Electrode Geometry as a Source of Ballast Impedance

FIG. 1.3--Point-to-plane electrode system.

FIG. 1.4--Parallelgaps with external, individual ballasts.

FIG. 1.5--Individual ballasts with respective needle gaps.

1.4 Corona in Electrical Equipment

1.4.1 Unshielded Hook-Up Wire

1.4.2 Shielded High-Voltage Cables

tractive. As an example, a 500-MCM (thousand circular mil) conductor,

1.4.3 Oil-Impregnated-Paper Capacitors

FIG. 1.6--Dendrite growth in polyethylene (courtesy, E. J. McMahon ).

1.4. 4 Oil-Filled Power Transformers

1.4.5 Rotating Machinery

1.4. 6 Overhead Power Lines

practice, two parallel conductors spaced 6 to 8 in. apart are an economical

1.5 Methods for Eliminating Corona Discharges

1.6 Commercial Uses of Corona

1.6.1 Lightning Rods

1.6.2 Printing Treatment of Plastics Films

1.6. 3 Electrostatic Separation of Ores

1.6. 4 Ozone Generators

1.6.5 Geiger Counter

molecules is much greater. It consists of a pair of coaxial conductors, the

1.6. 6 Charging of Particles or Surfaces

1.7 Detection of Corona