Stephen III of Moldavia

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Stephen III the Great

Miniature from the 1473 Gospel at Humor Monastery

Prince of Moldavia

Reign 14571504

Predecessor Peter III Aaron

Successor Bogdan III

Born 14331440

Died 2 July 1504

Burial Putna Monastery

Spouse Mruca (?)

Evdochia of Kiev

Maria of Mangup

Maria Voichia of Wallachia

 Issue Alexandru

more... Bogdan III

Petru Rare

Dynasty Muat

Father Bogdan II of Moldavia

Mother Maria Oltea

Religion Orthodox

Stephen III of Moldavia, known as Stephen the Great (Romanian: tefan cel
Mare; pronounced [tefan t tel mare]; died on 2 July 1504) was voivode (or prince) of Moldavia from
1457 to 1504. He was the son and co-ruler of Bogdan II of Moldavia who was murdered in 1451.
Stephen fled to Hungary, and later to Wallachia, but with the support of Vlad the Impaler, Voivode of
Wallachia, he returned to Moldavia, forcing Peter III Aaron to seek refuge in Poland in the summer of
1457. Teoctist I, Metropolitan of Moldavia, anointed him prince. He broke into Poland and
prevented Casimir IV Jagiellon, King of Poland, from supporting Peter Aaron, but eventually
acknowledged Casimir's suzerainty in 1459.
Stephen decided to recapture Chilia (now Kiliya in Ukraine), an important port on the Danube, which
brought him into conflict with Hungary and Wallachia. He besieged the town during the Ottoman
invasion of Wallachia in 1462, but was seriously wounded during the siege. Two years later, he
captured the town. He promised support to the leaders of the Three Nations of
Transylvania against Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary, in 1467. Corvinus invaded Moldavia, but
Stephen defeated him in the Battle of Baia. Peter Aaron broke into Moldavia with Hungarian support
in December 1470, but was also defeated by Stephen and executed, along with the boyars who had
supported. Stephen restored old fortresses and erected new ones, which improved Moldavia's
defence system as well as strengthened central administration.
Ottoman expansion threatened Moldavian ports in the region of the Black Sea. In 1473, Stephen
stopped paying tribute to the Ottoman sultan and launched a series of campaigns against Wallachia
in order to replace its rulers who had accepted Ottoman suzerainty with his protgs. However,
each prince who seized the throne with Stephen's support was soon forced to pay homage to the
sultan. Stephen eventually defeated a large Ottoman army in the Battle of Vaslui in 1475. The
following year, the Ottoman Sultan, Mehmed II, routed him in the Battle of Valea Alb, but the lack of
provisions and the outbreak of a plague forced him to withdraw from Moldavia. Taking advantage of
a truce with Matthias Corvinus, the Ottomans captured Chilia, their Crimean Tatar allies Cetatea Alb
(now Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi in Ukraine) in 1483. Corvinus granted two Transylvanian estates to
Stephen to compensate him for the loss of the two ports. Stephen paid homage to Casimir IV of
Poland who promised to support him to regain Chilia and Cetatea Alb, but Stephen's efforts to
capture the two ports ended in failure. From 1486, Stephen again paid a yearly tribute to the
Ottomans. During the following years, dozens of stone churches and monasteries were built in
Moldavia, which contributed to the development of a specific Moldavian architecture.
Casimir IV's successor, John I Albert, wanted to grant Moldavia to his younger brother, Sigismund,
but Stephen's diplomacy prevented him from invading Moldavia for years. John Albert broke into
Moldavia in 1497, but Stephen and his Hungarian and Ottoman allies routed the Polish army in
 the Battle of the Cosmin Forest. Stephen again tried to recapture Chilia and Cetatea Alb, but had to
acknowledge the loss of the two ports to the Ottomans in 1503. During his last years, his son and
co-ruler, Bogdan III, played an active role in the government. Stephen's long rule represented a
period of stability in the history of Moldavia. From the 16th Century onwards both his subjects and
foreigners remembered him as a great ruler. Modern Romanians regard him as one of their greatest
national heroes. After the Romanian Orthodox Church canonized him in 1992, he is venerated
as Stephen the Great and Saint (Romanian: tefan cel Mare i Sfnt).

Contents
[hide]

1Early life

2Reign

o 2.1Consolidation

o 2.2Wars with the Ottoman Empire

o 2.3Conflicts with Poland

o 2.4Last years

3Family

4Legacy

o 4.1Stability

o 4.2Cultural development

o 4.3National hero

o 4.4Holy ruler

5See also

6References

7Sources

8External links

Early life[edit]
The Principality of Moldavia in 1483

Stephen was the son of Bogdan, who was a son of Alexander the Good, Prince of Moldavia.
[1]
Stephen's mother, Maria-Oltea,[1] was most probably related to the princes of Wallachia, according
to historian Radu Florescu.[2] The date of Stephen's birth is unknown,[3] though historians estimate
that he was born between 1433 and 1440.[4][5]
The death of Alexander the Good in 1432 gave rise to a succession crisis that lasted more than two
decades.[6][7] Stephen's father seized the throne in 1449 after defeating one of his relatives with the
support of John Hunyadi, Regent-Governor of Hungary.[8][6] Stephen was styled voivode in his father's
charters, showing that Stephen had been made his father's heir and co-ruler. [9] Bogdan
acknowledged the suzerainty of Hunyadi in 1450. [10] Stephen fled to Hungary after Peter III
Aaron (who was also Alexander the Good's son) murdered Bogdan in October 1451. [2][11][12]
Vlad Dracula (who had lived in Moldavia during Bogdan II's reign) invaded Wallachia and seized the
throne with the support of Hunyadi in 1456.[13] Stephen either accompanied Vlad to Wallachia during
the military campaign or joined him after Vlad became the ruler of Wallachia. [14] With the assistance
of Vlad, Stephen stormed into Moldavia at the head of an army 6,000 strong in the spring of 1457. [15]
[16]
According to Moldavian chronicles, "men from the Lower Country" (the southern region of
Moldavia) joined him.[15][17] The 17th-century Grigore Ureche wrote: "Stephen routed Peter Aaron
at Doljeti on 12 April, but Peter Aaron left Moldavia for Poland only after Stephen inflicted a second
defeat on him at Orbic."[12][15]

Reign[edit]
Consolidation[edit]
Coat-of-arms of Moldavia (Putna Monastery)

An assembly of the Wallachian boyars and clergymen acclaimed Stephen the ruler of Moldavia at a
meadow near Suceava[18] and Teoctist I, Metropolitan of Moldavia, anointed him prince.[12][18] To
emphasize the sacred nature of his rule, Stephen styled himself "By the Grace of God, ... Stephen
voivode, lord (or hospodar) of the Moldavian lands" on 13 September 1457. [19] He continued to pay
the yearly tribute to the Ottoman Empire initiated by his predecessor. [18][20]
Stephen broke into Poland to prevent Casimir IV from supporting Peter Aaron in 1458. [21] His first
military campaign "established his credentials as a military commander of stature", according to
historian Jonathan Eagles.[22] However, he wanted to avoid prolonged conflict with Poland, because
the recapture of Chilia was his principal aim.[20] Chilia was an important port on the Danube that Peter
III of Moldavia had surrendered to Hungary in 1448.[23] He signed a treaty with Poland on the
river Dniester on 4 April 1459.[20][24] He acknowledged the suzerainty of Casimir IV and promised to
support Poland against Tatar marauders.[24] Casimir in turn pledged to protect Stephen against his
enemies and to forbid Peter Aaron from returning to Moldavia. [24][25]Peter Aaron subsequently left
Poland for Hungary and settled in Szkely Land, Transylvania.[18]
Stephen invaded Szkely Land multiple times in 1461.[24] Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary,
decided to support Peter Aaron, giving him shelter in his capital at Buda.[24] Stephen then made a
new agreement with Poland in Suceava on 2 March 1462, promising to personally swear fealty to
Casimir IV if the king required it.[26] The new treaty declared that Casimir was the sole suzerain of
Moldavia, prohibiting Stephen from alienating Moldavian territories without his authorization. [27][28] The
treaty also obliged Stephen to recapture the Moldavian territories that had been lost, obviously in
reference to Chilia.[27][28]
Written sources evidence that the relationship between Stephen and Vlad Dracula became tense in
early 1462.[29] On 2 April 1462, the Genoese governor of Caffa (now Feodosia in Crimea) informed
Casimir IV of Poland that Stephen had attacked Wallachia while Vlad Dracula was waging war
against the Ottomans.[30] The Ottoman Sultan, Mehmed II, later invaded Wallachia in June 1462.
[31]
Mehmed's secretary, Tursun Beg, recorded that Vlad Dracula had to station 7,000 soldiers near
the Wallachian-Moldavian frontier during the sultan's invasion to "protect his country against his
Moldavian enemies".[32] Taking advantage of the presence of the Ottoman fleet at the Danube Delta,
Stephen laid siege to Chilia in late June.[32][33] According to Domenico Balbi, the Venetian envoy
in Constantinople, Stephen and the Ottomans besieged the fortress for eight days, but they could
not capture it, because the "Hungarian garrison and Dracula's 7,000 men" defeated them, killing
"many Turks".[32][34] Stephen was seriously wounded during the siege, suffering an injury on his left calf
that would never heal his entire life.[34]

The medieval fortress at Cetatea Alb (now Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi in Ukraine)

Putna Monastery, founded in 1469 by Stephen to commemorate the capture of Chilia

Stephen again laid siege to Chilia on 24 January 1465.[24][35] The Moldavian army bombarded the
fortress for two days, forcing the garrison to surrender on 26 January. [35] The sultan's vassal, Radu
the Fair, Voivode of Wallachia, had also laid claim to Chilia, thus the capture of the port gave rise to
conflicts not only with Hungary, but also with Wallachia and the Ottoman Empire. [36][37][38] In 1465,
Stephen peacefully regained the fortress of Hotin (now Khotyn in Ukraine) on the Dniester from the
Poles.[24] To commemorate the capture of Chilia, Stephen ordered the construction of the Church of
the Assumption of the Mother of God in a glade on the Putna River in 1466.[39]
At Matthias Corvinus's instance, the Diet of Hungary abolished all previous exemptions relating to
the tax known as the chamber's profit.[40] The leaders of the Three Nations of Transylvania who
regarded the reform as an infringement of their privileges declared on 18 August 1467 that they were
ready to fight to defend their liberties.[40]Stephen promised support to them,[24] but they yielded to
Corvinus without resistance after the king marched to Transylvania.[41] Corvinus invaded Moldavia
and captured Baia, Bacu, Roman and Trgu Neam.[24] Stephen assembled his army and launched
a crushing defeat on the invaders in the Battle of Baia on 15 December.[42][43]Corvinus, who received
wounds in the battle, could only escape from the battlefield with the help of Moldavian boyars (or
noblemen) who had joined him.[44] A group of boyars rose up against Stephen in the Lower Country,
[45]
but he had 20 boyars and 40 other landowners captured and executed before the end of the year.
[44]

Stephen again swore loyalty to Casimir IV in the presence of the Polish envoy in Suceava on 28 July
1468.[28] He conducted raids against Transylvania between 1468 and 1471. [44] When Casimir IV came
to Lviv in February 1469 to personally receive his homage, Stephen did not go to meet him. [46] In the
same year, Tatars invaded Moldavia, but Stephen routed them in the Battle of Lipnic near the
Dniester.[44][47] To strengthen the defence system along the river, Stephen decided to erect new
fortresses at Old Orhei and Soroca around the same time.[48][47] A Wallachian army laid siege to Chilia,
but it could not force the Moldavian garrison to surrender. [44]
Matthias Corvinus sent peace proposals to Stephen. [46] Stephen's envoys sought Casimir IV's advice
on Corvinus's proposals at the Sejm (or general assembly) of Poland at Piotrkw Trybunalski in late
1469.[46] Stephen invaded Wallachia and destroyed Brila and Trgul de Floci (the two most
important Wallachian centres of commerce on the Danube) in February 1470. [44][49]Peter Aaron
hired Szkely troops and broke into Moldavia in December 1470,[44] but Stephen defeated them near
Trgu Neam.[44] Peter Aaron fell captive in the battlefield and he and his Moldavian supporters
(among them Stephen's vornic and chancellor, Isaia and Alexa) were executed on the orders of
Stephen.[44][50] Radu the Fair invaded Moldavia, but Stephen defeated him at Soci on 7 March 1471. [44]
[49]

The relationship between Casimir IV and Matthias Corvinus became tense in early 1471. [51] After
Stephen failed to support Poland, Casimir IV dispatched an embassy to Moldavia, demanding
Stephen to comply with his obligations.[52][46] Stephen met the Polish envoys in Vaslui on 13 July,
reminding them of the hostile acts Polish noblemen committed along the border and demanded the
extradition of the Moldavian boyars who had fled to Poland. [46] Stephen sent his envoys to Hungary to
start negotiations with Corvinus.[46] He granted commercial privileges to the merchants from the
Transylvanian town of Braov on 3 January 1472.[53]
Wars with the Ottoman Empire[edit]
See also: Siege of Neam Citadel
Stephen's second (or third) wife, Maria of Mangup

The Ottoman Sultan, Mehmed the Conqueror, who defeated Stephen in the Battle of Valea Alb but had to
retreat from Moldavia

The Ottomans put pressure on Stephen to abandon Chilia and Cetatea Alb (now Bilhorod-
Dnistrovskyi in Ukraine) in the early 1470s.[54] Instead of obeying their demands, Stephen declined to
send the yearly tribute to the Sublime Porte in 1473.[44][54] Taking advantage of Mehmed II's war
against Uzun Hassan in Anatolia, Stephen invaded Wallachia to replace Radu the Fair, an Ottoman-
installed Muslim convert and vassal, with his protg, Basarab III Laiot.[55][56] He routed the
Wallachian army at Rmnicu Srat in a battle that lasted for three days from 18 to 20 November.[55]
[56]
Four days later, the Moldavian army captured Bucharest and Stephen placed Basarab on the
throne.[56] However, Radu regained Wallachia with Ottoman support before the end of the year.
[44]
Basarab again expelled Radu from Wallachia in 1475, but the Ottomans once more assisted him
to return.[57] To restore Basarab, Stephen launched a new campaign to Wallachia in October, forcing
Radu to flee from the principality.[57]
Mehmed II ordered Hadm Suleiman Pasha, Beylerbey (or governor) of Rumelia, to invade Moldavia
an Ottoman army of about 120,000 strong broke into Moldavia in late 1475. [58] Wallachian troops
also joined the Ottomans, while Stephen received support from Poland and Hungary. [57]
[59]
Outnumbered three to one by the invaders, Stephen was forced to retreat. [58][60] He joined battle
with Hadm Suleiman Pasha at Podul nalt (or the High Bridge) near Vaslui on 10 January 1475. [58]
[61]
Before the battle, he had sent his buglers to hide behind the enemy fronts. [58] When they suddenly
sounded their horns, they caused such a panic among the invaders that they fled from the battlefield.
[58]
Over the next three days, hundreds of Ottoman soldiers were massacred and the survivors
retreated from Moldavia.[58]
Stephen's victory in the Battle of Vaslui was "arguably one of the biggest European victories over the
Ottomans", according to historian Alexander Mikaberidze.[58] Mara Brankovi, Mehmed II's
stepmother, stated the Ottomans "had never suffered a greater defeat".[55] She urged the Venetians to
take advantage of the situation and try to persuade the Ottomans to sign a peace treaty, but the
Ottomans were unwilling to offer favourable terms.[55] Stephen sent letters to the European rulers to
seek their support against the Ottomans, reminding them that Moldavia was "the Gateway of
Christianity" and "the bastion of Hungary and Poland and the guardian of these kingdoms". [57][60]
[62]
Pope Sixtus IV praised him as Verus christiane fidei athleta ("The true defender of the Christian
faith").[62] However, neither the Pope, or any other European power, sent material support to
Moldavia.[57][60]
Stephen's brother-in-law, Alexander, seized the Principality of Theodoro in the Crimea at the head of
a Moldavian army.[63][64] Stephen also decided to expel his former protg, Basarab Laiot, from
Wallachia, because Basarab had supported the Ottomans during their invasion of Moldavia. [65] He
made an alliance with Matthias Corvinus in July,[64] persuading him to release Basarab's rival, Vlad
Dracula, who had been imprisoned in Hungary in 1462.[65] Stephen and Vlad made an agreement to
put an end to the conflicts between Moldavia and Wallachia, but Corvinus did not support them to
invade Wallachia.[65] The Ottomans occupied the Principality of Theodoro and the Genoese colonies
in the Crimea before the end of 1475.[63] Stephen ordered the execution of the Ottoman prisoners in
Moldavia to take vengeance for the massacre of Alexander of Theodoro and his Moldavian retainers.
[63]
Thereafter the Venetians, who had waged war against the Ottomans since 1463, regarded
Stephen as their principal ally.[66] With their support, Stephen's envoys tried to persuade the Holy
See to finance Stephen's war directly, instead of sending the funds to Matthias Corvinus.
[67]
The Signoria of Venice emphasized, "No one should fail to understand the extent to which
Stephen could influence the evolution of events, one way or another", referring to his preeminent
role in the anti-Ottoman alliance.[67]
Mehmed II personally commanded a new invasion against Moldavia in the summer of 1476. [54]
[60]
The Crimean Tatars were the first to break into Moldavia at the Sultan's order, but Stephen routed
them.[59][68] He also persuaded the Tatars of the Great Horde to break into the Crimea, forcing the
Crimean Tatars to withdraw from Moldavia.[68] The Sultan invaded Moldavia in late June 1476.[69][59]
[68]
The Wallachians again supported the Ottomans, while Matthias Corvinus sent an army to assist
Stephen.[69] Stephen adopted a scorched earth policy, but could not avoid a pitched battle.[59] He
suffered a defeat in the Battle of Valea Alb at Rzboieni on 26 July and had to seek refuge in
Poland, but the Ottomans could not capture the fortresses at Suceava and Neam. [57][69] The lack of
sufficient provisions and an outbreak of cholera in the Ottoman camp forced Mehmed to leave
Moldavia, enabling Stephen to return from Poland.[57][70] The Byzantine historian George
Sphrantzes concluded that Mehmed II "had suffered more defeats than victories" during the invasion
of Moldavia.[71]
With Hungarian support, Stephen and Vlad Dracula invaded Wallachia, forcing Basarab Laiot to
flee in November 1476.[71] Stephen returned to Moldavia, leaving Moldavian troops behind for Vlad's
protection.[72] The Ottomans invaded Wallachia to restore Basarab Laiot. [73] Dracula and his
Moldavian retainers were massacred before 10 January 1477.[73] Stephen again broke into Wallachia
and replaced Basarab Laiot with Basarab IV the Younger.[57]
Stephen sent his envoys to Rome and Venice to persuade the Christian powers to continue the war
against the Ottomans.[74] He and Venice also wanted to involve the Great Horde in the anti-Ottoman
coalition, but the Poles were unwilling to allow the Tatars to cross their territories. [74] To strengthen his
international position, Stephen signed a new treaty with Poland on 22 January 1479, promising to
personally swear fealty to Casimir IV in Colomea (now Kolomyia in Ukraine) if the king specifically
demanded it.[75] Venice and the Ottoman Empire made peace in the same month; Hungary and
Poland in April.[75] After Basarab the Younger paid homage to the sultan, Stephen had to seek
reconciliation with the Ottomans.[75] In May 1480, he promised to renew the annual tribute that he had
stopped paying in 1473.[75] Taking advantage of the peace, Stephen made preparations to a new
confrontation with the Ottoman Empire.[75] He again invaded Wallachia and replaced Basarab the
Younger with one Mircea, but Basarab regained Wallachia with Ottoman support. [76] The Wallachians
and their Ottoman allies broke into Moldavia in the spring of 1481.[76]

Stephen's third (or fourth) wife, Maria Voichia

Mehmed II died in 1481.[77] The conflict between his two sons, Bayezid II and Cem, enabled Stephen
to break into Wallachia and the Ottoman Empire in June.[78] He routed Basarab the Younger
at Rmnicu Vlcea and placed Vlad Dracula's half-brother,[79] Vlad the Monk, on the throne.[76] After
Basarab the Younger returned with Ottoman support, Stephen made a last attempt to secure his
influence in Wallachia.[76] He again led his army to Wallachia and defeated Basarab the Younger, who
died in the battle.[76] Although Vlad the Monk was restored, he was soon forced to accept the Sultan's
suzerainty.[76]
...since [Stephen the Great] has ruled in Moldavia he has not liked any ruler of Wallachia. He did not
wish to live with [Radu the Fair], nor with [Basarab Laiot], nor with me. I do not know who can live
with him.

Basarab the Younger's 1481 letter to the councilors of Sibiu[80]

Matthias Corvinus signed a five-year truce with Bayezid II in October 1483. [81][82] The truce applied to
all Moldavia, with the exception of the ports.[76] Bayezid invaded Moldavia and captured Chilia on 14
July 1484.[83] His vassal, Meli I Giray, also broke into Moldavia and seized Cetatea Alb on 3
August.[83] The capture of the two ports secured the Ottomans' control of the Black Sea. [83][69] Bayezid
left Moldavia only after Stephen personally came to pay homage to him. [83] The loss of Chilia and
Cetatea Alb put an end to the Moldavian control of important trading routes. [84] To compensate
Stephen, Corvinus granted him the domains of Ciceu and Cetatea de Balt in Transylvania, but was
unwilling to break his truce with the Ottomans.[76][75]
To secure Casimir IV's support, Stephen went to Colomea and swore fealty to him on 12 September
1485.[85][86] The ceremony took place in a tent, but its curtains were drawn aside at the moment when
Stephen was on his knees before Casimir.[87] Three days later, Casimir IV pledged that he would not
acknowledge the capture of Chilia and Cetatea Alb by the Ottomans without Stephen's consent.
[88]
During Stephen's visit in Poland, the Ottomans broke into Moldavia and sacked Suceava. [89] They
also tried to place a pretender, Peter Hronoda, on the throne. [87][90] Stephen returned from Poland and
defeated the invaders with Polish assistance at Catlabuga Lake in November.[91] He again defeated
the Ottomans at cheia in March 1486, but could not recapture Chilia and Cetatea Alb. [91] In 1486,
he signed a three-year truce with the Ottomans, promising to pay the yearly tribute to the Sultan. [89][92]
Conflicts with Poland[edit]
Poland concluded a peace treaty with the Ottoman Empire in 1489, acknowledging the loss of Chilia
and Cetatea Alb, without Stephen's consent.[93] Although the treaty confirmed Moldavia's frontiers,
Stephen regarded it as a breach of his 1485 agreement with Casimir IV. [93][89] Instead of accepting the
treaty, he acknowledged the suzerainty of Matthias Corvinus. [89] However, Corvinus died
unexpectedly on 6 April 1490.[94] Four candidates laid claim to Hungary, including Maximilian of
Habsburg, and Casimir IV's two sons, Vladislaus and John Albert.[95]

Casimir IV Jagiellon and his family

Stephen supported Maximilian of Habsburg, who urged the Three Nations of Transylvania to
cooperate with Stephen against his opponents.[96][74] Most Hungarian lords and prelates, however,
supported Vladislaus who was crowned king on 21 September, forcing Maximilian to withdraw from
Hungary in November.[97] For John Albert (who was his father's heir in Poland) did not abandon his
claim,[98] Stephen decided to support Vladislaus in order to prevent a personal union between
Hungary and Poland.[89][99] He broke into Poland and captured Pocuia (now Pokuttya in Ukraine).[96]
[99]
Stephen also supported Vladislaus against the Ottomans[89] who broke into Hungary several times
after Corvinus's death.[100] In exchange, Vladislaus confirmed Stephen's claim to Ciceu and Cetatea
de Balt in Transylvania.[101] John Albert, in turn, was forced to acknowledge his brother as the lawful
king in late 1491.[89]
Casimir IV died on 7 June 1492.[102] One of his younger sons, Alexander, succeeded him in Lithuania,
and John Albert was elected king of Poland in late August.[102] Ivan III of Russia, Grand Prince of
Moscow, broke into Lithuania to expand his authority over the principalities along the borderlands.
 During the following years, Ivan and Stephen coordinated their diplomacy, which enabled Ivan to
[103]

persuade Alexander to acknowledge the loss of significant territories to Moscow in February 1494. [104]
[105]

Ottoman pressure brought about a rapprochement between Hungary and Poland.[89][106] Vladislaus
met his four brothers (including John Albert and Sigismund) in Lcse (now Levoa in Slovakia) in
April 1494.[101][107] They planned a crusade against the Ottoman Empire.[107] However, John Albert
wanted to strengthen Polish suzerainty over Moldavia and to dethrone Stephen in favour of
Sigismund, which gave rise to new tensions between Poland and Hungary. [108][109] Shortly after the
conference, John Albert decided to launch a campaign against the Ottomans to recapture Chilia and
Cetatea Alb.[104][108] Fearing that the subjugation of Moldavia was John Albert's actual purpose,
Stephen made several attempts to prevent his campaign. [110] With Ivan III's support, he persuaded
Alexander of Lithuania not to associate himself with John Albert. [111] The Sultan sent
600 janissaries to Moldavia at Stephen's request.[112]
The Polish army marched across the Dniester into Moldavia on 7 August 1497. [112] Stephen sent his
chancellor, Isaac, to John Albert, requesting the withdrawal of Polish forces from Moldavia, but John
Albert had Isaac imprisoned.[112] The Poles then laid siege to Suceava on 24 September. [113] Before
long, a plague broke out in the Polish camp, while Vladislaus of Hungary sent an army of 12,000
strong to Moldavia, forcing John Albert to lift the siege on 19 October.[114][115] The Poles started to
march towards Poland, but Stephen ambushed and routed them at a ravine in Bukovina on 25 and
26 October.[113][116] To carry his victory further, Stephen made several raids into Poland during the
following months.[117][118] He made peace with John Albert only after Poland and Hungary concluded a
new alliance against the Ottoman Empire.[117]
Last years[edit]

The tomb of Stephen the Great and his wife, Maria Voichia at Putna Monastery.

Stephen's health declined during his last years.[119] The Doge of Venice sent a doctor, Matteo
Muriano, to Moldavia to treat him.[119] Stephen's son and co-ruler, Bogdan, conducted the negotiations
with Poland about a peace treaty.[119] The treaty, which Stephen ratified at Hrlu in 1499, put an end
to Polish suzerainty over Moldavia.[80][115]
Stephen again stopped paying tribute to the Ottomans in 1500. [117] He broke into the Ottoman Empire,
but he could not recapture Chilia or Cetatea Alb. [86][117] The Tatars of the Great Horde invaded
southern Moldavia, but Stephen defeated them with the support of the Crimean Tatars in 1502. [120] He
also sent reinforcements to Hungary to fight against the Ottomans.[120]Hungary and the Ottoman
Empire concluded a new peace treaty on 22 February 1503, which also included Moldavia. [106]
[120]
Thereafter Stephen again paid a yearly tribute to the Ottomans.[120]
When Stephen was dying, the boyars, who opposed Bogdan, rebelled, but they were suppressed.
[121]
On his deathbed, he had urged Bogdan to continue to pay the tribute to the Sultan. [115] He died on
2 July and was buried in the Monastery of Putna.[120][80]

Family[edit]
Stephen, Maria Voichia, Alexandru and Bogdan

A woman named Mruca (or Mrica) most probably gave birth to Stephen's first-born
son, Alexandru, according to historian Jonathan Eagles.[122] Historian Ioan-Aurel Pop writes, Mruca
was Stephen's first wife,[92] but Eagles says, the legitimacy of the marriage of Stephen and Mruca
is uncertain.[122] Alexandru either died in childhood, or survived infancy and became his father's co-
ruler.[123]
If Stephen fathered two sons named Alexandru, the one who was made his co-ruler was born
to Evdochia of Kiev, whom Stephen married in 1463.[123] She was closely related both to Ivan III,
Grand Prince of Moscow, and to Casimir IV of Poland and Lithuania.[123] Stephen's charter of grant to
the Hilandar Monastery on Mount Athos refers to two children of Stephen and Evdochia, Alexandru
and Olena.[124] Olena was the wife of Ivan, the eldest son of Ivan III of Moscow.[125] According to
Eagles, Evdochia was most probably also the mother of Stephen's two sons, Bogdan and Peter, who
died in 1479 and 1480 respectively.[123]
Stephen's second (or third) wife, Maria of Mangup, was of the family of the princes of Theodoro.
[63]
The marriage took place in 1472 and she died in 1477. [126] Stephen third (or fourth) wife, Maria
Voichia, was the daughter of Radu the Fair, Voivode of Wallachia.[92][63] She was the mother of
Stephen's successor, Bogdan, and a daughter named Maria Cneajna. [127] Stephen also fathered an
illegitimate son, Petru Rare, who became prince of Moldavia in 1527.[128][120]

Legacy[edit]
Stability[edit]

Stephen's coat-of-arms

Stephen reigned for more than 47 years,[80] which was "in itself an outstanding achievement in the
context of the political and territorial fragility of the Romanian principalities". [129] His diplomacy
evidenced that he was one of the "most astute politicians" of Europe in the 15th century. [80] This skill
enabled him to play off the Ottoman Empire, Poland and Hungary against each other. [80] According to
historian Keith Hitchins, Stephen "paid tribute to the Ottomans, but only when it was
advantageous ....; he did homage to King Casimir of Poland as his suzerain when that seemed
wise ...; and he resorted to arms when other means failed."[130]
Stephen suppressed the rebellious boyars and strengthened central government, often applying
cruel punishments, including impalement.[131] The 17th-century Moldavian historian, Miron
Costin emphasized that Stephen was "irascible, cruel, prone to shed innocent blood; often at meals
he would order people to be put to death, without legal sentence".[132] He restored Crown lands that
had been lost during the civil war that followed Alexander the Good's rule either through buying or
confiscating them.[45][133] On the other hand, he granted much landed property to the Church and to the
lesser noblemen who were the main supporters of the central government. [134] His itinerant lifestyle
enabled him to personally hold court in the whole of Moldavia, which contributed to the development
of his authority.[135]
When talking with Matteo Muriano in 1502, Stephen mentioned that he had fought 36 battles, only
losing two of them.[136] When the enemy forces mostly outnumbered his army, Stephen had to adopt
the tactics of "asymmetric warfare".[137] He practised guerilla warfare against invaders, avoiding
challenging them to open battle before they were weakened due to the lack of supplies or sickness.
[138]
During his invasions, however, he moved quickly and forced his enemies to do battle. [138] To
strengthen the defence of his country, he restored the fortresses built during Alexander the Good's
rule at Hotin, Chilia, Cetatea Alb, Suceava and Trgu Neam. [139] He also erected a number of
castles, including the new fortresses at Roman and Tighina.[48]The prclabi (or commanders) of the
fortresses were invested with administrative and judicial powers and became important pillars of
royal administration.[140]
Stephen hired mercenaries to man his forts, which diminished the military role of the boyars'
retinues.[141] He also set up a personal guard 3,000 strong.[141] To strengthen the defence of Moldavia,
he obliged the peasantry to bear arms.[142] Moldavian chronicles recorded that if "he found a peasant
lacking arrows, bow or sword, or coming to the army without spurs for the horse, he mercilessly put
that man to death."[142] The military reforms increased Moldavia's military potential, enabling Stephen
to muster an army of more than 40,000 strong.[143]
Cultural development[edit]

St. George Church at Hrlu

The years following Stephen's wars against the Ottoman Empire have been described as a "period
of great architectural upsurge".[144] More than a dozen stone churches were erected at Stephen's
initiative after 1487.[144] The wealthiest boyars followed him, and Stephen also supported the
development of monastic communities.[145] For instance, the Vorone Monastery was built in 1488 and
the monastery at Tazlu in 1496 to 1497.[145]
The architecture of the new churches evidence that a "genuine school of local architects" developed
during Stephen's reign.[145][146] They borrowed components of Byzantine and Gothic architecture and
mixed it with elements of local tradition.[145] Painted walls and towers with a base forming a star were
the most featuring elements of Stephen's churches. [147] Stephen also financed the building of
churches in Transylvania and Wallachia, which contributed to the spread of Moldavian architecture
beyond the boundaries of the principality.[145]
Stephen commissioned votive paintings and carved tomb stones for many of his ancestors' and
other relatives' graves.[148] The tomb room of the Putna Monastery was built to be the royal necropolis
of Stephen's family.[149] Stephen's own tombstone was decorated with acanthus leaves (a motif
adopted from Byzantine art) which became the featuring decorative element of Moldavian art during
the following century.[150] The tombstones of Stephen's two sons who died during his lifetime, Bogdan
and Peter, display the coat-of-arms of the House of Muat.[151]
Stephen also contributed the development of historiography in Moldavia. [152] He ordered the collection
of the annals of the principality and initiated the completion of at least three chronicles. [152]
[153]
The Chronicle of Bistria, which was allegedly the oldest chronicle, narrated the history of
Moldavia from 1359 to 1506.[152][153] The two versions of the Chronicle of Putna covered the period
from 1359 to 1526, but it also wrote of the history of the Putna Monastery.[152][153]
National hero[edit]
Stephen received the sobriquet "Great" shortly after his death. [154] Sigismund I of Poland and
Lithuania referred to him as "that great Stephen" in 1534. [155] The Polish historian Martin
Cromer mentioned him as the "great prince of the Moldavians."[154][156] In the mid-17th-century, Grigore
Ureche described him as "a benefactor and a leader" when writing of his funeral. [155][157] Local folklore
regarded him as a protector of peasantry against noblemen and foreign invaders. [158] For centuries,
free peasants claimed that they inherited their landed property from their ancestors to whom it had
been granted by Stephen for their bravery in the battles.[159]
The 19th-century Wallachian scholar, Nicolae Blcescu, was the first Romanian historian to describe
Stephen as a national hero whose rule was an important step towards the unification of the lands
inhabited by Romanians.[160] In 1881, Mihai Eminescu dedicated a doina (a poem written in the style
of traditional Romanian song) to Stephen, calling upon him to leave his grave to again lead his
people.[160][161] His statue was raised in Iai in the 1880s.[162]

Stephen III on the Moldovan 1 leu banknote

Anniversaries of the most important events of Stephen's life have been officially celebrated since the
1870s.[162] On the 400th anniversary of his death in 1904, Nicolae Iorga published Stephen's
biography.[163] Iorga emphasized that Stephen's victories were to be attributed to the "true unity of the
whole people" during his reign.[164] His book has been republished several times, including on the
500th anniversary of Stephen's death.[165] On the same anniversary, Stephen was presented as a
symbol of "national identity, independence and inter-ethnic harmony" in the Republic of Moldova.[163]
Historian Jonathan Eagles notes, "Stephen is an ever-present icon" in both Romania and Moldova:
"statues of his image abound; politicians cite him as an exemplar; schools and a university bear his
name; villages and the main thoroughfares of towns and cities are named after him; there is a tefan
cel Mare metro station in central Bucharest; and his crowned head has adorned every banknote in
the post-Soviet Moldovan republic".[166] According to a 1999 opinion poll, more than 13% of the
participant regarded Stephen the Great as the most important personality who had "influenced the
destiny of the Romanians for the better".[167] Seven years later, during a programme on Romanian
Television, he was voted "the greatest Romanian of all time".[162]
Holy ruler[edit]

Saint Stephen the Great

Monarh of Moldavia

Venerated in Romanian Orthodox Church

Canonized July 12, 1992, Bucharest, Romania by Romanian

Orthodox Church

Major shrine Putna Monastery

Feast July 2

Ureche stated that Stephen had been regarded as a saint soon after his funeral, although "not on
account of his soul ... for he was a man with sins ... but on account of the great deeds he
accomplished".[157] Ureche's report was repeated by Miron Costin.[157] The abbot of Putna Monastery,
Artimon Bortnic, initiated the investigation of the tomb room of the monastery in 1851, referring to
important shrines in Russia and Moldavia.[168] In 1857 (a year after Stephen's tomb was opened), the
priest and journalist Iraclie Porumbescu already wrote of the "holy bones of Putna". [169] However,
Stephen the Great was ignored when the Romanian Orthodox Church canonized the first Romanian
saints in the 1950s.[170]
Teoctist, Patriarch of All Romania, canonized Stephen along with 12 other saints at St. Spiridon's
Cathedral in Bucharest on 21 June 1992.[171] On this occasion, the patriarch emphasized that
Stephen had been a defender of Christianity and protector of his people. [153] He also underlined that
Stephen had built churches during his reign.[153] Stephen's feast day is July 2 (the day of his death) in
the calendar of the Romanian Orthodox Church. On his first feast after his canonization, a new
ceremony was held to celebrate Stephen the Great and Saint in Putna. [171] 15,000 people (including
the President of Romania at the time, Ion Iliescu, and two ministers) attended the event.[172] Patriarch
Teoctist noted that "God has brought us together under the same skies, just as Stephen rallied us
under the same flag in the past."[172]

See also[edit]
Neam Citadel

Borzeti Church

tefan cel Mare, Arge

tefan cel Mare, Bacu

tefan cel Mare, Clrai

tefan cel Mare, Neam

tefan cel Mare, Olt

tefan cel Mare, Vaslui

Saligny, Constana

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