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Chapter Contents
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People seem to accept systems being down occasionally or needing to
reboot their PCs. (low performance or software during work) But
quality is very important in many IT projects.
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Selecting proper materials.
Training and instructing people in quality.
Planning a process that ensures the appropriate outcome.
Design of Experiments
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Several organizations and references can help project managers and
their teams understand quality.
8.4.2. Quality Assurance
Quality assurance includes all the activities related to satisfying the
relevant quality standards for a project.
Another goal of quality assurance is continuous quality improvement.
Benchmarking generates ideas for quality improvements by
comparing specific project practices or product characteristics to those
of other projects or products within or outside the performing
organization.
A quality audit is a structured review of specific quality management
activities that help identify lessons learned that could improve
performance on current or future projects.
Table 8-1. Table of Contents for a Quality Assurance Plan
Pareto analysis
Statistical sampling
Six Sigma
Quality control charts
i. Pareto Analysis
Pareto analysis involves identifying the vital few contributors that
account for the most quality problems in a system.
Also called the 80-20 rule, meaning that 80 percent of problems are
often due to 20 percent of the causes.
Pareto diagrams are histograms, or column charts representing a
frequency distribution, that help identify and prioritize problem areas.
Figure 8-1. Sample Pareto Diagram
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Sample size formula: Sample size = .25 X (certainty factor/acceptable
error)2
DMAIC
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o Control: Track and verify the stability of the improvements and
the predictability of the solution.
How is Six Sigma Quality Control Unique?
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Quality control charts allow you to determine whether a process is in
control or out of control.
o When a process is in control, any variations in the results of the
process are created by random events; processes that are in
control do not need to be adjusted.
o When a process is out of control, variations in the results of the
process are caused by non-random events; you need to identify
the causes of those non-random events and adjust the process to
correct or eliminate them.
The seven run rule states that if seven data points in a row are all
below the mean, above the mean, or are all increasing or decreasing,
then the process needs to be examined for non-random problems.
Control Chart Testing
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Types of Tests
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Modern Quality Management
Chapter Six
Project Human Resource Management
Chapter Contents
3.1. What is human project management
3.2. Organizational planning
3.3. Staff acquisition
3.4. Resource leveling
Chapter Objectives
At the end of this chapter, students will be able to:
Explain the importance of good human resource management on
projects, especially on information technology projects.
Define project human resource management and understand its
processes.
Discuss human resource planning and be able to create a project
organizational chart, responsibility assignment matrix, and resource
histogram.
Understand important issues involved in project staff acquisition and
explain the concepts of resource assignments, resource loading, and
resource leveling.
Assist in team development with training, team-building activities,
and reward systems.
Explain and apply several tools and techniques to help manage a
project team and summarize general advice on managing teams.
Describe how project management software can assist in project
human resource management.
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10.1. What is project Human Resource Management?
Making the most effective use of the people involved with a project.
Processes include:
o Human resource planning : Identifying and documenting
project roles, responsibilities, and reporting relationships.
o Acquiring the project team : Getting the needed personnel
assigned to and working on the project.
o Developing the project team : Building individual and group
skills to enhance project performance.
o Managing the project team : Tracking team member
performance, motivating team members, providing timely
feedback, resolving issues and conflicts, and coordinating
changes to help enhance project performance.
10.1.1. Organizational Planning
Involves identifying and documenting project roles, responsibilities,
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Staff management plan
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R Responsibility, A Accountability, C Consultation, I - informed
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10.1.2. Acquiring the Project Team
Acquiring qualified people for teams is crucial.
incentive.
Resource Loading
Resource loading refers to the amount of individual resources an
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Helps project managers develop a general understanding of the
demands a project will make on the organizations resources and
individual peoples schedules.
Overallocation means more resources than are available are assigned
to perform work at a given time.
Resource Leveling
Resource leveling is a technique for resolving resource conflicts by
delaying tasks.
The main purpose of resource leveling is to create a smoother
distribution of resource use and reduce over allocation.
management.
It may enable project managers to use a just-in-time inventory type of
policy for using subcontractors or other expensive resources.
It results in fewer problems for project personnel and the accounting
department.
It often improves morale.
10.1.3. Developing the Project Team
The main goal of team development is to help people work together
Storming
Norming
Performing
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Adjourning
Training
Training can help people understand themselves and each other, and
activities.
After assessing team performance and related information, the project
manager must decide:
If changes should be requested to the project.
If corrective or preventive actions should be recommended.
If updates are needed to the project management plan or
organizational process assets.
o Level resources.
Chapter Seven
Project Communication Management
Chapter Contents
Goal of project communication management
Project communication process
Communicationsplanning
Chapter Objectives
At the end of this chapter, students will be able to:
Understand the importance of project communication management
Describe project communication management processes
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Understand the tools and techniques for project communication
management.
Define communication planning considerations.
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o Your project may depend on help or information from outside
resourcescompanies or individuals not part of the
organization. These include other divisions, subsidiaries, or
offices; a vendor or separate corporation; or a consultant.
The budget
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When you propose a project, you should communicate in terms of risk
and likely reward.
Approval will be granted as long as you can convince management
that there is a good chance that future profits will recapture this
investment within a reasonable period of time.
The schedule
The schedule defines the project, and, as long as you share it with
management, it is a useful tool for ensuring that your definition
conforms to theirs.
You also need to use the schedule during the later phases of your
project in conjunction with review meetings to ensure (1) that you are
on the right course and (2) that managements desired outcome has
not changed.
The schedule improves communication with your team, and helps
avoid delays. By identifying weak links and by communicating with
other department managers and outside resources, you will avoid
unexpected problems.
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are most likely to be realized when the people on your team have a
sense of satisfaction from their efforts.
In some cases, the real problems leading to budget and schedule
failures are not merely mechanical or chance events but other
problems your team is encountering. So that performance should
reported to an appropriate bodies.
Reporting levels
Report to the Team
o Your report to the team is a form of performance review. Since
you expect the individuals to work together under your
leadership, it also makes sense to make your report to the entire
group, and at one time. The review process itself may be
ongoing, but the report is made during periodic team meetings.
Report to Management
o Your report to management is likely to be more formal but less
detailed.
o Here your concern is not with the details of execution but with
whether the project will be completed on time and within
budget.
o Any problems meeting those requirements should be discussed
in the management progress report.
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Every project uncovers new problems, unforeseen events, and
unexpected failures. Each project, therefore, constitutes an
opportunity for learning and anticipating new risks.
Many software companies conduct a postmortem study of each
project after its completion. The postmortem includes collecting
data about the initial planned delivery dates and actual delivery
dates, number of defects discovered, qualitative information
about technical and managerial problems encountered, and
suggestions for future projects.
Although this phase is the least visible in the life cycle, the
company depends on it the most for learning and improving its
efficiency.
The main outputs:
o Project archives: history about projects (library)
o Formal acceptance
o Lessons learned
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II. Developing better communication skills
o Takes leadership to improve communication.
III. Running Effective meetings
You will need to meet with your team, with the executive who
assigns the project, with other departments, and with outside
resourcesat the onset of your project, and possibly while the
project is underway.
The meetings should be short and limited, or you will spend so
much time in discussion that the project will be delayed by an
intended planning process.
Meetings held with outside resources and other departments
should be held primarily to anticipate problems and overcome
them.
IV. Developing a communication Infrastructure
o A communication infrastructure is a set of tools, techniques and
principles that provide a foundation for the effective transfer of
information among people.
o Two modes of communication
o Scheduled modes of communication: These include planned
milestones, such as client and project reviews, team status
meetings, inspections, and so on. These are best supported by
synchronous or face-to-face communication, such as meetings,
formal presentations, video conferences, and telephone
conference calls.
o Event-based modes of communication: These include
problem reports, change requests, issue discussion, and
resolution. Event-based modes usually arise from unforeseen
problems and crises. Asynchronous mechanisms such as E-
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mail, groupware, and problem databases need to be set up early,
and participants need to be trained to use them. When the
number of participants is large, centralized infrastructures, such
as Web sites and bulletin boards are preferable as they make
more information visible to more people than E-mail or
bilateral conversations do.
Chapter Eight
Project Risk Management
Learning Objectives
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Top Ten Risk Item Tracking technique, and use expert judgment to
rank risks.
Explain the quantitative risk analysis process and how to apply
decision trees, simulation, and sensitivity analysis to quantify risks.
Provide examples of using different risk response planning strategies
to address both negative and positive risks.
Discuss what is involved in risk monitoring and control.
Describe how software can assist in project risk management.
7.1. The Importance of Project Risk Management
Project risk management is the art and science of identifying,
analyzing, and responding to risk throughout the life of a project and
in the best interests of meeting project objectives.
Risk management is often overlooked in projects, but it can help
improve project success by helping select good projects, determining
project scope, and developing realistic estimates.
100%
80%
80%
60%
60% 47% 47% 43%
40% 35%
20% 6%
0%
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Negative Risk
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7.2. Project Risk Management Processes
Risk management planning: Deciding how to approach and plan the
risk management activities for the project.
Risk identification: Determining which risks are likely to affect a
project and documenting the characteristics of each.
Qualitative risk analysis: Prioritizing risks based on their probability
and impact of occurrence.
Quantitative risk analysis: Numerically estimating the effects of
risks on project objectives.
Risk response planning:Taking steps to enhance opportunities and
reduce threats to meeting project objectives.
Risk monitoring and control: Monitoring identified and residual
risks, identifying new risks, carrying out risk response plans, and
evaluating the effectiveness of risk strategies throughout the life of the
project.
Methodology
Roles and responsibilities
Budget and schedule
Risk categories
Risk probability and impact
Risk documentation
Contingency and Fallback Plans, Contingency Reserves
Contingency plans are predefined actions that the project team will
take if an identified risk event occurs.
Fallback plans are developed for risks that have a high impact on
meeting project objectives, and are put into effect if attempts to reduce
the risk are not effective.
Contingency reserves or allowances are provisions held by the
project sponsor or organization to reduce the risk of cost or schedule
overruns to an acceptable level.
Common Sources of Risk in Information Technology Projects
Market risk
Financial risk
Technology risk
People risk
Structure/process risk
Risk Breakdown Structure
IT Project
Project
Business Technical Organizational
Management
Executive
Competitors Hardware Estimates
support
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List the current ranking, previous ranking, number of times the risk
appears on the list over a period of time, and a summary of progress
made in resolving the risk item.
Table 7:6. Example of Top Ten Risk Item Tracking
Monthly Ranking
Risk Item This Last Number Risk Resolution
Month Month of Months Progress
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o Decision tree analysis
o Simulation
o Sensitivity analysis
o Decision Trees and Expected Monetary Value (EMV)
i. Decision tree
is a diagramming analysis technique used to help select the best
course of action in situations in which future outcomes are uncertain.
ii. Estimated monetary value (EMV):
is the product of a risk event probability and the risk events monetary
value.
You can draw a decision tree to help find the EMV.
Figure 7:8. Expected Monetary Value (EMV) Example
iii. Simulation
Simulation uses a representation or model of a system to analyze the
expected behavior or performance of the system.
Monte Carlo analysis simulates a models outcome many times to
provide a statistical distribution of the calculated results.
To use a Monte Carlo simulation, you must have three estimates (most
likely, pessimistic, and optimistic) plus an estimate of the likelihood
of the estimate being between the most likely and optimistic values.
Steps of a Monte Carlo Analysis
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Assess the range for the variables being considered.
Determine the probability distribution of each variable.
For each variable, select a random value based on the probability
distribution.
Run a deterministic analysis or one pass through the model.
Repeat steps 3 and 4 many times to obtain the probability distribution
of the models results.
iv. Sensitivity Analysis
Sensitivity analysis is a technique used to show the effects of
changing one or more variables on an outcome.
For example, many people use it to determine what the monthly
payments for a loan will be given different interest rates or periods of
the loan, or for determining break-even points based on different
assumptions.
Spreadsheet software, such as Excel, is a common tool for performing
sensitivity analysis.
7.2.5. Risk Response Planning
After identifying and quantifying risks, you must decide how to
respond to them.
Four main response strategies for negative risks:
o Risk avoidance, Risk acceptance, Risk transference and Risk
mitigation.
Table 7.9: General Risk Mitigation Strategies for Technical, Cost, and
Schedule Risks
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Response Strategies for Positive Risks
Residual risks are risks that remain after all of the response
strategies have been implemented.
Secondary risks are a direct result of implementing a risk
response.
7.2.6. Risk Monitoring and Control
Involves executing the risk management process to respond to risk
events.
Workarounds are unplanned responses to risk events that must be
done when there are no contingency plans.
Main outputs of risk monitoring and control are:
o Requested changes.
o Recommended corrective and preventive actions.
o Updates to the risk register, project management plan, and
organizational process assets.
Using Software to Assist in Project Risk Management
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Risk registers can be created in a simple Word or Excel file or as part
of a database.
More sophisticated risk management software, such as Monte Carlo
simulation tools, help in analyzing project risks.
The PMI Risk Specific Interest Groups Web site at www.risksig.com
has a detailed list of software products to assist in risk management.
Results of Good Project Risk Management
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