DIT, Kevin St.

Electric circuits Waed 3

Chapter 5
Frequency Transformation
We need to apply a suitable frequency transformation, if we wish to design
bandpass, bandstop and high-pass filters, using the low-pass approximating
function analysis previously covered. The block diagram, shown in figure
5.25, illustrates the procedure, which produces, from the specification
supplied, the required high-pass approximating function.

Figure 5.25: System transform approach.

Before we consider frequency transform techniques, lets consider the second order
series-tuned LCR circuit shown in figure 5.26. Here we obtain expressions for the
standard second-order transfer functions for low-pass, high-pass, and
bandpass filter configurations.

The standard low-pass transfer function

Consider the tuned circuit configured with the output voltage measured across the
capacitor C. The transfer function is:

1/sC
Vc(s) = Vin(s) (5.1)
1/sC + R +
sL

Figure 5.26: Second - order bandpass tuned circuit.

Reworking the equation, multiply above and below by sC and divide both sides by

Copyright: Paul Tobin School of Electronics and Comms. Eng. 33

 DIT, Kevin St. Electric circuits Waed 3
the input voltage.

V c(s) 1
T(s) = 2 (5.2)
Vin (s) s LC + sCR +1

As usual, making the coefficient of s 2 unity by dividing above and below by LC

yields:
1/LC
T(s) = 2 (5.3)
s + R/L s + 1/CL

This is a second-order system. Consider the generalized second-order transfer

function as:
Kp 2
T(s) 2 (5.4)
s + ( p /Q)s + p 2
We can, by comparing both 5.3 and 5.4, define the pole frequency and the Q
factor (=1/damping) as:

1 L
p2 = and Q p (5.5)
LC R

Here K is a constant for the generalised case.

The second-order bandpass transfer function.

The transfer function for the voltage measured across R is:

s R/L
T(s) = 2
(5.6)
s +(R/L)s + 1/CL
In standard form
K( p /Q)s
T (s) (5.6a)
s2 + ( p /Q)s + p
2

The standard high-pass transfer function

Consider the output voltage across the inductance L. The transfer function is:
2
s
T(s) = 2 (5.7)
s +(R/L)s + 1/CL

Comparing this second-order high-pass function to the standard high-pass transfer

function form:

Ks2
T (s) (5.8)
s2 + ( p /Q)s + p 2

Copyright: Paul Tobin School of Electronics and Comms. Eng. 34

 DIT, Kevin St. Electric circuits Waed 3
1
If we apply the simple frequency transformation s to the lowpass second-
s
order circuit, we see the transfer function has the form of a high-pass function.

Low-pass to high-pass frequency transformation

The specification for a high-pass filter includes the passband edge frequency, hp,
and the stopband edge frequency, hs The maximum passband attenuation is Amax
and the minimum stopband attenuation Amin. The transformation of
is
high-pass specification to an equivalent normalisedthe low-pass specification is
achieved by applying the frequency transform SL = 1/s, where SL is the low-pass
normalised complex frequency variable. However to account for the process
of normalization we must replace SL by 1/(s/ p) =p /s.

Figure 5.27: Normalised HPF response.

p
SL (5.9)
s

Or in terms of real frequencies:

p
S L (5.10)

The equivalent low-pass specification:

Copyright: Paul Tobin School of Electronics and Comms. Eng. 35

 DIT, Kevin St. Electric circuits Waed 3

Figure 5.28: Equivalent LPF response.

From figure 5.28, we define values for the transformed frequency as

p (5.11)

Let = p
p
LP 1 (5.12)
p
p
LS (5.13)
s
We calculate the value for and n for the filter type chosen using the equivalent
normalised low-pass obtained previously. From these two quantities, we can then
obtain the normalised attenuation function. This must be frequency de-normalised
and the, low-pass to high-pass frequency transformation, performed. To de-
1/ n
nomalise a Butterworth approximation loss function we used F(s) s
p
(Chapter 2), but with frequency transformation, we substitute for /p with

1 / np
$ (5.14)
s
In the Chebychev case, we apply the substitution

p
$ (5.15).
s

Example 5.1
Obtain the transfer function H(s) for a Chebychev high-pass filter, which satisfies
the following specification:
Passband edge frequency p = 3000 rs -1
Stopband edge frequency s = 1000 rs -1
Maximum passband attenuation Amax = 0.5 dB
Minimum stopband attenuation Amin = 22 dB

Copyright: Paul Tobin School of Electronics and Comms. Eng. 36

 DIT, Kevin St. Electric circuits Waed 3
Draw an active circuit diagram, which would meet the above specification. Which
components determine the passband gain, passband frequency and damping
factor?

Solution
The order of the filter is calculated:

1/2
100.1 Amin 1
-1
cosh
100.1 Amax 1
n
cosh (LS )
-1

Substituting values
1/ 2
100.1.22 1
cosh 0.1.0.5
-1

10 1
n -1
2.42
cosh (3/1)

A third-order Chebychev filter is required. From the table of Chebychev values

with ripple = 0.5 dB (i.e. Amax), we see the approximation loss function is:

A($) = ($ + 0.626)($2 + 0.626$ +1.142)

The low-pass to high-pass transformation function is:

p
$=
s

Where $ is the normalised LP complex frequency variable and s, the HP complex

frequency variable. Thus

A(s) = A($)

3000 3000 2 3000

A(s) = + 0.626( ) 0.626( ) 1.142
s s s

3000 + 0.626s 9.106 1879.2

A(s) = s2 s +1.142

s
3000 + 0.626 s 9.10 + 1879.2 s +1.142 2s
6
A(s) =
s2
s
The transfer function H(s) = 1/A(s) i.e.

Copyright: Paul Tobin School of Electronics and Comms. Eng. 37

DIT, Kevin St. Electric circuits Waed 3

s s2
H1(s) = 2
3000+ 0.626s 9.10 + 1.879.2s + 1.142s
6

1.602s s2
H1(s) = 2 2
s + 4807 s +1644s +
7.878.106

Circuit implementation:

Figure 5.29: Third-order S & K active filter.

The first stage passband frequency is determined by C and R.

Figure 5.30: Third-order Chebychev high-pass filter

Copyright: Paul Tobin School of Electronics and Comms. Eng. 38

 DIT, Kevin St. Electric circuits Waed 3
Example 5.2
The specification for a high-pass filter is:
Passband edge frequency p = 3000 rs -1
Stopband edge frequency s = 1500 rs -1
Maximum passband attenuation Amax = 2.0 dB
Minimum stopband attenuation Amin = 20 dB
Obtain the high-pass transfer function, which will meet this specification. (Use the
Butterworth tables).

100.1Amax 1 100.1x2 1 0.764

100.1Amin 100.1.20 1
log10 10.1 A max log 10 0.1.2
n 10 1 10 1
4 2log( LS ) 2log(3000/1500)

From the table of Butterworth polynomials, we obtain a fourth-order polynomial.

A($) = ($2 + 0.765 $ +1)($2 +1.848$+ 1)

De-normalising and performing a LP to HP transforming, by making

the
substituting for $ in the normalised function
1/ n p
$
s

Substituting values:
0.764 1/ 4 3000 2800
$
s s

Substituting this into the required high-pass approximating function which, when
inverted, gives the required H-P gain Inverting.

H(s) = 1/A(s)

2800 2 2800 2800 2 2800

A(s) = ( ) 0.765( ) 1( ) 1.848( ) 1
s s s s

s
2
s
2

H(s) = 2 6 2 6
s 2142s 7.84.10 s + 5174.4s 7.84.10

Copyright: Paul Tobin School of Electronics and Comms. Eng. 39

 DIT, Kevin St. Electric circuits Waed 3
Bandpass frequency transformation
The frequency transform technique, used in the previous analysis to design high-
pass filters, can also be used to design bandpass and bandstop using a
filters
suitable transform. The bandpass specification is shown in figure 5.31.

Figure 5.31: Bandpass loss functions.

Where
s1 = the lower stopband edge frequency
s2 = the upper stopband edge frequency
p1 = the lower passband edge frequency
p2 = the upper passband edge frequency
If we consider the normalised low-pass specification in figure 5.32 see that
we has a mirror image A(-) i.e. its an even function of A(). This is considered
A()
a bandpass function whose centre frequency, is at = 0 and the
frequency range from - to + . The frequency transform required to
carry out this
frequency shift is: s o
$ 2 2 (5.16)
B.s

Here B is the 3 dB bandwidth, expressed as

B p2 p1 (5.17)

s is the bandpass complex frequency variable and o is the centre

frequency defined as:

o p1 p2 s1s2 (5.18)

It will be assumed that the filter is symmetrical around the centre

frequency,
which is valid for bandpass filters with Q > 1. This makes the analysis
much easier.
Copyright: Paul Tobin School of Electronics and Comms. Eng. 40
DIT, Kevin St. Electric circuits Waed 3

Figure 5.32: LPF with mirror image.

The transformation, defined by (5.16), is now applied to the specification

from
which we obtain an equivalent normalised low-pass specification. Using the
transformation but replacing the complex frequency with real frequencies
and then substituting the frequencies as defined in figure 5.32. This gives values
for the normalised frequencies in figure 5.33. To obtain the normalised
values, we consider values for at the four frequencies s1, s2, p1 and p2.
Note:
The Matlab code to produce figure 5.33 uses the matlab file h = freqs(b, a, w),
where the coefficients of the numerator polynomial of the transfer function are:
b=[160000 0 0]; and the denominator polynomial coefficients are a = [1
570
2.95e6 7.6e8 1.74e12]. The frequency range = 500:1:2000; plot(,
10*log10(h)). Note use conv function if the transfer function is in factored form
i.e. if (s2 2142s 7.84.106 )( s2 1865s 7.84.106 ) , convolve the coefficients
of each factor to get a composite polynomial.

Copyright: Paul Tobin School of Electronics and Comms. Eng. 41

DIT, Kevin St. Electric circuits Waed 3

Figure 5.33: Chebychev bandpass filter.

We de-normalise and frequency transform, a Butterworth approximation function,

by replacing $ with the function defined below

s 2 2o 1/
$ (5.21)
n
Bs
To obtain the normalised values, we consider evaluating the transform at the
following frequencies: s1, s2, p1 and p2.

( j)2 02
$
(p2 p1 ) j

But = j so that

2 0 2
j j
(p2 p1

Or

0 2 2

(p2 p1 )
Substituting the frequency values s1, s2, p1 and p2 into this equation.

Copyright: Paul Tobin School of Electronics and Comms. Eng. 42

 DIT, Kevin St. Electric circuits Waed 3

Figure 5.34

1) At = o
0 2 0 2
Lo =0
(p2 p1 )0
2) At =s1 and 2 o s1s2
s12 s 1
Ls1 Ls2 s1 s 2 = s2
( p2 p1) s1 (
p2
)
3) p1
At = s2 and 2 o s1s2

s 22 s 2 s 2 s1
Ls2 s 1 s 2 = s1 =
( p2 p1) s2 (
p2 p2)
) p1 (
p1

4) At =p1 and 2 o p1
p2 p 1 p 2 p 12
Lp1 Lp2 1
( p2 p1)
5) At =p2 and 2 o p1 p2 p1

p 1 p 2 p 22
Lp2 1
( p2 p1)
p2
Example 5.3
The specification for a bandpass filter is
s1 = the lower stopband edge frequency = 1000 rs-1
s2 = the upper stopband edge frequency = 9000 rs-1

Copyright: Paul Tobin School of Electronics and Comms. Eng. 43

 DIT, Kevin St. Electric circuits Waed 3
p1 = the lower passband edge frequency = 2000 rs-1
p2 = the upper passband edge frequency = 4500 rs-1
The maximum passband attenuation Amax = 0.5 dB. The minimum
attenuation Amin = 6 dB. Obtain the stopband
bandpass transfer function, which
will(Use Chebychev approximation loss function tables).
meet this specification.

s 12 s 2 s1 9000 1000
Ls1 Ls2 s1 s 2 = 3.2
( p2 p1) s1 ( p2
) 4500
2000
p1

The maximum allowed ripple present in the passband is 0.5 dB so a Chebychev

design is considered. The order n is calculated as

1/ 2
100.1x Amin 1
-1
cosh
100.1.xAmax 1
n
cosh -1 (LS1 )

Substituting values
1/ 2
10 0.1.6 1
cosh 0.1.5
-1

10 1
n -1

cosh (3.2)
1.24
Example 5.4
A bandpass filter is required for a particular application, which will tolerate ripple
in the passband equal to 0.5 dB. The specification for a bandpass filter is:
s1 = the lower stopband edge frequency = 688 rs-1
s2 = the upper stopband edge frequency = 1930 rs-1
p1 = the lower passband edge frequency = 970 rs-1
p2 = the upper passband edge frequency = 1370 rs
-1

The maximum passband attenuation Amax = 0.5 dB.

The minimum stopband attenuation Amin = 15 dB.
Obtain the bandpass transfer function, which will meet this specification. ((Use
Chebychev approximation loss function tables).

Solution
The maximum allowed ripple present in the passband is 0.5 dB so a Chebychev
design is considered. The order n is calculated as

1/ 2
100.1 Amin 1
-1
cosh 0.1 Amax 1
n 10
cosh -1
( S )

Copyright: Paul Tobin School of Electronics and Comms. Eng. 44

 DIT, Kevin St. Electric circuits Waed 3

s 12 s 2 s 1 1930 688
Ls1 Ls2 s1 s 2 = 3.1
( p2 p1) s1
p2 p1
1370 970

Substituting values
1/ 2
-1 100.1.15 1
cosh 0.1.5
n 10 1 1.93
-1
cosh (3.1)

A second order approximation function is required. From the Chebychev tables,

A($) = s2 + 1.426s + 1.516. The centre or resonant frequency is calculated using
the relationship o is the centre frequency defined as:

o p1p2 s1s2 688.1930 =1153 rs-1

s 2 o2
Using the frequency transformation $ in the loss function. Here B is the
B.s
3 dB bandwidth, which can be expressed:

B p2 p1 = 400 rs-1 .
.
s 2 2o s 1153
2 2

$
B.s 400s

Here s is the bandpass complex frequency variable.

s2 1153 2 s2 1153 2
2

A(s) 1.426 1.516

400s 400s

1 160000s2
H (s) 4
A(s) s 570s3 2.95.106 s2 7.5.108 s 1.74.1012

s 2 2o 1/ n
As an exercise use the Butterworth $ substitution on this
Bs
problem.

Exercise
Obtain the transfer function for a low-pass CR filter and a high-pass CR filter for C =
1F and R = 1 . Substitute s = 1/s in the low-pass filter and compare with the hpf
transfer function.

Copyright: Paul Tobin School of Electronics and Comms. Eng. 45