Amoeba

This article is about the cellular body type. For the 1 Shape, movement and nutrition
genus, see Amoeba (genus). For other uses, see Amoeba
(disambiguation).

Foraminifera have reticulose (net-like) pseudopods

Amoebae move and feed by using pseudopods, which are

A Giant Amoeba, Chaos carolinense bulges of cytoplasm formed by the coordinated action of
actin microlaments pushing out the plasma membrane
that surrounds the cell.[11]
An amoeba (/mib/; rarely spelled amba, US English The appearance and internal structure of pseudopods are
rarely spelled ameba; plural am(o)ebas or am(o)ebae used to distinguish groups of amoebae from one another.
/mibi/),[1] often called amoeboid, is a type of cell or
Amoebozoan species, such as those in the genus Amoeba,
organism which has the ability to alter its shape, primar-
typically have bulbous (lobose) pseudopods, rounded at
ily by extending and retracting pseudopods.[2] Amoebas the ends and roughly tubular in cross-section. Cercozoan
do not form a single taxonomic group; instead, they are amoeboids, such as Euglypha and Gromia, have slender,
found in every major lineage of eukaryotic organisms. thread-like (lose) pseudopods. Foraminifera emit ne,
Amoeboid cells occur not only among the protozoa, but branching pseudopods that merge with one another to
also in fungi, algae, and animals.[3][4][5][6][7] form net-like (reticulose) structures. Some groups, such
Microbiologists often use the terms amoeboid and as the Radiolaria and Heliozoa, have sti, needle-like, ra-
amoeba interchangeably for any organism that exhibits diating axopodia (actinopoda) supported from within by
amoeboid movement.[8][9] bundles of microtubules.[3][12]
In older classication systems, most amoebas were placed Free-living amoebae may be testate (enclosed within a
in the class or subphylum Sarcodina, a grouping of single- hard shell), or naked (lacking any hard covering). The
celled organisms that possess pseudopods or move by shells of testate amoebae may be composed of various
protoplasmic ow. However, molecular phylogenetic substances, including calcium, silica, chitin, or agglutina-
studies have shown that Sarcodina is not a monophyletic tions of found materials like small grains of sand and the
group whose members share common descent. Conse- frustules of diatoms.[13]
quently, amoeboid organisms are no longer classied to- To regulate osmotic pressure, most freshwater amoebae
gether in one group.[10] have a contractile vacuole which expels excess water from
The best known amoeboid protists are the Giant Amoe- the cell.[14] This organelle is necessary because freshwa-
bae Chaos carolinense and Amoeba proteus, both of ter has a lower concentration of solutes (such as salt) than
which are widely cultivated and studied in classrooms the amoebas own internal uids (cytosol). Because the
and laboratories. Other well known species include the surrounding water is hypotonic with respect to the con-
so-called brain-eating amoeba Naegleria fowleri, the tents of the cell, water is transferred across the amoebas
intestinal parasite Entamoeba histolytica, which causes cell membrane by osmosis. Without a contractile vac-
amoebic dysentery, and the multicellular social amoeba uole, the cell would ll with excess water and, eventually,
or slime mould Dictyostelium discoideum. burst.

1
2 3 AMOEBAE AS SPECIALIZED CELLS AND LIFE CYCLE STAGES

particles of scavenged material. Amoeboid cells do not

have a mouth or cytostome, and there is no xed place on
the cell at which phagocytosis normally occurs.[16]
Some amoebae also feed by pinocytosis, imbibing dis-
solved nutrients through vesicles formed within the cell
membrane .[17]

Shell of the testate amoeba Diugia acuminata.
2 Size range
The size of amoeboid cells and species is extremely vari-
able. The marine amoeboid Massisteria voersi is just
2.3 to 3 micrometres in diameter,[18] within the size
range of many bacteria.[19] At the other extreme, the
shells of deep-sea xenophyophores can attain 20 cm in
diameter.[20] Most of the free-living freshwater amoebae
commonly found in pond water, ditches and lakes are
microscopic, but some species, such as the so-called gi-
ant amoebae Pelomyxa palustris and Chaos carolinense,
can be large enough to see with the naked eye.

3 Amoebae as specialized cells and

life cycle stages

A naked Amoebozoan

Marine amoebae do not usually possess a contractile vac-

uole, because the concentration of solutes within the
cell are in balance with the tonicity of the surrounding
water.[15]

Neutrophil (white blood cell) engulng anthrax bacteria

Some multicellular organisms have amoeboid cells only

Amoeba phagocytosis in certain phases of life, or use amoeboid movements for
specialized functions. In the immune system of humans
The food sources of amoebae vary. Some amoebae and other animals, amoeboid white blood cells pursue in-
are predatory and live by consuming bacteria and other vading organisms, such as bacteria and pathogenic pro-
protists. Some are detritivores and eat dead organic ma- tists, and engulf them by phagocytosis.[30]
terial. Amoeboid stages also occur in the multicellular fungus-
Amoebae typically ingest their food by phagocytosis, ex- like protists, the so-called slime moulds. Both the plas-
tending pseudopods to encircle and engulf live prey or modial slime moulds, currently classied in the class
4.2 Dismantling of Sarcodina 3

Myxogastria, and the cellular slime moulds of the groups

protoplasm of any protozoan, it soon came to be used in
Acrasida and Dictyosteliida, live as amoebae during their
a restricted sense to designate the gelatinous contents of
amoeboid cells.[10] Thirty years later, the Austrian zoolo-
feeding stage. The amoeboid cells of the former combine
to form a giant multinucleate organism,[31] while the cells
gist Ludwig Karl Schmarda used sarcode as the concep-
of the latter live separately until food runs out, at which
tual basis for his Division Sarcodea, a phylum-level group
time the amoebae aggregate to form a multicellular mi-made up of unstable, changeable organisms with bodies
grating slug which functions as a single organism.[8]
largely composed of 'sarcode.'[44] Later workers, includ-
Other organisms may also present amoeboid cells dur- ing the inuential taxonomist Otto Btschli, emended this
group to create the class Sarcodina,[45] a taxon that re-
ing certain life-cycle stages, e.g., the gametes of
some green algae (Zygnematophyceae)[32] and pennate mained in wide use throughout most of the 20th century.
diatoms,[33] the spores (or dispersal phases) of some Within the traditional Sarcodina, amoebae were generally
Mesomycetozoea,[34][35] and the sporoplasm stage of divided into morphological categories, on the basis of the
Myxozoa and of Ascetosporea.[36] form and structure of their pseudopods. Amoebae with
pseudopods supported by regular arrays of microtubules
(such as the freshwater Heliozoa and marine Radiolaria)
were classied as Actinopods; whereas those with unsup-
4 Amoebae as organisms ported pseudopods were classied as Rhizopods.[46] The
Rhizopods were further subdivided into lobose, lose,
4.1 Early history and origins of Sarcodina and reticulose amoebae, according to the morphology of
their pseudopods.

4.2 Dismantling of Sarcodina

In the nal decade of the 20th century, a series of

The rst illustration of an amoeboid, from Roesel von Rosenhofs
Insecten-Belustigung (1755).
The earliest record of an amoeboid organism was pro-
duced in 1755 by August Johann Rsel von Rosenhof,
who named his discovery Der Kleine Proteus (the Lit-
tle Proteus).[37] Rsels illustrations show an unidenti-
able freshwater amoeba, similar in appearance to the
common species now known as Amoeba proteus.[38] The
term Proteus animalcule remained in use throughout
the 18th and 19th centuries, as an informal name for any
large, free-living amoeboid.[39]
In 1822, the genus Amiba (from the Greek amoib,
meaning change) was erected by the French natural- 5 Pathogenic
ist Bory de Saint-Vincent.[40][41] Borys contemporary, C.
G. Ehrenberg, adopted the genus in his own classica-
tion of microscopic creatures, but changed the spelling to
Amoeba.[42]
In 1841, Flix Dujardin coined the term "sarcode" (from pathogenically, causing disease:
Greek sarx, esh, and eidos, form) for the thick, gluti-
nous, homogenous substance which lls protozoan cell
bodies.[43] Although the term originally referred to the
molecular phylogenetic analyses conrmed that Sarcod-
ina was not a monophyletic group. In view of these nd-
ings, the old scheme was abandoned and the amoebae of
Sarcodina were dispersed among many other high-level
taxonomic groups. Today, the majority of traditional
Sarcodines are placed in two eukaryote supergroups:
Amoebozoa and Rhizaria. The rest have been distributed
among the excavates, opisthokonts, and stramenopiles.
Some, like the Centrohelida, have yet to be placed in any
supergroup.[10][47]
4.3 Classication
Recent classication places the various amoeboid genera
in the following groups:
It should be noted that some of the amoeboid groups
cited (e.g., part of chrysophytes, part of xanthophytes,
chlorarachniophytes) were not traditionally included in
Sarcodina, being classied as algae or agellated proto-
zoa.
interactions with
other organisms
Some amoebae can infect other organisms
Entamoeba histolytica is the cause of amoebiasis, or
amoebic dysentery.
4 8
Trophozoites of the pathogenic Entamoeba histolytica with in-
gested red blood cells
Naegleria fowleri (the brain-eating amoeba) is a
fresh-water-native species that can be fatal to hu-
mans if introduced through the nose.
Acanthamoeba can cause amoebic keratitis and
encephalitis in humans.
Balamuthia mandrillaris is the cause of (often fatal)
granulomatous amoebic meningoencephalitis
6 Meiosis
Recent evidence indicates that several Amoebozoa lin-
eages undergo meiosis.
Orthologs of genes employed in meiosis of sex-
ual eukaryotes have recently been identied in the
Acanthamoeba genome. These genes included Spo11,
Mre11, Rad50, Rad51, Rad52, Mnd1, Dmc1, Msh and
Mlh.[51] This nding suggests that the Acanthamoeba
are capable of some form of meiosis and may be able to
undergo sexual reproduction.
The meiosis-specic recombinase, Dmc1, is required for
ecient meiotic homologous recombination, and Dmc1
is expressed in Entamoeba histolytica.[52] The puried
Dmc1 from E. histolytica forms presynaptic laments and
catalyses ATP-dependent homologous DNA pairing and
DNA strand exchange over at least several thousand base
pairs.[52] The DNA pairing and strand exchange reactions
are enhanced by the eukaryotic meiosis-specic recom-
bination accessory factor (heterodimer) Hop2-Mnd1.[52]
These processes are central to meiotic recombination,
suggesting that E. histolytica undergoes meiosis.[52]
Studies of Entamoeba invadens found that, during the
conversion from the tetraploid uninucleate trophozoite
to the tetranucleate cyst, homologous recombination is [10] Jan Pawlowski: The twilight of Sarcodina: a molecular
enhanced.[53] Expression of genes with functions related
to the major steps of meiotic recombination also increase
[53]
during encystations. These ndings in E. invadens, [11] Alberts Eds.; et al. (2007). Molecular Biology of the Cell
combined with evidence from studies of E. histolytica in-
dicate the presence of meiosis in the Entamoeba.
REFERENCES
Dictyostelium discoideum in the supergroup Amoebozoa
can undergo mating and sexual reproduction including
meiosis when food is scarce.[54][55]
Since the Amoebozoa diverged early from the eukaryotic
family tree, these results suggest that meiosis was present
early in eukaryotic evolution. Furthermore, these ndings
are consistent with the proposal of Lahr et al.[56] that the
majority of amoeboid lineages are anciently sexual.
7 In popular culture
A Very Cellular Song, a song from British psychedelic
folk band the Incredible String Band's 1968 album The
Hangmans Beautiful Daughter, is told partially from the
point of view of an amoeba.[57]
8 References
[1] amoeba at Oxforddictionaries.com
[2] Singleton, Paul (2006). Dictionary of Microbiology and
Molecular Biology, 3rd Edition, revised. Chichester, UK:
John Wiley & Sons. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-470-03545-0.
[3] David J. Patterson. Amoebae: Protists Which Move and
Feed Using Pseudopodia. Tree of Life web project.
[4] The Amoebae. The University of Edinburgh.
[5] Wim van Egmond. Sun animalcules and amoebas.
Microscopy-UK.
[6] Flor-Parra, Ignacio; Bernal, Manuel; Zhurinsky, Jacob;
Daga, Rafael R. (2013-12-17). Cell migration and divi-
sion in amoeboid-like ssion yeast. Biology Open. 3 (1):
108115. doi:10.1242/bio.20136783. ISSN 2046-6390.
PMC 3892166 . PMID 24357230.
[7] Friedl, P.; Borgmann, S.; Brcker, E. B. (2001-10-01).
Amoeboid leukocyte crawling through extracellular ma-
trix: lessons from the Dictyostelium paradigm of cell
movement. Journal of Leukocyte Biology. 70 (4): 491
509. ISSN 0741-5400. PMID 11590185.
[8] Mare, Athanasius FM, and Paulien Hogeweg. How
amoeboids self-organize into a fruiting body: multicellu-
lar coordination in Dictyostelium discoideum. Proceed-
ings of the National Academy of Sciences 98.7 (2001):
38793883.
[9] Mackerras, M. J., and Q. N. Ercole. Observations on the
action of paludrine on malarial parasites. Transactions of
the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 41.3
(1947): 365376.
perspective on the polyphyletic origin of amoeboid protists.
Protistology, Band 5, 2008, S. 281302. (pdf, 570 kB)
5th Edition. New York: Garland Science. p. 1037. ISBN
9780815341055.

[12] Margulis, Lynn (2009). Kingdoms and Domains. Aca-
demic Press. pp. 2067. ISBN 978-0-12-373621-5.
[13] Ogden, C. G. (1980). An Atlas of Freshwater Testate
Amoeba. Oxford, London, Glasgow: Oxford University
Press, for British Museum (Natural History). pp. 15.
ISBN 0198585020.
[14] Alberts Eds.; et al. (2007). Molecular Biology of the Cell
5th Edition. New York: Garland Science. p. 663. ISBN
9780815341055.
[15] Kudo, Richard Roksabro. Protozoology. Protozoology
4th Edit (1954). p. 83
[16] Thorp, James H. (2001). Ecology and Classication of
North American Freshwater invertebrates. San Diego:
Academic. p. 71. ISBN 0-12-690647-5.
[17] Jeon, Kwang W. (1973). Biology of Amoeba. New York:
Academic Press. p. 100.
[18] Mylnikov, Alexander P.; Weber, Felix; Jrgens, Klaus;
Wylezich, Claudia (2015-08-01). Massisteria ma-
rina has a sister: Massisteria voersi sp. nov., a
rare species isolated from coastal waters of the Baltic
Sea. European Journal of Protistology. 51 (4): 299
310. doi:10.1016/j.ejop.2015.05.002. ISSN 1618-0429.
PMID 26163290.
[19] The Size, Shape, And Arrangement Of Bacterial Cells.
classes.midlandstech.edu. Retrieved 2016-08-21.
[20] Gooday, A. J.; Aranda da Silva, A.; Pawlowski, J. (2011-
12-01). Xenophyophores (Rhizaria, Foraminifera) from
the Nazar Canyon (Portuguese margin, NE Atlantic)".
Deep-Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanogra-
phy. The Geology, Geochemistry, and Biology of Subma-
rine Canyons West of Portugal. 58 (2324): 24012419.
doi:10.1016/j.dsr2.2011.04.005.
[21] Brain-Eating Amoeba (Naegleria Fowleri): Causes and
Symptoms. Retrieved 2016-08-21.
[22] Anatomy Atlases: Atlas of Microscopic Anatomy: Sec-
tion 4: Blood. www.anatomyatlases.org. Retrieved
2016-08-21.
[23] Acanthamoeba | Microworld. www.arcella.nl. Re-
trieved 2016-08-21.
[24] Microscopy of Entamoeba histolytica. msu.edu. Re-
trieved 2016-08-21.
[25] Arcella vulgaris | Microworld. www.arcella.nl. Re-
trieved 2016-08-21.
[26] Amoeba proteus | Microworld. www.arcella.nl. Re-
trieved 2016-08-21.
[27] Chaos | Microworld. www.arcella.nl. Retrieved 2016-
08-21.
[28] Pelomyxa palustris | Microworld. www.arcella.nl. Re-
trieved 2016-08-21.
5
[29] Gooday, A. J.; Aranda da Silva, A.; Pawlowski, J. (2011-
12-01). Xenophyophores (Rhizaria, Foraminifera) from
the Nazar Canyon (Portuguese margin, NE Atlantic)".
Deep-Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanogra-
phy. The Geology, Geochemistry, and Biology of Subma-
rine Canyons West of Portugal. 58 (2324): 24012419.
doi:10.1016/j.dsr2.2011.04.005.
[30] Friedl, Peter, Stefan Borgmann, and Eva-B. Brcker.
Amoeboid leukocyte crawling through extracellular ma-
trix: lessons from the Dictyostelium paradigm of cell
movement. Journal of leukocyte biology 70.4 (2001):
491509.
[31] Nakagaki; et al. (2000). Intelligence: Maze-solving
by an amoeboid organism. Nature. 407 (6803): 470.
doi:10.1038/35035159. PMID 11028990. Retrieved 14
September 2014.
[32] Wehr, John D. (2003). Freshwater Algae of North Amer-
ica. San Diego and London: Academic Press. p. 353.
ISBN 978-0-12-741550-5.
[33] Algae World: diatom sex and life cycles. Algae World.
Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh. Retrieved 1 March
2015.
[34] Valle, L.G. (2014). New species of Paramoebidium (tri-
chomycetes, Mesomycetozoea) from the Mediterranean,
with comments about the amoeboid cells in Amoebidi-
ales. Mycologia. 106: 48190. doi:10.3852/13-153.
PMID 24895422.
[35] Taylor, J. W. & Berbee, M. L. (2014). Fungi from PCR
to Genomics: The Spreading Revolution in Evolutionary
Biology. In: Systematics and Evolution. Springer Berlin
Heidelberg. p. 52,
[36] Corliss, J. O. (1987). Protistan phylogeny and eukaryo-
genesis. International Review of Cytology 100: 319370,
.
[37] Rosenhof, R. (1755). Monatlich herausgegebene Insekten-
belustigungen, vol. 3, p. 621, .
[38] Jeon, Kwang W. (1973). Biology of Amoeba. New York:
Academic Press. pp. 23, .
[39] McAlpine, Daniel (1881). Biological atlas: a guide to the
practical study of plants and animals. Edinburgh and Lon-
don: W. & A. K. Johnston. p. 17.
[40] Bory de Saint-Vincent, J. B. G. M. Essai d'une clas-
sication des animaux microscopiques. Agasse, Paris
(1826).p. 28
[41] McGrath, Kimberley; Blachford, Stacey, eds. (2001).
Gale Encyclopedia of Science Vol. 1: Aardvark-Catalyst
(2nd ed.). Gale Group. ISBN 0-7876-4370-X. OCLC
46337140.
[42] Ehrenberg, Christian Gottfried. Organisation, systematik
und geographisches verhltniss der infusionsthierchen:
Zwei vortrge, in der Akademie der wissenschaften zu
Berlin gehalten in den jahren 1828 und 1830. Druckerei
der Kniglichen akademie der wissenschaften, 1832. p.
59
6 9 EXTERNAL LINKS

[43] Dujardin, Felix (1841). Histoire Naturelle des Zoophytes
Infusoires. Paris: Librarie Encyclopedique de Roret. p.
26.
[44] Schmarda, Ludwig Karl (1871). Zoologie. W.
Braumller. p. 156.
[45] Btschli, Otto (1882). Klassen und Ordnungen des Thier-
Reichs I. Abteilung: Sarkodina und Sporozoa. Paleontol-
ogische Entwicklung der Rhisopoda von C. Scwager. p.
1.
[46] Calkins, Gary N. (1909). Protozology. New York: Lea
& Febiger. pp. 3840.
doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1001013. PMC 2895654 .
PMID 20617172.
[55] O'Day DH, Keszei A (2012). Signalling and sex in the
social amoebozoans. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc. 87
(2): 31329. doi:10.1111/j.1469-185X.2011.00200.x.
PMID 21929567.
[56] Lahr DJ, Parfrey LW, Mitchell EA, Katz LA, Lara E
(2011). The chastity of amoebae: re-evaluating evidence
for sex in amoeboid organisms. Proc. Biol. Sci. 278
(1715): 208190. doi:10.1098/rspb.2011.0289. PMC
3107637 . PMID 21429931.

[47] Adl, Sina M.; et al. (2012). The Revised Classication [57] A Very Cellular Song Lyrics. Metro Lyrics. Retrieved
of Eukaryotes. Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology. 59: 29 February 2016.
42993. doi:10.1111/j.1550-7408.2012.00644.x. PMC
3483872 . PMID 23020233.

[48] Park, J. S.; Simpson, A. G. B.; Brown, S.; Cho, B.

9 External links
C. (2009). Ultrastructure and Molecular Phylogeny
of two Heterolobosean Amoebae, Euplaesiobystra hy-
persalinica gen. Et sp. Nov. And Tulamoeba per-
onaphora gen. Et sp. Nov., Isolated from an Ex-
tremely Hypersaline Habitat. Protist. 160 (2): 265283.
doi:10.1016/j.protis.2008.10.002. PMID 19121603.
[49] Ott, Donald W., Carla K. Oldham-Ott, Nataliya Rybalka,
and Thomas Friedl. 2015. Xanthophyte, Eustigmato-
phyte, and Raphidophyte Algae. In: Wehr, J.D., Sheath,
R.G., Kociolek, J.P. (Eds.) Freshwater Algae of North
America: Ecology and Classication, 2nd edition. Aca-
demic Press, Amsterdam, pp. 483534, .
[50] Patterson, D.J., Simpson, A.G.B. & Rogerson, A., 2000.
Amoebae of uncertain anities. In: Lee, J.J., Leedale,
G.F. & Bradbury, P. An Illustrated Guide to the Proto-
zoa. Society of Protozoologists/Allen Press: Lawrence,
Kansas, U.S.A, 2nd ed., vol. 2, p. 804-827, .
[51] Khan NA, Siddiqui R (2015). Is there evi-
dence of sexual reproduction (meiosis) in Acan-
thamoeba?". Pathog Glob Health. 109 (4): 1935.
doi:10.1179/2047773215Y.0000000009. PMID
25800982.
[52] Kelso AA, Say AF, Sharma D, Ledford LL, Turchick A,
Saski CA, King AV, Attaway CC, Temesvari LA, Sehorn
MG (2015). Entamoeba histolytica Dmc1 Catalyzes
Homologous DNA Pairing and Strand Exchange That Is
Stimulated by Calcium and Hop2-Mnd1. PLoS ONE.
10 (9): e0139399. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0139399.
PMC 4589404 . PMID 26422142.
The Amoebae website of Maciver Lab of the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh brings together information
from published sources.
Amoebas are more than just blobs
Sun Animacules and Amoebas
Molecular Expressions Digital Video Gallery: Pond
Life Amoeba (Protozoa) Some good, informative
Amoeba videos.
Amoebae: Protists Which Move and Feed Using
Pseudopodia at the Tree of Life web project
Siemensma, F. Microworld: world of amoeboid or-
ganisms. http://www.arcella.nl/.
Pawlowski, J. & Burki, F. (2009). Untangling the
Phylogeny of Amoeboid Protists. Journal of Eu-
karyotic Microbiology 56.1: 1625, .
Vlcker, E. & Clau, S. Penard Labs: the fascinating
world of amoebae. http://www.penard.de/.
Walochnik, J. & Aspck, H. (2007). Amben: Pa-
radebeispiele fr Probleme der Phylogenetik, Klas-
sikation und Nomenklatur. Denisia 20: 323350,
.

[53] Singh N, Bhattacharya A, Bhattacharya S (2013).

Homologous recombination occurs in Enta-
moeba and is enhanced during growth stress and
stage conversion. PLoS ONE. 8 (9): e74465.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0074465. PMC 3787063 .
PMID 24098652.

[54] Flowers JM, Li SI, Stathos A, Saxer G, Ostrowski

EA, Queller DC, Strassmann JE, Purugganan MD
(2010). Variation, sex, and social cooperation: molec-
ular population genetics of the social amoeba Dic-
tyostelium discoideum. PLoS Genet. 6 (7): e1001013.
 7

10 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

10.1 Text
Amoeba Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amoeba?oldid=776058700 Contributors: Tobias Hoevekamp, Mav, Josh Grosse, Ktsquare,
Ahoerstemeier, Glenn, Agtx, Denis Barthel, Zoicon5, Dimadick, Robbot, Hadal, Fuelbottle, Azwaldo, Onco p53, JTN, Discospinster, Rho-
bite, Vsmith, Bender235, Sietse Snel, Arcadian, Espoo, Ranveig, Geo Swan, Axeman89, Gosgood, Stemonitis, Missdipsy, Eras-mus, Gra-
ham87, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Captain Disdain, Margosbot~enwiki, Gurch, McDogm, Bgwhite, EricCHill, YurikBot, Rtkat3, Gaius Cornelius,
Rsrikanth05, Salmanazar, Leptictidium, Pentasyllabic, Srnec, Gilliam, Anachronist, Hibernian, Darth Panda, Snowmanradio, T-borg, Bi-
naryTed, Cephal-odd, Andrei Stroe, OcarinaOfTime, Michael Bednarek, Tuspm, Dl2000, Ewulp, Tawkerbot2, Kupirijo, Moofaca, Berria,
Headbomb, CharlotteWebb, AntiVandalBot, Seaphoto, Shirt58, JAnDbot, Postcard Cathy, Matthew Fennell, Igodard, Pedro, VoABot II,
Catgut, VegKilla, Lackwit, Adrian J. Hunter, MartinBot, XRiRax, Anaxial, CommonsDelinker, Huzzlet the bot, Olaf Studt, Nickr95,
Violask81976, KeybladeSephi, Chiswick Chap, Spaceower, Pdcook, Idioma-bot, VolkovBot, Oshwah, Jackfork, UnitedStatesian, Psnee-
ley, SomeManiac, SieBot, Euryalus, Caltas, Bentogoa, Flyer22 Reborn, Alex.muller, Karl2620, Niceguyedc, Crazy951842367, Lucas
the scot, Arjayay, Johnuniq, Truthlobby, Trabelsiismail, Addbot, Non-dropframe, Lemmer1800, Fieldday-sunday, Aboctok, Favonian,
Jasper Deng, Longbowman, Tide rolls, OlEnglish, Xenobot, LuK3, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Pumpkin888, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Panek, Back-
slash Forwardslash, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Materialscientist, Cameron Scott, Omnipaedista, Shubinator, , FrescoBot, Citation bot
1, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Jonesey95, Rainbowofknowledge, Unicron944, Realizen, DASHBot, John of Reading, Super48paul,
Wikipelli, Dcirovic, ZroBot, EdoBot, Kleopatra, ClueBot NG, Ganesha3324, -sche, Alexander Shatulin, Jackiebolda, The Mark of the
Beast, MusikAnimal, NotWith, Deuterostome, TBrandley, Pseudofusulina, BattyBot, David.moreno72, ChrisGualtieri, Dexbot, Lugia2453,
John F. Lewis, 93, Sarthak2024, BarbBarbBarb, Zorahia, Howicus, Tentinator, Ugog Nizdast, NottNott, Chaya5260, Yoshi24517, Mr.
Smart LION, Monkbot, Horseless Headman, Filedelinkerbot, A Great Catholic Person, KH-1, Crystallizedcarbon, Zppix, Akar.rohit,
Kashish Arora, Duonaut, Cicifb, DelayTalk, Yesbaby2, Innite0694, Samrichard8, CAPTAIN RAJU, JLmonstre, 6000j, DatGuy, Qzd,
Nivaead, Imakethingbetter, Abhinav095, Ryans123498, Acopyeditor, Sheldont34343, Ana.fyifyi, Bobross1626 and Anonymous: 202

10.2 Images
File:Ammonia_tepida.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/Ammonia_tepida.jpg License: CC BY 2.5
Contributors: UC Berkeley Original artist: Scott Fay
File:Amoeba_(PSF).png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Amoeba_%28PSF%29.png License: Public
domain Contributors: Archives of Pearson Scott Foresman, donated to the Wikimedia Foundation Original artist: Pearson Scott Fores-
man
File:Chaos_carolinense.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Chaos_carolinense.jpg License: CC BY-
SA 2.5 Contributors: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB2/PCD1761/D/79.jpg Original artist: dr.Tsukii Yuuji
File:Der_Kleine_Proteus_from_Roesel.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Der_Kleine_Proteus_
from_Roesel.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Historiae Polyporum from Insecten-Belustigung, 1746-1761 Original artist:
Augustus Iohannes Roesel von Rosenhof
File:Difflugia_acuminata.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Difflugia_acuminata.jpg License: CC
BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Deuterostome
File:Lock-green.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg License: CC0 Contributors: en:File:
Free-to-read_lock_75.svg Original artist: User:Trappist the monk
File:Neutrophil_with_anthrax_copy.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Neutrophil_with_anthrax_
copy.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: (November 2005). "Neutrophil engulng Bacillus anthracis". PLoS Pathogens 1 (3): Cover
page. DOI:10.1371. Retrieved on 2009-01-04. Original artist: Volker Brinkmann
File:Phagocytosis_--_amoeba.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Phagocytosis_--_amoeba.jpg Li-
cense: CC0 Contributors: Kate Taylor Original artist: Kate Taylor
File:Trophozoites_of_Entamoeba_histolytica_with_ingested_erythrocytes.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/c/cf/Trophozoites_of_Entamoeba_histolytica_with_ingested_erythrocytes.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: DPD
CDC http://www.dpd.cdc.gov/dpdx/images/ParasiteImages/A-F/Amebiasis/E_histol_trophs_F.JPG Original artist: ?

10.3 Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0