Donna Haraway Teddy Bear PDF

Teddy Bear Patriarchy: Taxidermy in the Garden of Eden, New York City, 1908-1936
Author(s): Donna Haraway

Source: Social Text, No. 11 (Winter, 1984-1985), pp. 20-64
Published by: Duke University Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/466593 .
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TeddyBearPatriarchy:
Taxidermy inthe
Gardenof Eden,NewYorkCity,1908-1936
DONNA HARAWAY
"Natureteaches law and orderand respectforproperty.If these people cannotgo to the country,
thenthe Museum mustbringnatureto the city."'
"I startedmythoughtson the legendof Romulusand Remus who had been suckled by a wolfand
foundedRome, but in thejungle I had mylittleLord Greystokesuckledby an ape."2
HallandtheTheodoreRooseveltMemorialintheAmeri-
I. The AkeleyAfrican
can MuseumofNaturalHistory:Experience
In theheartofNewYorkCitystandsCentralPark--theurbangardendesigned
by FrederickLaw Olmstedto heal the over-wrought or decadentcitydweller
witha prophylacticdoseofnature.Immediately acrossfromtheparktheTheodore
RooseveltMemorialpresidesas the centralbuildingof the AmericanMuseum
of NaturalHistory, a monumental reproduction of theGardenof Eden. In the
Garden,WesternMan maybeginagain the firstjourney,the firstbirthfrom
withinthe sanctuary of nature.An institution foundedjust afterthe CivilWar
anddedicatedtopopulareducationandscientific research,theAmerican Museum
ofNaturalHistory is theplaceto undertake thisgenesis,thisregeneration.
Passing
through theMuseum'sRooseveltMemorialatriumintotheAfricanHall,opened
in 1936,the ordinary citizenmayentera privileged space and time:the Age
of Mammalsin theheartof Africa,scene of theoriginof our species.3A hope
in everyarchitectural
is implicit detail:in immediate visionoftheorigin, perhaps
thefuturecan be fixed.By savingthebeginnings, theend can be achievedand
the presentcan be transcended. AfricanHall offersa uniquecommunion with
natureat itshighestandyetmostvulnerable moment, themoment oftheinterface
oftheAge ofMammalswiththeAge ofMan. Thiscommunion is offered
through
thesenseofvisionbythecraftoftaxidermy.
Restorationoftheorigin,thetaskofgenetichygiene, isachievedinCarlAkeley's
AfricanHall by an artthatbeganforhimin the 1880swiththecrudestuffing
of P.T. Barnum'selephant,Jumbo, whohad been rundownbya railroadtrain,
theemblemof theIndustrial Revolution. The end of histaskcame in the1920s,
withhisexquisitemounting of theGiantof Karisimbi, thelone silverbackmale
gorillathatdominatesthe dioramadepictingthe site of Akeley'sown gravein
themountainous rainforestoftheCongo,today'sZaire.So itcouldinhabit Akeley's
monument to thepurity of nature,thisgorillawas killedin 1921,thesameyear
the Museumhostedthe Second International Congressof Eugenics.Fromthe
20

Teddy Bear Patriarchy 21
dead bodyoftheprimate, Akeleycrafted something finerthanthelivingorganism;

he achieveditstrueend,a newgenesis.Decadence-the threatofthecity,civili-
zation,machine-wasstayedin thepoliticsof eugenicsand theartof taxidermy.
And theMuseumfulfilled itsscientific purposeof conservation, of preservation,
oftheproduction ofpermanence. Lifewastransfigured intheprincipal civicarena
ofWestern politicaltheory-the natural body of man.4
Behindeverymountedanimal,bronzesculpture, or photograph liesa profusion
of objectsand social interactions amongpeople and other animals, whichin the
end can be recomposedto tell a biography embracing major themes for20th-
century United States. But the recomposition a
produces story that is reticent,
evenmute,aboutAfrica.H.F. Osborn,president of theAmericanMuseumfrom
1908-33,thought AkeleywasAfrica'sbiographer. ThisessaywillarguethatAkeley
is America'sbiographer, or rathera biographer ofpartofNorthAmerica.Akeley
thoughtin AfricanHall the visitorwouldexperiencenatureat its momentof
highestperfection. He did not dreamthathe craftedthe meansto experience
a historyof race,sex,and class in New York Citythatreachedto Nairobi.He
thought he was tellingthe unifiedtruthof naturalhistory. His storywillbe re-
composedto tella tale of thecommerceof powerand knowledge in whiteand
malesupremacist monopoly capitalism, fondlynamedTeddyBearPatriarchy.5
To entertheTheodoreRooseveltMemorial,thevisitormustpass bya James
Earle Fraserequestrianstatueof Teddy majestically mountedas a fatherand
protectorbetweentwo "primitive" men,an AmericanIndianand an African,
bothstanding and dressedas "savages."The facadeof thememorial, fundedby
theStateofNewYorkand awardedto theAmericanMuseumofNaturalHistory
on the basis of its competitive applicationin 1923,is classical,withfourIonic
columns54 feethightoppedbystatuesof thegreatexplorersBoone,Audubon,
Lewis,and Clark.Reminiscent of coins,bas-reliefseals of theUnitedStatesand
of the LibertyBell are stampedon the frontpanels.Inscribedacross the top
are thewordsTRUTH, KNOWLEDGE,VISION and thededicationto Roosevelt
as "a greatleaderof theyouthof America,in energyand fortitude in thefaith
ofourfathers, indefenseoftherights ofthepeople,in theloveand conservation
of natureand of thebestin lifeand in man."Youth,paternalsolicitude,virile
defenseof democracy, and intenseemotionalconnectionto natureare the un-
mistakeable themes.6
The buildingpresents itselfin manyvisiblefaces.It is at once a Greektemple,
a bank,a scientificresearchinstitution, a popularmuseum, a neoclassicaltheatre.
One is enteringa space thatsacralizesdemocracy, Protestant Christianity, ad-
venture,science,and commerce.It is impossible notto feelentering thisbuilding
thata dramawillbe enactedinside.Experiencein thispublicmonument willbe
intenselypersonal; thisstructure is one of North America's spaces for joining
thedualityofselfandcommunity.
Justinsidetheportals,the visitorentersthe firstsacred space wheretransforma-

22 Haraway
tionof consciousness and moralstatewillbegin.'The wallsare inscribedwith

Roosevelt'swordsunderthe headingsNature,Youth,Manhood,theState.The
seekerbeginsin Nature:"Thereare no wordsthatcan tellthehiddenspiritof
thewilderness, thatcan revealitsmystery.... The nationbehaveswellifit treats
its naturalresourcesas assetswhichit mustturnover to the nextgeneration
increasedand notimpairedin value."Natureis mystery and resource,a critical
unionin thehistory of civilization.
The visitor--necessarily a boyin moralstate,
no matterwhataccidentsof biologyor socialgendermighthavepertained prior
to theexcursionto themuseum- progresses through Youth:"I wantto see you
game boys...andgentleand tender.... Courage,hardwork,selfmastery, and in-
telligenteffortare essentialto a successfullife."Youthmirrors Nature,its pair
across the room.The nextstageis Manhood:"Onlythoseare fitto live who
do notfearto die and none are fitto die whohave shrunkfromthejoy of life
and thedutyof life."Oppositeis itsspiritual pair,theState:"Aggressive fighting
forthe rightis thenoblestsporttheworldaffords.... If I mustchoose between
righteousness and peace, I choose righteousness." The wallsof the atriumare
fullof muralsdepicting Roosevelt'slife,theperfectillustration of hiswords.His
lifeis inscribedin stonein a peculiarly literalwayappropriate to thismuseum.
Oneseesthemanhunting biggameinAfrica, conducting diplomacy inthePhilippines
and China,helpingboyandgirlscouts,receiving academichonors,and presiding
overthePanamaCanal ("The landdivided,theworldunited").
Finally,in the atriumalso are the striking life-size
bronzesculptures by Carl
Akeleyof theNandispearmenof East Africaon a lionhunt.These Africanmen
and theliontheykillsymbolize forAkeleytheessenceofthehunt,ofwhatwould
laterbe named"manthehunter." In discussing thelionspearers,Akeleyalways
referred to themas men.In everyothercircumstance he referred to adultmale
Africansas boys.Roosevelt,the modernsportsman, and the "primitive" Nandi
sharein the spiritualtruthof manhood.The noblesculptures expressAkeley's
greatlove forRoosevelt,hisfriendand hunting companionin Africain 1910for
thekillingofone oftheelephants whichAkeleymountedforthemuseum. Akeley
saidhe wouldfollowRooseveltanywhere becauseofhis"sincerity andintegrity."8
In themuseum shopintheatrium inthe1980s,onemaypurchaseT.R.:Champion
of theStrenuous a
Life, photographic biography ofthe26thpresident. Everyaspect
of the fulfillmentof manhoodis depictedwithin,even deathis labelled"The
GreatAdventure." One learnsthatafterhisdefeatin thepresidential campaign
of 1912,Rooseveltundertookthe exploration of the Amazoniantributary, the
Riverof Doubt,undertheauspicesof theAmericanMuseumof NaturalHistory
and theBrazilianGovernment. It was a perfecttrip.The explorers nearlydied,
the riverhad neverbeforebeen seen by whitemen,and the greatstream,no
longerdoubtful, was renamedRio RooseveltbytheBrazilianState.In thepicture
biography, which includesa printoftheadventurers paddling theirprimitivedugout
canoe (one assumesbeforestarvation and junglefeverattenuated the ardorof

TeddyBear Patriarchy 23
thephotographer in thisdesolateland),theformer president of a greatindustrial

powerexplainshisreturnto thewilderness: "I had to go. It was mylastchance
to be a boy."9
The joiningof lifeand deathin theseiconsof Roosevelt'sjourneysand in the
architectureofhisstonymemorial announces thecentral moraltruth ofthismuseum.
This is the effective truthof manhood,the stateconferred on the visitorwho
successfullypassesthrough thetrialofthemuseum.The bodycan be transcended.
Thisis thelessonSimonede Beuavoirso painfully remembered in TheSecondSex;
man is the sex whichriskslifeand in so doing,achieveshis existence.In the
upsidedownworldof TeddyBear Patriarchy, it is in the craftof killingthat
lifeis constructed, not in the accidentof personal,materialbirth.Rooseveltis
clearlythe perfectlocus geniiand patronsaintforthe museumand its taskof
regeneration ofa miscellaneous, incoherent urbanpublicthreatened withgenetic
and socialdecadence,threatened withtheprolific bodiesofthenewimmigrants,
threatened withthefailureofmanhood.'0
The AkeleyAfricanHall itselfis simultaneously a verystrangeplace and an
ordinary experience forliterallymillions ofNorthAmericans overmorethanfive
decades.The typesofdisplayinthishallspreadall overthecountry, andeventhe
world,partly due to thecraftspeople Akeleyhimself trained.In the1980ssacrilege
is perhapsmoreevidentthanliminalexperience ofnature.Whatis theexperience
ofNewYorkstreet-wise kidswiredtoWalkmanradiosandpassingtheFridayafter-
nooncocktailbarbytheliondiorama?Thesearethekidswhocametothemuseum
to see thehightechNature-Max films.Butsoon,forthosenotphysically wiredinto
thecommunication systemof thelate 20thcentury, anothertimebeginsto take
form.The African Hall wasmeantto be a timemachine,anditis." The individual
is enteringtheAge of Mammals.Butone is entering alone,each individual soul,
as partofno stablepriorcommunity and without confidence in thesubstanceof
one's body,in orderto be receivedintoa savedcommunity. One beginsin the
threatening chaos of theindustrial city,partof a horde, but here one willcome
to belong,to findsubstance.No matterhow manypeoplecrowdthegreathall,
the experienceis of individualcommunion withnature.The sacramentwillbe
enactedforeach worshipper; hereis no natureconstituted fromstatisticalreality
and a probability calculus.This is nota randomworld,populatedby late 20th-
centurycyborgs, forwhomthe threatof decadenceis a nostalgicmemory of a
dimorganicpast,butthemoment oforiginwherenatureand culture, privateand
public,profane and sacred meet-a moment of incarnation in the encounter of
manandanimal.
The Hall is darkened,lit onlyfromthedisplaycases whichline the sidesof
thespaciousroom.In thecenterof theHall is a groupof elephantsso lifelike
thata moment's fantasy sufficesforawakening a premonition oftheirmovement,
an
perhaps angrycharge at one's personalintrusion. The elephantsstandlikea
high altar in the nave of a great cathedral. That impressionis strengthenedby

24
Haraway
one'sgrowing consciousness ofthedioramasthatlinebothsidesoftheMainHall,

as wellas thesidesof thespaciousgalleryabove.Lit fromwithin, thedioramas
containdetailedand life-like groupsof largeAfricanmammals-gameforthe
wealthyNew Yorkhunters whofinancedthisexperience;theyare calledhabitat
groupsandare theculmination ofthetaxidermist's art.CalledbyAkeleya "peep-
hole intothejungle,""2 each dioramapresentsitselfas a side altar,a stage,an
unspoiled gardeninnature, a hearthforhomeandfamily. As an altar,eachdiorama
tellsa partofthestoryofsalvation history;eachhasitsspecialemblems indicating
particular virtues.Above all, invitingthevisitorto sharein itsrevelation, wach
tellsthetruth. Each offersa vision.Each is a windowontoknowledge.
A dioramais eminently a story,a partof naturalhistory. The storyis toldin
thepagesofnature,readbythenakedeye.The animalsin thehabitatgroupsare
capturedin a photographer's visionand a sculptor's vision.Theyare actorsin a
morality playon thestageofnature, andtheeyeis thecriticalorgan.Each diorama
containsa smallgroupof animalsin theforeground, in themidstof exactrepro-
ductionsofplants,insects,rocks,soil.Paintings reminiscent ofHollywoodmovie
setartcurveinbackofthegroupandup totheceiling,creating a greatpanoramic
visionofa sceneon theAfricancontinent. Each painting is minutely appropriate
to theparticular animalsin theforeground. Amongthe28 dioramasin theHall,
all the majorgeographicareas of the Africancontinent and mostof the large
mammals are represented.
Gradually, theviewerbeginsto articulate thecontentofthestory.Mostgroups
are made up of onlya fewanimals,usuallyincluding a largeand vigilant male,
a femaleor two,and one baby.Perhapsthereare someotheranimals-a male
adolescentmaybe,neveran aged or deformed beast.The animalsin thegroup
forma developmental series,suchthatthegroupcan represent theessenceofthe
speciesas a dynamic, livingwhole.The principles oforganicism (i.e.,of thelaws
of organicform)rulethecomposition.'" Thereis no need forthemultiplication
ofspecimensbecausetheseriesis a truebiography. Each animalis an organism,
and thegroupis an organism. Each organism is a vitalmomentin thenarrative
ofnaturalhistory, condensing theflowoftimeintotheharmony ofdevelopmental
form. The groupsarepeaceful, composed,illuminated--in "brightest Africa." Each
group forms a community structured by a natural division of function; thewhole
animalin thewholegroupis nature'struth.The physiological divisionof labor
thathas informed thehistoryofbiologyis embodiedinthesehabitatgroupswhich
tellof communities and families,peacefully and hierarchically ordered.Sexual
specializationof function-the organicbodily and social sexual division oflabor-
is unobtrusively ubiquitous,unquestionable, right.The African buffalo, thewhite
and black rhinos,thelion,thezebra,themountain the
nyala, okapi, the lesser
koodo all findtheirplace in the differentiated and developmental harmony of
nature.The racialdivisionof labor,thefamilialprogress fromyouthful nativeto
adultwhiteman,wasannouncedat thestepsleadingtothebuilding itself;Akeley's

TeddyBear PatriarchJy 25
originalplanforAfricanHall includedbas-relief sculpturesof all the"primitive"

tribesof Africacomplementing theotherstoriesof naturalwildlifein theHall.
Organichierarchies areembodiedineveryorganinthearticulation ofnaturalorder
inthemuseum.14"
Butthereis a curiousnoteinthestory;itbeginstodominate as sceneafterscene
drawsthe visitorintoitselfthroughthe eyes of the animalsin the tableaux."
Each dioramahas at leastone animalthatcatchesthe viewer'sgaze and holds
itin communion. The animalis vigilant, readyto soundan alarmat theintrusion
ofman,butreadyalso to holdforever thegaze ofmeeting, themomentof truth,
theoriginalencounter. The moment seemsfragile, theanimalsabouttodisappear,
thecommunion aboutto break;theHall threatens to dissolveintothechaos of
theAge ofMan. Butitdoes not.The gaze holds,and thewaryanimalhealsthose
who willlook. There is no impediment to thisvision.There is no mediation,
nothing betweentheviewerandtheanimal.The glassfront ofthedioramaforbids
thebody'sentry, butthegaze inviteshisvisualpenetration. The animalis frozen
in a momentof supremelife,and manis transfixed. No merelylivingorganism
couldaccomplish thisact.The specularcommercebetweenmanandanimalat the
interfaceoftwoevolutionary agesis completed. The animalsinthedioramashave
transcended mortallife,and holdtheirpose forever, withmusclestensed,noses
aquiver,veinsin the face and delicateanklesand foldsin the suppleskinall
prominent. No visitor to a merely physical Africacouldsee theseanimals.Thisis a
spiritualvisionmadepossibleonlybytheirdeathand literalre-presentation. Only
thencouldtheessenceoftheirlifebe present. Onlythencouldthehygiene ofnature
curethesickvisionofcivilizedman.Taxidermy thefataldesiretorepresent,
fulfills
to be whole;itis a politicsofreproduction.
Thereis one dioramathatstandsout fromall theothers,thegorillagroup.It
is not simplythatthisgroupis one of the fourlargecornerdisplays.Thereis
something specialin the paintingwiththesteamingvolcanoin thebackground
and lake Kivubelow,in thepose of theenigmatic largesilverback risingabove
thegroupin a chestbeatinggestureof alarmand an unforgettable gaze in spite
ofthehandicapofglasseyes.Herethepainter's art was particularlysuccessful in
conveying thesenseof limitless ofa
vision, panorama without end around the focal
lushgreengarden.This is thescenethatAkeleylongedto returnto. It is where
he died,feelinghe was at homeas in no otherplace on earth.It is wherehe first
killeda gorillaand felttheenchantment of a perfectgarden.Afterhis firstvisit
in 1921,he wasmotivated toconvincetheBelgiangovernment tomakeofthisarea
thefirstAfricannationalparkto ensurean absolutesanctuary forthegorillain
thefuture. Buttheviewerdoesnotknowthesethings whenhe seesthefiveanimals
in a naturalisticsetting.It is plainthathe is lookingat a naturalfamily of close
humanrelatives, butthatis nottheessenceofthisdiorama.The viewersees that
the elephants,the lion,the rhino,and the waterhole group--with its peaceful
panoramaof all thegrasslandspecies,includingthecarnivores,caughtin a moment

26 Haraway
outsidetheFall-all thesehavebeen a kindof preparation, notso muchforthe

gorillagroup, as for theGiant of Karisimbi. This double forman standsina unique
personalindividuality, his fixed face molded forever from thedeath maskcastfrom
hiscorpsebya taxidermist intheKivuMountains. Hereisnatural man,immediately
known.His imagemaybe purchasedon a picturepostcard at the desk in the
Rooseveltatrium.[Figure1, publicationcourtesyof the AmericanMuseumof
NaturalHistory. ]
It wouldhavebeen inappropriate to meetthegorillaanywhere else buton the
mountain. Frankenstein andhismonster hadMontBlancfortheirencounter; Akeley
and thegorillafirstsaw each otheron thelushvolcanoesof centralAfrica.The
glanceproveddeadlyforthemboth, justas theexchange between VictorFrankenstein
andhiscreature frozeeachofthemintoa dialecticofimmolation. ButFrankenstein
tastedthebitter failureofhisfatherhood inhisownandhiscreature's death;Akeley
resurrected hiscreature andhisauthorship inboththesanctuary ofParcAlbertand
theAfrican HalloftheAmericanMuseumofNaturalHistory. MaryShelley's story
maybe readas a dissection ofthedeadlylogicofbirthing inpatriarchy at thedawn
oftheageofbiology;hertaleisa nightmare aboutthecrushing failureoftheproject
ofman.Butthetaxidermist laboredtorestore manhoodattheinterface oftheAgeof
Mammalsand theAge ofMan. Akeleyachievedthefulfillment ofa sportsman in
TeddyBearPatriarchy--he dieda father tothegame,andtheirsepulcher isnamed
afterhim,theAkeleyAfrican Hall.
The gorillawasthehighest quarryofAkeley'slifeas artist, scientist,andhunter,
butwhy?He saidhimself (through hisghostwriter, theinvisibleDorothy Greene-
is sheeverabsent?),"To methegorillamadea muchmoreinteresting quarrythan
lions,elephants, or anyotherAfricangame,forthegorillais stillcomparatively
unknown."''6 Butso wasthecolobusmonkey or anyofa longlistofanimals.What
qualitiesdidittaketomakean animal"game"?One answerissimilarity toman,the
ultimate quarry, a worthy opponent. Theidealquarry isthe"other," thenatural self.
ThatisonereasonFrankenstein neededtohuntdownhiscreature. The obscurity of
thegorillawas deepenedand madesacredbythisquestion,thetitleof Akeley's
chapter urgingscientific
research inthenewParcAlbert, "Isthegorillaalmost a man?"
Hunter, scientist, andartistallsoughtthegorillaforhisrevelation aboutthenature
andfuture ofmanhood. Akeleycompared andcontrasted hisquestforthegorillawith
theFrench-American's, PaulduChaillu,thefirst whitemantokilla gorilla,in 1855,
eightyearsafteritwas"discovered." Du Chaillu'saccountoftheencounter standsas
theclassicportrayal ofa depravedandviciousbeastkilledintheheroic,dangerous
encounter. Akeleydisbelieved du Chailluandtoldhisownreadershowmanytimes
du Chaillu'spublishers madehimrewrite untilthebeastwasfierceenough.Franken-
steinpluggeduphisearsrather thanlistentohisawfulsonclaima gentleandpeace
lovingsoul. Akeleywas certainhe wouldfinda nobleand peacefulbeast;so he
brought hisguns,cameras, andwhitewomenintothegardentohunt, wondering what
distancemeasuredcourageinthefaceofa charging alter-ego.

Teddy Bear Patriarchy 27
Like du Chaillu,Akeleyfirstcame upona signof the animal,a footprint, or

in Akeley'scase a handprint, beforemeetingface to face. "I'll neverforgetit.
In thatmudhole werethemarksof fourgreatknuckleswherethegorillahad
placedhishandon theground.Thereis no othertracklikethisintheworld--there
is no otherhandin theworldso large.....AsI lookedat thattrackI lostthefaith
on whichI had brought mypartyto Africa.Instinctively I tookmygunfromthe
gunboy.""Later,Akeleytoldthatthehandprint, nottheface,gavehimhisgreatest
In thehandthetraceofkinship
thrill. writlargeandterrible struckthecraftsman.
Butthen,on thefirst dayoutfromcampinthegorillacountry, Akeleydidmeet
a gorillaface to face,the creaturehe had soughtfordecades,prevented from
earliersuccessby maulingelephants, stingy millionaires, and worldwar.Within
minutes ofhisfirst glimpseofthefeatures ofthefaceofan animalhe longedmore
thananything tosee,Akeleyhadkilledhim,notinthefaceofa charge,butthrough
a denseforestscreenwithinwhichtheanimalhid,rushed,and shookbranches.
Surely,thetaxidermist didnotwantto risklosinghisspecimen, forperhapsthere
wouldbe nomore.He knewthePrinceofSwedenwasjustthenleavingAfricaafter
havingshotfourteen of thegreatapes in thesameregion.The animalsmustbe
waryofnewhunters; collectingmightbe verydifficult.
Whatever theexactlogicthatruledthefirst shot,precisely placedintotheaorta,
thetaskthatfollowedwas arduousindeed-skinning theanimaland transporting
variousremainsback to camp.The corpsehad nearlymiraculously lodgeditself
againstthetrunkof a treeabove a deep chasm.As a resultof Herculeanlabors,
whichincludedcastingthe death maskpicturedin Lions, Gorillas,and their
Neighbors,l' Akeleywas readyforhis nextgorillahunton thesecondday after
shooting thefirst ape. The pace he wassetting himselfwasgrueling, dangerous for
a manominously weakenedby tropicalfevers."Butscienceis a jealous mistress
and takeslittleaccountof a man'sfeelings.`"'The secondquestresultedin two
missedmales,a dead female,and herfrightened babyspearedbytheporters and
guides.Akeleyand his partyhad killedor attempted to killeveryape theyhad
seensincearriving inthearea.
On his thirdday out,Akeleytookhiscamerasand orderedhisguidesto lead
towardeasiercountry. Witha baby,female, andmale,hecoulddo a groupevenifhe
gotnomorespecimens. Nowitwastimetohuntwiththecamera.20 "AlmostbeforeI
itI
knew wasturning in
thecrankofthecameraontwogorillas fullviewwitha beau-
tifulsetting behindthem.I do notthink at thetimeI appreciated thefactthatI was
a
doing thing that had never been donebefore."2' But thephotogenic babyandmother
and theaccompanying smallgroupofothergorillashad becomeboringaftertwo
hundred feetoffilm,so Akeleyprovokedan actionshotbystanding up. Thatwas
interesting for a bit."So finally,
feelingthat I had about all I could expectfromthat
I
band, picked out one thatI to
thought be an immature male. I shotandkilleditand
found, much to myregret, thatitwas a female. As itturned out,however, shewas
sucha splendidlargespecimenthatthefeelingofregretwas considerablylessened."22

28 Harawav
Akeleycommented on hissatisfaction withthetriumphs ofhisgunand camera

and decidedit was timeto ask therestof thepartywaitingin a campbelowto
comeup to huntgorillas.He wasgetting considerably sickerandfearedhe would
not fulfill
his promiseto his friendsto givethemgorilla.His wholepurposein
takingwhitewomenintogorillacountry dependedon meeting thiscommitment:
"As a naturalist interestedin preserving wildlife,I was glad to do anything that
might makekilling animalslessattractive."23 The bestthingto reducethepotency
ofgameforheroichunting istodemonstrate thatinexperienced womencouldsafely
do thesamething.Sciencehadalreadypenetrated; womencouldfollow.
Two daysofhunting resultedin HerbertBradley'sshooting a largesilverback,
the one Akeleycomparedto JackDempseyand mountedas the lone male of
Karisimbiin AfricanHall. It was nowpossibleto admitanotherlevelof feeling:
"As he layat thebase ofthetree,ittookall one'sscientific ardourto keepfrom
feelinglikea murderer. He wasa magnificent creaturewiththefaceofan amiable
giantwhowoulddo no harmexceptperhapsin selfdefenseor in defenseof his
family."24If he had succeededin his abortedhunt,VictorFrankenstein could
havespokenthoselines.
The photograph intheAmericanMuseumfilmarchiveofCarlAkeley,Herbert
Bradley,and MaryHastingsBradleyholdingup thegorillahead and corpseto be
recordedby the camerais an unforgettable image[Figure2]. The face of the
dead giantlookslikeBosch'sconceptionof pain,and thelowerjaw hangsslack,
heldup byAkeley'shand.The bodylooksbloatedandutterly heavy.MaryBradley
gazes smilingly at thefacesof themale hunters, herowneyesavertedfromthe
camera.AkeleyandHerbert Bradleylookdirectly at thecamerainan unshuttered
acceptance of theiract. Two a
Africans, youngboyand a youngman,perchin a
treeabove thescene,one lookingat thecamera,one at thehunting party.The
contrastof thissceneof deathwiththedioramaframing thegiantof Karisimbi
mountedinNewYorkis total;theanimalcameto lifeagain,thistimeimmortal
Akeleyfelthe was in themostbeautiful spoton earth,and decidedthescene
of thedeathof Bradley'sgorillamustbe paintedforthegorillagroupin African
Hall.Therewasnomoreneedtokillafteranother day'sobservation ofa multi-male,
multi-female group;instead, the lastcapture was with the camera. "So theguns
wereputbehindand thecamerapushedforward and we had theextremesatis-
factionofseeingthebandofgorillasdisappearoverthecrestoftheoppositeridge
nonetheworseforhavingmetwithwhitementhatmorning. It was a wonderful
finishto a wonderful gorillahunt."25Once domination is complete,conservation
is urgent.Butperhapspreservation comestoolate.
Whatfollowedwas the returnto the UnitedStatesand activeworkforan
absolutegorillasanctuary providing facilities
forscientificresearch.Akeleyfeared
thegorillawouldbe driven toextinctionbeforeitwasadequately knowntoscience.26
His healthweakenedbuthisspiritat itsheight, Akeleylivedto return to Kivuto
preparepaintings and othermaterialforthegorillagroupdiorama.Between1921

and 1926,he mounted hispreciousgorillaspecimens, producing thatextraordinary

silverbackwhosegazedominates AfricanHall.Whenhedidreturn toKivuin1926,
hewasso exhausted fromhisexertions toreachhisgoalthathediedonNovember 17,
1926,almostimmediately afterheandhispartyarrived on theslopesofMt.Mikena,
"inthelandofhisdreams."27
Akeley'swas a literalsciencededicatedto the prevention of decadence,of
biologicaldecay.Hisgravewas builtintheheartoftherainforest on thevolcano,
where"all thefreewildthings oftheforest haveperpetual sanctuary."28MaryJobe
Akeleydirectedthediggingof an eightfootvaultin lava graveland rock.The
hole was linedwithcloselysetwoodenbeams.The coffin was crafted on thesite
outofsolidnativemahogany and linedwithheavygalvanizedsteelsalvagedfrom
theboxesusedto packspecimensto protectthemfrominsectand otherdamage.
Then the coffinwas upholstered withcamp blankets.A slab of cementten by
twelvefeetand fiveinchesthickwas pouredon top of thegraveand inscribed
withthenameand dateofdeathofthefather ofthegame.The cementhad been
carriedon porters'backsall thewayfromthenearestsourcein Kibale,Uganda.
The menapparently ditchedthefirst heavyload in thefaceofthedifficult trails;
theyweresentback fora secondeffort. An eightfootstockadefencewas built
aroundthegravetodeterbuffalo andelephantfrom desecrating thesite."Dersheid,
Raddatz,Bill and I workedfivedaysand fivenightsto givehimthebesthome
we could build,and he was buriedas I thinkhe wouldhavelikedwitha simple
readingserviceand a prayer."29 The gravewas inviolate,and thereincarnation
of the naturalselfwouldbe immortal in AfricanHall. In 1979,"graverobbers,
Zairoisepoachers,violatedthesiteandcarriedoff[Akeley's] skeleton....,"
theGun,theCamera,and theHuntforTruth:
II. Carl E. Akeley(1864-1926),
Biography
"Forthisuntruthful Akeleysubstitutes
picture a realgorilla."31
"OfthetwoI wasthesavageandtheaggressor."32
Carl Akeley'sboss at theAmericanMuseum,H.F. Osborn,characterized the

taxidermist of Africanlife.Akeleysoughtto craft
as a sculptorand a biographer
a truelife,a uniquelife.The lifeofAfricabecamehislife,histelos.Butit is not
possibleto tellhislifefroma singlepointofview.Thereis a polyphony ofstories,
and theydo not harmonize.Each sourcefortellingthe storyof Akeley'slife
speaksin an authoritative mode,butthehistorian feltcompelledto comparethe
versions,and thento cast Akeley'sstoryin an ironicmode,the registermost
avoidedbyhersubject.Akeleywantedto presentan immediate vision;I would
like to dissectand make visiblelayerafterlayerof mediation.I wantto show
thereaderhowtheexperience ofthedioramagrewfromthesafariinspecifictimes
and places, how the camera and thegun togetherare the conduitsforthe spiritual

30 Harawav
commerceofmanandnature,howbiography is wovenintoandfroma socialand

political I
tissue. wanttoshow how the animalsofAkeley'sachieveddream
stunning
in AfricanHall are theproductof particular
technologies,i.e., thetechniques
of
effectingmeanings. Technologiesare concretizedmoments of human possibility.
Marxcalledthemdead labor,needingtheanimation oflivinglabor.Trueenough,
His gravewas builtin theheartoftherainforeston thevolcano,buttherelations
of lifeand deathin technologiesof enforcedmeaning, or realistrepresentation,
are notso straightforward,
evenforearly20th-century organicbeings,muchless
forourselves,late20th-centurycyborgs,readingstories
aboutthedead craftsman
andtheobsoletecraftofresurrection.33
LIFE STORIES
According to theavailableplotsinU.S. history,itis necessary thatCarlAkeley

wasbornon a farminNewYorkStateofpoor,butvigorous old (white)American
stock.The moment ofhisbirthwasalso necessary, 1864,neartheendoftheCivil
War.The timewasan endanda beginning forso muchinNorthAmerica, including
thehistory of biologyand thestructure of wealthand social class. His boyhood
wasspentinhardfarmlabor,inwhichhe learnedself-reliance and skillwithtools
andmachines. Fromthebeginning hepassedlonghoursalonewatching andhunting
thewildlife of NewYork.By theage of 13,arousedbya borrowedbookon the
subject,Akeleywascommitted to thevocationoftaxidermy. Hisvocation'sbiblio-
genesiswas also ordainedby theplot.At thatage (or age 16 in someversions),
he had a businesscardprinted up. No Yankee boycouldmisstheconnection of
life'spurposewithbusiness, although youngCarlscarcelybelievedhe couldmake
his livingat sucha craft.He tooklessonsin painting, so thathe mightprovide
realisticbackgrounds forthebirdshe ceaselesslymounted.Fromthebeginning
Akeley'slifehad a singlefocus:the capturing and representation of thenature
he saw.On thispointall theversions ofAkeley'slifeconcur.
Afterthecropswerein,at theage of 19,Akeleysetofffromhisfather's farm
"to get a widerfieldformyefforts."34 Firsthe triedto get a job witha local
painterand interior decoratorwhosehobbywas taxidermy, butthisman,David
Bruce,directedtheyoungmanto an institution whichchangedhislife--Ward's
NaturalScienceEstablishment inRochester, whereAkeleywouldspendfouryears
and forma friendship pregnantwithconsequencesforthe nascentscienceof
ecologyas itcametobe practiced inmuseum exhibition. Ward'sprovided mounted
specimensand naturalhistory collectionsforpractically all themuseumsin the
nation.Severalimportant men in the history of biologyand museologyin the
UnitedStatespassedthrough thiscuriousinstitution, including Akeley'sfriend,
WilliamMorton Wheeler. Wheeler completedhis eminentcareer in entymology
at Harvard,a founderof thescience of animalecology(whichhe called ethology-
thescience ofthecharacterofnature)and a mentorin thephilosophyofscience and
of societyto thegreatorganicistsand conservativesocial philosophersin Harvard's

biologicaland medicalestablishment.35 Wheelerwas thena youngMilwaukee

naturaliststeepedin German"kultur" who begantutoring therusticAkeleyfor
entryintoYale's Sheffield ScientificSchool.However,11 hoursof taxidermy in
thedayand longhoursof studyprovedtoo much;so highereducationwas post-
poned,laterpermanently inorderto followthetruervocationofreadingnature's
bookdirectly.
Akeleywassorelydisappointed at Ward'sbecausebusinessimperatives allowed
no roomforimprovement of the craftof taxidermy. He feltanimalswere"up-
holstered." He developedhisown skilland techniquein spiteof thelack of en-
couragement, and the lack of money,and got a chanceforpublicrecognition
whenP.T. Barnum'sfamouselephantwas rundownby a locomotivein Canada
in 1885.Barnumdid notwantto foregothefameand profitfromcontinuing to
displaythegiant(whohad died trying a
to save babyelephant,we are told), so
Akeleyand a companionweredispatchedto Canada fromRochesterto save the
situation.Sixbutchers froma nearbytownhelpedwiththerapidly rottingcarcass;
and what theyoungAkeleylearnedaboutverylargemammaltaxidermy fromthis
experience laidthefoundation forhislaterrevolutionary innovations inproducing
light,strong, life-like The
pachyderms. popularpress followed the monumental
mounting, was
and thedayJumbo launched in hisown railroad car intohispost-
mortem career, half the population of Rochester witnessed the resurrection.The
irstbigperiodoftrialwasoverfortheyoungtaxidermist.
In 1885,Wheelerhad returned to Milwaukeeto teachhighschooland soon
tookup a curatorship intheMilwaukeeMuseumofNaturalHistory. Wheelerurged
hisfriend to follow,hopingto continuehistutoring and to secureAkeleycommis-
sionsforspecimens fromthemuseum. Atthistime,museums didnotgenerally have
theirowntaxidermy departments, the
although years around 1890 were a period
of flowering of taxidermic techniquein Britainand the UnitedStates.Akeley
openedhisbusinessshopon theWheelerfamily property,andhe andthenaturalist
spentlong hours discussingnatural history,finding themselves in agreement both
aboutmuseum display and aboutthe character of nature.The most important credo
forthembothwas theneed to developscientific knowledge of thewholeanimal
in the wholegroupin nature-i.e.,theywere committed organicists.Wheeler
soon became directorof the Milwaukeemuseumand gave Akeleysignificant
support.Akeleyhad conceivedtheidea forhabitatgroupsand wishedto mount
a seriesillustratingthefur-bearing animalsof Wisconsin.His completedmuskrat
group(1889), minus the paintedbackgrounds, was probablythefirstmammalian
habitatgroupanywhere.
As a resultof a recommendation fromWheeler,in 1894theBritishMuseum
invitedAkeleyto practicehistradein thatworld-famous institution.On theway
to London,AkeleyvisitedtheFieldMuseuminChicago,metDanielGiraudElliot
and acceptedhisofferofpreparing thelargecollectionofspecimensthemuseum
had boughtfromWard's. In 1896, Akeley made his firstcollectingexpeditionto

32 Haraway
Africa,to BritishSomaliland, a tripthatopeneda wholenewworldto him.This

was the firstof fivesafaristo Africa,each escalatinghis senseof thepurityof
thecontinent's vanishing wildlifeand theconviction thatthemeaningof hislife
was itspreservation through transforming taxidermy intoan art.He was againin
AfricafortheFieldMuseumin 1905,withhis explorer/adventurer/author wife,
Delia, to collectelephants inBritish East Africa.On thistripAkeleyescapedwith
hislifeafterkilling a leopardinhand-to-fang combat.
In ChicagoAkeleyspentfouryearslargelyat hisown expensepreparing the
justlyfamousFourSeasonsdeerdioramasdepicting typicalscenesineverydetail.
In 1908,at theinvitation of thenewpresident, H.F. Osborn,whowas anxiousto
markhisofficewiththediscovery ofmajornewscientific lawsand departures in
museumexhibition and publiceducation,Akeleymovedto New York and the
AmericanMuseumofNaturalHistory in hopeof preparing a majorcollectionof
largeAfricanmammals. From1909-11Akeleyand Delia collectedin British East
Africa,a tripmarkedby a huntwithTheodoreRooseveltand his son Kermit,
whowerecollecting fortheWashington NationalMuseum.The safariwasbrought
to a limpingconclusionby Carl's beingmauledby an elephant,thusdelaying
fulfillment of hisdreamof collecting gorillas.His planfortheAfricanHall took
shapeby1911andruledhisbehaviorthereafter. He spentWorldWarI as a civilian
Assistant Engineerto theMechanicalandDevicesSectionoftheArmy.He is said
tohaverefused a commission inordertokeephisfreedom tospeakfreely toanyone
inthehierarchy.
Duringthewar,hismechanical geniushadfullscope,resulting inseveralpatents
in hisname.The themeofAkeleytheinventor recursconstantly in hislifestory.
Includedinhisrosterofinventions, severalofwhichinvolvedsubsequent business
development, werea motionpicturecamera,a cementgun,and severalstagesof
newtaxidermic processes, particularly methods ofmaking manikins togo underthe
animalskinsandmethods ofmakinghighly naturalisticfoliage.
Withtheclose ofwar,Akeleyfocusedall hisenergyon getting backingforthe
AfricanHall. He neededmorethana milliondollars.Lecturetours,articlesand
a book,and endlesspromotion broughthimintotouchwiththemajorwealthy
sportsmen of the state, but sufficient financial commitment eludedhim.In 1921,
financing half the expensehimself, Akeley leftfor Africaagain,thistimeaccom-
paniedby a married couple, their 5 old their
year daughter, governess, andAkeley's
adultniecewhomhe hadpromised to takehunting inAfrica.Akeleyfeltbringing
womenand childrento huntgorillaswas the definitive proofof thisthemeof
brightest Africa, where the animals were noble in defense of theirfamilies,but
neverwantonly ferocious. On thistrip,he collectedfivegorillas,withthehelpof
theBradleys, onceagainnearlydiedfrom junglefevers, andreturned toNewYork
determined toachievepermanent conservation forthegorillasintheBelgianCongo.
In 1924he marriedthe explorer/adventurer/author MaryL. Jobe,who accom-
paniedhimon hislastadventure, theAkeley-Eastman-Pomeroy AfricanHall Ex-

pedition,thatcollectedfor10 dioramasof theGreatHall. GeorgeEastman,of

EastmanKodakfortunes, andDanielPomeroy, thebenefactors, accompaniedthe
taxidermist-hunter to collectspecimensfortheirbequests.Eastman,then71 years
old,wentwithhisownphysician and commanded hisownrailroadtrainforpart
oftheexcursion.
En routeto AfricatheAkeleyswerereceivedby theconservationist and war
heroKingofBelgium,Albert.He was thesonoftheinfamous LeopoldII, whose
personalrapaciouscontroloftheCongoforprofit waswrestedawayandgivento
he Belgiangovernment byotherEuropeanpowersin 1908.LeopoldII hadfinanced
HenryStanley'sexplorations of theCongo.Akeleyis picturedin hisbiographies
in the line of thegreatexplorersfromStanleyand Livingstone, butalso as the
manwhowitnessed, andindeedhelpedbirtha newbright Africa.Albert,whohad
beenled to hisviewson nationalparksbya visitto Yosemite,confirmed plansfor
the Parc Albertand gave the Akeleysa commission to preparetopographical
mapsanddescriptions ofthearea incooperation withtheBelgiannaturalist, Jean
Derscheid.Therewas no room fora greatpark for the in
Belgians Europe,so
naturally one was established in the Congo, which was to includeprotection for
who
thePygmies lived within park boundaries. The park was to providesanctuary
fornaturalprimitives, as wellas tofoster scientific
studybyestablishing permanent
researchfacilitieswithin parkboundaries. After10months ofcollecting,Carland
Mary Jobe set offfor the Kivu forest and theheart of remaining unspoiledAfrica.
Theirpurposethistimewasnotto collectgorillas, butto observetheapes,collect
plantsandobtainpaintings forthegorilladiorama.CarlAkeleydiedinNovember
1926,of fevera few days afterarriving at thesiteofhis1921encampment, themost
beautifulspotin all of Africaforhim.His wifeand the othermembersof the
expedition buriedhimon Mt.Mikeno"ingroundthehandofmancan neveralter
or profane."37
TAXIDERMY: FROM UPHOLSTERY TO EPIPHANY
Africastandsbeforehim-a resultofAkeley'sdream."38
"Transplanted
ThevisionCarlAkeleyhadseenwasoneofjunglepeace.Itwasthisthatheneeded
topreserve permanently fortheworld.Hisquesttoembody thisvisionalonejustified
to himself his hunting,turnedit intoa tool of scienceand art,thescalpelthat
revealedtheharmony ofan organic,articulateworld.Let us followAkeleybriefly
through his technicalcontributionsto taxidermy in orderto graspmorefullythe
storieshe neededtotellaboutthebiography ofAfrica, thelifehistoryofnature,i.e.,
thenaturalhistory oflife.Akeleyandothershavesummarized manytimesinprint
how his laborstransformed taxidermy from the stuffingof animals intoan art

34 Haraway
capable of embodying truth, so thisrecapitulationwillselectonlythosethemes

essentialto mystory.39
It is a simpletale:Taxidermy was madeintotheservant ofthe"real."Akeley's
vocation, andhisachievement, wastheproduction ofanorganized craftforeliciting
unambiguous of
experience organicperfection. Literally,
Akeley"typified" nature,
made naturetrueto type.Taxidermy was aboutthesinglestory,aboutnature's
unity,theunblemished typespecimen.Taxidermy becametheartmostsuitedto
the epistemological and aestheticstanceof realism.The powerof thisstanceis
in itsmagicaleffects: whatis so painfully constructed appearseffortlessly, spon-
taneously found,discovered, simplythere ifone willonlylook.Realismdoes not
appearto be a pointof view,butappearsas a "peepholeintothejungle"where
peace maybe witnessed. Epiphanycomesas a gift,notas thefruitof meritand
toil,soiledbythehandof man.Realisticartat itsmostdeeplymagicalissuesin
revelation. This artrepayslaborwithtranscendence. Smallwonderthatartistic
realismandbiologicalscienceweretwinbrothers inthefounding ofthecivicorder
ofnatureattheAmerican MuseumofNaturalHistory. Bothweresuckledbynature,
as Romulusand Remus.It is also naturalthattaxidermy and biologydepend
fundamentally upon visionin a hierarchy of the senses;theyare toolsforthe
construction, discovery ofform.
Akeley'seightyearsinMilwaukeefrom1886to 1894werecrucialforhisworking
out techniquesthatservedhimwelltherestof his life.The culmination of that
periodwasa headofa maleVirginia deerhe enteredinthefirst Sportsman's Show,
heldin NewYorkCityin 1895.The judgein thatnationalcompetition, in which
Akeley'sentryplacedfirst, was TheodoreRoosevelt,whomAkeleydid notmeet
untiltheybefriended each otheron safariin Africain 1906.The head,entitled
"The Challenge," displayeda buck"inthefullfrenzy ofhisvirilityas he gavethe
defiant roaroftheruttingseason- thecalltofiercecombat."4Jungle peacewasnot
a passiveaffair,norone unmarked bygender.
The headwasdonein a periodofexperimentation leadingto theproduction in
Chicagooffourhabitat groupsofdeerdisplayed inthefourseasons.Incrafting those
groupsoverfouryears, Akeleyworked outhismanikin method, claymodeling, plaster
casting, vegetationmolding techniques,andearlyorganized production system. He
hiredwomenandmenworkers bythehourto turnoutthethousands ofindividual
leavesneededtoclothethetreesinthescenes.Background canvaseswerepaintedby
CharlesAbelCorwin, fromstudiesdoneintheMichiganIronMountains wherethe
animalswerecollected.Akeleypatented hisvegetation process,butgaverights for
itsusefreeofchargetotheFieldMuseuminChicago;he didnotpatenthisinnova-
tivemethods ofproducing light,strongpapier-mache manikinsfrom exactclaymodels
andplastercasts,butallowedfreeworld-wide useofhistechniques. Cooperation in
museum developmentwas a fundamentalvalue forthis
taxidermist,who didnot make
muchmoneyathiscraft andwhoseinventions werea significant
partofhiseconomic
survival."Four Seasons" were installedin the Field Museum in 1902.41

Akeleycontinued tomakeimprovements inhistaxidermic technique throughout

hislife,andhe taught severalotherkeyworkers, including JamesLipsitt Clark,who
wastheDirectorofArts,Preparation and Installation at theAmericanMuseumin
theyearsafterAkeley'sdeathwhenAfricanHall was actuallyconstructed. While
Akeleyworkedlonghoursalone,it wouldbe a mistaketo imaginetaxidermy as
he helpedto developitspracticeto be a solitary art.Taxidermy requiresa com-
plex systemof coordination and divisionof labor,beginning in the fieldduring
thehunting oftheanimalsandculminating inthepresentation ofa finisheddiorama
allowingsolitary, individual communion withnature.A minimum listof workers
ononeofAkeley'sprojects mustincludefellowtaxidermists, othercollectors,artists,
anatomists, and "accessorymen."42 Picturesof workin thetaxidermy studiosof
theAmericanMuseumshowmen(males,usuallywhite)tanning hides,working on
largeclaymodelsof sizeablemammals(including elephants)or on plastercasts,
assembling skeletonand wood frames,consulting scale modelsof the planned
display,doingcarpentry, makingvegetation, sketching, etc. Clarkreportsthat
during theyearsbetween1926and 1936whenAfrican opened,stillunfinished,
Hall
thestaff oftheprojectusuallyemployedabout45 men.Painting thebackgrounds
wasitselfa majorartistic specialization, and theartists based their finalpanoramas
on numerous studiesdoneat the siteof collection. In the field,the entireoperation
restedon theorganization of thesafari,a complexsocial institution whererace,
sexandclasscametogether intensely. The safariwillbe discussedmorefully below,
but now it is usefulto note that skinning a largeanimalcouldemploy50 workers
forseveralhours.Photographs, moving picturerecords, deathmasksoftheanimals,
extensiveanatomicalmeasurements, initialtreatment of skins,and sketchesall
occupied the fieldworkers. It would not be an exaggeration to claimthatthe
production of a modern diorama involved the work of hundreds of people in a
social systemembracing themajorstructures of skilland authority on a world-
widescale.
Howcan sucha system producea unified biography ofnature?Howis itpossible
to referto Akeley~ AfricanHall whenit was constructed afterhe died?On an
ideologicallevel, the answer to these simplequestions is connected to theruling
of an
conception organicism, organichierarchy, conceived as nature'sprincipleof
organization. Clark stressedthe importance of"artisticcomposition" and described
theprocessas a "recreation" of naturebased on theprinciples of organicform.
This processrequireda base of "personalexperience,"ideallyin the formof
presencein Africa,at thesiteof theanimal'slifeand death.Technicalcraftsare
alwaysimagined tobe subordinated bytheruling artistic idea,itselfrootedauthori-
tatively in nature's own life. "Such things must be felt,must be absorbedand
assimilated, andtheninturn,withunderstanding andenthusiasm, givenoutbythe
creator....Therefore, our groupsare veryoftenconceivedin theverylairof the
animals."43
The credosof realismand organicism are closelyconnected;bothare syste-
matizationsof organizationbya hierarchicaldivisionof labor,perceivedas natural
and thereforeproductiveof unity.Unitymustbe authoredin the Judeo-Christian
mythsystem,and just as naturehas an Author,so does theorganismor therealistic

36 Haraway
diorama.In thismyth system, theauthormustbe imagined withtheaspectsofmind,

in relationto thebodywhichexecutes.Akeleywas intent on avoidinglyingin his
work;hiscraftwas to tellthetruth ofnature.Therewasonlyone wayto achieve
suchtruth-theruleofmindrootedintheclaimto experience. All theworkmust
bedonebymenwhodidtheircollecting andstudies onthespotbecause"[o]therwise,
theexhibitis a lie and it wouldbe nothing shortof a crimeto place it in one of
theleadingeducationalinstitutions ofthecountry."44 A singlemindinfused collec-
tiveexperience:"Ifan exhibition hallis to approachitsideal,itsplanmustbe that
of a mastermind,whilein actuality it is theproductof thecorrelation of many
mindsand hands."45 Training a school of workers was an absolutely fundamental
partofAkeley'spracticeoftaxidermy; on hissuccessrestedthepossibility oftelling
thetruth. Butaboveall,thissenseoftellinga truestoryrestedon theselectionof
individual animals,theformation ofgroupsoftypicalspecimens.
Whatdoes itmeanto claima dioramatellsa unified story, a biographyessential
to nature?Whatwas themeaningof"typical"forAkeleyand hiscontemporaries
in thebiologicaldepartments oftheAmericanMuseumofNaturalHistory? What
are the contentsof thesestoriesand whatmustone do to see thesecontents?
To answerthesequestions, we mustfollowCarl Akeleyintothefieldand watch
himselectan animaltomount.Akeley'sconcentration on finding thetypicalspeci-
men,group,orscenecannotbe overemphasized. Buthowcouldhe knowwhatwas
typical,orthatsucha stateofbeingexisted? Thisproblem hasbeenfundamental in
thehistory of biology;one effort at solutionis embodiedin AfricanHall. Three
huntsillustrate Akeley'smeanings oftypical.
First,theconceptincludesthenotionofperfection. The largebullgiraffe inthe
waterholegroupinAfrican Hallwas theobjectofa huntovermanydaysin 1921.
Severalanimalswerepassedover because theyweretoo smallor not colored
beautifully enough.Remembering recordtrophies fromlate 19th-century hunters
undermined satisfaction
witha modern, smallerspecimentakenfromthedepleted
herdsofvanishing Africannature.Whenat lastthebullwas spottedand takenas
the resultof greatskilland daring,the minutedetailsof its preservation and
recreation werelovingly described.
Similarly, in1910-11,
thehuntfora largebullelephant provided thecentraldrama
ofthesafarifortheentire twoyears.Ananimalwithasymmetrical tuskswasrejected,
despitehis imposingsize. Character,as well as merephysicalappearance,was
important injudgingan animalto be perfect. Cowardicewoulddisqualify themost
lovelyandproperly proportioned beast.Ideally,thekilling itselfhadto be accom-
plishedas a sportsmanlike act.Perfection washeightened ifthehuntwerea meeting
ofequals.So therewasa hierarchy ofgameaccordingto species:lions,elephants,
and giraffes faroutrankedwildasses or antelope.The gorillawas thesupreme
achievement, almosta definition of perfection in theheartof thegardenat the
moment oforigin.Perfection inheredin theanimalitself, butthefullest meanings
of perfectioninheredin the meetingof animal and man, the momentof perfect

vision.Taxidermy was thecraftofremembering thisperfect experience.Realism

wasa supremeachievement oftheartofmemory, a rhetorical
achievement crucial
to thefoundations ofWestern science.46
There is one otheressentialqualityforthe typicalanimalin its perfectex-
pression:it mustbe an adultmale.Akeleydescribeshunting manyfinecowsor
lionesses,and he cared fortheirhidesand otherdetailsof reconstruction with
all hisskill.But neverwas it necessaryto takeweeksand riskthesuccessof the
entireenterprise to findtheperfectfemale.Thereexistedan imageof an animal
whichwas somehowthegorillaor theelephantincarnate. Thatparticular toneof
perfection couldonlybe heardin themalemode.It was a compoundofphysical
and spiritual qualityjudgedtruthfully in thefullness
by theartist-scientist of di-
rectexperience.Perfection was markedbyexactquantitative measurement, but
evenmorebyvirilevitality knownbythehunter-scientist fromvisualcommunion.
Perfection was knownby naturalkinship;type,kind,and kinmutually defined
each other.
ButAkeleyhuntedfora seriesor a group,notjustforindividuals. How didhe
knowwhentostopthehunt?Twogroupsgivehiscriterion ofwholeness, thegorilla
groupcollectedin1921andtheoriginal groupoffourelephants mounted byAkeley
himself afterthe1910-11 safari.Atonepointinhishuntforspecimens, Akeleyshot
a gorilla,believingit to be a female,but foundit to be a youngmale. He was
disturbed becausehe wishedto killas fewanimalsas possibleand he believedthe
naturalfamily ofthegorilladidnotcontainmorethanonemale.Whenhelatersaw
a groupmade up of severalmalesand females,he stoppedhis huntwithrelief,
confident thathe could tellthetruthfromhis existing specimens.Similarly, the
photograph of Akeley'soriginalgroupof fourelephantsunmistakably showsa
perfect family. The reproductive grouphadtheepistemological andmoralstatusof
truthtellers.It wasnature'sbiographical unit.
Akeleywantedtobe an artist anda scientist.He gaveuphisearlyplanofobtaining
a degreefromYale Sheffield Scientific Schoolandthenofbecoming a professional
sculptor. he and
Instead, combinedart science taxidermy.in Sincethat artrequired
that healsobe a he
sculptor, told some of hisstoriesin as
bronzes wellas in dioramas.
His criteriaweresimilar;Akeleyhadmanystoriestotell,buttheyall expressed the
samefundamental visionofa vanishing, threatened In hisdetermination
scene.47 to
sculpt"typical" Nandi lionspearmen, Akeley used as modelsextensive photographs,
drawings, and"selectedtypesofAmerican negroeswhichhewasusingtomakesure
ofperfect figures."48The variety ofnaturehada purpose-toleadtodiscovery ofthe
highest type ofeach speciesofwild life,includinghuman beingsoutside"civilization."
Besidessculpture andtaxidermy, Akeleyperfected anothernarrative tool,photo-
graphy. All of his story-tellinginstruments relied primarilyon vision.Each tool
was capableof tellinghistruth, buteach caughtand heldslightly different mani-
festationsofnaturalhistory. As a visualart,taxidermy for
occupied Akeley a middle
groundbetweensculpture andphotography. In a sense,bothsculpture andphoto-

38 Haraway
graphyweresubordinate meansto accomplishing thefinaltaxidermic scene.But

fromanotherpointofview,photography represented thefuture andsculpture the
past.Let us followAkeleyintohis practiceof photography in thecriticalyears
suspendedbetweenthemanualtouchofsculpture, whichproducedknowledge of
lifein thefraternal
discourses oforganicist
biologyand realistart,and thevirtual
touchofthecamera,whichhasdominated ourunderstanding ofnaturesinceWorld
WarII. The 19thcentury producedthemasterpieces ofanimalbronzesinhabiting
theworld'smuseums. Akeley'searly20th-centurytaxidermy, seemingly so solidand
material,maybe seen as a brieffrozentemporal sectionin theincarnation ofart
and science,beforethecameratechnically couldpervert hissingledreamintothe
polymorphous andabsurdly intimatefilmic wenowtakeforgranted.49
reality Critics
accuseAkeley'staxidermy andtheAmerican Museum'sexpensive policyofbuilding
thegreatdisplayhallsintheyearsbeforeWorldWarII ofbeingarmature against
thefuture, ofhavingliterally
lockedinstoneonehistoricalmoment's wayofseeing,
whilecallingthisvisionthe whole."0 But Akeleywas a leadertechnically and
intheperfection
spiritually ofthecamera'seye.Taxidermy wasnotarmedagainst
thefilmic butfrozeone frameofa farmoreintense
future, visualcommunion tobe
consummated invirtualimages.Akeleyhelpedproducethearmature-andarma-
ment-thatwouldadvanceintothefuture.
PHOTOGRAPHY: HUNTINGWITH THE CAMERA
"Gunshavemetamorphosed intocamerasinthisearnest theecologysafari,

comedy, becausenature
has ceased to be whatit had alwaysbeen-whatpeopleneededprotection from.Nownature-
tamed,endangered, mortal-needsto be protected frompeople.Whenwe are afraid,we shoot.
Butwhenweare nostalgic, we takepictures."51
This essayhas repeatedly claimedAkeleyand his peersfearedthedisappear-

ance of theirworld,of theirsocial worldin the new immigrations after1890
and theresultingdissolution oftheold imagined hygienic, America.
pre-industrial
Civilizationappearedto be a diseasein theformof technological progressand
the vastaccumulation of wealthin thepracticeof monopolycapitalismby the
verywealthy sportsmen weretrustees
who ofthemuseum andthebackersofAkeley's
AfricanHall. The leadersof theAmericanMuseumwereafraidfortheirhealth;
thatis,theirmanhoodwasendangered. TheodoreRooseveltknewtheprophylaxis
forthisspecifichistorical
malaise:thetruemanis thetruesportsman. Anyhuman
being,regardless of race, class, and gender,could spiritually in the
participate
moralstatusof healthymanhoodin democracy, evenifonlya few(anglo-saxon,
male,heterosexual, protestant,physicallyrobust,and economically comfortable)
couldexpressmanhood's highest forms. Fromabout1890tothe1930s,theMuseum
was a vast public education and research programfor producing experience

potentto inducethestateofmanhood.The Museum,in turn,was theideological

andmaterial productofthesporting life.As MaryJobeAkeleyrealized,"[thetrue
sportsman] loves the game as if he were thefatherof it."52 Akeleybelievedthat
in theend,thehighest of was
expression sportsmanship hunting withthecamera:
"Moreover,accordingto anytrueconceptionof sport--the use of skill,daring,
and endurancein overcoming difficulties--camera hunting takestwicethe man
thatgun huntingtakes."'3The truefatherof the game loves naturewiththe
camera;it takestwicetheman,and the childrenare in his perfectimage.The
eye is infinitelymorepotentthanthegun.Bothputa womanto shame-repro-
ductively.
At the timeof Akeley'sfirstcollectingsafariin 1896,cameraswerea nearly
uselessencumbrance, incapableof capturing thegoal of thehunt-life.Accord-
ingto Akeley,thefirst notablecamerahunters in Africaappearedaround1902.54
The earlybookswerebasedon stillphotographs; movingpicturewildlifephoto-
graphyowes muchto Akeley'sown cameraand did not achieveanything be-
forethe 1920s.On his 1910-11safarito east Africa,Akeleyhad the bestavail-
able equipmentand triedto filmtheNandilionspearing.His failuredue to in-
adequatecameras,describedwithgreatemotionalintensity, led himduringthe
nextfiveyearsto designtheAkeleycamera,whichwas used extensively bythe
ArmySignalCorps duringWorldWar I. Akeleyformedthe AkeleyCamera
Companytodevelophisinvention, whichreceiveditscivilianchristening byfilming
Man-o-Warwin the KentuckyDerby in 1920. The camera'sinnovativetele-
photolenscaughttheDempsey-Carpentier heavyweight battle.AwardedtheJohn
Price WetherhillMedal at the FranklinInstitutein 1926 forhis invention,
Akeleysucceededthatyearin filming to his satisfactionAfricanlion spearing,
on the same safarion whichRochester'sGeorgeEastman,of Eastman-Kodak
fortunes, was bothco-sponsorand hunter-collector.55 Recall thatAkeley'sfirst
tasteof hisowncamerain thefieldwas in 1921in theKivuforest.Withina few
days,Akeleyshothisfirstgorillaswithbothgunand camera,in theexperiences
he sawas theculmination ofhislife.
The ambiguity of thegunand camerarunsthroughout Akeley'swork.He is a
transitionalfigurefromthe Westernimageof darkestto lightestAfrica,from
natureworthy ofmanlyfearto naturein needof motherly nurture. The woman/
scientist/mother oforphaned apespopularized bytheNationalGeographic Society's
magazineand filmsin the 1970swas stillhalfa centuryaway.56 WithAkeley,
manhoodtesteditselfagainstfear,evenas thelustfortheimageofjunglepeace
heldthefinger on thegunlongenoughto takethepictureand evenas theintel-
lectualand mythic certainty grewthatthesavagebeastin thejunglewas human,
in particular,industrial human.Even at theliterallevelof physicalappearance,
"[t]oone familiar withtheold typesof cameratheAkeleyresembled a machine
gunquite as much as it resembled a camera."'7Akeley said he set out to design
a camera "that you can aim...with about the same ease that you can point a

40 Haraway
He enjoyedretelling
pistol.""5 theapocryphal story ofsevenGermansinWorldWarI
mistakenly surrendering to one American in France whentheyfoundthemselves
facedbyanAkeley."Thefundamental difference between theAkeleymotion-picture
cameraand theothersis a panoramicdevicewhichenablesone to swingit all
about,muchas onewouldswinga swivelgun,following thenaturallineofvision."59
Akeleysemi-joked in knowingpunson thepenetrating and deadlyinvasiveness
of thecamera,namingone of hisimagemachines"The Gorilla.""'The Gorilla'
had taken300 feetof filmof theanimalthathad neverheretofore been taken
alive in its nativewildsby anycamera....I was satisfied-more satisfiedthana
manevershouldbe-but I revelledinthefeeling."60
The taxidermist, certainof theessentialpeacefulness of thegorilla,wondered
how close he shouldlet a chargingmale get beforeneglecting the camerafor
thegun."I hope thatI shallhave thecourageto allowan apparently charging
gorillato come withina reasonabledistancebeforeshooting.I hesitateto say
just whatI considera reasonabledistanceat the presentmoment.I shallfeel
verygratified if I can get a photograph at twentyfeet.I shouldbe proudof
mynerveif I wereable to showa photograph of himat tenfeet,butI do not
expectto do thisunlessI am at themomenta victimofsuicidalmania."''Akeley
wrotethesewordsbeforehe had everseena wildgorilla.Whatwastheboundary
of courage;how muchdid natureor man need protecting? Whatif thegorilla
nevercharged,even whenprovoked?Whatif the gorillawerea coward(or a
female)?Who,preciselywas threatened in the dramaof naturalhistory in the
earlydecadesofmonopoly presenceinAfricaandAmerica?
capitalism's
Awareof a disturbing potentialof thecamera,Akeleysethimself againstfak-
ing.He stuffed Barnum's Jumbo, buthewantednopartofthegreatcircusmagnate's
cultivation of theAmericanpopularartform,thehoax.62 Buthoax luxuriated in
earlywildlifephotography (andanthropological photography). In particular,
Akeley
saw unscrupulous menmanipulate natureto tellthestoryof a fierceand savage
Africa;thiswas thestorywhichwouldsell in themotionpictureemporiaacross
America.Taxidermy hadalwaysthreatened to lapsefromartintodeception, from
lifeto upholstered deathas a poorsportsman's trophy. Photography too was full
ofphilistines whocoulddebasetheentireundertaking ofnaturework,theMuseum's
termforitseducational workintheearlydecadesofthe20thcentury. The Museum
wasforpublicentertainment (thepointthat its
kept Presbyterian trusteesresisting
Sundayopeningin the 1880sdespitethatday'sfinepotentialforeducatingthe
newCatholicimmigrants, whoworkeda sixdayweek);butentertainment onlyhad
valueifitcommunicated thetruth. Therefore, Akeleyencouraged an association
betweentheAmericanMuseumand thewildlife photographers, Martinand Osa
Johnson, whoseemedwillingand able to producepopularmotionpictures telling
thestory ofjunglepeace.Johnson claimedinhis1923prospectus totheAmerican Mu-
seum,"Thecameracannotbedeceived... Itherefore, ithas]enormous scientific
value."'
Entertainment withscience,art,hunting,
was complexlyinterwoven and education.

TeddyBear Patriarchv, 41
Barnum'shumbug testedthecleverness, acumen,oftheobserver

thescientific ina
republicwhereeach citizencouldfindout thenakednessoftheemperorand the
shamof his rationality. This democracyof reasonwas alwaysa bit dangerous.
Thereis a traditionofactiveparticipation in theeyeofsciencein Americawhich
makesthestoriesof naturealwaysreadyto eruptintopopularpolitics.Natural
historycan be-and has sometimes been-a meansformillenialexpectation and
disorderlyaction.Akeleyhimself is an excellentexampleofa self-made manwho
madeuseofthemythic resourcesoftheindependent man'shonestvision,theappeal
to experience,thetestimony of one's own eyes.He saw theGiantof Karisimbi.
The camera,an eminently democratic machine, of
hasbeencrucialto thecrafting
inbiology;butitscontrol
stories hasalwayseludedtheprofessional andthemoralist,
But in MartinJohnson,
theofficialscientist. Akeleyhopedhe had themanwho
wouldtamespecularentertainment forthesocialuplift promised byscience.
In 1906MartinJohnson shippedoutwithJackLondonontheSnarkfora twoyear
voyageoftheSouthSeas. The Snarkwasthephotographer's Beagle.Itsnamecould
hardlyhavebeenbetterchosenfortheshipthatcarriedthetwoadventurers whose
booksandfilms complemented Tarzanforrecording thedilemma ofmanhoodinthe
early20thcentury. LewisCarroll'sTheHunting oftheSnarkcontainsthelinesthat
captureJohnson's andLondon's-andAkeley's--Darwinian revelation:
In one momentI've see whathas hithertobeen
Enveloped in absolute mystery,
And withoutextracharge I willgive you at large
A lesson in NaturalHistory.4
From1908to 1913Johnson ranfivemotionpicturehousesinKansas.In thesame

periodand after,he and Osa travelledin thestillmysterious and potentplaces,
filming"nativelife":Melanesia,Polynesia,Malekula,Borneo,KenyaColony.In
1922Martinand Osa soughtCarl Akeley'sopinionof theirjust completedfilm
TrailingAfricanWildAnimals. Akeleywasdelighted, andtheresultwasthemuseum's
settingup a specialcorporation to fundtheJohnsons on a fiveyearfilmsafariin
Africa.The Johnsons' plansincludedmakingtwoshortfilms,including one on
"African Babies.""It willshowelephantbabies,lionbabies,zebrababies,giraffe
babies,and blackbabies...showing theplayofwildanimalsand thematernal care
andinteresting
thatisso strange a feature ThehumanlifeofAfricawas
ofwildlife."'6
repeatedly consignedtotheAgeofMammals, priortotheAgeofMan.Thatwasits
onlyclaimto protection, and of coursetheultimate fordomination.
justification
Herewasa recordofjunglepeace.
The Johnsons planneda biganimalfeature filmas thecapstoneofthesafari.The
museumlaudedboththecommercial and educationalvalues;Osborncommented
thatthe"doublemessageofsuchphotography thatitbrings
is,first, theaesthetic
and
ethicalinfluenceof naturewithinthe reach of millionsof people...second,it
spreadstheideathatourgeneration hasno righttodestroy whatfuturegenerations

42 Haraway
mayenjoy."66 Itwasperfect thattheJohnson filmsafarioverlapped withtheAkeley-

Eastman-Pomeroy The
expedition. Akeleysspent severaldayshelping theJohnsons
filmlionspearing inTanganyika, finally capturing on filmthisendangered apotheo-
sisofprimitive manhood.Johnson wasconfident thattheirapproachofcombining
truthandbeautywithout hoaxwouldultimately be commercially superior, as wellas
accurate.
scientifically "[T]here is no limitto the money it can make....My past
training,myknowledge ofshowmanship, mixedwiththescientific knowledge I have
absorbedlately,andthewonderful photographic equipment...make mecertainthat
thisBigFeatureisgoingtobe thebiggest money maker everplaced on themarket, as
thereis no doubtit willbe the last big AfricaFeaturemade,and it willbe so
spectacular thattherewillbenodangerofanother filmoflikenaturecompeting with
it.Forthesereasonsitwillproduceanincomeas longas welive."67 Africahadalways
promised gold.
The "nakedeye"scienceadvocatedbytheAmerican Museumwasperfect forthe
camera,ultimately sosuperior tothegunforthepossession, production, preservation,
consumption, surveillance,appreciation, and controlof nature.The ideologyof
realismessentialtoAkeley'saesthetic waspartofhiseffort totouch,tosee,tobridge
theyawning gapsintheendangered self.To makean exactimageistoinsureagainst
disappearance, tocannibalize lifeuntilitissafelyandpermanently a specularimage,
a ghost.It arresteddecay.Thatis whynaturephotography is so beautiful and so
religious-andsucha powerful hintof an apocalypticfuture. Akeley'saesthetic
combinedtheinstrumental andcontemplative intoa photographic technology pro-
vidinga transfusionfora steadily depletedsenseofreality. The imageandthereal
mutually defineeachother,as all ofreality inlatecapitalist
cultureluststobecome
animageforitsownsecurity. Reality isassured,insured, bytheimage,andthereisno
limittotheamountofmoneythatcanbemade.Thecameraissuperior tothegunfor
thecontrol oftime;andAkeley'sdioramas withtheirphotographic vision,sculptor's
touch,andtaxidermic solidity wereabouttheendoftime.68
III. TellingStories
The syntheticstorytoldabovehas threemajorsourcesand severalminorones.

Tellingthe lifesyntheticallymasksthe tonesand versionswhichemergefrom
listeningto thesesources.The singlebiography, theideologicalachievedunityof
African Hall,can be broughttotheedgeofan imagined novelwhich
heteroglossic
hasnotyetbeenwritten. A polyphonic naturalhistorywaitsforitssustaining
social
history.In orderto probemoredeeplyintothetissueofmeanings andmediations
making thespecific ofexperience
structure possiblefortheviewerofthedioramas of
AfricanHall-and of the Giantof Karisimbi-I wouldlike to tease apartthe
sourcesforone majoreventofAkeley'slife,theelephantmaulingin British East
Africain 1910.This eventcan function as a germforexpanding mystory the
of
structureand function ofbiographyin theconstruction ofa 20th-centuryprimate

order,withitsspecificandpolymorphous hierarchiesofrace,sexandclass.Withan
ear forthetonesofaudience,historicalmoment, socialinterests
andintentions
of
authors, appearanceofsources,I wouldliketoconsiderin
andthematerial-physical
greaterdetailthequestionofstorytelling.In particular,
whosestoriesappearand
disappearin theweb of social practicesthatconstituteTeddyBear Patriarchy?
Questionsofauthorized enforced
writing bypublishing practicesandoflaborthat
neverissuesin acknowledged authorship(neverfatherof thegame)makeup my
story.69
AUTHORS AND VERSIONS
"She didn'twriteit.
She wroteit but she shouldn'thave.
She wroteit,but look whatshe wroteabout."70
CarlAkeley'sbook,In Brightest Africa,appearson thesurfaceto be written by
Carl Akeley.But we learnfromMaryJobeAkeley,a prolificauthor,thatthe
taxidermist"hatedtowielda pen."71She elaboratesthatthepublishers, Doubleday
andPage (themen,notthecompany), wereenthralled byCarl'sstoriestoldintheir
homesat dinnerand so "determined to extracta bookfromhim."So one evening
afterdinnerArthur W. Page"stationeda stenographer behinda screen,andwithout
Carl'sknowledge, sherecordedeverything he saidwhiletheguestslingered before
thefire."Theediting isthenascribedtoDoubledayandPage,butthe
ofthismaterial
authoris namedas Carl.The stenographer is an unnamedhand.Thesenotesgave
risetoarticlesina journalcalledWorld'sWork, buta bookwasstillnotforthcoming
fromthetaxidermist. Then Akeleydiscovereda newspaperaccountof hisKivu
journeythathegreatly liked;thepiecehadbeenwritten byDorothy S. Greenewhile
she workedforthedirectorof theAmericanMuseum.Akeleyhiredher as his
secretary,to recordhisstorieswhilehe talkedwithotherexplorers or
or scientists
lecturedto raisefundsforAfricanHall. "She unobtrusively jotteddownmaterial
whichcouldbe usedina book."72WhowroteIn Brightest Africa?In theanswerto
thatquestionresidesa worldofmotivated historyoftherelation ofmindandbodyin
Westernauthorship.
The physicalappearanceof thebooksis itselfan eloquentstory.The stampof
approvalfrommenlike H.F. Osbornin the dignified prefaces,thepresenceof
handsomephotographs, a publishinghouse thatcateredto wealthyhunters:all
the
compose authority of thebooks.The frontspiecesare likeOrthodox icons;the
entirestorycan be read fromthem.In Lions, Gorillasand theirNeighbors,thebook
preparedforyoungpeople,thefrontspiece showsanelderly CarlAkeleyinhisstudio
gazingintentlyintotheeyesofthe plasterdeathmask of thefirstgorillaheeversaw.
Maturityin the encounterwith natureis announced. The Wilderness LivesAgain,
thebiography thatresurrectedCarlthrough hiswife'svicariousauthorship,displays
in thefronta youngCarl,armandhandbandagedheavily, standingoutsidea tent
beside a dead leopardsuspendedbyherhindlegs.The captionreads: "Carl Akeley,

44 Haraway
whenstillinhistwenties, chokedthiswoundedinfuriated leopardtodeathwithhis

nakedhandsas itattackedhimwithintent to kill."
LetusturntoCarlAkeley'sstory ofhisencounter withtheelephant whichmauled
him.The taleoccursin a chapterofAkeley'sbookcalled"ElephantFriendsand
Foes." Severalmorallessonspervadethe chapter,prominently thoseof human
ignorance of the greatanimals--partly because hunters are onlyafterivoryand
trophies,so that their is of and
knowledge only tracking killing, notoftheanimals'
lives-and ofAkeley'sdifference becauseofhisspecialclosenesstonatureembod-
iedinthemagnificent Onthissafari,
elephants. Akeleywitnessed twoelephants help
a woundedcomradeescape fromthe scene of slaughter, inspiring one of the
taxidermist'sbronzes.Butalsointhischapter, thereaderseesan earthy Akeley,not
abovemaking a tabletoseateightpeopleoutofelephant earsfrom a specimenwhich
nearlykilledhimand Delia, despiteeach ofthemshooting intohisheadabout13
times.Inthischapter, thetaxidermist ishuntingas anequalwithhiswife.He doesnot
hidestorieswhichmight seema bitseedyorfullofpersonalbravado;yethis"natural
nobility"pervadedall theseanecdotes,particularly foran audienceof potential
donorstoAfrican Hall,whomight quitelikelyfindthemselves shooting biggamein
Africa.
His nearfatalencounter withan elephantoccurredwhenAkeleyhad goneoff
withoutDelia to get photographs, taking"fourdays'rations,gunboys,porters,
cameramen,andso forth -about fifteen meninall."73 He wastracking an elephant
whosetrailwas veryfresh, whenhe suddenly becameawarethattheanimalwas
bearingdownon himdirectly:
I have no knowledgeof how the warningcame....I only know thatas I picked up mygun and
wheeled about I triedto shove the safetycatch forward.It refusedto budge.....Mynextmental
recordis ofa tuskrightat mychest.I grabbeditwithmylefthand,theotherone withmyrighthand,
and swingingin betweenthemwentto thegroundon myback. This swingingin betweenthetusks
was purelyautomatic.It was theresultof manya timeon thetrailsimaginingmyselfcaughtbyan
elephant'srushand planningwhatto do, and a veryprofitableplanningtoo; forI am convinced
thatifa man imaginessuch a crisisand plans whathe woulddo, he will,whentheoccasion occurs,
automaticallydo what he planned....He drove his tusksinto the groundon eitherside of me....
When he surgeddown on me, his big tusksevidentlystrucksomethingin thegroundthatstopped
them....He seemstohavethought medead forhe leftme- bysomegoodfortune notsteppingon me-
and chargedoffafterthe boys.74
Akeleyfollowsthiscool description fullof counselaboutplanningforlife'sbig

moments withremarks aboutwhatelephants arereputedtodo inotherchargesand
withremarks aboutthebehaviorofhisparty."I nevergotmuchinformation outof
the boysas to whatdid happen,fortheywerenot proudof theirpartin the
adventure....
It is reasonableto assumethattheyhad scatteredthrough [thearea
whichtheelephantthoroughly trampled]like a of
covey quail...."75
Akeleytellsthathelayunconscious anduntouched forhoursbecausehismenfelt
he wasdead,andtheycamefromgroupswhichrefused everto toucha dead man.

Whenhe cameto,he shoutedandgotattention. He relatesthatwordhadbeensent

toMrs.Akeleyatbasecamp,whovaliantly mounted a rescuepartyinthemiddleof
thenightagainstthewishesof herguides(becauseof thedangersof nighttravel
through thebush),whomshepursuedintotheirhutstoforcetheircooperation. She
sentwordto thenearestgovernment to
post dispatch a doctor,and arrived at the
sceneoftheinjury bydawn. Akeleyattributedhisrecoverytoherprompt arrival,but
moreto thesubsequentspeedyarrivalof a neophyte Scottishdoctor,whosped
throughthejungleto help the injuredman partlyout of his ignoranceof the
foolishnessofhurrying to helpanyonemauledbyan elephant-suchmensimply
didn'tsurviveto payforone'shaste.The moreseasonedgovernment official,the
chiefmedicalofficer, arrivedconsiderablylater.
The remainder of thechapterrecountsAkeley'schatwithotherold handsin
Africaabouttheirexperiences elephantattacks.The toneis reasoned,
surviving
focusedon thebehaviorand characterof thoseinteresting
scientific, aspectsof
elephantbehavior.Theconstant moralofthechapteremerges againintheconclusion:
Butalthoughtheelephantis a terriblefighter inhisowndefensewhenattackedbyman,thatis nothis
chiefcharacteristic.The thingsthatstickin mymindare his sagacity,his versatility, and a certain
comradeshipwhichI have nevernoticedto thesame degreeinotheranimals....I liketo thinkback to
theday I saw thegroupofbabyelephantsplayingwitha greatball ofbaked dirt....I think,too, ofthe
extraordinary factthatI have neverheardor seen Africanelephantsfighting each other.They have
no enemybutman and are at peace amongstthemselves.It is myfriendthe elephantthatI hope to
perpetuatein the central goup in Roosevelt AfricanHall.... In this,which we hope will be an
everlastingmonumentto theAfricathatwas, theAfricathatis fastdisappearing,I hope to place the
place forthe firstamongthem.76
elephanton a pedestal in the centreof the hall- the rightful
Akeley'sinterests areconstantly intheperpetuation, conservation, anddignity of

natureinwhichmanistheenemy, theintruder,thedealerofdeath.Hisownexploits
inthehuntstandinironicjuxtaposition onlyifthereaderrefuses todiscerntheirtrue
meaning--the talesof a pure man whose danger in of
pursuit a noblecause brings
himintocommunion withthebeastshe kills,withnature.Thisnatureis a worthy
brotherofman,a worthy foilforhismanhood.Akeley'selephant isprofoundlymale,
singular,and representative of the possibilityof nobility.The maulingwas an
excitingtale,withpartsformanyactors,including Delia,butthebrushwithdeath
and thedetailsofrescueare toldwiththecool humorofa manreadyforhisend
dealtbysucha noblefriendand brother, hisbestenemy,theobjectof hisscien-
The putativebehaviorof the"boys"underlines
tificcuriosity. theconfrontation
betweenwhitemanhoodand thenoblebeast.Casualand institutional racismonly
heightens theexperienceof thelifestoryof thesingleadultman.The actionin
Akeley'sstoriesfocuseson thecenterofthestage,on themeeting ofthesingular
manand animal.The entourage is inaudible, exceptforcomicreliefand
invisible,
anecdotesaboutnativelife.In Akeley'srendering, empowered byclassand race,
whitewomanstandswithout muchcomment in a similarmoralpositionas white
man-a hunter,an adult.

46 Haraway
MaryL. JobeAkeleypublishedherbiography ofherhusband,The Wilderness

LivesAgain,in1940,fouryearsafter theAkeleyAfrican Hallopenedtothepublic,his
dreamassured.Herpurposewasno longerto raisemoneyandtellstoriesto other
hunters,butto promoteconservation andfulfill herlife'spurpose-accomplishing
herhusband's lifework.Herbiography ofCarlshouldbe takenliterally. Shepresents
herselfas theinspired scribeforherhusband's story.Through her vicarious author-
ship and through African Hall and the Parc Albert,not onlythe Wilderness, but
Akeley himself, whose meaning was thewilderness, livesagain.Mary L. Jobe hadnot
alwayslivedfora husband.In theyearsbeforehermarriage shehadcompleted no
fewer thantenexpeditions toexploreBritish Columbian wilderness.
Sherecounts the
sceneat Carl'sdeathwhensheacceptedhiscommission forher,thatshewouldlive
thereaftertofulfillhiswork.The entirebookissuffused withherjoyinthistask.Her
self-constructionas theotherisbreathtaking initsecstasy.Thestory oftheelephant
maulingundergoes interestingemendations to her
facilitate accomplishment. One
mustreadthisbookwithattention becauseCarl'swordsfromhisfielddiariesand
publications are quotedat greatlengthwithno typographical differentiationfrom
therestofthetext.Atnopointdoesthewifegivea sourceforthehusband's words;
theymaybe fromconversation, lectures,anywhere. It doesnotmatter, becausethe
twoareoneflesh.The storiesofCarlandMaryJobeblendimperceptibly- untilthe
readerstarts comparing otherversions ofthe"same"incidents, eventheoneswritten
apparently inthedirectwordsofthetrue,ifabsent,author-husband.
The keyemendation is an absence.The entirebiography ofCarlAkeleybyMary
JobeAkeleydoes not mentionthe nameor presenceof Delia. Her role in the
rescueis takenby the KikuyumanWimbiaGikungu,called Bill,Akeley'sgun
bearerand nativecompanionon severalsafaris.Bill is creditedwithrousingthe
recalcitrantguidesandnotifying thegovernment post,thusbringingontheScotsman
posthaste.77The longquotationfromCarl in whichthewholestoryis toldsimply
lacksmention ofhispreviouswife.
MaryJobetellsa sequel to themaulingnotin Akeley'spublishedstories,and
apparently takenfrom hisfielddiariesorlectures. Becauseitisnotuncommon fora
mantolosehisnerveafteran elephant mauling anddeclinetohuntelephants again,
itwas necessary forAkeleyto faceelephantsas soonas possible.Again,thefirst
thingto noticeis an absence.-Itis neverquestionedthatsuchcourageshouldbe
regained.Buttheactualstory doesnotennobleAkeley.He tracked anelephant before
hewasreallyhealthy, needinghis"boys"tocarrya chaironthetrailforhimtositon
as hetired,andtheelephant waswoundedfrom unsportsmanlike hastyshotsandnot
foundbeforeitdied.Akeley'snobility is savedinthisstorybynotinghishumility:
"The boyshelpedmebackto camp.I feltperfectly certainthatwe wouldfindhim
dead inthemorning. The wholethinghadbeenstupidandunsportsmanlike."7"
BeforeleavingMaryJobeAkeley'sversionforDelia Akeley'stale,one more
aspectoftheCanadianNorthwest explorer deservesnote.She is pictured as Carl's
companion and soul mate, but not reallyas hisco-adventurer and buddy hunter-

TeddyBear Patriarch), 47
withone exception.MaryJobefiredtwoshotsin Africa,and killeda magnificent

malelion:"anhourlaterwecameupona fineoldlion,a splendid beast,Carlsaid,and
goodenough forme to shoot. And so I shot....The lionmeasured ninefeetsixinches
fromtopto tip,carrieda darkandsplendidmane;andbecauseofitssize,age,and
ruggedpersonality, Carlconsidered ita valuablespecimen;butI was chiefly con-
cernedthatI fulfilledCarl'sexpectations andhadkilledthelioncleanlyandwithout
assistance."79
MaryJobe'sauthority as a biographer doesnotdependon herbeinga
hunter, butthereis no questionthatherstatuswasenhancedbythismostdesirable
transforming experience.In thisact, her moralstatusapproachedthatof the
sportsman, a criticalcondition forcommunion withnatureinthelifeoftheAmeri-
can MuseumofNaturalHistory.
Delia Akeleypictures herself as a joyousandunrepentant hunter, butherhusband
hassomewarts,at leastbythepublication ofJungle Portraitsin 1930.It is hardto
believeher stories;she simplydoes not have the authorialmoralstatusof the
CarlAkeley,orhissociallysuresecondwife,whometeasily
artist/hunter/scientist,
withkingsandcommanded hissafarifora majorscientific institutionafterhisdeath.
Thereare someveryinteresting presencesinDelia's taleswhichhelphighlight the
kindofbiography African Hallwasto tell,andthekindthatwasto be suppressed.
Experiencein AfricanHall leads to transcendance, to the perfecttype,to the
heightened moment beyondmerelife.First, letuslookatDelia'sstory oftherescue.
BillappearsinDelia'sstory, andhebehaveswell.Butherownheroism inconfronting
thesuperstitions ofthe"boys"andinsavingherendangered husbandis,ofcourse,
the centraltale in the chapter"JungleRescue": "Examining and cleansingMr.
Akeley'swoundsweremyfirst consideration... .Thefactthathiswoundswerecared
forso promptly prevented infection, andwithout doubtsavedhislife....Thefollow-
ingdayDr. Phillips, a youngScottishmedicalmissionary, arrived.""
But whydid Delia tellthisstoryat all, aside froman easilyimaginedpain at
developments inherfamily lifeanda desiretosetherroleon record?Whatever her
personalmotivation, Delia hada biographical purposequiteatoddswiththeofficial
shewasintent
histories; on showing mediations intheformoffallible peoplebehind
theexperience ofnaturalhistory museums. In theopeninglinesof"Jungle Rescue"
Delia considersat somelengthissuesofsicknessandinjury fortheearlycollectors
and explorers; sheremarks pointedly on insects,weariness, and failure.All thisis
contrastedwiththeexperience providedthecurrent (1930)traveler, thetourist,or
indeed,eventhemuseumvisitor. Shedoeshavean interest inpicturing thedevoted
andunremarked wifeofthesingle-minded explorers whokeptcampinthejungleand
in
houseathome.Herpurpose telling thereaderthatshemanagedCarl'ssafaris, that
therewereverymaterial in for
mediations thequest manhoodandnaturaltruth, is
patent. And then there is her pique at all the attention for her scientist-husband:
"Thethrilling storyoftheaccidentandhismiraculous escapefroma frightful death
has been toldmanytimesby himself fromthe lectureplatform. But a personal
nightjourneytohisrescuethroughone ofthedensest,
accountofmyequallythrilling

48 Haraway
elephant-infestedforestson theAfrican continent isnotnearly sowellknown."8' Itis

hardto conjurethepictureofCarlAkeleytalking aboutelephant-infested forests!
Thisis notthewifewhodevotesherself tohisauthorship ofwilderness. Indeed,she
repeatedlyrefers to darkestAfricathroughout thebook.
Thereare otherinstances ofDelia's insisting on hergloryat theexpenseofthe
official
nobility ofherhusband.The readerofDelia's bookdiscoversCarlAkeley
frequentlysickinhistent,an invaliddangerously closetodeathwhosecourageous
wifehuntsnotonlyforfoodforthecamp,butalsoforscientific specimens so thathe
mayhastenoutofthisdangerous continent beforeitclaimshim.One learnsagain
thatin theelephanthuntfollowing themauling, Carlwassearching to restorehis
endangered "morale." Hiswifewashiscompanion inwhatisportrayed as a dangerous
huntterminating in a thrilling
killmarkedbya dangerouscharge.Delia tellsthe
storyso thatonecannotknowwhofiredthefatalshot,but"fatigue anda desiretobe
sureofhisshotmadeMr.Akeleyslowingetting hisguninposition."82 Sheincludesin
herchapteran extraordinary photograph ofa dashingCarlAkeleysmoking a pipe
andlounging on topofthebodyofa largefallenelephant;hercaptionreads,"Carl
Akeleyandthefirst elephanthe shotaftersettling thequestionofhismorale."She
concludeshernarrative, "Although yearshavepassedsincethatmorning whenI
stoodwithmyinvalidhusbandon theedge of the vastbush-covered swamplooking
foranelephant inthefog,I canseeitallas clearlyas ifithappenedyesterday....[ I]tis
thisvisionwhichcomesto mymindwhenI thinkof themonumental groupof
elephants Mr.
which Akeley and I risked so much to obtain for the New York Natural
History Museum.'"83
But hunting in theMuseum'sarchiveforthatphotograph of Akeleylounging
astridehiskillrevealssomething and
curious, perhaps more revealing thanDelia's
and
compromising compromised story. Delia was lying about that elephant, as the
photos which accompany hersin the archive demonstrate. But the liereveals another
truth.The photosinthearchivesuggest a versionofreality, a biography ofAfrica,
whichtheMuseumanditsofficial representataives never wanted displayed intheir
Hallsoreducational publications. A reader will not findthat particular photograph of
in
Akeley any other than
publication Delia's, and even in the 1980s, archive staff are
saidtobe leeryofallowing republication ofthisparticular photograph. The images
fromthephotoarchiveupstairs hauntthemind'seyeas theviewerstandsbeforethe
elephantgroupinAfrican Hall.
Itisclearthatthisparticular elephantwiththelounging Carlcouldnothavebeen
killedon theoccasionDelia described.The cast of accompanying characters is
wrong. Another pictureclearlytaken on the same occasion shows the white hunter,
theScotsman RichardJohnCunninghame, hiredbyAkeleyin1909toteachhimhow
to huntelephants, loungingwith Delia on thesamecarcass.The museumarchive
labelsthephoto"Mrs.Akeley'sfirst elephant." It is hardnotto ordertheseparate
photosinthefolderintoa series,hardnottotella story. So thenextsnapshot shows
theseparatedandstillslightlybloodytusksoftheelephant heldina gothicarchover

a pleased,informal Delia. She is standing confidently underthearch,each arm

reaching outtograspa curveoftheelephantine structure. Buttherealsupport for
theivoryis elsewhere. Cutoffat theedgeofthepictureare fourblackarms;the
handscomefromtheframing peripheral spacetoencirclethetusksarching overthe
triumphant whitewoman.The museumarchivelabelsthisphoto"Mrs.Akeley's
ivory."The nextand lastphotograph showsa smilingCunninghame holdingthe
heartofthedeceasedelephantand touching Mrs.Akeley'sforeheadwiththecut
edgeoftheanimal'saorta.Shestandswithherheadbowedundertheivory arch,now
supported bya single,solemnAfricanman.The museum'ssparecomment reads,
"The Christening." [Figure3]
Thisthenis also an imageofan origin, a sacrament, a markon thesoulsigning a
spiritualtransformation effectedbytheact offirst killing.It is a sacredmoment in
thelifeofthehunter, a rebirthinthebloodofthesacrifice, ofconquerednature. This
elephant standsa fixedwitness intheAkeleyAfrican Halltothisimageofanintimate
touchshownbythecamera'seye,whichherecapturedan iconicmomentwhere
race, sex, and naturemetforthe Westernhunter.In thisgarden,the camera
captureda retellingofa Christian storyoforigins,a secularized Christian sacrament
ina baptism ofbloodfromthevictim whosedeathbrought spiritual adulthood, i.e.,
thestatusofhunter, thestatusofthefully humanbeingwhoisreborn inriskinglife,in
Versionsofthisstoryrecuragainandagaininthehistory
killing. ofAmerican
approachestothesciencesofanimallife,especially primate life.One versionis the
biography ofwhitemanhoodinAfricatoldinAkeleyAfrican Hall.WithDelia,the
storyis nearparody;withCarlitis nearepiphany. Hiswasauthorized to achievea
fusionofscienceandart.Delia,byfarthemoreprolific author, whoneither hadnor
wasa ghostwriter, waserased-bydivorceandbyduplicity.
SAFARI: A LIFE OF AFRICA
"Now withfewexceptionsour Kivu savages,lowerin thescale of intelligencethananyothersI had

seen in Equatorial Africa,proved kindlymen....How deeply theirsympathyaffectedme! As I
thinkofthem,I am remindedoftheonlyplaymateandcompanionofmyearlychildhood,a colliedog....".
TheGreatHallsoftheAmerican MuseumofNatural History

simply wouldnotexist
withoutthelaborofAfricans (orSouthAmericansortheIrishand NegroesinNorth
America).The Akeleyswouldbe thefirsttoacknowledge thisfact;buttheywould
alwaysclaimthe of came
principle organization from thewhitesafarimanagers,the
scientist-collector
andhiscampmanaging the
wife, elementsof mind overseeingthe
ofexecution.
principle Fromthesafariof1895,dependent uponfoottravelandthe
strongbacksof"natives,"
tothemotorsafarisofthe1920s,theeveryday of
survival
Euro-Americans inthefielddependedupontheknowledge, goodsense, hardwork,
and enforcedsubordinationof people thewhitefolkinsistedon seeingas perpetual

50 Haraway
childrenorevenas wildlife. Ifa blackpersonaccomplished someexceptional featof

intelligenceor daring,theexplanation was thathe or she (thoughno examplesof
sucha womanappearin thetextsexaminedin thisessay)was inspired, literally
moved,by thespiritof themaster.As MaryJobeputit in herunself-conscious
colonialvoice,"It was as if the spiritof his masterhad descendedupon him,
activatinghimtotranscendent effort."85
Thisexplanation wasall themorepowerful
ifthebodyof themasterwas literally, physically farremoved, bydeathor trans-
Atlanticresidence. Aristotlewasas present inthesafarias he wasinthetaxidermic
studiosin New Yorkor in thephysiological bodiesof organisms. Laborwas not
authorized as action,as mind,or as form.
Both Carl and MaryJobeAkeley'sbooks provideimportant insightintothe
organization of thesafarioverthethirty yearspanof Akeley'shunting life.The
photographs of usuallysolemnAfricanpeoplein a semi-circle aroundthecoreof
whitepersonnel, withthecars,cameras,andabundant baggageinthebackground,
areeloquentaboutrace,sex,andcolonialism. The chapters discusstheproblems of
cooks,thetasksofa headman, theprofusion oflanguageswhichnowhitepersonon
thejourneyspoke,numbers ofporters (aboutthirty formostofthe1926trip,many
morein1895)andproblems inkeepingthem,thecontradictory cooperation oflocal
Africanleaders(oftencalled "sultans"),thedifficulty of providing whitepeople
coffeeandbrandy inan unspoiledwilderness, thehierarchy ofpayscalesandfood
rationsforsafaripersonnel, thebehaviorofgunbearers,and thepunishment for
perceived misdeeds. Thechapters portray a socialorganism, properly ordered bythe
principlesof organicform:hierarchical divisionof laborcalled cooperationand
coordination. The safariwasan iconofthewholeenterprise initslogicofmindand
body,in itsscientificmarking ofthebodyforfunctional efficiency.86The Africans
wereinscribed withtheirrolebytheWestern ofrace;theywereliterally
construction
writtenintothescriptofthestoryoflife--andwritten ofauthorship.87
out
Veryfewoftheblackpersonnel appearwithindividual biographies inthesafari
butthereare exceptions,
literature, or
objectlessons type lifehistories.Africans
wereimagined as either or
"spoiled" "unspoiled," like the nature theysignified.
Spoilednaturecouldnotrelievedecadence,themalaiseoftheimperialist andcity
but
dweller, onlypresented evidence of the of
decay'scontagion, germ civilization,
theinfection whichwasobliterating theAgeofMammals.Andwiththeendofthat
timecametheendoftheessenceofmanhood, Butunspoiled
hunting. Africans, like
theKivuforest were
itself, solidevidence of the for
resources restoringmanhood in the
healthy of
activity sportsmanlike hunting. Itis worthstudying one of theseindividual
biographies togleana hintofsomeofthecomplexity oftherelation ofmasterand
servantinthepursuit ofscienceon thesafari.The lifestoryistoldfromthepointof
viewofthewhiteperson;WimbiaGikungu, theKikuyuknown as BillwhojoinedCarl
Akeley inBritish EastAfrica in1905 atthirteen of did
years age, notwritemysources.
He wasnottheauthorofhisbody,buthe wastheAkeley'sfavorite "native."
Billbeganas an assistantto Delia Akeley'stentboy,butis portrayed
as rapidlylearn-

ingeverything therewastoknowaboutthesafarithrough hisunflaggingindustry and

desiretoplease.He wassaidtohaveextraordinary andspirit,
intelligence butsuffered
chronic withsomeauthority
difficulty andfrom inabilitytosavehisearnings. "He has
an independence thatfrequently getshimintotrouble.He does notliketo take
orders from anyoneofhisowncolor."mHe servedwithAkeleysafaris in1905,1909-11,
and1926,increasing inauthority andpowerovertheyearsuntiltherewasnoAfrican
whomCarl Akeleyrespectedmoreforhistrailknowledge andjudgment. Akeley
speaksofhimsometimes as a man,butusuallyas a boy,likeallothermaleAfricans.
Bill got intosomekindof troubleservingon theRooseveltsafari,havingbeen
recommended byAkeley.Rooseveltdismissed himandhadhimblacklisted. None-
theless, Akeleyimmediately rehired him,assuming hehadhadsomelargely innocent
(i.e.,notdirectedagainsta whiteperson)eruption ofhisdistasteforauthority.89
Akeleydescribesthreeoccasionson whichhe "punished" Gikungu;theseepi-
sodes are condensedmanifestations of Akeley'sassumedpaternalrole.Once Bill
refusedto givethekeysforCarl'strunkto otherwhitepeoplewhentheyasked,
"saying thathemusthavean orderfromhisownBwana.It wascheek,andhe hadto
be punished; thepunishment wasnotsevere,butcomingfrommeitwenthardwith
himandI hadtogivehima fatherly talktoprevent hisrunning away.""Fouryears
later,theKikuyushotat an elephanthe believedwascharging Akeleywithout the
latter'sseeingit.Akeleyhadseentheanimal,butdidnotknowhis"gunboy"didnot
know.Akeleyspontaneously slappedGinkungu "becausehehadbroken oneofthefirst
rulesofthegame,whichis thata blackboymustnevershootwithout orders,unless
hismasteris downand at themercyofa beast."Akeleyrealizedhismistake, and
"myapologies wereprompt andas humble as thedignity ofa whitemanwouldpermit."91
TheAfrican couldnotbe permitted tohuntindependently witha guninthepresence
ofa whiteman.Theentire logicofrestoring threatened whitemanhooddependedon
thatrule.Hunting wasmagic;Bill'swell-meaning (andwell-placed) shotwaspollution,
a usurpation ofmaturity.Finally, AkeleyhadGinkungu putinjailduring the1909-11
safariwhen"Bill"actively declinedtosubmit whenCarl"founditnecessary totake
himinhandformildpunishment" foranotherrefusal ofa whiteman'sordersabout
baggage.92The Africancaughtup withthesafariweekslaterafterspendingtwo
weeksinjail. The whiteman'spaternalsolicitude couldbe quitea problem.
Repeatedly, Akeleyreliedon Ginkungu's abilitiesand knowledge. Always,his
performance was attributedto hisloyalty forthemaster.Collecting theivoryofa
woundedelephant, organizing therescueaftertheelephant mauling, assistingMary
JobeAkeleyaboutCarl's thesedeedswerethemanifestations ofsubordinate
love.Thereis no hintthatdeath--
Ginkugumight havehadothermotives--perhaps includ-
a
ing non-subservient pityfor a whitewidow inthe rainforest,
pleasure in hissuperb
skills,complexpoliticaldealings withotherAfrican groups, orevena superior hatred
forhis masters.Attributing intentions to "Bill"is withoutshadowof doubt;the
Africanplayedhisrolein thesafariscriptas theneverquitetamed,permanently
good boy. Bill was believed to be visible;otherAfricanslargelyremainedinvisible.

52 Haraway
The willedblindness
of thewhiteloverof natureremainedcharacteristic
of the
scientists
whowentto theGardento studyprimates, to studyorigins,
untilcracks
beganto showinthisconsciousness
around1970.
IV. The AmericanMuseumofNaturalHistory

andtheSocialConstruction
of
Scientific Institution
Knowledge:
"Speak to the Earthand It Shall Teach Thee."'93

"Everyspecimenis a permanentfact."94
From1890to 1930,the"NatureMovement" wasatitsheight intheUnitedStates.

Ambivalence about"civilization" is an old themeinU.S. history, and thisambiva-
lencewas neverhigherthanaftertheCivilWar,and duringtheearlydecadesof
monopoly capitalformation.95Civilization,obviously, toa complexpattern
refers of
domination ofpeopleandeverybody (everything)else,oftenascribed totechnology--
fantasized as "theMachine."Natureis sucha potentsymbolof innocencepartly
because"she"isimagined tobe without technology, tobe theobjectofvision, andso
a sourceofbothhealthandpurity. Manisnotinnaturepartly becauseheisnotseen,
is notthespectacle.A constitutive meaning ofmasculine genderforus is tobe the
unseen,theeye(I), theauthor.Indeedthatis partofthestructure ofexperience in
themuseum, one ofthereasonsone has,willynilly, themoralstatusofa youngboy
undergoing initiation
through visualexperience. Is anyonesurprised thatpsycholo-
gistsfind20th-century U.S. boysexcelindissecting visualfields?The museumis a
visualtechnology. Itworksthrough desireforcommunion, notseparation, andone
of itsproductsis gender.Whoneedsinfancy in thenuclearfamily whenwe have
rebirth intheritualspacesofTeddyBearPatriarchy?
Obviously, thisessayis premised on theinversion ofa causalrelationoftechnol-
ogyto thesocialrelations ofdomination: thesocialrelations ofdomination, I am
arguing, arefrozenintothehardware andlogicsoftechnology. in
Natureis, "fact,"
constructed as a technology through social praxis.And dioramasare meaning-
machines.Machinesare timeslicesintothe social organisms thatmade them.
Machinesare mapsof power,arrestedmoments of social relationsthatin turn
threatento governthe living.The ownersof the greatmachinesof monopoly
capital-the so-calledmeansof production--were, withexcellentreason,at the
forefront ofnaturework-becauseitwasone ofthemeansofproduction ofrace,
gender and class.For them, "naked eye science" could give directvisionof social
peace and the
progressdespite appearances of class war and decadence. They
required a science"instaurating"junglepeace,withitspromise ofrestored manhood,
completewitha transcendent ethicofhunting; andso theyboughtit.
Thisscientificdiscourseon originswas notcheap;and theservants ofscience,
humanand animal,werenottame.The relations of knowledge and powerat the
AmericanMuseumofNaturalHistory are notcaughtbytellinga taleofthegreat

capitalistsin theskyconspiring to obscurethetruth. Quitetheopposite,thetale

mustbe ofcommitted Progressives struggling to dispeldarknessthrough research,
educationand reform. The greatcapitalistswerenot in the sky;theywerein
the field,armedwiththe Gospelof Wealth.96Theywerealso oftenarmedwith
an elephantgun and an Akeleycamera.97 This entireessayhas been aboutthe
"socialconstruction of knowledge." Thereis no boundarybetweenthe "inside"
and "outside"of science,such thatin one universesocial relationsappear,but
in theotherthehistory of ideas proceeds.Sciencesare wovenof socialrelations
throughout theirtissues.The conceptof social relationsmustincludetheentire
complexofinteractions amongpeople,as individuals andingroupsofvarioussizes;
objects,including books,buildings, and rocks;and animals,including apes and
elephants.9"
Butin thissectionofTeddyBearPatriarchy, I wantto exploreone bandin the
spectrum ofsocialrelations-thephilanthropic activitiesofmenin theAmerican
MuseumofNaturalHistory whichfostered exhibition (including publiceducation
andscientific conservation,
collecting), andeugenics.Theseactivities aretheoptic
tectumof nakedeye science,i.e., theneuralorgansof integration and interpre-
tation.Thisessayhasmovedfromtheimmediacy ofexperience, through themedi-
ationsof biography and storytelling;we now mustlook at a synthesis of social
construction."
Butfirst a wordon decadence,thethreat againstwhichexhibition, conservation,
andeugenicswereall directed as coordinated medicalinterventions, as prophylaxis
foran endangered bodypolitic.The museumwasa medicaltechnology, a hygienic
intervention, and the pathologywas a potentially fatalorganicsicknessof the
individual and collectivebody.Decadence was a venerealdiseaseproperto the
of
organs socialandpersonalreproduction: sex,race,andclass.Fromthepointof
viewof TeddyBear Patriarchy, race suicidewas a clinicalmanifestation whose
mechanism was thedifferential reproductive ratesof anglo-saxon vs. "non-white"
immigrant women.Class war,a pathologicalantagonism of functionally related
in
groups society, seemedimminent. A burning questioninthelastdecadesofthe19th
century concerned theenergeticeconomy ofmiddleclasswomenundertaking higher
education:wastheirhealth, reproductive capacityandnutritive function, imperiled;
weretheyunsexedbydiverting thelimited storeoforganicenergy to theirheadsat
crucialorganicmoments? Naturewasthreatened by the machine inthegarden;the
properinterface oftheAge of Man andthe Age of Mammals could perhaps preserve the
potency ofthe visionofnature and so restore the energy ofman. These are strange
concerns forthecyborgs ofthelate20thcentury, whosepreoccupation withstress and
itsbaroquetechnicist, code-implicated pathologies makes decadence seem quaint.
Infectionanddecayhavebeenincorporated intocodingerrors signified
byacronyms-
AIDS. Butforwhite, middleclassAmericans before WorldWarII decadencemattered.
Lung disease (remember Teddy Roosevelt's asthma and alcoholicbrother, notto
mention America's versionofMagicMountain), sexualdisease(whatwasnota sexual

54 Haraway
disease,whenleprosy, andCharlotte
masturbation, PerkinsGilman'sneedtowrite
allqualified?),
andsocialdisease(likestrikesandfeminism) alldisclosed
ontologically
andepistemologically similar
disordersoftherelationsofnatureandculture.Deca-
dencethreatened in twointerconnectedways, bothrelated to functioning
energy-
limitedproductive systems.The machine(remember theiconicpoweroftherail-
road)and itsfierceartificialitythreatenedto consumeand exhaustman.Andthe
sexualeconomy ofmanseemedvulnerable ontheonehandtoexhaustion andonthe
othertosubmergence inunrulyandprimitiveexcess.Thetrustees ofthe
andofficers
museum werecharged withthetaskofpromoting publichealthinthesecircumstances.
EXHIBITION
The AmericanMuseumofNaturalHistory was(andis) a "private" as

institution,
privatecouldonlybedefined intheU.S. InEuropethenatural historymuseums were
organsofthestate,intimately connected tothefatesofnational Kennedy's
politics."?
historyof theAmericanMuseumstresseshowintimately connectedthedevelop-
mentofalltheU.S. natural historymuseums waswiththeorigins ofthegreatclassof
aftertheCivilWar.The socialfateofthatclasswasalso thefateofthe
capitalists
museum;itsrearrangements andweaknesses inthe1930swerereproduced incrises
inthemuseum, ideologicallyandorganizationally.Philanthropy fromthehandsof
theRockefellers was mediatedbya verycomplexmachinery fortheallocationof
fundsand determination of worthy recipients.The AmericanMuseumwas not
buffered in thatwayfromintimate relianceon thepersonalbeneficence of a few
wealthy men.TheAmerican Museumisa particularly transparentwindow forspying
on thewealthy intheiridealincarnation, fortheymadedioramasofthemselves.
The greatscientific collectingexpeditionsfromtheAmerican Museumbeganin
1888andstretched tothe1930s.By1910,theyhadresulted ingainingforthemuseum
a majorscientific reputationinselectedfields,
especiallypaleontology,ornithology,
and mammalogy. The museumin 1910boastedninescientific departments and
twenty-fivescientists.
Anthropology alsobenefitted,andthelargest collectingexpe-
ditionevermounted bythemuseum wasthe1890sJesupNorth PacificExpedition so
important toFranzBoas'scareer.'0' Thesponsors ofthemuseum likeda sciencethat
storedfactssafely;theylikedthepublicpopularity of thenewexhibitions. Many
peopleamongthewhite,protestant middleand upperclassesin theUnitedStates
werecommitted tonature,camping, andtheoutdoorlife;TeddyRooseveltembod-
ied theirpoliticsand theirethos.TheodoreRoosevelt'sfatherwas one of the
incorporators of themuseumin 1868.His son,Kermit,was a trusteeduringthe
buildingof African Hall.Othersinthatcohortoftrustees wereJ.P.Morgan, William
K. Vanderbilt, W.
Henry Sage, H.F. Osborn, DanielPomeroy, E. Roland Harriman,
ChildsFrick,JohnD. Rockefeller III, and MadisonGrant.These are leadersof

movements foreugenics,conservation, and therationalmanagement ofcapitalist

society.Theyarepatronsofscience.
The first GreatHall ofdioramaswas FrankChapman'sHall ofNorthAmerican
Birds,openedin 1903.Akeleywas hiredto enhancethemuseum'sabilityto pre-
pare the fascinating Africangame,especiallyelephants;and he conceivedthe
AfricanHall idea on his firstcollectingtripfortheAmericanMuseum.Osborn
hopedfor-andgot-a NorthAmerican andAsianMammalHall aftertheAfrican
one. The youngertrusteesin the 1920sformedan AfricanBig Game Club that
invitedwealthy sportsmen tojoinincontributing specimens andmoneyto African
Hall. The 1920swereprosperous forthesemen,and theygavegenerously. Thirty
to fortyexpeditions in someyearsweremountedin the1920stogettheunknown
factsof nature.There wereover one hundredexpeditions in the fieldforthe
AmericanMuseuminthatdecade.02
Therewas also a significant expansionofthemuseum'seducationalendeavors.
Overone millionchildren peryearinNewYorkwerelookingat "naturecabinets"
puttogether by themuseum.Radio talks,magazinearticles,and bookscovered
the museum'spopularactivities, whichappearedin manywaysto be a science
forthe people,like thatof the NationalGeographic,whichtaughtrepublican
Americanstheirresponsibilities in empireafter1898.Significantly, bothNatural
History,the museum'spublication, and NationalGeographicreliedheavilyon
photographs."03 There was a big buildingprogramfrom1909to 1929; and the
AnnualReportof theMuseumfor1921quotedtheestimateby itsdirectorthat
2,452,662(anysignificant decimalplaces?!)peoplewerereachedbythemuseum
anditseducationextension program, includingthenaturecabinetsandfoodexhibits
circulatingthrough thecitypublichealthdepartment.
Osbornsummarized thefondhopesof educatorslikehimself in hisclaimthat
childrenwhopassthrough themuseum's halls"becomemorereverent, moretruth-
ful,and moreinterested in thesimpleand naturallawsof theirbeingand better
citizensof the futurethrough each visit."He maintained also thatthe book of
nature,written onlyin facts,was proofagainstthefailingof otherbooks:"The
Frenchand Russiananarchieswerebased in books and in oratoryin defiance
of everylaw of nature."'"Osbornwentbeyondpioushopes and constructed a
Hall oftheAgeofMan to makethemorallessonsofracialhierarchy andprogress
explicit,lest theybe missedin gazingat elephants.105 He counteredthosewho
criticizedtheHalls and educationalworkas too expensive,requiring too much
timethatwouldbe betterspenton scienceitself."The exhibitsin theseHalls
have been criticized onlybythosewhospeakwithout knowledge. Theyall tend
to demonstrate theslowupwardascentand struggle ofmanfromthelowerto the
higherstages,physically, morally, and spiritually.
intellectually, Reverently and
carefully examined,theyput man upwardstowardsa higherand betterfuture
and awayfromthepurelyanimalstageof life."'"This is theGospel of Wealth,
examined.
reverently

56 Haraway
PROPHYLAXIS
Twootherundertakings inthisperiodattheAmerican Museumrequirecomment:

eugenicsandconservation. Theywerecloselylinkedinphilosophy andinpersonnel
at themuseum, andtheytiedincloselywithexhibition andresearch. Forexample,
thenotoriousauthorof The Passingof theGreatRace, MadisionGrant,was a
successful corporation lawyer, a trusteeoftheAmericanMuseum,an organizer of
supportforthe NorthAmericanHall, a co-founder of the CaliforniaSave-the-
RedwoodsLeague,activist formaking Mt.McKinleyandadjacentlandsa national
park,andthepowerful secretary oftheNewYorkZoologicalSociety.Hispreserva-
tionofnatureand germplasmall seemedthesamesortofwork.Grantwasnota
quackor an extremist. He represented a bandofProgressive opinion,one terrified
oftheconsequences ofunregulated monopoly capitalism,includingfailuretoregu-
latetheimportation ofnon-white (whichincludedJewish andsouthern European)
working classeswhoinvariably had moreprolific womenthanthe"oldAmerican
stock."The roleofthemuseumin establishing Parc Albertin theBelgianCongo
has alreadybeen noted.Powerful menin theAmericanscientific establishment
wereinvolvedin thatsignificant venturein international scientific
cooperation:
JohnC. Merriamof theCarnegieInstitution of Washington, GeorgeVincentof
theRockefeller Foundation, Osbornat theAmerican Museum.The first significant
userof thesanctuary wouldbe sentby thefounderof primatology in America,
RobertYerkes,fora studyof thepsychobiology of wildgorillas.Yerkeswas a
leaderin themovements forsocial hygiene, thecategoryin whicheugenicsand
conservation also fit.It wasall intheserviceofscience.
The Second International Congressof Eugenicswas held at the American
MuseumofNaturalHistory in 1921whileAkeleywasinthefieldcollecting gorillas
and initiatingplansforParc Albert.Osborn,an ardenteugenicist, believedthat
itwas"[pjerhapsthemostimportant scientific
meeting everheldintheMuseum."
All the leadingU.S. universities and stateinstitutionssentrepresentatives, and
thereweremanyeminentforeign delegates.The proceedings werecollectedin
a volumeplainlytitled"EugenicsinFamily, Race,andState."The Congresshada
specialfruitsavoredbyOsborn."Thesectionoftheexhibit bearingon immigration
was thensentto Washington bytheCommittee on Immigration of theCongress,
members ofwhichmadeseveralvisitstotheMuseumtostudytheexhibit. Thepress
was at firstinclinedto treattheworkof theCongresslightly...but as thesound
and patrioticseriesofaddressesandpaperson heredity, theFamily, theRace and
theStatesucceededone another,theinfluence of theCongressgrewand found
itswayintonewsand editorialcolumnsof theentirepressof theUnitedStates."
Immigration restriction laws,to protecttheRace, theonlyrace needinga capital
letter,from"submergence by the influxof otherraces,"'0'werepassed by the
UnitedStatesCongressin 1923.

The 1930swerea hiatusforthe Museum.Not onlydid the Depressionlead

to reducedcontributions, but basic ideologiesand politicsshifted, makingthe
formations discussedin thisessayless relevantto the Americanrulingclasses,
althoughtheMuseumremained popularwithNewYork'speoplewaybeyondthe
1930sand eugenicssterilization laws have remainedon the booksintothe late
20thcentury. The changeswerenotabrupt;buteventheracialdoctrines so openly
championedby the Museumwere publiclycriticizedin the 1940s,thoughnot
untilthen.Conservation was pursuedwithdifferent politicaland spiritual justifi-
cations.A different biologywas beingborn,morein thehandsoftheRockefeller
Foundation and in a differentsocialwomb.The issuewouldbe molecularbiology
and otherformsofpost-organismic cyborgbiology.The threatofdecadencegave
wayto thecatastrophes of theobsolescenceof man (and of all organicnature)
and the disease of stress,realitiesannouncedvigorously afterWorldWar II.
Different formsof capitalistpatriarchy and racismwouldemerge,embodiedas
alwaysin a retoolednature.Decadence is a diseaseof organisms; obsolescence
and stressare conditionsof technological systems.Hygienewouldgive wayto
systems engineering as thebasisofmedical,religious, political,andscientific story
tellingpractices.
To summarize thethemesof TeddyBear Patriarchy, let us comparethethree
publicactivitiesoftheMuseum,all dedicatedtopreserving a threatened manhood.
Theywereexhibition, eugenics,and conservation. Exhibition has beendescribed
hereat greatest length;itwas a practiceto producepermanence, to arrestdecay.
Eugenicswas a movement to preservehereditary stock,to assureracialpurity, to
prevent racesuicide.Conservation wasa policyto preserve resources, notonlyfor
industry,butalso formoralformation, fortheachievement ofmanhood.All three
werea prescription
activities to cureor preventdecadence,thedreaddiseaseof
imperialist,
capitalist,andwhiteculture.Allthreeactivities wereconsidered forms
ofeducationandforms ofscience;theywerealsoveryclosetoreligious practiceand
certainlysharedqualities,as wellas professional ofmedicalpractice.These
interest,
threeactivities wereall aboutpreservation, purity,social order,health,and the
transcendence ofdeath,personalandcollective. Theyattempted toinsurepreserva-
tionwithoutfixationand paralysis, in the face of extraordinary changein the
relationsofsex,race,andclass.
The leadersoftheAmericanMuseumofNaturalHistory wouldinsistthatthey
weretrying to knowandto savenature,reality. Andtherealwasone.The explicit
ontologywas holism,organicism. There was also an aestheticappropriateto
exhibition,conservation, eugenicsfrom1890to 1930:realism.Butinthe1920s
and
thesurrealists
knewthatbehindthedaylaythenight ofsexualterror, disembodiment,
failureoforder;in short,castration andimpotence oftheseminalbodywhichhad
spokenalltheimportant wordsforcenturies, thegreatwhitefather, thewhitehunter
in theheartofAfrica.'"8 Andthestrongest evidencepresented inthisessayforthe
correctnessof theirjudgmenthas been a literalreadingof the realist,organicist

58 Haraway
artefacts oftheAmerican
andpractices MuseumofNaturalHistory.
Theirpractice
dead literal.
andminehavebeenliteral,
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The staffin the archivesof the AmericanMuseum of NaturalHistoryhave earned a special thanks
forcourtesyand competence. Friendsand colleagues who have generouslycommentedon draftsof
Teddy Bear includethe membersof the 1984 FeministTheoryseminarof the Historyof Consciousness
Board at the Universityof CaliforniaSanta Cruz, and JimClifford,Barbara Epstein,Sandra Harding,
Val Hartouni,Nancy Hartsock,Rusten Hogness,JayeMiller,DorothyStein,and AdrienneZihlman.
Robert Filomeno helped withlibraryresearchat a crucial time.WendyGraham of Social Text was a
wonderfuleditor.Alexander,Sojourner,and Moses were unfailingly impatient.
NOTES
1. HenryFairfieldOsborn,Reportto theTrustees,AmericanMuseumof NaturalHistory,May, 1908,
and in JohnMichael Kennedy.Philanthropy and Science in New YorkCity: The AmericanMuseum of
NaturalHistory,1868-1968,Yale UniversityPh.D., 1968,Univ. Microfilms,Inc., 69-13,347 (hereafter
Kennedy).The AmericanMuseum is hereafterAMNH.
2. EdgarRice Burroughsin IrwinPorges,EdgarRice Burroughs:The Man WhoCreatedTarzan(Provo,
Utah: BrighamYoung Univ., 1975),p. 129.
3. OsbornbelievedHomo sapiensarose inAsia and important MuseumexpeditionsintotheGobi desert
in the 1920sweremountedin an attemptto provethisposition.However,Africastillhad special meaning
as thecore ofprimitivenature,and so as originin thesense ofpotentialrestoration, a reservoiroforiginal
conditionswhere "true primitives"survived.Africawas not establishedas the scene of the original
emergenceofourspecies untilwellafterthe 1930s.Fora creativeschizo-analysis ofAfricaas thelocus for
the inscriptionof capitalistdesire in history,see William Pietz (PitzerCollege), "The Phonographin
Africa: InternationalPhonocentrismfromStanleyto Sarnoff,"paper fromthe Second International
Theoryand Text Conference,Southampton,England,1983.
4. The bodyas generativepoliticalconstructionhas been a majorthemein feminist theory.See Nancy
Hartsock,Money, Sex, and Power (NY: Longman,1982); Valerie Hartouni(Historyof Consciousness
UCSC) in ms. on Greek and Roman versionsof citizenshipin genderedbodies; D.J. Haraway,"Animal
Sociology and a NaturalEconomy of the Body Politic,"Signs 4 (1978): 21-60; and forreflectionson
meaningsofcitizenshipinthisessay,Social Research,Winter1974,essaysfromtheNew School forSocial
Research"Conferenceon the Meaningof Citizenship."Lacanian feminist theoryhas probablybeen the
mostcreativeand the mostproblematicexplorationof"woman's" body as not citizen,not author,e.g.,
Helene Cixous,"The LaughoftheMedusa," inElaine Marksand Isabelle de Courtivron, eds. New French
Feminisms(Amherst:Univ. of MassachusettsPress, 1980).
5. The Deauvereaux or HotelColorado inGlenwoodSprings,CO, containsa plaque withone versionof
the originof the Teddy Bear, emblem of Theodore Roosevelt: T.R. returnedempty-handedfroma
huntingtripto thehotel,and so a hotelmaidcreateda littlestuffedbear and gave itto him.Wordspread,
and theBear was manufacturedin Germanyshortlythereafter. Anotherversionhas T.R. sparingthelife
ofa bearcub,withthestuffed versioncommemorating hiskindness.It is a pleasureto compose an essayin
feministtheoryon the subjectof stuffedanimals.

6. Visual communion,a formoferoticfusionconnectedwiththemesofheroicaction,especiallydeath,

is builtintomodernscientificideologies.Itsrolein masculinistepistemologyinscience,withitspoliticsof
rebirth,is at least as crucial as ideologiesof separationand objectivism.Feministtheoryso farhas paid
more attentionto genderedsubject/objectsplittingand not enough to love in specular domination's
construction ofnatureand hersisters.See EvelynFox Keller,Genderand Science (New Haven: Yale UP,
forthcoming), CarolynMerchant,Death ofNature(NY: Harperand Row, 1980),and Sandra Hardingand
Merrill Hintikka,eds., Discovering Reality: FeministPerspectives on Epistemology,Metaphysics,
Methodolgyand PhilosophyofScience (Dordrecht:Reidel, 1983),esp. E.F. Kellerand C.R. Grontkowski,
"The Mind's Eye."
7. I am indebtedto WillaimPietz's1983UCSC slidelectureon theChicago FieldMuseumforan analysis
of museumsas scenes of ritualtransformation.
8. Carl E. Akeley,In BrightestAfrica(NY: Doubleday, Page, & Co., 1923),p. 162. HereafterIBA.
9. WilliamDavisonJohnson, T.R.: ChampionoftheStrenuousLife(NY: TheodoreRooseveltAssociation,
1958), p. 138, 126-27; David McCullough, Morningson Horseback (NY:Touchstone of Simon and
Schuster,1981); T. Roosevelt, Theodore Roosevelt's America, Farida Wiley,ed. (Devin, 1955); P.R.
Cutright,TheodoreRoosevelttheNaturalist(NY: Harperand Row, 1956).Forthethemeoftraveland the
modernWesternself,esp. forthe penetrationof Brazil, Claude Levi-Strauss,TristesTropiques,and
Daniel Defert,"The collectionof theWorld: Accountsof Voyages fromtheSixteenthto theEighteenth
Centuries,"DialecticalAnthropology7 (1982): 11-20.Travel as science and as heroicquest interdigitate.
10. It is hardlyirrelevant to thesymbolism offearofthenewimmigrants thatitis womenwhohad all the
frightening babies. It is also hardlyirrelevantto thelivesofthewomenwho had to respondto therealities
of immigrant life in a racistsociety.Linda Gordon, Woman's Body, Woman's Right(NY: Grossman,
1976); James Reed, From Private Vice to Public Virtue(NY: Basic Books, 1978); Carole McCann,
"Politicsof BirthControland FeministPolitical Optionsin the 1920s,"ms., Historyof Consciousness,
UCSC; JohnHigham,Strangersin theLand (Greenwood reprintof 1963ed.) Rooseveltpopularizedthe
term"race suicide" in a 1905speech.
11. The construction ofnature,theprimitive, theotherthroughan allochronicdiscoursethatworksby
temporaldistancingis explored in JohannesFabian, Time and the Other (NY: Columbia UP, 1983).
"[G]eopolitics has its ideological foundationin chronopolitics."p. 144. "Woman" is also constructed
outsidesharedor coeval time,as well as outsidehistoricaltime.
12. Akeleyto Osborn,29 March 1911,in Kennedy,p. 186. The change fromAfricanHall's dioramas
to theradicallydecontextualizedboutiquedisplaysofmorerecentAMNH practiceis at leastevidencefor
relaxed anxietyabout decadence.
13.JamesClark,"The Image of Africa,"in The CompleteBook of AfricanHall (NY: AMNH, 1936),
p. 69-73forprinciplesof composition;special issues on AfricanHall, The Mentor,January1926,and
NaturalHistory,January1936. See also Handasyde Buchanan,Nature into Art: A Treasuryof Great
NaturalHistoryBooks (Gloucester,MA: Smith,1980);Donald Lowe, TheHistoryofBourgeoisPerception
(Univ. of Chicago Press, 1982) forexcellentdiscussionof the productionof the transcendentalsubject
fromthe structuredrelationsof humaneye/eye-subject/technical apparatus.
14. MalvinaHoffman'sbronzesofAfricanmenand womenin thishall,as wellas herheadsofAfricansat
the entranceto the hall, are extraordinary testimonyto a craftedhumanbeautyin Akeley'stempleof
nature.They hardlytell a storyof naturalprimitives.On Osborn'sfailedeffortto enlistHoffmanin his
projects,see CharlottePorter(Smithsonian), "The Rise to Parnassus:HenryFairfieldOsbornand theHall
of the Age of Man," unpublishedms. JoshuaTaylor,"Malvina Hoffman,"AmericanArt and Antiques
2 (July/Aug.1979): 96-103.
15. I am indebtedtoJamesClifford's sharpeyeforthisperception.He and I readthedioramastogetherin
New York City in March, 1982. For a methodof readingevolutionarytextsas narrative,see Misia L.
Landau, The Anthropogenic:Paleontological Writingas a Genre of Literature,Yale Univ. Ph.D.
dissertation,1981,and "HumanEvolutionas Narrative,"AmericanScientist72 (May/June1984): 262-68.
16. IBA, 190.

60 Haraway
17. IBA, 203.

18. Carl E. Akeleyand MaryL. JobeAkeley,Lions,Gorillas,and theirNeighbors (NY: Dodd and Mead,
1922),hereafterLGN.
19. IBA, 211. The jealous mistresstropeis a ubiquitouselementof the heterosexistgenderanxieties
pervadingscientists'writingabout theirendeavors.See esp. Keller, Genderand Science.
20. WilliamNesbit,How toHuntwiththeCamera (NY: Dutton,1926);G.A. Guggisberg, EarlyWildlife
Photographers(NY: Talpinger,1977); Colin Allison, The TrophyHunters(Harrisburg,PA: Stackpole,
1981); J.L.Cloudsley-Thompson, Animal Twilight:Man and Game in EasternAfrica(Dufour,1967).
21. IBA, 221.
22. IBA, 222.
23. IBA, 226. Forthewhitewoman'saccountofthistrip,see MaryHastingsBradley,On theGorillaTrail
(NY: Appelton,1922).
24. IBA, 230.
25. IBA, 235.
26. IBA, 248. Scientificknowledgecancelleddeath;onlydeathbeforeknowledgewas final,an abortive
act in the naturalhistoryof progress.
27. MaryL. JobeAkeley,CarlAkeley'sAfrica(NY: Dodd and Mead, 1929),chpt.XV. HereafterCAA.
28. Mary Lee Jobe Akeley, The WildernessLives Again. Carl Akelev and the GreatAdventure(NY:
Dodd and Mead, 1940),p. 341. HereafterWLA.
29. CAA, 189-90.
30. Dian Fossey,Gorillasin the Midst(Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1983),p. 3.
31. Osborn in IBA, xii.
32. IBA, 216.
33. Cyborgsare cyberneticorganismswhose birthshouldbe soughtin social realityand science fiction
fromthe 1950s. For considerationsof cyborg existence,see D.J. Haraway, "Manifestofor Cyborg
Feminists,"Socialist Review, forthcoming. For insighton the fictionsof cyborgs,see Katie King (Hist.
Con. UCSC), "The Pleasuresof Repetitionand theLimitsof Identification in FeministScience Fiction:
Reimaginations oftheBodyaftertheCyborg";fora theoryofmasculinistcyborgreplication,Zoe Sofoulis
(Hist. Con. UCSC), "JupiterSpace," papers deliveredat the CaliforniaAmericanStudies Association
meetings,1984.
34. IBA, 1.
35. CynthiaRussett,The Concept ofEquilibriumin AmericanSocial Thought(New Haven: Yale UP,
1966); Mary Alice Evans and Howard EnsignEvans, WilliamMorton Wheeler,Biologist(Cambridge:
HarvardUP, 1970);WilliamMortonWheeler,EssaysinPhilosophicalBiology(Cambridge:HarvardUP).
Fororganicisminthehistoryofecologyand primatology, see D.J.Haraway,"SignsofDominance: Froma
Physiologyto a Cyberneticsof PrimateSociety,"Studiesin Historyof Biology6 (1983): 129-219.
36. WLA, chpt. III; IBA, chpt. 1.
37. WLA, 340.
38. Clark, CompleteBook ofAfricanHall, p. 73.
39. IBA, II and X; WLA, VI and X; Clark.
40. WLA, 38.
41. Virtuallysimultaneouslyin New York, FrankChapman of the Departmentof Mammalogyand
Ornithology was workingon NorthAmericanbirdhabitatgroups,whichwereinstalledforthepublicin a
largehall in 1903,one of thefirstevidencesof a generouspolicybythetrusteesfromabout 1890to 1930.
Fromthe mid 1880s,BritishMuseum workersinnovatedmethodsformountingbirds,includingmaking
extremelylife-likevegetation.The AmericanMuseumfoundeditsown departmentof taxidermy in 1885
and hiredtwo London taxidermists, the brotherand sisterHenryMinturnand Mrs. E.S. Mogridge,to
teachhowto mountthegroups.JoelAsaph Abel, Head ofMammalologyand Ornithology, was able tohire
FrankChapman in 1887; Chapman is a major figurein the historyof Americanornithology and had an
important roleto playin theinitiationoffieldprimatology inthe 1930s.Birdgroupsdone at theAmerican

Museumfromabout 1886on wereverypopularwiththepublicand inducedmajorchangesinthefortunes

of the museum."Wealthysportsmen,in particular,began to give to the museum."This turningpointis
criticalin thehistoryof theconservationmovementin theUnitedStates,whichwillbe discussedfurther
below. Significantly because of the scientificactivityof thestaffof theDepartmentof Mammalogyand
Ornithology, thescientificreputationoftheAmericanMuseumimproveddramaticallyinthelastyearsof
the 19thcentury.Kennedy,pp. 97-104;FrankM. Chapman:Autobiographyofa BirdLover (NY: 1933);
pamphletofChicago FieldColumbiaMuseum,1902,"The FourSeasons"; "The WorkofCarl E. Akeleyin
the Field Museum of NaturalHistory"(Chicago: Field Museum, 1927).
42. The termis MaryJobeAkeley's,WLA, 217.
43. Clark,71.
44. IBA, 265.
45. IBA, 261.
46. Fabian, chpt.4, "The Otherand the Eye," in Time and the Other.
47. IBA, chpt.X.
48. MartinJohnson,"Camera Safaris,"in CompleteBook ofAfricanHall, p. 47.
49. See JaneGoodall inAmongthe WildChimpanzees(NationalGeographicsocietyfilm,1984);David
Attenborough, Life On Earth(Bostonand Toronto: Little,Brown& Co., 1979)and BBC TV seriesofthe
same name; and forastonishingpicturesof humanmother,baby,and wild elephantintimacy,Iain and
Oria Douglas-Hamilton,Among the Elephants(NY: Viking,1975).
50. Kennedy,p. 204.
51. Susan Sontag,On Photography(NY: Delta, 1977),p. 15.
52. CAA, 116.
53.IBA, 155.
54. IBA, chpt.VIII; EdwardNorthBurton,TwoAfricanTrips,1902;C.G. Schillings,WithFlashlight and
Rifle,1905; A. RadclyffeDugmore,Camera Adventuresin theAfricanWilds,1910.
55. CAA, 127-30;WLA, 115.
56. JaneGoodall, "My Life among the Wild Chimpanzees,"National Geographic,August 1963, pp.
272-308;Dian Fossey,"MakingFriendswithMountainGorillas,"NationalGeographic,January1970,pp.
48-67;BiruteGaldikas-Brindamour, Indonesia's'People of theForest,"'NationalGeographic,
"Orangutans,
October 1975,pp. 444-473,and "LivingwiththeGreatOrangeApes,"NationalGeographic,June1980,pp.
830-853.
57. IBA, 166.
58. IBA, 166.
59. IBA, 167.
60. IBA, 223-24.Akeleyrecognizedtheutilityof hiscamera to anthropologists,
who could (and would)
use the telephotofeature"in makingmotionpicturesof nativesof uncivilizedcountrieswithouttheir
knowledge."IBA, 166.The photoarchiveoftheAmericanMuseumofNaturalHistoryis a wonderfuland
disturbingsourceofearlyanthropologicalphotography. These imagesshouldbe systematically compared
withthe contemporarysafarimaterial.
61. IBA, 197.
62. NeilHarris,Humbug: TheArtofP. T. Barnum(Boston:Little,Brown& Co., 1973);HermanMelville,
The ConfidenceMan, firstpublished1857.The differencebetweenBarnumin thedemocratictradition
of hoax and Walt Disney's proliferations of simulationmatters.Jean Baudrillard,Simulations(NY:
Semiotext(e),1983), pp. 23-26; Louis Marin, Utopique,jeux d'espaces; Richard Schickel, The Disney
Version(NY: Simon and Schuster,1968).
63. October,1923,prospectus,AMNH archives;MartinJohnson, "Camera Safaris,"The CompleteBook
ofAfricanHall, 1936;CAA, 129;July26, 1923,Akeleymemorandumon MartinJohnsonFilmExpedition
and additionalmaterialfrom1923 AMNH archive,microfilm1114a and 1114b. See MartinJohnson,
ThroughtheSouthSeas withJackLondon (Dodd and Mead); CannibalLand (HoughtonMifflin);Trailing
African WildAnimals (Century);and the filmsSimba, made on the Eastman-Pomeroy expedition,and
TrailingAfricanWildAnimals.

62 Haraway
64. LewisCarroll,"The Huntingof theSnark,"inAlice in Wonderland,NortonCriticalEdition,p. 225.

65. October 1923,prospectusto the AMNH, archivesmicrofilim 1114a.
66. October 1923,Osbornendorsement,AMNH archivemicrofilm1114a.
67. MartinJohnson, July26, 1923,prospectusdraft,microfilm 1114a.The expectationthata filmmade in
the middle 1920swould be the last wild lifeextravaganzais breathtaking in retrospect.But thisserious
hope is a wonderfulstatementof the beliefthatnaturedid existin essentiallyone formand could be
capturedin one vision,ifonlythe technologyof theeye were adequate. The filmmade by theJohnsons
was "Simba."
68. Much ofthisparagraphis a responseto Sontag,On Photography. On thefearsand need formirrors of
the Americanmythicalself-mademan,see J.G. Barker-Benfield, The Horrorsof theHalf Known Life
(NY: Harperand Row, 1976) and Susan Griffin,Womanand Nature(NY: Harperand Row, 1978).
69. The principalsourcesforthissectionare correspondance, annualreports,photographic archives,and
artefactsin theAMNH: IBA; MaryJobeAkeley'sbiographyof her husband,WLA; MaryJobeand Carl
Akeley'sarticlesin The World'sWork;LGN; and Delia Akeley'sadventurebook,JunglePortraits(NY:
Macmillan,1930). Delia is Delia Denning,Delia Akeley,Delia A. Howe. See N.Y. Times,23 May, 1970,
p. 23. The buoyantracismin thebooks and articlesof thiscontemporary ofMargaretMead makesMary
Jobeand Carl look cautious.
70. JoannaRuss, How to Suppress Women's Writing(Austin: Texas UP, 1983), p. 76. For a superb
discussion of the world in which Delia and Mary Jobe worked,see MargaretW. Rossiter,Women
Scientistsin America: Strugglesand Strategiesto 1940 (Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUP, 1982).
71. WLA, 222.
72. WLA, 223.
73. IBA, 45.
74. IBA, 48-49.
75. IBA, 49.
76. IBA, 54-55.
77. WLA, IX.
78. WLA, 126.
79. WLA, 303.
80. JP,249.
81. JP,233.
82. JP,93.
83. JP,90, 95.
84. CAA, 200.
85. CAA, 199.
86. The literatureexaminingfunctionalism in scientificdiscourseis large,butcriticalto thisessayare:
AlfredSohn Rethel,Intellectualand Manual Labor (London: Macmillan,1978); Bob Young,"Science Is
Social Relations,"Radical Science Journal5 (1977): 65-129; HilaryRose, "Hand, Brain,and Heart: A
FeministEpistemologyforthe NaturalSciences," Signs9 (1983):73-90.
87. CAA, V; WLA, XV; IBA, VII.
88. IBA, 143.
89. IBA, 144.
90. IBA, 134."Fatherto thegame"obviouslyincludedthehighest gameofall inthehistory ofcolonialism-
the submissionof man.
91. WLA, 132.
92. IBA, 144.
93. Job 12:8, engravedon a plaque at the entranceto theEarthHistoryHall, AMNH.
94. H.F. Osborn,54thAnnual Reportto the Trustees,p. 2, AMNH archives.
95. Leo Marx, The Machine in the Garden (London, Oxford,NY: OxfordUP, 1964); RoderickNash,
Wildernessand the American Mind, 3rd rev. ed. (New Haven: Yale UP, 1982); RoderickNash, "The

and Importing
Exporting as a Commodity
ofNature:Nature-Appreciation 1850-1980," in
Perspectives
AmericanHistoryXII (1979): 517-60.
"TheGospelofWealth,"
96.AndrewCarnegie, NorthAmerican
Review,1889;G. WilliamDomhoff,
Who Rules America? (NJ: Prentice-Hall,1967); Waldemar A. Nielson, The Big Foundations (NY:
ColumbiaUP, 1972);GabrielKolko, The Triumph (NY: FreePress,1977);James
of Conservatism
Weinstein,The CorporateIdeal in theLiberalState,1900-18(Boston: Beacon, 1969); RobertWiebe, The
(NY: HillandWang,1966);RichardHofstadter,
SearchforOrder,1877-1920 AgeofReform (NY: Knopf,
1955);E. RichardBrown,RockefellerMedicineMen(Berkeley:U Calif.Press,1978);Paul Starr,The
ofAmericanMedicine, esp. chpts.3-6 (NY: Basic, 1982); AlexandraOleson and
Social Transformation
JohnVoss, eds., The Organizationof Knowledge in Modern America, 1860-1920(Baltimore: Johns
HopkinsUP, 1979).
in thefieldwithAkeleywas GeorgeEastman,an objectlessonin themonopoly
97.One capitalist
greater ofdecadencethanofdeath.I amclaiming
capitalist's fear thatrealismis an aestheticsproperto
anxietyaboutdecadence,butwhatkindofrealism ina literature
iscelebrated describing a septagenarian
Eastmangettinga close-upphotographat 20feetofa chargingrhino, hiswhitehunter
directing whento
shootthegun,whilehispersonalphysician lookson?"Withthisadventure Mr.Eastmanbegantoenjoy
Africathoroughly..."WLA,270.
98. BrunoLatour,Les microbes.Guerreetpaix suivide irreductions
(Paris: Metailie,1984),pp. 171-265;
BrunoLatourand Steve Woolgar,LaboratoryLife: The Social Constructionof ScientificFacts (Beverly
devicesand"phenomenotechnique";
Hillsand London:Sage, 1979),esp. on inscription KarinKnorr-
CetinaandMichaelMulkay,eds.,ScienceObserved (BeverlyHills,London,NewDelhi:Sage,1983).
alreadycited(esp.KennedyandAMNHarchives),
99.In additionto material majorsourcesforthis
sectioninclude:1)Ondecadenceandthecrisisofwhitemanhood:F. ScottFitzgerald,TheGreatGatsby
(1925);HenryAdams,TheEducationofHenryAdams(privately printed1907);ErnestHemingway,
GreenHillsofAfrica(1935).2) Onthehistory Roderick
ofconservation: Nash,ed.,Environmentandthe
Americans:Problemsand Priorities(Melbourne,Florida: Kreiger,1979) and AmericanEnvironment:
Readings in theHistoryof Conservation,2nd ed. (Reading,MA: Addison-Wesley,1976); Samuel Hays,
Conservationand the Gospel of Efficiency: The Progressive Conservation Movement, 1890-1920
racedoctrines,
HarvardUP, 1959).3) On eugenics,
(Cambridge: Send
JohnHigham,
andimmigration:
in UrbanAmerica(NY: Atheneum,1975);JohnHaller,Outcasts
These to Me: Jewsand otherImmigrants
(NY: Knopf,1977);Kenneth
(Urbana:IllinoisUP, 1971);AllanChase,LegacyofMalthus
fromEvolution
Ludmerer,Geneticsand AmericanSociety(Baltimore: JohnsHopkinsUP, 1972);Donald Pickens,
Eugenics and the Progressives(Nashville:VanderbiltUP, 1968); S.J. Gould, The Mismeasureof Man
MIT Press,1979);
FromGenesisto Genocide(Cambridge:
(NY: Norton,1981);StephanL. Chorover,
and theHeredity-Environment
HamiltonCravens,TriumphofEvolution:AmericanScientists Controversy,
Univ.Of Pennsylvania
1900-41(Philadelphia: Press,1978).Complexconcernsaboutsex, sexuality,
decadence,birth
hygiene, controlarecrucialtotheproduction intheearlydecadesofthe
ofsexresearch
20thcenturyinlifeandsocialsciences.Womenscientistsplayeda keyroleingeneratingthisresearch.
Rosalind Rosenberg,Beyond Separate Spheres: IntellectualRoots of Modern Feminism(New Haven:
Yale UP, 1982).Theincitement hasbeeninstrumental,
todiscourse tosaytheleast,intheconstructionof
"selfconsciousness" of womenas a socialgroup.See Catharine
and selfdescription A. MacKinnon,
"Feminism, Marxism, Method,andtheState:AnAgendaforTheory," Signs7, no.3 (1982).The issueis
closelyconnected tothe"being"ofwomanas spectacleandtheneedfora feministtheory ofexperience.
Smallwonder thatfilmtheory isbecomingoneoftherichestsitesoffeminist
theory. Teresade Lauretis,
Alice Doesn 't:Feminism,Semiotics,and Cinema (Bloomington:Indiana UP, 1984) and AnnetteKuhn,
Women's Pictures:Feminismand Cinema (London, Boston, Melbourne,Henley: Routledge & Kegan
Paul,1982).
d'histoire
at L'Institut
100.CamilleLimogesand hiscollaborators des sciences,
et de sociopolitique
de Montreal,
Universite providethemostcomplete oftheParisnatural
analysis museums
history from the
early19th Gerald
century. Holton andWilliamA. Blanpied,eds.,Scienceand ItsPublic:The Changing
Relation(Dordrecht:
Reidel,1976).

64 Harawav
101.Kennedy,141ff.
Osborn overconsiderable
presided disbursements
totheDepartment
ofAnthropology,
despitehisownopinionthatanthropology
waslargely"thegossipofnatives."
Osbornwasmoreinclined
to
favor
theskeletonsofdinosaursandmammals, andheisresponsibleforbuilding
oneoftheworld's
finest
paleontologycollections.H.F. Osborn,Fifty-two
Years ofResearch,Observation,and Publication(NY:
AMNH,1930).
192.
102.Kennedy,
103. PhilipPauly,AmericanQuarterly,1982.
104.Osborn,"TheAmerican Museum andCitizenship,"
53rdAnnualReport, 1922,p.2.AMNHarchives.
105.Osborn,TheHall oftheAge ofMan,AMNHGuideLeafletSeries,no.52.
106.Osborn,"Citizenship,"
54thAnnualReport, p.2.
107.Osborn,53rdAnnualReport, 1921,pp.31-32.EthelTobachoftheAMNHhelpedmeinterpret and
findmaterial
on socialnetworks,
eugenics, andsexismat theMuseum.The organizing
racism, meetings
fortheGaltonSocietywereheldinOsborn'shome.
108.Joseph
Conrad,esp.HeartofDarkness, iscrucialtothisaspectofmystory, forexploring
especially
oflanguage
complexities anddesire.SeealsoFredric
Jameson, "RomanceandReification:PlotConstruc-
tionandIdeologicalClosureinJosephConrad,"ThePoliticalUnconscious (Ithaca:CornellUP, 1981).

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Figure1. The Giantof Karisimbi.

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Teddy Bear Patriarchy: Taxidermy in the Garden of Eden, New York City, 1908-1936

Author(s): Donna Haraway

This content downloaded from 164.41.223.39 on Wed, 10 Apr 2013 10:34:23 AM

This content downloaded from 164.41.223.39 on Wed, 10 Apr 2013 10:34:23 AM

dead bodyoftheprimate, Akeleycrafted something finerthanthelivingorganism;

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tionof consciousness and moralstatewillbegin.'The wallsare inscribedwith

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thephotographer in thisdesolateland),theformer president of a greatindustrial

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one'sgrowing consciousness ofthedioramasthatlinebothsidesoftheMainHall,

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originalplanforAfricanHall includedbas-relief sculpturesof all the"primitive"

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outsidetheFall-all thesehavebeen a kindof preparation, notso muchforthe

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Like du Chaillu,Akeleyfirstcame upona signof the animal,a footprint, or

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Akeleycommented on hissatisfaction withthetriumphs ofhisgunand camera

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and 1926,he mounted hispreciousgorillaspecimens, producing thatextraordinary

Carl Akeley'sboss at theAmericanMuseum,H.F. Osborn,characterized the

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commerceofmanandnature,howbiography is wovenintoandfroma socialand

According to theavailableplotsinU.S. history,itis necessary thatCarlAkeley

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biologicaland medicalestablishment.35 Wheelerwas thena youngMilwaukee

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Africa,to BritishSomaliland, a tripthatopeneda wholenewworldto him.This

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pedition,thatcollectedfor10 dioramasof theGreatHall. GeorgeEastman,of

TAXIDERMY: FROM UPHOLSTERY TO EPIPHANY

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capable of embodying truth, so thisrecapitulationwillselectonlythosethemes

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Akeleycontinued tomakeimprovements inhistaxidermic technique throughout

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diorama.In thismyth system, theauthormustbe imagined withtheaspectsofmind,

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vision.Taxidermy was thecraftofremembering thisperfect experience.Realism

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graphyweresubordinate meansto accomplishing thefinaltaxidermic scene.But

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potentto inducethestateofmanhood.The Museum,in turn,was theideological

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Barnum'shumbug testedthecleverness, acumen,oftheobserver

From1908to 1913Johnson ranfivemotionpicturehousesinKansas.In thesame

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mayenjoy."66 Itwasperfect thattheJohnson filmsafarioverlapped withtheAkeley-

The syntheticstorytoldabovehas threemajorsourcesand severalminorones.

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whenstillinhistwenties, chokedthiswoundedinfuriated leopardtodeathwithhis

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Whenhe cameto,he shoutedandgotattention. He relatesthatwordhadbeensent

Akeley'sinterests areconstantly intheperpetuation, conservation, anddignity of

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MaryL. JobeAkeleypublishedherbiography ofherhusband,The Wilderness