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3, September 2014
University of Medecine and Pharmacy Iuliu Hatieganu Cluj Napoca, Department of Neurosciences
University of Medecine and Pharmacy Iuliu Hatieganu Cluj Napoca, Department of Physical
Medecine and Rehabilitation
Clinical Rehabilitation Hospital Cluj Napoca
ABSTRACT
Swallowing is a complex process with severe reflux (3). Dysphagia can result
consisting in transporting food from mouth from a wide variety of functional or
to the stomach. Eating and swallowing are structural deficits of the oral cavity, pharynx,
complex behaviors involving volitional and larynx or esophagus. Predisposing factors
reflexive activities of more than 30 nerves for difficulty in swallowing could be
and muscles, requiring complex anatomical, psychological, muscular, and
neuromuscular coordination and brainstem many neurological diseases (4).
and cortical centers for controle (1). They Clinical importance of dysphagia:
have two crucial biological features: food This symptom affects a person's ability to
passage from the oral cavity to stomach and remain well nourished and hydrated and
airway protection. increases the risks of illnesses. Dysphagia
Dysphagia is defined as a alteration carries serious health risks: malnutrition,
in the swallowing process, which cause dehydration, lengthening of healing, increase
difficulty in transporting saliva and liquid or risk of infections, impairment in mental and
solid aliments from the mouth trough the physical condition (2). Effective dysphagia
pharynx and esophagus into the stomach (2). management requires an interdisciplinary
It is a frequent symptom, affecting around approach and can make a huge difference to
15% of hospital inpatients, especially old the quality of life experienced by the person
people, people with neurological disease, with dysphagia. The goal of dysphagia
with cancers of head and neck and people rehabilitation is to identify and treat
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Paraclinical investigation consists in (V, VII, IX, and fibers shared by X and XI).
barium esophagography, videofluoroscopy, This information is then transferred to
flexible endoscopic examination (FEES), groups of nuclei in the brainstem: nucleus
ultrasound examination, manometry, tractus solitarius (NTS), nucleus ambiguus
electromyography, 24 hour pH monitoring, (NA) and the area located in the surrounding
scintigraphy. Through the FEES, physicians reticular formation. Recent neuroimaging
can identify the phase of swallowing process findings support that these nuclei need
which is damaged. supramedullary input to enable initiation of
Assessment of swallowing disorders motor commands, which are sent through six
should be done by a multidisciplinary team, pairs of cranial nerves (V, VII, IX, fibers
which includes ear-nose-throat (ENT) shared by X and XI, and XII) to the end
specialist, speech therapist, neurologist, organs, i.e. the oropharyngeal muscles.
dentist, or gastroenterologist. The main muscles involved in
Classification of swallowing swallowing are masticatory muscles,
disorders: Swallowing disorders can be mylohyoid, tensor veli palatini, digastrics,
classified into oropharingeal (superior) stylohyoid, stylopharyngeus, levator veli
dysphagia and esophageal (inferior) palatine, palatopharyngeous,
dysphagia (7) (8). Most oropharyngeal salpingopharyngeous, intrinsic laryngeal
dysphagia is of neurologic origin, while muscles, cricopharyngeus, pharyngeal
esophageal dysphagia is caused by constrictors, intrinsic tongue muscles,
gastroenterologic pathology. hyoglossus, geniohyoid, genioglossus,
Neurologic dysphagia may be caused styloglossus, tyrohyoid.
by a disease of muscles or neuromuscular Supranuclear control of swallowing
junction, or by lesions of peripheral nerves process have been studied by functional
talking part in swallowing process, or MRI (14). Pharyngeal components of
lesions at the upper level of motor and swallowing are controlled mainly by
sensory brainstem nuclei involved in subcortical networks, while oral phases,
swallowing or even at supranuclear level. which are voluntary, are under cortical
The background for neurorehabilitation controle. During voluntary swallowing,
strategies recently developed for swallowing fMRI shows activation in bilateral neural
disorders is the functional anatomy of networks, including primary sensorimotor
swallowing process, which will further be cortex, supplementary motor area, prefrontal
discussed with its anatomical and cortex, cyngulate gyrus, insula, superior
physiological considerations. temporal gyrus (14).
a). Anatomic considerations: To b). Physiological considerations :
understand rehabilitation strategies for Swallowing is a very complex physiologic
dysphagic patients, the knowledge of mechanism, which implies voluntary
neurologic structures and pathways that contractions of the oropharingeal muscles
govern swallowing is crucial. In the 1980s and involuntary contractions of visceral
swallowing was thought to be automatic esophageal muscles. It is a cyclical function,
and reflex, mediated at brainstem level. that recurs about 2000 times for day with an
Current research has changed this concept, average duration of 1 sec (2). The
swallowing is considered a patterned swallowing process was commonly divided
response, mediated by complex into oral, pharyngeal, and esophageal stages
neurophysiological processes. according to the location of the bolus. The
Initiation of swallowing needs oral stage was later subdivided into oral
activation of thermo, touch, pressure or/ and preparatory and oral propulsive stages, and
chemo- receptors and sensory fibers of the the four stage model was established (9),
oropharynx, which send taste and sensory (10). The movement of the food in the oral
information to five pairs of cranial nerves cavity and to the oropharynx differs between
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The neurologist should set the function of neural networks and is based on
reabilitative treatment, with the aid of the neuromodulatory strategies. Neuroplasticity
speech therapist and of the ENT specialist. is the mechanism by which the damaged
The choice of the rehabilitation program brain regains lost function, in response to
should be individualized, based on the rehabilitation (2). Neuromodulatory
results of clinical and paraclinical strategies aim to stimulate brains capacity
assessments. of reorganizing neuronal circuits in order to
There are two rehabilitation recover lost function (16). The techniques
strategies used complementary in the that modify the excitability of cortical motor
treatment of dysphagia. The first one is the representations of muscles involved in
classical approach of manipulation of the swallowing are those applied to the
biomechanical processes involved in sensorimotor system in the periphery
swallowing. This includes adaptative (thermal or tactilthermal stimulation of
techniques such as dietary changes and facial muscles, taste stimulation, swallowing
compensatory techniques, such as posture related biofeedback, neuromuscular
changes, various techniques of swallowing, electrical stimulation and even exercises like
voluntary exercises, medications and effortful swallowing and Mendelsohn
surgical procedures. maneuver) or those applied directly to the
Adaptative techniques include simple brain (transcranial magnetic stimulation
measures of changing diet towards firm, TMS).
thickened and possibly cold foods (2). The thermal tactile oral stimulation
Aliments must be homogenous, with (TTOS) is an established method to treat
adequate viscosity, palatability and high patients with neurogenic dysphagia
nutritional power. especially if caused by sensory deficits. It
The compensatory techniques consists in cold stimulation of the anterior
consists in the use of specific postures and faucial pillars. It may lead to a facilitation
training exercises of muscles involved in the of both the oral and the pharyngeal phase of
swallowing process. Specific postures deglutition, producing also increased
beneficial for swallowing are turning the bihemispheric activation with predominant
chin downward, turning the head to one side activation of the left somatosensory cortical
or extension of the head. These postures areas during the whole swallowing interval
aimed to redirect the biomechanics of bolus (19)
flow. Training exercises will be performed The enhancement of neural circuits
initially without food ; are mobility exercises of swallowing by sensory stimulation have
for larynx, pharynx, tongue, cheeks, lips, been demonstrated by studies using
soft palate and vocal folds: the Lee functional MRI. Babaei and collab (17)
Silverman Voice Treatment improves voice tested swallowing after taste stimulation
intensity and swallowing. Other maneuvers with intense flavors concomitant with
include placing the tongue between the presentation of olfactive and visual
teeth, dry swallowing, forced coughing, characters of same aliments, during fMRI
Valsalva maneuver, the super-glottic and scanning.Flavor increases cortical activation
super-supra-glottic swallow technique, in the swallowing neural network: greater
Mendelsohn maneuver and effortful swallow intensity and extension of activated cortical
maneuver (15). areas compared with dry swallowing ave
These exercise programs aim to been demonstrated, showing that cortical
strengthen the force of the anatomical swallowing network activity can be
mechanisms of swallowing, working at the increased by food-related sensory stimuli .
muscle level. The methods that use biofeedback
The second approach in swallowing are of great value in rehabilitation programs:
rehabilitation address the organization and any reference for the patient to objectively
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measure their own performance and progress observed following a repeated application of
has proven to be useful. Many studies used the technique over a period of weeks (21),
biofeedback techniques to improve (22).
swallowing exercises. Swallowong In conclusion, swallowing
movements are internal and not visible; rehabilitation remains a challenging
biofeedback is used to increase swallowing problem. With actual advances in
biomechanic circuit. Studies use auditory neuroimaging techniques, our knowledge of
feedback (hearing swallowing sounds), the anatomy and physiology of swallowing
visual feedback (watching own laryngeal has increased. Better understanding of the
movements and normal movements), during hemispheric areas involved in swallowing
swallowing exercises (18). Biofeedback is control and of the sensory inputs that can
also combined with novel swallowing modify cortical activation will provide
treatment maneuvers such as effortful future tools for rehabilitation treatments. The
swallowing or Mendelsohn maneuver (23). development of novel rehabilitative
Functional MRI performed during the tests approaches to drive beneficial changes in
showed activation of different swallowing cortical and subcortical activity, hence
network areas during each of the promoting improved swallowing function,
biofeedback modalities. The use of remains a major imperative in dysphagia
biofeedback techniques is shown to treatment.
stimulate swallowing related brain areas and
can be efficient in the treatment of
dysphagia.
Surface electrical stimulation of
pharyngeal muscles was performed with
bipolar surface electrodes placed on the skin BIBLIOGRAPHY
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