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Oscillations
•Elastic Deformations
•Hooke’s Law
•Stress and Strain
•Shear Deformations
•Volume Deformations
•Simple Harmonic Motion
•The Pendulum
•Damped Oscillations, Forced Oscillations, and Resonance
1
§10.1 Elastic Deformation of Solids
2
§10.2 Hooke’s Law
F F
3
Define:
∆L The fractional
strain = change in length
L
4
Hooke’s Law (F∝x) can be written in terms of stress and
strain (stress ∝ strain).
F ∆L
=Y
A L
YA
The spring constant k is now k =
L
5
Example (text problem 10.1): A steel beam is placed
vertically in the basement of a building to keep the floor
above from sagging. The load on the beam is 5.8×104 N and
the length of the beam is 2.5 m, and the cross-sectional area
of the beam is 7.5×10-3 m2. Find the vertical compression of
the beam.
F ∆L
Force of =Y
ceiling on
A L
beam F L
∆ L =
A Y
Force of
floor on
For steel Y=200×109 Pa.
beam
F L 5.8 × 10 N
4
2.5 m
∆ L = = −3
2 = 1. 0 × 10 −4
m
A Y 7.5 × 10 m 200 × 10 N/m
9 2
6
Example (text problem 10.6): A 0.50 m long guitar string, of
cross- sectional area 1.0×10-6 m2, has a Young’s modulus of
2.0×109 Pa. By how much must you stretch a guitar string to
obtain a tension of 20.0 N?
F ∆L
=Y
A L
F L 20.0 N 0.5 m
∆ L = = −6 2 2
A Y 1.0 × 10 m 2.0 × 10 N/m
9
= 5.0 × 10 − 3 m = 5.0 mm
7
§10.3 Beyond Hooke’s Law
8
The ultimate strength of a material is the maximum stress
that it can withstand before breaking.
9
Example (text problem 10.10): An acrobat of mass 55 kg is
going to hang by her teeth from a steel wire and she does
not want the wire to stretch beyond its elastic limit. The
elastic limit for the wire is 2.5×108 Pa. What is the minimum
diameter the wire should have to support her?
F
Want stress = < elastic limit
A
F mg
A> =
elastic limit elastic limit
2
D mg
π >
2 elastic limit
4mg
D> = 1.7 × 10 − 3 m = 1.7 mm
π ∗ elastic limit 10
§10.4 Shear and Volume
Deformations
A shear deformation
occurs when two forces
are applied on opposite
surfaces of an object.
11
Shear Force F
Shear Stress = =
Surface Area A
Define:
displacement of surfaces ∆ x
Shear Strain = =
separation of surfaces L
F ∆x where S is the
= S
A L shear modulus
12
Example (text problem 10.25): The upper surface of a cube of
gelatin, 5.0 cm on a side, is displaced by 0.64 cm by a
tangential force. If the shear modulus of the gelatin is 940
Pa, what is the magnitude of the tangential force?
F
F ∆x
= S
A L
F
F
volume stress = pressure =
A
∆V
The result is a volume strain; volume strain =
V
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For a volume deformation, Hooke’s Law is (stress∝strain):
∆V
∆P= −B
V
where B is called the bulk modulus. The bulk modulus is a
measure of how easy a material is to compress.
15
Example (text problem 10.24): An anchor, made of cast iron
of bulk modulus 60.0×109 Pa and a volume of 0.230 m3, is
lowered over the side of a ship to the bottom of the harbor
where the pressure is greater than sea level pressure by
1.75×106 Pa. Find the change in the volume of the anchor.
∆V
∆P= −B
V
∆V = −
V∆ P
= −
( )(
0.23 m 3 1.75 × 106 Pa )
B 60.0 × 109 Pa
= − 6.7 × 10 − 6 m 3
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Deformations summary table
Tensile or
compressive Shear Volume
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§10.5 Simple Harmonic Motion
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The motion of a mass on a spring is an example of SHM.
Equilibrium
position y
x
x
19
Assuming the table is frictionless:
∑ F x = − kx = ma x
k
a x ( t ) = − x( t )
m
1 1
E ( t ) = K ( t ) + U ( t ) = mv( t ) + kx( t )
2 2
Also,
2 2
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At the equilibrium point x=0 so a=0 too.
When the stretch is a maximum, a will be a maximum too.
22
SHM
graphically
23
A simple harmonic oscillator can be described mathematically
by:
x( t ) = A cos ω t
∆x
v( t ) = = − Aω sin ω t
∆t
∆v
a( t ) = = − Aω 2 cos ω t where A is the amplitude
∆t
of the motion, the
Or by: maximum displacement
from equilibrium, Aω=vmax,
x( t ) = A sin ω t and Aω2 =amax.
∆x
v( t ) = = Aω cos ω t
∆t
∆v
a( t ) = = − Aω 2 sin ω t
∆t
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2π
The period of oscillation is T = .
ω
25
Example (text problem 10.28): The period of oscillation of an
object in an ideal mass-spring system is 0.50 sec and the
amplitude is 5.0 cm. What is the speed at the equilibrium
point?
At equilibrium x=0:
1 2 1 2 1 2
E = K + U = mv + kx = mv
2 2 2
26
Example continued:
2π 2π
ω = = = 12.6 rads/sec
T 0.50 s
27
Example (text problem 10.41): The diaphragm of a speaker
has a mass of 50.0 g and responds to a signal of 2.0 kHz by
moving back and forth with an amplitude of 1.8×10-4 m at that
frequency.
∑ (
F = Fmax = mamax = m Aω 2
) = mA( 2π f ) 2
= 4π 2 mAf 2
28
Example continued:
1 2
U max = kA The value of k is unknown so use KEmax.
2
1 2
KEmax = mvmax 1 2 1 1
= mvmax = m( Aω ) = mA2 ( 2π f )
2 2
2 KEmax
2 2 2
29
Example (text problem 10.47): The displacement of an object
in SHM is given by:
y ( t ) = ( 8.00 cm ) sin[ (1.57 rads/sec) t ]
ω 1.57 rads/sec
f = = = 0.250 Hz
2π 2π
30
Example continued:
2π 2π
The period of the motion is T= = = 4.00 sec
ω 1.57 rads/sec
xmax = A = 8.00 cm
vmax = Aω = ( 8.00 cm )(1.57 rads/sec) = 12.6 cm/sec
= ( 8.00 cm )(1.57 rads/sec ) = 19.7 cm/sec 2
2
amax = Aω 2
31
§10.8 The Pendulum
32
A simple pendulum:
m
θ
Assume θ<<1 radian
x
w
33
∑ Fx = − mg sin θ = mat
Apply Newton’s 2nd
v2
Law to the pendulum
bob.
∑ Fy = T − mg cos θ = m
r
If we assume that θ<<1 rad, then sin θ≈ θ and cos θ≈1 then
the angular frequency of oscillations is found to be:
g
ω =
L
L
The period of oscillations is T = 2π
g
34
Example (text problem 10.60): A clock has a pendulum that
performs one full swing every 1.0 sec. The object at the end
of the string weighs 10.0 N. What is the length of the
pendulum?
L
T = 2π
g
Solving for L: L = =
( )
gT 2 9.8 m/s 2 (1.0 s )
2
= 0.25 m
4π 2
4π 2
35
Example (text problem 10.84): The gravitational potential
energy of a pendulum is U=mgy. Taking y=0 at the lowest
point of the swing, show that y=L(1-cosθ).
θ
Lcosθ
L L
y = L(1 − cos θ )
y=0
36
A physical pendulum is any rigid object that is free to
oscillate about some fixed axis. The period of oscillation of
a physical pendulum is not necessarily the same as that of
a simple pendulum.
37
§10.9 Damped Oscillations
38
Graphical representations of damped oscillations:
39
§10.10 Forced Oscillations and
Resonance
40
Summary
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