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Posture (psychology)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In humans, posture can provide a significant amount of important

information through nonverbal communication. Psychological studies have
also demonstrated the effects of body posture on emotions. This research
can be traced back to Charles Darwin's studies of emotion and
movement in humans and animals.[1] Currently, many studies have shown
that certain patterns of body movements are indicative of specific
emotions.[2][3] Researchers studied sign language and found that even
non-sign language users can determine emotions from only hand
movements.[4] Another example is the fact that anger is characterized by
forward whole body movement.[5] The theories that guide research in this
field are the self-validation or perception theory and the embodied
emotion theory.[5][6][7]

Self-validation theory is when a participant's posture has a Young Girl Holding a Letter, circa
significant effect on his or her self-evaluation of their emotions. An 1665
example of this is an experiment where participants had to think
and then write positive qualities of themselves in a confident or
doubtful posture.[6] Participants then had to self-evaluate on how good a job candidate, interviewee,
performer, and how satisfied they would be as an employee. Mood and confidence level were also
measured. Results from this study proved in favor of the self-validation theory. Participants' attitudes in the
confident but not doubtful posture, significantly affected their self-reported attitudes. A similar study showed
that participants who were placed in a hunched posture reported were more likely to feel stressed compared
to participants who assumed a relaxed position.[7]
Embodied emotion theory is the idea that mental events can be represented by states of the body.[5] In a
study showing embodied emotion, participants were primed with concepts of pride and disappointment by a
word generation task. Researchers hypothesized there would be an observable change in participants'
posture based on the word they were primed with. This hypothesis was confirmed for the disappointment
prime because participants were more likely to decrease in their vertical height or show slumping behavior.[5]

Contents
1 Common methods
2 Communication expressed
3 Analysis
3.1 Changing factors
3.1.1 Open and closed
3.1.2 Interpersonal attitudes
3.1.3 Posture communicating social standing
3.1.4 Wellbeing
3.2 Stable factors
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3.2 Stable factors

3.2.1 Nature
3.2.2 Features of temperament
4 Other factors
5 Implications in other domains
6 See also
7 References

Common methods
Physical posture and emotion have been studied using two similar techniques. The first method involves the
participant viewing videotaped actors performing certain actions and the second method involves having the
participant sit in a certain posture and then self-reporting their emotions. In the first method, actors portray and
record certain body movements. Participants must view the video and decipher the emotion they believe is being
portrayed.[8] In the second method, participants are told to assume a certain body posture and then must complete
a survey on their current affective state.[7] Other methods include using neuroscience techniques, such as fMRI's to
determine how posture and emotions expressions can affect brain imaging.[9] Another method that is growing in use
involves using dancers as 'actors' and having participants observe and determine the emotion the dancer is
conveying.[10]

Communication expressed
In humans, one of the means of communication is the posture of the body, in addition to facial expressions, personal
distances, gestures and body movements.[11] Posture conveys information about:

Interpersonal relations
Personality traits such as confidence, submissiveness, and openness.
Social standing
Current emotional states
Characteristics of temperament according to the theory of Hippocrates, Kretschmer, and Sheldon.

Analysis
Posture can signal both the enduring characteristics of a person (character, temperament, etc.), and his or her
current emotions and attitudes. Therefore, posture can be considered in the context of a given situation, and
independently of it.

Changing factors

Posture as information about the current state of a person's emotions and attitudes should be analyzed in the context
of other messages, both verbal and nonverbal as well as that person's cultural and social norms.

Open and closed

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Closed posture is a posture in which parts of the body most

susceptible to trauma are obscured. These body parts are: throat,
abdomen and genitals. Damage to the genitals prevents the transfer of
their genes to future generations and is sometimes seen as being
synonymous with death.[12] Therefore, both humans and animals try
to protect these vulnerable body parts from injury. In humans, certain
behaviors may signal closed posture: Arms crossed on the chest or
abdomen, hands clasped in front of the genitals, and crossing legs.
Clothing may also signal closed posture: a buttoned suit, or a handbag
or briefcase held in front of the person. Closed posture often gives the
impression of detachment, disinterest, and hostility. Research has also
shown that these behaviors usually convey unpleasant feelings.[4]
These feelings were evident when the participant had to observe the
A portrait of Paul Czanne
closed posture and when he or she was told to assume the posture.
exhibiting an example of closed
Open posture is a posture in which the vulnerable parts of the body
posture.
are exposed. The head is raised, the shirt may be unbuttoned at the
neck, a bag is held on the shoulder or at the side. Open posture is
often perceived as communicating a friendly and positive attitude. In
an open posture the feet are spread and the head is straight. The
palms are up and the hands and fingers are spread.[4] Due to this
friendly demeanor, research suggests that participants view counselors
who use an open posture as more capable of providing guidance.[13]

An important element of closed or open posture of the body are the hands.
Showing the palms of the hands can be a signal of open posture, especially if
the hand is relaxed. Showing the back of the hand or clenching hands into
fists may represent a closed posture. Hands clasped behind the back may
also signal closed posture even though the front is exposed because it can
give the impression of hiding something or resistance to closer contact.

Closed and open posture also apply when seated. Crossed legs and arms
can signal closed posture. As stated before, leaning forward or showing the An example of open posture.
palms of the hands can signal open posture.

Interpersonal attitudes

Interpersonal attitudes are communicated through:

Inclination of the body. During conversation, a person may lean slightly toward another person or tilt
slightly away from him/her. This behavior is usually unconscious. An inclination towards can be an expression
of sympathy and acceptance. Inclining away can signal dislike, disapproval, or a desire to end the
conversation. Different inclinations of the head may carry similar meanings.
Similarity. During the conversation, people have an unconscious tendency to imitate others' behavior. This
happens when the conversation runs seamlessly and is enjoyable for both parties. This approximation of
attitudes, gestures, and body movements can indicate the emergence of a bond and sympathy and is known
as stereotyped behavior as defined by Edwin Ray Guthrie.[14] Lack of synchronous behavior may lead to a
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sense that the contact is artificial, forced, or unpleasant.

Orientation of the body. Usually people talk directed toward each other, but not squarely face to face,
which can be indicative of a confrontational stance. In conversation, the participants' bodies are usually
turned toward each other at an angle. When a person ignores someone else, they tend to ignore or avoid
contact by showing the other person their side or back.
Closed or Open posture.

Posture communicating social standing

Posture can signal an individual's

position in social hierarchy.

If two people of different social

standings talk to each other, the
person with a higher position
usually takes a more relaxed
attitude. Their posture may be
unbalanced, relaxed, and may
appear to be nonchalant. A
person with a lower position often
maintains symmetrical posture by
placing both hands on their lap or
at their sides.
An example of a nonchalant Typically, a person with higher
posture status sits down and talks while
sitting. A person of lower status A 'normal' man posing for camera
may stand or they may remain
standing until they are asked to sit.

Wellbeing

Mood influences muscle tone, energy level, and one's internal sense of well-being. Thus, body posture can reveal a
person's current state of mind. Anger, sadness, and disgust are by far the most recognized body postures that are
indicative of emotions.[15]

Stress can affect posture subconsciously; a person under stress will often have a greater amount of muscle
tension, and may also have shallow, clavicular breathing.
Well-being affects posture by giving it a sense of energy and balance. A person's spine will be straight and
the head raised.
Malaise affects posture with a sense of tiredness. A person's shoulders may droop, and the head may be
bowed down or tilted to the left or right.
Confidence affects posture by the uprightness (or not) of one's body.[5][7]

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Popular literature has come to interpret postures according to the

assumptions of psychoanalysis, thinking that actions such as cross arms over
the breasts or crossing legs would be a symptom of a sexual complex.[16]
These beliefs, however, have very limited support in systematic research and
experimentation. It is more likely that this type of behavior reflects a certain
style of self-presentation,[17] rather than unconscious conflicts and
complexes.

Stable factors

The term posture is also used to refer to the appearance of the body. In
psychology, there are several concepts involving the appearance of the
permanent characteristics of individuals. Some habitual positions may also
reflect stable characteristics of an individual.

Nature
A comparison of two different
postures. On the left is an example
Wilhelm Reich, a student of Freud, first drew attention to the relationship
of a more energized attitude; on
between shallow breathing, blocked traffic, the difficulty in experiencing
the right is an example of a
sexual pleasure, and emotional disorders, especially neuroses. This concept
depressed attitude.
was developed by Alexander Lowen, founder of bioenergetics. He is also
author of the concept of muscular block. Lowen noted that when
people do not want to experience certain emotions, they tighten
certain muscles.[18] For example, when someone does not want to
cry, they can tighten the jaws, which suppresses tears. Stress and
anger tighten the muscles along the spine and thighs, which can
manifest itself in pain in those body parts, if the stress was
prolonged. According to Lowen, some tensions become chronic:
the muscular block always activated, regardless of the
circumstances. This is called a chronic tension block. Muscular
block affects posture and the way humans move. Certain
experiences influence the formation of specific areas of muscle, and
thus the body's appearance, structure, and attitude.[19]

Features of temperament

Constitutional theories in psychology (e.g., Sheldon, Kretschmer)

emphasize the relationship between body structure and
temperament. These theories have been around since Hippocrates
thought that body structure goes hand in hand with the temperament
and susceptibility to certain diseases. Scientific research on
relationship of body appearance and temperament traits was begun
in the early twentieth century by German psychiatrist Ernst Muscular anatomy of a male human.
Kretschmer. He studied the relationship between body structure and
the onset of psychosis. Presented here in brief is the theory of Phyllis Whitman, William Sheldon, and Ghas
Katz.[20] These researchers distinguished between different constitutional variations or physical nature of ones
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body and psychotic behavior reactions or temperament. The three constitutional variations are endomorphy,
mesomorphy, and ectomorphy. The three corresponding psychotic behavior reactions are affective, heboid, and
paranoid.

Some researchers have argued that Sheldon's findings of a strong relationship between body structure and the type
of temperament are due to methodological shortcomings within his studies, and that the relationship between the
two is actually lower than he claims.[21]

Other factors
Posture can easily be impacted by poor health and other factors. Thus, anyone using posture to assess personality,
character, or psychology must first rule out possible underlying medical conditions which may be affecting a
person's posture. Moreover, there is data claiming that one maintains his or her posture worse if he or she listens to
the sentences which describe actions of others. For example, if your task is to maintain your posture rigorously in a
state you do it worse when you listen to sentences like these: "I get up, put on my slippers, go to the bathroom".[22]

Implications in other domains

As stated, the study of postures can give a vast amount of information about emotions and self-perceptions. The
study of posture has also proven beneficial in other fields. Professional counselors, who were the participants, had
to view recorded interactions of counselors and clients and determine the emotions of the client.[23] Researchers
found that relying only on verbal communication to determine the emotions of the client resulted in an accuracy of
only 66%. High levels of empathy could be misconstrued without the matching positive nonverbal communication.
In similar studies it was noted that the arms and legs were the most important bodily factors in signaling low levels of
empathy.[24] Further, researchers suggested that counselors should not only be trained in verbal communication but
also in nonverbal communication.[23][24]

See also
Body language
Kinesics

References
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