HMM1414 Chapter 3

HMM/SCM1414-Biology1
CHAPTER 3
ULTRASTRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF
THE CELL
3.1 The Cell
 Basic unit of structure & function.

 Lowest level of biological organization that can
perform activities for life.
Hierarchy of Biological organization

Level Definition
Biosphere All the environment of plane Earth that is inhabited
↑ by life.
Ecosystem Biotic factors in an area together with abiotic factors
↑ of the environment.
Community All the organisms in the system.
↑
Population All interbreeding individuals of one species.
↑
Organism An individual living thing (entity).
↑
Organ systems A group of organs that work together in performing
↑ vital body functions.
Organ A specialized center of body function composed of
↑ several types of tissues.
Tissue An integrated group of cells with a common
↑ function, structure, or both.
Cell Life’s fundamental unit of structure and
↑ function.
Macromolecule A giant molecule formed by joining smaller
↑ molecules, usually by a condensation reaction.
Molecule Two or more atoms held together by covalent
↑ bonds.
Atom The smallest unit of matter that retains the
↑ properties of an element.
Sub-atomic particle An elementary particle smaller than an atom
(Protons, neutrons, electrons).
(Refer Figure 1.3, Campbell)

(Also: http://fig.cox.miami.edu/~cmallery/150/scimeth/levels.htm)
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3.1.1 Characteristics of Cells
 All cells have:

1. Plasma membrane
Regulates passage of materials.
Selectively permeable.
2. Cytosol
Cytoplasm – entire cell’s content, minus
nucleus, & bounded by plasma membrane.
Cytosol – semi-fluid portion of cytoplasm.
3. Chromosome
DNA – genetic information.
4. Ribosome
Protein synthesis.
3.1.2 The Cell Theory

(http://fig.cox.miami.edu/~cmallery/150/unity/cell.text.htm)
 Matthias Schleidon & Theodor Schwann (1839):

“All organisms are composed of similar units of
organization called cells.”
 Three conclusions (tenets):
1) The cell is the unit of structure, physiology, &

organization in living things.
2) The cell retains a dual existence as a distinct
entity, & a building block in the construction
of organisms.
3) Cells form by free-cell formation (spontaneous
generation).
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 Tenet # 3 corrected by Rudolph Virchow:
“Omnis cellula e cellula”
 All cells only arise from pre-existing cells.
 Modern tenets of cell theory:

1)All known living things are made up of cells.
2)The cell is the structural & functional unit of
all living things.
3)All cells come from pre-existing cells by
division.
4)Cells contain hereditary information which is
passed from cell to cell during cell division.
5)All cells are basically the same in chemical
composition.
6)All energy flow of life occurs within cells.
 Two main forms of cells:
I. Eukaryotic
Larger in size.
DNA in nucleus.
Membrane-bound organelles in cytoplasm.
2. Prokaryotic
Simpler & smaller.
DNA in nucleoid.
No membrane-bound organelles.
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3.1.3 Prokaryotic Cell

(See Figure 6.6, Campbell, page 98)
Example: Bacteria: 1 - 10µ m diameter

Mycoplasma: 0.1 - 1 µ m
 Internal structure:
1) Nucleoid
Single circular DNA. No membrane.
2) Ribosomes
Smaller than in eukaryotes.
3) Storage granules
Stores nutrients & reserves.
4) Endospore
Highly resistant.
5) Cytoplasm
Gel-like matrix - contains cell structures,
including plasmids in some prokaryote.
 Surface Structure:
1)Capsule
Jelly-like outer coating - polysaccharide,
protein.
For protection.
2)Plasma membrane
Lipid bilayer.
Proteins – transport across membrane.
3)Cell Wall
Peptidoglycan (polysaccharide + protein).
Maintains shape of bacteria.
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 Appendages:
1)Pili (fimbriae)
Hollow hair-like attachment structures.
Specialized pilus (singular)– sex pilus.
2)Flagella
Locomotion.
One, a few, or many per cell.
3.1.4 Eukaryotic Cell

(See Figure 6.9, Campbell page 100 -110)
 Eukaryotic cell contains:

1. Plasma membrane
2. Cytoplasm
3. Membrane-bound organelles
4. Cytoskeleton.
 Plant & animal cells have most of the

same organelles.
 Eukaryotic cells:
• 10 -100 µ m.
• Chromosomes within nuclear membrane.
• Membrane-bound organelles – partition cell
into compartments:
 Membrane participates in metabolism.
 Compartments – different local
environment → facilitate specific metabolic

function.
 Structure:
 Lipid bilayer
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 Other lipids & proteins – embedded or

attached.
3.1.5 Organelles – Structure &
Functions
1) Nucleus
(See Figure 6.10, Campbell page 103)
• 5 µ m diameter.
a) Nuclear envelope
 Double membrane.
 Space between membrane: 20 - 40 µ m.
 Perforated by pores 100 nm diameter.
 Pore complex – regulates entry/exit of
macromolecules & particles
 Inner surface lined by nuclear lamina.
 Contiguous with ER.
b) Chromosomes
 Carry genes.
 Made up of chromatin = DNA + proteins.
 Coils (condense) & thickens during
division.
 Specific chromosome number:
 Human: 46
 Drosophila: 8
c) Nucleolus
 Densely stained granules & fibers.
 Non-membranous.
 One or more per nucleus.
 Synthesizes rRNA & ribosomal subunits.
d) Nucleoplasm (Nuclear sap)
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 Nucleus cytoplasm - highly viscous.

 Contains nucleotides, enzymes, & nuclear
matrix.
2) Ribosomes
 Made of rRNA + proteins.
 Protein synthesis.
 Free ribosomes
 In cytosol.
 Proteins for use in cytosol.
 Bound ribosomes
 On ER or nuclear envelope.
 Protein for membranes,
packaging, or export.
3) Endomembrane system
 Internal membranes system:
a)Plasma membrane
b)Nuclear envelope
c)Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
d)Golgi apparatus
e)Lysosomes
f) Vacuoles
 Directly continuous or connected via vesicles.
 Diverse functions & structure
a) Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

 Network of membranous tubules and cisternae

(sacs).
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 Membranes continuous with nuclear envelope.

 Lumen (cisternal space) continuous with space
of nuclear envelope.
 Two types:
(i) Smooth ER – no ribosomes.
(ii) Rough ER – ribosomes on outer
surface.
 Functions of smooth ER:

 ER rich in metabolic enzymes.
1) Synthesize lipids
2) Detoxify poisons & drugs - OH groups added
to drug, making them soluble.
3) Stores calcium ions.
4) Specialized ER in muscles – Sarcoplasmic
reticulum.
5) Metabolizes carbohydrates.
 Functions of rough ER:

1) Bound ribosomes synthesize proteins.
2) Produces membrane.
 Membrane factory for cell.
b) Golgi Apparatus
 Stacks of flattened membranous disks

(cisternae).
 cis face near ER receives materials from ER.
 trans face buds off vesicles.
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 Functions:
1. Modifies products from ER.
2. Manufactures certain macromolecules.
3. Sorts & packages materials into transport
vesicles.
c) Lysosomes
 Sac bounded by single membrane.

 Contains hydrolytic enzymes – work best at pH
5.0.
 Hydrolyzes macromolecules.
 Synthesized by rough ER & modified in Golgi
apparatus.
 Functions:
(i) Engulf smaller organisms or other food
particles by phagocytosis.
(ii) Recycles cell’s organelles &
macromolecule by autophagy.
(iii) Programmed cell death – apoptosis.
d) Vacuoles
 Larger version of vesicles.

 Bounded by single membrane.
 One or more per cell.
 Functions of vacuoles:
(1) Food vacuoles
• Hydrolyzes food particles.
(2) Contractile vacuoles
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• Pump excess water out of cell.

(3) Central vacuoles
• In mature plant cells.
• Formed from many smaller vacuoles.
• Surrounded by tonoplast.
• Functions:
(i) Stockpiling proteins.
(ii) Repository of inorganic ions.
(iii) Disposal site for metabolic by-
products.
(iv) Stores pigments.
(v) Stores defensive compounds.
(vi) Growth of plant cells.
Review of the endomembrane system

 Example: Flow of protein destined for secretion

from cell.
Protein synthesized on ribosomes

ê
Carbohydrate component added in lumen of ER
ê
Transport vesicles move glycoprotein to Golgi (cis
face)
ê
Protein further modified in Golgi
ê
Vesicle transports glycoprotein from Golgi (trans
face) to plasma membrane
ê
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Contents released from cell
11
4) Mitochondria & Chloroplast
 Both convert energy to usable forms.

• Mitochondria:
 Cellular respiration.
• Chloroplasts
 In plants & algae only.
 Photosynthesis
 Have own DNA.
 Semi-autonomous organelles.
a) Mitochondria
 In almost all eukaryotes.

 Size: 1 – 10 µ m long.
 Smooth outer membranes & convoluted inner
membranes infolded into cristae.
 Inner membrane creates two compartments:
(i) Intermembrane space
(ii) Mitochondrial matrix
 Some metabolic steps of cellular respiration
catalyzed by enzymes in matrix.
 Cristae provide large surface area for enzymes
that synthesize ATP.
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b) Chloroplasts
 A member of a family of organelles called

plastids:
(i) Amyloplasts
(ii) Chromoplasts
(iii) Chloroplasts – contains chlorophyll,
enzymes, & other molecules involved in
photosynthesis.
 2 x 5 µ m.
 In leaves & other green organs of plants & algae.
 Three compartments:
(i) Intermembrane space
(ii) Stroma
• Fluid-filled space.
• Contains DNA, ribosomes, & enzymes.
(iii) Thylakoids
• Interconnected sets of flat membranous
sacs.
• Some are stacked atop one another =
grana.
• Chlorophyll in thylakoid membranes.
c) Perioxisomes
 Specialized metabolic compartments bounded by

single membrane.
 Have enzymes that produce H2O2 & convert it to
H2O.
 Other functions:
(i) Break down fatty acids.
(ii) Detoxify alcohol & other harmful
substances in liver.
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Glyoxysomes convert fatty acid to

(iii)
sugars in seeds.
5) Cytoskeleton
 Network of fibers extending through
cytoskeleton.
 Organizes structures & activities of cell.
 Three types:
a) Microtubules
b) Microfilaments
c) Intermediate filaments
 Roles of cytoskeleton:
(i) Support
• Mechanical support, maintains cell shape,
& provides anchorage.
(ii) Motility
• Interacts with motor proteins to enable
movement of whole cell, movement of cilia
& flagella, & muscle contraction.
• Moves vesicles along microtubules
(“monorails”).
• Enables formation of food vacuoles.
• Enables cytoplasmic streaming.
(iii) Regulation
• Regulate biochemical activities.
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a) Microtubules
 Thickest fiber.
 Hollow rod.
 25 nm diameter; 200 nm – 25 µ m long.
 Made of tubulin: α - & β -tubulin.
 Functions:
Give shape & support to cell.
Guides movement of organelles.
. Separates chromosome during cell division.
. Cell motility – cilia & flagella
Centrosomes & Centrioles

 In many cells, microtubules grow out

of centrosomes near nucleus.
 Centrosome = “microtubule-organizing
centre”.
 In animal cells, centrosome has a pair
of centrioles, each with 9 triplets of
microtubules arranged in a ring.
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Cilia & Flagella

 Cilia:
 Numerous per cell.
 0.25 µ m diameter; 2 – 20 µ m long.
 Produces “back-and-forth” movement.
 Flagella:
 One or few per cell.
 0.25 µ m diameter; 10 – 200 µ m long.
 Produces undulatory (wave-like)
movement.
(See Figure 6.23 (a) & (b), Campbell, page 115)
Structure of cilia & flagella

 Core microtubules sheathed by plasma

membrane.
 Nine doublets of microtubules arranged in a
ring around a central pair = “9+2” pattern.

 Outer doublet and central pair held together by
cross-linking proteins & radial spokes.

 Outer doublets connected by motor proteins,
the dynein arms.
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b) Microfilaments
 Solid rods - 7nm diameter.
 Consists of twisted chain of actin subunits.
Functions:
(i) Structural
• To bear tension – resist pulling forces
within cell.
• Form 3-D network inside plasma
membrane to help support cell’s shape.
(ii) Motility
a) Contraction of muscle cells
b) Change in cell shape.
c) Cleavage furrow in animal cells during cell
division.
d) Amoeboid movement.
e) Cytoplasmic streaming in plant cells
(See Figure 6.26 (a),(b), & (c), Campbell, page 117)
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c) Intermediate filaments
 8 -12 nm diameter.
 Fibrous protein supercoiled into thicker
cables.
 Built from keratins.
 More permanent fixtures of cytoskeleton.
 Functions:
i. Support shape (bearing tension).
ii. Fix nucleus & organelles in place.
iii. Forms nucleus lamina.
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6) Extracellular Components
 Most cells synthesize and secrete

materials external to plasma membrane.
 Extracellular structures include:
a) Cell walls
b) Intercellular junctions
a) Cell Wall
(See Figure 6.28, Campbell, page 119).
 In plants, prokaryotes, fungi, & some

protists.
 0.1 to several µ m thick.
 Made of cellulose microfibrils embedded
in matrix of proteins & other

polysaccharides.
 Mature cell wall –middle lamella, primary
cell wall, & secondary cell wall.

 Walls perforated by plasmodesmata.
 Functions of cell wall:
i. Protects cell.
ii. Maintains its shape.
iii. Prevents excessive uptake of water.
iv. Supports plant against force of gravity
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b) Intercellular Junctions
Specialized regions of connection

between cells.
 Enables neighboring cells to adhere,
interact, and communicate through
direct physical contact.
 Types:
 Plants cells: plasmodesmata
 Animal cells: tight junctions,
desmosomes, & gap junctions
(i) Plasmodesmata
(See Figure 6.28, Campbell, page 119, & Fig.6.30, page 120)
 Enables cytosol to pass between cells.

 Water & small solutes (and sometimes
proteins and RNA) pass freely between

cells.
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(ii) Tight Junctions
 Prevents leakage of extracellular

fluid.
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(iii) Desmosomes (anchoring junctions)

 Fastens cells together into strong
sheets.
(iv) Gap Junctions (Communicating

junctions)
 Provides cytoplasmic channels
between cells for passage of small
molecules.
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3.2 BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANES
3.2.1 Properties of Cell Membranes
 Separates living cell from its nonliving

surroundings.
 8 nm thick.
 Selectively permeable - allows some
substances to cross more easily than

others.
3.2.2 Fluid Mosaic Model
 Singer and Nicolson (1972) - the plasma

membrane is a mosaic of proteins
dispersed within the lipid bilayer, with only
the hydrophilic regions exposed to water.
 Plasma membrane is a continuous, fluid,
double layer of phospholipids, the lipid
bilayer.
 Phospholipids & most other membrane
constituents are amphipathic molecules -

have hydrophobic regions & hydrophilic
regions.
• Hydrophobic tails face inside of
bilayer.
• Hydrophilic head faces exterior
(extracellular fluid) and interior (cytosol).
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 Proteins - embedded in bilayer or

associated with cytoplasmic or
extracellular face.
 Carbohydrates - linked to proteins
(glycoproteins) or lipids (glycolipids) only

on extracellular side.
 Cholesterol - lies within membrane.
 Membrane molecules held in place by
weak hydrophobic interactions.

 Most lipids & some proteins drift laterally.
 Rarely flip-flop from one layer to the
other.
(See Figure 7.5 (a), Campbell, page 126)
 Many larger membrane proteins drift
within the phospholipid bilayer.
 Proteins are much larger than lipids and
move more slowly.

 Other proteins are anchored to
cytoskeleton.
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3.2.3 Membrane Components
a) Membrane proteins
 Amphipathic. [bilayer]
 Determine most of membrane’s
specific functions
 Two groups:
i. Peripheral proteins
• Not embedded but loosely bound to
surface of protein.
ii. Integral proteins
• Penetrate hydrophobic core, often
completely as transmembrane
proteins.
• Hydrophobic segments consist of
stretches of non-polar amino acids,
coiled into α -helices.
• Hydrophilic segments have
hydrophilic non-helical amino acids.
 Six major functions of protein
1. Transport
2. Enzymatic activity
3. Signal transduction
4. Cell-cell recognition
5. Intercellular joining
6. Attachment to the cytoskeleton and
extracellular matrix (ECM)
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(b) Carbohydrates
 Branched oligosaccharides with < 15 sugar

units.
 Two types:
1. Glycolipids
2. Glycoproteins.
 Oligosaccharides on external side of
membrane vary from species to species,
from individual to individual, and from cell
type to cell type within same individual.
 This variation distinguishes each cell type.
 Carbohydrates on plasma membrane
surface enables cell-cell recognition
• Ability of a cell to distinguish one
type of neighboring cell from another by
binding to surface molecules.
 Importance:
• Sorting & organizing cells into
tissues & organs.
• Basis for rejection of foreign cells
by immune system.
c) Cholesterol
 Interdigitates between phospholipids.
 Enhances mechanical stability & flexibility
of membrane, and making it less permeable

to water-soluble substances.
 In animal cell membranes.
26
3.3 Movement Across Membranes
 Hydrophobic molecules (hydrocarbons, CO2,

& O2) dissolve in lipid bilayer & cross
easily.
 Hydrophobic core of membrane impedes
passage of ions and polar molecules
(water, glucose & other sugars) - cross
membrane with difficulty.
 Ions and polar molecules cross bilayer
through transport proteins:
i. Channel proteins : Have hydrophilic
channel for passage of certain
molecules or ions.
 Example, passage of water
through membrane facilitated by
channel proteins known as
aquaporins.
ii. Carrier proteins : Bind to molecules &
change shape to shuttle them across

membrane.
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3.3.1 Passive Transport
a) Diffusion
 Spontaneous tendency of molecules

of any substance to move down its
concentration gradient from a more
concentrated to a less concentrated
area.
 Individual molecule moves randomly.
 But diffusion of a population of molecules
exhibits a net movement in one direction.
 At dynamic equilibrium, as many
molecules cross one way as cross in the
other direction.
 Each substance diffuses independent of
the concentration gradients of other
substances.
(See Figure 7.11 (b), Campbell, page 131)
 No work done to move substances down
concentration gradient.
 Diffusion of substance across biological
membrane is passive transport -
requires no energy from the cell.
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Factors determining rate of diffusion
1) Concentration gradient - the steeper the

gradient, the faster the rate of diffusion.
2) Surface area across which substance is
diffusing - the greater the surface area,
the faster the rate of diffusion.
3) Distance over which substance has to
diffuse (the diffusion distance) - the
greater the diffusion distance, the slower
the rate of diffusion.
 The rate of diffusion is directly

proportional to the concentration
difference and surface area, and inversely
proportional to the diffusion distance.
Surface Concentration
area x
Rate of diffusion ∝ difference
Diffusion distance
 This is known as Fick’s Law.
 Diffusion through membrane (barrier)

affected by:
i. Nature of membrane, for example, its
permeability.
ii. Size and type of molecule or ion
diffusing through it.
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b) Osmosis
 Diffusion of water through a semi-

permeable membrane from a solution
with a low solute concentration (high
water potential) to a solution with a
higher solute concentration (low water
potential) until there is an equal
concentration (water potential) on both
sides of the membrane.
 Direction of osmosis determined only by a
difference in total solute concentration
 Tendency of water molecules to move
across membrane depends on:
• Solute concentration.
• Pressure on each side of membrane.
 Water potential (ψ ) - combined effect of
solute concentration and pressure in a
solution.
• Units in kilopascals (kPa)
 Water potential of a solution is the
tendency for water to diffuse out of it.
 Water diffuses from a high water potential
to a low water potential, down its water
potential gradient.
 By definition, pure water at atmospheric
pressure has a water potential of zero.
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(i) Effect of concentration on water

potential and osmosis:
 Adding solute to pure water will decrease
its water potential - becomes negative.
 The more solute is added, the lower (more
negative) the water potential.
 Example:
 17 g sucrose/dm3 of water = -130 kPa
 34 g of sucrose/ dm3 of water = -260 kPa.
 Effect of solute concentration is called
solute potential (Ψ s).
 Value of Ψ s is always negative.
Water
Solute
Membrane
Membrane permeable
to water only
Low solute concentration High solute concentration

High water concentration Low water concentration
High water potential Low water potential
Water
molecules
Solute molecules
surrounded by a
cluster of water
molecules
Net flow of water
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(ii) The effect of pressure on water

potential and osmosis:
 Increasing the pressure would increase the

tendency of water to diffuse out of the
membrane.
High water
potential
Low water
potential
Increased pressure
High water
potential There is substantial
movement of water
in osmosis
Low water
potential
High water There is decreased

potential
osmosis or osmosis
is stopped or even
Low water completely reversed
potential
Pressure applied
on this side
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 Effect of pressure on a solution is called

the pressure potential (Ψ p).
 Value of Ψ p usually positive.
 In plants, this is the force of the cell
wall pushing inwards on contents of cells
(cytoplasm) when water enters cell by
osmosis.
 In animals this may be due, for
example, to high blood pressure in
glomerulus of the kidney.
Water = Solute + Pressure

potential potential potential
ψ = ψ S
+ ψ P
(Usually (Usually (Usually

negative) negative) positive)
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Effect of osmosis on plant cells:
 Plant cells generally have lower water

potential than that of their surroundings.
 Due to presence of solutes in fluid within
vacuole (cell sap).
 Plasma membrane & tonoplast surrounding
vacuole are both partially permeable,
letting water through but not solutes.
 Cell wall permeable to both water &
solutes.
 Incipient plasmolysis – point when

cytoplasm just starts pulling away from cell
wall.
 Full plasmolysis – when cytoplasm has
completely withdrawn from cell wall except
at plasmodesmata.
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Effect of osmosis on plant cells

Plant cell in a solution with higher Plant cell in a solution with lower
water potential than cell solution water potential than cell solution
Water out
Water in
Pressure of cell contents
Water diffuses into cell through plasma

membrane. Water diffuses out of the cell through the
The cell contents expand. The contents plasma membrane.
push out on the wall. The cell contents shrink. The contents do
not push out on the wall. Ψ p is 0.
Water in Water out
Pressure of cell contents

Pressure of wall resisting
uptake of water (Ψ p)
The wall pushes back on the cell contents.

The force of the wall pushing on the cell A cell in which the contents are not pushing
contents is called the pressure potential out on the wall is said to be flaccid.
(Ψ p).
The cell is in a state of turgor.
Water in Water out

Solute potential (Ψ s)
Pressure potential (Ψ p)
The water potential of the cell contents is

the sum of the solute potential and the The plasma membrane is pulled away from
pressure potential. the wall in places. The cell is now said to
Ψ cell = Ψ s + Ψ p be plasmolysed.
External solution now fills the gap between
cell wall and plasma membrane.
(Ψ s+ Ψ p) = Ψ cell
= Ψ external solution
= Ψ sextetnal solution
As more water enters, the water potential The parts of the membrane that are
of the cell solution rises. Eventually, the resistant to pulling away from the wall are
water potential inside equals the water places where plasmodesmata occur.
potential outside and no further water is If the membrane is torn at these points,
taken. The cell has reached equilibrium. the cell dies.
The cell is fully turgid.
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Effect of osmosis on animal cells

Solution Water potential At the start, when End result
(Ψ ) the cell is added to
the solution
Pure water Very high Ψ outside;
(High Ψ ) Lower Ψ inside
Strong osmotic Cell swells, burst and dies

uptake of water (lysis)
High Ψ outside;
Lower Ψ inside
Osmotic uptake of Cell swells, cell solution is

water diluted and its Ψ rises to
be the same as the
external solution.
Decreasing Ψ Equal Ψ inside and
of external outside
solution
No osmosis No change
Lower Ψ outside;
higher Ψ inside
Osmotic loss of water Cell shrinks, cell solution

concentrates and its Ψ
falls to be the same as
the external solution
Very low Ψ outside;
higher Ψ inside
Concentrated Strong osmotic loss Cell shrinks significantly

solution of water
 Animals without rigid cell walls have

osmotic problems in environment with low
or high water potential.
 To maintain their internal environment,
they must have adaptations for
osmoregulation.
 Paramecium, which has low water potential
compared to its pond water environment,
has a contractile vacuole that acts as a
pump. (See Figure 7.14, Campbell, page 133)
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Worked examples on the water

potential concept
Example 1
• A plant cell with a water potential of –700
kPa is immersed in a sucrose solution
whose water potential is –350 kPa. In
which direction will water flow?
Example 2
• A plant cell has a solute potential of –240
kPa and a pressure potential of 350 kPa.
What is the water potential of the cell?
Example 3:
• A plasmolysed cell is found to have a
solute potential of –960 kPa. What is the
water potential of the cell?
Example 4:
• Two plant cells, A and B, are next to
each other in a tissue. The water potential

of cell A is –700 kPa, and the water
potential of cell B is –550 kPa. In which
direction will water flow – from A to B, or
from B to A?
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c) Facilitated Diffusion
 Passive movement of molecules down

their concentration gradient via
transport proteins.
 Two types of transport proteins:

i. Channel proteins
 Some provide hydrophilic corridors for
passage of specific molecules or ions.
 Example, aquaporins, facilitate
diffusion of water.
 Many ion channels function as gated
channels - open or close depending

on presence or absence of a chemical
or physical stimulus.
(See Figure 7.15 (a), Campbell, page 134)
ii. Carrier proteins

 Some proteins translocate the solute-
binding site and solute across the
membrane as the transport protein
changes shape.
(See Figure 7.15 ba), Campbell, page 134)
38
3.3.2 Active Transport – Sodium Pump

and Coupled Transport
 Movement of a substance across a

biological membrane against its
concentration gradient or
electrochemical gradient with the help of
energy input (ATP) and specific transport
proteins.
• Example: sodium-potassium pump
Maintenance of Membrane Potential by Ion

Pumps:
 Membrane potential - voltage

difference across a membrane.
 Voltage difference is due to separation of
opposite charges.
 Cytoplasm is negative in charge
compared to extracellular fluid.

 Due to unequal distribution of cations
& anions on opposite sides of membrane.
39
 Membrane potential favors passive

transport of cations into cell and anions out
of cell.
 Two combined forces, the
electrochemical gradient, drive diffusion of

ions across a membrane.
 Chemical force: an ion’s
 Electrical force: effect of membrane
potential on ion’s movement.
 Special transport proteins, the

electrogenic pumps, generate voltage
gradient across a membrane.
 Example:
 Sodium-potassium pump in animal

cells.
 Proton pump in plants, fungi, &
bacteria.
40
Cotransport
 The coupling of the diffusion of one

substance down its concentration gradient
to the transfer of another against its
 Transport protein may move two
substances in the:
• Same direction – symport carriers.
• Opposite directions – antiport
carriers.
 Plants commonly use the gradient of

hydrogen ions generated by proton pumps
to drive active transport of nutrients into
the cell.
41
3.3.3 Bulk Transport
• Small molecules and water enter or leave

the cell through the lipid bilayer or by
transport proteins
• Large molecules, such as
polysaccharides and proteins, cross the
membrane via vesicles
Exocytosis
 The cellular secretion of macromolecules

by fusion of vesicles with plasma
membrane.
 Transport vesicles migrate to membrane,
fuse with it, and release their contents

 Many secretory cells use exocytosis to
export their products
Endocytosis
 The cellular uptake of macromolecules

and particulate substances by localized
regions of plasma membrane that surround
the substances and pinch off to form an
intracellular vesicle.
 Endocytosis is a reversal of exocytosis,
involving different proteins
42
Three types of endocytosis:
1) Phagocytosis (“cellular eating”): Cell

engulfs particle in a vacuole.
2) Pinocytosis (“cellular drinking”): Cell

creates vesicle around fluid.
3) Receptor-mediated endocytosis :
Binding of ligands to receptors triggers
vesicle formation.
43

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HMM/SCM1414-Biology1

3.1 The Cell

 Basic unit of structure & function.

Hierarchy of Biological organization

(Refer Figure 1.3, Campbell)

3.1.1 Characteristics of Cells

 All cells have:

3.1.2 The Cell Theory

 Matthias Schleidon & Theodor Schwann (1839):

 Three conclusions (tenets):

1) The cell is the unit of structure, physiology, &

 Tenet # 3 corrected by Rudolph Virchow:

“Omnis cellula e cellula”

 All cells only arise from pre-existing cells.

 Modern tenets of cell theory:

 Two main forms of cells:

3.1.3 Prokaryotic Cell

Example: Bacteria: 1 - 10µ m diameter

3.1.4 Eukaryotic Cell

 Eukaryotic cell contains:

 Plant & animal cells have most of the

 Compartments – different local

environment → facilitate specific metabolic

 Other lipids & proteins – embedded or

 Nucleus cytoplasm - highly viscous.

 Diverse functions & structure

a) Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

 Network of membranous tubules and cisternae

 Membranes continuous with nuclear envelope.

 Functions of smooth ER:

 Functions of rough ER:

 Stacks of flattened membranous disks

 Sac bounded by single membrane.

 Larger version of vesicles.

• Pump excess water out of cell.

Review of the endomembrane system

 Example: Flow of protein destined for secretion

Protein synthesized on ribosomes

Contents released from cell

4) Mitochondria & Chloroplast

 Both convert energy to usable forms.

 In almost all eukaryotes.

 A member of a family of organelles called

 Specialized metabolic compartments bounded by

Glyoxysomes convert fatty acid to

Centrosomes & Centrioles

 In many cells, microtubules grow out

Cilia & Flagella

Structure of cilia & flagella

 Core microtubules sheathed by plasma

ring around a central pair = “9+2” pattern.

cross-linking proteins & radial spokes.

the dynein arms.

 More permanent fixtures of cytoskeleton.

 Most cells synthesize and secrete

 In plants, prokaryotes, fungi, & some

 Made of cellulose microfibrils embedded

in matrix of proteins & other

cell wall, & secondary cell wall.

 Functions of cell wall:

Specialized regions of connection

 Enables cytosol to pass between cells.

proteins and RNA) pass freely between