HLPE1540- Inquiry Project Written Report Chloe Jones (2166554)

Australian life expectancy is one of the highest in the world, second only to Japan. This is not due to any
biological advantage in the Australian gene pool, but is rather a reflection of our distinctive living and
working conditions (Germov, 2014, p. 6).
With the above statement suggesting that varied work environments are an influencing
factor of health conditions affecting life expectancy, I believe employment status is a
significant factor in addition to conditions of the workplace. With equal contribution from
peers, we chose to explore the employment status of Underemployment, and the effects
on health. As stated by Feldman and Maynard (2011), Underemployment is when workers
are employed in jobs which are substandard, relative to their goals and expectations (p.
1). Essentially, this refers to individuals in occupations where their hours are reduced and
their trained skills are not used to the full capacity. As proposed by the Australian Bureau of
Statistics (2013), In May 2013, about 900,000 employed people were underemployed,
which was about 30% higher than the number of unemployed people. As further stated
by Friedland and Price (2003), People may be underemployed by hours, by income, by
skills, or by status (p. 34). Through the understanding of underemployment, key focuses
were formed. These included: the complexity of underemployment, physical and mental
health factors, and the employment status from a social health perspective through the
structure versus agency debate. Information was then collated and presented as an
educational presentation with the intent of making individuals aware of the significant
factors leading to underemployment, and the outcomes, which it may result in.

When engaging in underemployment from a social health perspective, many ask, how
does underemployment arise and what is put in place to ameliorate outcomes?
Beforehand, I was unaware of the reasoning behind individuals being defined as
underemployed. Following research and analysis, and gaining an understanding of the
status, I considered there to be a distinct relation between external factors including living
conditions, socio-economic status, and education, all of which affect an individuals
ability to gain employment. Research has instead identified there to be more extensive
factors. Dooley and Prause (1998), support this through stating: elevated symptoms of
alcohol abuse are associated with a higher likelihood of transition from adequate
employment into future unemployment as well as low-wage and involuntary part-time
work (as cited in Maynard & Feldman, 2011, p. 66). Whilst alcohol appeared to myself as
an individual issue and choice, underemployment is said to be further affected in
recessionary times, to individuals of a lower age, and who have fewer personal resources
(Maynard & Feldman, 2011, pp. 66-68, 75). As I was previously aware, reduced
employment minimises work hours, and therefore income. Previously, I was unaware of the
extensive health issues, both physical and mental, arising from underemployment. It was
noticed that a large number of health issues overlap and are affected by one another. To
illustrate this, a mind-map was constructed for the health effects of underemployment,
whilst also forming a pyramid demonstrating the complexity of factors.
 Underemployment
Reduced Income
Financial Hardship
Family Stress
Poverty
Limited Life Choices/
Opportunities
Poor Child Health
Outcomes

Increased Risk of
Asthma/Disease
Morbidity

With reference back to underemployment from a social health perspective, what can be
done to ameliorate underemployment? As research identified, individuals may be
susceptible to underemployment due to their personal resources, particularly education,
which acts as a preventer (Maynard & Feldman, 2011, p. 75). To assist underemployment,
Maynard and Feldman (2011, p. 11), suggest that policies with the intention of increasing
graduation figures and post-secondary education would be beneficial. I believe
education systems need to allow for increased opportunities for students where possible to
select their desired learning areas which will benefit themselves and their occupation in
the coming years. I consider students to be ill-educated in regards to everyday life and
what is required of them in the future. Therefore, they do not obtain jobs utilising their skills,
if any, to the full potential. Therefore, leaving them in a position with minimal income and
being at an increased risk of contracting health issues associated with underemployment.
Despite my opinions, Hancock and Oakley (n.d), state the following in relation to support
currently provided for those stressed and underemployed:
While there have been many non-government organisations and local governments adopting a range
of support programs to respond to the growing complexity of households experiencing socio-economic
stress over the last decade, there remains a lack of long-term policy that adequately addresses this
phenomenon. As a result, current social policy and service provision is failing to provide an adequate
safety net for thousands of households that are unable to access relevant support (pp. 7-8).
I hope in the coming years a policy is developed to assist underemployed individuals,
therefore reducing health issues within society.

Germov and Broom (2014), define social determinants of health as: The economic, social
and cultural factors that directly and indirectly influence individual and population health
(p. 64). National Rural Health Alliance Inc. (n.d), further state: These circumstances are
shaped by the distribution of money, power and resources at global, national and local
levels. In my opinion, underemployment can be understood in relation to the social
determinants of health, with it often not being the individuals decision of whether their
hours are reduced, or whether their position enables their skills and knowledge to be used
to the full extent. If an individual is underemployed, income decreases due to the
reduction in hours worked. It can be said that their power and contribution to society may
be minimised through low pay being a determinant of social exclusion (Hancock &
Oakley, n.d, p. 1). In addition, a reduction in finances suggests that individuals will be
restricted to the resources they can afford, therefore possibly leading to decreased levels
of health through poor living conditions, limited access to health services, and food. This is
further supported by the World Health Organization (2017), outlining income, shelter, food,
and sustainable resources as fundamental conditions of health. Whilst I had a minimal
understanding of the structure versus agency debate from a sociological perspective
beforehand, Hutting and Pollemans (n.d), state: agency refers to the capacity of
individuals to make their own decisions and act independently. On the other hand,
structure refers to the social systems that constrain, if not completely determine, the
actions of individuals. Whilst research does not outline the effects of structure versus
agency on underemployment, I have made an educated decision that this form of
employment is predominantly structure based with a reduction in hours and use of skills
being uncontrollable. In comparison, following being classed as underemployed, agency
may be predominant with employees being required to make individual decisions on how
to manage finances and maintain a sufficient level of health. Through information
surrounding the social determinants of health and structure versus agency debate, I
consider underemployment to be a socially constructed issue.

As a pre-service primary health educator, it is essential that I develop an adequate

understanding of health education. As the health pyramid previously demonstrated,
underemployment can result in significant hardship for families, with poverty being a
common consequence (Gould, 2014). According to the Australian Council of Social
Service (n.d), approximately 731,300 children in Australia are affected by poverty. In this
instance, poverty is derived from a reduction in finances. Brooks-Gunn and Duncan (1997),
state: Income poverty is the condition of not having enough income to meet basic needs
for food, clothing, and shelter (p. 55). With students coming from varied backgrounds,
there is a high possibility that a portion of those taught will be from poverty stricken
families. In this task, I have been made aware of what is required in order for individuals to
obtain a sufficient standard of health through receiving satisfactory education. Most
importantly, I have gained an understanding of social and individual factors contributing
to health issues. Social: referring to issues such as underemployment uncontrollable from a
personal perspective. Whilst individual factors such as smoking, are personal choices,
certainly not forced upon the individual. Being increasingly educated myself surrounding
socially constructed issues, and aware of health factors which may be associated, is
essential for my profession. This is due to being increasingly understanding and supportive
towards students affected by occurrences such as poverty. This may result in students not
having food for school, or the correct uniform due to affordability. In addition, parents
may not have the time and patience to assist with homework, thus being the educators
responsibility to ensure students gain assistance, making sure they are not excluded based
on their home life. With underemployment influencing students, I believe good health
education is providing individuals with the knowledge, skills, and awareness to make safe
decisions in regards to their health and wellbeing. This is supported through the Ottawa
Charter of Health Promotion defining creating supportive environments, developing
personal skills, and moving into the future as action means for adequate health (World
Health Organization, 2017). I consider it is essential that schools provide this form of
education due to it not being certain that parents will assist their children. To do so, it is
important teachers are educated themselves.

Whilst the focus was to determine health factors associated with underemployment,
research enabled the understanding of this form of employment from a social perspective.
It has been determined that underemployment is socially constructed through being
unpreventable as to whether hours are reduced or skills are used to the full extent. New
experiences were gained through the increased awareness of the flow on effect which
underemployment can have towards further health issues. This led to the focus towards
young individuals and the factors they are affected by, and the education therefore
required. With personal opinions previously provided as to what I believe good health
education entails, I further consider it is essential for all educators to be health trained. No
matter the subject, there are going to be students health affected by factors such as
reduced income and financial hardship as a result of underemployment.
Word Count- 1,642

Reference List

Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2013). Fact sheet did you know: Underemployment.
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Brooks-Gunn, J., & Duncan, G. J. (1997). The Effects of Poverty on Children. The Future of
Children, 7(2), 55-71. DOI: 10.2307/1602387

Friedland, D. S., & Price, R. H. (2003). Underemployment: Consequences for the Health and
Well-Being of Workers. American Journal of Community Psychology, 32(1/2), 33-45.
DOI: 10.1023/A:1025638705649

Germov, J. (2014). Second Opinion (5th ed.). Imagining Health Problems as Social Issues
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Germov, J. & Broom, A. (2014). Second Opinion (5th ed.). Global Public Health
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Gould, E. (2014, January). Inequality Is the Main Cause of Persistent Poverty. Retrieved
from: http://www.epi.org/blog/inequality-main-persistent-poverty/

Hancock, J., Oakley, S. (n.d). The rising cost of under-employment: building a policy and
program response to improving social inclusion and community for under-employed
households: Parliament of Australia. Australian Government. Retrieved May 29, 2017,
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61497a968130

Hutting, C., & Pollemans, M. (n.d). Structure vs. Agency. Retrieved from:
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Maynard, D. C., & Feldman, D. C. (Eds.). (2011). Underemployment- Psychological,

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Poverty. (n.d). Retrieved May 29, 2017, from Australian Council of Social Service Website:
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Social Determinants of Health. (n.d). Retrieved June 9, 2017, from National Rural Health
Alliance Inc. Website:
http://ruralhealth.org.au/advocacy/current-focus-areas/social-determinants-health

The Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion. (n.d). Retrieved June 9, 2017, from World Health
Organization Website:
http://www.who.int/healthpromotion/conferences/previous/ottawa/en/