Heat Transfer Lab PDF

MANUAL
HEAT TRANSFER LAB
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Provided By: JNTU World

(www.alljntuworld.in)
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The role of experimentation in the teaching of subjects such as Heat
Transfer is well established. Properly designed experiments reinforce
the teaching of basic principles taught in lecture classes and help
students to understand these principles more thoroughly. There are
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other advantages too: students learn to use basic instruments and get
acquainted with the method used to measure various physical
quantities; they also study techniques of analyzing experimental data
and presenting them in a proper form.
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CONTENTS
Page
List of Experiments ...................................................................................................... i
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Acceceries of Experiments .......................................................................................... ii
General Instructions to Students ................................................................................. iii
Experiments on Conduction
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1. Composite Wall 05
2. Lagged Pipe 09
3. Thermal conductivity of insulating powder 12

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4. Thermal Conductivity of Metal Rod 13
Experiments on Convection
5. Pin-Fin (Natural and Forced Convection) 18
6. Natural Convection 25
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7. Forced Convection 31
Experiments on Radiation
8. Stefan Boltzman Constant 34
9. Emissivity of test plate 39

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Experiments on two-phase flow
10. Drop and Film wise condensation 49
11. Critical Heat flux
Experiments on applications of heat transfer
12. Concentric tube Heat Exchanger 43
13. Heat Pipe (Unsteady state heat transfer) 60

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
Experiments on Conduction
1. Determination of Thermal conductivity of insulation powder
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2. Determination of over all heat transfer coefficient of Composite Wall
3. Determination of over all heat transfer coefficient of Lagged Pipe
4. Determination of Thermal Conductivity of given Metal Rod
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Experiments on Convection
5. Determination of heat transfer coefficient of Pin-Fin (Natural and Forced
Convection)
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6. Determination of heat transfer coefficient of Natural Convection
7. Determination of heat transfer coefficient of Forced Convection.
Experiments on Radiation
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8. Determination of Stefan Boltzman Constant
9. Determination of Emissivity of test plate
Experiments on Applications of heat transfer and heat transfer with

phase change
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10. Determination of effectiveness and overall heat transfer coefficient using
Parallel and Counter flow Heat Exchanger
11. Determination of heat transfer coefficient in drop and film wise
condensation
12. Determination of Critical Heat flux
13. Study of heat pipe and its demonstration
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ACCECERIES OF EQUIPMENTS
1. CRITICAL HEAT FLUX APPARATUS
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i) Thermometer (0-1100C) - 1
ii) Bulb (100W) 1
iii) Beaker (Glass) -1
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2. CONCENTRIC TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER (PLAIN TUBE TYPE)
i) Thermometer (0-1100C) - 4
ii) Measuring Jar 1
iii) Stop Watch (Glass) -1

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3. HEAT PIPE APPARATUS
Thermometer (0-1100C) - 3
4. STEFAN BOLTZMANN APPARATUS
Thermometer (0-1100C) - 1
5. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF METAL ROD

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i) Measuring Jar (1000ml)- 1
ii) Stop Watch - 1

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GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS
1. Keep the variac to zero voltage position before starting the
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experiments.
2. Increase voltage slowly.
3. Do not increase voltage above 150 V.
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4. Keep all the assembly undisturbed.
5. Operate selector switch of temperature indicator slowly.
6. Operate all the switches and controls gently.
7. Always ensure that the equipment is earthed properly before
switching on the supply.
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8. Ensure steady state heat transfer before noting down the
readings.
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All JNTU World HEAT TRANSFER LAB
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF INSULATING POWDER

AIM
To determine the thermal conductivity of insulating powder at average

temperature.
INTRODUCTION
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Conduction of heat is flow of heat which occurs due to exchange of
energy from one molecule to another without appreciable motion of
molecules. In any heating process, heat is flowing outwards from heat
or
generation point. In order to reduce losses of heat, various types of
insulations are used in practice. Various powders e.g. asbestos powder,
plaster of paris etc. are also used for heat insulation. In order to
determine the appropriate thickness of insulation, knowledge of thermal
conductivity of insulating material is essential.
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APPARATUS
The apparatus consists of a smaller (inner) sphere, inside, which is fitted
a mica electric heater. Smaller sphere is fitted at the center of outer
sphere. The insulating powder, whose thermal conductivity is to be
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determined is filled in the gap between the two spheres. The heat
generated by heater flows through the powder to the outer sphere. The
outer sphere loses heat to atmosphere. The input to the heater is
controlled by a dimmerstat and is measured on voltmeter and ammeter.
Four thermocouples are provided on the outer surface of inner sphere
and six thermocouples are on the inner surface of outer sphere, which
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are connected to a multi channel digital temperature indicator.
SPECIFICATIONS
1. Inner sphere- 100mm O.D., halved construction
2. Outer sphere- 200mm I.D., halved construction
1 Thermal conductivity of insulating powder

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
1. Keep dimmerstat knob at ZERO position and switch ON the
equipment.
2. Slowly rotate the dimmerstat knob, so that voltage is applied
across the heater. Let the temperatures rise.
3. Wait until steady state is reached.
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4. Note down all the temperatures and input of heater in terms of
volts and current.
OBSERVAATIONS
Sl.
or
No. Temperatures 0 C Heat input
T1 T2 T3 WT4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 Volts Amps
THEORY
Consider the transfer of heat by heat conduction through the wall of a
hallow sphere formed of insulating powder (Ref.fig.)
Let, ri = raidus of inner sphere, m
r0 = radius of outer sphere, m
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Ti = average inner sphere surface temp. OC

T0= average outer sphere surface temp. OC
Consider a thin spherical layer of thickness dr at radius r & temperature
difference of dT across the layer. Applying Fourier law of heat
conduction, heat transfer rate,
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Q = -k. 4 . r2.[dT/dr]
Where k = thermal conductivity of insulating powder.
Q dr
Therefore x dT
4k r 2
Integrating between ri to ro and Ti to To, we get
r T
Q 0 dr 0
4k ri r 2 Ti
dT

Q 1 1
x (Ti T0 )
4k ri r0
4 kri ro (Ti To )
or Q
( r0 ri )
From the measured values of Q, Ti and T0 thermal conductivity of

insulating powder can be determined as
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Q (r0 ri )
k
4 .ri. ro .( Ti To )
CALCULATIONS
1. Heater input = Q = V x I Watts
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T1 T2 T3 T4
2. Average inner sphere surface temperature, Ti
4
0C
3. Average outer sphere surface temperature

T5 T6 T7 T10
T0
6
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4. Inner sphere radius = 50 mm = 0.05 m
5. Outer sphere radius = 100 mm = 0.1 m.
Q(r0 ri ) Ti To
Now k W/mK at o
C
4 .ri. ro .( Ti To ) 2
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PRECAUTIONS
2. If thermal conductivity of the powder other than supplied is to be
determined then gently dismantle the outer sphere and remove the
powder, taking care that heater connections and thermocouples
are not disturbed.
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3. Earthling is essential for the unit.
RESULT
Thermal conductivity of insulating powder is ___________at temperature of
________

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Fig. 1 Apparatus of thermal conductivity of insulating powder
1. Shell
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2. Voltmeter
3. Ammeter
4. Temperature indicator
5. Selector switch
6. Main switch
7. Heater control
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Fig. 2 Location of thermocouples in spherical shell

COMPOSITE WALL APPARATUS

AIM
To determine the thermal resistance, thermal conductivity of composite
wall material and plot temperature gradient along composite wall
structure.
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APPARATUS
The apparatus consists of a plates of different materials sandwiched
between two aluminum plates. Three types of slabs are provided on both
sides of heater, which forms a composite structure. A small hand press
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frame is provided to ensure the perfect contact between the slabs. A
dimmerstat is provided for varying the input to the heater and
measurement of input is carried out by a Voltmeter and Ammeter.
Thermocouples are embedded between interfaces of input slabs, to read
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the temperatures at the surface.
SPECIFICATIONS
Slab size:
a. M.S. - 25 cm x 25 mm thick
b. Bakelite - 25 cm x 10 mm thick
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c. Brass - 25 cm x 10 mm thick
1. Start the supply of heater. By varying the dimmerstat adjust the
input (range 30- 70 Watts) and start water supply.
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2. Take readings of all the thermocouples at an interval of 10 minutes

until steady state is reached.
WALL THICKNESS CONDUCTIVITY
a. M.S 2.5 cm 46 W / m K
b. Bakelite 1.0 cm 0.223 W / m K
c. Brass 1.0 cm 110 W / m K
5 Composite wall apparatus

OBSERVATIONS
Sl.No. Heat Supplied Temperatures 0C
(Watts)
Voltmeter Ammeter T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8
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CALCULATIONS
1) Mean readings,
(T1 T2 )
a) TA 0C
2
or
(T3 T4 )
b) TB 0C
2
(T5 T6 )
c) TC 0C
2
(T7 T8 )
d) TD 0C
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2
2) Rate of heat supplied, Q = V x I Watts
For calculating the thermal conductivity of composite walls, it is assumed
that due to large diameter of the plates, heat flowing through central
portion is unidirectional i.e. axial flow. Thus for calculations central half
diameter area where unidirectional flow is assumed is considered.
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Accordingly thermocouples are fixed at close to center of the plates.

Q
Now, Heat flux, q Watt / m 2
A

A x d 2 (d half dia. of plates)
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Total thermal resistance of composite slab:

T A TD
R total m2 o
K /W
q
q .b
i) Thermal conductivity of composite slab, K W /m/k
T A TD
composite
b = Total thickness of composite slab = 0.045 m

ii) Plot thickness of slab material against temperature gradient.

PRECAUTIONS
1. Keep the dimmerstat zero before start
2. Increase voltage slowly
3. Keep all the assembly undisturbed
4. Do not increase voltage above 200 V
5. Operate selector switch of temperature indicator slowly.
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GRAPH
TA
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TB
Temperature, 0C
Mild Steel
TC
TD
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Brass
25 35 45
Thickness of slab
RESULT
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Thermal resistance of composite wall =

Over all thermal conductivity of composite wall =
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Fig. 1 Composite wall apparatus
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1. Voltmeter
2. Ammeter
4 Main switch
5. Heater Control
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6. Water connection
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Fig. 2 Thermocouple setting in composite wall apparatus

A. Heater B & B1 M.S. Plate C & C1 Bakelite D & D1 Brass plate E & E1
Cooling plate

LAGGED PIPE
AIM
1. To determine heat flow rate through the lagged pipe and compare it
with the heater input for known value of thermal conductivity of
lagging material.
2. To determine the approximate thermal conductivity of lagging
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material by assuming the heater input to be the heat flow rate
through lagged pipe.
3. To plot the temperature distribution across the lagging material.
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APPARATUS
The apparatus consists of three concentric pipes mounted on suitable
stand. The hollow space of the innermost pipe consists of the heater.
Between first two cylinders the insulating material with which lagging is
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to be done is filled compactly. Between second and third cylinders,
another material used for lagging is filled. The third cylinder is
concentric to other outer cylinder. Water flows between these two
cylinders. The thermocouples are attached to the surface of cylinders
appropriately to measure the temperatures. The input to the heater is
varied through a dimmerstat and measured on voltmeter and ammeter.
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SPECIFICATIONS
Pipes i) GI pipe inside 6 cm. (O.D)
ii) GI pipe middle 8.5 cm. (Mean dia.)
iii) GI pipe outer 10.7 cm. (I.D)
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iv) Length of pipes 1 meter.
PROCEDURE
1) Start the supplies of heater and by varying dimmerstat adjust the
input for desired value (range 60 to 120 Watts) by using voltmeter and
ammeter, also start water supply.
2) Take readings of all the 6 thermocouples at an interval of 5 min until
the steady state is reached.
9 Lagged pipe
3) Note down steady readings in observation table.

OBSERVATIONS
1. Inner pipe O.D., D1 = 0.06 m
2. Middle pipe mean dia., D2 = 0.085 m
3. Outer pipe I.D., D3 = 0.107 m
Volt
Sl.No. Ammeter Thermocouple Readings
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meter
V I T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
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CALCULATIONS
Mean readings
T1 T2
T inside o
C
2
T3 T4
T o
C
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2
T T6
T Outer 5 o
C
2
ri = Inner pipe radius = 0.03 m
ro = outer pipe radius = 0.0535 m
rm = mean radius of middle pipe = 0.0425m
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L = Length of pipe = 1m
k = thermal conductivity W / m K
Q= actual heat input = V x I Watts
Assumption: The pipe is so long as compared with diameter that heat
flows in radial direction only middle half length.
i) Now, first we find out the theoretical heat flow rate through the
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composite cylinder
T T
Q inside outside
1 1 r 1 r
Loge m Loge 0
2L k 1 ri k2 rm
k1 = 0.22 W/moK & k2 = 0.13 W/m0K, where Actual heat input, Qact = V.I.
ii) Now from known value of heat flow rate, value of combined thermal
conductivity of lagging material can be calculated.
10 Lagged pipe
2Lk( Ti To )
Q act
loge (r0 / ri )
Q act loge (r0 / ri )

k W / mK
2L(Ti To )
The space between the pipes of 6 cm and 8.5 cm contains commercial

asbestos powder and the space between pipes of 8.5 cm and 10.5 cm
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contains saw dust.
Q act loge (rm / ri )
k1 W /m o
K
2L( Ti Tm )
Q act loge (ro / rm )
k2 W /m o
K.
2L( Tm To )
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iii) To plot the temperature distribution use formula
T Ti Log e (r / ri )
V/S
To Ti Log e (ro / ri )
Where r is the selected radius for corresponding to temperature T,

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between the two pipes of the same lagging material. Thus plot is made
for different values of r.
PRECAUTIONS
1) Keep dimmerstat to ZERO position before start.
2) Increase voltage gradually.
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3) Keep the assembly undisturbed while testing.

4) While removing or changing the lagging materials do not disturb the
thermocouples.
5) Do not increase voltage above 150V
6) Operate selector switch of temperate indicator gently.
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RESULTS
Theoretical Heat flow rate =
Thermal conductivity of lagged material =
Thermal conductivity of asbestos powder =
Thermal conductivity of saw dust =
11 Lagged pipe
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Fig 1 Lagged pipe apparatus
1. Voltmenter 2. Ammeter 3. Temperature indicator 4. Selector switch
5. Main switch 6. Heater control 7. Assembly
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Fig. 2 Thermocouple settings in lagged pipe

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Fig.3 Graph of temperature gradient
12 Lagged pipe
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF METAL ROD

AIM
To determine the thermal conductivity of copper bar at various sections
to study the variation of thermal conductivity with temperature.
INTRODUCTION
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Thermal conductivity is the physical property of the material denoting the
ease with which a particular substance can accomplish the transmission
of thermal energy by molecular motion. Thermal conductivity of a
material is found to depend on the chemical composition of the
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substance or substances of which it is a composed, the phase (i.e. gas,
liquid or solid) in which it exists, its crystalline structure if a solid, the
temperature and pressure to which it is subjected, and whether or not it
is a homogeneous material. For pure copper thermal conductivity is 380
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W/ m. K at 200C.
Thermal energy can be conducted in solids by free electrons and by

lattice vibrations. Large number of free electrons moves about in the
lattice structure of the material, in good conductors. These electrons
carry thermal energy from higher temperature region to lower
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temperature region, in a similar way they transport electric charge. In

fact, these electrons are frequently referred as electron gas. Energy may
also be transferred as vibrational energy in the lattice structure of the
material. In general, however, this mode of energy transfer is not as large
as electron transport and hence, good electrical conductors are always
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good heat conductors, e.g. copper, silver etc. However, with increase in
temperature, lattice vibrations come in the way of transport by free
electrons and for most the metals thermal conductivity decreases with
increase in temperature.
13 Thermal conductivity of metal rod

APPARATUS
The apparatus consists of a copper bar, one end of which is heated by an
electric heater and the other end is cooled by a water-circulated heat
sink. The middle portion, i.e. Test section of the bar is covered by a shell
containing insulation. The bar temperature is measured at 8 different
section, while 2 thermocouples measure the temperature at the shell.
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Two thermometers are provided to measure water inlet and outlet
temperatures. A dimmer is provided for the heater to control its input.
Constant water flow is circulated through the heat sink. A gate valve
provided controls the water flow.
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SPECIFICATIONS
1. Metal bar copper, 25mm O.D, approx. 430 mm long with
insulation shell along the test length and water cooled heat sink at
the outer end.
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2. Test length of the bar 240 mm
3. Measuring flask to measure water flow.
1. Start the electric supply.
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2. Start heating the bar by adjusting the heater input to say 80 V or

100 V
3. Start cooling water supply through the heat sink and adjust it to
around 350- 400 cc per minute.
4. Bar temperature will start rising. Go on checking the temperatures
at time intervals of 5 minutes.
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5. When all the temperatures remain steady, note down all the
observations and complete the observation table.

OBSERVATION TABLE
Water flow
Sl. TEST BAR TEMPERATURE OC Shell Water
rate
No. Temp.oC Temp.oC
Lit/Sec.
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12
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Using the temperatures of the bar at various points, plot the temperature
distribution along the length of the bar and determine the slopes of the
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graph (i.e. temperature drop per unit length) dT/dx at the sections AA,
BB and CC as shown in figure.
(Note: As the value of temperature goes on decreasing along the length of
the bar, the value of the slope dT/dx is negative)
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CALCULATIONS
Heat is flowing through the bar from heater end to water heat sink.
When steady state is reached, heat passing through the section CC of the
bar is heat taken by water.
1) Heat passing through Section CC
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Qcc = m. CP T Watts.
Where,
m = mass flow rate of cooling water, kg/s.
CP = Specific heat of water= 4180 J / kgo C
T = (Water outlet temperature) (Water inlet temperature)
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dT
Now, Qcc = -kcc .A
dx cc

A = Cross sectional area of the bar = D2
4
Kcc = W / moC
2) Heat passing through section BB
Qbb = Qcc + Radial heat loss between CC & BB.

2 k .L1 (T6 T10 )

= Qcc +
log e (r0 / ri )
Where k = Thermal conductivity of insulation = 0.35 W / m oC

L1 = Length of insulation cylinder = 0.060 m
ro = outer radius =0.105 m
ri = inner radius = 0.0125 m
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dT
Qbb = -kbb. .A
dx bb
Kbb = W/mo C
3) Heat passing through section AA
or
Qaa = Qbb + Radial heat loss between BB & AA.
2 k .L2 (T3 T9 )
= Qbb +
log e (r0 / ri )
Where,L2 = 0.090 m
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dT
Qaa = -kaa. .A
dx aa
Kaa = W/moC
RESULTS
1) Temperature of the bar decreases from hot end to cool end, which
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satisfies the
Fourier law heat conduction.
2) Thermal conductivity of bar at three different sections.
Thermal conductivity at section AA = kaa =
Thermal conductivity at section BB = kbb =
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Thermal conductivity at section CC = kcc =

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Fig.1 Apparatus of thermal conductivity of metal rod
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1. Shell 2. Heater 3. Voltmeter 4. Ammeter 5. Temperature indicator
6. Main switch 7. Heater control
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Fig.3 Thermocouple settings in metal rod

Distance between two thermocouple = 0.032 m
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Fig.3 Graph for temperature gradient in metal rod

HEAT TRANSFER IN PIN FIN

AIM
To study the temperature distribution, heat transfer coefficient and
efficiency of a pin fin in natural and forced convection heat transfer.
INTRODUCTION
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Extended surfaces or fins are used to increase the heat transfer rates
from a surface to the surrounding fluid wherever it is not possible to
increase the value of the surface heat transfer coefficient or the
temperature difference between the surface and the fluid. Fins are
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fabricated in variety of forms. Fins around the air cooled engines are a
common example. As the fins extend from primary heat transfer surface,
the temperature difference with the surrounding fluid diminishes towards
the tip of the fin.
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APPARATUS
The apparatus consists of a simple pin fin which is fitted in a rectangular
duct. The duct is attached to suction end of a blower. One end of fin is
heated by an electrical heater. Thermocouples are mounted along the
length of fin and a thermocouple notes the duct fluid temperature. When
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top cover over the fin is opened and heating started, performance of fin
with natural convection can be evaluated and with top cover closed and
blower started, fin can be tested in forced convection.
SPECIFICATIONS
1) Fins 12 mm O. D., Effective length 102 mm with 5 nos of
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thermocouple positions along the length, made of brass, mild steel and
aluminum - one each.
Fin is screwed in heater block which is heated by a band heater.
2) Duct- 150 x 100mm cross-section, 1000mm long connected to suction
side of blower
3) FHP centrifugal blower with orifice and flow control valve on discharge
side.
18 Heat transfer in pin fin

4) Orifice dia 22mm, coefficient of discharge Cd = 0.64

5) Water manometer connected to orifice meter
THEORY
Let A= Cross sectional area of the fin, m2
P= Perimeter (circumference) of the fin, m
L= Length of the fin = 0.102 m
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T1= Base temperature of fin
Tf= Duct fluid temperature (Channel No. 6 of temperature indicator)
= Temperature difference of fin and fluid temperature =T- Tf
h = Heat transfer coefficient, W / m2 oC
or
Kf = Thermal conductivity of fin material
= 110 W / m oC for brass
= 46 W / m oC for mild steel
= 232 W / m oC for aluminum
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Heat is conducted along the length of fin and also lost to surroundings.
Applying first law of thermodynamics to a control volume along the
length of fin at a station which is at length x from the base
d 2T h.P
2
0 (1)
dX k f .A
(C1 .e mx ) (C2 .e mx )
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(2)
h.P
Where m (3)
k f .A
With the boundary conditions of = 1 at x = 0, 1 = T1-Tf

d
Assuming tip is to be insulated, 0 at x = L,
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dx
Results in obtaining equation (2) in the form
T Tf Cosh [m( L X )]
(4)
1 T1 T f Cosh [m.L].
This is the equation for temperature distribution along the length of the
fin. Temperatures T1 and Tf will be known for the given situation and the
value of h depend upon mode of convection i.e. natural or forced.

Sl. INPUT Manometer Fin Temperature Duct fluid

No. difference oC temp. oC
V I H (m of water) T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 (Tf)
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A) NATURAL CONVECTION
Open the duct cover over the fin. Ensure proper earthing to the unit and
switch on the main supply. Adjust dimmerstat so that about 80 V are
supplied to the heater. The fin will start heating. When the
or
temperatures remain steady, note down the temperatures of the fin and
duct fluid temperature.
Duct fluid temperature
Sl.
INPUT Fin temperatures oC oC
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NO.
V I T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 (Tf)
B) FORCED CONVECTION
Close the duct cover over the fin. Start the blower. Adjust the
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dimmerstat so that about 100 110v are supplied to the heater. When
the temperatures become steady, note down all the temperatures and
manometer difference
CALCULATIONS
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Nomenclature:
Tm = Average fin temperature = (T1 + T2 + T3 + T4 +T5) /5
T Tm T f
Tmf = Mean film temperature = (Tm+ Tf) / 2

a = Density of air, kg / m3
w = Density of water, kg / m3 = 1000 kg / m3
D = Diameter of pin fin = 12 x 10-3 m

d = Diameter of orifice = 22 x 10-3 m

Cd = coefficient of discharge of orifice = 0.64
= Dynamic viscosity of air, N-s/m2
Cp = Specific heat of air, kJ/kg.K
=Kinematic viscosity, m2/s
kair = Thermal conductivity of air, W/m K
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= volume expansion coefficient = 1 / (Tmf+273.15)
H = Manometer difference, m of water
V = velocity of air in duct, m/s
Q = volume flow rate of air, m3/s
or
Vtmf = velocity of air at mean film temperature
All properties are to be evaluated at mean film temperature.
NATURAL CONVECTION
The fin under consideration is horizontal cylinder losing heat by natural
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convection. For horizontal cylinder, Nusselt number, from data book,
page number 122.
Nu= 1.02 (Gr.Pr)0.148 ----------for 10-2 < Gr.Pr < 102
Nu = 0.85 (Gr.Pr)0.188 --------- for 102 < Gr.Pr < 104.
Nu= 0.48 (Gr.Pr)0.25 ----------for 104 < Gr.Pr < 107
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Nu = 0.125 (Gr.Pr)0.333 --------- for 107 < Gr.Pr < 1012.

g. .D 3T
Where Gr = Grashof number.
2
Cp.
Pr = Prandtl number = (take from data book.)
k air
Determine Nusselt number.

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Now, Nu = (hD)/kair
Therefore, h = Nu. Kair /D
From h determine m from equation (3)
Using h and m, determine temperature distribution in the fin from
equation (4)
The rate of heat transfer from the fin and efficiency can be calculated as,

tanh [ mL ]

Q fin h.P.k f . A (T1 T f ) and mL
FORCED CONVECTION
For flow across Horizontal cylinder loosing heat by forced convection,
from data book, page number 100.
Nu = 0.911 (Re)0.385. Pr.0.333 ---------- for 4 < Re < 40
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Nu = 0.683 (Re)0.466 . Pr.0.333 ---------- for 40 < Re < 4000
Nu= 0.193 (Re)0.618 . Pr.0.333 ----------for 4000 < Re < 40,000
Vtmf . D
Where, Re

or
V . (Tmf 273)
Vtmf
(T f 273)
Velocity of air is determined from air volume flow.

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Q Cd d2 2.g.H ( w / a ) m 3 / s
4
V Q / Duct cross sec tional area Q /(0.15 X 0.1) m / s
From Nusselt Number, find out h and from h, find out m

Now temperature distribution, heat transfer rate and effectiveness of the
fin can be calculated using equations 4, 5 and 6 respectively.
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CONCLUSION
1. Comment on the observed temperature distribution and calculation
by theory, it is expected that observed temperatures should be
slightly less than their calculated values because of radiation and
non- insulated tip.
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2. Plot the graphs of temperature distribution in both natural and

forced convection.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Operate all the switches and controls gently
2. Do not obstruct the suction of the duct or discharge pipe
3. Open the duct cover over the fin for natural convection experiment

4. Fill up water in the manometer and close duct cover for forced
convection experiment
5. Proper earthing to the unit is necessary
6. While replacing the fins, be careful for fixing the thermocouples.
Incorrectly fixed thermocouples may show erratic readings
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
ld
23 23 23 23 10
or
Fig.1: Thermocouple position on fin
GRAPH
Fin Temperature, C
W
0
Natural Convection
Forced Convection
TU
Thermo couple distance, x
Fig 2: Variation of fin temperature along the length of fin with natural
convection and forced convection.
RESULTS
JN
Natural convection:
Heat transfer coefficient =
Efficiency of pin fin =
Forced convection:
Heat transfer coefficient =
Efficiency of pin fin =

ld
or
Fig. 3 Pin fin apparatus
W
1. Manometer
2. Ammeter
3. Voltmeter
5. Selector switch
6. Blower switch
7. Heater control
TU
8. Main switch
9. Suction duct
10. Orifice meter
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HEAT TRANSFER IN NATURAL CONVECTION

AIM
To determine the experimental and theoretical heat transfer coefficient for
vertical tube losing heat by natural convection.
INTRODUCTION
ld
In contrast to the forced convection, natural convection phenomenon is
due to the temperature difference between the surface and the fluid and
is not created by any external agency. The present experimental set up is
designed and fabricated to study the natural convection phenomenon
or
from a vertical cylinder in terms of the variation of local heat transfer
coefficient along the length and also the average heat transfer coefficient
and its comparison with the value obtained by using and appropriate
correlation.
W
APPARATUS
The apparatus consists of a brass tube fitted in a rectangular vertical
duct. The duct is open at the top and bottom and forms an enclosure
and serves the purpose of undisturbed surrounding. One side of the
TU
duct is made up of perspex for visualization. An electric heating element

is kept in the vertical tube which in turn heats the tube surface. The
heat is lost from the tube to the surrounding air by natural convection.
The temperature of the vertical tube is measured by seven
thermocouples. The heat input to the heater is measured by an ammeter
and a voltmeter and is varied by a dimmerstat. The vertical cylinder with
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the thermocouple positions is shown in figure. The tube surface is

polished to minimize the radiation losses.
SPECIFICATIONS
1. Diameter of the tube (d)= 38mm
2. Length of tube (L) = 500mm
3. Duct size 200mm x 200mm x 800mm Length
25 Heat transfer in natural convection

THEORY
When a hot body is kept in still atmosphere, heat is transferred to the
surrounding fluid by natural convection. The fluid layer in contact with
the hot body gets heated, rises up due to the decrease in its density and
the cold fluid rushes in to take place. The process is continuous and the
ld
heat transfer takes place due to the relative motion of hot and cold fluid
particles.
The heat transfer coefficient is given by:
Q QR
h (1)
or
A s ( Ts Ta )
Where h = average surface heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 oC)

Q = Heat transfer rate V. I (watts)
As = Area of the heat transferring surface = .d L (m2)
W
(T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 )
Ts = Average surface temperature 0 C
7
Ta = Ambient temperature in the duct = T8 0C
QR = Heat loss by radiation = . A. (Ts4 Ta4 )
Where
. = Stefan Boltzmann constant = 5.667x 10-8 W/m2 K4
TU
= Emissivity of pipe material = 0.06

Ts & Ta = Surface and ambient temperatures in o K respectively.
The surface heat transfer coefficient, of a system transferring heat by
natural convection depends on the shape, dimensions and orientation of
the fluid and the temperature difference between heat transferring
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surface and the fluid. The dependence of h on all the above mentioned
parameters is generally expressed in terms of non-dimensional groups as
follows:
n
hxL g.L3 .T C
A x K (2)
k 2


hxL
Where is called the Nusselt number.
k
g .L3 .T
= is called the Grashof Number and
v2
C .
= is the Prandtl Number.
k
A and n are constants depending on the shape and orientation of the
ld
heat transferring surface.
Where L = A characteristic dimension of the surface.
K= Thermal conductivity of fluid
or
=Kinematic viscosity of fluid
= Dynamic viscosity of fluid
Cp = Specific heat of fluid
= Coefficient of volumetric expansion for the fluid
g = Acceleration due to gravity.
W
T = [Ts Ta]
1
For gases K-1, Tf = (Ts + Ta)/2
(T f 273)
For a vertical cylinder losing heat by natural convection, the constants A
and n of equation (2) have been determined and the following empirical
TU
correlations obtained from data book, page number 120.
hL
= 0.59 (Gr.Pr.)0.25 for 104 < Gr.Pr. < 109 (3)
k
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hL
= 0.10 (Gr.Pr.)1/3 for 109 < Gr.Pr. < 1013 (4)
k
L = Length of the cylinder.
All the properties of the fluid are determined at the mean film
temperature (Tf)

PROCEDURE
1. Put ON the supply and adjust the dimmerstat to obtain the
required heat input (say 40 W, 60 W, 70 W etc).
2. Wait till the steady state is reached, which is confirmed from
temperature readings ( T1- T7)
3. Measure surface temperature at the various points i.e. T1 to T7
ld
4. Note the ambient temperature i.e. T8
OBSERVATIONS
1) O.D. Cylinder = 38 mm
or
2) Length of cylinder = 500 mm
3) Input to heater = V. I Watts
Temperature, 0C
Sl.No. Volt Amp
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8
W
CALCULATIONS
1) Calculate the value of average surface heat transfer coefficient
neglecting end losses using equation (1)
2) Calculate and plot (Fig.4) the variation of local heat transfer
TU
coefficient along the length of the tube using:

T = T1 to T7 and h = Q/[As(T-Ta)]
3) Compare the experimentally obtained value with the predictions of
the correlation equation (3) or (4).
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PRECAUTIONS
1. Proper earthing is necessary for the equipment.
2. Keep dimmerstat to ZERO volt position before putting on main
switch and increase it slowly.
3. Keep at least 200 mm space behind the equipment.
4. Operate the change-over switch of temperature indicator gently
from one position to other, i.e. from 1 to 8 positions.

5. Never exceed input above 80 Watts.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The heat transfer coefficient is having a maximum value at the beginning
as expected because of the just staring of the boundary layer and it
decreases as expected in the upward direction due to thickening of layer
ld
and which is laminar one. This trend is maintained up to half of the
lengths (approx) and beyond that there is little variation in the value of
local heat transfer coefficient because of the transition and turbulent
boundary layers. The last point shows some what increase in the value
or
of heat transfer coefficient which is attributed to end loss causing a
temperature drop. The comparison of average heat transfer coefficient is
also made with predicted values are some what less than experimental
values due to the heat loss by radiation.
W
RESULTS
Experimental heat transfer coefficient =
Theoretical heat transfer coefficient =
TU
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Fig. 1 Natural convection apparatus

ld
or
W
Fig. 2 Thermocouple locations
TU
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Fig.3 Variation of local heat transfer coefficient

HEAT TRANSFER IN FORCED CONVECTION

AIM
To determine the experimental and theoretical heat transfer coefficient in
forced convection heat transfer for internal flow.
APPARATUS
ld
The apparatus consists of a circular pipe, through which cold fluid, i.e.
air is being forced. Pipe is heated by a band heater outside the pipe.
Temperature of pipe is measured with thermocouples attached to pipe
surface. Heater input is measured by a voltmeter and ammeter. Thus,
or
heat transfer rate and heat transfer coefficient can be calculated.
SPECIFICATIONS
Test pipe 33mm I.D. 500 mm long
Band heater for pipe.
W
Blower to force the air through test pipe
Orifice meter with water manometer.
1. Put ON main supply.
TU
2. Adjust the heater input with the help of dimmerstat.

3. Start the blower and adjust the air flow with valve
4. Wait till steady state is reached and note down the reading in
the observation table
Sl. Vol Amp. Temperatures O C Manomete
No t r
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Difference
hw
V I T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7
31 Heat transfer in forced convection

CALCULATIONS
1. Air inlet temp T1 = 0 C
2. Air outlet temp. T7 = 0 C
1.293 x 273
3. Density of air, a kg/m3
273 T1
4. Diameter of orifice = 22 mm
ld
Manometer difference = Water head = hw meters
Air head, ha = hw (w / a)
Where w = density of water = 1000 Kg/m3
Air volume flow rate, i.e., discharge
or
Q Cd a0 2 gha m3 /sec.
Where Cd = 0.64
ao = cross section area of orifice
5. Mass flow rate of air, ma = Q x a kg/sec.
W
Q
Velocity of air, V m/sec.
a
Where, a = Cross Sectional area of pipe = m2
6. Heat gained by air, Qair = ma x Cpa x (T7-T1)

Where Cpa = Specific heat of air = 1KJ/Kg.K. or 103 J/Kg K
TU
(T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 )
7. Average inside surface temperature, Ts 0C
5
(T 1 T 7)
8. Bulk mean temperature of air, Tm 0C
2
9. Average heat transfer coefficient
Actual Heat Loss Due to Forced Convection= Qair QR
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Heat Loss due to radiation, QR = 0.4 x A x (Ts4- Ta4)

Ta = atmospheric temperature = T1
Qair Q R
hexpt W/m2 K
A(Ts Tm )
Where A = Inside surface are of the pipe = x di x L

VxD
10. Reynolds number, ReD


= Kinematic Viscosity at Tm
D = 0.033 m
If ReD < 2300, flow is laminar.
h.D
For laminar flow, NuD = = 4.36, from data book, page number 109.
k air
If Reynolds number exceeds 2300, flow is turbulent.
ld
For turbulent flow, NuD = 0.023 (ReD)0.8 (Pr.)n from data book, page
number 110.
Where n = 0.4 when fluid is being heated.
n = 0.3 When fluid is being cooled.
or
Determine htheo from NuD.
Note: The calculated values and actual values may differ appreciably
because of heat losses. The heat loss through natural convection,
conduction and heat loss through insulation over the heater is not
W
considered, but they are present. Also, the heat flux is not uniform
practically, as assumed in theory, which gives difference between actual
and theoretical value.
PRECAUTIONS
1. While putting ON the supply, keep dimmerstat at zero position and
TU
blower switch OFF

3. Do not obstruct the flow of air while experiment is going on.
RESULT
JN
Experimental heat transfer coefficient, hexpt =

Theoretical heat transfer coefficient = htheo =

ld
or
W
Fig.1 Forced convection apparatus
1. Manometer
2. Voltmeter
3. Ammeter
TU
5. Selector switch
6. Blower switch
7. Heater control
8. Main switch
9. Blower
10. Orifice meter
11. Test section
12. Thermocouple setting
JN

STEFAN BOLTZMANN APPARATUS

AIM
To determine the Stefan- Boltzmanns constant in the radiation heat
transfer.
INTRODUCTION
ld
All the substances emit thermal radiation. When heat radiation is
incident over a body, part of radiation is absorbed, transmitted through
and reflected by the body. A surface which absorbs all thermal radiation
incidents over it is called black surface. For black surface, transmissivity
or
and reflectivity are zero and absorptivity is unity. Stefan Boltzmann Law
states that emissivity of a surface is proportional to fourth power of
absolute surface temperature i.e.
E T4
W
or E = T4
Where E = emissive power of surface, W / m2
T = absolute temperature
= Stefan Boltzmann constant
= emissivity of the surface
TU
Value of Stefan Boltzmann constant is taken as

= 5.667 x 10-8 W / m2 K4
For black surface = 1, hence above equation reduces to
E = . T4
APPARATUS
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The Apparatus consists of a water-heated jacket of hemispherical shape.

A copper test disc is fitted at the center of jacket. The hot water is
obtained from a hot water tank, fitted to the panel, in which water is
heated by an electric immersion heater. The hot water is taken around
the hemisphere, so that hemisphere temperature rises. The test disc is
then inserted at the center. Thermocouples are fitted inside hemisphere
to average out hemisphere temperature. Another thermocouple fitted at
34 Stefan Boltzmann apparatus

the center of test disc measures the temperature of test disc. A timer
with a small buzzer is provided to note down the disc temperatures at the
time intervals of 5 seconds.
1. See that water inlet cock of water jacket is closed and fill up
ld
sufficient water in the heater tank.
2. Put ON the heater.
3. Blacken the test disc with the help of lamp black and let it cool.
4. Put the thermometer and check water temperature.
or
5. Boil the water and switch OFF the heater
6. See that drain cock of water jacket is closed and open water inlet
cock.
7. See that there is sufficient water above the top of hemisphere ( A
W
piezometer tube is fitted to indicate water level)
8. Note down the hemisphere temperatures (up to channel 1 to 4)
9. Note down the test disc temperature (i.e.. channel 5)
10. Start the timer. Buzzer will start ringing. At the start of
timer cycle, insert test disc into the hole at the bottom of
hemisphere.
TU
11. Note down the temperatures of disc, every five times of the
buzzer rings. Take at least 8-10 readings
OBSERVATIONS
Hemisphere Temperature (oC)
JN
T1 =
T2 =
T3 =
T4 =

Time Interval Test disc Temperature

(Sec) (oC)
0
25
50
75
ld
100
125
150
175
or
CALCULATIONS
1) Area of test disc, A = (/4)d2 = m2 (d = 20 mm)
2) mass of test disc, m = 7.6 gr = 7.6 x 10-3 kg.
W
3) Plot a graph of temperature rise of test disc with time as base and
dT
find out its slope at origin. i.e. dt K / sec
att 0
T1 T2 T3 T4
Hemisphere temperature, TH = 273.15 K
4
4) Initial Test disc temperature
TU
TD = T5 + 273.15 k
As area of hemisphere is very large as compared to that disc, we can put
Q = .A (TH4 TD4)
Where Q = heat gained by disc/sec.
Q = m. cP. (dT/dt)t=0
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= Stefan Boltzmann Constant

m = Mass of test disk = 7.6 x 10-3 kg.
= Emissivity of test disc = 1
A = Area of Test disc
cP= Specific heat of copper = 381 J/Kg 0 C

m.c P .( dT / dt ) t 0
= W/ m2 K4
A.(TH TD )
4 4
Theoretical value of is 5.667x 10-8 W/m2 K4.

In the experiment this value may deviate due to reasons like convection,
temperature drop of hemisphere, heat losses etc.
ld
PRECAUTIONS
1) Never put ON the heater before putting water in the tank.
2) Put OFF the heater before draining the water from heater tank.
3) Drain the water after completion of experiment.
or
4) Operate all the switches and controls gently
RESULT
Stefan Boltzmanns constant, = ________W / m2 K4
W
TU
JN
Fig.1 Stefan Boltzmann apparatus
1. Water tank
2. Main switch
4. Temperature selector switch
5. Buzzer switch
6. Heater switch
7. Shell

ld
or
Fig.2 Thermocouple setting
W
TU
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Fig.3 Variation of temperature of disc with time

EMISSIVITY MEASUREMENT
AIM
To determine the emissivity of the test plate.
INTRODUCTION
All the bodies emit and absorb the thermal radiation to and from
ld
surroundings. The rate of thermal radiation depends upon the
temperature of body. Thermal radiations are electromagnetic waves and
they do not require any medium for propagation. When thermal radiation
strikes a body, part of it is reflected, part of it is absorbed and part of it is
or
transmitted through body. The fraction of incident energy, reflected by
the surface is called reflectivity (). The fraction of incident energy,
absorbed by the surface is called absorptivity () and the fraction of
incident energy transmitted through body is called transmissivity (). The
W
surface which absorbs all the incident radiation is called a black surface.
For a black surface, ++ = 1.
The radiant flux, emitted from the surface is called emissive power (E).
The emissivity of a surface is ratio of emissive power of a surface to that
of black surface at the same temperature. Thus,
TU
= E / Eb
APPARATUS
The apparatus uses comparator method for determining the emissivity of
test plate. It consists of two aluminum plates, of equal physical
dimensions. Mica heaters are provided inside the plates. The plates are
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mounted in an enclosure to provide undisturbed surroundings. One of

the plates is blackened outside for use as a comparator (because black
surface has = 1). Another plate is having natural surface finish. Input
to heaters can be controlled by separator dimmer stats. Heater input is
measured on common ammeter and voltmeter. One thermocouple is
fitted on surface of each plate to measure the surface temperature with
digital temperature indicator. By adjusting input to the heaters, both the
39 Emissivity measurement
plates are brought to same temperature, so that conduction and

convection losses form both the plates are equal and difference in input
is due to different emissivities. Holes are provided at backside bottom
and at the top of enclosure for natural circulation of air over the plates.
The plate enclosure is provided with Perspex acrylic sheet at the front.
ld
1. Blacken one of the plates with the help of lamp black (Normally
this is blackened at the works, but if blackening is wiped out, then
blackening is necessary)
or
2. Keep both the dimmer knobs at ZERO position.
3. Insert the supply pin-top in the socket (which is properly earthed)
and switch ON the mains supply.
4. Switch ON the mains switch on the panel.
W
5. Keep the meter selector switch (toggle switch) at the black plate
side position.
6. Adjust dimmer of black plate, so that around 110-120 volts are
supplied to black plate.
7. Now, switch the meter selector switch on other side.
8. Adjust test plate voltage slightly less than that of black plate (say
TU
100- 110 volts)

9. Check the temperatures (after, say 10 min) and adjust the dimmers
so that temperatures of both the plates are equal and steady.
Normally, very minor adjustments are required for this.
10. Note down the readings after the plate temperatures reach
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steady state.
OBSERVATIONS
Input Surface temperature,
Plate
V I 0C
Test plate T1 =
Black plate T2 =
Enclose temperature, T3 = 0C
CALCULATIONS
1. Enclose temperature:
TE =T3 = 0C = (T3 + 273.15) 0K
ld
2. Plate surface temp.
T = T1 =T2 = 0 C
TS = (T+273.15) 0K
3. Heat input to black plate, Wb = V x I Watts
or
4. Heat input to test plate, WT = V x I Watts
5. Surface area of test plates, A = 2 x (/4) D2 + ( D t) =
Where, D = dia. Of plates = 0.16 m.
And t = thickness of plates = 0.009 m.
W
6. For black plate,
Wb = WCVb + WCdb + WRb (i)
Where, WCvb = Convection losses
WCdb = Conduction losses
WRb = Radiation losses
Similarly, for test plate,
TU
WT = WCvT + WCdT + WRT (ii)

As both plates are of same physical dimensions, same material and
at same temperatures,
WCvb = WCvT and WCdb = WCdT
Subtracting equation (ii) from (i) we get,
JN
Wb - WT = WRb - WRT
= [ A (Ts4 TE4)] - [ A T (Ts4 TE4)]
= A (Ts4 TE4) (b )
As emissivity of black plate is 1,
Wb - WT = A (Ts4 TE4) (1 )
Where, = Emissivity of test plate
= Stefan Boltzman constant = 5.667 x 10-8 W/m2K4
PRECAUTIONS
1. Black plate should be perfectly blackened.
2. Never put your hand or papers over the holes provided at the top of
enclosure.
3. Keep at least 200 mm distance between the backside of unit and
ld
the wall.
4. Operate all the switches and knobs gently.
Note: Emissivity of oxidized aluminum plate i.e. test plate is normally
with in the range of 0.3 to 0.7.
or
RESULT
Emisvity of the test plate surface = ________at temperature of _____
W
TU
Fig.1 Emissivity measurement apparatus

JN
1. Voltmeter
2. Ammeter
4. Meter selector switch
5. Heater control
6. Heater control
7. Black plate
8 Test plate
CONCENTRIC TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER

AIM
To determine the heat transfer rate, LMTD, over all heat transfer
coefficient and effectiveness of heat exchangers in parallel flow and
counter flow concentric tube heat exchanger.
ld
INTRODUCTION
Heat exchangers are the devices in which the heat is transferred from one
fluid to another. Exchange of heat is required at many industrial
operations as well as chemical process Common examples of heat
or
exchangers are radiator of a car, condenser of a refrigeration unit or
cooling coil of an air conditioner.
Heat exchanger are of basically three types i) Transfer type- in which

W
both fluids pass through the exchanger and heat gets transferred
through the separating walls between the fluids, ii) Storage type in this,
firstly the hot fluid passes through a medium having high heat capacity
and then cold fluid is passed through the medium to collect the heat.
Thus hot and cold fluids are alternately passed through the medium. iii)
TU
Direct contact type in this type, the fluids are not separated but they
mix with each other and heat passes directly from one fluid to the other.
Transfer type heat exchangers are the type most widely used. In transfer
type heat exchangers, three types of flow arrangements are used, viz.
parallel, counter or cross flow. In parallel flow, the fluids flow in the same
direction while in counter flow, they flow in the opposite direction. In
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cross flow, they flow at right angles to each other.
APPARATUS
The apparatus consists of two concentric tubes in which fluids pass. The
hot fluid is hot water, which is obtained from an electric geyser. Hot
water flows through the inner tube in one direction. Cold fluid is cold
water, which flows through annulus. Control valves are provided so that
43 Concentric tube heat exchanger

direction of cold water can be kept parallel or opposite to that of hot

water. Thus, the heat exchanger can be operated either as parallel or
counter flow heat exchanger. The temperatures are measured with
thermometers. Thus, the heat transfer rate, heat transfer coefficient,
LMTD and effectiveness of heat exchanger can be calculated for both
parallel and counter flow.
ld
SPECIFICATIONS
1. Heat exchanger- a) Inner tube - 12.7 mm O.D., 11.7 mm I.D.
copper tube
or
b) Outer tube 25 mm G.I. Pipe.
c) Length of heat exchanger 1 m.
2. Valves for flow and direction control 5nos
3. Thermometers to measure temperatures 10 to 1100 C 4nos
W
4. Measuring flask and stop clock for flow measurement.
1. Start the water supply. Adjust the water supply on hot and cold
sides. Firstly, keep the valves V2 and V3 closed and V1 and V4
opened so that arrangement is parallel flow.
TU
2. Put few drops of oil in thermometer pockets. Put the thermometer

in the thermometer pockets.
3. Switch ON the geyser. Temperature of water will start rising.
After temperatures become steady, note down the readings and fill
up the observation table.
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4. Repeat the experiment by changing the flow.

5. Now open the valvesV2 and V3 and then close the valves V1 and V4.
The arrangement is in now counter flow.
6. Wait until the steady state is reached and note down the readings.

OBSERVATION
HOT WATER COLD WATER
Time for 1 Time for 1
TYPE OF Temperatures Temperatures
Lit. Water Lit. Water
FLOW
Inlet Outlet Inlet Outlet
xh sec xc sec
ld
0C 0C 0C 0C
Parallel
Flow
Counter
or
Flow
CALCULATIONS
1. Hot water inlet temperature, thi = 0C
W
Hot water outlet temperature, tho = 0C
2. Hot water flow rate, mh

Let time required for 1lit of water be xh sec
Mass of 1lit water = 1kg
There fore, mh = 1/ xh kg/s
3. Heat given by hot water (inside heat transfer rate)
TU
Qh = mh cp (thi tho) Watts

where cp =specific heat of water = 4200 J/kgK
4. Similarly, for cold water
Heat collected by cold water (out side heat transfer rate)
Qc = mc cp (tco tci) Watts
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5. Logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD)

LMTD = Tm = (Ti To) / ln (Ti / To)
Where for parallel flow, for counter flow
Ti = thi - tci Ti = thi - tco
To = tho - tco To = tho - tci
6. Overall heat transfer coefficient, U

a) Inside overall heat transfer coefficient, Ui

Inside diameter of tube = 0.011 m
Inside surface area of the tube, Ai = x 0.011 x L
Now Qh = Ui Tm Ai
Therefore Ui = Qh / (Tm Ai) W/m2 0C
b) Outside overall heat transfer coefficient, Uo
ld
Outside diameter of tube = 0.012 m
Outside surface area of the tube, Ao = x 0.012 x L
Similarly Qc = Uo Tm Ao
Therefore Uo = Qc / (Tm Ao) W/m2 0C
or
7. Effectiveness of heat exchanger
= Rate of heat transfer in heat exchanger / Max. possible heat
transfer rate
mh c p (t hi t ho )

W
[mc p ]min (t hi t ci )
Where [mcp]min is smaller of two capacity rates of mh or mc
PRECAUTIONS
1. Never switch on the geyser unless there is water supply through it.
TU
2. If the red indicator on geyser goes off during operation, increase the
water supply, because it indicates that water temperature exceeds
the set limit.
3. Ensure steady water flow rate and temperatures before noting
down the readings, as fluctuating water supply can give erratic
results.
JN

RESULTS
HEAT TRANSFER Heat Transfer Effective

LMTD
TYPE RATE Coefficient - ness
OF
Inside Outside Ui UO
FLOW
ld
(Watts) (Watts) 0C W/m2k W/m2k
Parallel
Flow
or
Counter
Flow W
TU
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ld
or
Fig.1 Concentric tube heat exchanger (plain tube type)
1. Tci
W
2. Tho
3. V4
4. V3
5. Thi
6. V1
TU
7. Tco
8. V2
Parallel flow Cross flow

V1 & V4 open V2 & V3 open
V2 & V3 close V1 & V4 close
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HEAT TRANSFER IN DROP AND FILM WISE CONDENSATION
AIM
To determine the experimental and theoretical heat transfer coefficient for
drop wise and film wise condensation.
ld
INTRODUCTION
Condensation of vapor is needed in many of the processes, like steam

condensers, refrigeration etc. When vapor comes in contact with surface
or
having temperature lower than saturation temperature, condensation
occurs. When the condensate formed wets the surface, a film is formed
over surface and the condensation is film wise condensation. When
condensate does not wet the surface, drops are formed over the surface
and condensation is drop wise condensation
W
APPARATUS
The apparatus consists of two condensers, which are fitted inside a glass
cylinder, which is clamped between two flanges. Steam from steam
generator enters the cylinder through a separator. Water is circulated
TU
through the condensers. One of the condensers is with natural surface

finish to promote film wise condensation and the other is chrome plated
to create drop wise condensation. Water flow is measured by a Rota
meter. A digital temperature indicator measures various temperatures.
Steam pressure is measured by a pressure gauge. Thus heat transfer
coefficients in drop wise and film wise condensation cab be calculated.
JN
SPECIFICATION
1. Condensers: Made of copper, 19 mm O.D., 150 mm long, one with
natural surface and one with chrome-plated surface.
2. Pressure gauge to measure steam pressure
3. Necessary valves for water and steam control.
49 Heat transfer in drop & film wise condensation

Fill up the water in the steam generator and close the water-filling
valve.
Start water supply through the condensers.
Close the steam control valve, switch on the supply and start the
heater.
ld
After some time, steam will be generated. Close water flow through
one of the condensers.
Open steam control valve and allow steam to enter the cylinder and
pressure gauge will show some reading.
or
Open drain valve and ensure that air in the cylinder is expelled
out.
Close the drain valve and observe the condensers.
Depending upon the condenser in operation, drop wise or film wise
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condensation will be observed.
Wait for some time for steady state, and note down all the readings.
Repeat the procedure for the other condenser.
OBSERVATIONS
TU
Drop wise Condensation
Steam Pressure, kg/cm2

Water flow rate, LPH
Steam temperature, T1, 0C
Drop wise condensation surface temperature, T2, 0C
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Water inlet temperature , T4, 0C

Water outlet temperature , T5, 0C
Film wise Condensation

Steam Pressure, kg/cm2

Water flow rate, LPH
Steam temperature, T1, 0C
Film wise condensation surface temperature, T3, 0C
Water inlet temperature , T4, 0C
Water outlet temperature , T6, 0C
ld
CALCULATIONS
(Film wise condensation)
Water flow mw= LPH = kg/sec
or
Water inlet temperature T4= oC
Water outlet temperature = oC
(T5 for drop-wise condensation and T6 for film-wise condensation)

Heat transfer rate at the condenser wall,
W
Q = mw.cP. (T6-T4) Watts
Where cp = Specific heat of water = 4.2 x 103 J / Kg K
Surface area of the condenser, A =dL m3
Q o
Experimental heat transfer coefficient, h W / m 2 C (for both film
A(Ts Tw )
TU
wise and drop wise condensation)

Where Ts = Temperature of steam (T1)
TW = Condenser wall temperature (T2 or T3)
Theoretically, for film wise condensation
0.25
h fg . 2 .g.k 3
h 0.943
(Ts Tw )..L
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Where
hfg = Latent heat of steam at TS J/kg (take from temperature tables
in steam tables)
= Density of water, Kg / m3
g = Gravitational acceleration, m / sec2
k = Thermal conductivity of water W / mo C

= Viscosity of water, N.s/m2

and, L = Length of condenser = 0.15 m
(Ts TW )
Above values at mean temperature, Tm o
C (from data book)
2
(For drop wise condensation, determine experimental heat transfer
coefficient only)
ld
In film wise condensation, film of water acts as barrier to heat transfer
where as, in case of drop formation, there is no barrier to heat transfer,
Hence heat transfer coefficient in drop wise condensation is much greater
than film wise condensation, and is preferred for condensation. But
or
practically, it is difficult to prolong the drop wise condensation and after
a period of condensation the surface becomes wetted by the liquid.
Hence slowly film wise condensation starts.
PRECAUTIONS
W
1. Operate all the switches and controls gently
2. Never allow steam to enter the cylinder unless the water is flowing
through condenser.
3. Always ensure that the equipment is earthed properly before
switching on the supply.
TU
RESULTS
Film wise condensation

Experimental average heat transfer coefficient =
Theoretical average heat transfer coefficient =
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Drop wise condensation

Experimental average heat transfer coefficient =

ld
or
Fig. 1 Condensation in drop and film forms
W
1. Steam generator
2. Water level
3. Rota meter
4. Steam pressure
TU
5. Condensers
7. Selector switch
8. Heater control
9. Main switch
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CRITICAL HEAT FLUX APPARATUS

AIM
To determine the experimental and theoretical value of critical heat flux
in pool boiling of water.
INTRODUCTION
ld
When heat is added to a liquid from a submerged solid surface which is
at a temperature higher than the saturation temperature of the liquid, it
is usual for a part of the liquid to change phase. This change of phase is
called boiling. Boiling is of various types, the type depending upon the
or
temperature difference between the surface and the liquid. The different
types are indicated in figure, in which a typical experimental boiling
curve obtained in a saturated pool of liquid is drawn. The heat flux
supplied to the surface is plotted against (Tw Ts) the difference between
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the temperature of the surface and the saturation temperature of the
liquid. It is seen that the boiling curve can be divided into three regions.
Nucleate Film
boiling boiling
7 I II III
10
6 A III a III b
10 II a II b
Radiation C
TU
Bubbles Unstable coming in to

rise film play
Heat Bubbles Stable film
flux, condense
2
W/m
B
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1 10 10 10 1000
0 00 0
Excess temperature (Tw - Ts)
I) Natural convection region

II) Nucleate boiling region and
III) Film boiling region
54 Critical heat flux apparatus

The region of natural convection occurs at low temperature differences (of

the order of 100C or less). Heat transfer from the heated surface to the
liquid in its vicinity causes the liquid to be superheated. This
superheated liquid rises to the free liquid surface by natural convection,
where vapour is produced by evaporation. As the temperature difference
(Tw Ts) is increased, nucleate boiling starts. In this region, it is observed
ld
that bubbles start to form at certain locations on the heated surface
region (II) consists of two parts. In the first part (II-a) the bubbles formed
are very few in number. They condense in the liquid and do not reach the
free surface. In the second part (II-b) the rate of bubble formation as well
or
as the number of locations where they are formed increase. Some of the
bubbles now rise all the way to the free surface.
With increasing temperature difference, a stage is finally reached when
the rate of formation of bubbles is so high, that they start to coalesce and
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blanket the surface with a vapour film. This is the beginning of region (III)
viz, film boiling. In the first part of this region (III-a) the vapour film is
unstable, so that film boiling may be occurring on a portion of the heated
surface area, while nucleate boiling may be occurring on the remaining
area. In the second part (III-b) a stable film covers the entire surface. At
the end of region (II) the boiling curve reaches a peak (point A). Beyond
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this, in region (III-A) in spite of increasing temperature difference, the

heat flow increases with the formation of a vapour film. The heat flux
passes through a minimum (point B) at the end of region (III-a). It starts
to increase again with (Tw Ts) only when stable film boiling begins and
radiation becomes increasingly important.
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It is of interest to note how the temperature of the heating surface

changes as the heat flux is steadily increased from zero. Up to the point
A, natural convection boiling and then nucleate boiling occur and the
temperature of the heating surface is obtained by reading off the value of
(Tw Ts) from the boiling curve and adding to it the value of Ts. If the heat
flux is increased even a little beyond the value of A, the temperature of

the surface will shoot up to the value corresponding to the point C. It is

obvious from figure that the surface temperature corresponding to point
C is high. For most surfaces it is high enough to cause the material to
melt. Thus in most practical situation, it is undesirable to exceed the
value of heat flux corresponding to point A. This value is therefore of
considerable engineering significance and is called the critical or peak
ld
heat flux. The discussions so far has been concerned with the various
type of boiling which occurring saturated pool boiling. If the liquid is
below the saturation temperature we say that sub-cooled pool boiling is
taking place. Also in many practical situations, e.g. steam generators,
or
one is interested in boiling in a liquid flowing through tubes. This is
called forced convection boiling may also be saturated or sub cooled and
of the nucleate or film type. Thus in order to completely specify billing
occurring in any process, one must state that (i) whether it is forced
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convection boiling or pool boiling, (ii) whether the liquid is saturated or
sub cooled and (iii) whether is in the natural convection nucleate of film
region.
APPARATUS
The apparatus consists of a cylindrical glass housing the test heater and
TU
heater coil for heating of the water. This heater coil is direct connected to
the mains (Heater R1) and the test wire is also connected to mains via.
variac. An ammeter is connected in series while a voltmeter across it to
read the current and voltage respectively. The glass container is kept on a
stand. There is provision of observing the test heater wire with the help
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of a lamp light from back and the heater wire can be view a lens.
SPECEIFICATIONS
1) Glass container Diameter 250 mm
Height 100 cm
2) Heater for initial heating, Nichrome Heater (R1) 1 kW
3) Test Heater (R-2), Nichrome wire size - mm

(To be calculated according to wire used say 36 SWG to 40 SWG.)

3) Length of test Heater (R-2) = 100 mm
4) Thermometer 0 to 100o C
EXPERIMENTS
This experimental set up is designed to study the pool boiling
phenomenon up to critical heat flux point. The pool boiling over the
ld
heater wire can be visualized in the different regions up to the critical
heat flux point at which the wire melts. The heat flux from the wire is
slowly increased by gradually increasing the applied voltage across the
or
test wire the change over from natural convection to nucleate boiling can
be seen. The formation of bubbles and their growth in size and number
can be visualized followed by the vigorous bubbles formation and their
immediate carrying over to surface and ending this in the breaking of
wire indicating the occurrence of critical heat flux point.
W
PROCEDURE
1) Take sufficient amount of distilled water in the container.
2) See that both the heaters are completely submerged.
3) Connect the heater coil R-1 (1KW Nichrome coil) and test heater
TU
wire across the studs and make the necessary electrical

connections.
4) Switch on the heater R-1(Let variac be at O position.)
5) Keep it ON till you get the required bulk temperature of water in
the container say 50O C, 60O C, 70O C temperature.
6) Switch off the heater R-1.
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7) Very gradually increase the voltage across test heater by slowly

changing the variac position and stop a while at each position to
observe the boiling phenomenon on wire.
8) Go on increasing the voltage till wire brakes and carefully note the
voltage and current at this point.

PRECAUTIONS
1) Keep the variac to zero voltage position before starting the
experiments.
2) Take sufficient amount of distilled water in the container so that
both the heaters are completely immersed.
3) Connect the test heater wire across the stud.
ld
4) Do not touch the water or terminal points when the main switch
ON.
5) Operate the variac gently in steps and sufficient time in between.
or
6) After the attainment of critical heat flux decrease slowly the voltage
and bring it to zero position.
OBSERVATIONS
1) Diameter of test heater wire, d = m.
W
2) Length of the test heater, L = 0.1 m
3) Surface area A = .d.L m2 =
Bulk Ammeter Reading Voltmeter Reading

Temperature of (I Amps) (V volts)
water OC
TU
Note: - The ammeter and voltmeter readings are to be note down when
wire melts.
CALCULATIONS
JN
The critical heat flux at various bulk temperatures water can be

calculated by the following procedure.
1. Heat input Q = V. l Watts
Q V.I
2. Critical Heat flux qexp t W / m2
A A
3. Zubfer has given following equation for calculating peak heat flux in
saturated pool boiling.

1/ 4
Q . g ( L v
qtheor 0.18 h fg v LV
A v
2

Where Q/A = Heat Flux, W/m2
hfg = Latent Heat of vaporization J/kg ----------- (from steam table)
LV = Liquid vapour surface tension N/m ----------- (from Chart)
ld
L = Density of Liquid
= Density of vapour = 1/vg kg/m3 (from steam table)
hfg, LV , L and are evaluated at the water temperature.
The experimental value of critical heat flux at the sat temperature is
or
comparable to that obtained by Zubers correlation.
RESULT
1. Experimental critical heat flux =
W
2. Theoretical critical heat flux =
TU
JN
Fig.1 Critical heat flux apparatus

1. Voltmeter
2. Ammeter
3. Heater switch
4. Lamp switch
5. Main switch
6. Heater control
7. Class container
8. Heater fitting

HEAT PIPE DEMONSTRATOR
AIM
To study the variation of heat sink temperature and longitudinal
temperature distribution for heat pipe, stainless steel and copper pipe
with comparison.
ld
INTRODUCTION
Heat pipe is an interesting device, which is used to transfer heat from one
location to another. It works with the help of evaporation and
or
condensation of liquid, which is filled inside heat pipe as a working
medium.
Heat pipe basically consist of a stainless steel pipe, sealed at both the
ends. It is evacuated and filled partially with distilled water. Stainless
W
steel mesh is provided at inside periphery of the pipe. When heat is
applied at the lower end of the heat pipe, water inside it evaporates and
vapor passes to upper end of the pipe. The heat is taken by the medium
surrounding upper portion of heat pipe. The vapor condenses giving its
latent heat of evaporation to the surrounding medium. The condensed
TU
vapor returns to bottom through the mesh packing, thus because of

circulation of vapor, heat pipe operates at near to isothermal operation
and conducts much heat than conventional conductors.
APPARATUS
The apparatus consists of three pipes, viz., a heat pipe, copper pipe and a
JN
stainless steel pipe. All the pipes have same physical dimensions.
Copper and Stainless steel pipes serve the purpose of comparison of heat
pipe performance with copper pipe as good conductor of heat and with
stainless steel pipe as same material of construction. All pipes are
mounted vertically with a band heater at lower end and a water filled
heat sink at upper end. When heaters start heating the pipes, begin to
transfer the heat to heat sinks. Rapid rise of temperature of water in the
heat pipe heat sink demonstrates high [apparent] thermal conductivity of
60 Heat pipe demonstrator
heat pipe. Nearly isothermal operation of heat pipe is clearly visualized

from longitudinal temperature distribution of pipes.
SPECIFICATIONS
1. Heat pipe- Stainless steel pipe, 25 mm OD, 400 mm long at both
ends, evacuated & filled partially with distilled water one no.
ld
2. Copper and stainless steel pipes of same size as that of heat pipe
one each
3. Equal capacity heaters at bottom end of each pipe.
4. Water filled heat sinks at upper end of each pipe.
or
5. Thermometers to note down water temperatures in heat sinks
3nos.
6. Thermocouples for longitudinal temperatures and three
thermometers to sink temperatures.
W
Fill up sufficient water in heat sinks. Insure proper earthling to the
unit; put the thermometers in the grommets provided at the top of
heat sinks. Keep dimmer stat zero position and start electric supply
to unit. Slowly increase the dimmer so that power is supplied to
TU
heaters. As same dimmer stat supplies power to all heaters and all
heaters are of same capacity, power input to all the heaters remains
same. This makes the comparison simpler. Go on noting down the
temperatures of water in heat sinks every 5 min (stir the water before
noting down the temperature. After around 30 minutes, note down the
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longitudinal temperature of the pipes, from the temperatures

indicator. Replace the water when pipes become cool lower than 45oC
otherwise removing water at high temperature of pipe may burn the
seals at the bottom of heat sinks. If an experiment is conducted for
more time, it is merely to raise the water temperature and ultimately
evaporation of water. Hence it is not recommended to conduct the
experiment for more times than 30 minutes.

OBSERVATIONS
I) Heat sink water temperatures
S.S Pipe Copper Pipe Heat Pipe
Time, minutes
Heat sink Heat sink Heat sink
0 min
ld
5 min
10 min
15 min
20 min
or
25 min
30 min
II) Longitudinal temperature distribution

W
S.S. Pipe Copper Pipe Heat Pipe
(Switch at right hand
position)
T6 T1 T1
T7 T2 T2
T8 T3 T3
TU
T9 T4 T4
T10 T5 T5
PRECAUTIONS
1. Proper earthing is necessary.
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2. Stir the water before noting the water temperature in heat sink.
3. Do not remove water from heat sink till the pipes become cool.
4. Operate only one meter selector switch at a time in upward
position. Other two switches must be in downward position.
GRAPHS
1. Plot the graph of heat sink water temperature rise up to 30
minutes
2. Plot longitudinal temperature distribution for pipes.
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
2
10 110 80 90 150 10
450
ld
Fig.1: Thermocouple settings along the pipe length.
or
temperature, 0C
Heat sink water
W
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time, t, min
Fig.2: Variation of water temperature in three sinks with increase in time.

TU Temperature, 0C
Longitudinal
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0 10 120 200 290 440 450
Height of pipe, mm
Fig.3: Variation of surface temperature along the length of the pipe after
30 min.

RESULT
Graphs are plotted and the performance of heat pipe is compared with
stainless steel pipe and copper pipe. Heat pipe conducts much heat than
conventional conductors. In longitudinal temperature distribution graph,
the heat pipe curve is almost straight line.
ld
or
W
Fig.4 Heat pipe demonstrator
1. Heater
TU
2. Water container
3. Thermometer
4. Heat pipe
5. S.S. pipe
6. Copper pipe
7. Voltmeter
8. Ammeter
10 selector switch
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11. Temperature selector switch

12 Pipe toggle switches (only one switch is
to be put in upward direction at time)
13. Main switch
14. Heater control

HEAT TRANSFER LAB VIVA QUESTIONS
CONDUCTION
1. State Fouriers law of conduction.
ANS: The rate of flow of heat through a homogeneous body is directly proportional to the area of b
cross section at right angles to the direction of heat flow and temperature difference with
respect to the length of the path of the heat flow.
ld
2. Difference between steady state and unsteady state.
ANS: A steady process is one which is not dependent on time, ie., rate of heat transfer does not
vary with time. There can be no change of internal energy of the system.
When the temperature at various points in a system do change with time, the process is
or
called an Unsteady or transient process.
3. State the significance of thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity.
ANS: Thermal diffusivity tells us how fast the heat is propagated or it diffuses through a material
during changes of temperature with time. Larger the value of thermal diffusivity, the shorter
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is the time required for the applied heat to penetrate deeper into the solid.
Thermal conductivity tells us the ability of a substance to conduct the heat.
4. Explain in brief the mechanism of heat transfer by conduction?
ANS: (i) By the drift of free electrons in the case of metallic solids.
(ii) By molecular interaction due to the existence of temperature gradient..
5. Give the one-dimensional steady state heat conduction equation with internal heat
TU
generation.
2
ANS: + =0
2
6. Give the one-dimensional unsteady steady state heat conduction equation with internal
heat generation.
2 1
ANS: 2 + = .
7. Give the formula of thermal diffusivity.

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ANS: =

8. Write the equation for diffusion equation.

2 2 2 1
ANS: + 2 + = .
2 2
9. Give the increasing and decreasing order of thermal conductivity for solids, liquids and
gases.
ANS: Thermal conductivity of solids > liquids >gases.
Prepared by B. V. S. RAGHU VAMSI, Asst. Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering Page 1

10. Which materials will have higher and lower thermal conductivity values?
ANS: Pure metals have high thermal conductivity and Gases, insulating materials have low thermal
conductivity.
For pure metals it decreases with increase in temperature whereas for gases and insulating
metals it increases with rise in temperature.
11. Write the formula for heat transfer through a hollow cylinder.
ld
1 2
ANS: =
ln 2
1
2
12. Write the formula for heat transfer through a hollow sphere.
or
1 2
ANS: = 2 1
4 1 2
13. Give the equations critical thickness of insulation for sphere and cylinder.

ANS: for cylinder 2 = = 0
2
For sphere 2 = =
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0
14. Write the formula for temperature distribution in a slab.
1
ANS: =
2 1
15. Write the formula for heat transfer in a composite slab.

1 4
ANS: Considering the composite wall has 3 slabs =
+ +

TU
16. How the thermal conductivity will vary with temperature gradient?
ANS: Thermal conductivity and temperature gradient are inversely proportional.
17. How the thermal conductivity will vary for solids, liquids & gases?
ANS: thermal conductivity of solids > liquids > gases
CONVECTION
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1. State Newtons law.

ANS: That the rate of heat loss of a body is proportional to the difference in temperatures between
the body and its surroundings.
Q = hA(ts tf)
2. Explain in brief the mechanism of heat transfer by convection?
ANS: When a fluid flows over a duct or a solid body and the temperatures of the fluid and the solid

surfaces are different, then the heat transfer will takes place between fluid and solid surface
due to the motion of fluid relative to the surface. This type of heat transfer is called
Convection.
If the fluid motion is set up by buoyancy forces resulting from the density variation
caused by the temperature difference in the fluid, heat transfer is said to be free or natural
convection.
ld
If the fluid motion is set up by an external agency like fan or blower, heat transfer is
termed as forced convection.
3. Differences between natural convection and forced convection.
ANS: In natural convection the fluid circulates due to the difference in the densities of hot and cold
or
fluids.
In forced convection work is done to blow or pump the fluid.
4. Define the following with formulae and mention their significance.
i. Nusselt number: Ratio of heat flow rate by convection under unit temperature gradient to
the heat flow rate by conduction under unit temperature gradient through stationary
W
thickness of L meters.

=
ii. Grashoff number: Ratio of product of inertia force and buoyancy force to the square of
viscous force.
2 3
=
TU
critical value of Grashoff number is used to indicate transition from laminar to

turbulent in free convection.
iii. Prandtl number: Ratio of kinematic viscosity to the thermal diffusivity

=
It is a measure of relative effectiveness of momentum and energy diffusion in the

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velocity and thermal boundary layers, respectively.

iv. Reynolds number: Ratio of inertia force to viscous force

=
It determines the nature of flow whether it is laminar or turbulent.

v. Biot number: Ratio of internal conduction resistance to surface convection resistance

= =


vi. Fourier number: Ratio of characteristic body dimension to temperature wave penetration
depth in time,

=
2
5. Write the units for heat transfer coefficient, thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity.
ANS: Heat transfer coefficient - w/m2k
Thermal conductivity - w/mk
ld
Thermal diffusivity - wm2/kJ
6. What is a heat exchanger?
ANS: A heat exchanger is equipment which transfers the energy from hot fluid to cold fluid with
or
maximum rate and minimum investment.
7. Differences between parallel flow, counter flow and cross flow heat exchangers.
ANS:
Parallel Flow Heat Exchanger Counter Flow heat Exchanger Cross Flow Heat Exchanger
Hot and cold fluids flow in Hot and cold fluids flow in Hot and cold fluids flow in
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same direction. opposite direction perpendicular direction
When one of the fluids changes phase, it is immaterial whether it is a parallel or counter
or cross flow heat exchanger. Rate of heat transfer in all these modes is same.
8. What is the effectiveness of a heat exchanger?
ANS: Effectiveness of heat exchanger is the ratio of actual heat transfer to the maximum possible
TU
heat transfer.
9. Write the formulae for LMTD of parallel flow and counter flow heat exchangers.
ANS: LMTD =
1 1 2 2
=
for parallel flow
ln 1 1
2 2
1 2 2 1
=
for counter flow
ln 1 2
2 1
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10. Define number of transfer units.

ANS: It is a dimensionless parameter. It is a measure of the heat transfer size of a heat exchanger.
The Larger the value of the NTU, the closer the heat exchanger reaches its thermodynamic
limit of operation.

NTU= for counter flow

11. How heat exchanger is classified based on specific heat capacity, Cmax & Cmin?
ANS: First calculate Cc & Ch ie., heat capacity of cold and hot fluids respectively. Then the one which
has the maximum will be Cmax and the other will be Cmin.

If Ch < Cc or Cc , then the heat exchanger will be a Evaporator. The cold fluid
temperature will remain uniform and undergoes a phase change.
If Ch > Cc or Ch , then the heat exchanger will be a condenser. The hot fluid will remain
at a constant temperature, while the temperature of a cold fluid increases.
12. What is pool boiling and flow boiling?
ANS: If the heat is added to a liquid from a submerged solid surface, the boiling process is referred
ld
to as POOL BOILING. The liquid above the hot surface is essentially stagnant and its motion
near surface is due to free convection. Ex: Boiling of water in a kettle.
FLOW BOILING occurs in a flowing stream and the boiling surface may itself be a portion of
the flow passage. It is also referred to as Forced Convection Boiling.
or
13. What is the difference between critical heat flux and burnout point?
ANS: CRITICAL HEAT FLUX is the point of maximum heat flux on the boiling curve at which
transition from nucleate to film boiling initiates. It is also called as Boiling Crisis because the
boiling point beyond this point is unstable.
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BURNOUT POINT is the peak heat flux point on the boiling curve which occurs at the end of
the radiation part of the film boiling. Equipment should be made to operate close to this point
but never beyond this.
14. In which systems design, the determination of critical heat flux is useful?
ANS: Design of equipment used for boiling of liquids.
15. What is the purpose of a Fin?
TU
ANS: To increase the effective area of surface thereby increasing the heat transfer by convection.
16. What are the various conditions in Fins?
ANS: 1. Long Fin
2. Fin with insulated tip
3. Fins with Convection off the End
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17. Out of parallel flow, counter flow and cross flow heat exchangers, which is more effective.
ANS: counter flow is more effective
RADIATION
1. State Stefan Boltzmann law.
ANS: Emissive power of black body is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute
temperature.
2. Define absorptivity, transmittivity and reflectivity. Give the relation between them.
ANS: Absorptivity (): Fraction of incident radiation absorbed.

Transmittivity (): Fraction of incident radiation transmitted.
Reflectivity (): Fraction of incident radiation reflected.
++=1
3. Define emissivity.
ANS: It is a measure of how it emits radiant energy in comparison with a black surface at the same
temperature.
ld
4. State the properties of a black body.
ANS:1. It absorbs all the incident radiation falling on it and does not transmit or reflect regard less
of wave length and direction.
2. It is a perfect emitter.
or
3. Total radiation emitted by a black body is a function of temperature only.
5. Give the materials for which absorptivity, transmittivity, reflectivity and emissivity value
will be zero and one.
Gases such as Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen have a transmittivity of practically unity.
W
For an opaque substance, = 0 and for a perfectly transparent surface, = 1.
For a non-reflecting surface, = 0 and for a perfect reflector, = 1
For a non-absorbing surface (white body), = 0 & for perfect absorber (black body), = 1
6. Define emissive power.
ANS: It is defined as energy emitted by a surface per unit time per unit area.
Units: w/m2
TU
7. Define monochromatic emissive power.

ANS: It is defined as the rate of energy radiated per unit area of the surface per unit wavelength.
Units: w/m2
8. State Weins law of radiation.
ANS: it states that the product of and T is constant.
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9. How the heat is transferred by radiation phenomenon?

ANS: If two bodies at different temperatures are placed in an evacuated adiabatic enclosure so that
they are not in contact through a solid or fluid medium, then the temperatures tend to
become equal. This mode of heat transfer is called radiation. This is maximum only when the
two bodies are separated by a perfect vacuum. It is an electromagnetic wave phenomenon
and no medium is needed.
10. Write the units for emissive power and Stefan Boltzmann constant.
ANS: Emissive power: w/m2.

Stefan Boltzmann constant: w/m2K4.
11. Explain in brief about the transfer of heat in condenser, boiler & regenerator in two lines.
ANS: Heat transfer in condenser by Conduction and Convection.
Heat transfer in Boiler and Regenerator by Conduction, Convection and Radiation.
GENERAL
1. What are the various temperature measuring devices used in various Engineering
ld
applications? Give their range of application?
ANS: Refer to ICS text book.
2. Define coefficient of discharge.
ANS: It is the ratio of actual discharge to theoretical discharge. Its value will vary with the type
or
of discharge measuring device.
3. In which applications Orifice, Venturimeter and simple U- tube manometer are used.
ANS: Orifice, Venturimeter To measure the discharge of a fluid in a pipe.
Simple U-tube manometer To measure the pressure head at a point
W
4. What is the purpose of a dimmerstat?
ANS: To control the voltage and current.
5. Define kinematic viscosity, dynamic viscosity & surface tension. Write the formulae and
mention their units.
ANS: Dynamic Viscosity Ratio of shear stress to time rate of strain.
TU
Units: N-sec / m, Poise

Kinematic Viscosity Ratio of dynamic viscosity to density of the fluid.
Units: m/sec, cm / sec, stoke etc.,
Surface Tension Energy expended per unit area of the surface.
Units: Nec / m, Poise
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Page 7

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MANUAL

HEAT TRANSFER LAB

Provided By: JNTU World

List of Experiments ...................................................................................................... i

General Instructions to Students ................................................................................. iii

3. Thermal conductivity of insulating powder 12

5. Pin-Fin (Natural and Forced Convection) 18

8. Stefan Boltzman Constant 34

9. Emissivity of test plate 39

Experiments on two-phase flow

10. Drop and Film wise condensation 49

11. Critical Heat flux

Experiments on applications of heat transfer

12. Concentric tube Heat Exchanger 43

13. Heat Pipe (Unsteady state heat transfer) 60

1. Determination of Thermal conductivity of insulation powder

3. Determination of over all heat transfer coefficient of Lagged Pipe

4. Determination of Thermal Conductivity of given Metal Rod

5. Determination of heat transfer coefficient of Pin-Fin (Natural and Forced

7. Determination of heat transfer coefficient of Forced Convection.

8. Determination of Stefan Boltzman Constant

9. Determination of Emissivity of test plate

Experiments on Applications of heat transfer and heat transfer with

10. Determination of effectiveness and overall heat transfer coefficient using

Parallel and Counter flow Heat Exchanger

11. Determination of heat transfer coefficient in drop and film wise

12. Determination of Critical Heat flux

13. Study of heat pipe and its demonstration

1. CRITICAL HEAT FLUX APPARATUS

ii) Bulb (100W) 1

iii) Beaker (Glass) -1

ii) Measuring Jar 1

iii) Stop Watch (Glass) -1

4. STEFAN BOLTZMANN APPARATUS

5. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF METAL ROD

i) Measuring Jar (1000ml)- 1

ii) Stop Watch - 1

1. Keep the variac to zero voltage position before starting the

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF INSULATING POWDER

To determine the thermal conductivity of insulating powder at average

are connected to a multi channel digital temperature indicator.

1 Thermal conductivity of insulating powder

Ti = average inner sphere surface temp. OC

2 Thermal conductivity of insulating powder

From the measured values of Q, Ti and T0 thermal conductivity of

3. Average outer sphere surface temperature

3. Earthling is essential for the unit.

3 Thermal conductivity of insulating powder

Fig. 2 Location of thermocouples in spherical shell

4 Thermal conductivity of insulating powder

COMPOSITE WALL APPARATUS

2. Take readings of all the thermocouples at an interval of 10 minutes

5 Composite wall apparatus

Accordingly thermocouples are fixed at close to center of the plates.

Total thermal resistance of composite slab:

b = Total thickness of composite slab = 0.045 m

6 Composite wall apparatus

Thermal resistance of composite wall =

7 Composite wall apparatus

Fig. 2 Thermocouple setting in composite wall apparatus

8 Composite wall apparatus

iv) Length of pipes 1 meter.

3) Note down steady readings in observation table.