Functions like lysosomes

Intracellular Compartments o Need low pH for enzymes to be active

Different organelles and how they are distributed in the cell o ATP intensive pumps on the membrane, pump H+ from cytosol into the
Review lumen of vacuole
Electropositivity allows ions to enter
Lysosomes Sucrose can go in because of the sucrose-proton antiporter
Found in animal cells Illustration
Contains enzymes that break down biomolecules
o Nucleases and other catabolic/hydrolytic enzymes collectively called
"acid hydrolases"
Need low pH for enzymes to be active
ATP intensive pumps on the membrane, pump H+ from cytosol
into the lumen of lysosome
You can recognize that inside the lysosome you have a very acidic environment
Question: How can an organelle keep a low pH compared to the cytosol?
o Answer: Pumps. The pumps found in the membrane of the lysosome
pump H+ into the lysosome
Energy intensive and uses lots of ATP in order to pump H+
into the lumen of the cytosol
Involved in endocytosis and phagocytosis
Primary, secondary lysosomes
o Primary: newly formed no debris inside
o Secondary: has debris of molecule/organelle digested
o Involvement in autophagy
Autophagy: self digestion of organelles
Cells undergo autophagy so it can recycle cellular parts; so debris
can be reused in cytosol
Part of apoptosis (programmed cell death)
Medical relevance
Permeable to water, generally impermeable to small molecules; once molecules
o Tay-sachs disease
enter, they have difficulty exiting the vacuole
Defect in a lysosomal enzyme catalyzing breakdown of one of the o Vacuole inside becomes hyperosmotic inside thus attracts water ---->
lipid ganglioside in the nerve
causes turgor pressure to rise
Fatal consequence as the patient dies before 3 years old o Turgor is offset by cell wall which balances the externally directed force
Seen at the age of 1
Causes expansion and the growth of the cell
Medical examination results in observation of the lipid ganglioside
in cells
Peroxisomes
Illustration
Also called microbodies; with single membrane
o The lysosomes are more or less has different pathways in the sense that
Found in all animal cells (except RBCs) and some plant cells
Degrade fatty acids and toxic compounds
Plant vacuoles o Contains oxidases
Membrane delimited
Oxidize organic compounds with molecular oxygen
Number and size depend on cell type and developmental stage
Produces H2O2
Store ions, water, nutrients (sucrose, amino acids), waste products, excess salt
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 Free radical Mitochondria derived from bacteria
Noxious molecule Endosymbiotic theory
o Catalases Has its own DNA like those bacteria
Breaks down H2O2 into water and oxygen o Inner membrane
Oxidation of fatty acids does not yield ATP but acetyl 20% lipid
Energy release converted into heat then transported to cytosol for synthesis of 80% protein
cholesterol and other metabolites Cristae increase its surface area
Toxic molecules Site of electron transport chain
o Degraded in the peroxisomes of the liver and the kidney Generates high amount of ATP from glucose in the process called oxidative
o Liver main portal system of the body; detoxifies phosphorylation
Glyoxysomes o Glycolysis which takes place in the cytoplasm and generates only a much
o Equivalent organelle in plant seeds which oxidize fatty acids as a source lower amount of ATP
of energy and carbon o All ATP from fatty acid oxidation is generated in the mitochondria
Medical Significance: ADL (adrenoleukodystrophy) Illustration of mitochondria
o An enzyme transporter if defective, VLCFA does not enter peroxisomes
o Failure to degrade very long chain fatty acids
o Starting mid-childhood sever neurological disorder followed by death in a
few years
o ADL protein is actually a transporter (found in the membrane) of the
enzyme CoA with a very long chain fatty acid (VLCFA) if it cannot enter, it
will accumulate in the cytosol
Illustration of a peroxysome

o In the center is a crystalline core Chloroplast

o Urate Oxidase Crystalline Core Large organelles seen in plants and green algae
Has outer and inner membrane
Enzyme that processes uric acid
Has a system of interconnected membranes called thylakoids
Not seen in higher mammals
o Flattened and arranged in stacks colled grana
o With lipid bilayer
o Lodge within its matrix, the stroma
Mitochondria Chlorophyll plus other pigments and enzymes are found in the thylakoid
membrane system and participate in generation of ATP
Occupy up to 25% of the volume of the cytoplasm
o Some of the ATP is used in stroma to convert CO2 to 3C intermediates ---
Generally large organelles with 2 membranes:
o Outer membrane > exported to cytosol and converted to sugar
o Posses its own DNA
Similar to membrane of gram negative bacteria
Manufactures chloroplast protein through its own ribosomes
Half lipid
Most of its enzymes and proteins are coded for in the nuclear
Half protein
genome and synthesized in the cytosol
Permeable up to 10,000 nol weight

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 Most of the genes needed by the mitochondria and chloroplast Own consumption
have been subverted by the nuclear genome, but some still remain Histones
in M and Cl RuBisCO
Needed by the lipid bilayer
Cholesterol
Channels
Transporters
B lymphocytes which produce antibody
immunoglobins
Cells of the pancreas which secrete digestive enzymes as
well as hormones
Trypsin
Lyases
Nucleases

o Has own ribosomes

o With thylakoid system

Endoplasmic Reticulum
Interconnected, close membrane-bounded vesicles that form canals
Especially important in the synthesis of lipids and proteins
2 types
o Smooth ER
For synthesis of fatty acids and lipids
Calcium sequestration; seen in specific cell types such as the
muscles
Abundant in the hepatocytes o Outer membrane of the nucleus continuous with the Rough ER
Its enzymes detoxify hydrophobic chemicals such as toxins and
carcinogens by converting them into more water soluble form Golgi Apparatus
o Rough ER
Stacks of many flattened vesicles near the nucleus
With ribosomes on the surface for protein synthesis Proteins from the ER unloaded into the three regions of the golgi apparatus in
Proteins being made by the ribosomes are threaded through the sequence
ER membrane and are packaged out to the plasma membrane, or o Cis ---> Medial ---> Trans
to other organelles, or to the outside (if secretory cells) o Here the proteins are modified; each region has specific enzymes to
RER many and important in cells where much secretory proteins modify the secretory and membrane proteins accordingly
are needed o After reaching the trans region, secretory proteins are transported via
Secretory products: transport vesicles
Pepsinogen Some coated with "clathrin" are called coated vesicle
Amylase
Acetylcholine

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 Some vesicles transport proteins for use within the cells or the cell The Nucleus
membrane Is the largest organelle
Usually place of glycosylation and phosphorylation (kinase) Distinguishing feature of the eukaryotic cell
o Collagen Parts:
Movement of proteins through golgi apparatus o Nuclear envelope
o Chromosomes (with nucleolus)
Nucleolus manufactures ribosomal RNA
Granular part and fibrillar part
o Nucleoplasm
o Nuclear matrix
Well trabeculated part
Supported by nuclear lamin
hutchinson's progeria syndrome
o Manifests in children looking old
o The cisternal maturation model o Nuclear lamin deficiency
As a new cis cisterna is formed it transverses the golgi stack, Double membrane
changing as it matures by accumulating medial, then trans o Outer membrane continuous with RER
enzymes through vesicles that move from later to earlier cisternae Two nuclear membranes seemingly fuse at the nuclear pore complex ---->
Proteins travel with the cisternae passage for RNA to exit nucleus; proteins from cytosol can enter nucleus after
o Vesicular transport model synthesis
Cisternae stay put but proteins travel along the way and modify as
they travel through the layer
No transportation of enzymes

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 Nuclear pore complex
o Adjust to accomodate
Nucleolus
o Where most rRNAs are synthesised;
Ribosomal proteins also added
Completed or partly completed ribosomes exit via nuclear pore
Nuclear membrane strengthened by nuclear lamins

Cytoskeletal Fibers, Dissolved or Enclosed Particles

Microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate filaments crisscross one another in
various patterns in the cell
They contact one another at different points, each with a different function in
the cell
May form bundles especially actin
Cell also contains molecules
o Dissolved enzymes or hormones
o Enclosed bodies such as glycogen enclosures, triacylglycerol