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GN Labuschagne
Investigative Psychology Unit
Serious and Violent Crime Component
Detective Service Head Office
South African Police Service
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Acta Criminologica 16(4) 2003
committed such a crime. The profile cannot followed-up in a structured, written report.
be used to highlight an individual as a Investigations proceed rapidly, and
suspect. The profile is intended to be information is often given verbally as certain
compared to available suspects in an hypotheses are made by the person
investigation. Those suspects that fit the compiling the offender profile. Since a
characteristics indicated in the profile are profile is often up to 20 pages or more in a
prioritised above other suspects who fit the serial offence, it can take a long time to
profile to a lesser degree. Evidence is still compile. However, to prevent
needed to link a suspect to a crime and lead misunderstandings, and to protect oneself in
to a conviction. a legal environment, these hypotheses must
be formulated into a structured, written
The process would usually involve an report, the actual offender profile.
assessment of the crime scene, attending the
autopsy, examining all available docket This definition is the current working definition used
material such as statements, photographs, by the Investigative Psychology Unit of the SAPS.
forensic reports and investigative decisions.
This implies that the person compiling the Turvey (1999) refers to two types of profiling in the
offender profile must have access to criminal context in the United States of America
confidential investigative information. The (USA). These are deductive criminal profiling and
ideal is to visit the crime scenes and attend inductive criminal profiling. An inductive criminal
the autopsy. If unable to, the person should profile is briefly defined by him as one that is
revisit the crime-scene and compare it to generalised to a suspect from behavioural and
crime-scene and autopsy photographs. demographic characteristics shared by other offenders
Furthermore, the person should have access who have been studied in the past. In other words,
to reports relevant to the investigation such such as profile is strongly based on previous
as autopsy reports, ballistic reports, quantitative research on similar offenders, such as
fingerprint reports and statements made by paedophiles. These characteristics are then
relevant witnesses. generalised to one suspect. The type of logic would be
represented in the following statement:
The information must be compared to A study of 100 incarcerated
available research. With the popular media paedophiles found that the average
influencing the concept of offender profiling, age when apprehended is 24, the
even professionally, there are growing efforts average type of occupation is white
to make the concept more scientific. It is collar, 80% are married with
therefore essential that available, relevant children, therefore, the suspect in
research be used to support the statements this case must be approximately 24,
made in any offender profile. It should also be a white-collar worker, and is
be emphasised that overseas research has most likely married.
proved to be very limited when applying it to
the South African context. Turvey (1999) states that the advantages of such a
Finally, hypotheses are made that can be form of profiling is that it is a relatively easy tool to
communicated verbally but should be use, requires no specialised knowledge, education,
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training or understanding of criminal behaviour. profiling as Crime Scene Profiling. However, the
Furthermore, such profiles can be compiled in a author is not in favour of this term as it implies that
relatively short period of time. He lists the the crime-scene is the only source of information, yet
disadvantages as being that the statements are when a rape occurs the crime scene is of less value
generalised and not related to a specific case and that than in a murder. In a series of rapes the witness
the samples used are often small and only include statements become the important source of
apprehended offenders. Secondly, due to the information for the purposes of profiling the offender.
generalisations, such a profile can implicate an
innocent person. Thirdly, environmental and A brief description of other types of profiling will now
contextual differences are not taken into account. be given.
Fourthly, it is assumed that behaviour and motivation
do not change within an individual over a period of OTHER TYPES OF PROFILING
time.
As mentioned earlier, the term profile can have
Turvey (1999) defines deductive profiling as the various meanings depending on the context. A
process of interpreting forensic evidence, including psychologist may refer to the profile of a psychometric
crime-scene and autopsy photographs, autopsy test, such as an MMPI or MCMI profile. This is a
reports, and victimology with the intention of graphic representation of the testees scores on a test.
reconstructing offender crime-scene behaviour A profile can also refer to the side view of an object,
patterns and from those patterns of behaviour, deduce such as in art. However, in a forensic or criminal
offender characteristics, demographics, emotions and justice setting the term has numerous definitions. To
motivations. Such profiling is also more useful for aid clarity, some of the other uses of the term
establishing the modus operandi and signature as well profiling in such a setting, are explained.
as linking cases to one offender. Change in offender
behaviour over a series of crimes can also be South African Police Service Profiling
accommodated by deductive profiling.
The term profiling is not used exclusively to refer to
Turvey (1999) feels that the disadvantages of offender profiling as described above. In the SAPS,
deductive profiling are few but include the fact that it profiling also refers to the process when a known
is not a quick fix and requires a great deal of effort suspects name, identity number or date of birth are
and skill on behalf of the person compiling the profile. entered into the Case Administration System (CAS),
Also, since it an intensive process, it is emotionally Home Affairs, Vehicle Registration System, Firearm
exhausting. Finally, a deductive profile cannot point Register, or any other databases to which the SAPS
out a specific known individual and say that he or she have access, and all available information on the
is likely to be responsible for a certain crime(s) unless suspect is then sourced. This would include registered
that offenders unique signature is known and addresses, whether the suspect was previously the
established. The type of offender profiling used by the suspect in other cases and has any convictions,
Investigative Psychology Unit is more in line with the whether the suspect was the complainant in a case
deductive method as described by Turvey, yet where previously, what vehicles the suspect has owned, and
relevant, available research is also referred to. One any firearms licensed to the suspect. Yet, unlike
must also not forget that experience is unwritten offender profiling, this type of profiling involves a
research. Hickey (2002) would refer to this type of known suspect.
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of a city with pins inserted into it, indicating areas will offend in an area he feels comfortable with, such
where a series of crimes have occurred. Yet it is only as an area near his home or workplace, has been
correct for some instances of serial offences in South
recently that a more rigid scientific approach, with the
Africa, there are also many examples where this has
aid of computers, has been applied to understanding
not been the case. Samuel Sydino, the Capital Park
geography and crime.
Serial Murderer, did operate near his home, as did
Sipho Twala, the Phoenix Serial Murderer; Kobus
The 1990s saw the re-emergence of a focus on the
Geldenhuys, the Norwood Serial Murderer; and
early works by Shaw and McKay (1942). This revival
Cedric Maake, the Wemmerpan Serial Murderer.
was referred to as the New Chicago School. While
Moses Sithole, who operated in Atteridgeville,
adopting an ecological approach, it also was spurred
Boksburg and Cleveland did live in Atteridgeville
on by computerised mapping and spatial analysis
where he began his murders. He had previously been
techniques. Geographical Information Systems (GIS)
incarcerated in Boksburg prison but was obviously not
allowed for the measurement of spatial aggregation
living there when the Boksburg murders were
and thereby opened up a host of possibilities with
committed. The recent Highwayman Serial Murderer
regards to the ecology of crime (Ainsworth 2002).
in Pretoria, did not operate anywhere near his place of
residence.
Canter (1994) and Rossmo (1995; 1997) are two
figures that stand out when it comes to geographical
South Africas socio-economic circumstances can be
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Acta Criminologica 16(4) 2003
one reason why geographical profiling is not as useful. and describes it as using the crime scene to identify
A large portion of our population travels great and interpret certain items of evidence that would be
distances to and from work and makes use of informal indicative of the personality type of the individual
transport such as taxis. Also, due to the high rate of who committed the crime and possible motives. This
unemployment, people are often quite willing to go also forms up part of the offender profiles compiled by
with a stranger if it may mean the promise of the Investigative Psychology Unit of the SAPS.
employment, thus victims are easily lured to out of the
way areas where the crime is committed. In offender Crime Scene Assessment
profiles compiled by IPU, commentary is always made
regarding the geography and environment of the crime This is another term often incorrectly used as being a
scenes. synonym of offender profiling. The IPU defines a
crime scene assessment as being an attempt to try and
DNA profiling understand what was taking place during the
commission of the crime based on what is left on the
DNA is being increasingly used in investigations as an crime scene itself. It is not intended to go further by
extremely effective means of linking a specific suspect making statements about the offenders personality,
to a specific crime. Once DNA from, for example, occupation etc, as would be the case with an offender
semen or hair is collected, it is sent to the Forensic profile. It is therefore focused on the time-period of
Sciences Laboratories of the SAPS and the DNA is the crime. It also aims to try and determine what took
processed, or profiled. Should a suspect be arrested, place between the offender and victim. In other words,
his DNA is then compared to see if the two profiles it acts as a reconstruction of the crime. A crime scene
match. assessment is an activity on its own. If an offender
profile is later requested, the crime scene assessment
Victim profiling is incorporated into the offender profile.Owing to its
nature it is more appropriate for murders than rapes.
By identifying the personality and behavioural
characteristics of people who become victims of Computer databases and profiling
crimes committed by certain types of offenders, steps
can be taken to reduce those peoples risk of Computer databases have proven to be a valuable
becoming victims. This is very useful in serial murder source of information for investigators. Such
and serial rape cases as victim selection might reflect databases would often be referred to when compiling
something about the motives of the offender. Victim an inductive profile. In a further attempt to consolidate
profiling information is gathered from various sources information to assist in creating links between crimes,
such as personal records, interviews with witnesses, the National Center for the Analysis of Violent Crime
victims, family and friends, crime scenes and (NCAVC) in the USA became operational in 1984
autopsies (Hickey 2002). In the SAPS this makes up with the purpose of acting as a clearing house of
part of the offender profile as compiled by the information regarding violent crimes. It is a law
Investigative Psychology Unit. enforcement- orientated behavioural science and
computerised resource centre which consolidates
Psychological profiling research, training and operational support functions.
Hickey (2002) also refers to psychological profiling The NCAVC consists of four programmes: Research
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and Development, Training, Profiling and Investigative Psychology Unit (IPU) of the South
African Police Service
Consultation, and the Violent Criminal Apprehension
Programme (VICAP). Their Profiling and
The IPU has been in existence for approximately
Consultation Programme conducts analyses of violent
seven years and falls under the Serious and Violent
crimes on a case-by-case basis in order to construct
Crime Component of the Detective Service of the
profiles of unknown offenders. This is done in order
SAPS. It is a National unit, which can be called upon
for the focus of the investigation to be narrowed down
to provide investigative support throughout the
and thus concentrate more readily on the most likely
country and has also assisted in the neighbouring
suspects. Consultation also includes planning case
country of Swaziland. The unit has interacted with
strategies, furnishing information for search warrant
foreign law enforcement agencies such as Scotland
preparation, personality assessments, interview
Yard on the Adam torso murder. The SAPS is one
techniques and coaching prosecutors of violent
of the few police services in the world that has a full-
criminals (Brooks, Devine, Green, Hart & Moore:
time unit devoted to Investigative Psychology.
1987).
investigative decision-making, assistance with were used in the case of a triple murder of a professor
interviewing witnesses and suspects, assistance in and his companions in Pretoria. The unit also has a co-
dealing with the media and managing the vast amounts ordinator in each province to monitor and co-ordinate
of information often collected in the type of crimes in any investigations that would require the services of
which offender profiles are often used, such as serial the unit.
murder and serial rape cases. Furthermore, training is
an area where individuals can make large Staff
contributions. The Investigative Psychology Unit of
the SAPS is one such unit in which the members offer
The unit currently has three members. The commander
a wide range of services to investigating officers. A
of the Unit and the other staff members are:
description of the roles of the Unit will be given to
Dr Grard Labuschagne, Senior
provide a context within which offender profiling can
Superintendent (MA Clinical Psychology,
be placed.
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Acta Criminologica 16(4) 2003
sexual burglary, serial rape, etc which can be Mention was made of how a person providing such a
associated with serial murder. service has a greater role to play in investigations, and
proposed a model for how such services can be
Research provided by using the Investigative Psychology Unit
as one such example. Hopefully, a South African
Besides the investigative support and training roles, viewpoint can promote discussion and facilitate
the Unit also has a research role and is currently understanding of this service and the role that forensic
involved in research focusing on muti murder and professionals can provide in investigations.
serial murder. Other research projects include criminal
mutilation, foreign object insertion in sexual murder, REFERENCES
spree murders and infant rapes. These are aimed at
supporting the investigative support function and Ainsworth, PB. 2002. Offender profiling and crime
analysis. Devon: Willan Publishing
training function of the Unit.
Brooks, PR; Devine, MJ; Green, TJ; Hart, BL &
Moore, MD. 1987. Serial murder: A criminal justice
CONCLUSION response. Police chief, p40-44.
life of its own, partly due to the popular representation Hickey, EW. 2002. Serial murderers and their
victims. (3rd Ed). California: Wadsworth/ Thompson
of people providing such a service. This image is a Learning.
powerful one which has also influenced the academic
Rossmo, DK. 1995. Place, space and police
opinion of offender profiling. South Africa is no investigation: hunting serial violent criminals. In Eck,
JE & Weisburg, D. (Eds). Crime and place. Crime
exception to such influence. This article has attempted prevention studies, Vol 4. Criminal Justice Press.
to provide a South African definition for offender
Rossmo, DK. 1997. Geographic profiling. In Jackson,
profiling as used by the Investigative Psychology Unit JL & Bekerian, DA. (Eds). Offender profiling.
Chichester: Wiley.
of the South African Police Service. This unit is the
only Unit in the SAPS with the mandate to provide Shaw, C & McKay, H. 1942. Juvenile delinquency
and urban areas. Chicago: University of Chicago
such a service for investigating officers. Furthermore, Press.
it has also given brief definitions as to the other uses Turvey, B. 1999. Criminal profiling: An introduction
of the word profiling in the South African context. to behavioral evidence. London: Academic press.
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