1 WRITE

1.5.1 Managerial Roles

According to Mintzberg (1973), managerial roles are as follows:
1 1. Informational roles
2 2. Decisional roles
3 3. Interpersonal roles

1. Informational roles: This involves the role of assimilating and disseminating information as and when
required. Following are the main sub-roles, which managers often perform:
1 a. Monitor collecting information from organizations, both from inside and outside of the
organization
2 b. Disseminator communicating information to organizational members
3 c. Spokesperson representing the organization to outsiders

2. Decisional roles: It involves decision making. Again, this role can be sub-divided in to the following:
1 a. Entrepreneur initiating new ideas to improve organizational performance
2 b. Disturbance handlers taking corrective action to cope with adverse situation
3 c. Resource allocators allocating human, physical, and monetary resources
4 d. Negotiator negotiating with trade unions, or any other stakeholders

3. Inter`personal roles: This role involves activities with people working in the organization. This is
supportive role for informational and decisional roles. Interpersonal roles can be categorized under three
sub-headings:
1 a. Figurehead Ceremonial and symbolic role
2 b. Leadership leading organization in terms of recruiting, motivating etc.
3 c. Liaison liasoning with external bodies and public relations activities.

Table 1.1: Mintzbergs Managerial Roles1

1 Source: Henry Mintzberg, The Nature of Managerial Work (New York: Harper & Row,
1973.)
Role Description Identifiable Activities
Interpersonal
Figurehead Symbolic head; obliged to perform a number of routine duties Greeting visitors; signing legal
of a legal or social nature. documents.

Leader Responsible for the motivation and activation of subordinates; Performing virtually all activities
responsible for staffing, training, and associated duties. that involve subordinates.

Liaison Maintains self-developed network of outside contacts and Acknowledging mail; doing
informers who provide favors and information. external board work; performing
other activities that involve
outsiders.

Informational
Monitor Seeks and receives wide variety of special information (much Reading periodicals and reports;
of it current) to develop thorough understanding of maintaining personal contacts.
organization and environment; emerges as nerve center of
internal and external information about the organization.

Disseminator Transmits information received from outsides or from other Holding informational meetings;
subordinates to members of the organization some making phone calls to relay
information is factual, some involves interpretation and information.
integration of diverse value positions of organizational
influencers.

Spokesperson Transmits information to outsiders on organizations plans, Holding board meetings; giving
policies, actions, results, etc.; serves as expert on information of the media.
organizations industry.

Decisional

Entrepreneur Searches organization and its environment for Organizing strategy and review sessions to
opportunities and initiates improvement projects develop new programs.
to bring about change; supervises design of certain
projects as well.

Disturbance Responsible for corrective action when organization Organizing strategy and review sessions
handler faces important, unexpected disturbances that involve disturbances and crises

Resource Responsible for the allocation of organizational Scheduling; requesting authorization;

allocator resources of all kinds in effect, the making or performing any activity that involves
approval of all significant organizational decisions. budgeting and the programming of
subordinates work.

Negotiator Responsible for representing the organization at Participating in union contract

major negotiations. negotiations.

1.5.2 Management Skills

Katz (1974) has identified three essential management skills: technical, human, and conceptual.
Technical skills: The ability is to apply specialized knowledge or expertise. All jobs require some
specialized expertise, and many people develop their technical skills on the job. Vocational and on-the-job
training programs can be used to develop this type of skill.
Human Skill: This is the ability to work with, understand and motivate other people (both individually
and a group). This requires sensitivity towards others issues and concerns. People, who are proficient in
technical skill, but not with interpersonal skills, may face difficulty to manage their subordinates. To
acquire the Human Skill, it is pertinent to recognize the feelings and sentiments of others, ability to
motivate others even in adverse situation, and communicate own feelings to others in a positive and
inspiring way.
Conceptual Skill: This is an ability to critically analyze, diagnose a situation and forward a feasible
solution. It requires creative thinking, generating options and choosing the best available option.

3. Social Learning
The social learning theory was proposed by Bandura. It recognizes the importance of observing and
modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. According to Bandura (1977), most
human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of
how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for
action. Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction
between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences.
Social learning has four processes:
1 1. Attention processes People learn from a model only when they recognize and pay attention
to its critical features. In order to learn, it is required to pay attention. Anything that detracts the attention
is going to have a negative effect on observational learning. If the is model interesting or there is a novel
aspect to the situation, it is more likely to dedicate the full attention to learning.
1 2. Retention processes A models influence will depend on how well the individual remembers
the models action after the it is no longer readily available. The ability to store information is also an
important part of the learning process. Retention can be affected by a number of factors, but the ability to
pull up information later and act on it is vital to observational learning.
2 3. Motor reproduction processes After a person has seen a new behavior by observing the
model, the watching must be converted to doing. The ability to store information is also an important part
of the learning process. Retention can be affected by a number of factors, but the ability to pull up
information later and act on it is vital to observational learning.
3 4. Reinforcement processes Individuals will be motivated to exhibit the modeled behavior if
positive incentives or rewards are provided. Finally, in order for observational learning to be successful,
you have to be motivated to imitate the behavior that has been modeled. Reinforcement and punishment
play an important role in motivation. While experiencing these motivators can be highly effective, so can
observing other experience some type of reinforcement or punishment. For example, if you see another
student rewarded with extra credit for being to class on time, you might start to show up a few minutes
early each day.
Principles of social learning are as follows:
1 1. The highest level of observational learning is achieved by first organizing and rehearsing the
modeled behavior symbolically and then enacting it overtly. Coding modeled behavior into words, labels
or images results in better retention than simply observing.
2 2. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior, if it results in outcomes they value.
3 3. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior, if the model is similar to the observer
and has admired status and the behavior has functional value.

2 3
4

7.2 Factors Influencing Perception

Perception is our sensory experience of the world around us and involves both the recognition of
environmental stimuli and actions in response to these stimuli. Through the perceptual process, we gain
information about properties and elements of the environment that are critical to our survival. Perception
not only creates our experience of the world around us; it allows us to act within our environment.
A number of factors operate to shape and sometimes distort perception. These factors can reside:
1 i) In the perceiver.
2 ii) In the object or target being perceived or
3 iii) In the context of the situation in which the perception is made.
4 1. Characteristics of the Perceiver: Several characteristics of the perceiver can affect
perception. When an individual looks at a target and attempts to interpret what he or she stands for, that
interpretation is heavily influenced by personal characteristics of the individual perceiver. The major
characteristics of the perceiver influencing perception are:
0 a) Attitudes: The perceiver's attitudes affect perception. For example, suppose Mr. X is
interviewing candidates for a very important position in his organization - a position that requires
negotiating contracts with suppliers, most of whom are male. Mr X may feel that women are not capable
of holding their own in tough negotiations. This attitude will doubtless affect his perceptions of the
female candidates he interviews.
0 b) Moods: Moods can have a strong influence on the way we perceive someone. We think
differently when we are happy than we do when we are depressed. In addition, we remember information
that is consistent with our mood state better than information that is inconsistent with our mood state.
When in a positive mood, we form more positive impressions of others. When in a negative mood, we
tend to evaluate others unfavourably.
1 c) Motives: Unsatisfied needs or motives stimulate individuals and may exert a strong influence
on their perceptions. For example, in an organizational context, a boss who is insecure perceives a
subordinate's efforts to do an outstanding job as a threat to his or her own position. Personal insecurity
can be translated into the perception that others are out to "get my job", regardless of the intention of the
subordinates.
2 d) Self-Concept: Another factor that can affect social perception is the perceivers' self-concept.
An individual with a positive self-concept tends to notice positive attributes in another person. In contrast,
a negative self-concept can lead a perceiver to pick out negative traits in another person. Greater
understanding of self allows us to have more accurate perceptions of others.
3 e) Interest: The focus of our attention appears to be influenced by our interests. Because our
individual interests differ considerably, what one person notices in a situation can differ from what others
perceive. For example, the supervisor who has just been reprimanded by his boss for coming late is more
likely to notice his colleagues coming late tomorrow than he did last week. If you are preoccupied with a
personal problem, you may find it hard to be attentive in class.
4 f) Cognitive Structure: Cognitive structure, an individual's pattern of thinking, also affects
perception. Some people have a tendency to perceive physical traits, such as height, weight, and
appearance, more readily. Others tend to focus more on central traits, or personality dispositions.
Cognitive complexity allows a person to perceive multiple characteristics of another person rather than
attending to just a few traits.
5 g) Expectations: Finally, expectations can distort your perceptions in that you will see what you
expect to see. The research findings of

1 the study conducted by Sheldon S Zalkind and Timothy W Costello on some specific
characteristics of the perceiver reveal
2 Knowing oneself makes it easier to see others accurately.
3 One's own characteristics affect the characteristics one is likely to see in others.
4 People who accept themselves are more likely to be able to see favourable aspects of other
people.
5 Accuracy in perceiving others is not a single skill.
These four characteristics greatly influence how a person perceives others in the environmental situation.
Characteristics of the Target
Characteristics in the target that is being observed can affect what is perceived. Physical appearance plays
a big role in our perception of others. Extremely attractive or unattractive individuals are more likely to
be noticed in a group than ordinary looking individuals. Motion, sound, size and other attributes of a
target shape the way we see it.The perceiver will notice the target's physical features like height, weight,
estimated age, race and gender. Perceivers tend to notice physical appearance characteristics that contrast
with the norm, that are intense, or that are new or unusual. Physical attractiveness often colours our entire
impression of another person. Interviewers rate attractive candidates more favourably and attractive
candidates are awarded higher starting salaries.
Verbal communication from targets also affects our perception of them. We listen to the topics they speak
about, their voice tone, and their accent and make judgements based on this input. Non-verbal
communication conveys a great deal of information about the target. The perceiver deciphers eye contact,
facial expressions, body movements, and posture all in an attempt to form an impression of the target .As
a result of physical or time proximity, we often put together objects or events that are unrelated.
For example, employees in a particular department are seen as a group. If two employees of a department
suddenly resign, we tend to assume their departures were related when in fact, they might be totally
unrelated. People, objects or events that are similar to each other also tend to be grouped together. The
greater the similarity, the greater the probability we will tend to perceive them as a group.
5 Characteristics of the Situation
6 The situation in which the interaction between the perceiver and the target takes place, has an
influence on the perceiver's impression of the target. E.g. meeting a manager in his or her office affects
your impression in a certain way that may contrast with the impression you would have formed, had you
met the manager in a restaurant. The strength of the situational cues also affects social perception. Some
situations provide strong cues as to appropriate behaviour. In these situations, we assume that ie
individual's behaviour can be accounted for by the situation, and that it may not reflect the individual's
disposition. This is the discounting principle in social perception. For example, you may encounter an
automobile salesperson who has a warm and personable manner, asks you about your work and hobbies,
and seems genuinely interested in your taste in cars. Can you assume that this behaviour reflects the
salesperson's personality? You probably cannot, because of the influence of the situation. This person is
trying to sell you a car, and in this particular situation, he probably treats all customers in this manner.

5
4.3 Contemporary Work Cohort
Robbins (2003) has proposed Contemporary Work Cohort, in which the unique value of different cohorts
is that the U.S. workforce has been segmented by the era they entered the workforce. Individuals values
differ, but tend to reflect the societal values of the period in which they grew up. The cohorts and the
respective values have been listed below:
1. Veterans Workers who entered the workforce from the early 1940s through the early 1960s. They
exhibited the following value orientations:
They were influenced by the Great Depression and World War II
1 Believed in hard work
2 Tended to be loyal to their employer
3 Terminal values: Comfortable life and family security

2. Boomers Employees who entered the workforce during the 1960s through the mid-1980s belonged to
this category. Their value orientations were:
1 Influenced heavily by John F. Kennedy, the civil rights and feminist movements, the Beatles,
the Vietnam War, and baby-boom competition
2 Distrusted authority, but gave a high emphasis on achievement and material success
3 Organizations who employed them were vehicles for their careers
4 Terminal values: sense of accomplishment and social recognition

3. Xers began to enter the workforce from the mid-1980s. They cherished the following values:
1 Shaped by globalization, two-career parents, MTV, AIDS, and computers
2 Value flexibility, life options, and achievement of job satisfaction

1 Family and relationships were important and enjoyed team-oriented work

2 Money was important, but would trade off for increased leisure time
3 Less willing to make personal sacrifices for employers than previous generations
4 Terminal values: true friendship, happiness, and pleasure
4. Nexters most recent entrants into the workforce.
1 Grew up in prosperous times, have high expectation, believe in themselves, and confident in
their ability to succeed
2 Never-ending search for ideal job; see nothing wrong with job-hopping
3 Seek financial success
4 Enjoy team work, but are highly self-reliant
5 Terminal values: freedom and comfortable life

8.6 Special Issues in Motivation

Some of the special issues in motivation are discussed below.
Various groups of employees provide specific challenges in terms of motivation. Some of them are
explained below:
1 1. Motivating the Diversified Work Force: Not everyone is motivated by money. The needs of
women, physically disabled and other diverse groups are not the same. If you are going to maximize your
employees' motivation, you have got to understand and respond to this diversity. This can be done in the
following ways:
2 i) We should be ready to design work schedules, compensation plans, benefits, and physical work
settings, etc., to reflect the employees' varied needs.

1 Allowing employees who are going for further training to colleges to vary their work schedule.
2 iii) Offering employees facilities like childcare, flexible work hours and job sharing for
employees with family responsibilities.
3 iv) For employees coming from other states /countries- providing them flexible leave possibilities
to enable them to go home for extensive periods.
4 2. Motivating Temporary Workers: Temporary workers may be motivated in the following
ways:
5 i) When there is a system whereby permanent employees are selected from a pool of temporary
employees, the latter will often work hard in hopes of becoming permanent.
6 ii) The ability of a temporary employee to find a new job is largely dependent on his or her skills.
Therefore, temporary employees may be provided with the opportunity for training.
7 iii) When temporary employees work alongside permanent employees who earn more pay for
doing the same job, they are likely to be de-motivated. Separating such employees might help to lessen
this problem.
8 3. Motivating Professionals: Professionals have a strong and long-term commitment to their
field of expertise. Their loyalty is more often to their profession than to their employer. These
professionals receive a great deal of intrinsic satisfaction from their work. They may be motivated in the
following ways:
9 i) Their loyalty is towards their profession. To keep current in their fields, they need to regularly
update their knowledge. Therefore, providing them opportunities for training and development is one sure
way of motivating them. Reward them with educational opportunities staging workshops, attending
conferences that allow them to keep current in their field.
10 ii) The chief reward of a professional is the job itself. They prefer challenging jobs. Therefore,
provide them with ongoing challenging projects.
11 iii) Professionals want others to think what they are working-on is important. Therefore, ask
questions and engage in other actions that demonstrate that you are sincerely interested in what they are
doing.

SET 2

1
6.2 Theories of Emotion
The word emotion is a composite formed from two Latin words. e(x)/out, outward + motion/movement,
action, gesture. This classical formation refers to the motivational aspect that causes one to begin,
continue, or end bodily movements from a source often hidden from conscious inspection though
necessary even for rational actions. The scientific community applies the term to any creature's activity
that exhibits complex response traits similar to that of a human. Alternatively some consider the outward
movement to refer to immediacy of action rather than motivational source.
1 I) James-Lange Theory (1890) [cited in Taylor, 1999]: Subjective emotional responses are the
result of physiological changes within human bodies. The brain perceives an event and, in turn, sends
messages down its neural circuitry to other areas of the brain. This action ultimately produces motor,
autonomic and endocrine responses. These responses elicit an emotional response, which in turn, is
perceived by the brain. Therefore, it is a cyclical process. This theory argues that physiological behaviors
precede the emotion.
2 II) Cannon-Bard theory (1927) [cited in Taylor, 1999]: Emotion-provoking events induce the
subjective emotional experiences and physiological arousal simultaneously. Through experiences,
individuals begin to acquire certain expectations for every given situation. These expectations provide a
filter and every situation is processed through this filter. During this process, brain produces the emotion
and corresponding physiological behaviors at the same time.
3 III) Schachter-Singer theory (1962): Both feedback from peripheral responses and a cognitive
appraisal of what caused those responses produce emotions. How one interprets the peripheral response
will determine the emotion he / she feels. Individuals label the emotional response depending on what we
think is causing the response. For

1 example, when someone interprets a stimulus as dangerous, it leads to physiological arousal.

Then, this physiological arousal is interpreted to a particular emotion. It can be fear, surprise, excitement,
and astonishment depending on how the arousal is labeled.
2 IV) Lazarus' appraisal theory (1980): An individual makes an initial and sometimes
unconscious cognitive appraisal of the situation to decide, if there is a threat; coping action is taken if
necessary; and the individual takes a closer look and identifies the emotions he or she is feeling.
3 V) Weiner's attribution theory (1986, 1992): Certain attributions produce specific emotions.
Once the initial evaluation has been made, the individual looks at what caused the event. These
attributions of causality can modify the emotion felt. It is the interaction of the perceived internal and
external causes, controllability and outcome that will determine the emotional responses. What are the
basic emotions? Ortony and Turner (1990) collated a wide range of research as to what basic emotions are
and the basis of including them as basic emotions and proposed a comprehensive description of basic
emotions and corresponding reasons for inclusion :
A comprehensive description of basic emotions and corresponding reasons for inclusion
Table 6.1: Ortony, A., & Turner, T. J. (What's basic about basic emotions?)1
1 Source: Ortony, A., & Turner, T. J. (1990). What's basic about basic emotions? Psychological Review, 97, 3, July, 315-331
Basic Emotions Basis for Inclusion
Arnold Anger, aversion, courage, dejection, desire, despair, fear, Relation to action
hate, hope, love, sadness tendencies

Ekman, Friesen, and Anger, disgust, fear, joy, sadness, surprise Universal facial
Ellsworth expressions
Frijda Desire, happiness, interest, surprise, wonder, sorrow Forms of action
readiness
Gray Rage and terror, anxiety, joy Hardwired

Izard Anger, contempt, disgust, distress, fear, guilt, interest, Hardwired

joy, shame, surprise

James Fear, grief, love, rage Bodily involvement

McDougall Anger, disgust, elation, fear, subjection, tender- Relation to instincts
emotion, wonder

Mowrer Pain, pleasure Unlearned emotional states

Oatley and Johnson- Anger, disgust, anxiety, happiness, sadness Do not require propositional
Laird content
Panksepp Expectancy, fear, rage, panic Hardwired

Plutchik Acceptance, anger, anticipation, disgust, joy, fear, Relation to adaptive biological
sadness, surprise processes
Tomkins Anger, interest, contempt, disgust, distress, fear, joy, Density of neural firing
shame, surprise

Watson Fear, love, rage Hardwired

Weiner and Graham Happiness, sadness Attribution independent

Table 6.2: Parrots classification of emotions

Primary Secondary Tertiary emotions
emotion emotion
Love Affection Adoration, affection, love, fondness, liking, attraction, caring, tenderness,
compassion, sentimentality

Lust Arousal, desire, lust, passion, infatuation

Longing Longing
Joy Cheerfulness Amusement, bliss, cheerfulness, gaiety, glee, jolliness, joviality, joy, delight,
enjoyment, gladness, happiness, jubilation, elation, satisfaction, ecstasy, euphoria

Zest Enthusiasm, zeal, zest, excitement, thrill, exhilaration

Contentment Contentment, pleasure

Pride Pride, triumph
Optimism Eagerness, hope, optimism

Enthrallment Enthrallment, rapture

Relief Relief
Surprise Surprise Amazement, surprise, astonishment
Anger Irritation Aggravation, irritation, agitation, annoyance, grouchiness, grumpiness

Exasperation Exasperation, frustration

Rage Anger, rage, outrage, fury, wrath, hostility, ferocity, bitterness, hate, loathing, scorn, spite,
vengefulness, dislike, resentment

Disgust Disgust, revulsion, contempt

Envy Envy, jealousy
Torment Torment
Sadness Suffering Agony, suffering, hurt, anguish

Sadness Depression, despair, hopelessness, gloom, glumness, sadness, unhappiness, grief, sorrow, woe,
misery, melancholy

Disappointment Dismay, disappointment, displeasure

Shame Guilt, shame, regret, remorse
Neglect Alienation, isolation, neglect, loneliness, rejection, homesickness, defeat, dejection, insecurity,
embarrassment, humiliation, insult

Sympathy Pity, sympathy

Fear Horror Alarm, shock, fear, fright, horror, terror, panic, hysteria, mortification

Nervousness Anxiety, nervousness, tenseness, uneasiness, apprehension, worry, distress, dread

Source: Parrott, W. (2001), Emotions in Social Psychology, Psychology Press, Philadelphia

Felt vs. Displayed Emotions (Hochschild, 1979, 1983)
Felt emotions are an individuals actual emotions. Displayed emotions are those that are organizationally
required and considered appropriate in a given job. They are learned. Felt and displayed emotions may be
different. This is particularly true in organizations, where role demands and situations often require
people to exhibit emotional behaviors that mask their true feelings.

10.9 Techniques of Decision Making In Groups

Schein (1988) observes that groups may make decisions through any of the following six methods:
1 Decision in lack of response In this type of decision making, ideas are forwarded without
any discussion taking place. When the group finally accepts an idea, all others have been bypassed and
discarded by simple lack of response rather than by critical evaluation.
2 Decision by authority rule The leader makes a decision for the group, with or without
discussion.
3 Decision by minority rule Two or three people are able to dominate the group into making a
decision to which they agree.
4 Decision by majority rule Here, viewpoint of the majority is considered as the groups
decision.
5 Decision by consensus One alternative is accepted by most members and the other members
agreeing to support it.
6 Decision by unanimity All group members agree totally on the course of action to be taken.
This is a logically perfect group decision method that is extremely difficult to attain in actual practice.

The most common form of group decision-making takes place in face-to-face interacting groups.
Interacting groups often censor themselves and pressure individual members toward conformity of
opinion. Once a manager has determined that a group decision approach should be used, he or she can
determine the technique best suited to the decision situation. Seven techniques are summarized below:
0 Brainstorming: Brainstorming is a good technique for generating alternatives. The idea behind
brainstorming is to generate as many ideas as possible, suspending evaluation until all of the ideas have
been suggested. Participations are encouraged to build upon the suggestions of others, and imagination is
emphasized. Brainstorming is meant to overcome pressures for conformity in the interacting group that
retard the development of creative alternatives. Groups that use brainstorming have been shown to
produce significantly more ideas than groups that do not. In a typical brainstorming session, about 6
to 10 people sit and discuss the problem. The group leader states the problem in a clear manner,
so that all participants understand it. No criticism is allowed, and all the alternatives are recorded
for later discussion and analysis.
One recent trend is the use of electronic brainstorming instead of verbal brainstorming in groups.
Electronic brainstorming overcomes two common problems that can produce group-brainstorming
failure:
1 i) Production Blocking: While listening to others, individuals are distracted from their own
ideas. This is referred to as production blocking.
2 ii) Evaluation Apprehension: Some individuals suffer from evaluation apprehension in
brainstorming groups. They fear that others might respond negatively to their ideas.
3 iii) Brainstorming, however, is merely a process for generating ideas.
0 2. Nominal Group Technique (NGT): The nominal group technique restricts discussion or
interpersonal communication during the decision-making process, hence the term 'nominal'. Group
members are all physically present, as in a traditional committee meeting, but members operate
independently. NGT has the following discrete steps:
4 i) Individuals silently list their ideas.
5 ii) Ideas are written on a chart one at a time until all ideas are listed.
6 iii) Discussion is permitted, but only to clarify the ideas. No criticism is allowed.
7 iv) A vote is taken by ballot or other recordable means.

NGT is a good technique to use in a situation where group members fear criticism from others. The chief
advantage of the NGT method is that it permits the group to meet formally but does not restrict
independent thinking, as does an interacting group.
0 3. Delphi Technique: The Delphi technique originated at the Rand Corporation to gather the
judgements of experts for use in decision-making. The Delphi method is similar to the nominal group
technique except that it does not require the physical presence of the group's members. Experts at remote
locations respond to a questionnaire. A co-ordinator summarizes the responses to the questionnaire, and
the summary is sent back to the experts. The experts then rate the various alternatives generated, and the
co-ordinator tabulates the results. The following steps characterize the Delphi technique.
2 i) The problem is identified and members are asked to provide potential solutions through a series
of carefully designed questionnaires.
3 ii) Each member anonymously and independently completes the questionnaire.
4 iii) Results of the questionnaire are compiled at a central location, transcribed, and reproduced.
5 iv) Each member receives a copy of the results.
6 v) After viewing the results, members are again asked for their solutions.

4. Electronic Meetings: This method blends the nominal group technique with sophisticated computer
technology. Issues are presented to participants and they type their responses onto their computer screen.
Individual comments, as well as aggregate votes, are displayed on a projection screen.
5. Devil's Advocacy: In this method, an individual or a group is given the role of critic. This person(s)
(called Devil's Advocate) has (have) the task of coming up with the potential problems related to a
proposed decision. This helps organizations avoid costly mistakes in decision making by identifying
potential pitfalls in advance.
1 Quality Circles and Quality Teams: Quality circles are small groups that voluntarily meet to
provide input for solving quality or production problems. Quality circles are often generated from the
bottom up; that is, they provide advice to managers, who still retain decision-making authority. As such,
quality circles are not empowered to implement their own recommendations. They operate in parallel,
'dotted-line' linkages to the organization's structure, and they rely on voluntary participation.
Quality teams, in contrast, are included in total quality management and other quality improvement
efforts as part of a change in the organization's structure. Quality teams are generated from the top down
and are empowered to act on their own recommendations.
Quality Circles and quality teams are methods for using groups in the decision-making process. The next
method, self-managed teams take the concept of participation one step further.
7. Self-managed Teams: Self-managed teams make many of the decisions that were once reserved for
managers, such as work scheduling, job assignments and staffing. Unlike quality circles, whose role is an
advisory one, self- managed teams are delegated authority in the organization's decision-making process.
Before choosing a group decision-making technique, the manager carefully evaluates the group members
and the decision situation. Then the best method for accomplishing the objectives of the group decision-
making process can be selected. For example:
1 a) The need for expert input would be best facilitated by the Delphi Technique.
2 b) Decisions that concern quality or production would benefit from the advice of quality circles.
3 c) If group members were reluctant to contribute ideas, the nominal group technique would be
appropriate.
4 d) A manager who wants to provide total empowerment to a group should consider the possibility
of allowing it to self-manage itself.

12.3 The Conflict Process

The process of conflict management has the following steps (Schermerhorn et al, 2002):
Stage I: Potential Opposition or Incompatibility
This stage concludes the conditions that create opportunities for conflict to arise. The conditions are as
follows:
1. Communication Communication becomes a source of conflict due to semantic difficulties,
misunderstandings, and noise (distortion) in the communication channels. Differing word connotations,
jargon, insufficient exchange of information, and noise in the communication channel are all barriers to
communication and potential antecedents to conflict.
2. Structure The term structure includes variables such as size, degree of specialization, jurisdictional
clarity, member-goal compatibility, leadership styles, reward systems, and the degree of dependence. Size
and specialization act as forces to stimulate conflict. The larger the group and more specialized its
activities, the greater the likelihood of conflict. The potential for conflict is greatest where group members
are younger and turnover is high. The greater the ambiguity in responsibility for actions lies, the greater
the potential for conflict.
3. Personal variables Personal variables include individual value systems and personality
characteristics. Certain personality types lead to potential conflict. Value differences are the best
explanation for differences of opinion on various matters.
B. Stage II: Cognition and Personalization
Antecedent conditions lead to conflict only when the parties are affected by and aware of it. Conflict is
personalized when it is felt and when individuals become emotionally involved. Emotions play a major
role in shaping perceptions. Negative emotions produce oversimplification of issues, reductions in trust,
and negative interpretations of the other partys behavior.
Positive feelings increase the tendency to see potential relationships among the elements of a problem, to
take a broader view of the situation, and to develop more innovative solutions (Robbins, 2003).
C. Stage III: Intentions
The primary conflict-handling intentions are represented as follows:
0 Cooperativeness the degree to which one party attempts to satisfy the other partys
concerns.
1 Assertiveness the degree to which one party attempts to satisfy his or her own concerns.
2 Competing: When one person seeks to satisfy his or her own interests, regardless of the impact
on the other parties to the conflict
3 Collaborating: When the parties to conflict each desire to fully satisfy the concerns of all
parties. The intention is to solve the problem by clarifying differences rather than by accommodating.
4 Avoiding: A person may recognize that a conflict exists and want to withdraw from it or
suppress it.
5 Accommodating: When one party seeks to appease an opponent, that party is willing to be
self-sacrificing.
6 Compromising: When each party to the conflict seeks to give up something, sharing occurs,
resulting in a compromised outcome. There is no clear winner or loser, and the solution provides
incomplete satisfaction of both parties concerns.
Stage IV: Behavior
The behavior stage includes the statements, actions, and reactions made by the conflicting parties. These
conflict behaviors are usually overt attempts to implement each partys intentions. It is a dynamic process
of interaction with a continuum. At the lower part of the continuum, conflicts are characterized by subtle,
indirect, and highly controlled forms of tension. Conflict intensities escalate as they move upward along
the continuum until they become highly destructive. Functional conflicts are typically confined to the
lower range of the continuum.
Stage V: Outcomes
Outcomes may be functional improving group performance, or dysfunctional in hindering it. Conflict is
constructive when it (Robins, 2003):
1 a) Improves the quality of decisions.

1 b) Stimulates creativity and innovation.

2 c) Encourages interest and curiosity.
3 d) Provides the medium through which problems can be aired and tensions released.
4 e) Fosters an environment of self-evaluation and change.
Outcomes may be dysfunctional as well. They are as follows:
Uncontrolled opposition breeds discontent, which acts to dissolve common ties and eventually leads to
the destruction of the group. Undesirable consequences include a retarding of communication, reductions
in group cohesiveness, subordination of group goals to the primacy of infighting between members.
Conflict can bring group functioning to a halt and potentially threaten the groups survival. The demise of
an organization as a result of too much conflict is not as unusual as it might first appear

The General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

Hans Selye, the world's foremost authority on stress was the first to describe systematically the changes
through which the body passes to deal with a perceived threat. He described what he called the General
Adaptation Syndrome (GAS), an adaptive response that occurs in three phases: A- an alarm reaction. B-
the stage of resistance; and C- the stage of exhaustion. The figure below shows the course of the General
Adaptation Syndrome.
The above diagram shows the course of the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) and describes the
psychological and physical response to stress that is, the way a person tries to adapt to a stressor. The
syndrome is called "general" because the stress response occurs in several areas of the body. GAS has 3
stages.
1 1. Alarm Stage: According to this model, the general adaptation syndrome begins when a person
encounters a stressor and enters the alarm stage. A person in this stage wonders how to cope and feels
anxiety, even panic. The person breathes faster, blood pressure rises, pupils dilate and muscles tense. At
this stage, the person is coping ineffectively.
2 2. Resistance: Assuming the person can summon the resources to cope with the stressor, he or
she begins to feel more confident and to think of how to respond. During the second stage of the general
adaptation syndrome, "resistance", the person channels his or her energy and uses it to resist the stressor's
negative effects. The person tackles the problem, delegates the challenge, or adjusts to the change.
Resistance to the stressor is high, but the person's resistance to other stressors may be low because the
body's resources are being used up. Evidence shows that a person's immune system function tends to
decline during periods of stress.
3 3. Exhaustion: Many stressors are short term - the person manages to solve the problem, or the
situation ends on its own. In such cases, the general adaptation syndrome ends during resistance stage.
But occasionally, a stressor persists. In situations where stressors persist, the person may enter the third
stage: exhaustion. In this stage, the symptoms of the alarm stage return and the person eventually uses up
his or her adaptive energy.

11.3 Power and Influence Tactics

Using position and personal power well to achieve the desired influence over other people is a challenge
for most managers. There are many useful ways of exercising relational influence. The most common
strategies involve the following (Kipinis et. Al, 1984):
0 Reason Use of facts and data to make a logical or rational presentation of ideas
1 Friendliness Use of flattery, creation of goodwill, acting humble, and being friendly
2 Coalition Getting the support of other people in the organization to back up the request
3 Bargaining Use of negotiation through the exchange of benefits or favors
4 Assertiveness Use of a direct and forceful approach such as demanding compliance
5 Higher authority Gaining the support of higher levels in the organization to back up requests
6 Sanctions Use of organizationally derived rewards and punishments
Employees rely on the seven tactics variably. Depending on the situational factors, individuals tend to use
the above strategies accordingly to the suitability and the likelihood of the success to be achieved by
employing the same. The managers relative power impacts the selection of tactics in two ways.
1 First, managers who control resources that are valued by others, or who are perceived to be in
positions of dominance, use a greater variety of tactics than do those with less power.
2 Second, managers with power use assertiveness with greater frequency than do those with less
power.
3 Resistance leads to managers using more directive strategies.

The managers objectives for wanting to influence causes them to vary their power tactics. The objectives
may be as follows:
1 When seeking benefits from a superior, they use friendliness.
2 When they are in need to make superiors accept new ideas, they usually rely on reason.
3 Managers use reason to sell ideas to employees and friendliness to obtain favors.

Research evidence also supports the following with regard to use of tactics and the choice used by
managers with regard to power:
The managers expectation of the target persons willingness to comply is an important factor. When past
experience indicates a high probability of success, managers use simple requests to gain compliance.
Where success is less predictable, managers are more likely to use assertiveness and sanctions to achieve
their objectives. The organizations culture also plays an important role in deciding the use of power
tactics. The organizational culture in which a manager works, will have a significant bearing on defining
which tactics are considered appropriate. The organization itself will influence which subset of power
tactics is viewed as acceptable for use by managers. People in different countries tend to prefer different
power tactics. For example in US people prefer use of reason in contrast to China where coalition as a
tactic is preferred. Differences are consistent with values among countriesreason is consistent with
Americans preference for direct confrontation and coalition is consistent with the Chinese preference for
using indirect approaches.
There are eight basic types of influence tactics. They are listed and described in the table below:

Table 11.1: Power tactics

Tactics Description Examples
Pressure The person uses demands, threats, or intimidation to convince If you don't do this, you're fired.
you to comply with a request or to support a proposal. You have until 5:00 to change
your mind, or I'm going without
you.

Upward The person seeks to persuade you that the request is approved by I'm reporting you to my boss. My
appeals higher management, or appeals to higher management for boss supports this idea.
assistance in gaining your compliance with the request.

Exchange The person makes an explicit or implicit promise that you will You owe me a favour. I'll take you
receive rewards or tangible benefits if you comply with a to lunch if you'll support me on
request or support a proposal, or reminds you of a prior favour this.
to be reciprocated.

Coalition The person seeks the aid of others to All the other supervisors agree with me. I'll ask you
persuade you to do something or uses the in front of the whole committee.
support of others as an argument for you to
agree also.

Ingratiation The person seeks to get you in a good mood Only you can do this job right. I can always count
or to think favourably of him or her before on you, so I have another request.
asking you to do something.

Rational The person uses logical arguments and This new procedure will save us $150,000 in
persuasion factual evidence to persuade you that a overhead. It makes sense to hire John; he has the
proposal or request is viable and likely to most experience.
result in the attainment of task objectives.

Inspirational The person makes an emotional request or
appeals proposal that arouses enthusiasm by
appealing to your values and ideals, or by
increasing your confidence that you can do
it.
Being environmentally conscious is the right thing.
Getting that account will be tough, but I know you
can do it.

Consultation The person seeks your participation in This new attendance plan is controversial. How can
making a decision or planning how to we make it more acceptable? What do you think we
implement a proposed policy, strategy, or can do to make our workers less fearful of the new
change. robots on the production line?
6

15.2 Characteristics of Organization Development

A number of special characteristics together distinguish organizational development from other
approaches to managing and improving organizational function.
1. Planned Change: OD is a strategy of planned change for organizational improvement. This planned
emphasis separates OD efforts from other kinds of more haphazard changes that are frequently
undertaken by organizations.

Comprehensive Change: OD efforts focus on comprehensive change in the organization, rather than
focusing attention on individuals, so that change is easily observed. The concept of comprehensive
change is based on the systems concept-open, dynamic and adaptive system. OD efforts take an
organization as an interrelated whole and no part of it can be changed meaningfully without making
corresponding changes in other parts.
3. Long-range Change: OD efforts are not meant for solving short-term; temporary, or isolated
problems. Rather, OD focuses on the elevation of an organization to a higher level of functioning by
improving the performance and satisfaction.
4. Dynamic Process: OD is a dynamic process and includes the efforts to guide and direct changes as
well as to cope with or adapt changes imposed. It recognizes that organizational goals change, so the
methods of attaining these goals should also change. Thus, OD efforts are not one-shot actions; rather,
they are ongoing, interactive, and cyclic processes.
5. Participation of Change Agent: Most OD experts emphasize the need for an outside, third party
change agent, or catalyst. They discourage do it yourself approach. There is a close working
relationship between the change agent and the target organizational members to be changed. The
relationship involves mutual trust, joint goals and means, and mutual influence. The change agent is a
humanist seeking to get a humanistic philosophy in the organization. He shares a social philosophy about
human values.
6. Emphasis on Intervention and Action Research: OD approach results in an active intervention in the
ongoing activities of the organization. Action research is the basis for such intervention. A change agent in
OD process does not just introspect the people and introduce changes, rather, he conducts surveys,
collects relevant data, evaluates these data, and then, takes actions for intervention. He designs
intervention strategies based on these data.
7. Normative Educational Process: OD is based on the principle that norms form the basis for
behaviour and change is a re-educative
process of replacing old norms by new ones. This is done to arrive at certain desirable outcomes that
may be in the form of increased effectiveness, problem-solving, and adaptability for the organization as a
whole. At the individual level, OD attempts to provide opportunities to be human and to increase
awareness, participation, and integrate individual and organizational goals