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Symbol Referent
The model is the result of attempts to find relations between words and things.
C.Ogden and I.Richards (this triangle)
Is represented by
meaning: an animal
kept as a pet
Symbol- word
Referent- thing
Reference- meaning
Were able to use a word when this triangle is formed in our brain, when we know what object
(concept) this word denotes.
: a word is a microcosm of human conscienceness
Tree if
Sing if
Blue of
Gently and
Second- has no independent meaning proper. They are of structural function (they contribute to the
meaning of the whole phrase when they are used in conjunction with other words)/ This division is not
strict enough. Sometimes form words can receive full semantic status even if they are used in complete
isolation.
Sometimes its easy to understand the meaning of a words and its parts.
S. Ullman distinguishes between transparent and opaque words.
washable transparent
driver
glove opaque
desk
Motivation is the relationship existing between the phonemes or morphemic composition ans structural
pattern of a word on the one hand and its meaning oh the other hand.
When there us a certain similarity between the sounds of a word and the sounds referred to by the
meaning of a word phonetical.
:
Bang
Whistle
Ding-dong etc.
Morphological- its possible to guess the meaning of a word from its parts.
(in newly coined words)
Semantic motivation is based on the coexistence of direct and figurative meaning of the same word.
Each word has a hard core of meaning which stable, but cant be modified by the context within certain
limits.
L. the environment in which the word occurs as for the extra L. It consists of the entire cultural
background against which we said this or that event.
The meaning of a word can change depending on the environment .
Instead of the term word some linguists prefer the terms lexical unit, lexical item or lexeme
Word causes much confusion because its used orthographically, grammatically and lexically.
No agreement between the scholars in terminology.
1. Historical lex-y deals with the historic change of words in the course of lang. development.
2. Comparative l. Studies closely relative languages from the point of view of their identity and
differentiation.
3. Contrastive- both relative and unrelative lang-s. establishes differences and similarity.
4. Applied lex-y- translation, lexicography, pragmatics of speech.
Lexicology investigates various meaning relations existing in the lang., how the lexicon words to
provide and support meaningfull communication.
Each word is a part of entire system land. vocabulary. Every item of a language stands closely with 2
other items. - the sintagmatic level
- the paradygmatic level.
On the sintagmatic level the semantic structure of a word is analysed in its linear relationships with
neighbouring words.
On the paradigmatic level- relationship with other words in the vocabulary system: synonims
polysemantic words
antonyms
Sapir: Language is a purely human and noninstinctive method of communicating ideas emotions and
desires be means of a system voluntarily produced symbols
Von Frisch: communicating among bees, no real evidence to challenge sapirs ideas, that language is
restricted to human beings.
Language- is a function of our social relationships, language is a system of arbitrary social convention
and social symbols as well as social etiquette, public ceremonies, etc.
Every community even insignificant and primitive has its own set of conventions.
Saussure: language had become into existence by virtue of a contract signed by the members of the
community.
Any language requires a speaker and a receiver (listener). These roles are reversible.
The transmitter- receiver circuit is the basis of all linguistic communication.
He proposed the term semiology which was to be the science of signs with language as part of it.
A road sign has 2 aspects: 1.arises directly from the visual symbol itself- the signifier.
2.IS what the sign means- signification.
The signifier conveys the meaning of message- signification.
Road signs are conventional (all the symbols are clear enough, it has meaning for a person whos
familiar with this code). They are chosen be some agreement between people (traffic light)
Linguistic signs can tell us a lot about the cultures of various speech communities, language is a special
way of looking at the world and interpreting experience.
The relations signifier- signification are not fixed. This is the well- know law of sign conversion
(semiotic conversion ) by who wrote an article about asymmetrical dualism of the
language sign.
Sassure:4.)1.Ling.signs are natural, because lang-s are the only natural systems of communication for
ppl, other artificial.
5.)2. The linear character of the linguistic sign can represent themselves in time and space only in the
form of a line (chain)
6.)3. Immutability and mutability at the same time being natural adaptive systems languages change in
time causing changes of linguistic signs, but at the same time they possess certain stability because they
are used for the purposes of communication.
Language is a complex:
House -it can be used in universal sense to cover a range of houses or a particular house.
The elements of language are associated with whole groups of experience and not with a single
experience.
Language is a kind of catalogue, the world is ordered prier to perception by man into perfectly distinct
categories of objects.
Pierce- gave his original definition of a sign and classified the signs.
Any language is peculiar and semiological system. In the written form of a language the flow of speech
is neatly divided.
In oral speech we do not make pauses after every word words get fused together. Some lexical items
become small and even disappear altogether. The problem is how do we know what the word is (the
boundaries, the separability of a word)- the size- of- unit problem.
The segmentation of the flow of speech into words can be achieved if speech is investigated as 3 levels:
1. the feature level
2. semantic level
3. metasemiotic level
The feature level; in every language there are typical combinations of sounds which occur on word
boundaries.
The study of the phoneme clusters is called phonotactic.
The metasemiotic level: speech become rather expressive, separate words give them special emphasise
to make them sound more important.
We should analyse the relationship between language units (phonemes, morphemes, words)
All this help to find boundaries.
The division of flow of speech into words is closely connected with syllable division. The singling out
of words depends on syllable stereotype of a given language. Type of word stress is also very
important.
From the point of view of lexicologyst there are 3 types of word stress in English:
1.Unifying: music, future
2 2.Primary (secondary: gravitation, cooperation, melodrama)
3 3.Even (): broad- minded, blue-eyed
English is an analytical language. It tends to bring its units into complexes, rather than use
morphological combination, which is typical of synthetic of flexion languages (Russian, French,
German)
This tendency is obvious in isolating language, where all words are invariable and syntactic
relationships between them are shown by word order.
At the lexical level there are lots of multistructural units, which functioning as a single word.
MULTISTRUCTURAL UNITS.
Unstable compounds (sometimes) they may turn into real word combination.
haircut
busdriver
There are usually pronounce with a strong unifying stress.
If we compare: blood pressure with haircut
picture gallery
they carry two stresses they are regarded as word combinations.
Much depends on their nomination as well, when 2 elements of these two compounds express a
complex notion and are rolled into one whole and become a single word.
The nature of loose compounds is motivated by word order and prosady, they are pronounced with
unifying stress and without pauses.
2.) String compounds- complexes of the parts of speech type (.
)
- merry-go-round
- dont- tell- me- where to- put- my- socks look ()
- forget- me- not
lamp-shade ()
highway ()
flower bed ()
At 1-st sight, the word appears to be the easiest thing to define, however it still presents much arguing,
but all the scholars the word is the basic unit of the vocabulary, the highest unit of the morphology,
because it consists of morphemes and the lowest unit of syntax ( it serves building material for word
combinations).
The word, the phrase and the sentence are the basic nom.units of the lang., it means that they are united
by nominative function, the ability to.
The process of nomination is going names to things, objects, phenomena, qualities, actions.
All these processes are different, but they have the same structure from the point of view of semiosis.
It consists of 3 components:
1. sign
2. interpreter or user
3. designatum ( what the sign means)
1. The term semiosis in the broadest sense means the semantic activity, human activity including
the use of signs.
2. The process of endowing () linguistic signs with meaning.
3. The process of sign formation.
Our language reflects the structure of the world, but not directly, it reflects the world through our
conceptual sphere => language reflects our conceptualization of the world. Words are symbols, they
represent objects.
The results of this are reflected with the help of linguistic signs. Words mirror concepts through our
perception of the world.
Reference- the linkage of a linguistic unit with a non-linguistic entity to which it serves a name.
The reference is that non-direct link which connects a name and the entity in the outer world.
They indicate, point out, but there is no constant referent for them (different objects each time)
Such words- deictic elements of the language, because they can be applied to any referent.
2. Proper names.
Their reference is also unique, their content doesnt depend on the conditions of the action
communication, it doesnt characterize an object.
3. Prepositions.
They refer to relationship between objects, but the objects are each time different.
4. Verbs.
They have meaning, but they are devoid of reference.
Conclusion:
1. Languages are semiotic system which operate with signs.
2. Signs are bilateral entities. They have signifier and signified ( the plane of content, the
plane of expression).
3. Signs convey some meaning which is enveloped in a certain form.
4. Linguistic signs differ from each other according to the type of nomination and referential
function which they form.
Lexical meaning.
was sure that in absolute isolation no sign has any meaning. Language cant be described as
a pure system of signs. Its only with the communicative function of any language we called it external
function that sign system begin to operate.
: meaning of the utterance is the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response
which it calls forth in the hearer. Human utterances supposed to be connected with certain situations
and accompanied by certain responses.
Harris: the meaning of an element in each linguistic environment is the difference between the meaning
of it linguistic environment and the whole utterance.
The meaning of blue in blueberry is the meaning of blue minors berry. Blue is not simply a
color, but the difference from other berries.
Sapire and Vygotsky they spoke about the link between speaking and thinking and gave the following
definition: the meaning of a word presents such a close amalgam of thought and language that its hard
to tell whether its a phenomenon of speech or thought. Thought is not just expressed in words, it
comes into existence through them, so the relation of thought to word is not a thing, but a process.
Sassurre wanted semantics to keep within linguistic boundaries only. His theory of meaning uses the
analogy of a sheet of paper whose 2 sides are parts of a whole.
In language one can neither divide sound from thought nor thought from sound.
Linguistic operate in the border land where the elements of sound and thought combine.
The formal relationship between them is achieved in the sign. We cant do anything to one sign of the
side (signifier) without affecting the other. If a change occurs in signifier in signification.
It was translated by Ulman.
name- signifier
sense- signification
sense1 sense 2
sense
The notion of meaning and use are closely interrelated. It means that the meaning of a word cant be
entirely separated from its use in speech.
The nature of meaning is best described with reference to functions of language in human
communications.
2. Conative ( )
(addressee related)
a. patterns of speech are chosen with regard to parameters of the situation.
b. We make the message more listener friendly.
3. The Metalinguistic (oriented towards language itself)
Every language is a code used to communicate smth.
Languages presents a set of conventions, it means that in actual speech certain words are not our free
choice.
The Identity-Unit_Problem
( )
The identity-of-unit-problem establishes where one word ends and another begins on the dictionary
level.
Variants of one and the same word.(phonetic, morphologic, semantic are discusses under the title of the
identity-of-unit-problem)
The expression plane or content plane of the word may vary. But these variations may not be
significant enough to split the word up into different units.
Phonetic Variations.
3 cases:
1.Modifications of the pronunciation of a word depending on the context or its position of a word
depending on the context or its position of an utterance and now and that
King and Queen
2. Accentual variation- different coexisting stress patterns of one and the same word.
[i] [i]
explain begin
[e] [e]
ceramic [si`ramic]
[ki`ramic]
[a:]
drastic
[a]
Morphological variation.
It takes place when different derivational morphemes are used without changing the words meaning.
Academic, academical
Morphologic, morphological
Historical- belonging to history (real not imaginative) or dealing with real events in history.
A historical novel
Historical events ()
Lexical Variation.
laboratory/ lab
examination/ exam
television/ tele
often/ oft (poetic)
Semantic Variation.
1. Nominative is the basic meaning of a word which refers to objects of extra linguistic reality in a
direct way and reflects their actual relations.
2. Nominative-Derivative meaning comes into being when the word is stretched outsemantically to
cover new facts and extra linguistic phenomena.
When the speaker uses the word metaphorically he extends its content.
Different meaning- the identity of the word remains intact, because the difference in meaning is not
great enough to split the word into 2 different units.
When the speaker observes similarities between the objects, the semantic content of a word is made
elastic to be stretched out and cover new bits of reality.
Collegiationally and collocationally conditioned meanings are not free, but bound.
To carry-
In passive construction= to accept
Certain meanings belong only to a given collocation, q word is habitually associated with another word
to form a natural sounding combinations.
Semantic change.
There are many causes of semantic change:
1) Historical causes.
According to historical principle, everything develops changes, social institutions
change in the course of time, the words also change.
Ex.: car which goes back to Latin carfus which meant a four wheeled (vehicle)
wagon, despite of the lack of resemblance.
2) Psychological causes.
Taboos of various kinds.
Words are replaced by other words, sometimes people do not realize that they use
euphemisms.
Ex.: ladys room instead of the lavatory
3) Linguistic causes
Tendency of a language to borrow a particular metaphorical development of a word
from another language.
Ex.: the leaf of a book; hands of a clock; a clock face; hands of a cabbage.
Metonymy is the tendency of certain words to occur in near proximity & mutually
influence one another.
One of the chief consequences of semantic change is the change in the area meaning.
Each word has an area of meaning, it has certain limits.
Semantic structure.
Name-sense relationship.
Polysemy.
Homonymy.
Homonyms can be of 3 kinds:
1. Homonyms proper (the sound & the spelling are identical)
2. Homophones (the same sound form but different spelling)
3. Homographs (the same spelling)
Ex.: sour
- disagreeable (new meaning)
juicy
- scandalous
The media were delighted to have a juicy news story.
2. Derivation capacity
The words collacability is the functioning of the word in speech & the company it
keeps with other items.
Enantiosemy.
Awfully good
An awfully jolly place
Awfully nice
Synonymy.
A synonym a word of similar or identical meaning to one or more words in the same
language. All languages contain synonyms but in English they exist in
superabundance.
There no two absolutely identical words because connotations, ways of usage,
frequency of an occurence are different.
Senses of synonyms are identical in respect of central semantic trades but differ
in respect of minor semantic trades.
Classification:
1. Total synonyms
an extremely rare occurence
Ulman: a luxury that language can hardly afford.
M. Breal spoke about a law of distribution in the language (words should be
synonyms, were synonyms in the past usually acquire different meanings and are no
longer interchangeable).
Ex.:
2. Ideographic synonyms.
They bear the same idea but not identical in their referential content.
Ex.: to ascent to mount to climb
To happen to occur to befall to chance
Look appearance complexion countenance
3. Dialectical synonyms.
Ex.: lift elevator
Queue line
Autumn fall
4. Contextual synonyms.
Context can emphasize some certain semantic trades & suppress other semantic
trades; words with different meaning can become synonyms in a certain context.
Ex.: tasteless dull
Active curious
Curious responsive
5. Stylistic synonyms.
Belong to different styles.
child Infant Kid
neutral elevated colloquial
To die To kick the bucket
Synonymic condensation is typical of the English language.
It refers to situations when writers or speakers bring together several words with one
& the same meaning to add more conviction, to description more vivid.
Ex.: save & sound
Lord & master
First & foremost
Safe & secure
Stress & strain
By force & violence
Antonymy.
(alive half dead dead)
-
(cold chilly cool warm hot)
Nikitin:
- qualitative & quantitative ( )
apprehensive brave light heavy
Quantitative antonyms
( )
feature increase
Qualitative antonyms
( )
no feature increase
- logical classification
contrary contradictory
There is a middle term between them There is no middle term between them
intentional Extensional
;
..
,
, , .
.
Ex.: mother
- stable, invariable features intension
(, )
a female parent - intension
Intension is some notion formed by class distinctions, always stable & invariable.
Extensions in this case are: biological mother
step-mother
mother-in-law
motherland
surrogate mother
godmother
Antonyms are words which have in their meaning a qualitative feature & can,
therefore, be regarded as semantically opposite.
1. .. ,
2. , .. (
).
:
4 :
1). ,
2). ,
static dynamic
Ex.: man woman arrival - departure
evil good increase decrease
3). ,
privacy equipollency
.
Ex.: poverty wealth ( )
lie truth
,
, .
Ex.: man woman ( )
cry laughter
hatred love
4). ,
binary gradual
2
2
Ex.:
lie truth (contradictory )
arrive depart
male female
to hate not to hate to be indifferent to love
Privative is based on the idea of markedness, the unmarked member more widely
used.
Ex.: old young How old are you?
marked unmarked Not: How young are you?
Not all antonyms show this marked/unmarked distinction.
Equipollent (equal) both members are logically equal, each of them has a feature
opposite to the feature of the other member of the opposition.
: one-root derivational antonyms
different roots absolute antonyms.
Phraseology.
Free combinations permit substitution of any of its elements without semantic change
of the other element.
2). Collocations.
Ex.: to commit a murder
Bread & butter
Dark night
Blue sky
Bright day
They are the habitual associations of a word in a language with other particular words.
Speakers become accustomed to such collocations.
Very often they are related to the referential & situational meaning of words.
Sometimes there are collocations, which are removed from the reference to extra-
linguistic reality.
(collocations involving
colour words)
Ex.: to be green with jealousy
Red revolution
3). Idioms
Idioms are also collocations, because they consist of several words that tend to be
used together, but the difference we cant guess the meaning of the whole idiom
from the meanings of its parts.
Semantic classification:
2 criteria:
1). The degree of semantic isolation
2). The degree of disinformation
1. Opaque in meaning ( )
the meaning of the individual words cant be summed together to produce the
meaning of the whole.
Ex.: to kick the bucket = to die
It contains no clue to the idiomatic meaning of this expression
The degree of semantic isolation is the highest.
phraseological fusions
2. Semi-opaque
one component preserves its direct meaning
Ex.: to pass the buck = to pass responsibility
phraseological unities
3. Transparent
both components in their direct meaning but the combination acquires figurative
sense
Ex.: to see the light = to understand
phraseological combinations
There are lots of idioms (proverbs, saying).
Ex.: Curiosity killed the cat, but satisfaction brought it back
Idioms institutionalized formulas of politeness:
How do you do?
Good-bye (God be with you)
How about a drink?
Sources of idioms:
The course of true love has never run smooth Shakespeare The 12th night
The course of true reforms has never run smooth in Russia the Times
5. from history
Ex.: to cross the Rubicon
Labours of Hercules
To bell the cat
Classification:
1. (with one peak)
one peak phraseological units
one form word
one notional
Ex.: to leave for good
By heart
At bay
Nominative:
Substantive: crocodile tears
Adjective: as mad as a hatter, as cool as a cucumber
Adverbial: by & by, to & fro
Verbal: to live like a lord
Word formation ()
Is a branch of science of the language which studies the patterns on which a language
forms new lexical items (new unities, new words)
Common for both groups is that a new word is based on synchronic relationship
between morphemes.
COMPOUNDING
PREFIXATION
Prefixes are such particles that can be prefixed to full words. But are themselves not
with independent existence.
Native prefixes have developed out of independent words, there is a small number of
them.
a-
be-
mid-
fore-
mis-
Prefixes of foreign origin have come into the language ready-made
Some scholars: the system of English word formation was entirely upset by the
Norman Conquest.
Normans have paved the way for the non-Germanic trend the language has taken
since that time.
From French English borrowed many words with suffixes & prefixes, they became
assimilated in the language & started to be used in word building. It led to enormous
cutdown of the traditional word formation out of native material. Old prefixes (some
of them) disappeared forever (too weak phonetically)
t-
Ed-
Nowadays English has no prefixed equivalents for some German prefixes
Er-
Ver-
Zer-
A lot of borrowed prefixes in English:
Auto-
Demi-
Mono-
Multi-
Semi-
Post-
SUFFIXATION
2 groups:
As for the first 3 they have never become productive in English; - able was
assimilated in English very early and has became productive in many words.
Eatable
Loveable
Semi suffixes are elements which stand midway between full words & suffixes
- like
- worthy
- way
- wise
a Godlike creature
trustworthy
clockwise
midway
CONVERSION
(zero derivation)
BACK DERIVATION
PHONETIC SYMBOLISM
[f],[p] in initial position very often express scorn, disapproval, contempt, disgust.
Ex.: fie (disapproval)
Fidle (dishonest practice)
Fidling (silly)
Poof (male, homosexual)
But not all the sounds are expressive.
[k],[g],[d]
[l] is often used in diminutive & pet suffixes
Ex.: darling, little, ugly duckling
CLIPPING
3 types:
1) The first part is left (the commonest type)
advertisement ad
2) The second part is left
telephone phone
airplane plane
3) A middle part is left
influenza flu
refrigerator fridge
Accepted by the speakers of the language clipping can acquire grammatical categories
(used in plural forms)
BLENDING
Is blending part of two words to form one word (merging into one word)
Smoke + fog = smog
Breakfast + lunch = brunch
Smoke + haze = smaze ()
- addictive type: they are transformable into a phrase consisting of two words
combined by a conjunction and
smog smoke & fog
- blending of restrictive type: transformable into an attributive phrase, where the first
element serves as modifier of a second.
Positron positive electron
Medicare medical care
WORD MANUFACTURING
A word or word combination that appears or especially coined by some author. But it
doesnt name a new object or doesnt express a new concept
Sentence sentenceness
I am English & my Englishness is in my vision (Lawrence)
Word manufacturing by children:
COMPONENTIAL ANALYSIS
Lexical meaning is a complicated dynamic whole & its constituency are semes.
A seme is a minimal unit of sense, an atom of lexical semantics distinguished on the
basis of oppositions by method of componential analysis.
A seme is not expressed in a word in any material unit but its revealed & singled out
through interrelations of the word with other words on a paradigmatic & syntagmatic
levels.
The sem. structure of a word can be represented graphically:
Father = human
Adult
Male semes
Parent
+
1) Componential analysis is very popular in linguistics, it shows a heterogeneity,
complexity of lexical meaning.
2) Componential analysis helps to differentiate between words (especially between
synonyms)
the difference between small & little lies in the presence of an additional seme
(pleasant, nice) in the word little not absolute synonyms.
3) Componential analysis helps to explain semantic derivation
(metaphor, metonymy, etc.)
4) Componential analysis to create the so called language of semantic primitives
minimal units of sense.
-
as soon we start to describe the semantic structure of a word we start to describe the
referent dog=animal
TYPOLOGY OF SEMES.
Meaning
Implicational Semiotic
Pragmatic Cognitive
Extension Cognitive
denotative significative
Semiotic meaning is arbitrary and conventional, especially established for the sake of
communication. No link between the sign and the referent existing in reality
Ex.: winter (December - February); dog
1) Rigid implication ( )
highly probable features of winter (for Russia , )
2) Strong implication
probable features of winter
3) Weak implication
these are unlikely features of winter rain, warm weather
4) Negative implication
features that can never be applied to this referent
green grass, hot weather not winter
in stylistic it is called oxymoron
Cognitive meaning represents the information about the world (the referent)
Pragmatic component presents our subjunctive attitude towards the world and its
elements (depends on our life experience)
Both of them or only one of them is represented in the structure of lexical meaning.
1) Most words are pragmatically neutral (only cognitive component in the structure of
their meaning)
chair, desk, pen they are free from expressing subjunctive attitude to the
referent.
2) fascist cognitive and pragmatic components
3) sometimes cognitive components are switched off & pragmatic component plays
the leading role
()
mother
extension
cognitive
contention
The difference between extension & contention lies in the difference between the
contents & the volume of the notion.
Names of properties ( )
Verbs, adjectives, adverbs dont have the extensional meaning, because they are
non-referential.
(
, ()
Some linguists use the term connotational meaning instead of the term pragmatic
meaning
dog
semiotic (sign) dog
cognitive an animal kept as a pet
used for hunting and guarding
pragmatic devoted, friend positive
wicked, bites, evil negative
intentional animal +
pet +
mammal +
used for hunting and guarding +
carnivorous +
extensional different kinds of dogs (breeds)
significative a dog is a mans friend
How long can a dog live?
Denotative I have a dog. This dog lives with me for a long time.
Implicational 1. rigid implication: 4 paws, a tail, barks
2. strong implication: runs fast. Bites
3. weak implication: can swim
4. negative implication: a speaking dog
BORROWINGS
Contemporary English is an unique mixture of Germanic & Romanic elements. This
mixing has resulted in the international character of the vocabulary. In the comparison
with other languages English possesses great richness of vocabulary.
All languages are mixtures to a greater or lesser extent, but the present day English
vocabulary is unique in this respect.
A brief look on various historical strata of the English vocabulary:
1) through cultural contacts with Romans partly already on the continent and all
through the influence of Christianity a very early stratum of Latin-Greek words
entered the language.
Their origin is no longer felt by the normal speaker today in such word: pound, mint,
mustard, school, dish, chin, cleric, cheese, devil, pepper, street, gospel, bishop.
The same can be said about some Scandinavian words (from about the 10th century)
that today belong to the central core of the vocabulary.
It means that their frequency is very high.
They, their, them, sky, skin, skill, skirt, ill, dies, take...
They partly supersede the number of OE words
OE heofon heaven (sky)
Niman take
Steorfan die
A more radical change & profound influence on the English vocabulary occurred on
1066 (Norman Conquest). Until the 15th cent., a great number of French words were
adopted. They belong to the areas of court, church, law, state.
Virtue, religion, parliament, justice, noble, beauty, preach, honour...
The influx of the words was the strongest up to the 15th cent., but continued up to the
17th cent.
Many French borrowings retained their original pronunciation & stress
Champagne, ballet, machine, garage...
Separate, attitude, constitute, introduce...
Adjectives in English arrogant, important, patient
Sometimes with their derivatives:
Demonstrative demonstration
Separate separation
17-18 cc. due to the establishing of cultural, trade relations many words were
borrowed from Italian, Spanish, Dutch, French.
From the point of view of their etymology formal words are normally of classical
Romanic origin, informal Anglo-Saxon.
Nowadays many Americanisms become familiar due to the increase of transatlantic
travel & the influence of broadcast media.
Even in London (Heathrow airport) baggage instead of luggage
The present day English vocabulary is from being homogeneous.
Semiosis
:
, .
.
. :
:
. (1839-1914) ,
.
,
( , ...)
1.
2. (, )
3.
1.
:
2.
3.
3 , 3 , ,
,
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Etymology.
2. It represents the same concept but in some aspect: a new shade of meaning.
Ex.: friendly-cordial (Latin)
Desire(French)-wish
Admire(Latin)-adore( French)
1. When borrowed words become assimilated in the language and the process of
assimilation develops to the point when its practically impossible to recognize the
origin of a word.
Ex.: cat, dinner, cup
Some Norman borrowings have become fully adopted, no phonetic traces of their
French origin: table.
Big in size as first it retained a trace of its former meaning wide because it was
applied to object with vast horizontal dimension.
Nowadays it has approached very closely to the word big.
International words.
Etymological doublets.
shirt-skirt from the same root etymologically, although shirt- native, skirt-
(Scandinavian).
Resemblance-common origin. Both-articles of clothes.
Canal (Latin)
Chanel (French)
Senior (Latin)
Sir (French)
Hospital (Latin)
Hostel (French)
Hotel (French)
to capture (Latin)
to catch
to chase
Loan Words
(translation loans)
Borrowings of a special kindcoz they are not taken into the vocabulary of another
language in the same phonemic shape they have functioned in their own language, but
undergo the process of translation.
-wonder child
German
-masterpiece
--
Lightning war
Blitzkrieg
Borrowed words are mostly learned words and terminology (foreign words dominate
the native).
All short common words are native, but there are also a layer words which have
become fully adopted, their origin- unrecognizable.
Classification:
by Haham:
1. Words in which the form and the meaning is new.
Ex.: audiotyping
2. the former-new, the meaning has already been expressed by some other word.
Ex.: big C-cancer
3. the meaning new, but the form existed.
Ex.: bread in the meaning of money
green=$
by Rosen:
1. these are words which can occur in isolation, but at the same time they can be
parts of new words.
Ex.: Euro(money)-Euro market
Anything burger
2. new morphemes which have appeared in the language recently
ex.: -nik peacenik
beatnik
-teria washateria
bookateria
3. these are words which consist of already existing morphemes, but in new
combination
ex.: greenback=$
skinhead
by Zabotkina:
1. phonological neologisms these are new words formed from morphemes.
Ex.: Z-z-z a short nap (onomotopoeic words)
2. semantic neologisms- they are semantically motivated
ex.: bread= money
green=$
3. syntactic neologism
phraseological morphological
(word combinations) (formed by the meaning of affixation,
ex.: big C conversion, clipping, lexicalization, compounding)
ex.: audiotyping
4. borrowings
ex.: Pizza Hut
Formation of neologisms:
1. affixation- is the most productive
ex.: beatnik, washateria
3. abbreviation (blending)
4. compounding
ex.: skinhead, greenback
5. forming new words from word combination and sentences
ex.: boldheadish, 6 oclockish
how-do-you-doers
6. forming new words according already existing productive pattern.
Ex.: fingersmith ()
tunesmith
7. lexicolazation
ex.: dont talk about izms with me.
Teens
8. wordplays
ex.: ?
9. quazilexems- words formed from phonemes.
Ex.: Z-z-z