ECOLOGICAL FACTORS IN SUSTAINABLE

LANDSCAPE PLANNING, DESIGN AND

DEVELOPMENT
BY

TUNJI ADEJUMO

DEPARTMENT OF URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING

FACULTY OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES
UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS
LAGOS

ABSTRACT.
An ecosystem is a community of living organism interacting with one another together on
one hand and with inorganic medium on the other hand. Natural Ecosystem can be
altered by natural catastrophe and anthropogenic activities. When human influence is
geared towards food production an agro ecosystem is created. If the activity of man is to
accommodate agglomeration of human habitats, an urban ecosystem is created. The
environmental success of any human settlement depends on compatibility of the land use
with the ecosystem. This is the philosophy of absolute reliance on the force of nature to
regulate growth, restore degraded landscape and manage generated wastes. It is a
sustainable ecological design and planning principle entrenched in the 1996 United
Nation Convention on Human Habitat (Habitat II). Such environmental practices
generate the much desired eco cities, eco architecture and eco technology. Simulation of
ecosystem activities in physical planning and design requires the knowledge of prevailing
ecological factors that keeps the system alive. These factors (referred to as resources) are
inventoried, digitized, mapped and analyzed for optimum areas that will sustainably
support the land use under consideration. Detailed analysis, synthesis and evaluation
will result in the suitability and vulnerability of the landscape for the proposed usage.
1.0 INTRODUCTION.
Landscape is a physical reality of the outdoor environment .It is composed of land form,
vegetation, water, structures and prevailing weather variables. It is a mental construct
viewed from two inter related perspectives, namely functional and aesthetic perspectives.
Functional landscape is based on work unit and is a system necessary for human
livelihood. Aesthetic perspective on the other hand sees the landscape as a scene for man
to contemplate. Functional view is objective while aesthetic perspective in subjective
with emphasis on personal, moral, self and social evaluation. Landscape is not limited to
vegetation, scenic beaches, farmsteads, mountain ranges but also human settlements.
Based on position of man relative to other elements, there are two broad categories of
landscape viz cultural and natural landscapes. Cultural landscape connotes geographic
entity that is heavily influenced by anthropogenic activities. They include towns, cities,
recreational centers, religions enclaves, agricultural estates and transportation node. They
are mans unwritten autobiography reflecting defined tastes, values, culture, achievement
and quality of life. The second category is the natural landscape where human activities
are either non existence or have been brought to a minimum level. Nature dominates and
dictates the management and continuity of these environmental components.

Natural landscapes are areas of visible harmony between man, fauna, flora, hydrology
and topographic formations. Vegetation belts, mountain ranges, wetlands, seashores,
flood plains, national parks fall within this class. They are defined physical environments
supporting complicated associations of living community. Physical environment is a
system with sets of living and non-living components. When interactions between the
organic and non-organic members generate a unique mental picture, environment and
landscape takes on the same meaning. Environment that embraces living components is
an ecological system. A landscape is therefore an ecological system with unique parts that
supports life. Man is part of this system. He affects and is also affected by the physical
and biological components. Man is dependent on this environmental system for material
necessities of life, health, balance functioning of senses and emotional well-being. The
extent to which the variables that define the system are managed determines the total

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benefit accrued to humanity at particular point in time. This paper examines the variables
that empower the continuous sustenance of this ecosystem.

2.0LITERATURE REVIEW

According to Botkin (1995) planet earth is a system. Life on earth is sustained by the
concept of ecosystem. Life on earth as an ecosystem is sustained by the interaction of
several organisms through physical and chemical environments. Ecosystem at any scale
is characterized by defined structure, visible processes and responds to time. Structure is
twofold namely nonliving and living units. The non living unit is also referred to as
inorganic group and includes rock formation, water and air. The living unit comprises
fauna and flora, which constitute ecological community. These are animal and plant
species found in a geographical location. Such species interact and function together.
While a set of species produce its food from organic compounds another group
decomposes the waste generated by the former.

The characteristic processes in a functional ecosystem are cycling of chemical elements

and flow of energy. Energy in the ecosystem is transferred from creature to creature along
food chain. Food chain is a linear relationship by which organisms feed on each other.
This feeding linkage often developed into a complex food web with various levels. A
typical food web is grouped in trophic levels which reflect feeding characteristic
grouping. The primary source of energy in the ecosystem is the sun. In a biological
process referred to as photosynthesis, green plants produce sugars through the absorption
of carbon dioxide using sun energy. All organisms in this class constitute the first trophic
level. The second trophic level is made up of herbivorous which feeds strictly on plants.
The members of the third trophic level are carnivores and they feed on herbivores.
Omnivores feed on both carnivores and herbivores and occupy the forth trophic level.

Resource analysis, synthesis and classification are foundational requirement for efficient
resource allocation and management. Analysis provides basis for scientific understanding
of earthscape as a system that is naturally managed through biogeochemical cycles. This

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is the pathway of chemical elements in the biosphere. Biosphere is that region of the earth
that supports living things. It is composed of lower atmosphere, water bodies and soils.
Life in biosphere receives most of its energy requirement from sun and the rest from the
bowel of planet earth. Living things, including man, are composed of chemical elements
required in appropriate quantity, quality and ratio. Research works has shown that 23% of
the 103 chemical elements (i.e.24 number) are actually required by living organisms. The
24 important life-giving elements are further classified as macronutrients and
micronutrients. While micronutrients are needed in small quantity for life sustenance,
macro nutrients, including the sub group referred to as Big Six are required in large
quantities. The Big Six chemical elements include carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen,
phosphorous and sulphur. They form the building block of life. Carbon is the most
important within the Big Six group. Carbon, oxygen and hydrogen in the presence of
sun energy form carbohydrates. Nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen and carbon produce protein.
Phosphorus is required in the transfer and use of energy. The continuity and existence of
any member of the ecological community depend on the availability of these elements at
the appropriate quantity, quality and time. Any form of limitation leads to stunted growth
of any individual organism, variety, species or the entire population. It may subsequently
lead to total extinction.

The possibility of this limitation buttress the fact that ecosystem do change over a period
of time. The disturbance of any ecosystem may be natural or anthropogenic. Earth
quakes, dramatic weather conditions including hurricanes, global warming are natural
agents that can alter the composition of natural ecosystems. Anthropogenic alteration of
the ecosystem is based on the fact that the ecosystem is a natural capital to be exploited
for the social, cultural, economic, mental and biological well being of man. These
material deposits are natural resources for the generational upkeep of its inhabitants. They
are the direct products of nature, (Gazama 2000). The products constituted the raw
materials for agricultural revolution, the primary produce that trigger industrial revolution
and necessary inputs for the forthcoming dispensation of information technology. Every
defined geographical unit of planet earth has in stock unique attributes for comfortable
living. From the poles to the equator, mountain ranges to the coastal zones nature had

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investments in its bowels to be harnessed for the needs of each civilization as available
knowledge, science and technology permits. When human influence on the natural
ecosystem is geared towards food production, an agro ecosystem is created. In an agro
ecosystem, the natural ecological succession is completely stopped. Naturally disturbed
ecosystems rely on inbuilt restorative process to recuperate. The recovering is referred to
as ecological succession.

Natural succession is in two stages namely: - primary and secondary succession. While
primary secession is a remediation process that allows the growth of groundcovers,
secondary succession is the actual re-establishment of the degraded landscape.
Comprehension of natural successional pattern is an asset in the reclamation of
anthropogenically induced ecosystem alteration and proactive planning to eradicate
physical planning failures. Ecological succession gives credence to Gaia hypothesis that
states that man manipulates the environment for the maintenance of life on earth (ECO
1996). If planet earth is viewed as a global ecosystem Gaia theory hold the view that
earth is capable of physiological self regulation. Such self regulation is possible when
man subject itself to the dictates of the ecosystem. On the contrary, man has alienated
himself from the ecosystem since the beginning of western industrial revolution.
Equipped with advance scientific knowledge, technological innovation and greedy
economic principles, man has completely subdued the earth. Alteration of the natural
ecosystem to enhance the cause of humanity is not the problem. The shortcoming is
inability to replenish it after exploration, exploitation, consumption and waste generation.
The aftermath of these conquering anthropogenic activities is environmental distortion
and destruction on local, national and global scale.

At the United Nations World Summit in Rio de Janeiro, 1992, delegates from over 1,178
participating countries committed themselves to the effective and efficient use of global
resources. Humanity came to appreciate the virtues of sustainable development to combat
poverty and integrated environmental protection in the developmental process. Ten year
later the plight of man grew worse. Year 2002 statistics from World Bank is worrisome.
Air pollution globally kills 3 million people per annum; 1 billion people lack access to

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clean water; 2 billion lack access to proper sanitation; 2.5 billion people depend on fuel
wood as domestic energy source; 1,130 mammals and 1183 bird species are currently
regarded as globally threatened; and 2.8 billion people live below poverty level. As
observed by Acquay (2000) over 50% of global poor live in Sub Saharan Africa including
Nigeria.

Nigeria has abundant natural resources for a successful industrialization. The

development balance sheet is at variant with the exploited natures deposit. Unsustainable
developmental strategy for the exploration, exploitation and management of these
resources positioned Nigeria as the 13th poorest nation in the world (World Bank 2002).
The natural assets are not managed to accommodate the future of the nation. A synopsis
of environmental degradation in Nigeria will better highlight the level of decadence.
Federal Department of Forestry revealed that 32% of the nations riparian forest cover
(about 10,000 square Kilometers) was depleted between 1978 and 1995. In 1994, over
469,422 hectares forest estates including Ogun River forest reserve in Lagos State was
dereserved for public infrastructural development (Gazama 2000). Indiscriminate
logging, fuel wood sourcing, bush burning, mining, oil spillage and urbanization continue
to strip the landscape of its vegetative cover. The long term effect includes the reduction
of biodiversity index. Adewoye (1998) observed that 484 plant species of the nations 4,
6000 flora are on extinction list. The situation report of the nations wildlife resources is
equally frightening. Lost of habitat, high national poverty index induced appetite for
bush meat and economic benefits from trading in priced living fauna constitute threat to
the wildlife. 25 animal species including primates are endangered. The total recorded bird
species in Nigeria is eight hundred and eighty seven. Twenty one of these are at the verge
of extinction (Obot 1999).

Coastal and marine resources throughout the 850 kilometers Atlantic seaboard continue
to suffer from anthropogenic activities. According to Doxiades (1978), 1,400,000 cubic
meters of untreated domestic and industrial wastes is daily discharged in the urban
creeks, rivers, rivulets and lagoons that make up 22% of Lagos States surface areas.
Scarcity of build able land in the metropolis encouraged the sand filling of wetlands to

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accommodate the high 5% urban population growth rate. Prime natural drainage
channels, floods plains, wetlands and mangrove associations - the breeding ground of
aquatic species are being reclaimed and sub divided as residential estates. This is very
evident in the littoral Local Government areas of Lekki peninsular with a high rate of
wetland conversion.. The aquatic life of most water ways and wetlands are in danger.
Ashiyanbi (2002) observed that the projected year 2000 fish demand for 8,109,782
Lagosians was 117,511 metric tons. Domestic supply for the same year was only 18,396
metric tons leaving a huge deficit of 98,731 metric tons

The concern for generational continuity in the usage of resources evolved the term
Sustainable Development. The reality of environmental sustainability was highlighted
by the 1987 World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED 1987). The
report of this United Nations meeting at Stockholm referred to as our Common Future,
reminded man to meet the needs of the present generation without compromising the
ability of future generation to meet their own needs. These needs are met by natural
capital in the ecosystem. Sustainable development took the form of a global environment
and development action plan (Agenda 21) signed by World Leaders at the United Nation
Conference on Environment and Development (UNEP 1992). Earth Summit I outlined
sustainable inputs for all human undertakings as a remediation measure to the wanton
consumption of global resources that manifests in environmental degradation and
impoverishment. The result was the adaptation of the principles of natural resources
conservation by several U.N. initiatives. As a developmental model, sustainable
development optimizes prevailing socio- economic benefits of natures deposits without
depriving future generations the same benefits. Environmental sustainability cares for
ecozone carrying capacity. It supports continuous functioning of the ecosystem through
interrelated physical and biological process. Development, on the other hand, emphasized
continuous economic growth. Resource development that benefits generations without
been degraded and diminished is said to be sustainable.

The second United Nations Conference on Human Settlement (Habitat II Istanbul)

specifically addressed the entrenchment of sustainability principles to defective cities

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founded in the culture of modernism an art and architecture era that celebrates human
ingenuity. According to Hargreaves (1983), modernism is a cultural attitude that longs for
perfection, clarity, order and physical purity. Modernism totally believes in the
technological out put of human creativity. Cities in modernism became architectural
objects that exhibit conquering anthropogenic influences on the natural ecosystem. The
shortcoming of these industrial technological driven settlements is the inability to
manage the by products of developmental processes including flooding, erosion,
pollution, urban heat island, ozone layer depletion and waste generation.

The Istanbul convection (Habitat II) subscribed to the goals of sustainable development
through the use of ecological variables to keep the well being of man continuously in
urban centers (U.N. 1996). This arose from the understanding that when a natural
ecosystem is altered to accommodate agglomeration of human habitats, an urban
ecosystem is created. City ecosystem is a complex process by which a species (Homo
sapiens) settles himself in a dense concentration.

Sustainable city development is not new to landscape architects. The harmonious design
of built environment had its root in public park concept by Fredrick Law Homestead in
his 1852 central park design for the city of New York (Reps 2001).Public park and the
subsequent metropolitan open space system were created as a solution to the unsanitary
cities financed by the then booming industrial revolution. Architect David Burhams 1875
City Beautiful concept respects the force of nature in human settlements. This urban
revivalist movement was tailored to environmentally improved 19 th century decayed
industrial Chicago. According Einsner (1981) great plazas and tree lined broad streets
with punctuating urban art features were introduced at defined interval. Though the
architects city beautiful movement was originally meant to establish Chicagos World
Trade ground as an entrepreneurial might of emerging America, it soon developed to an
all time aesthetic transformation formula for aging cities. The 1902 reformative garden
city ideas of Ebenezer Howard in England stressed the importance of greenery in urban
centers (Hall 1988). Ebenezer Howards Garden City concept filtered to all British
colonies including Nigerian at the beginning of twentieth century. This nature conscious

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sub urban new town movement surfaced in the Southern protectorate as European
Quarters where colonial administrators and work force reside. One of the earliest
European Quarters was located on the Lagos marina. They constitute what is today
referred to as Government Reservation Area (G.R.A.). The philosophy of the European
quarters (G.R.A) is as expressed in 1904 Lord Luggard Cantonment Declaration
(Luggard 1904) .The declaration specified that the European quarters would be conceived
as a town generous in edible landscape and extensive public open spaces at both
residential and administrative areas connected by shady pathways.

Modernism in architecture totally eclipsed these early ecologically conscious urban

design concepts. The birth of post modernism in 1972 triggered the return to nature in
search of solutions to the failure of modernistic human settlements. Post modernism
bends backwards to learn from history, looked at the current livability problems and
employs the power of ecological variables analysis to achieve harmony. Post modernism
preaches a systemic approach to design with climate (Olygay 1963) and design with
nature (McHarg 1971) to create human habitats that respects the environment. According
to Register (1992) urban ecologists have identified four design works that mimic the
restoration works in an ecological community. They are nature works, wild works, glean
works and home works. While nature works borders on evolutionary change, wild works
emphasize natural conservation and preservation. Glean works summarize selective
harvesting of renewable natural resources. Home works advocates ecologically oriented
environmental practices including eco cities, eco architecture and eco technology. Eco
architecture seeks the assistance of nature in solving the myriad of environmental
problems confronting individual building structures. According to Fuller (2002) one of
the architects in the fore front of nature conscious design in this century is William
McDonough. His philosophy of using the force of nature to modulate temperature earns
him a green architect award in his handling of Ford Motors Company headquarters.

Simulating ecological process in planning and designing of human settlement is what

Ryn and Cowan (1999) refers to as ecological design. It is the incorporation of the
knowledge of how nature operates into city design process. Ecological succession,

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natural growth regulation and waste management in nature are collective responsibility of
the living community. Ecologically designed human settlement, (known as ecocity), takes
advantage of available energy sources and demands that buildings, open spaces, streets
and transportation medium meet high energy efficiency standards. The goal of ecocity is
reflected in the philosophy of absolute reliance on nature to regulate growth and manage
the resultant by products. The natural force drives the biological, chemical, geographical,
hydrological and energy cycles in the ecosystem. The forces are ecological factors that
must be simulated or manipulated in the planning, design and management of sustainable
environment on site, city and regional scale.

3.0 SITE INVENTORY AND RESOURCE ANALYSIS

Sustainable environmental development requires a working knowledge of natural
resource systems, cultural parameters and physiographic obstructions. It is only a proper
inventory and analysis that can determine the best use a site may be budgeted. The
understanding of different ecosystems components (including soil, vegetation and
hydrology), and interrelation between these components will enhance the determination
of the resources for special use and function. The first step in physical planning is the
determination of environmental factors to be investigated. This is often dictated by the
design goal which is the function or land use under consideration. The factor that
determine the suitability or vulnerability of a site for a particular function may be
assumed as the critical factors for which data will be collected, collated, digitized,
mapped and evaluated. For instance if the goal of the landscape architect is to locate the
best site for integrated cocoa base farm estate, the first step is to determine the ecological
factors that best express the suitability of the site for cocoa - the principal function. In this
case agricultural soil type suitable for cocoa growth, climatic variables ideal for sustained
propagation and processing and appropriate terrain that enhance mechanized plantation
will be investigated to arrive at an optimum site for the cocoa industry. While most of the
information gathered will relate to on site actions, efforts must be made to accommodate
off site environmental variables. Irrespective of land use under consideration the
knowledge of the following natural and cultural factors are necessary in sustainable
physical planning:

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 Topography
Climate
Hydrology
Soil
Vegetation
Historic Landscape
Existing Land use
Aesthetics
Physiographic Features.

CLIMATE. Climate is both agricultural, tourism and physical construction resources.

Inventory of rainfall, temperature, winds, cloud cover on micro, meso and macro climatic
levels are necessary. Many on site climatic variations are related to other site components
especially topography, slope orientation, vegetation and water bodies. Emphasis must be
on the following variables when analyzing for hot and humid tropical climatic belt:
1. Temperature - annual average ranges, diurnal, monthly ranges.
2. Rainfall annual and monthly precipitation.
3. Wind seasonal direction; intensity and duration; and frequency of violent
storms.

SOIL: Soil development is influenced by bed rock (parent material), topography,

prevailing climate, ecological community and time of soil formation. Soil analysis for
physical planning is interested in its engineering and agricultural capability. Soil
engineering qualities seeks to know the capability to support buildings, transportation
routes and other structures. Necessary information for soil investigation include soil
texture, profile, humus content, floodplain, alluvium, rock outcroppings. Considerations
for soil inventory include the following:
1. Depth of horizon, seasonal high water and bedrock.
2. Drainage characteristics
3. Suitability for septic tanks, excavation, grading, and suitability value as
foundation material.
4. Susceptibility to compaction and erosion.
5. Soil fertility
6. pH rating.

VEGETATION: There is a direct relationship between visual, and recreational resources

of a landscape and its vegetation. Natural vegetation manifests the quality and type of
soil, microclimate, hydrology and topography. Site vegetation features that need to be

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studied in the course of vegetation survey are emergent vegetation; streamside and
riverside vegetation, vegetation beside ponds, lakes and reservoirs; and wetland - bog,
brush growth and tree growth. Detail considerations for site vegetation study must
include:
1. Tree canopy density
2. Heights of the forest under story
3. Over story heights.

HYDROLOGY: The study of site hydrology will reveal the visual and recreational
resources of the ecosystem. Surface water and the drainage system affect vegetation,
wildlife and microclimatic variables. If the hydrological system is to be used as a major
resource then its capability must be studied. Potential hydrological features to be
analyzed during inventory include:
1. Surface water first, second and third order streams; rivers, ponds, lakes and
reservoirs.
2. Watersheds first, second and third other drainage basins.
3. Natural water features springs, artesian wells and pumping wells.

TOPOGRAPHY: Landform play vital role in the location of various land uses and
recreational functions. Topography gives an insight in to the spatial configuration of the
site. Potential topographic features necessary for analysis are;
1. Elevation above sea level
2. Topographic orientation
3. Topographic slope.

PHYSIOGRAPHIC OBSTRUCTIONS: These are natural features on site that are not
compatible to certain land uses. Flashflood areas and earthquake faults are site
obstructions that may be avoided. Development consideration for floodplain zones need
be handled with care especially development with heavy infrastructures.

HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Any given site has a form history. Inventory of both on
and off site is necessary to know the location and importance of landmarks, unique
natural feature, socio-religious forested grooves and archeological sites.

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EXISTING LAND USE: Man has impacted the biosphere to various degrees at different
times in history. Knowledge of existing land use enhances the determination of site
opportunities and constraints. Listed below are possible land uses to be considered during
inventory:
1. Conservation forest reserves, parks.
2. Recreation sites.
3. Farm estates and farm lands.
4. Transportation routes roads, railway, and terminals.

Appropriate definition of ideal requirements for the land use under consideration,
inventory of necessary ecological resources, mapping of resource, synthesis of the
various maps will enhance the determination of suitable areas of the ecosystem.

4.0 CONCLUSION
A typical ecosystem is a pool of local natural resources. The concept of ecosystem with
the intricate food web constitutes the hub of environmental management. An
understanding of various ecological systems will provide a managerial basis for the
accommodation of appropriate art, science and technology for commercial exploration,
exploitation and industrial processing of the raw materials that enhance the livability of
human settlements. Deliberate efforts to manage natural resources sustain ably emanate
from planned inputs towards continuous functionality of the ecosystem. A scientific,
social and cultural knowledge of the basic characteristics of the landscape is important
for productive planning. Planning with nature (Mcharg 1971) provides a scientific design
basis for the functional management of these environmental assets. This is that
management that meets the human needs of today without jeopardizing that of tomorrow.
It is natural resources planning that keep the landscape productive socially, recreationally,
economically and above all agriculturally. A mismanaged landscape wastes the natural
assets. It is our wasting heritage. The waste must stop and remediation commence from
the knowledge of the biomes and the inherent attributes.

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