Principles of Effective Instruction - General Standards

for Teachers and Instructional Designers

Hennann Astleitner

This paper offers a review on effective instructional tnethods from educational and
psychological research. Thirteen instructional principles are presented which should
help teachers and educators to improve the quality of their instruction. Principles 1
to 4 concern general conditions of successful instruction. Principles 5 to 8 consist
of instructional methods to improve and optimize cognitive effects of learning.
Principles 9 to 11 refer to motivational and efnotional design. Principle 12 is deal-
ing with the handling of ethic aspects. Finally, principle 13 concerns the design of
instructional materials.
Many experts in the field of education of instruction (e.g., Baumert, Artelt, Klieme,
assume that people can only manage a cotn- Neubrand. Prenzel, Schiefele, Schneider,
plex personal and pt ofessional life when they Tillmann, & WeiB, 2003); and d) practical
are well educated. Such a credo builds the approaches which do not only consist of
core of actual quality assurance activities in traditional methods of instruction, but also
schools. These activities are based at the best reflect new developments which assist in
on a rnodel of good or effective instruction. facing global educational competition (e.g.,
The question of what makes instruction ef- Mayer, 1999; Paris & Paris, 2001).
fective has been in the focus of educational These results of research are summarized
and psychological research for decades. It is - within this paper - as "principles" of good
obvious and helpful for instructional practice instruction (e.g.. Sternberg. 1998). "Prin-
that research results are reviewed from time ciples" are general standards or guidelines for
to time. Such a review represents the goal acting which were created by generalizations
of this paper and will focus on: a) results of research results and which educational
of research which are repeatedly confirmed practitioners should keep in mind when they
and which meet criteria of social empirical want to design effective instructional methods
research (e.g.. Atkinson. Derry, Renkl. & and processes. Focusing on such principles
Wortham, 2000: Dubs, 1995; Haenisch. 2002; only increases the success of instruction
Helmke & Weinert. 1997; Slavin, 2000); b) when instructional methods are continuously
approaches which not only consider cogni- planned, implemented, evaluated, and adapt-
tive characteristics of students as relevant for ed based on these principles. To adapt means
learning, but also motivational and emotional that instructional methods are calibrated to
aspects (e.g.. Astleitner. 2005; Astleitner, given characteristics of students, teachers,
2000; Bergin, 1999); c) experiences which and subject matters. Such a calibration can-
allow toestablishanation-widequality assur- not be delivered by this paper, because it is
ance system for itnproving the effectiveness assu med that the connection between research
and practice can only be realized at a general
Hennann Astleitner, Professor of Educational level. However, when integrating these prin-
Psychology. University of Salzburg. Salzburg. ciples during planning, impletnenting, and
Austria.
evaluating instructional tnethods - together
Correspondence concerning this article
should be addressed to Dr. Hennann Astleitner, with a diagnosis of problems conceming
Associate Professor, Departtnent of Education and students and subject matters -. then it can
Sociology. University of Salzburg, Akademies- be expected that general guidelines have a
trasse 26, A-5020 Salzburg. Austria. specific influence on the design of fine-graded
 41 Journal of Instructional Psychology, Vol. 32, No. 1
instructional methods. Furthermore, it is
important to mention that not all principles
have to be implemented in order to produce
effective instruction. However, it should be
the aim of instructional designers to reflect
these principles periodically as general
instructional standards when planning and
evaluating instructional activities. These
principles are:
Principle 1: Instructing based on a design
for reflexive learning
During instruction, the student should get
the possibility to reflect on learning. Reflec-
tive learning represents an active process of
construction in which memory contents are
- mediated by thinking processes - changed,
expanded, linked, structured, or created. This
goal can be achieved by basic characteristics
of good instruction: a) taking preventive steps
to implement instructional methods without
disturbances and to handle successfully
critical events (e.g., emotional conflicts of
students); b) realizing a suitable, not maximal
pace of instruction and a sequence of instruc-
tion which allows students and teachers to
have enough time for thinking and asking
questions; c) presenting contents and tasks
organized and clearly; d) varj'ing instructional
methods during different phases of instruc-
tion; e) focusing instruction consequently
on teaching goals and offering plenty of
possibilities forexercising;f)considering in-
dividual differences and learning progresses;
and g) establishing a good social-emotional
climate between students and teachers.
Principle 2: Multiple supporting of cogni-
tive, motivational, and emotional charac-
teristics
Good instruction consists of a joint usage
of several instructional methods with different
effects on single characteristics of students.
Good instruction not only supports students
in thinking and learning, but also motivates
them and offers an emotionally sound con-
text. Instruction produces cognitive effects if
teaching goals are stated, pre-knowledge is
activated, stimulating contents are presented,
learning processes are guided, feedback on
tasks is given, learning progress is evalu-
ated, and knowledge transfer is guaranteed.
InstiTJCtion motivates students if attention
is aroused, the relevance of the contents is
shown, the self-confidence is strengthened,
and satisfaction with the results of learning
is achieved. In respect to emotion, instruction
should decrease negative feelings (above all
fear, envy, and anger) and increase positive
feelings (above all sympathy and pleasure).
Multiple support means that the methods
for influencing cognitive, motivational, and
emotional processes should be applied in a
way that these methods are complementary
to each other and do not disturb the effects
of the other methods.
Principle 3: Considering the strengths of
students
Instruction and achievement evaluation
are especially effective, when they assist the
student in finding and increasing personal
strengths and, in addition, when they deliver
guidance to overcome personal weaknesses.
Students are more successful in learning when
they are instructed in a way that their individ-
ual strengths are supported. Here, preferences
have to be considered for the kind of learning
(i.e.. self-regulated or teacher-regulated), for
instructional materials(i.e.,textsor lectures),
or for achievement evaluations (i.e., oral or
written examinations). In addition, instruc-
tion and achievement evaluation should be
based on individual- and criteria-referenced
standards and not on socially-referenced
standards (e.g.. "You have improved since
last week" or "You have achieved 80 percent
of all teaching goals" and not "40 percent of
the students had better achievements than
you!"). Achievement evaluations should
not only indicate whether a standard was
reached or not, but also contain detailed and
constructive information about how the given
achievement could be improved.
 Quality of I n s t r u c t i o n , . 1 5

Principle 4: Knowledge acquiring and ap- should be an integrated part of the achieve-
plying in varying contexts ment evaluation. Especially, many different
Daily instruction in school focuses traditional and new ways of achievement
within a first step on the acquisition of basic evaluation (e,g,, tests, observations, or
knowledge. It contains declarative (e.g., portfolios) should be used in order to get a
concepts, facts) and procedural (e,g,. rules) comprehensive and multi-faceted view ofthe
knowledge which should be presented and students' knowledge, thinking, and problem
become a part of the student's memory in solving behavior.
correct, structured, and inter-linked patterns.
In order to be able to use this knowledge base Principle 6: Stimulating argumentation
flexibly, it is necessary that it is applied and skills
evaluated repeatedly within practical cases. Argumentation skills or critical thinking
Such cases should vary in their difficulty skills concern general techniques which can
(number of elements to be used for problem be applied in many different subject areas
solving), in their correspondence with a and which represent an important capabil-
real task (reality), and in the availability of ity to handle obsolete, lacking, or wrong
guidance (learning support). Letting students information. For successful argumentation,
explain their knowledge to other students it is necessary to identify, to construct, and
also represents an effective way of varying to evaluate arguments. Instructional methods
contexts. supporting argumentation are: group activi-
ties with ranking procedures (of ideas, etc.),
Principle 5: Supporting and evaluating basic pro-and-cons-listings (e.g., advantages and
knowledge but also higher-order skills disadvantages), knowledge-wishes-learn-
In respect to research results, instruction questions (e,g,, what knowledge is avail-
should not only support the acquisition of able? what knowledge is desired? what was
basic knowledge, but also stimulate higher- learned?), summing up (e,g,, the core argu-
order thinking which guides problem solving. ment of a text), worksheets for stimulating
During instruction, basic knowledge should thinking (e,g,, writing a thinking protocol),
be presented with illustrative examples debates (e,g,, discussions of controversial
together with tasks and their solutions. issues), g) problem-based learning (e,g,, com-
Analytical thinking processes are stimulated parison of single cases), or graphic organizer
when students are asked to divide elements (e,g., using mapping techniques).
of knowledge, to compare, to evaluate, and
to explain them. Creative thinking can be fos- Principle 7: Realizing and guiding self-regu-
tered when students are required to imagine lated learning
elements of knowledge and to develop own In general, research found that system-
products of learning. Analytical and creative atically designed instruction by teachers was
thinking should be trained within problem often able to positively influence the achieve-
solving stages which consist of: finding a ments of students, what does not mean that
problem (what is the problem here?), defining students cannot acquire knowledge by self-
a problem (what are the components of the regulated learning activities. Self-regulated
problem?), formulating a problem solving learning means that the students control the
strategy (how can the problem be solved?), learning process in relation to given goals and
allocating resources (what is needed for that the student select activities to improve
solving the problem?), and evaluating the learning outcomes. However, for successful
solution (was problem solving successful?). self-regulated learning, students must dispose
Knowledge, thinking, and problem solving of general and specific learning strategies.
6/ Journal of Instructional Psychology, Vol. 32, No. 1
Such strategies concern and must be taught
within different subject matters: reading skills
(e.g., taking notes), studying skills (e.g.,
memorizing), collaborative learning (e.g.,
conflict resolution), project management
(e.g., organizing projects), communication
skills (e.g., presenting results to others),
preparing and taking tests (e.g., anticipat-
ing test content), or preparing to learn (e.g.,
managing time).
Principle S: Increasing the efficiency of
learning
When knowledge, thinking skills, and
learning strategies are acquired, then they
can be optimized what concerns questions of
the efficiency of learning. The efficiency of
learning is defined as the invested resources
in relation to the result of learning. Learning
with high efficiency occurs when students are
working with tasks which challenge, but not
overcharge them. Such tasks are related to the
pre-knowledge. but also request additional
knowledge or skills. Also, learning becomes
more efficient when learning and thinking
processes are highly automatic. Therefore,
students should get the possibility, for ex-
ample, in competitions with others, not only
to find a correct solution to a problem, but
also to identify a quick solution which does
not require much resources in time.
Principle 9: Arousing and sustaining inter-
est
Interest as motivation which is directed
to a certain subject matter, can be stimulated
by different instructional methods. Students
find interest when they think that they are an
important part of a development or a group.
Both, the development and the group should
be linked to values ("We do good things!"),
be presented in public, and offer support for
individuals. Interest can also be increased
when students experience competence (based
on success) in a subject area, when they are
able to set own goals, and when they can work
protected from social comparisons with other
students. For teaching contents, it should be
illustrated why they are important (relevant)
forthe goalsand the lifeof students. Showing
students what kind of knowledge they do not
dispose of and how this knowledge can be
acquired also represents a major source for
increasing interest. Finally, interest can be
aroused when integrating idols, activating
worksheets, learning games, or story telling
into instruction.
Principle 10: Increasing positive feelings
Sympathy and pleasure represent posi-
tive feelings of students. Sympathy among
students can be increased with instructional
strategies like: intensify relationships (e.g.,
get students to know other students, friends,
and families), install sensitive interactions
(e.g.. reduce students' sulking and increase
their directly asking for help), establish
cooperative learning structures (e.g., use
group investigations for cooperation), and
implement peer helping programs (e.g., let
students "adopt" children in need). Pleasure
can be increased by enhancing well-being
(e.g., illustrate students a probabilistic view
ofthe future), establishing open learning op-
portunities (e.g., use self-instructional learn-
ing materials), using humor (e.g., produce
funny comics with students), or installing
play-like activities (e.g., use simulation-based
instructional games).
Principle 11: Decreasing negative feelings
Fear, envy, and anger are negative feel-
ings which often occur during instruction.
There are several instructional strategies
to reduce these feelings: ensure success in
learning (e.g., use well-proven motivational
and cognitive instructional strategies), accept
mistakes as opportunities for learning (e.g.,
let student talk about their failures, their
expectations, the reasons for errors), induce
relaxation (e.g., apply muscle relaxation,
visual imagery, autogenics, or meditation),
be critical, but sustain a positive perspec-
tive (e.g., train students in critical thinking.

but also point out the beauty of things) for
reducing fear; encourage comparison with
autobiographical and criterion reference
points instead of social standards (e.g.. show
students their individual learning history),
install consistent and transparent evaluating
and grading (e.g., inform students in detail
about guidelines for grading), inspire a sense
of authenticity and openness (e.g.. install
"personal information boards" telling others
who you are), and avoid unequal distributed
privileges among students (e.g., grant all
students or no student access to private mat-
ters) for decreasing envy among students;
and stimulate the control of anger (e.g.,
show students how to reduce anger through
counting backward), show multiple views of
things (e.g., demonstrate how one problem
can be solved through different operations),
let anger be expressed in a constructive way
(e.g., do not accept escaping when interper-
sonal problem solving is necessary), and do
not show and accept any form of violence
(e.g., avoid threatening gestures).
Principle 12: Establishing respect and re-
sponsibility
Changes in society require the school to
overtake the teaching of general life skills.
Such general life skills are - above all - focus-
ing on respect and responsibility concerning
other people, the environment, the society in
general, etc. During instruction, such values
and related attitudes can be obtained if several
conditions are established: building a commu-
nity with members who take care about each
other, using democratic rules when decisions
have to be made, making ethical reflexions
(what is allowed?), answering questions con-
cerning individual personality development
and finding sense of living, discussing ways
of how to design daily living, or integrating
controversial issues (e.g., genetics or nuclear
power) in subject matters.
Quality of Instruction ..17
Principle 13: Using self-instructional learn-
ing materials
Many of the presented principles can
more easily be integrated in daily instmc-
tion, when learning materials are designed
in a way that they stimulate self-regulated
learning. In order that self-regulated learn-
ing can take place, learning materials must
be self-instructional. Such materials show
these characteristics: a reason why the ma-
terial should be learned, a statement what
pre-knowledge is necessary to understand
the material and how this knowledge can be
acquired, a consequent orientation on teach-
ings goals, a clear structure of the content,
tasks which allow students to test their knowl-
edge, learning guidance by questions and
marginalia, pre- and post-organizers, a pool
of tasks varying in difficulty together with
(complete, incomplete, or multiple) solutions
and solution paths, also text attributes which
support the search, the organization, and the
integration of knowledge, and figures which
help to understand the material better.
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