UTS - API Notes Renewable Energy Systems 2015

RENEWABLE ENERGY
SYSTEMS
48550
PRESENTER: A/PROF DAVID DORRELL
NOTES BY
PROF. JIAN GUO ZHU
ASSOCIATE PROF. DAVID DORRELL
School of Electrical, Mechanical and Mechatronic Systems

University of Technology Sydney
Sydney, NSW
Course Notes
2015 RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS 48550 1

INTRODUCTION: SETTING THE SCENE
The Module on Renewable Energy Systems aims to introduce contemporary renewable energy technologies to
students with an engineering background with some knowledge of energy and electrical circuits. The contents
cover sustainability and environmental issues, energy resources, electric power generation from renewable
energy sources including solar, wind, geothermal, wave, and tide, energy storage, and system integration. Design
techniques for renewable energy systems will be discussed in detail, and practised through three assignments,
specified as system specification, analysis of options, and system design, respectively. General topics include:
Introduction of Electrical Energy Systems Energy crisis and environmental issues, energy resources and
electrical power generation, and future trends.
Wind Turbine Power Systems Wind characters and resources, structure and components of wind power
systems, electrical generators and variable speed drive techniques for harvesting maximum energy, wind
farms.
Photovoltaic (PV) Power Systems PV cell technologies, solar energy maps, PV cell, module and array,
equivalent electric circuit, open circuit voltage and short circuit current, I-V and P-V curves, array design,
maximum power point tracking (MPPT), system integration, and technology trends.
Solar Thermal Power Systems Energy collection, synchronous generator, solar power plant, future trends
Ancillary Power Systems Geothermal power, heat induced wind power, marine current power, ocean wave
power, ocean thermal power, small scale hydroelectric power, piezoelectric generator, jet-assisted wind
turbine, solar thermal micro-turbine, thermo-photovoltaic system, bio-fuel thermoelectric power
System Integration Stand alone systems, and grid connected systems.
ASSUMED KNOWLEDGE
It is assumed that you will have basic knowledge in the following:
Understanding of power flow and energy.
Basic electric power circuits.
Mechanics, especially rotational mechanics.
Newtons Laws of Motion.
OBJECTIVES
On completion of this module you should be able to:
1. Apply contemporary renewable energy technologies to design generating and storage systems. (A.1, A.4,
A.5, B.1, B.2, B.6, C.3, E.1)
2. Consider sustainability and environmental issues, in the design. (A.1, A.4, A.5, C.3)
3. Apply Design techniques to design a renewable energy system. (A.5, B.1, C.3)

TEACHING AND LEARNING APPROACHES
This subject is taught through a combination of:
Group lectures presented by the instructor using the PowerPoint Slides which are part of the module
material. These have many systems examples. These notes are a modified version of the slide material. The
notes may be updated in lectures were they are out of date it is a rapidly changing subject!
Group lecture discussions coordinated by the instructor with an aim of completing the activities and
tutorials.
Individual study of the notes provided to review lectures and learn details required to perform activities
and tutorials. Additional research may be needed to complete tutorials.
Completion of the group activities. Groups of three or four are best to allow sufficient width and depth of
the subject. Further research is needed to obtain suitable depth in a particular aspect of renewable energy.
Individual assignment this will be vary for year to year and may include experiment and group work but
individual reports will be submitted.
RELEVANT RESOURCES
LECTURES
Introduction lecture and description of activities
Lecture 2: Wind Energy
Lecture 3: Solar Energy Photovoltaic Systems
Lecture 4: Solar Energy Solar Thermal Systems
Lecture 5: Fuel Cells
Lecture 6: Hydroelectric Power Systems
Lecture 7: Tidal Power Systems
Lecture 8: Wave Energy Systems
Lecture 9: Bio-energy Systems
Lecture 10: Geothermal Systems
Lecture 11: Energy Storage
Lecture 12: System Integration
The material will be covered in about 9 lecture periods although some lectures may be flipped.

ACTIVITIES
Activity 1 (30 minutes per group presentation and a group report)
System Specification 10 %
Comparison of Options 10 %
System Design 10 %
Activity 4 (Individual report in a strict format and may include some group work 30 %)
Individual assignment 30 %
Activity 5 Final exam 40 %
Tutorials these should be worked on in the students own time and reviewed in class:
Tutorial 1: Wind Energy
Tutorial 2: Solar Energy PV systems Title
Tutorial 3: Solar Energy Solar thermal systems
Tutorial 4: Hydroelectric Energy
Tutorial 5: Tidal and Wave Energy
Tutorial 6: Bio-Energy and Geothermal Energy Systems
Tutorial 7: Energy Storage Systems
AUTHOR/S AND CONTACT DETAILS
Associate Professor David Dorrell
School of Electrical, Mechanical and Mechatronic Systems
University of Technology Sydney
Sydney, NSW
Email: david.dorrell@uts.edu.au
Room 11.09.130

1. INTRODUCTION
In this section we will introduce renewable energy and give some motivation behind the mover to use of
renewable renewable energy. Different technologies are introduced briefly to allow initial thoughts about the
activities that have to be carried out. Student should start to discuss their groupings and main subject of their
three activities, i.e., the renewable system they will study.
EXAMPLE TITLE
Contents of Section
Energy crisis and environment issues
Energy resources and electrical power generation
Energy efficiency
Conclusions
1.1 ENERGY CRISIS AND ENVIRONMANTAL ISSUES
1.1.1 ENERGY CRISIS
With the ever growing world population and economy, the demand on energy is increasing rapidly. The current
economy depends largely on fossil fuels (oil and coal). Hence, according to recent estimations by some scientists,
oil will be exhausted in 50 years at the current rate of consumption.
Most developed countries are heavily dependent on fossil fuels both for electricity and transport. Therefore
there is an urgent need to find renewable or sustainable energy resources, or at least alternative non-fossil-fuel
energy recourses. Common renewable energy resources are: solar, wind, hydro, wave, tide, geothermal, and bio
mass.
While the ultimate solution might be nuclear fusion technology, nuclear fission technology could be feasible
solution for the current situation. Nuclear fuel appears to provide low-priced base-load electricity. France, for
instance, has over 70 % nuclear-sources electricity and offers cheap electricity (even selling to the UK via a DC
link across the channel). However, there are environmental, and hence political, concerns with this technology
as highlighted by the Chernobyl disaster, Ukraine, on 26 April 1986.
The potential change of energy resources, to technologies where the cost is higher and the energy at more of a
premium, means that the technologies for energy utilisation and conversion needs to develop accordingly. The
key issue is moving from capital cost to efficiency; e.g., electrical drives with higher efficiency, low energy light
bulbs, use of electric vehicles. All these applications tend to be higher in cost but lower in energy consumption.

1.1.2 GLOBAL WARMING
There is evidence that the temperature of the earths surface has recently increased as illustrated by Fig. 1.1.
There is a debate about the causes for this but the most popular viewpoint from the scientific community is that
this is caused by the burning of carbon-based fuel and greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere. The following
points and figures illustrate this perceived causes and effects of global warming (which is now often called
climate change because of the resultant extreme weather effects).
The temperature increases of up to 10C by 2100 (Fig. 1.2)
Rise in average sea levels of up too
More extreme weather effects
Figure 1.1. Illustration of recent temperature rises of the Earths surface.

Figure 1.2. Caption and Source
Decline in average rainfall
Increased cyclone intensity (e.g. wind speeds and rain) see Fig. 1.3
More intense extreme weather events and flash flooding see Fig. 1.4
Figure 1.3. Extreme weather patterns

Figure 1.4. Extreme weather patterns cause devastating damage
Figure 1.5. Climate change effects
Climate change has many and varied effects as illustrated in Fig. 1.5
o Ozone depletion heating and UV filtering depletion
o Poorer air quality
o Desertification (Sahara desert is growing rapidly) and water shortages
o Deforestation (both by man and by climate change)
o Poorer biodiversity

One of the major effects of climate change is the melting of polar ice caps (Fig. 1.6) which has been very
dramatic in recent years (the extreme loss in 2007 rendered the Northwest Passage "fully navigable")
and causes rising sea levels.
Figure 1.6. Melting Arctic icecap
The temperature rise can be related directly to the increase of carbon dioxide concentration in the
atmosphere.
This is illustrated in Fig. 1.7 which shows the rise in temperature and CO2 since 1880.
Figure 1.7. Illustration of the correlation of temperature rise on CO2 rise

The rise of major CO2 polluters is shown in Fig. 1.8 for the range 1990 to a prediction for 2030. This
shows that the developed world is by far the major polluter; however, China has, worryingly, increased
dramatically, and is predicted to increase further as their economy expands. Other high increases are
shown to be in other developing countries.
Figure 1.8. Increasing CO2 from major polluters from 1990 to a predicted 2030
How to Reduce CO2 Emissions?
o Use clean energy source for electricity generation, e.g. solar, wind, hydro, geothermal, and
nuclear (?) the energy gap in some countries may be so big that the only logical solution is
nuclear energy
o Reduce power loss in power transmission lines
o Use high efficiency electrical appliances in households and industry
o Increase energy conservation and insulation to reduce losses
o Since motors account for 65% of the electric energy consumed in industrial applications, it is
important to
Select right motor size (motor selector software package)
Use high efficiency motors, e.g. PM motors
Use high efficiency electric drive techniques, e.g. variable speed, direct drive
Different World greenhouse gas emissions scenarios for 2001-2050 are shown in Fig. 1.9. This shows
the effects of developed and developing countries reducing their emissions by 1 % per year and by far
the best solution is for developed countries to reduce their emissions (Source: Dept of Industry, Tourism
and Resources; developed from ABARE data)

Figure 1.9. Predicted CO2 reduction with reduction of country emissions
The Kyoto Protocol (1997)

o Sets emissions reduction targets for signatory countries.
o 163 countries have ratified, accepted or approved the protocol.
o Includes flexibility mechanisms such as CDM and Joint Implementation to reduce the costs of
achieving the emissions reduction targets.
o In the map in Fig. 10 shows countries in green that have ratified the Kyoto Protocol, countries
in red have not. This map is now out of date several additional countries have now signed
including Australia (ratified in 2007 by Kevin Rudd) but still no USA.
Figure 1.10. Kyoto Protocol countries (Green signatory countries)

Other Agreements:
o The Asia Pacific Partnership (AP6)
Partnership between six Asia Pacific countries
Includes Taskforces for Renewable Energy and Distributed Generation; Clean Fossil
Fuel Energy; Coal Mining; Cement; and Building and Appliances
o G8 Gleneagles Plan of Action
o The eight richest countries in the world working to combat climate change
o The Programme of work involves alternative energy scenarios and strategies; energy efficiency
in buildings, appliances, transport and industry; cleaner fossil fuels; carbon capture and
storage; and renewable energy.
Major CO2 players and their attitude to CO2 emissions:
o The USA
Has not ratified the Kyoto Protocol
US Climate Change Policy 2002
Strategy released to reduce GHG emissions by 18% by 2012
No cap on emissions, no emissions trading scheme
Focus on innovative technology and science
The State of California recently developed the Global Warming Solutions Act 2006
Reduce GHG emissions by 25% by 2020
Will operate through a cap and trade approach
o China and India
Both have ratified the Kyoto Protocol but have no GHG emissions reduction target.
China
o Renewable Energy Law that targets 16% by 2020
o Targeting 30,000MW of wind by 2020
o Feed-in tariffs
India
o National Auto-Fuels Policy
o Energy Conservation Act 2001
o Large Renewable Energy Programme
o Renewable energy target of 10% by 2012
o Australia
Australia may achieve its Kyoto target of 108% primarily through land use change;
Emissions from energy are expected to increase by 45% from 1990 levels by 2010;
In 2004, energy related emissions had increased by 35% from 1990;
Widely accepted that Australias CO 2 emissions are small when compared to
emerging nations such as China and India;
Capping Australias emissions overnight would not have a significant material impact
on reducing global CO2 emissions, but:
Climate change has the potential to have a disproportionate impact on
Australia it is in our interest that we act now if developing nations are to
be encouraged to make the necessary deep cuts in emissions to reduce
global warming;
The public will for change in Australia is strong, the political will is following
(although it is very much a political football since the economy is based on
mining, much of it coal mining).

1.2 ENERGY RESOURCES AND ELECTRICAL GENERATION
Energy is the capacity for doing work. The SI unit for energy is Joule. It can exist in many forms and what is called
energy generation is really energy conversion since energy is conserved and can be stored; The main forms of
energy are:
Electrical
Mechanical (potential and kinetic)
Chemical
Photonic
Thermal
Nuclear
Energy Resources
Energy resources are the various materials that contain energy in usable quantities. These take many forms and
are transformable to other forms of energy. They can be classified into expendable (will run out) and renewable
(should not run out):
Expendable Resources: fuels (e.g. coal, oil, & natural gas)

Renewable Resources: water, wind, solar, tide, & biomass
Nuclear is either expendable or renewable depending on your point. The following sections outline different
energy forms and the way they are converted to usable electrical energy. They are roughly in order in which
they have been developed.
1.2.1 ENERGY RESOURCES AND ELECTRICAL GE NERATION - HYDROELECTRIC
This is the one of the most traditional forms of renewable energy. IT can be for either energy generation or
energy storage (where the water is pumped back up to the reservoir using cheap or off-peak electricity at night
and used for peak generation in the day). A typical arrangement for dam and powerhouse is shown in Fig. 1.11.
Some of the plants can be huge. The Hoover Dam on the Colorado River is shown in Fig. 1.12 and this
will be discussed in a later section.
Figure 1.11. Schematic diagram of a hydroelectric power plant

Figure 1.12. Hoover Dam during construction
A slightly more detailed view of a hydroelectric plant is shown in Fig. 1.13 and this illustrates the
requirements doe turbines driving generators. The photos show the dam needs overflow and that the
turbine hall usually have many turbo-generators, which are brought on-line as more power is
demanded.
When the electrical power is generated it will be transformed to a higher voltage before exiting via
transmission lines (Fig. 14).
Figure 1.13. Various aspects of a hydroelectric plant

Figure 1.14. Cross section through a turbine hall showing generation and transmission
1.2.2 ENERGY RESOURCES AND ELECTRICAL GENERATION - THERMOELECTRIC
Though thermoelectric can use many energy sources- both extendible and renewable the most come energy
source is coal:
A system schematic is shown in Fig. 1.15.
Other popular sources are natural gas (which is cleaner) and nuclear.
These systems use superheated steam to drive turbines.
Figure 1.16 shows a typical power station. The large towers are actually just water condensers. The
main pollutants will be emanating from the tall thin chimneys.
The turbines are high speed (3000 rpm on 50 Hz system or 3600 rpm on a 60 Hz system) and will
generate high amounts of power.
These power stations can generate several GW in power (although they vary greatly in size) and are
outsized by only the largest hydroelectric and nuclear power stations.

Figure 1.15. Thermoelectric system using coal as the energy source

Figure 1.16. A typical thermoelectric plant (which probably used coal or gas).
Figure 1.17. Turbine hall

1.2.3 ENERGY RESOURCES AND ELECTRICAL GENERATION NUCLEAR POWER
Figure 1.18. Nuclear energy
Nuclear was developed in the second half of the 20th century and many countries have this capacity in their
power generation system. There is the emotive question about whether it is clean or not and many countries
cannot develop nuclear energy due to the security and weapons aspect to it. It is not the focus of the course but
countries that do have it.
In a nuclear power plant (Fig. 1.18), the heat energy released by nuclear fission is used to produce the
steam that rotates the turbine that drives the electric generator.
Table 1.1 shows a league table for nuclear energy generation countries in order of largest percentage
per total energy generation. France generated over 70 % of its electrical energy from nuclear fuel and
has cheap electricity
Figure 1.19. Simplified nuclear energy plant

Table 1.1: Embedded nuclear capacity
Country Power capacity [MW] % of total power capacity

France 63,236 75.20%
Slovakia 1,760 53.50%
Belgium 5,943 51.70%
Ukraine 13,168 48.60%
Armenia 376 45.00%
Hungary 1,880 43.00%
Switzerland 3,252 39.50%
Slovenia and Croatia 696 37.9% + 8.0%
Bulgaria 1,906 35.90%
Korea, South (ROK) 17,716 34.80%
Sweden 9,399 34.70%
Czech Republic 3,686 33.80%
Finland 2,721 32.90%
Japan 47,348 28.90%
Germany 20,339 26.10%
Taiwan (ROC) 4,927 20.70%
Romania 1,310 20.60%
United States 101,229 20.20%
United Kingdom 10,962 17.90%
Russia 23,084 17.80%
Spain 7448 17.50%
Canada 12,679 14.80%
Argentina 935 7.00%
Mexico 1,310 4.80%
South Africa 1,800 4.80%
Netherlands 485 3.70%
Brazil 1,901 3.00%
Pakistan 400 2.70%
India 4,780 2.20%
China (PRC) 10,234 1.90%
World 376,313 14%
1.2.4 ENERGY RESOURCES AND ELECTRICAL GE NERATION NON-CONVENTIONAL

METHODS
There are many non-conventional generation methods that are being developed:
Wind Power
Solar Power
o Solar Cells and Solar Thermoelectric have different technologies
Biomass
Ocean Power
Geothermal Power
Thermionic Converters
Electrochemical Cells
Hybrid Power Systems
These are briefly reviewed below and are detailed in successive chapters

1.2.4.1 WIND
Wind energy is being developed in several countries including Australia. What is important is to review long-
term mean wind speeds to assess its viability as a resource.
Fig. 1.20 shows a plot of the mean wind speed around Australia. Wind turbines tend to come on-line
at about 3-5 m/s, generate maximum power at about 12 m/s, and generate this maximum power up
to about 25 m/s when it becomes too windy. Fig. 1.20 shows that down the east coast of Australia
there are regions with higher mean wind speeds.
Cumulative Installed Capacity 1996-2007 and Estimate 2007-2012 is shown in Fig. 1.21 this is world-
wide.
Figure 1.20. Mean wind speeds across Australia in m/s.
Figure 1.21.Cumulative Installed Capacity 1996-2007 and Estimate 2007-2012 (GW).

Larger wind turbines have standardized using horizontal-axis three-blade turbines driving an induction
generator through a gearbox
There are alternatives, Enercon (Germany) have developed direct-drive generators with no gearbox and
use a synchronous generator. Fig. 1.22 shows a comparison of the two.
The comparison is looked at in more detail in Fig. 1.23.
The gearbox is substantial (Fig. 1.24) often multistage and a step-up ratio that is very high, so it is a
component that is worth omitting, especially in off-shore locations where access and servicing are
difficult. Gearboxes need regular oil changes and maintenance.
The size of wind turbines has grown greatly in recent years. Fig. 1.25 illustrates this with turbines now
available that have 125 m towers and over 100 m turbine diameters and rates at 4.5 MW (this sizing is
growing all the time).
The locations of on-shore wind farms are often remote and where wind quality is good, such as cliffs
(Fig. 26) and mountain ridges which raises environmental issues. Many are now going offshore where
the winds are stronger and more sustained. Access is even more difficult here.
Figure 1.22. Comparison of direct-drive synchronous generator (left) with normal gearbox-fed induction generator

Figure 1.23. Further comparison of direct-drive and gearbox-driven wind turbine generators

Figure 1.24. Wind turbine gearboxes
Figure 1.25. Increasing size of wind turbines
Figure 1.26. Line of cliff-located wind turbines

1.2.4.2 SOLAR
Australia is a large land mass and has excellent solar resources:
Enough solar energy hits Australia each day to power the countrys needs for 1 year
5 GW Potential resource
A solar map is shown in Fig. 1.27
Figure 1.27. Line of cliff-located wind turbines
Solar power can be divided into
o Photovoltaic (which is now common in small-scale generation Fig. 1.28)
o Very high growth is predicted
Recent European Commission white paper on renewable energy sources
Rooftop programs in Europe, USA, Japan
5.5% renewable generation by 2010 in USA
2% renewable generation by 2010 in Australia
o 25% average growth rate
Solar thermoelectric (Figs. 1.29 and 1.30)
o No greenhouse gas emissions
o No fuel costs

o Australia has a great resource
o Still very expensive
o Low efficiency (10-30%)
Figure 1.28. Typical PV panel array
Figure 1.29. Solar concentrators as part of power station

Figure 1.30. Solar farm using concentrators
1.2.4.3 BIOMASS
Biomass works similar to the thermoelectric system however the fuel is not oil or gar but of an plant or waste
source. Hence these power systems look similar to standard oil-fired power stations (Fig. 1.31) and produce
green house gases. However, plant-based fuel can be carbon neutral because the plants have been grown, and
methane from waste has low gas emissions and is a clean carbon fuel.
Figure 1.31. Biomass power station
1.2.4.4 OCEAN ENERGY
Oceans cover three quarters of the earths surface and represent a vast natural energy resource in the
form of waves
The World Energy Council estimates that 2TW of energy could be harvested from the worlds oceans,
the equivalent of twice the worlds electricity production

If less than 0.1% of the renewable energy within the oceans could be converted into electricity it would
satisfy the present world demand for energy more than five times over (from www.wavegen.co.uk)
However, the sea is a hostile environment. Breaking shoreline-waves (Fig. 1.32) are poor quality (might
be good for surfing) deep sea waves have larger and contain more energy
Figure 1.32. Breaking shoreline wave
Wave energy potential varies around the world. Fig. 1.33 shows a wave energy world map where the
energy density is in kW/m of wave front (Source: Wave Energy paper, IMechE, 1991 and European
Directory of Renewable Energy (Suppliers and Services) 1991).
A typical shoreline system is an oscillation water column arrangement as shown in Fig. 1.34.
Figure 1.33. World wave energy map units in kW/m of wave front

Figure 1.34. Shoreline oscillating water column arrangement
1.2.4.5 GEOTHERMAL
Geothermal is a niche application and often used in small-scale applications.
Fig. 1.35 shows a basic schematic of a geothermal power plant while Fig. 1.36 gives a simple diagram
and lists the advantages )Source: IEA, Renewables in Global Energy Supply, 2006; AGO, Hot Dry Rock
Geothermal Reservoir Development, 2003; and MMA, Renewable Energy A Contribution to Australia's
Environmental and Economic Sustainability, 2006).
Figure 1.35. Schematic diagram of a geothermal power plant

Figure 1.36. Advantages to a geothermal plant
Enough stored heat to provide Australias total energy consumption for the next 7,500 years (Source
ERDC 1994).
Fig. 1.37 shows the geothermal resources in Australia
Figure 1.37. Geothermal resources in Australia the circled are shows the Cooper Basin in South Australia

1.2.4.6 FUEL CELLS
Fuel cells are a technology which is not new but has undergone extensive recent developments. It is seen not
only as a electrical energy source but an energy source to vehicular transport and as such motor manufacturers
are very interested.
The electrolyte provides a physical barrier to prevent the direct mixing of the fuel and the oxidant,
allows the conduction of ionic charge between the electrodes, and transports the dissolved reactants
to the electrode.
The electrode structure is porous, and is used to maximise the three-phase interface between the
electrode, electrolyte and the gas/liquid, and also to separate the bulk gas phase and the electrolyte.
The gas/liquid ionisation or de-ionisation reactions take place on the surface of the electrode, and the
reactant ions are conducted away from or into the three-phase interface.
A simple fuel cell representation is shown in Fig. 1.38. A further representation is given in Fig 1.39; the
typical basic reactions at the electrodes are shown in the figure.
Figure 1.38. Fuel cell representation
Figure 1.39. Fuel cell electrode reactions

A fuel cell need careful control, a block diagram for a cell control system is shown in Fig, 1.40.
There is a variety of fuel cell types are listed in Table 1.2 with different substances playing different
roles in the cell as shown.
The different reactions for different cells are illustrates in Table 1.3 at the cathode and anode.
The applications for the different types of fuel cell are given in Table 1.4. It can be seen that there is a
range of sizes from a few watts up to several megawatts. It can be seen that the Polymer Electrolyte
Membrane (PEMFC) has a wide range of size and applications, especially transport.
Figure 1.40. Fuel cell control system
Table 1.2. Different fuel cell arrangements
CLASS ABBREVIATION
Solid Oxide SOFC
Polymer Electrolyte Membrane PEMFC
Phosphoric Acid PAFC
Molten Carbonate MCFC
Alkaline AFC

Table 1.3. Chemical reactions for different fuel cells
Table 1.4. Comparison of different fuel cell applications.
Advantages of fuel cells:
o Efficiency - Fuel cells are generally more efficient than combustion engines as they are and are
not limited by temperature as is the heat engine.
o Simplicity - Fuel cells are essentially simple with few or no moving parts. High reliability may
be attained with operational lifetimes exceeding 40,000 hrs.
o Low emissions - Fuel cells running on direct hydrogen and air produce only water as the by-
product.
o Silence - The operation of fuel cell systems are very quiet with only a few moving parts if any.
This is in strong contrast with present combustion engines.
Disadvantages of fuel cells:
o Relatively high cost of the fuel cell, and
o to a lesser extent the source of fuel.

1.2.5 ENERGY RESOURCES AND ELECTRICAL GENERATION - HYBRID POWER SYSTEMS
Renewable energy resources are often not stable.
In order to provide stable stream of electricity, hybrid systems are developed (Fig. 1.41).
In order for hybrid systems to function well, smart system management strategy and control
algorithm are required.
Figure 1.41. Hybrid power system

1.2.6 ENERGY RESOURCES AND ELECTRICAL GENERATION ELECTRICAL POWER
TRANSMISSION
After reviewing the different energy sources and localized hybrid systems, it is worth reviewing a
standard power system from embedded generator to user. This is illustrated in Fig. 1.42 that give a
simple schematic.
A large substation is shown in Fig. 1.43.
Figure 1.42. Typical embedded power system
Figure 1.43. Typical substation

1.3 UTILIZATION OF ELECTRICITY
Industrial Applications
o Pumps and fans
o Heating and lighting
o Motor drive systems, e.g. machine tools
o Electrical furnaces
Domestic Electrical Appliances
o TV, air conditioning, and washing machine, etc.
Computer Peripherals
o Disk drives (floppy, hard disk and CD), printers, etc.
Below are some more important or unusual applications related to utilization of renewable energy
Figure 1.44. Solar powered water pump
1.3.1 UTILIZATION OF ELECTRICITY SOLAR POWERED SUBMERSIBLE WATER PUMP
Water pumping is important in many remote and developing world locations. A development in Australia is
detailed below but these types of unit are commercially available from companies such and Grundfos, Denmark.
Since the generated power is at a premium it is important to have a very efficient motor.
CSIRO-UTS project shown in Fig. 1.44
Brushless DC, NdFeB, 4 pole, surface magnet

Water filled
>1000 produced with ratings of 300, 600, 1200 W
Sensorless, current impulse starting
MPPT
1.3.2 UTILIZATION OF ELECTRICITY ELECTRIC VEHICLES AND SOLAR APPLICATIONS
Electric and hybrid vehicles are gaining popularity. Fig. 1.45 shows a typical arrangement.
Figure 1.45. Standard hybrid car
However, to aid development there are projects such as the solar car shown in Fig. 1.46. This has
CSIRO-UTS / Aurora - 5.5 kW, 50 Nm peak for 72 s
Direct-drive, axial flux
Figure 1.46. Solar powered car CSIRO-UTS

This is also a solar power ferry in Sydney harbour (Fig. 1.47):
Solar Sailor/UTS - 2x40 kW, 400 Nm
Direct-drive, PM brushless DC
Figure 1.47. Solar-wind hybrid ferry Solar-Sailor
Figure 1.48. Efficiency labelling of appliances

1.3.3 UTILIZATION OF ELECTRICITY ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES
Over 65% of total electricity generated is consumed by electric motors.
About 62% motors are in the 0.75-7.5 kW range.
Energy efficiency of current electrical appliances are far too low because of the wide use of single
phase induction motors and fixed speed drive.
Mandatory energy labeling in NSW (Fig. 1.48) could reduce energy used by up to 50%
1.3.4 UTILIZATION OF ELECTRICITY FUTURE TRENDS
The current trend is to use power electronic converters and high efficiency motors in applications to reduce
power consumption. Brushless permanent magnet DC and switched reluctance machine offer improved
performance:
PM brushless DC motors are more efficient (typical efficiency 90-95%) than induction motors, but more
expensive.
The cost can be reduced by using position sensorless drive techniques and when PM materials become
cheaper.
The switched reluctance motors can be both more efficient and cheaper, but sensor-less drive still
needs more work.
A typical converter arrangement is shown in Fig. 1.49. This transforms a fixed-frequency fixed-voltage AC supply
into a variable-frequency variable-voltage supply to allow variable speed operation of a synchronous machine
such as a brushless PM DC motor.
Figure 1.49. AC to AC power electronic converter (inverter)
1.4 CONCLUSIONS
Excessive and inefficient use of fossil fuels are causing huge problems of global climate change, resulting
in various natural disasters, and energy crisis, which threatens the sustainable development of human
civilization.
An effective solution to the problem is to develop new technologies and increase the use of clean
renewable energy, such as hydro, wind, solar, wave, tide, and geothermal, etc.

To improve the penetration of renewable energy in the existing energy systems, new technologies like
micro grid and smart grid are being developed. Micro grids can integrate distributed renewable
electricity generation, energy storage, and utilization, and managed by local control centers, such that
they become autonomous and grid friendly, whereas the smart grid technologies would greatly improve
the power quality, energy security, and reliability of electrical power systems.
Although not directly related to renewable energy technology, efficient utilization of electricity, e.g.
EVs, is also an important part of the solution, through emission reduction and energy savings.

2. WIND ENERGY
Wind contains huge amount of kinetic energy.
Windmills have been used for at least 3000 years. These have been used to grind grain for centuries.
The use of wind turbines to generate electricity started from late 19 th century, e.g. 12 kW DC wind
turbine generator constructed by Bush, USA. These are illustrated in Fig. 2.1.
Because of the wide spread of inexpensive grid power supply, there was little interest in using wind
energy for much of the 20th century.
The re-emergence of wind energy occurred in late 20th century because of the shortage of fossil fuels.
On 14 July 2003, the UK government announced a project to build the world's biggest wind farms in
three sites off the English coast, providing enough power for one in six British homes, which will boost
the renewable energy sector so that Britain can reach its target of 10% of electricity from renewables
by 2010.
EXAMPLE TITLE
Contents of Section
Growth in wind energy
Wind resources and energy in the wind
Review of different turbines and sizing
Operation of wind turbines
Pictorial case study of installation
Figure 2.1. Traditional windmill and early electric wind turbine

2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.1.1 WIND POWER SYSTEM SIZES AND APPLICATIONS
Wind energy conversion is now available in a variety of sizes as shown in Fig. 2.2. This includes small-
scale generation for homes, boats and communications stations to multi-megawatt wind turbines in
commercial wind farms.
The increase in size is illustrated in Fig, 2.3 and this complements Fig. 1.21, and they show that there
has been a rapid increase in large wind turbines from 2000 onwards.
Figure 2.2. Different wind turbines
Figure 2.3. Increase in wind turbine size

2.1.2 COST OF WIND ENERGY, TRENDS AND INCENTIVES
Commercial developments and technical improvements have lead to a significant reduction in the cost
of wind energy. If this is coupled with electrical generation subsidy or aid then it is a commercial
proposition. Fig. 2.4 illustrates this.
This is related to the wind availability and size of wind farm as shown in Table 2.1. As the farm size and
mean wind speed (which gives better utilization and availability) the price decreases.
Figure 2.4. Reduction in wind energy price
Table 2.1 Cost of Australian wind energy

The cost of the wind has to be compared to the competitive bulk power costs. The cost of energy is
shown in Fig. 2.5 and this shows that the cost wind energy has indeed reached to point of being
competitive.
The payback periods are again functions of mean wind speed and energy price as shown in Fig. 2.6.
Figure 2.5. Assessment of price competitiveness
Figure 2.6. Payback periods with and without subsidy
2.2 WIND RESOURCE
2.2.1 AVAILABLE WIND POWER
The kinetic energy per unit time or power of a mass flow of air through a rotor disk is (Fig. 2.7)
1 dm 2 1
P U AU 3
2 dt 2

dm
where AU
dt
The wind power per unit area or wind power density is
P 1
U 3
A 2
Note: Under standard condition (sea-level, 15C), the density of air is 1.225 kg/m3
Qualitatively, a wind resource is poor if the hourly average wind power density Pav/A < 100 W/m2, good
if Pav/A 400 W/m2, and great if Pav/A > 700 W/m2. Fig. 2.7 shows that W/m2 for different wind speeds.
Figure 2.7. Cylindrical representation of wind flow
2.2.2 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
When assessing a potential wind farm location, typically measure at hub height for a minimum of one
year (using equipment as illustrated in Fig. 2.8), assessing
o Average wind speeds (eventually correlated to long term)
o Turbulence
o Maximum wind speeds (Gusts, AS1170)
o Differences across site (use of more than one mast)
Typically look for sites > 7.5 m/s on average at hub height
Figure 2.8. Wind speed and direction measurement

Time and space scales of atmospheric must be accounted for when a site selection of a wind farm is
being made (Fig. 2.9).
Figure 2.9. Sizing and time scale variations in weather conditions that must be accounted for in wind farm design
2.2.3 VARIATION IN TIME
Variation of wind speed can be divided into inter-annual, annual, diurnal, and short term (gusts and
turbulence) as shown in Fig. 2.10.
Variation of wind speed can be affected by objects or steep terrain as illustrated in Fig, 2.11. This
shows why hill ridges are a favoured location for a string of wind turbines.
Wind speed does vary with height, as shown in Fig. 2.12, so mountainous regions again make good
locations. Also turbines are mounted on high towers.
Figure 2.10. Inter-annual, annual, diurnal, and short term wind measurement

Figure 2.11. Wind speed variation over a hill
Figure 2.12.Variation of wind with height
2.2.4 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF WIND DATA
k U
k 1
U k
p (U ) exp
c c k
Weibull distribution 1.086
U
k U c
U 1 1k
and
( x) 2 x x e
x 1 x
1 1
12 x
2881 x2 51840
139
x3
...

Reyleigh distribution
U U 2
o Weibull distribution when k = 2: p(U ) exp
2 U 2 4 U
The distributions are illustrated in Fig. 2.13
Figure 2.13. Statistical distribution of wind speeds
2.2.5 WIND SPEED MAPS
In order to assess wind potential, wind maps are used and three are shown here
A wind map of the USA is shown in Fig. 2.14 and it can be seen that the north west coast appears to be
the best location for wind energy.
Fig. 2.15 shows a wind map of Australia, Tasmania and the west coast appear to have good wind
resource although mountainous areas through Victoria and New South Wales also look promising, and
indeed this is the location of potential wind farms.

Wind roses help not only indicate wind speeds but also prevailing wind. It is useful if there is a strong
direction the prevailing wind to help plan a site. Fig. 2.16 shows a map with several wind roses in key
locations around Australia.
Figure 2.14. Wind map of the USA
Figure 2.15. Wind map of Australia

Figure 2.16. Wind roses around Australia
2.3 WIND POWER GENERATING SYSTEM
In this section the different components of a large wind turbine are examined. The basic components are:
Rotor Wind turbines (HAWT horizontal axis wind turbine standard large turbine; or VAWT vertical
axis wing turbine smaller type and not as common)
Hub Pitch control
Drive train gear box
Generator Synchronous or induction
Main frame / Yaw system Direction control
Control system Variable speed control
Balance of electrical system Transformer
Tower and foundation
A HAWT is outlined in Fig. 2.17 these now tend to be three blade turbines. This has been a recent
standardization. Different styles that have appeared in over a century of development as shown in Fig. 2.18.
These have varying degrees of success in harnessing the wind.

Figure 2.17. Wind turbine components for a horizontal axis wind turbine
Figure 2.18. Different styles of wind turbine or wind capture device
HAWT suitable for both small and large systems, and most commercial wind turbines are HAWT.
o Advantages: High wind speed at a grater height, High efficiency.

o Disadvantages: Complex system, High installation cost for large systems (Generator and
gearbox installed on top of tower)
VAWT suitable for small systems
o Advantages: Gearbox and generator can be placed on the ground. Do not need a yaw system
to turn the rotor against wind.
o Disadvantages: Wind speed is low near the ground. Low efficiency. May need guy wires to hold
the turbine, and difficult maintenance.
Fig. 2.19 shows comparison between a HAWT and two VAWT turbines.
Figure 2.19. Comparison of HAWT and VAWT turbines

2.3.1 NUMBER OF BLADES OF HORIZONTAL AXIS TURBINES
For the reason of mechanical stability of the turbine, an even number of blades are avoided in large
systems. At the very moment when the uppermost blade bends backwards, because it gets the
maximum power from the wind, the lowermost blade passes into the wind shade in front of the tower.
Most modern wind turbines are three-bladed designs with the rotor position maintained upwind (on
the windy side of the tower) using electrical motors in their yaw mechanism . This design is usually
called the classical Danish concept , and tends to be a standard against which other concepts are
evaluated. The vast majority of the turbines sold in world markets have this design.
Two-bladed wind turbine designs have the advantage of saving the cost of one rotor blade and its
weight. However, they tend to have difficulty in penetrating the market, partly because they require
higher rotational speed to yield the same energy output. This is a disadvantage both in regard to noise
and visual intrusion.
Two- and one-bladed machines require a more complex design with a hinged (teetering hub) rotor as
shown in the picture, i.e. the rotor has to be able to tilt in order to avoid too heavy shocks to the turbine
when a rotor blades passes the tower. The rotor is therefore fitted onto a shaft which is perpendicular
to the main shaft, and which rotates along with the main shaft. This arrangement may require additional
shock absorbers to prevent the rotor blade from hitting the tower.
One-bladed wind turbines can save the cost of another rotor blade. One-bladed wind turbines are not
very widespread commercially, however, because the same problems that are mentioned under the
two-bladed design apply to an even larger extent to one-bladed machines. In addition to higher
rotational speed, and the noise and visual intrusion problems, they require a counterweight to be
placed on the other side of the hub from the rotor blade in order to balance the rotor. This obviously
negates the savings on weight compared to a two-bladed design.
As selection of different wind turbines are shown in Fig. 2.10.
Figure 2.20. Comparison different blade numbers
An example of deployed single bladed turbines is shown in Fig. 2.21.
The development of different turbines from the 1930s to the 1990s is illustrated in Fig. 2.22.

Figure 2.21. Single blade wind turbines
Figure 2.22. Development of wind turbines from the 1930s to the 1990s

2.3.2 SHAPE OF BLADES OF HORIZONTAL AXIS TURBINES
Most efficient wind turbines rely on aerodynamic lift.
Blades have a most efficient angle of attack
o Blades have to be pitched, or rotational speed of rotor needs to change to maximize output as
wind speed varies
o Blades have to be twisted to keep angle of attack constant along length
Fig. 2.23 shows that way torque is developed and the manufacture of a large blade
Figure 2.23. Torque and thrust in a wind turbine and blade manufacture

2.4 BETZS LAW AND AERODYNAMIC WIND FLOW
Betz' law states that only less than 16/27 (or 59%) of the wind power can be converted into mechanical
power using a wind turbine.
Consider a disk of air of mass rAdx (see Fig. 2.24). After it passes the turbine, its speed varies from U1
to U2. The kinetic energy extracted by the turbine is
A U12 U 22 dx
1
dE
2
A U12 U 22 U1 U 2
dE 1
And the power P
dt 4
P 1 U2 U2
2
Therefore 1 1 (see Fig. 2.24 for characteristic showing 59 % max).

P0 2 U1 U1

dx U1 U 2 1
where and P0 AU13
dt 2 2
Figure 2.24. Betzs law calculation and illustration of 59 % maximum

Actual wind flowthrough a wind turbine is unsteady, three dimensional and much more complex (see
Fig. 2.25).
Wind is constantly changing in speed and direction.
Wind turbine power capture coefficient (or efficiency) Cp is dramatically affected by rotor design.
Figure 2.25. Airflow through HAWT
The power and efficiency (Cp) of an ENERCON 1.8 MW turbine are shown in Fig. 2.26. This illustrates
that the power is maximum at 15 m/s and operation drops off at 25 m/s to prevent damage. The peak
Cp is at about 9 m/s. The increasing size of modern turbines and their corresponding power capacity
are shown in Fig. 1.26.
Figure 2.26. Power and efficiency (Cp) of an ENERCON 1.8 MW turbine

2.5 WIND POWER GENERATORS
2.5.1 FIXED SPEED OPERATION
The stator frequency of an induction generator is independent of its rotor speed.
In modern systems, e.g. Opti Slip (Vestas, Denmark), the slip of the generator is allowed to vary slightly
if the torque varies. This mean that there will be less tear and wear on the gearbox. The slight variation
of slip is achieved by varying the rotor circuit resistance.
In Opti Slip , the external resistors and switches are mounted on the rotor while the control signal is
transmitted to the rotor via an optical fibre mounted on the stator and the control signal is sent to rotor
every time it passes the optical fibre.
The basic scheme for a fixed-speed wind turbine is shown in Fig. 2.27. The torque and power control is
via the pitch control.
A typically 600 kW turbine is shown in Fig. 2.28 (Tararua Wind Farm, New Zealand).
These are cost-effective solutions but rely on good and steady wind resource for good power delivery.
Figure 2.27. Basic arrangement for a fixed-speed turbine
Figure 2.28. Tararua Wind Farm, New Zealand (fixed speed)

2.5.2 VARIABLE SPEED OPERATION
By allowing the variation of speed, the generator is able to capture the maximum energy contained in
gusty winds
The system above requires the converter to be rated full capacity as the generator, which increases the
system cost (see Fig. 2.29)
Typically used with PM synchronous generators and cage induction generators
Vector control techniques are employed in modern systems.
Figure 2.29. Basic arrangement for a variable-speed turbine
2.5.3 DOUBLY-FED INDUCTION GENERATOR
Doubly fed induction generators need a converter of only 1/4 to 1/3 of its capacity depending on the
variable speed range.
It needs a wound rotor induction generator, which uses slip rings and brushes and the maintenance can
be difficult and expensive.
Wound rotor is not as robust and economic as the squirrel cage rotor.
A special form of vector control is employed in modern systems.
The basic arrangement is shown in Fig. 2.30.
These are now very common turbine generator arrangements

Figure 2.30. Basic arrangement for a brushless doubly-fed turbine
2.5.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF HORIZONTAL AXIS WIND TURBINES
For a given turbine of diameter D meters, the wind power it can harvest at a wind speed U m/s can be
expressed as
1
Pturbine C p D 2U 3
8
where Cp is the power coefficient, which is determined by the aerodynamic design of the turbine and
varies with the tip speed ratio (the ratio of rotor tip speed to free wind speed), the drive train
efficiency, and the mass density of air, which is 1.225 kg/m3 under standard condition (sea level, 15C).
Fig. 2.31 illustrates the Cp- curve of a 225 kW wind turbine of a rotor diameter of 20 m.
Figure 2.31. Cp- curve of a 225 kW wind turbine

2.5.5 VARIABLE SPEED OPERATION VS FIXED SPEED OPERATION
Variable speed operation offers improved operation by the fact it can continuously operate effectively
over an extended range of wind speeds. This is clearly illustrated in Fig. 2.32.
Good pitch control can improve fixed speed operation as shown in Fig. 2.33 but this will require
sophisticated blade pitch variation.
Figure 2.32. Comparison of fixed speed and variable speed operation
Figure 2.33. Comparison of fixed speed and variable speed operation with pitch control

2.5.6 EXAMPLE OF A SMALL GENERATOR - WESTWIND/UTS 20KW PM SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATOR
Smaller turbines often use variable speed permanent-magnet generators, either standard radial-flux
with a slotted stator, or axial flux and air-gap windings
The example here is for a 20 kW machine which is slightly larger than the normal PM generator wind
turbine.
Fig. 2.34 illustrates various aspects of the system. The efficiencies are shown in Fig. 2.35 which shows
good efficiency across a broad load range.
Figure 2.34. Westwind/UTS 20kW PM synchronous generator
Figure 2.35. Efficiency with different loadings at constant DC link voltage

2.5.7 TORQUE PER UNIT OF TOTAL MASS
The power density, or torque per unit of the total mass is an important criterion for assessing whether
a generator is a good design. This is also a function of size.
Fig. 2.36 shows this for some development machines.
Figure 2.36. Torque per unit of total mass for different development machines
2.5.8 NOVEL DEVELOPMENT GENERATOR - UTS TWIN STATOR DOUBLY FED INDUCTION
GENERATOR
Currently a 250 kW demonstration unit is being installed in NSW.
The arrangement is shown in Fig. 2.37 and it used two stators.
Figure 2.37. - UTS twin stator doubly fed induction generator

2.5.9 ENERCON DIRECT DRIVE PM SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR
Enercon use direct-drive variable-speed synchronous generators as shown in Fig. 1.23.
Fig, 2.38 gives further details of this form of generator.
Construction and transportation of these generators can be difficult due to their size, as illustrated.
Figure 2.38. Enercon direct drive PM synchronous generator
2.6 TURBINE INSTALLATION
The best way to describe the steps necessary to install a wind farm is using a set of illustrations as
shown below.
Fig. 2.39 shows the site being prepared. This required the construction of access roads and these can
be used to help open up the site for farming and leisure.
Figure 2.39. Site preparation

Obviously a geotechnical survey is required to ensure the site is suitable for the wind turbines (Fig. 2.40)
The foundations are being poured in Figs. 2.41 and 2.42, and these have to be substantial; not only to
carry the weight of the structure but also there will be substantial side forces due to the reaction of the
turbine with the wind. This needs careful calculation.
Figure 2.40. Geotechnical survey
Figure 2.41. pouring foundations
Figure 2.42. Careful foundation forming to take the stresses of the tower and turbine

The farm has to be electrical connected together with medium voltage (MV) cables (Fig. 2.43) and
also connected to the grid via a substation (Fig. 2.44).
Figure 2.43. MV cabling.
Figure 2.44. HV connection and substation.
Returning to the turbine itself, Fig. 2.45 shows that tower under construction.
There is a lot of steel in these towers (Fig. 2.46) and the price can be dependent on the price of steel.
Transport and shipping can be difficult and expensive as illustrated in Fig. 2.47. Many manufacturers
and now looking at manufacturing turbines close to where they are being sold.
The locations are often in remote locations where the transport access is challenging (Fig. 2.48).
Specialist transportation is necessary right to sight. Even the blades are of a size where they can only
be carried one to a vehicle (Fig. 2.49).
Assembly is done on site (Figs. 2.50, 2.51 and 2.52) are requires substantial cranage.

Figure 2.45. Tower manufacture.
Figure 2.46. Inside a tower.
Figure 2.47. Shipping of blades.

Figure 2.48. Convoy of turbine generators.
Figure 2.49. Transportation of blades to site.
Figure 2.50. Assembly of turbine

Figure 2.51. Large-diameter direct-drive turbine generator
Figure 2.52. Large-diameter direct-drive turbine generator on tower
When the nacelle is on the tower then may not look very large. However, the nacelle from a 3.2 MW
gearbox-driven turbine is shown in Fig. 2.53 which shows a substantial structure.
This allows for maintenance and work within the structure (Fig. 2.54),
Figs. 2.55, 2.56 shows further craning of the turbine onto the tower while Fig, 2.57 shows the finishing
and commissioning of a turbine.
Once the turbines are connected then the system needs to be commissioned and a control room set up
to control and monitor the farm.
The size of the control will depend on the size of the farm. Figs. 2.58, 2.59 and 2.60 show the control
buildings.

Figure 2.53. Micelle during manufacture
Figure 2.54. Working inside the nicelle
Figure 2.55. Craning of turbine on to tower

Figure 2.56. Craning of turbine on to tower
Figure 2.57. Commissioning of assembled turbine
Figure 2.58. Control room

Figure 2.59. Computerized control system
Figure 2.60. Control room buildings
2.7 WIND FARM LOCATIONS
Fig. 1.26 shows the location of a cliff-line wind farm at Cathedral Rocks in South Australia.
Turbines are now going offshore as shown in Fig. 2.61.
Harbour walls and breakwaters also make good turbine locations as illustrated in Fig. 2.62.
Mawson in Antarctica also has a wind turbine (Fig. 2.63). This is a clean energy source. There may be
issues with high winds in this location!

Figure 2.61. Offshore wind farm
Figure 2.62. Breakwater turbines
Figure 2.63. Turbine at Mawson in Antarctica

2.8 SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
Environmental issues are important in many countries such as the UK and Australia. The following
considerations have to addressed:
o Land disturbance
o Affects on birds and bats (avi-fauna) see Fig. 2.64
o Affects on flora and fauna
o Increased human pressure on areas
o Decommissioning and site reclamation
Socially, there are also further considerations:
o Visual amenity
o Noise
o Effects on telecommunications
There may also be issues with construction traffic
Figure 2.63. Issues with bird hits in turbines and also local hostility to real or perceived problems

2.9 POWER QUALITY ISSUES
Wind power is variable and can present power quality issues.
The power can have a large daily variation as illustrated in Fig. 2.64.
Because wind does not blow all the time, wind farms require backup by other power source as shown in Fig.
2.65.
Figure 2.64. Variation of daily power generation
Figure 2.64. Variation of daily power generation

REFERENCES
[1] Mukund R. Patel, Wind and Solar Power Systems Design, analysis, and operation, 2nd Edition, CRC Press,
2006.
[2] J.F. Manwell, J.G. McGowan, and A.L. Rogers, Wind Energy Explained Theory, design and application, John
Wiley & Sons Ltd 2002.
[3] T. Burton, D. Sharpe, N. Jenkins, and E. Bossanyi, Wind Energy Handbook, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2001.
[4] www.windpower.org.
[5] www.nrel.gov/wind.
[6] www.wpcorp.com.au.
[7] www.enercon.de.
[8] www.vestas.dk.
[9] www.auswea.com.au.

3. SOLAR ENERGY PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS
In this section we will describe solar energy in relation to photovoltaic cells (PVs). It will address issues with solar
energy and the process of generating electricity from this energy. The development of the technology is reviews
and different systems described including efficiency issues.
EXAMPLE TITLE
Contents of Section
Introduction
Solar energy
Availability
Sun tracking
Current status
Photovoltaic (PV) Systems
History
Principle
Types of PV cells
Equivalent circuit
Maximum power point tracking
Applications
Conclusions
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.1.1 SOLAR ENERGY
The sun is an enormous nuclear fusion reactor which converts hydrogen into helium at the rate of 4
million tons per second. It radiates energy by virtue of its high surface temperature, approximately 6000

C.
We perceive solar radiation as white light. In fact, it spreads over a wide spectrum of wave lengths,
from the short-wave infrared to ultraviolet. The pattern of wavelength distribution is critically
determined by the surface temperature of the sun.

Fig. 3.1 shows radiation spectrum of energy to and from the earth (Boyle, p21, Fig. 2.5).
The energy distribution in Fig. 3.1 is further detailed in Fig. 3.2.
Figure 3.1. Solar radiation spectrum

Figure 3.2. Detailed solar radiation spectrum
3.1.2 SOLAR RADIATION AND THE SEASONS
If the energy output of the sun is constant, why do we receive more radiation in summer than in winter?
The earth circles the sun with its polar axis tilted towards the plane of rotation (Fig. 3.3). In June the
North Pole is tilted towards the sun. The suns rays thus strike the northern hemisphere more
perpendicularly and the sun appears higher in the sky (see figure). In December the North Pole tilts
away from the sun and its rays strike more obliquely, giving a lower energy density on the ground (i.e.,
fewer kilowatt-hours reach each square metre of ground per day.
Another important factor is that the lower the sun in the sky, the further the rays have to pass through
the atmosphere, giving them more opportunity to be scattered back into space. When the sun is 60 to
the vertical its peak energy density will have fallen to one-quarter of that when it is vertically overhead.
Figure 3.3. Orbiting Earth around sun

3.1.3 SOLAR ENERGY ON EARTH
The Earths energy budget relates the absorption and reflection of solar energy as the rays penetrate
the atmosphere as shown in Fig. 3.4.
Only 50 % reaches the Earths surface and is absorbed as illustrated.
The weather plays a big role in solar power availability.
Figure 3.4. Solar Energy Conversion Earths Energy Budget
3.1.4 AVAILABILITY OF SOLAR RADIATION
Direct and diffuse radiation When the suns rays hit the atmosphere, more or less of the light is
scattered, depending on the cloud cover. A proportion of this scattered light comes to earth as diffuse
radiation. On the ground this appears to come from all over the sky. Some of it we see as the blue color
of a clear sky, but most is the white light scattered from clouds.
What we normally call sunshine, that portion of light that appears to come straight from the sun, is
known as direct radiation. On a clear day, this can approach a power density of 1 kW/m2, known as 1
sun for solar collector testing purpose.
The measurement and mapping of solar energy resources over the globe are conducted by using
solarimeters (Fig. 3.5), which contain carefully calibrated thermoelectric elements fitted under a glass
cover to measure the total energy incident on the horizontal surface.

Figure 3.5. Solarimeter
3.1.5 AVAILABILITY OF SOLAR ENERGY IN AUSTRALIA
Australia has excellent solar energy.
Fig. 3.6 shows the Solar exposure for Australia (in MJ/m2) while Fig. 3.7 gives the average daily sunshine
hours over one hour.
The resource increases in an inland and northerly direction.

Figure 3.6. Australia solar exposure
Figure 3.7. Australia average daily sunshine over one year
It is worth looking at the world solar resource:
The worldwide solar energy during September is shown in Fig. 3.8.

o The unit for the daily radiation is 1 Langly = 0.0418 MJ/m2

Figure 3.8. World solar exposure

3.1.6 ELECTRICITY GENERATION FROM SOLAR ENERGY
The average solar power incident on the earth is ~1000 W/m 2 or 100,000 TW in total, which is far
greater than the current world power consumption of ~15 TW.
There are two methods to generate electricity from solar energy: photovoltaic and solar thermal
systems.
The highest efficiency for direct conversion of solar energy to electricity is about 15% in practice,
provided by photovoltaic (PV) cells.
In 2004, the total installed PV power capacity is 2.5 GW and it is predicted to reach ~1000 GW by 2030.
The current price of PV cells is still too high (Table 3.1 shows comparative energy costs) to be
competitive with fossil or nuclear power, but is expected to decrease as new systems are developed.
Currently, PV cells are widely used for applications in areas far from a grid.
For large systems, solar thermal systems can be more cost effective, and a few experimental systems
are being built around the world.
Table 3.1. Comparative costs for different renewable energies
Competitive selling cost [Euro cents/kWh] Capitol costs [Euro cents/kW]

Coal 4-9 1200
Gas 3-5 550
Wind 3-10 750-1000
Hydro 3-14 900
Biomass 7-20 1100
Solar PV 25-30 5000-9000
3.2 PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS
3.2.1 A BRIEF HISTORY
The term photovoltaic is derived by combining the Greek word for light, photos, with volt, the name
of the unit of electromotive force the force that causes the motion of electrons, i.e. an electric current.
Photovoltaic thus describes the generation of electricity from light.
The discovery of the photovoltaic effect is generally credited to the French physicist Edmond Becquerel
(Fig. 3.9), who in 1839 published a paper describing his experiments with a wet cell battery, in the
course of which he found that the battery voltage increased when its silver plates were exposed to
sunlight.
The first report of the PV effect in a solid substance appeared in 1877 when two Cambridge scientists,
W.G. Adams and R.E. Day, described in a paper to the Royal Society the variations they observed in the
electrical properties of selenium when exposed to light.

Figure 3.9. French physicist Edmond Becquerel
In 1883 Charles Edgar Fritts, a New York electrician, constructed a selenium solar cell that was in some
respects similar to the silicon solar cells of today (Fig. 3.10 From 1884 US patent application for solar
cell shown). It consists of a thin wafer of selenium covered with a grid of very thin gold wires and a
protective sheet of glass. But his cell was very inefficient (<1%).
It was not until 1950s that the breakthrough occurred that set in motion the development of modern,
high efficiency solar cells. It took place at the Bell Telephone Laboratories (Bell Labs) in New Jersey,
USA, where a number of scientists, including Darryl Chapin (Photo, Fig. 3.10: centre), Calvin Fuller
(Photo, Fig. 3.10: right) and Gerald Pearson (Photo, Fig. 3.10: left), were researching the effects of light
on semiconductors.
Figure 3.10. Selenium solar cell (left); photo: Darryl Chapin (centre), Calvin Fuller (right) and Gerald Pearson (left)
Rapid progress in increasing the efficiency and reducing the cost of PV cells has been made over the
past decades. Their terrestrial uses are now widespread, particularly in providing power for
telecommunications, lighting and other electrical appliances in remote locations where a more
conventional electricity supply would be too costly.
The efficiency of the best single-junction silicon solar cells has now reached 24% in laboratory test
conditions. The best silicon PV modules now available commercially have an efficiency of over 17%, and
it is expected that in about 10 years time module efficiencies will have risen to over 20%.

The International Space Station (Fig. 3.11) is powered by large arrays of photovoltaic panels with a total
output of 110 kW.
Figure 3.11. Solar powered satellite
Over the decade to 2002, the total installed capacity of PV systems increased approximately 10 fold,
and the module costs dropped to below $4 per peak watt and overall system costs fell to around $7 per
peak watt.
Fig. 3.12 shows cumulative PV power installed by type of application in IEA reporting countries 1992-
2002 (source: International Energy Agency, 2003). Note: data are from 20 mainly developed IEA
nations. This is significant PC module production and installed capacity in other countries, notably the
developing world.
Fig. 3.12. Cumulative PV power installed by type of application

The improvements in cost-effectiveness of PV are likely to continue.
Fig. 3.13 show PV system and module price trends in three selected IEA reporting countries (source:
IEA 2003).
The cost of PV is inversely proportional to the scale of production as illustrated in Fig. 3.14.
Fig. 3.13. PV system and module price trends
Fig. 3.14. PV module costs with respect to cumulative shipments

In production, some hazardous materials such as Cd (Cadmium) and As (Arsenic) are used but the
quantities are small. With effective safeguards and regulations the risks can be kept very small and
acceptable.
Energy is required to manufacture the modules and if it is from fossil fuels then there will be an
associated CO2 emission.
The energy payback time (the time that takes a PV cell to generate the electricity required to
manufacture it) is 7 yrs for mono-crystalline Si, 5 yrs for multi-crystalline Si, 3 yrs for amorphous Si,
2 yrs for CIS, and 1.5 yrs for CdTe cells. For example, 1000 kWh/m2 is required to build a Si PV panel,
and in Sydney the electricity production is 150 kWh/yr/m2, giving a 7 yr pay-back time.
The lifetime of a solar cell is in general 25 to 30 years.
3.2.2 BASIC PRINCIPLES
Addressing the lattice and structure illustrated in Fig. 3.15 the following observations can be made:
(a) Crystal of pure silicon has a cubic structure, shown here in two dimensions for simplicity. The silicon
atom has four valence electrons. Each atom is firmly held in the crystal lattice by sharing two electrons
(small dots) with each of four neighbours at equal distances from it. Occasionally thermal vibrations or
a photon of light will spontaneously provide enough energy to promote one of the electrons into the
energy level known as the conduction band, where the electron (small dot with arrow) is free to travel
through the crystal and conduct electricity. When the electron moves from its bonding site, it leaves a
hole (small open circle), a local region of net positive charge.
(b) Crystal on n-type silicon can be created by doping the silicon with trace amounts of phosphorous. Each
phosphorous atom (large coloured circle) has five valence electrons, so that not all of them are taken
up in the crystal lattice. Hence n-type crystal has an excess of free electrons (small dots with arrows).
(c) Crystal of p-type silicon can be created by doping the silicon with trace amounts of boron. Each boron
atom (large coloured circle) has only three valence electrons, so that it shares two electrons with three
of its silicon neighbours and one electron with the fourth. Hence the p-type crystal contains more holes
than conduction electrons.
(d) A silicon solar cell is a wafer of p-type silicon with a thin layer of n-type silicon on one side. When a
photon of light with the appropriate amount of energy (labelled a) penetrates the cell near the junction
of the two types of crystal and encounters a silicon atom, it dislodges one of the electrons, which leaves
behind a hole. The energy required to promote the electron into the conduction band is known as the
band gap. The electron thus promoted tends to migrate into the layer of n-type silicon, and the hole
tends to migrate into the layer of p-type silicon. The electron then travels to a current collector on the
front surface of the cell, generates an electric current in the external circuit and then reappears in the
layer of p-type silicon, where it can recombine with waiting holes. If a photon with an amount of energy
greater than the band gap (labelled b) strikes a silicon atom, it again gives rise to an electron-hole pair;
and the excess energy is converted to heat. A photon with an amount of energy smaller then the band
gap (c) will pass right through the cell, so that it gives up virtually no energy along the way. Moreover,
some photons (d) are reflected from the front surface of the cell even when it has an antireflection
coating. Still other photons are lost because they are blocked from reaching the crystal by the current
collectors that cover part of the front surface (source for text and figures: Chalmers, 1976).

Fig. 3.15. PV cell structure

Fig. 3.16 shows (a) Energy bands in a normal (intrinsic) semiconductor;(b) An electron can be
promoted to the conduction band when it absorbs energy from light (or heat), leaving behind a hole
in the valence band; (c) When the n-type and p-type semiconductors are combined into a p-n junction,
their different energy bands combine to give a new distribution, as shown, and a built-in electric field
is created; (d) in the p-n junction, photons of light can excite electrons from the valence band to the
conduction band. The electrons roll downwards to the n-region, and the holes float upwards to the
p-region.
Fig. 3.16. Electron and hole movement
When a p-n junction is positively biased (Fig. 3.17) and without illumination:

I I S eV /VT 1
When a p-n junction is illuminated:
I I L I S eV /VT 1
and VOC VT ln 1 I L / I S
where VT kT / e 0.026 (V)
When a resistor is connected to the terminals (Fig. 3.18) of a PV cell, the current can be expressed as:

I C I L I S e IC R /VT 1

Fig. 3.17. PN junction characteristics
Fig. 3.18. Simple resistive load connection
The Table shows IC, PC and V for cell with ISC = 1 mA and IS = 10-14 A
This characteristic is plotted in Fig. 3.19 and shows the maximum power point at Vm,Im
Table 3.2 voltage against current for varying load
V [V] 0.10 0.30 0.50 0.55 0.58 0.60 0.62 0.64 0.66
Ic [A] 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.98 0.95 0.89 0.77 0.51 0.0
Pc [mW] 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.54 0.55 0.53 0.48 0.33 0.0

Fig. 3.19. V-I characteristic with varying load
3.2.3 MONOCRYSTALLINE SILICON CELLS
The process for the manufacture of monocrystalline silicon cells is shown in Fig. 3.20 and Fig. 3.21.
Fig. 3.20. Manufacture of monocrystalline silicon wafers

Fig. 3.21. Manufacture of monocrystalline silicon cells and modules
Fig. 3.22 shows the main features of the laser-grooved buried-grid monocrystalline PV cell structure,
developed at the University of New South Wales (Green, 1993) and used in many high-efficiency PV
modules. A pyramid-shaped texture on the top surface increases the amount of light trapped. Buried
electrical contacts give very low electrical resistance whilst minimizing losses due to overshadowing.
The symbols p+ and n+ denote heavily doped layers that reduce electrical resistance in the contact areas.
Fig. 3.22. Laser grooved buried-grid monocrystalline PV cell
3.2.4 POLYCRYSTALLINE SILICON CELLS

Polycrystalline silicon essentially consists of ramdomly-packed small grains of monocrystalline silicon
(Fig. 3.23). Solar cell wafers can be made directly from polycrystalline silicon in various ways.
These include the controlled casting of molten polycrystalline silicon into cube-shaped ingots which are
then cut, using fine wire saws, into thin square wafers and fabricated into complete cells in the same
way as monoscrystalline cells.
Polycrystalline PV cells are easier and cheaper to manufacture than their monocrystalline counterparts,
but they tend to be less efficient because light-generated charge carriers can recombine at the
boundaries between the grains within polycrystalline silicon.
By process the material properly to have large grains and oriented in top-to-bottom direction to allow
light to penetrate deeply into each grain, the efficiency can be substantially increased.
Fig. 3.23. Ramdomly-packed small grains of monocrystalline silicon
3.2.5 SILICON RIBBONS AND SHEETS
This approach involves drawing thin ribbons or sheets of multicrystalline silicon from a silicon melt (Fig.
3.24). One of the main processes is known as edge-defined, film-fed grown (EFG), and was originally
developed by the US company Mobil Solar. EFG cells are manufactured by the German company RWE
Schott Solar and silicon ribbon cells by the Evergreen Solar in USA The figure shows thin hollow tubes
up to 6 cm long that are slowly pulled through a die from a melt or pure silicon, then cut by laser into
individual cells.
Fig. 3.24. Silicon ribbons and sheets

3.2.6 AMORPHOUS SILICON CELLS
Solar cells can be made from thin films of silicon in a form known as amorphous silicon (a-Si) (Fig. 3.25,
in which the silicon atoms are much less ordered than in the crystalline forms described previously. In
a-Si, not every silicon atom is fully bonded to its neighbours, which leaves so-called dangling bonds that
can absorb any additional electrons introduced by doping, so rendering any p-n junction ineffective.
This problem is largely overcome in the process by which a-Si cells are normally manufactured.
Amorphous silicon cells are much cheaper to produce than crystalline silicon. A-Si is also a much better
absorber of light, so much thinner (and cheaper) films can be used.
Max eff. 14%, initially 6-10%, and stabilizing at 4-8%.
In Fig. 3.25, the top electrical contact is made of a transparent conducting layer of tin oxide deposited
on the glass. Silicon dioxide forms a thin barrier layer between the glass and the tin oxide. The bottom
contact is made of aluminium. In between are layers of p-type, intrinsic and n-type amorphous silicon.
Fig. 3.25. Amorphous silicon cells
3.2.7 MULTI-JUNCTION SILICON CELLS

One way of improving the overall conversion efficiency of PV cells and modules is the stacked or multi-
junction approach, in which two or more PV junctions are layered one on top of the other, each layer
extracting energy from a particular portion of the spectrum of the incoming light. A cell with two layers
is often called a tandem device.
Multi junction modules (Fig. 3.26) using amorphous silicon are available with stable efficiencies of
around 8% from companies such as Unicolar and RWE.
Cells of different types can also be used, as in the Sanyo Hybrid HIT module, in which a thin
monochrystalline layer is sandwiched between two amorphous silicon layers. This enables very high
conversion efficiencies to be achieved with low material and manufacturing energy requirements.
Fig. 3.26. Multi-junction silicon cells
3.2.8 OTHER TYPES OF SILICON CELLS

Concentrating PV systems Another way of getting more energy out of a given number of PV cells is to
use mirrors or lenses to concentrate the incoming solar radiation. In a concentrating PV system, the
cells usually need to be cooled, either passively or actively, to prevent overheating.
Silicon spheres (Fig. 3.27, left) The US firm Texas Instruments has developed an ingenious way of
making PV cells using tiny, millimeter sized, spheres of polycrystalline silicon embedded at regular
intervals between thin sheets of aluminum foil.
Photoelectrochemical cells (Fig. 3.27, right Gratzel Cell from Swiss Federal Institute of Technology,
Switzerland) - Third generation PV cells Based on nanotechnology.
Fig. 3.27. Silicon spheres and Gratzel Cell
3.2.9 CONVERSION EFFICIENCY
Typical (2004) conversion efficiencies for different types of solar cell are shown in Table 3.3
o Abbreviations: sc, single crystal; mc, multicrystalline; single, single junction; multi, multiple
junctions
Table 3.3. Solar cell efficiencies
3.2.10 COMPARIONS OF SILICON TECHNOLOGIES

A comparison of crystalline and amorphous silicon technologies is given in Table 3.4 .
Table 3.4. Crystalline and amorphous silicon technologies (2004)
Crystalline silicon Amorphous silicon
Present status Workhorse of terrestrial and New rapidly developing technology, tens of
space application MW of yearly production facilities were
commissioned in 1996 to produce low-cost
cells
Thickness 200-400 m 2 m (less than 1 % of that in crystalline)
Raw material High About 3 % of that in crystalline silicon
Conversion efficiency 16 20 % 8 10 %
Module cost (2004) $3-5 per watt, expected to fall $3-5 poer watt, expected to fall rapidly to $2
slowly due to the maturation per watt due to substantial DOE funding to full
of this technology develop this technology
3.2.11 EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT TRENDS IN EARLY CELLS AND IN LABORATORY
Fig. 3.28 shows the trends for efficiency improvement (up to about 1998) for PV cells.
Fig 3.29 best silicon cell efficiency in a laboratory up to about 2007.
Distinction needs to be made between best efficiency and efficiencies in commercial cells that are
mass produced to a manufacturing cost.
Fig. 3.28. PV cell efficiency improvements

Fig. 3.29. Best silicon cell efficiency in a laboratory up to about 2007

3.2.12 BASIC CONSTRUCTION OF PV CELLS, MODULE AND ARRAY ARRANGEMENT
Basic construction of PV cell with performance-enhancing features (current-collecting silver mesh, anti-
reflection coating and cover-glass protection) is shown in Fig. 3.30.
Several PV cells make a module, and several modules make an array (Fig. 3.31).
The construction of PV module is shown in Fig. 3.32: (1) frame, (2) weatherproof junction box, (3) rating
plate, (4) weather protection for 30-year life, (5) PV cell, (6) tempered high-transmittivity cover glass,
(7) outside electrical bus, (8) frame clearance (from Solarex/BP Solar)
Fig. 3.30. Basic construction and connection of PV cell
Fig. 3.31. Module and array

Fig. 3.32. Module construction
3.2.13 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF PV MODULE
The equivalent circuit for a PV module showing the diode and ground leakage currents is illustrated in
Fig. 3.33.
In the equivalent circuit, the current delivered to the external load equals the current IL generated by
the illumination, less the diode current Id and the shunt-leakage current ISH. The open circuit voltage
VOC of the cell is obtained when the load current is zero, i.e., when I = 0 and is given by:
VOC V IRSH
QVOC
The diode current is given by the classical diode current expression: I d I D e AkT 1

ID the saturation current of the diode

Q electron charge 1.6 10 19 C
where A curve-fitting constant
k Boltzmann constant 1.38 10 23 J/K
T temperature on absolute scale K
QVOC V
The load current is therefore given by the expression: I I L I D e AkT 1 OC
RSH

Fig. 3.33. PV module equivalent circuit
The last term is the leakage current to the ground. In practical cells, it is negligible compared to IL and
ID and is generally ignored. The diode-saturation current can therefore be determined experimentally
by applying a voltage VOC to the cell in the dark and, measuring the current going into the cell. This
current is often called the dark current or the reverse diode-saturation current.
The maximum photovoltage is produced under open-circuit voltage. Again. By ignoring the ground
leakage current, the previous equation for I, when I = 0, gives the open-circuit voltage:
AkT I L
VOC ln 1
Q D
I
The term kT/Q is expressed in voltage (0.026 V at 300 K). In practical photocells. The photocurrent is
several orders of magnitude greater than the reverse saturation current. Therefore, the open-circuit
voltage is many times the kT/Q value. Under conditions of constant illumination, IL/ID is a sufficiently
strong function of the cell temperature, and the solar cell ordinarily shows a negative temperature
coefficient of the open-circuit voltage.
3.2.14 I-V AND P-V CURVES
The current vs voltage (I-V) characteristics of a PV module in sunlight and in the dark are shown in Fig.
3.34. while the power vs voltage (P-V) characteristic of the PV module in sunlight is given in Fig. 3.35.
Fig. 3.34. I-V characteristics for PV module

Fig. 3.35. P-V characteristics for PV module
3.2.15 SHADOW EFFECT
The Shadow effect on one long string of an array is shown in Fig. 3.36 (power degradation is small until
shadow exceeds the critical limit).
Fig. 3.36. Shadow effect

3.2.16 MINIMIZE POWER LOSS UNDER SHADOW
In order to minimize the shadow effect, bypass diodes in the PV string can be utilized (Fig. 3.37).
Fig. 3.37. Bypass diodes
3.2.17 PARALLEL CONNECTION
In addition to using bypass diodes, parallel connection of PV strings via string diodes for protection,
this is illustrated in Fig. 3.38.
Fig. 3.38. Parallel connection and string diodes

3.2.18 TEMPERATURE EFFECTS ON I-V AND P-V CURVE
The effects of temperature on the I-V characteristic (cell produces less current but greater voltage,
with net gain in the power output at cold temperatures) are shown in Fig. 3.39.
The effects of temperature on the P-V characteristic (cell produces more power at cold temperatures)
are also illustrated on Fig. 3.40.
Fig. 3.39. Temperature effects on the I-V characteristic
Fig. 3.40. Temperature effects on the P-V characteristic
3.2.19 ELECTRIC LOAD MATCHINGAND STABILITY
It is important to load the cells and modules correctly. This is often done using a maximum power point
tracker (MPT).
The effect of a varying load resistance is shown in Fig. 3.41.
This shows the operating stability and electrical load matching with constant-resistive load and
constant-power load.

Fig. 3.41. Load matching
Therefore, the necessary conditions for the electrical operating stability of the solar array is:
dP dP
dV dV
load source
Some loads such as heaters have constant resistances, which absorb power that varies with the square
of the voltage. Other loads such as induction motors behave more like constant-power loads. They draw
more current at lower voltage and vice versa. In most large systems with mixed loads, the power varies
approximately in a linear proportion with voltage.
Therefore to keep the system stably a maximum power point tracker is used. The load line is derived
from a set of V-I curves at different light intensive as illustrated in Fig. 3.42.
Fig. 3.42. Derivation of maximum load line from maximum power points

3.2.20 GRID CONNECTION
It is important to connect the system correctly, either to batteries or to the grid. There are many
schemes for subsidizing the grid connection in a domestic dwelling.
A scheme for a typical single-phase PV grid injection system equipped with a Maximum Power Tracker
(MPPT) and an energy counter (kWh) is shown in Fig. 3.43.
Fig. 3.43. Block diagram of grid connection
3.3 PRACTICAL SYSTEMS
3.3.1 TILT AND ORIENTATION AND SUN TRACKING
To collect as much radiation as possible, a surface should face south in northern hemisphere or north
in southern hemisphere and must be tilted towards the sun to an angle depending on the latitude and
the time of year (see Fig. 3.44).
The effects of tilt and orientation are not particularly critical. Table 3.5 shows the effect of tilting a
south-facing Collection surface (Kew, London, 52 N).
Table 3.5. Radiation as a function of tilt (Kew, London, 52 N); Source: Achard and Gicquel, 1986
Annual total radiation June total radiation December total

Tilt [C]
[kwh/m2] [kwh/m2] radiation [kwh/m2]
0-Horizontal 944 153 16
30 1068 153 25
45 1053 143 29
60 990 126 30
90-Vertical 745 82 29

Fig. 3.44. Effects of tilt
When the sun moves from the east to west, a sun tracking system can increase the energy yield up to
40% over the year compared to the fixed array design.
One method of designing the sun tracker is to use two PV cells mounted on two 45 wedges (Fig. 3.45
and connecting them differentially in series through an actuator motor. When the sun is normal, the
currents of both cells are equal and cancel each other. The motor is not activated and the panel stays.
When the panel is not normal to the sun, the currents of the two cells are different and the motor
current is nonzero. The motor would drive the panel until it is normal to the sun.
Fig. 3.45. Sun tracking

3.3.2 REMOTE AND INNOVATIVE PV SYSTEMS
There are many applications of PV cells. Simple low-power stand alone systems are shown in Fig. 3.46:
(Left) PV parking meter; (middle) navigation buoy; (right) telemetry system
A system mentioned earlier is illustrated in Fig. 3.47. This solar powered pump is a very important
application and the system comes in 300, 600 and 1200 W power ratings for pumping to a depth of 120.
It uses PM brushless DC motors which have high efficiency and >1000 units were produced by Mono
Pumps
Again, the solar powered car and ferry mentioned earlier are shown in Fig. 3.48.
Fig. 3.46. Simple stand-alone PV systems
Fig. 3.47. PV water pumping

Fig. 3.48. Solar powered car and ferry as discussed earlier
3.3.3 GRID-CONNECTED PV SYSTEMS
In Fig. 3.49 (left) the solar house in Oxford, UK, has a 4 kWp grid-linked array of monocrystalline PV
modules forms an integral part of the roof, alongside solar water heating panels. The PV array supplies
the houses annual electricity requirements, plus a small surplus used to provide some of the power for
an electric car.
The small house in Richmond, London illustrated in Fig. 3.49 (right) has a 1.3 kWp array of solar slates
that supply its annual electricity requirements. It is equipped with the latest energy-efficient electrical
appliances.
Fig. 3.49. Grid-connected houses in UK

The 340 kW PV power plant at Kobern-Gondorf, Germany, one of several large grid-connected PV
installations operated by the electricity utility RWE (Fig. 3.50, left).
PV arrays can be installed on low-value land, as here beside a motorway in Switzerland (Fig. 3.50, right).
Fig. 3.50. Non-domestic grid-connected PV generation
3.3.4 TENDS IN PV SYSTEMS
The solar house (Fig. 3.51, left) in Freiburg is not connected to the grid. PV arrays on the roof provide
all its electricity requirements. When PV electricity is available but not being used in the house, it is
used to produce hydrogen, which is stored in a large tank in the garden. When there is a deficit of PV
electricity, the stored hydrogen is used to produce electricity via a fuel cell in the basement, which also
produced hot water. The house also has very high levels of insulation, so its space heating requirements
are very low. The house was constructed as a demonstration project in the 1990s and now used as a
laboratory.
Most futuristic is the satellite solar power station concept (Fig. 3.51, right).
Fig. 3.51. Future PV systems

3.4 CONCLUSIONS
PV module is a direct conversion of solar energy to electricity. There is a great potential to achieve high
efficiency.
The current cost of PV cells are still high and it is hard for this technology to compete with the
conventional fossil fuel energy technology, but in remote areas where there is not grid, PV cells are
more competitive.
The cost of PV cells are decreasing with the improvement of manufacturing technology and invention
of new types of PV cells.
In terms of large capacity systems, solar thermal technology is favoured.
REFERENCES
[1] Godfrey Boyle, Renewable Energy Power for a sustainable future, Oxford University Press, 2004.
[2] John Andrews & Nick Jelley, Energy Science Principles, Technologies and Impacts, Oxford, University
Press, 2007.
[3] Stefan Krauter, Solar Electric Power Generation Photovoltaic Energy Systems, Springer-Verlag Berlin
Heidelberg 2006.
[4] Mukund R. Patel, Wind and Solar Power Systems, CRC Taylor & Francis, 2006.

4. SOLAR ENERGY SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEMS
EXAMPLE TITLE
Contents of Section
Introduction
Collection of solar heat
Domestic solar thermal applications
Solar thermal electricity generation
Solar pond
Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC)
Power towers
Solar chimney
Parabolic dish concentrator system
Conclusions
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The various forms of renewable energy depend primarily on incoming solar radiation, which totals some
5.4 million exajoules (Ej) per year.
Approximately 30 % is reflected back into space. The remaining 70 % is, in principle, available for use
on Earth ( 3.8 millions Ej).
Fig. 4.1 illustrates the energy cycle.
This is more than 10000 times the rate of fossil and nuclear fuel consumption (370 Ej, in 2002).
Two non-solar renewable sources are shown in Fig. 4.1: ocean tides caused by lunar gravitational pull
(with small amount from sun) and geothermal heat from the earths interior (convection in volcanoes
and hot springs, conduction in rocks.

Figure 4.1. Solar energy flow
4.1.1 THE FIRST SOLAR ENGINE
The process of converting the concentrated power of the sun into useful mechanical work started in
the 19th century. In 1870s and 1880s, Mouchot and Abel Pifre in France produced a series of machines
ranging from the solar printing press (Fig. 4.2) to solar wine stills, solar cookers and even solar engines
driving refrigerators.
The solar steam engines were not capable of producing steam at really high temperatures and as a
result their thermal efficiencies were poor. It required a machine that occupied 40 m 2 of land just to
drive a one half horsepower engine (less than the power of a modern domestic vacuum cleaner!
Figure 4.2. Mouchot and Abel Pifresolar machine

4.2 COLLECTION OF SOLAR HEAT
4.2.1 THE MAGIC OF GLASS
Most low temperature solar collection is dependent on the properties of glass, which has been around
since the time of the Romans. It is hard to imagine a world without glazed windows
The most important solar property of glass is that it is transparent to visible light and short wave
infrared radiation, but opaque to long wave infrared re-radiation.
The Fig. 4.3 shows spectral transmittance of glass while Table 4.1 gives the optical properties of
commonly used glazing materials
Table 4.1. Properties of glass
Long-wave infrared
Material Thickness [mm] Solar Transmittance
transmittance
Float glass (normal window glass 3.9 0.83 0.02
Low-iron glass 3.2 0.90 0.02
Perspex 3.1 0.82 0.02
Poly vinyl fluoride (tedlar) 0.1 0.92 0.22
Polyester 0.1 0.87 0.18
Figure 4.3. Properties of glass

4.2.2 HEAT LOSS AND U-VALUE
Heat loss mechanism:
o Conduction, thermal conductivity
o Convection, reducible by filling double glazing with a heavier less mobile gas, such as argon or
CO2, and limiting the space for gas movement;
o Radiation, Low-E coating
In practice, the actual performance of any particular building element is specified by a U-value, in
W/m2/oC, defined so that:
Heat flow through one square meter = U-value

temperature difference
Double-glazed window heat escape (Fig. 4.4): air space is about 6-10 mm. If too narrow, convection will
be difficult but conduction easy. If too wide, convection currents can circulate. There is also radiation
across the airspace reduced by use of low emissivity coatings.
Example: What is the rate of heat loss through a single glazed window with an area of 2 m 2 on a day
when the outdoor and indoor temperatures are 5 oC and 20 oC respectively?
Solution: From the table, we find that the U-value of this window is 6 W/m2/oC, and therefore the loss
rate is: 2 6 (20 5) = 180 W
Note: If the temperature difference remained the same throughout 24 hours, the total loss would be
more than 4 kWh. For the best of the glazing types shown in the table, this is kWh.
Figure 4.3. Double glazing

Table 4.2. Different window properties
Window type U-value [W/m2/C]
Single glazed window 6
Double glazed window 3
-with Low-E coatings 1.8
-plus heavy gas filling 1.5
-with 3 plastic films (low-E coating) plus heavy gas filling 0.35
-evacuated with low-E coatings 1.0
For comparison: 10 cm opaque fibreglass insulation 0.4
4.2.3 LOW TEMPERATURE SOLAR COLLECTORS
The absorber plate (Fig. 4.4, left) usually has a very black surface that absorbs nearly all of the incident
solar radiation, i.e. high absorptivity. Most black paints still reflect approximately 10% of the incident
radiation (a white surface, by way of comparison might reflect back 70-80%). Some panels use a
selective surface that has both high absorptivity in the visible region and low emissivity in the long wave
infrared to cut heat loss.
Many designs of absorber plate have been tried with success in recent years, including pressed steel
central heating radiators (Fig. 4.4, centre), specially made pressed aluminum panels and small bore
copper pipes soldered to thick copper or steel sheet. Generally, an absorber plate must have high
thermal conductivity to transfer the collected energy to the water with minimum temperature loss.
Figure 4.4. Low temperature collectors
4.2.4 HIGHER TEMPERATURE SOLAR COLLECTORS
Evacuated tube collectors (Fig. 4.5, top) The absorber plate is a metal strip down the centre of each
tube. Convective heat losses are suppressed by virtue of a vacuum in the tube. The absorber plate uses

a special heat pipe to carry the circulated energy to the water, which circulates along a header pipe
at the top of the array.
A heat pipe (Fig. 4.5, centre) is a device that takes advantage of the thermal properties of a boiling fluid
to carry large amount of heat. A hollow tube is filled with a liquid at a pressure chosen so that it can be
made to boil at the hot end, but the vapour will condense at the cold end. The tube in effect has a
thermal conductivity many times greater than if it had been made of solid metal, and it capable of
transferring large amounts of heat for a small temperature rise.
Figure 4.5. Higher temperature collectors
4.2.5 A COMPARISON OF SOLAR COLLECTORS
Table 4.3 shows a comparison of alternative solar thermal power system technologies and the photos
in Fig. 4.6 illustrate some arrangements.
Table 4.3. Comparison of different collectors
Solar concentration Operating temperature Thermodynamic cycle

Technology
( Suns) (hot side) efficiency
Parabolic trough receiver 100 300-500C Low
Central Receiver power 1000 500-1000C Moderate
tower
Dish receiver with engine 3000 800-1200C High
Figure 4.6. Higher temperature collectors

4.3 DOMESTIC SOLAR THERMAL APPLICATIONS
4.3.1 SOLAR HEATING SYSTEMS
A typical household consumes 15 20 kWh per day of delivered energy breakdown shown in Fig. 4.7
both in terms of usage and year (UK 2003).
Well insulated households need much less energy for space heating, less than 1/3, as illustrated in the
curves on the right hand side of Fig. 4.7.
Different types of solar heating system are shown in Fig. 4.8: (a) conservatory, (b) trombe wall and (c)
direct gain illustration of direct gain at Wallasey School, UK.
. Figure 4.7. UK Domestic energy consumption

. Figure 4.8. Solar heating systems
4.3.2 ACTIVE SOLAR SPACE HEATING
Solar thermal energy is collected by heat collectors and distributed in households for space heating;
Fig. 4.9, left, shows an experimental active solar house (UK)
Large central systems with inter-seasonal storage have been built for solar district heating; Fig. 4.9,
right: a 8000 m2 array of collectors for district heating (Denmark).
By late 2002, there were a total of 65 schemes each having more than 500 m2 of collector area and total
peak thermal output of 50 MW.
There are many simple active solar water heaters on the marker, several are shown in Fig. 4.10.
Figure 4.9. Active solar heating systems

Figure 4.10. Active solar water heating
4.4 SOLAR THERMAL ELECTRICITY GENERATION
4.4.1 HEAT ENGINES, CARNOT EFFICIENCY AND ORCS
The steam engine familiar. It works by boiling water to produce a high-pressure vapour. This goes into
an expander, which extracts energy and low-pressure vapour is exhausted. The expander can be a
reciprocating engine or a turbine. These are heat engines. All heat engines are subject to limitations of
the Second Law of Thermodynamics. They all produce work by taking in heat at a high temperature Tin
and eject it at a lower temperature Tout. Ideally, the maximum efficiency is given by
Tout
maximum efficiency 1
Tin
where the Tin and Tout are in deg Kelvin. The ideal efficiency is known as the Carnot efficiency. As an
example, a turbine fed from parabolic trough collectors might take steam at 350 C and eject to cooling
towers at 30 C. The theoretical efficiency is then
30 273
1 0.51, i.e., 51 %
350 273
Its practical efficiency is more likely to be 25 % due to losses.
Systems that use turbines are often referred to as Rankine cycles.

Normally, to boil water, its temperature must be raised to at least 100 C. This may be difficult to
achieve with simple solar collectors. It would be more convenient to work with a fluid with a lower
boiling point. In order to do this, a closed cycle system must be adopted, with a condenser that
changes the exhaust vapour back to liquid and allows it to be returned to the boiler.
Systems have been developed that use stable organic chemicals with suitably low boiling points, similar
to refrigerants in heat pumps. One that uses an organic fluid and a turbine is known as an Organic
Rankine Cycle or ORC. These are used with solar ponds, OTEC (ocean thermal energy conversion)
systems and some types of geothermal plants.
These low temperature systems are likely to have poor efficiencies. For example, the theoretical Carnot
efficiency of a hear engine that was fed with relatively low-temperature vapour at 85 C, say from a flat
plate solar collector, and exhausted at 35 C would only be 14 %.
4.4.2 SOLAR PONDS
The solar pond uses a large salty lake as a kind of flat plate collector. If the lake has the right gradient
of salt concentration (salty water at the bottom and fresh water at the top) and the water is clear
enough, solar energy is absorbed on the bottom of the pond. An arrangement is shown in Fig. 4.11.
The temperature at the bottom can reach 90oC.
Because of the low temperature, the efficiency is low typically 2%.
50 MW systems fed from a lake of 20 hectares have been demonstrated.
In practice, the major disadvantage is the requirement of fresh water to maintain salt gradient. The
best use is the desalination system in deserts.
Figure 4.11. Solar pond arrangement
4.4.3 OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION (OTEC)
Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) essentially uses the sea as a solar collector (Fig. 4.12). In deep
waters, e.g. 1000 m or more, the temperature difference between the warm surface and the cold water
at the bottom can amount to 20oC.

Although the theoretical efficiency is likely to be very low and the Rankine cycle system used needs to
finely tuned to boil at just the right temperature, there is lots of water available.
Such a system would need large and expensive equipment: big pumps and in particular very efficient
heat exchangers.
OTEC is not yet economically competitive, but with technical developments, it is closer to becoming a
viable option in some tropical regions.
Figure 4.12. Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC)
Figure 4.13. 10 MW solar thermal power station (Solar I & II)
4.4.4 POWER TOWERS (SOLAR I AND II)
The Schematic in Fig. 4.13 is a 10 MW solar thermal power station (Solar I & II) designed, built, tested,
and operated with funding from the Department of Energy (DOE), at Barstow, California, USA, in early
1980s and late 1990s.

It operates with heat storage using molten salt at over 500C. A major benefit is that it incorporates
thermal storage for many hours with no performance degradation, which allows the system to produce
high value electricity to meet peak demands.
A new project is being built near Seville in Spain to explore the use of super heated air at over 700C as
a heat transfer medium.
Table 4.4. Solar II specification
Site Mojave desert in California. 1949 ft above sea level. 7.5 kW/m2 annual average daily
insolation.95 acres of land.
Tower Reused from Solar-I plant. 277 ft to top of receiver, 211 ft to top of DCS deck.
Heliostats 1818 Solar-I heliostats, 317.1 m2, 91 % reflectivity. 108 new Lug heliostats, 95.1 m2, 93 %
reflectivity. 81000 m2 total reflective surface. Can operate in winds up to 35 mph.
Thermal Supplier: Pitt Des Moines. Two new 231 kgal storage tanks, 38 ft ID. Cold tank: carbon
Storage System steel, 25.8 ft. Hot tank: 304 stainless steel, 27.5 ft. 3 hours storage at rated turbine output.
Receiver New for Solar-II plant. Supplier: Rockwell. 42.2 MW thermal power rating. Average flux
429 kW/m2. Peak 800 kW/m2. 24 panels, 32 tubes per panel; 20 ft tall and16.6 ft dia.;
0.8125 in tube OD stainless steel
Nitrate Salt- 60 % NaN3, 40 % KNO3. Melting temp, 430 F. Decomposing temp 1100 F. Energy storage
Chilean Nitrate density 2/3rd that of water. Density two times that of water. Salt inventory 3.3 million lb.
Steam Supplier: ABB Lummus. New salt-in-shell superheater. New salt-in-tube kettle boiler. New
Generator salt-in-shell preheater.
Turbine Supplier: General Electric Company. Refurbished from Solar-I plant. 10 MW net.
Generator
Figure 4.14. The solar chimney at Manzanares in Spain

4.4.5 SOLAR CHIMNEYS
The solar chimney exploits the warm air produced in a very large greenhouse, which rises through a tall
chimney. Electricity is produced by a generator driven by a turbine at the base.
Fig. 4.14 shows the solar chimney at Manzanares in Spain. This has a 50 kW rating and a collector
diameter of 240 m, chimney of 196 m height, and was built in 1981.
According some design, a cost-optimum plant may have an output of 100 MW using a collector 3.6 km
in diameter and feeding a chimney 950 m tall. Because of the small temperature difference (35 C) the
overall efficiency is very low, about 1.3%.
The up draught depends on the height of the chimney. A simple model of the chimney shows how a
pressure difference arises through the difference in the density of the heated air within the chimney at
temperature Ti and that outside at temperature To. The figure is a schematic of the chimney and the
air pressure variation inside and outside.
The rate of change in air pressure with height z is given by the equation of equilibrium (change is
pressure dp exerted in a distance dz to the pressure exerted by air thickness dz of air with density )
dp
g
dz
Making the assumption that the air inside the chimney is all at Ti and that the outside it To then
po o gh and po i gh
where the small change in with p is neglected in comparison with the much larger relative change
due to the difference in temperature between inside (Ti) and (To) the chimney.
Since i is less than o there is less pressure drop inside the chimney than outside, which gives rise to a
pressure that is lower at the bottom and higher at the top than the air pressure outside halfway up the
chimney (see Fig. 4.15).
Figure 4.15. Solar chimney representation

These differences in pressure drive air in at the bottom and out at the top, and this process, called the
stack or chimney effect, is used to provide natural ventilation in buildings. The overall pressure
difference p driving the airflow is given by
p i o gh T T gh
We can estimate the flow of gas through an opening (orifice) using Bernoullis principle. Consider an
airstream of cross-section A1 flowing slowly with velocity u1, which then passes through a smaller
opening A2. By conservation of mass its velocity through the opening will be u2 where
A1
u2 u1
A2
The pressure difference p1 p2 = p is given by Bernoullis theorem:
p
2 u2 u1 2 u2
1 2 2 2 1
if u1 << u2, i.e., A1 >> A2. There will be energy lost due to turbulence as the air flows through the
opening and empirically the velocity u2 will be:

1 1
u2 CT 2 p CT 2 T
2 2
gh
T
where CT is a constant < 1. We can obtain an approximate estimate of the power P generated by the
prototype solar chimney in Spain using this value of u2 as the wind speed incident on a wind turbine.
Its power P is given by

3
1
P A u 3 0.1D 2 2 T gh
2
2 T
where = 1.25 kgm-3, the efficiency 0.4 for a wind turbine, A = D2/4 is taken as the cross-sectional
area of the chimney whose diameter D, and we have taken CT 0.8. For the prototype D = 10 m and h
= 195 m. For T = 20 K and T = 300 K this gives an output of about 40 MW. For the solar chimney
planned for Australia, h 1000 m and D 150 m. Of we take T = 30 K and T = 300 K then P 200 MW.
These estimates are rather rough as the model that the speed of airflow up the chimney is given by that
through an opening is very approximate. But they do show how a considerable amount of power can
be generated by a very tall solar chimney.
4.4.6 PARABOLIC DISH CONCENTRATOR SYSTEMS
This system collects solar energy by using parabolic dishes and the engine and generator are put at the
focus of the disc. Both small steam and Stirling engines have been tried and it was found that the Stirling
engine was more efficient when the system was operated at 700 1000 oC. The overall efficiency can
be up to 30%.
Experiments were also conducted on using aluminized plastic film with a vacuum thermal insulation at
the back to replace the heavy glass mirror.
A 500 MW system of 20,000 dishes covering an area of 11x11 km2 is being built in California, USA (see
Fig. 4.16).

Figure 4.16. Parabolic dish concentrator systems
4.4.7 STIRLING ENGINES
Originally conceived in 1816 by Rev. Robert Stirling as an industrial prime mover to rival the steam
engine, the Stirling engine is noted for its high efficiency, quiet operation, and the ease with which it
can utilize almost any heat source.
The Stirling engine is a heat engine that operates by cyclic compression and expansion of air or other
gas, the working fluid, at different temperature levels such that there is a net conversion of heat energy
to mechanical work.
Theoretical thermal efficiency equals that of the hypothetical Carnot cycle - i.e. the highest efficiency
attainable by any heat engine.
They have not been fully developed properly yet they were supplanted by the steam engine and
some examples are shown in Fig. 4.17.
Figure 4.17. Stirling engines
The Stirling engine is a heat engine that operates by cyclic compression and expansion of air or other
gas, the working fluid, at different temperature levels such that there is a net conversion of heat energy
to mechanical work.

Among the many possible configurations, the alpha and beta configurations are the two most
commonly used (see Fig. 4.18). This shoes the different stages of operation.
The idealised Stirling cycle consists of four thermodynamic processes acting on the working fluid:
o Isothermal Expansion. The expansion-space and associated heat exchanger are maintained at
a constant high temperature, and the gas undergoes near-isothermal expansion absorbing
heat from the hot end.
o Constant-Volume (known as isovolumetric or isochoric) heat-removal. The gas is passed

through the regenerator, where it cools transferring heat to the regenerator for use in the next
cycle.
o Isothermal Compression. The compression space and associated heat exchanger are
maintained at a constant low temperature so the gas undergoes near-isothermal compression
rejecting heat to the cold sink
o Constant-Volume (known as isovolumetric or isochoric) heat-addition. The gas passes back

through the regenerator where it recovers much of the heat transferred in 2 to 3, on its way
to the expansion space.
The cycle is shown in Fig. 4.19 with a simple hot/cold chamber representation.
Figure 4.18. Alpha and Beta Stirling engine configurations
Figure 4.19. Stirling engine cycle

4.5 CONCLUSIONS
Techniques of active solar heating and solar thermal power generation are technically feasible in many
countries well proven and regarded as cost effective.
In terms of large capacity systems, solar thermal technology is favoured.
REFERENCES
Press, 2007.

5. FUEL CELLS
EXAMPLE TITLE
Contents of Section
Definition of a fuels cell
Basic fuel cell operation
Case study at the University of Technology Sydney
Reading materials
5.1 FUEL CELLS A DEFINITION
A fuel cell can be defined as: electrochemical cell which can continuously convert the chemical energy of a
fuel and an oxidant to electrical energy by a process involving an essentially invariant electrode electrolyte
system
A simple block diagram is shown in Fig. 5.1
Figure 5.1. Fuel cell block diagram
5.1.1 A BRIEF HISTORY
The following are notable events in the development of the fuel cell:
1839 Sir William Grove, The father of the fuel cell (Fig. 5.2, left).
1889 Charles Langer and Ludwig Mond coined the expression of fuel cell, and tried without success
to build a fuel cell that could convert coal or carbon to electricity

1932 Francis Bacon developed the first successful fuel cell device using alkaline and nickel electrodes
(Fig. 5.2, centre)
1959 the first fuel cell powered vehicle in the world, using an alkaline fuel cell system (Fig 5.2, right)
1990s NASA has been spending heavily on fuel cell research for use in space missions
2000s Many car makers including Toyota, GM, Honda, Ford, started supporting research in fuel cell
technology
Figure 5.2. Sir William Grove, Francis Bacon and the first fuel cell powered vehicle
Four cells of Grove's battery to drive an electrolytic cell, 1842. William Grove invented the fuel cell over
160 years ago, when he demonstrated that the electrolysis of water was a reversible process. William
Grove continued his experimental work and by 1842 he had improved his hydrogen fuel cell to the point
where he could use four hydrogen fuel cells in series to drive the electrolysis of water, as shown in this
schematic in Fig. 5.3.
Figure 5.3. Groves original fuel cell

5.1.2 ADVANTAGES AND BARRIERS FOR WIDE TECHNOLOGY PENETRATION
Advantages
o High efficiency (pure electrical efficiency can be >45%, and if the thermal outcome is useful,
the overall efficiency can be as high as 85%)
o Simplicity
o Low emissions (water)
o Silence
o Flexibility
Major technical challenges
o Production of hydrogen
o Storage of hydrogen
From fossil fuel economy to hydrogen economy
o Huge amount of infrastructural work is required
o Primary barrier is cost
o First markets will be in electrical vehicles, portable and residential distributed generation
applications, especially in areas with harsh environment, e.g. Antarctica
o Rapid cost reductions in the near future
5.1.3 SOURCES OF HYDROGEN
Electrolysis
Separation of hydrogen and oxygen at a certain temperature (265 oC) using catalysts
By-product of oil refinery
Reformation of other fuels, such as natural gas, methanol, and ethanol, etc.
5.1.4 CLASSIFICATION AND TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
The main fuel cell types were discussed in the first chapter. A review of Table 1.4 shows a comparison
of different fuel cell applications. The main types of fuel cell are:
o Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC)
o Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC)
o Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC)
o Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)

o Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC)
o Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC)
o Regenerative Fuel Cell (RFC)
The Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) is a popular choice for many applications as
discussed in Chapter 1.
The next sections give a quick review of some applications.
5.1.4.1 PORTABLE APPLICATIONS
Fig. 5.4 shows various portable electronic equipments that has been adapted to use fuel cells.
Figure 5.4. Portable fuel cell applications
5.1.4.2 TRANSPORT APPLICATIONS
Fig. 5.5 shows various transport applications that has been adapted to use fuel cells.
Figure 5.5. Transport applications

5.1.4.3 STATIONARY POWER APPLICATIONS
Fig. 5.6 shows various stationary power units that utilize fuel cells
Figure 5.6. Fuel cell stationary power units
5.2 OPERATIONAL PRINCIPL ES OF PEMFC (PROTON EXCHANGE MEMBRANE FUEL CELL)
Fig. 5.7 shows a basic block diagram of a fuel cell.
The equations for the anode and cathode reactions are:
o Anode reaction H 2 2 H 2e
o Cathode reaction 1
2
O2 2 H 2e H 2O
o Overall reaction 1
2
O2 H 2 H 2 O
Figure 5.7. Fuel cell representation

5.2.1 FUNCTIONS OF MEMBRANE AND CATALYST
The membrane:
o Sits between the anode and cathode
o Split up Hydrogen into protons and electrons
o ONLY let the protons cross
o Traditionally Teflon-based perflourinated, expensive, low efficiency
o Hydrocarbon Polymer, lower cost, higher efficiency (10 15 % more power produced)
Catalyst
o The process of separating hydrogen protons and neutrons
o Uses a layer of platinum on the membrane
o New technology uses bacteria instead of expensive platinum
Fig. 5.8 shows a simplified representation.
Figure 5.7. PEMFC representation
5.2.2 SYSTEMS
In addition to the fuel cell stack other components are required when designing a complete fuel cell
power system (block diagram). The fuel cell stack needs to be provided clean fuel and oxidant, and the
heat and the depleted reactants need to be removed. The dc power that is produced usually requires
power conditioning, and the heat that is removed from the fuel cell may be reused for co-generation.
These processes also need to be controlled and monitored by a control system.
System: Fuel cell stack, fuel management unit, control unit, thermal management unit. This is shown in
Fig. 5.8.

Figure 5.8. Fuel cell control system
5.3 UTS RESEARCH ON A PEMFC CELL
The objective for the project were:
o To develop a comprehensive and flexible platform for PEMFC parameter testing, verification
of theoretical modelling, and implementation of new control algorithms.
o Develop practical PEMFC models for system design
o Application of PEMFC in real systems, such as portable power supply with variable loads, etc.
5.3.1 LAYOUT OF UTS PEMFC TEST SYSTEM
Fig. 5.9 shows the computer layout of the full cell control system
Figure 5.9. UTS system fuel cell control

5.3.2 PHOTOS OF UTS PEMFC TEST SYSTEM
The UTS laboratory is shown in Fig. 5.10
The PEMFC fuel stack is shown in Fig. 5.11 and its specification is
o 500W
o 32 cell stack
o Self humidified
o Electrode area = 64 cm2
o Operating pressures of 1-1.69 atm for air and 1-1.34 atm for hydrogen
o Maximum temperature of 650C
The work bench is shown in Fig. 5.12; considerable bench space is required for this experimental rig.
Figure 5.10. UTS fuel cell laboratory
Figure 5.11. UTS fuel cell stack

Figure 5.12. UTS fuel cell workbench
The computerized system is shown in Fig. 5.13 while the fuel lines and stack connections are illustrated
in Figs. 5.14 and 5.15.
The fuel is potentially dangerous and precautions and correct handling is necessary as shown in Fig.
5.16.
Figure 5.13. UTS fuel cell computer control
Figure 5.14. UTS fuel stack and system connections

Figure 5.15. UTS fuel stack connections
Figure 5.16. UTS fuel cell aspects of fuel handling
5.3.3 MODEL OF EXTERNAL CHARACTERISTICS V/I AND PARAMETER SUMMARY
The voltage losses in the system are from:

o Resistance of the membrane and non-ideal connections.
o The activation energy threshold.
o Concentration depletion of reactant gases through the stack.
The stack voltage is governed by:

Vstack Vreversible VohmLOSS VactLOSS VconLOSS
The cell potential and current density characteristics are shown in Fig. 5.17
The components of the voltage equation are:
8.453 10 4 T 298.15
VReversible Ncell 1.229 4.308 105 T ln pH 2 pO2

1
2

VactLOSS 1T ln i in 2 3T 4T ln CO2 5T ln CH 2
VohmLOSS i 1 2 i 3T
i
VconLOSS B ln 1
iL
i Fuel cell current in amps

T Temperature of the fuel cell stack in Kelvin
pH 2 The partial pressure of H 2 in atm
pO2 The partial pressure of O 2 in atm
where
CH 2 Concentration of hydrogen
CO2 Concentration of oxygen
Ncell Number of cells
in , k , k , B and iL are empirical parameters
A summary of the parameters are shown in Table 5.1
Figure 5.16. UTS fuel cell V/I characteristic

Table 5.1. Parameter summary of the UTS fuel cell
5.3.4 ACTIVATION VOLTAGE LOSS AND MODELLING RESULTS
From the equation

VactLOSS 1T ln i in 2 3T 4T ln CO2 5T ln CH 2
For a set temperature of the stack and concentration of reactant gases the equation above can be
rearranged into the form:
VactLOSS Astack ln i in Astack ln i0
The activation voltage loss is shown in Fig. 5.17.
Figure 5.17. UTS fuel cell Activation voltage loss

The results are as shown in Fig. 5.18 and the following observations can be made:
o Activation loss for cathode dominates
o Resistance of the stack increases with current
o Very little concentration voltage loss
Figure 5.18. UTS fuel cell Results
5.3.5 FUZZY-PI CONTROLLER FOR PEMFC
A fuzzy-PI controller for PEMFC is shown in Fig. 5.19.
For simplicity of control, only the flow rates of hydrogen and air are controlled.
Fuzzy logics are used to determine the best gains for PI controllers.
Figure 5.19. UTS fuel cell a fuzzy-PI controller

5.3.6 LABVIEW CONTROL FOR PEMFC
The LabViewTM control interface is shown in Fig. 5.20.
In Fig. 5.21 the response of the normal PI (left) and fuzzy-Pi controller (right) are shown.
Figure 5.20. UTS fuel cell LabViewTM control interface
Figure 5.21. UTS fuel cell Response of normal PI controller (left) and fuzzy-PI controller (right)

READING MATERIALS
[1] K. Williams, An introduction to Fuel Cells, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam-London-New York, 1966.
[2] H. A. Liebhafsky, E. J. Cairns, Fuel Cells and Fuel Batteries, A guide to their Research and Development, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York, 1968.
[3] L. Blomen, M. Mugerwa, Fuel Cell Systems, Plenum Press, 1993.
[4] K. Kordesch, G. Simader, Fuel Cells and Their Applications, VCH Press NY USA 1996.
[5] P.J. Berlowitz, C.P. Darnell, Fuel Choices for Fuel Cell Powered Vehicles, Society of Automotive Engineers,
2000.
[6] EG&G Services Parsons, Inc., Science Applications International Corporation, Fuel Cell Handbook Fifth Edition,
National Energy Technology Laboratory, October 2000.
[7] J. Larminie, and A. Dicks, Fuel Cell Systems Explained, John Wiley and Sons, November 2000.
Gregor Hoogers (Ed.), Fuel Cell Technology Handbook, CRC Press, 2003.

6. HYDROELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS
Water stores energy in the form of potential (river and dam) and kinetic energy (tide and wave).
Hydroelectricity is a well established technology, which has been producing reliable power (about 1/6
of the worlds total electricity) at competitive prices for about a century.
New technologies are being developed to capture tide and wave energy.
Fig. 4.1 illustrates different renewable cycles.
EXAMPLE TITLE
Contents of Section
Introduction
Water power
Modern turbines
Generators
Hydroelectric system
Environmental issues
Economics
Three Gorges project
Conclusions
6.1 THE RESOURCE FOR HYDROELECTRICITY
Nearly a quarter of the 1.5 billion TWh of solar energy incident on the earth each year is consumed in
the evaporation of water, and about 0.06% is retained by the precipitation that falls on hills and
mountains.
Recent estimates suggest that the energy carried by the worlds flowing rivers is just over 40,000 TWh
per year about 15 times the worlds present hydroelectric output.
Estimates of the technical potential are at 14,000 15,000 TWh per year.

The Table in Fig. 6.1 shows regional hydro potential and output while the graph shows world annual
hydroelectricity output 1965-2003 (Source: BP 2003).
The largest installed capacity is shown in Table 6.1 while the largest hydroelectric schemes are shown
in Table 6.2
Figure 6.1. Hydroelectric potential and built
Table 6.1. Highest installed hydroelectric capacity
Hydroelectric capacity in
Country
2003 [GW]
USA 80
Canada 67
Brazil 65
Norway 58
Japan 28
World Total 700

Table 6.2. Largest sites for hydropower
Country Site Hydroelectric capacity [GW]

China Three Gorges 18.2
Brazil/Paraguay Itaipu 12.6
Venezuela Guri 10.3
USA Grand Coulee 6.9
Russia Sayano-Shushenk 6.4
Russia Krasnoyarsk 6
6.2 THE USE OF WATER POWER
Moving water was one of the earliest energy sources to be harnessed to reduce the workload of people
and animals. No one knows exactly when the water wheel was invented, but the irrigation systems
existed at least 5000 years ago, and it seems probably that the earliest water-power device was the
noria.
The earliest water mills were probably vertical-axis corn mills, known as Norse or Greek mills, which
seem to have appeared during the first or second century BC in the Middle East and a few centuries
later in Scandinavia.
In the following centuries, increasing sophisticated water-mills were built throughout the Roman
Empire and in the Middle East and Northern Europe.
Fig. 6.2 shows: A norea (left); In this earlest water-wheel the paddles dip into the flowing stream and
the rotating wheel lifts a series of jars, raising water for irrigation. A Norse mill (right); Mills of this early
vertical-axis type and still in use for mechanical power in remote mountain regions.
Figure 6.2. A norea (left) and a Norse mill
By the end of the 18th century, three main types of wheel were in use, tow of which had remained
virtually unchanged for over 1000 years.

Fig. 6.3 shows different wheel arrangements:
o The Overshot wheel is driven by water falling from above on the blades with closed sides
effectively buckets. Overshot wheels do not suffer the flooding problem but need a head at
least as high as the diameter of the wheel, making them unsuitable for streams and rivers with
gentle gradients.
o The Undeshot wheel is driven by the pressure of water against its lower blades which dip into
the flowing stream. The advantage is that it can be used in almost any stream or channel; but
it becomes very inefficient if the water backs up due flooding, impeding the motion of the
wheel.
o The Breastshot wheel, a later development, is a compromise. The water is channelled between
parallel breast walls and strikes the paddles at about the level of the wheel axle. It has the
advantage of overcoming the flooding problem without requiring the high head and massive
construction of the overshot wheel.
Figure 6.3. Different water wheel arrangements

In 1832, the year of Faradays discovery of electromagnetic induction, a young French engineer
patented a new and more efficient water-wheel the first successful water turbine. The most important
innovations are the use of guide vanes to direct the water on to the blades and the fact that the turbine
runs completely submerged to ensure the smooth flow of water and high efficiency.
Goldalming in Surry, UK, opened in 1881 was the worlds first public electricity supply powered by a
traditional water-wheel.
From this primitive start, the hydroelectric industry grew fast during the final 20 years of 19 th century.
The capacity of individual power stations rose from a few kW to over a MW.
Fig. 6.4 shows a low head hydro arrangement.
Figure 6.4. Low head hydro
Present-day hydroelectric installations range in capacity from a few hundred watts to more than 10,000
MW.
Installations can be classified in different ways:
o By the effective head of water
o By the capacity the rated power output
o By the type of turbine used
o By the location and type of dam, reservoir, etc.
The low dam or barrage installation is suitable for run-of-river power station.
The medium head installation with a dam at a narrow point in a river valley is typically used for vary
large hydroelectric power stations.

Alternative arrangements are shown in Fig. 6.5 for different head heights.
Hydroelectric systems were reviewed in Chapter 1 and Fig. 1.13 gave a basic arrangement for a
hydroelectric power station.
Figure 6.5. Different hydro arrangements for different head heights
6.3 EXAMPLE OF A HYDROELECTRIC SYSTEM
As an example of a system (already mentioned in Chapter 1), The Hoover Dam on the Colorado River
(originally the Boulder Dam) has a total height of 220 m and its reservoir, Lake Mead holds 35 billion
cubic metres of water. The two power plants, first commissioned in 1936, now have 17 main turbo-
generators with a total output of 2.1 GW.
An aerial view and the turbine hall of one of the power stations is shown in Fig. 6.6.

Figure 6.6. The Hoover Dam
6.4 WATER POWER
6.4.1 THE POWER OUTPUT FROM A DAM
Consider a turbine situated at a vertical distance h (known as the head) below the surface of the
water in a reservoir. The system is simple and shown in Fig. 6.7. The water power P is the product of
the potential energy per unit volume gh, and the volume of water per second Q, i.e.
P ghQ
The power output of the dam is then product of the water power P and the systems efficiency
(turbine and generator) , or

Pout P ghQ
As an example: Estimate the power output of a dam with a head of 50 m and volume flow of 20 m 3/s.
(Assume = 1, = 103 kg/m3, g = 10 m/s-2.). The answer is:
P ghQ 1103 10 50 20 10 MW
Figure 6.7. Hydroelectric plant representation
6.4.2 MODERN TURBINES - TYPES OF TURBINES
There are two basic designs of water turbines: impulse turbines and reaction turbines.
In an impulse turbine (Fig. 6.8, left), the blades are fixed to a rotating wheel and each blade rotates in
air, apart from when the blades is in line with a high speed jet of water.
In a reaction turbine (Fig. 6.8, right), the blades are fully immersed in water and the thrust on the
moving blades is due to a combination of reaction and impulse forces.
The efficiency of modern turbines can be over 90%.
Different types of turbine are shown in Fig. 6.9.
In Fig. 6.10, Francis and Turgo runners are illustrated: Front two rows, Francis, from left: pair, 2000 kW
output, 80 m head; 600 kW 80 m; 10.2 MW, 278 m, 412 kW 29 m. Back row, Turgos: left and right, 1575
kW, 190 m, 428 kW, 175 m.
Figure 6.8. Impulse and reaction turbines

Figure 6.9. Impulse and reaction turbines
Figure 6.10. Different types of turbine
6.4.3 MODERN TURBINES - FRANCIS TURBINE
The 450 kW horizontal-axis Francis turbine, shown in Fig. 6.11 top, is from a small-scale plant in
Scotland, commissioned in 1993. The inflow (at lower right) 2.1 m3/s at a head of 25 m. The turbine,
rotating at 750 rpm, drives the generator whose casing can be seen on the left.

A Francis turbine is shown in Fig. 6.11, bottom: (a) cut-away diagram; (b) flow across guide vanes and
runner.
Figure 6.11. Francis turbine
6.4.4 MODERN TURBINES - PROPELLERS
In the propeller or axial flow turbine (Fig. 6.12) the area through which the water enters is as large as it
can be: it is the entire area swept by the blades. Axial flow turbines are therefore suitable for very large
volume flows and have become usual where the head is only a few meters.
They have the advantage over radial-flow turbines that it is technically simpler to improve the efficiency
by varying the angle of the blades when the power demand changes. Axial flow turbines with this
feature are called Kaplan turbines.

Figure 6.12. Propeller turbine
6.4.5 MODERN TURBINES - IMPULSE TURBINES (PELTON WHEELS)
For sites of the type with heads above 250 m or so or lower for small scale systems, the Pelton wheel is
the preferred turbine.
It evolved during the gold rush days of late 19th century California, and was patented by Lester Pelton
in 1880.
A high speed jet of water, formed under the pressure of the high head, hits the splitting edge between
each pair of cups in turn as the wheel spins. The water passes round the curved bowls, and under
optimum conditions gives up almost all its kinetic energy.
The power can be varied by adjusting the jet size to change the volume flow rate, or by deflecting the
entire jet away from the wheel.
Finlarig power station, on the shores of Loch Tay, Scotland, draws its water from Loch na Lairige at a
gross head of 415 m. Its average annual output is 64 million kWh. Left: the power station; the original
double twin-jet Pelton wheel and horizontal-axis 30 MW generator. This location and Pelton wheel is
shown in Fig. 6.13.
A Pelton wheel turbine is shown in Fig. 6.14: (a) vertical section; (b) water flow as seen from moving
cup; (c) actual motion of water and cup.
Figure 6.13. Finlarig power station

Figure 6.14. Pelton wheel turbine representation
The following informal argument shows that a Pelton wheel extracts the maximum energy from the
water if the cups move at half the speed of the water jet.
Consider the situation when water at velocity v approaches a cup which is already moving in the same
direction at half this speed (v/2). As seen from the cup, the water will be approaching at the difference
between these two speeds, which in this case is again v/2 (see Fig. 6.14 (b)).
Suppose now that he water passes smoothly round inside the curves cup until it leaves travelling in the
opposite direction as seen from the cup. You now have water moving backwards at speed v/2 relative
to a cup that is moving forwards at just this speed. A person on the ground would see the cup moving
on while the water simply falls vertically out of it (see Fig. 6.14 (c)). The water has given up all its kinetic
energy to the wheel. 100 % efficiency, in principle!
In practice this is only approximately true, and the best cup speed is a little less than v/2.
6.4.6 MODERN TURBINES - RANGES OF APPLICATION
Fig. 6.15 shows the range for different turbines with varying head and flow rate. The right turbine has
to be chosen for a particular application although there are often alternative.
Figure 6.15. Turbine ranges

6.5 GENERATORS
6.5.1 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES FOR SMALL SCALE PLANTS
A rotating electrical machine is regarded as the synchronous machine if its rotor rotates at the same
speed as the rotating magnetic field (to be introduced later in this chapter).
The armature winding of a conventional synchronous machine is almost invariably on the stator and is
usually a three phase winding.
The field winding is usually on the rotor and excited by DC current, or permanent magnets. The DC
power supply required for excitation usually is supplied through a DC generator known as exciter, which
is often mounted on the same shaft as the synchronous machine. In large turbine generators, AC
exciters and solid state rectifiers are used.
A cut-away illustration is shown in Fig. 6.16.
Figure 6.16. A synchronous machine for a small scale plant
6.5.2 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES FOR LARGE SCALE PLANTS
The hydroelectric generators are operated at low speeds, and to generate electricity at 50 or 60 Hz, a
great number of salient poles are required. Therefore, the stator and rotor of hydroelectric generators
are generally designed as axially short and large diameter.
Fig. 6.17 shows (left) a 190 MVA 3-phase 12 kV 357 rpm hydroelectric generator. The conductions have
hollow passages through which cooling water circulates. The salient-pole rotor is shown on the right
for this 190 MVA with the exciter removed (bottom, right).

Figure 6.17. A synchronous machine for a large scale plant
6.6 HYDROELECTRIC SYSTEMS
6.6.1 ENERGY STORAGE
Hydroelectric systems can be used for pump storage, where the reservoir is filled by pumping water
from the lower reservoir using off-peak electricity rather than filling through natural water catchment
A pumped storage system is shown in Fig. 6.18. Bottom: (a) at time of low demand; (b) at time of high
demand.
Cruachan pumped storage plant (Fig. 6.19). The reservoir of this Scottish plant, commissioned in 1965,
can store 10 million cubic metres of water at an operating head of about 370 m. Running the four 100
MW reversible machines for an hour at full capacity, as electric pumps or turbo-generators, raises or
lowers the reservoir level by about a metre.
Figure 6.18. Energy storage operation

Figure 6.19. Cruachan pumped storage plant
6.6.2 LARGE SCALE PLANT: ITAIP
Itaip: the hydroelectric polant here, on the Paran River between Brazil and Paraguay, was the worlds
larger single generating station (the Three Gorges Dam in now larger) with a capacity of 12.6 GW. The
first of eighteen 700 MW generators can on line in 1984 and the last in 1991. The effective head is 118.4
m and the reservoir area 1350 km2, with an average water flow of 9000 cubic metres per second,
peaking at times at over 30000 m3/s. The claimed efficiency of the Francis turbines is 93.8 %, and of the
generators 98.6 %.
The plant supplies 95 % of Paraguays power and about a quarter of Brazils, requiring a feature that
must be unique in power stations: half of the 18 generators work at 50 Hz frequency and half at 60 Hz
frequency. Paraguay (50 Hz) uses only a fraction of its share, the rest is sold to Brazil, where it is rectified
and inverted back to 60 Hz.
Fig. 6.20 shows the scheme.
Figure 6.20. Large scale plant: Itaip

The total output in 2000 at 93.4 TWh, achieving the contracted annual load factor of 85 %. It was
claimed that sceptics, who said the generator was producing unwanted power in the wrong place, were
wrong. The output is essentially dependent on the rainfall in an enormous catchment area and on the
demand for power in Brazil both have shown severe fluctuations in recent years.
Two more 700 MW units are due to become operational in 2004.
6.7 ENVIRONMENT CONSIDERATIONS
Hydrological effects
o Water flows, ground water, water supply, irrigation, etc.
Effects of large dams and reservoirs
o Eco-systems, catastrophes (earthquake), silt, etc.
Social effects
o Relocation of people, communities, and cities
Small scale systems have less effects than large ones
Fig. 6.21 shows a fish ladder at Tongland
Figure 6.21. Fish ladder at Tongland

6.8 ECONOMICS CAPITAL COST
No matter how elegant the technology, few will buy it if it is going to lose money. Potential investors
need to know how much each kWh of output will cost, taking all relevant factors into consideration.
These factors include plant data, such as its initial capital cost, operation and maintenance costs,
predicted lifetime and load factor, and also external factors such as the discount rate, or cost of
borrowing money over a period of time.
Table 6.3 shows capital costs in terms of cost per kW which allows direct comparison.
Table 6.3. Cost comparisons for three large hydroelectric systems
Plant Date Planned capacity Capital cost per kW
Itaip 1984 12.6 GW $1600
Gabcikovo-Nagymaros 1977 0.88 GW (Slokia has built

$1200
(Czechoslovakia and Hungary) (Hungary withdrew 1992)) 720 MW)
18.2 GW (current) to 22.5

Three Gorges 1993-2008 $1236
GW in 2012.
6.9 CASE STUDY: THREE GORGES
6.9.1 INTRODUCTION
The Three Gorges project on the Yangzi Rover in China is the latest and largest of a series of world-wide
hydro developments that have attracted major opposition on environmental and social grounds.
Originally proposed in 1919 by Sun Yat Sen, the project has had a varied political history, culminating in
its approval in 1992 against the unprecedented opposition of a third of the Congress delegates.
Opposition locally and internationally has centred on the displacement of the 1.13 million people who
have lost their homes, farms and work-places. Other serious concerns have included the problem of silt
that is predicted to block harbours upstream, increase flooding in some areas and ultimately reduce
the plant output. And then there is the loss of one of Chinas most valued landscapes. The table gives a
summary of the main arguments.
The international outcry led the World Bank and some other major financial institutions to dissociate
themselves from the project, but support was found elsewhere and work started in 1993.
The high dam, a mile long and 181 metres high, was completed in early 2003, and the sluices were
finally closed at midnight on 1 June. The river was released from its five-year diversion and by early
morning the water behind the dam was over 100 M deep. Two weeks later is was almost a metre above
its intended final level.
The planned and current capacity is 18.2 GW (26700 MW generators) but this varies depending on the
time of year. However, 22.5 GW is now planned.

Eventually, it will have 34 generators: 32 main generators, each with a capacity of 700 MW, and two
plant power generators, each with capacity of 50 MW, making a total capacity of 22,500 MW.
6.9.2 DEBATE
Table 6.4 tabulates the major issues concerning the dam. Now that the dam is complete time will tell
the validity of the arguments.
Table 6.4. Cost comparisons for three large hydroelectric systems
6.9.3 OUTLINE AND PHOTOS
Fig. 6.22 shows an advertising outline of the plan
A model of the dam, sluices and lower river are shown in Fig. 6.23 showing the large scale of the plan
while Fig. 6.24 shows a photograph of the scheme during construction and not far off completion
The turbines are very large as illustrated in Figs. 6.25 and 6.26.
There is still a need to maintain transport on the river and Fig. 6.27 shows a lock.

Figure 6.22. Advertising outline of the plan

Figure 6.23. A model of the dam, sluices and lower river
Figure 6.24. Aerial photograph of construction of dam

Figure 6.25. Turbine
Figure 6.26. Generator
Figure 6.27. Locks to allow river traffic

6.10 CONCLUSIONS
Hydroelectric technology is the most matured and cost competitive in renewable electricity generation.
There are two types of modern turbines: reaction and impulse turbines.
Synchronous electrical machines are always used as generators in hydroelectric systems.
Hydroelectric systems require high capital investment to build, and may cause serious environmental
and social problems.
Small scale systems may have less effect to the environment.
REFERENCES
Press, 2007.

7. TIDAL POWER SYSTEMS
EXAMPLE TITLE
Contents of Section
Introduction
Tides
Tidal range
Resonance
Tidal barrage
Tidal barrages
Power from tidal barrages
Example barrage schemes
Generation, plant, turbines
Environment and economic factors
Potential
Offshore tidal lagoon
Tidal stream and ocean currents
Conclusions
7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.1.1 TIDES
There are two high tides and two low tides around the earth at any instant. One high tide in on the
longitude closest to the moon and the other on the longitude furthest from the moon.
On any given longitude, the interval between high tides is approximately 12 hours 25 minutes.

The variation in tidal height is due primarily to gravitational interaction between the earth and the
moon (see Fig. 7.1). This gravitational force, combined with the rotation of the earth, produced at any
particular point on the globe a twice-daily rise and fall in sea level, this being modified in height by the
gravitational pull of the sun and by the topology of land masses and ocean beds.
Figure 7.1. Gravitational pull causing tides
The difference in height between a high tide and a low tide is called tidal range. (Large tidal range
locations given in Table 7.1)
The mid ocean tidal range is typically 0.5 1.0 m but is larger on the continental shelves. In the restricted
passage between islands and straits the tidal range can be significantly enhanced, up to as much as 12
m in Bristol Channel (UK) and 13 m in the Bay of Fundy (Nova Scotia).
Table 7.1. Tidal ranges at various locations
Country Site Mean tidal range [m] Basin area [km2] Capacity
Argentina Golfo Nuevo 3.7 2376 6.6
Canada Cobequid 12.4 240 5.3
India Gulf of Khambat 7.0 1970 7.0
Russia Mezen 6.7 2640 15.0
Russia Penzhinsk 11.4 20530 87.4
UK River Severn 7 520 8.6

7.1.2 RESONANCE
Resonance effects, occurring both locally and across the width of oceans, can play a major role in
increasing tidal range.
An estuary or a complete ocean basin can behave like a resonant cavity: an enclosure or box in which
resonances occur when the dimensions of the box are equal to the wave length of an impinging
vibration or oscillating signal.
Fig. 7.2. shows the effects of concentration of tidal flow in the Severn Estuary, UK.
Figure 7.2. Severn Estuary, UK
Figure 7.3. La Rance in France

7.1.3 TIDAL BARRAGE
The earliest exploitation of tidal power was in tidal mill, created by building a barrage across the mouth
of a river estuary. Sea water was trapped in a tidal basin on the rising tide and released at low tide
through a waterwheel, providing power to turn a stone mill to grind corn.
Tidal barrages for electricity generation use large low head turbines and can operate for a greater
fraction of the day.
The first large scale tidal power plant in the world was built in 1966 at La Rance in France (Fig. 7.3). It
generates 240 MW using 24 low head Kaplan turbines.
7.2 TIDAL BARRAGES
7.2.1 POWER FROM A TIDAL BARRAGE
Let us assume a rectangular basin behind a barrage of constant area A and high-to-low tidal range R
(see Fig. 7.4). When the tide comes in, it is freely allowed to flow into the basin but when the tide goes
out the water in the basin is held there at the high tide level. When the sea has retreated to its low tide
level the surface of the water held behind the barrage will be at a height R above the sea.
Given a rectangular basin, the centre of gravity of the mass of water is at height R/2 above the low tide
level. The total volume of water is AR and, for density it will have mass M = AR. This can then be
allowed to flow out of the barrage through a turbine to the low tide level. The maximum potential
energy E available per tide (assuming mean fall R/2, tidal period T) and acceleration due to gravity) is
R gAR 2
E Mg
2 2
So that the average power is
E gAR 2
Pav
T 2T
The energy can be doubled if there is a barrage for the incoming tide as well as outgoing tide
Figure 7.4. Tidal barrage

Example: Estimate the average power output of a tidal basin with a tidal range of 7 m and an area of
tidal basin of 520 km2 (i.e., Severn barrage)
Answer: Substituting into the equation, noting the tidal period is T 4.5 104 s (T 12.5 h), the
average power is:
gAR 2 103 10 520 106 7 2

Pav 2.8 GW
2T 2 4.5 104
7.2.2 LA RANCE SCHEME
The 740 m long Rance Barrage (Fig. 7.5) was constructed between 1961-67. It has a road crossing and
a ship dock, and was designed for maximum operational flexibility.
It contains 24 reversible pump-turbines (each of 10 MW capacity), operating in a tidal range of up to 12

m, with a typical head of approximately 5m.
Typically the plant has been functional and available for use more than 90% of the time, and net output
has been approximately 480 GWh per year.
Figure 7.5. La Rance Scheme
7.2.3 SEVERN SCHEME
The Severn barrage has been assessed as a double-basin scheme with alternative arrangements as
shown in Fig, 7.6.
A more detailed proposal was put forward in 1989, see Fig. 7.7 and Table 7.2 (though still not adopted!)
Further plans (10 proposals) were published in 2008 but still no proposal has been taken further than
feasibility studies.
Basic date for Severn Barrage, Department of Energy 1989.

Figure 7.6. Severn Scheme
Table 7.2 Severn Barrage proposal specification
Specification
Number of turbines 216
Diameter of turbines 9m
Operating speed of turbines 50 rpm
Generator rating 40 MW
Installed capacity 8640 MW
Number of sluices, various sizes 166
Total clear area of sluice passages 35 000 m2
Average annual energy output 17 TWh
Operational mode Ebb generation with flood pumping
Length of barrage 15.9 km
Area of enclosed basin (mean sea level) 480 km2

Figure 7.7. Severn Scheme barrage
7.2.4 PROPOSED MERSEY BARRAGE SCHEME (LIVERPOOL, UK)
The proposal conceived a 700 MW station (28 25 MW turbines) and 20 Sluices (plan in Fig. 7.8. The
preferred construction method would be in situ construction of the New Ferry Lock, and caisson
construction for turbine and sluice housings (instu or off-site in dry dock) for Dingle Lock.
Construction cost estimate (July 1989) 880 million.
The construction period would be five years after approval and design.
It would generate 1.4 TWh per annum and operational life of 120 years.
Figure 7.8. Mersey Barrage Scheme

7.2.5 GENERATION SCHEMES
Three different basic generation schemes are possible:
o Ebb generation scheme (Fig. 7.9, left)
o Flood generation scheme (Fig. 7.9, centre)
o Two way generation (Fig. 7.9, right).
Figure 7.9. Barrage generation schemes
7.2.5.1 POWER PLANT & TURBINES
Fig. 7.10 shows an artists impression of the typical layout of a power generation scheme.
Figure 7.10. Barrage turbine and electrical generator arrangement
7.2.5.2 TURBINES & GENERATORS
The bulb system (Fig. 7.11, top, used at La Rance) seals the generator in a bulb shaped enclosure
mounted in the flow.

In a Straflo (Fig. 7.11, centre, as used at Annaplis Royal) or rim turbine, the generator is mounted radially
around the rim and only the runner is in the flow.
The tubular turbine (Fig. 7.11, bottom) uses external generator.
Figure 7.11. Barrage turbine and generator

7.2.6 ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS
The construction of a barrage would result in higher minimum water levels and slightly lower high water
levels in the basin. Currents will be reduced and extreme wave conditions will, in many places, be less
severe. The changes that will occur to the tides and currents during construction and then later during
the operation of a barrage will cause changes in sediment characteristics and in the salinity and quality
of the water. These factors have a major bearing on the estuarys environment and ecology.
Fig. 7.12 shows estimated changes in tide level for the 1989 Severn Barrage proposal (DoE, 1989).
Figure 7.12. Tidal water levels with and without barrage
7.2.7 ECONOMIC FACTORS
Table 7.3 shows tidal power electricity cost comparisons and capital repayment periods (November
1991 estimates). Source: House of Commons Select Committee on Energy (1992).
The realistically recoverable resource has been put at 100 GW. Although this is only about 15% of the
existing global hydroelectric capacity, it still represents a significant resource.
Table 7.3. Barrage parameters
Running costs per

Electricity price [pence
Capital cost [ million] annum
per kWh]
[ million]
Severn 6p (16.5 year payback)
10200 86
(17 TWh/year) 5p (20 year payback)
Mersey
966 17.6 6.75p (25 year payback)
(1.4 TWh/year)
8.6p (15-20 year
Conwy 72.5 0.6
payback)

7.2.8 POTENTIAL
Fig. 7.13 shows some world location for potential tidal power projects.
The realistically recoverable resource has been put at 100 GW. Although this is only about 15% of the
existing global hydroelectric capacity, it still represents a significant resource (Table 7.4).
Table 7.4. Barrage parameters
Approx. annual
Mean tidal Basin area Installed Annual plant
Country Location output
range [m] [km2] capacity [MW] load factor
[TWh/year]
San Jose 5.8 778 5040 9.4 21
Golfo Nuevo 3.7 2376 6570 16.8 29

Argentina
Rio Deseado 3.6 73 180 0.45 28
Santa Cruz 7.5 222 2420 6.1 29
Rio Gallegos 7.5 177 1900 4.8 29
Secure Bay 7.0 140 1480 2.9 22

Australia
Walcott Inlet 7.0 260 2800 5.4 22
Cobequid 12.4 240 5338 14.0 30

Canada
Cumberland 10.9 90 1400 3.4 28
Shopody 10.0 115 1800 4.8 30
Gulf of Kachchh 5.0 170 900 1.6 22

India
Gulf of Cambat 7.0 1970 7000 15.0 24
Garolim 4.7 100 400 0.836 24

Korea
Cheonsu 4.5 --- --- 1.2 ---
Mexico Rio Colorado 67 --- --- 54 ---
Passamaquoddy 5.5 --- --- --- ---

USA
Knik Arm 7.5 --- 2900 7.4 29
Turnagain Arm 7.5 --- 6500 16.6 29
Mezeh 6.7 2640 15000 45 34

Federation
Russian
Tugar 6.8 1080 7800 16.2 24
Penzhinsk 11.4 20530 87400 190 25
Adapted from World Energy Council website http://worldenergy.org [accessed 23 Dec. 2003]

Figure 7.13. Tidal power projects
7.3 OFFSHORE TIDAL LAGOON; A PROPOSAL WALES
The US company Tidal Electric has come up with proposals for three impounded offshore tidal reservoir
projects or tidal lagoons off the coast of Wales. The most advanced in terms of planning is a 30 MW
tidal power project near Fifoots Point in the Bristol Channel, near the site of an existing 360 MW coal-
fired power plant with which it is proposed it would share management staff, facilities and a 400 MW
grid connection.
The other two projects are a 30 MW plant in Swansea Bay, being considered in cooperation with the
Environment Trust, and a 423 MW project at Rhyl off the North Wales coast. The reservoir of the Rhyl
scheme would be 14 km long and 3 km wide, and would be subdivided into segments, with each being
filled and emptied in turn, so as to provide nearly continuous output. This is clearly an ambitious project
with will have to obtain positive environmental assessment and necessary financial backing.
The scheme is outline in Fig. 7.14; http://www.tidalelectric.com [accessed on 29 July 2003]

Figure 7.14. 30 MW tidal power project, Wales
7.4 TIDAL STREAMS & OCEAN CURRENTS
7.4.1 INTRODUCTION
Instead of using costly and potentially invasive barrages located in estuaries to exploit the vertical rise
and fall of tides, and the potential energy of heads of water trapped behind dams, it is possible to
harness the horizontal flow of tidal currents that is the kinetic energy of the tides and ocean currents.
Fig. 7.15 shows a world map with ocean currents.
7.4.1 TURBINES
The first prototype two blade 10 kW tidal current was tested in the Corran Narrows in Loch Linne, near
Fort William in Scotland in 1994.
IT Power put forward a tidal concept (Fig. 7.16, left) and The Marine Current Turbines Ltd have
developed a 300 kW Seaflow prototype which was tested off the north Devon Coast (Fig. 7.16, right).
The Stingray was proposed and tested in 2003 (Fig 7.17).

Figure 7.15. World ocean current map

Figure 7.16. 300 kW Seaflow prototype
Figure 7.17. The Stingray
A project of Hammerfest Stroem, Statoil and ABB off the coast from Hammerfest in Norway located
100 vertical axis turbines on the sea bed at a depth of 100 m these are essentially Darrieus turbines.
A similar idea was put forward for the Straits of Messina (Fig. 7.18, left).
A development of the vertical axis turbine is the Gorlov turbine (Fig. 7.18, right).
Blue Energy is involved in two contracts signed with the Philippines Department of Energy in 1998.
The first is for a demonstration tidal power plant expected to generate 50 MW during peak tidal flow
period and 30 MW on average (see Fig. 7.19, left). The second is a 1000 MW peak capacity plant which
should deliver on average 600 MW.
The plants will consist of arrays of vertical axis turbines mounted in a permeable causeway or tidal fence
between two islands extracting power from tidal current flows (Fig. 7.19, right).

Figure 7.18. Straits of Messina vertical axis sea turbines
Figure 7.19. Philippines Department of Energy project, 1998
An idea proposed by Edinburgh University wave energy pioneer Stephen Salter. Nicknamed the Polo
(Fig. 7.20), the device consists of a series of vertical axis water turbine blades mounted in a cylindrical
shaped structure. At the full scale the ring would be 50 m in diameter and the blades would be 20 m
deep. The complete 600 ton design could have a generation capacity of more than 12 MW

Fig. 7.20. The Polo
7.5 Conclusions
Tides and ocean currents contain huge amount of energy.
The general methods for capturing tidal energy are tidal barrages and offshore turbines and fences.
Unlike hydroelectric power plants, tidal power plants have less harmful effects to the environment.
This area is far from being well developed, and there is a great potential for both technical and
commercial development.
REFERENCES
Press, 2007.

8. WAVE ENERGY SYSTEMS
EXAMPLE TITLE
Contents of Section
Introduction
Wave Energy
Physical principle of waves
Characteristics of waves
Typical sea waves and power
Statistical estimation of wave power
Wave energy and depth of water
Technologies to capture wave energy
Fixed devices
Floating devices
Tethered devices
Environmental impact and economics
Conclusions
8.1 INTRODUCTION
The idea of extracting ocean wave energy has intrigued people for over 200 years, but it was only in
the 1970s that viable schemes began to emerge.
Since then, many countries around the world, such as UK, USA, Norway, Ireland, Japan, China, and
more recently Australia, have invested heavily in wave energy systems, and various different types of
systems have been developed.
The World Energy Council has estimated the worldwide wave power resource to be 2 TW, equivalent
to an annual available energy resource of 17,500 TWh.

Breaking waves as shown in Fig. 8.1 look spectacular but do not contain good quality energy that can
be extracted. Sinusoidal homogeneous waves (Fig. 8.1, bottom) represent waves where energy can be
extracted with good conversion rates.
Figure 8.1 Poor wave quality and good wave quality
8.2 WAVE ENERGY
8.2.1 PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES OF WAVES
The waves on the surface of the sea are caused mainly by the effects of wind. The exact mechanisms
involved in the interaction between the wind and surface of the sea are complex. Briefly, three main
processes appear to be involved:
o Initially, air flowing over the sea exerts a tangential stress on the water surface, resulting in
the formation and growth of waves.
o Turbulent air flow close to the water surface creates rapidly varying shear stress and pressure
fluctuations. Where these oscillation are in phase with existing waves, further wave
development occurs.
o Finally, when waves have reached a certain size, the wind can exert a stronger force on the up-
wind face of the wave, causing additional wave growth.
Because wind is originally derived from solar energy, the energy in ocean waves can be considered as a
stored, moderately high density form of solar energy. Solar power levels, typically of the order of 100
W/m2 (mean value), can be eventually transformed into waves with power levels of over 100 kW/m of
crest length.

The waves located within or close to the areas where they are formed are called storm waves. They
form a complex, irregular sea.
Waves can travel out of these areas with minimal loss of energy to produce swell waves at great
distances from the point of origin.
The size of the waves generated by any wind field depends upon three factors: the wind speed, its
duration, and the fetch, or distance over which wind energy is transferred into the ocean to form waves.
Waves are characterized by their wavelength , height H, and period T.
Greater amplitude waves contain more energy per meter of crest length than small waves. It is usual
to quantify the power of waves rather than their energy content.
Table 8.1 gives the North Atlantic offshore wave conditions.
Table 8.1 North Atlantic offshore wave conditions.
Period [s] Amplitude [m] Power density Velocity [m/s] Wavelength [m]
kW/m
Storm 14 14 1700 23 320
Average 9 3.5 60 15 150
Calm 5.5 0.5 1 9 50
8.2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF WAVES
The shape of a typical wave is described as sinusoidal. The difference in height between peaks and
troughs is known as the height H and the distance between successive peaks (or troughs) of the wave
is known as the wavelength .
Suppose that the peaks and troughs of the wave move across the surface of the sea with a velocity v.
The time in seconds taken for successive peaks (or troughs) to pass a given fixed point is known as the
period T. The frequency of the wave describes the number of peak-to-peak (or trough-to-trough)
oscillations of the wave surface per second as seen by a fixed observer and is the reciprocal of the
period so that = 1/T.
If a wave is travelling at velocity v past a given point, it will travel a distance equal to its wavelength
divided by the period T; i.e.
v
T
The power P (in kW per meter of wavefront) of an idealized ocean wave is approximately equal to the
square of the height H (m) multiplied by the wave period T (s). The exact expression is:

g 2 H 2T
P
32
where P is W/m, is the density of water and g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2)
Fig. 8.2 gives idealised wave characteristics.
Figure 8.2 Definitions of wave properties
8.2.2.1 DEEP WATER WAVES
If the depth of water is greater than about half of the wavelength the velocity of a long ocean wave can
be shown to be proportional to the period so that
gT
v
2
This leads to the useful approximation that the velocity in m/s is about 1.5 times the wave period in
seconds.
An increasing consequence of this result is that in deep ocean the long waves travel faster than shorter
waves
If both the above relationships hold, we can find the deep water wavelength for any given wave period:
gT 2

2
8.2.2.2 INTERMEDIATE WATER WAVES
As the water becomes shallower, the properties of the waves become increasingly dominated by water
depth.
When waves reach shallow water, their properties are completely governed by the water depth, but in
intermediate depths (i.e., between d = /2 and d = /4) the properties of the waves will be influences
by both water depth d and wave period T.

8.2.2.3 SHALLOW WATER WAVES
As waves approach the shore, the seabed starts to have an effect on their speed and it can be shown
that if the water depth d is less than a quarter of the wavelength, the velocity is given by
v gd
In other words. The velocity under these conditions is equal to roughly three times the square root of
the water depth d it no longer depends on the wave period.
Figure 8.3. (a) Typical wave record; (b) recorded take in same position on different days
8.2.3 TYPICAL SEA WAVES AND POWER
A typical sea water state is actually composed of many individual components, each of which is like the
idealized wave described before. Each wave has its own properties, i.e. period, height, and direction.
The total power in each meter of wave front of this irregular sea is of course the sum of the powers of
all the components.

o It is obviously impossible to measure all the heights and periods independently, and thus an
averaging process is used to estimate the total power:
o By deploying a wave-rider buoy it is possible to record the variation in surface level during
some chosen period of time. The average water height will always be zero, since the average
value also defines the zero value, but we can obtain a meaningful figure by calculating the
significant wave height, Hs, which is defined as 4 the root mean square of the water
elevation. Hs is approximately equal to the average of the highest one-third of the waves
(which generally corresponds to the estimation of amplitude made by eye since the smaller
waves tend to be not noticed).
o The zero-up-crossing period Te is defined as the average time counted over ten crossings or
more to get a reasonable average between upward movements of the surface through the
mean level. Note that including the downward movements would give the half period.
o For a typical irregular sea, it can then be shown that the average total power in one meter of
wave crest is given by P = Hs2Te/2 in units of kW/m length of wave crest.
o Fig. 8.3 (a) shows a typical wave record. In this example the significant wave height Hs = 3m.
The successive upward movements of the surface are indicated with small circles. In this case
there are 15 crossings in 150 s so Te = 10 s. From this, P (kW/m) = 32 10 / 2 (kW/m) = 45
kW/m.
o Two wave records are shown here Fig. 8.3 (b) for the same location but represent recordings
taken on different days.
8.2.4 STATISTICAL ESTIMATION OF WAVE POWER
Sea level recordings made at different times or dates will of course differ, leading to different values of
Hs and Te. Suppose that each recording represents a time period of one thousandth of a year or 8.76
hours. If we record the sea states at our chosen location over a whole year, characterizing each of them
by their values of Hs and Te, we can build up a statistical picture of the distribution of wave conditions
at the chosen location. This picture or scatter diagram gives the relative occurrences in parts per 1000
of the contributions of Hs and Te.
The direction of waves travelling in deep water is dictated by the direction of the wind generating them.
Waves can travel vast distances across open water without much energy loss. At any given location,
waves arriving from different sources can therefore be observed. A representation of the average
power as a function of direction at a given location can be given by a directional rose (Fig. 8.4) where
the length if the line in each sector represents the average annual power in that sector (the waves a
coming from the west).
Fig. 8.5 shows a scatter diagram of significant wave height Hs against zero crossing period Te for 58N
19W in the north Atlantic. The numbers on the graph denote the average number of occurrences of
each Hs and Te in each 1000 measurements made over one year. The most frequent occurrences are at
Hs 2 m, Te 9s.
The annual average wave power in kW/m of crest length for various locations around the world is
shown in Fig. 8.6.

Figure 8.4. Directional rose
Figure 8.5. Scatter diagram of significant wave height Hs against zero crossing period Te

Figure 8.6. Annual average wave power in kW/m of crest length
8.2.5 WAVE ENERGY AND DEPTH OF WATER
Waves are composed of orbiting particles of water. Near the surface, these orbits are the same size as
the wave height, but the orbits decrease in size as we go deeper below the surface. The size of orbits
decreases exponentially with depth (see Fig. 8.7).
To capture the maximum energy from a wave we could construct a device to intercept all of the orbiting
part of that wave, but this would be impractical and uneconomic since the lowest orbit actually contains
very little energy.
It can be shown that 95% of the wave energy is contained in the layer between the surface and a depth
h equal to a quarter of the wavelength , i.e. h = /4.
Areas where the shoreline is formed by a steep cliff which drops into reasonable deep water are most
suitable for shore mounted wave energy converters because the incident waves have a high energy
content.
However, for most of the coastlines around the world the near shore water is quite shallow. Due to the
frictional coupling between the water particles at the greatest depth with the seabed, deep water
waves gradually give up their energy as they move into shallower water and eventually run up the shore
to the beach.
This loss of energy is very important because it obviously reduces the wave energy resource. Typically,
waves with a power density of 50 kW/m in deep water might contain 20 kW/m or less when they are
closer to shore in shallow water, depending on the distance travelled in shallow water and the
roughness of the seabed.
That said, however, storm waves are also attenuated and are less likely to destroy shoreline devices.
As ocean waves approach the shore entering shallow water and the velocity of the waves then becomes
governed by the water depth. Shallower water means lower wave velocity. This in turn leads to
refraction or change of direction.

Imagine a wave crest approaches shallow water at an angle, so that one end of the crest reaches shallow
water first. This part then moves more slowly than the rest, changing its direction. The remainder of
the crest progressively adopts this new direction as its velocity is also reduced on entering the shallow
water.
The effect of refraction, caused by the reducing depth and hence velocity, is gradually to change the
direction of the crest to be roughly parallel with the shore. This is shown in the Fig. 8.8.
Consider a shoreline with headlines as shown below. Notice how the varying water depth, as shown by
the contours (while lines), causes refraction to occur. This concentrates the wave onto the headlines,
and leaves the other areas with reduced wave density (see Fig. 8.9).
Knowledge of the depth contours allows us to carry out a ray tracing procedure, and with it we can
identify those areas where the waves will be concentrated. Clearly such sites would be the most cost-
effective for wave developments.
Figure 8.7. Orbiting particles of water
Figure 8.8 The effect of refraction, caused by the reducing depth and hence velocity

Figure 8.9. Concentrates the wave onto the headlines
8.3 TECHNOLOGIES TO CAPTURE WAVE ENERGY
8.3.1 INTRODUCTION
In order to capture wave energy, it is essential to intercept the waves with a structure that will react in
an appropriate manner to the forces applied to it by the waves.
In order to convert the wave energy into useful mechanical energy, which can then be used to generate
electricity, the key point is that there must be a central, stable structure, with some active part which
moves relative to it under the force of the waves.
The main structure may be anchored to the seabed or seashore, but some part will be allowed to move
in response to the force of the waves. Floating structures can also be employed, but still a stable frame
of reference must be established so that the active part of the device moves relative to the main
structure. This can be achieved by taking advantage of inertia, or by making the main structure so large
that it spans several wave crests and hence remains reasonably stable in most sea states.
The physical size of the structure of a wave energy converter is a critical factor in determining its
performance. The appropriate size can be estimated by considering the volume of water involved in
the particle orbits in a wave. In most circumstances a wave energy converter will have to have a swept
volume which is similar to this volume of water in order to capture all of the energy contained in the
wave. The precise physical size and shape of a device will be governed by its mode of operation, but as
a rough guide the swept volume must be of the order of several tens of cubic meters per meter of
device width. A device with a swept volume much smaller than this would have a limitation on the total
energy that it could capture from each typical wave cycle: although it might still be capable of capturing
most of the energy from small waves it would be restricted in its response to larger waves, thereby
reducing the overall efficiency.
There are many different configurations of wave energy converter, and a number of ways of classifying
them have been proposed.
A schematic representation of the various types of wave energy converters (Falnes and Lovseth, 1991)
is shown in Fig. 8.10.

Figure 8.10. Schematic representation of the various types of wave energy converters
Wave energy converters can also be classified in terms of their location:
o Fixed to the seabed, generally in shallow water,
o Floating offshore in deep water, or
o Tethered in intermediate depths
And in terms of their geometry and orientation, as:
o Terminators, if their principal axis is parallel to the incident wave front and they physically
intercept the waves,
o Attenuators, if their principal axis perpendicular to the wave front so that wave energy is
gradually drawn towards the device as the wave moves past it, or
o Point absorbers, if they draw energy from the water beyond their physical dimensions, but
they have small dimensions relative to the incident wavelength. In principle, they could be
extremely slim vertical cylinders which execute large vertical excursions in response to
incident waves, but in diameter and absorb energy from perhaps twice their own width.
Tethered buoy systems, for example, act as point absorbers.
Because full scale devices are generally very large as a result of needing to be on a similar scale to the
waves that they capture, most development of wave energy technology are therefore carried out at
models scale. For this, indoor tanks, lakes and reservoirs have been used by research teams.
In 1976 a team at Edinburgh University in Scotland constructed a wide wave tank in which it was
possible to create repeatable wave conditions, and so test the effects of varying specific design
parameters of wave energy converters (see Fig. 8.11). The tank was rebuilt in 2002.

Figure 8.11. Edinburgh wave tank
Figure 8.12. Oscillating water column structure

8.3.2 FIXED DEVICES
Fixed seabed and shore mounted devices are usually terminators, and these have been the most
common types of wave energy converter to have been tested as prototypes at sea. Having a fixed frame
of reference and with good access for maintenance purposes, they have obvious advantages over the
floating devices, but have the disadvantage that they generally operate in shallow water and hence at
reduced wave power levels. In addition, there appears to be a limited number of sites for future
deployment.
The majority of devices tested and planned are of the oscillating water column (OWC) type. In these
devices, an air chamber pierces the surface of the water and contained air is forced out of and then into
the chamber, the air passes through an air turbine generator and so produces electricity. The Wells
turbine is used in and proposed for many OWCs. This novel axial flow air turbine rotates in one direction
irrespective of whether the airflow is into or out of the chamber, and has aerodynamic characteristics
particularly suitable for wave applications.
Fig. 8.12 shows an oscillating water column construction as used for the Limpet scheme on the Isle of
Islay, UK.
Figure 8.13. Wells turbine

The Wells air turbine is self-rectifying, i.e. it can accept airflow in either axial direction. To achieve this,
the aerofoil-shaped blade profile must be symmetric about plane of rotation, untwisted and with zero
pitch. This is illustrated in Fig. 8.13.
As the blade moves forward the angle of attack, which is the angle between the relative airflow velocity
and the blade velocity, is small and this produces a large lift force FL. The forward component of FL
provides the thrust which drives the blade forward.
Consider the nearest blade with air flowing in an upward direction. If we now work in the frame of
reference of the blade we do this by standing on the blade and considering the blade velocity vector
to be in the opposite direction to the blades actual direction of movement. The attack angle is then
the angle between the relative air flow velocity and the blade velocity.
It can be seen that there will be a net force on the blade acting in the plane of rotation if
FLsin FDcos
is greater than zero. This is shown in Fig. 8.13.
The Wells turbine can perform well over a range of air flows giving it a better wave cycle efficiency than
the conventional air turbines.
The photograph in Fig. 8.14 shows the LIMPET OWC device, Scotland, completed in September 2000,
which contains a rectangular sloping chamber ducting the airflow through two contra-rotating Wells
turbines, each coupled to a 250 kW induction generator, giving the device a 500 kW max. power output.
Figure 8.14. Limpet OWC.
Energetech Australia Pty has developed a new technology advanced shoreline OWC, which uses a
novel, variable pitch turbine to improve efficiency and parabolic wall to focus the wave energy on the
OWC collector. It is designed for use in harbours or rocky outcrops where the water at the coastline is
deep (see Fig. 8.15).
As wave fronts approach they are amplified up to three times at their focal point by the parabola shaped
collector, before entering the 10x8 m OWC structure.
A 500 kW scheme has been constructed at Port Kembla, NSW, Australia. It is expected to produce over
1 GWh per year.

Figure 8.15. OWC with novel wall
Fixed oscillation water columns have been built in Norway, Japan, India, Azores, and Scotland.
There exist also non-OWC devices, such as the TAPCHAN (Fig. 8.16, left) and Pendulor (Fig. 8.16, right).
Figure 8.16. TAPCHAN and Pendulor
In 1985 a 350 kW prototype TAPCHAN wave energy converter, built by the company Norwave,
commenced operation on a small Norwegian island some 40 km north-west of Bergen
The name TAPCHAN comes fro the TAPered CHANnel design of the scheme. The mouth of the channel
is a 40 m wide horn-shaped collector. Waves entering the collector are def into the wide end of the
tapered channel where they propogate towards the narrow end with increasing wave height. The
channel walls on the prototype are 10 m high (from 7 m below sea level to 3 m above) and 170 m long.
Because the waves are forced into an ever-narrowing channel, their height is amplified until the crests
spill over the walls into the reservoir at a level of 3 m above the mean sea level. The kinetic energy in
the waves is thus converted into potential energy and this is subsequently converted into electricity by

allowing the water in the reservoir to return to the sea via a low-head Kaplan turbine. This powers a
350 kW generator that delivers electricity into the Norwegian grid.
The TAPCHAN concept is simple. With very few moving parts its maintenance costs are low and its
reliability high. The storage reservoir also helps to smooth the electrical output.
Ocean waves have a random nature and so most wave energy converters produce a fluctuating power
output. In contrast, TAPCHAN collects waves in the reservoir and so the output from the Kaplan turbine
is dependent on the relatively steady difference in water levels between the reservoir and the sea.
TAPCHAN therefore has an integral storage capacity which is generally not found in other wave energy
converters.
TAPCHAN systems are now being planned for other locations including Indonesia.
In the 1990s Norwave considered methods for reducing the cost of construction of future TAPCHANs.
Among those methods is a scheme for wave prediction, to allow the Kaplan turbine to run at a greater
output for some short time before the arrival of a number of large waves. This reduces the level of
water in the reservoir and so makes room for those large waves. This technique may permit designers
to build schemes with smaller reservoirs and hence reduce the construction costs.
A second cost-reduction method that has been proposed is to fabricate a shorted channel and this has
been tried out on the existing prototype at Bergen by reducing the length of the existing channel. There
were some technical difficulties with dynamiting of the concrete channel and the ensuing commercial
problems have meant this prototype is no longer in operation (Petroncini and Yemm, 2000).
TAPCHAN cannot be exploited economically everywhere in the world simply because to make such a
system effective features are required.
Suitable locations for TAPCHAN systems must have consistent waves, with a good average wave energy
and a tidal range of less than 1 metre; suitable coastal features including deep water near to shore and
a suitable location for a reservoir.
The Pendulor (Fig. 8.16, right) is one of the non-OWC fixed device prototypes tested in Japan. The
Pendulor (see figure) is a gate hinged at the top and fitted one-quarter of a wavelength from the back
wall of a caisson. This is at the first antinode (a point of maximum amplitude of a series of waves) and
so the gate is subjected to maximum movements resulting from the wave.
Note that the gate can be located at the antinode for only one particular wavelength. In the regions of
Japan where Pendulor devices have been tested, the seas generally have wavelengths close to the
design wavelength for much of the year.
A push-pull hydraulic system converts the mechanical energy from the movement of the Pendulor gate
into electrical energy.
Two prototypes of nominal outputs of 5 kW have been operational on Hokkaido, Japan since 1980s.
Shore mounted devices often have to be located in shallow water and so generally have a lower power
density incident upon them than floating devices. They do however have the advantage of being closer
to a grid and more easily maintainable. In addition, the seabed attenuates storm waves which could
otherwise destroy the turbine.

The only other major drawback of shore mounted devices is that of geographical location: to optimize
output, they need to be positioned in an area of small tidal range, otherwise their performance may be
adversely affected. It is also worth noting that mass production techniques are unlikely to be totally
applicable to shore mounted schemes, as site-specific requirements will demand a tailored design for
each device, adding to the production cost.
8.3.3 FLOATING DEVICES
There are several floating wave energy converters: the Duck, Clam and Pelamis from the UK, floating
OWCs such as the Whale and other devices include the Backward Bent Duct Buoy (BBDB) from Japan,
and floating tapered channels (described as Floating Wave Power Vessels, FWPV) from Sweden.
Denmark has versions of both the BBDB and FWPV, called Swan DK3 and Wave Dragon, respectively.
These devices should be able to harvest more energy than fixed on shore devices since the wave power
density is greater offshore than shallow water and there is little restriction to deployment of large
arrays of such devices.
The Whale (see Fig. 8.17), a terminator device, has been tested both at model scale and as a full scale
prototype. A rather massive structure (50m in length, 1000 tons in weight, rated at 110 kW) is required
to provide a reasonably stable frame of reference for the Whale, but since the concept incorporates
uses such as a breakwater and leisure provision in addition to the generation of electricity, the research
team believes that the Whale will prove cost effective.
Tests commenced in 1998 in Gokasho Bay, Japan, where the typical wave conditions were Hs = 1 m, Te
= 5 8 s, mean power density = 4 kW/m. The mean power output was 6 7 kW in energy periods of 6
7 s, giving an overall efficiency of some 15%.
Figure 8.17. The mighty whale
The Backward Bent Duct Buoy (BBDB) Fig. 8.18, also a terminator device, has been tested at model
scale in China, leading to a projected electricity cost of 12 c per kWh.
Recently a comparison of physical and numerical models for different types of BBDB device was carried
out in Ireland.

Figure 8.18. The Backward Bent Duct Buoy
The Floating Wave power Vessel (FWPV), Fig. 8.19 is based on ship construction. It was anchored in 50
80 m depth of water 500m from the Shetland coast (Scotland) in 2002. This device has been developed
by the Swedish company Sea Power International as part of the Scottish Renewable Order scheme. It is
designed to have a maximum power output of 1.5 MW, producing about 5.2 million kWh per year at a
cost of 7p per kWh.
This device functions by capturing the water from waves that run up its sloping front face. The captured
water is returned to the sea via a standard Kaplan hydroelectric turbine. In many respects this device
may be compared to a floating version of the TAPCHAN.
With the Wave Dragon (Fig. 8.20) wave energy converter large "arms" focus waves up a ramp into an
offshore reservoir. The water returns to the ocean by the force of gravity via hydroelectric generators.
Figure 8.19. The Floating Wave power Vessel

Figure 8.20. The Wave Dragon
The Circular Clam (see Fig. 8.21) developed at Coventry University, UK, in the 1980s consists of 12
interconnected air chambers, or cells, arranged around the circumference of a toroid, with Wells
turbines in each cell. At full scale this would be 60 m or so in diameter, and deployed in deep water (40
100 m).
Each cell is sealed against the sea by a flexible reinforced rubber membrane. Waves cause the
movement of air between cells. As the air system is sealed, this flow of air will be reversed as the
positions of wave crest and trough on the circle change. A cross-section is shown in Fig, 8.22.
Figure 8.21. Circular Clam

Figure 8.22. Circular Clam cross-section
The Duck concept (Fig. 8.23, top) was originally envisaged as many cam-shaped bodies linked together
on a long flexible floating spine which was to span several kilometers of the sea. The spine would be
oriented close to the principal wave front making the Duck largely a terminator.
The Duck was designed to match the orbital motion of the water particles, and can be nearly perfect
at one wave frequency.
The concept is theoretically one of the most efficient of all wave energy schemes, but it will take some
years to develop fully the engineering necessary to utilize it at full scale. Prototypes were tried (Fig.
8.23, bottom).

Figure 8.23. The Duck
Figure 8.23. The Pelamis
The Pelamis, or sea snake, is a device being developed for deployment offshore by the UK firm Ocean
Power Delivery Ltd (OPD) (Fig. 8.24).
Pelamis consists of a number of cylindrical sections hinged together. The wave induced motion of the
cylinders is resisted at the joints by hydraulic rams that pump high pressure oil through hydraulic
motors via smoothing accumulators, and the hydraulic motors drive electric generators to produce
electricity.
Survival has been the key feature of the development program. The Pelamis is capable of inherent load
shedding, which means that the spine is not subject to the full structural loadings that would otherwise

be imposed on it during a storm. As an attenuator it sits down the waves rather than across them and
so becomes detuned in long storm waves, where the waves are much longer than the device.
A 750 kW device will be 150 m long, 3.5 m in diameter, and composed of five modular sections.
Power will be linked to the grid via sub-sea power cables. The cost of electricity is less than 15 c per
kWh. It is anticipated by OPD that the cost would be reduced to 4 7 c per kWh in the near future.
8.3.4 TETHERED DEVICES
Float systems, with the main body of the structure floating on the surface, but moored to the seabed
via a pump, are attracting attention.
These can act as point absorbers which draw in energy from greater width of water than their own
physical diameter. In theory a perfect wave energy point absorber could capture the energy from a
wave front with a length equal to /2 m. For example, a wave with period of 6 s would have a
wavelength of between 56 to 72 m, depending on whether the water is deep or shallow, and so a
perfect point absorber would absorb the energy from a width of about 10 m (between about 9 12 m).
In reality, however, the capture width is much less due to the limitations of the vertical amplitude of
the motion of the absorber. These devices are said to have a capture width ratio (apparent
diameter/physical diameter) greater than one.
The concept of latching, or holding the float under water for a second or so before allowing it to follow
the wave, has been developed to maximize the energy capture by permitting a large amplitude of
motion of the float, which is needed for optimal performance.
The Hose Pump Wave Energy Converter (see Fig. 8.24) has been developed over 20 years by Techocean
in Sweden and is intended to pump sea water from an array of house pumps fixed to the seabed.
The hose pump consists of a reinforced vertical rubber cylinder, anchored to the seabed and attached
to a float on the surface.
Careful choice of the geometry of the reinforcing cords, by winding them as spirals up the tube, means
that the sea water inside the tube will be pressurized when the tube is stretched by the float as it moves
upwards in response to a wave crest.
The sea water is then pumped out of the tube and up to a storage reservoir on land.
A Pelton wheel extracts energy from the water as it is release from the reservoir back to sea.
The tube is refilled with water via a non-return valve.
The Interproject Service (IPS) Converter was developed by Interproject Service AB, Sweden, in the early
1980s and tested at a 1:10 scale in a lake and as a full scale prototype at sea.
It consists of a long buoy with a tube open at both ends attached underneath. A piston inside the tube
is linked to the buoy and power is extracted by the interaction of the buoy and the water in the tube.
A new configuration, the sloped IPS, embodies a number of attractive features, particularly by operating
at an angle to the vertical giving it additional energy capture. By employing a hydraulic accumulator the
device can effectively provide reasonable smooth output and so offers the prospect of firm power foe
slender electricity networks or small islands.

The AquaBuoy system (see Fig. 8.25) is a development from both the IPS and the hose pump wave
energy converter. A1 MW system with 100 kW units is being installed in USA.
The Oregon State University has conceptualized an buoy system that utilizes a permanent magnet linear
generator (Fig. 2.26) this illustrates there are many potential systems being researched.
Figure 8.24. The Hose Pump Wave Energy Converter
Figure 8.25. The AquaBuoy system

Figure 8.26. Buoy concept with linear PM generator
8.4 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
Wave converters may be among the most environmentally benign of energy technologies because:
o They have little potential for chemical pollution. At most they may contain some lubricating
or hydraulic oil, which will be carefully sealed from the environment.
o They will have little visual impact except where shore mounted.
o Noise generation is likely to be low generally lower than the noise of crashing waves.
o They should present a small hazard to shipping.
o They should present no difficulties to migrating fish.
o Floating schemes, since they are incapable of extracting more than a small fraction of the
energy of storms, will not significantly influence the coastal environment. Of course, a
scheme such as a new breakwater incorporating a wave energy device will provide coastal
protection, and may result in changes to the coastline. Concrete structures will need to be
removed at the end of their operating life.
o Near shore wave energy schemes will release an estimated 11 g of CO 2, 0.03 g of SO2 and
0.05 g of NOx for each kWh of electricity generated, making them very attractive in
comparison to the conventional methods.
8.5 ECONOMICS
Reducing operation and maintenance costs is the key to successful economic implementation of wave
energy stations. The capital cost per kW of establishing a wave energy run power station is likely to be
at least twice that of a conventional station running on fossil fuels, and the load factor is likely to be
much lower than a conventional station due to the variability of the wave climate. Therefore, wave

energy can only be competitive if the running costs are significantly below those for a conventional
station.
Naturally, the fuel or wave energy costs are zero, leaving the operation and maintenance costs as the
determining factor. Schemes will therefore have to be reliable and robust enough to survive the wave
climate for many years. This means schemes designed for long lifetimes and with a small numbers of
moving parts (to minimize failures).
The Evolution of the cost of electricity from UK wave power devices is shown in the Fig. 8.27 (1p 2 to
3 c at time of compilation).
Figure 8.27. The Evolution of the cost of electricity from UK wave power devices
8.6 CONCLUSIONS
Wave energy is measured in kW/m wave crest length, and 95% of total wave energy is contained within
the depth of a quarter of the wave length.
The general systems for capturing wave energy can be classified as fixed, floating, and tethered devices.
The wave energy technology is one of the most environmentally friendly renewable energy
technologies.
In general, building a wave energy station costs twice as much as that for building a conventional station
running on fossil fuels. However, the wave energy station can be competitive if it is reliable with long
lifetime and can run with low running cost.
REFERENCES
Press, 2007.

9. BIO-ENERGY SYSTEMS
EXAMPLE TITLE
Contents of Section
Introduction
Source of bio-energy
o Energy crops
o Wastes
Technologies to convert bio-energy
o Direct combustion
o Gaseous fuels from biomass
o Liquid fuels from biomass
Conclusions
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Bio-energy is the general term for energy derived from biomass materials, such as wood, straw or
animal wasters, etc.
Traditionally, biomass is burned directly to produce heat and in many developing countries biomass
accounts for a large part of energy consumption.
In the modern world, biomass means materials that are processed on a large commercial scale.
The input may be purpose grown energy crops or organic wastes, and the output useful heat, electricity
or solid, liquid or gaseous bio-fuels.
Fig. 9.1 shows the bioenergy cycle on the local scale.

Figure 9.1. Bioenergy cycle on the local scale
9.2 BIOMASS
9.2.1 SOME BASIC DATA
Some basic world data is given in Table 9.1 while energy consumptions are given in Table 9.2.
Note that almost all data in the Tables are subject to considerable uncertainty.
Table 9.1. Basic world biomass data
World Totals
Total mass of living matter (including 2000 billion tonnes

moisture)
Total mass in land plants 1800 billion tonnes
Total mass in forests 1600 billion tonnes
World population (2002) 6.2 billion
Per capita terrestrial plant biomass 300 tonnes
Energy stored in terrestrial biomass 25000 EJ
Net annual production of terrestrial biomass 400 000 Mtonnes/year

Table 9.2. World energy biomass data
World Energy Comparisons
Rate of energy storage by land biomass 3000 EJ/year(95 TW)
Total primary energy consumption (2002) 451 EJ/year (14.5 TW)
Biomass energy consumption 56 EJ/year (1.6 TW)
Food energy consumption 16 EJ/year (0.5 TW)
9.2.2 STORAGE OF SOLAR ENERGY
Through photosynthesis, plants take in carbon dioxide and water from their surroundings and use
energy from sunlight to convert these into the sugar, starches, cellulose, etc. (Fig. 9.2, left), which make
up vegetable matter.
The essential features of the photosynthesis can be represented by
6CO2 + 6H2O + Light Energy C6H12O6 + 6O2
Note that C6H12O6 is glucose.
Fig. 9.2 again shows the local scale carbon cycle.
Figure 9.2. Photosynthesis and carbon cycle
9.2.3 RESOURCE
Energy crops Any plants that are grown specifically for use as fuel or for conversion into other bio-
fuels, such as wood for burning, plants for fermenting to ethanol and crops whose seeds are particularly
rich in oil. Examples are:
o Woody crops, such as Short Rotation Forestry (SRF) and Short Rotation Coppice (SRC) (Fig. 9.3,
left).
o Agricultural crops, such as sugar cane, maize, sunflowers, oilseed rape, and soya beans, etc.
(Fig. 9.3, right).

Figure 9.3. Short rotation coppice and agricultural crops
Wastes resulting from non-energy uses of biomass are potential fuels. However, only biodegradable
wastes are treated as renewables, while polymeric materials (plastics) that do not degrade easily are
excluded. Examples are:
o Wood residues, e.g. forestry residues generated during thinning plantations and trimming.
o Temperate crop wastes, e.g. residues from wheat and maize
o Tropical crop wastes, e.g. bagasse (fibrous residue of sugar cane) and rice husks
o Animal wastes, e.g. animal manure, and sewage sludge
o Municipal solid waste (MSW): Landfill gas (Fig. 9.4, centre and right)). Commercial and
industrial wastes (Fig. 9.4, right).
The main bioenergy conversion routes are shown in Fig. 9.5.
Figure 9.4. Landfill gas. and commercial and industrial wastes

Figure 9.5. Bioenergy conversion routes
9.2.4 COMBUSTION OF SOLID BIOMASS
Most of bio-fuels, derived from living or recently dead biomass, contain significant of amount of oxygen
and the molecules are large and complex. However, we can typify their combustion by considering the
relatively simple case of glucose as
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
Table 9.3 lists the energy produced in turning one tonne or one cubic meter of various bio-materials
with the main fossil fuels for comparison.
Note that the composition of coal and most biofuels is variable and the energy content per kg can differ
significantly from the table averages. The energy per cubic metre depends on the density and can vary
even more widely.
Combustion of wood and crop residues Boiling a pan of water over a wood fire is a simple process,
but unfortunately very inefficient.
How much wood is needed to bring one litre of water to the boil?
Data:
o Specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J/kg/K
o Mass of 1 litre of water = 1 kg
o Heat value of wood = 15 MJ/kg
o Density of wood = 600 kg/m3
Calculation:

o Heat energy needed to heat 1 litre of water from 20C to 100C = 80 4200 J = 336 kJ
o Heat energy released in burning 1 cm3 of wood = 15 600 10-6 MJ = 9.0 kJ
o Volume of wood required = 336/9.0 = 37 cm3.
Experience suggests that on an open fire much more than two thin 20 cm sticks would be needed. But
a well-designed stove using small pieces of wood cold boil the water with as little as four times this
input an efficiency of 25 %.
Table 9.3. Energy produced in turning one tonne or one cubic meter of various bio-materials
Energy content Energy content

Fuel Fuel
[GJ/t] [GJ/m3] [GJ/t] [GJ m3]
Wood (green, 60 % moisture) 6 7 Straw (as harvested, baled) 15 1.5
Wood (air-dried, 20 % moisture) 15 9 Sugar cane residues 17 10
Wood (oven-dried, 0 % moisture) 18 9 Domestic refuse (as collected) 9 1.5
Charcoal 30 --- Commercial wastes (UK average) 16 ---
Paper (stacked newspaper) 17 9 Oil (petroleum) 42 34
Dung (dried) 16 4 Coal (UK average) 28 50
Grass (fresh-cut) 4 3 Natural gas (as supply pressure) 55 0.04
Designing a stove or boiler that makes good use of valuable fuel requires a good understanding of the
series of processes involved in combustion. The first process, which consumes rather than produces
energy, is the evaporation of any water in the fuel. Then in the combustion process itself there are
always two stages because any solid fuel contains two combustible constituents. The volatile matter is
released as a mixture of vapors as the temperature of the fuel rises. The combustion of these produces
the little spurts of flame seen around burning wood or coal. The solid which remains consists of the
char together with any inert matter. The char, mainly carbon, burns to produce CO 2, whilst the inert
matter becomes clinker, slag or ashes.
A feature of the bio-fuels is that three-quarters or more of their energy is in the volatile matter (unlike
coal, where the fraction is usually less than half). The design of any stove, furnace or boiler should
ensure that these vapors burn, and do not just disappear up the chimney. Air must also reach all the
solid char, which is best achieved by burning the fuel in small particles.
Electricity from Straw The Elean (Cambridgeshire, UK) straw-fired power station (worlds largest)
began operation in 2000. Its output capacity is 36 MW and capital cost $120M (Fig. 9.6).
A diagram of the Elean straw-fired power station plant is shown in Fig. 9.7
The pant is optimally located with minimum transport costs for material. 200 000 tonnes of straw per
year are supplied in the form of 550 kg Hesston bales from large farms within 80 km. The straw is kept
in the farm until required can covered during transportation. The plant can store 2100 tonnes of straw
which is sufficient for 72 hours of operation.

The bales are shredded and the straw burned in two-stage grates. The volatile matter is released in an
iniial stationary phase with the balance of combustion occurring on a secondary vibrating grate. Air
injection is closely controlled to maintain optimum combustion conditions. Power generation is by a
conventional steam turbine and generator, and the annual electrical output is over 270 GWh per year
sufficient for 80000 households.
The ash, 5 % of the mass of the fuel input, is rich in potassium and phosphate and is used to manufacture
agricultural fertilizers, returning the nutrients to the land. There are plans to use the waste heat in
future and also take other baled crops such as miscanthus, allowing for agricultural diversification in
the area.
Figure 9.5. Electricity from Straw The Elean (Cambridgeshire, UK) straw-fired power station

Figure 9.6. Diagram of the Elean straw-fired power station
Charcoal is traditionally produced in the forests where the wood is cut. The kiln, consisting of stacked
wood covered with an earth layer, is allowed to smoulder for a few days in the near absence of air,
typically at 300-500oC, a process called pyrolysis. The volatile matter is driven off, leaving the charcoal
almost pure carbon, with about twice the energy density of the original wood and burning at a much
higher temperature so it is much easier to design a simple and efficient stove for use with this high
quality fuel.
However, from 4 to 10 tonnes of wood are needed for each tonne of charcoal, and if no attempt is
made to collect the volatile matter, up to three quarters of the original energy content can be lost.
The process also releases vaporized tars and oils and the products of incomplete combustion into the
atmosphere, making this charcoal fuel cycle probably the most greenhouse gas intensive in the world.
Combustion of municipal solid wastes (MSW) Refuse incineration with heat recovery, or energy from
waste, is an important means of waster disposal. The heat may be used directly for district heating, or
for power production (often in CHP plant). The inert ash can be used as hardcore.
Countries with successful recycling and composting programs have often seen parallel growth in energy
from waste, which accounts for 30-60% of MSW disposal in most Western European countries. World
installed capacity if over 3 GW, about half of it in Europe.
Fig. 9.7 shows the South-East London Combined Hear and Power (SELCHP) commisioned1984, 420000
tonnes of MSW per year, 31 MW steam turbo-generators and heat for local district heating scheme.
Fig. 9.8 gives a schematic of a large MSW combustion plant.

Figure 9.7. South-East London Combined Hear and Power (SELCHP) commissioned 1984
Figure 9.8. A large MSW combustion plant

Household refuse is hardly an ideal fuel because of its variable and high moisture contents (20% or
more), and low energy density, about a thirtieth of that of coal. So it is expensive to transport, and
requires combustion plant designed specifically for this type of fuel. Methods for converting refuse into
a fuel suitable for burning in conventional plant have therefore attracted considerable attention.
The term refuse derived fuel (RDF)refers to a range of products resulting from separation of unwanted
components, shredding, drying and otherwise treating the raw material.
The most fully processed product, known as densified RDF or d-RDF (Fig. 9.9), is the result of separating
out the combustible part which is then pulverized, compressed and dried to produce solid fuel pellets
with perhaps twenty times the energy density of the original material. Their reduced ash content makes
the pellets suitable for co-combustion with coal in conventional plants.
Figure 9.9. Densified RDF or d-RDF
9.2.5 PRODUCTION OF GASEOUS FUELS FROM BIOMASS
Gaseous fuels from biomass are versatile, suitable not only for burning but also for use in internal
combustion engines or gas turbines, easier to transport, and cleaner if undesirable pollutants and inert
matter are removed during processing:
It offers a route to electric power that could be more efficient than the direct combustion of biomass
in a conventional power station.
Gasification under suitable conditions can produce synthesis gas, a mixture of carbon monoxide and
hydrogen from which almost any hydrocarbon, synthetic petrol, or even pure hydrogen can be made.

9.2.5 ANAEROBIC DIGESTION
Anaerobic digestion landfill gas and biogas.
o In the former case, the digester is the landfill itself, and the operator has only limited control
of the process.
o In the case of biogas, the feedstock, dung or sewage, is converted to a slurry with up to 95%
water, and fed into a purpose built digester whose temperature can be controlled. Digesters
range in size from perhaps 1 m3 for a small household unit to some ten times this for a typical
farm plant and more than 1000 m3 for a large installation. The input may be continuous or in
batches, and digestion is allowed to continue for a period of from ten days to a few weeks.
o The process of anaerobic digestion is complex, but it appears that bacteria break down the
organic material into sugars and then into various acids which are decomposed to produce the
final gas leaving a residue whose composition depends on the system and the original
feedstock.
o In a well run digester, each dry tonne of input will produce 200-400 m3 of biogas with 50% to
75% methane, an average energy output of perhaps 8 GJ per tonne of input. This is only about
half the fuel energy of dry dung or sewage, but the process may be worthwhile in order to
obtain a clean fuel and dispose of unpleasant wastes.
Fig. 9.10, left, shows the first large scale plant in Britain commissioned in 2002. It uses an annual
146,000 T of slurry from 28 farms, together with wastes from food processors to supply the heat input
for a generating capacity of 1.43 MW.
Figure 9.10. Anaerobic digestion plant in UK
The integrated waste materials plant has facilities for recovery of metals and removal plastics, followed
by anaerobic digestion of the remainder. The solid residue from the digester serves as fuel for power
production. A schematic is shown in Fig. 9.11.

Figure 9.11. Schematic of anaerobic digestion plant
9.2.6 GASIFICATION
In contrast to the mainly biological process of anaerobic digestion, the term gasification is used for
chemical process by which a gaseous fuel is produced from a solid fuel, e.g. wood.
There are many different designs of modern gasifier, but essentially one basic process: hot steam and
oxygen interacting with the solid fuel.
The gasification reactions do not occur easily, and need operating temperatures from a few hundred to
over a thousand degrees Celsius with pressures from a little above atmospheric pressure to 30 times
this. The process begins with the release of the volatiles from the heated solid, leaving the char. These
two components in turn undergo reactions with steam and oxygen, resulting in producer gas, a mixture
of combustible components (mainly carbon monoxide and hydrogen, with some methane, higher
hydrocarbons and condensable tars) together with carbon dioxide and water.
Further processing may break down some of the combustibles to give a cleaner gas.
Nitrogen will also be present if air is used, rather than oxygen, and the energy content of the resulting
gas is then only 3-5 MJm-3, about a tenth of that of natural gas. Using pure oxygen gives a more valuable
gas, but the additional cost of the oxygen plant makes this economic only for very large systems, and
currently is used only in coal gasifiers.

Small gasification plants (<300 kW) are available commercially, often combined with gas engines driving
small generators, and demonstration plants in the range 10-30 MW have been in operation since the
mid-1990s.
The overall conversion efficiency from the energy of the solid fuel to that of the resulting gas varies
widely, from as little as 40% or so in relatively simple systems, to 70% or more in the most sophisticated
plants.
The financial viability of biomass gasification on a large scale is not yet established, but the gas itself is
not necessarily the desired end product.
Much of its attraction stems from the future potential for three low carbon biomass based systems:
o Electricity from integrated biomass fuelled gas turbine plant,
o Liquid fuels as substitutes for petroleum products, and
o Hydrogen or other fuel for fuel cells.
Power station turbine systems
o Most power stations use the heat from burning fuel to produce high pressure steam for steam
turbines that drive the generators. Steam temperatures are limited to about 600C for
technical reasons so the maximum Carnot efficiency is about 65% and in reality more like 45
%.
o Gas turbines driven directly by the combustion produces of a burning gas at 1000C or more
should have higher efficiencies but the significant improvement is achieved in the combined-
cycle gas turbine (CCGT) system. In order not to corrode or foul turbine blades the gases must
be clean so most CCGT plants burn natural gas.
o If the output from a biomass gasifier can be cleaned and used to run the gas turbine then a
self-contained biomass integrated gasification combined cycle (BIGCC) system, for local
generation, is possible. Pilot demonstration plants using woody or bagasse fuel with 5-10 MW
output are being tested.
Fig. 9.12 shows different types of generation system (a) conventional steam turbine; (b) simple gas
turbine. In the CCGT plant, the gas turbine exhaust gasses replace the fuel/air input as the heat source
for the boiler.

Figure 9.12. Different types of generation system
9.2.7 PRODUCTION OF LIQUID FUELS FROM BIOMASS
A major objective in bio-energy is the production of liquid bio-fuels as substitutes for crude oil products.
The three main approaches, the thermochemistry, synthesis, and fermentation, could hardly be more
different.
Pyrolysis to produce bio-oil This is the simplest and almost certainly the oldest method of processing
one fuel in order to produce a better fuel. The term of pyrolysis is now normally applied to processes
where the aim is to collect the volatile components and condense them to produce a liquid fuel or bio-
oil. It is characteristic of biomass that the volatile matter carries more of the energy than the char, so
this process should be more efficient.
The method involves heating the bio-material with a carefully controlled air supply. It must not burn,
of course, and as the aim is a liquid product, gasification must minimized. The resulting reactions are

complex and hard to predict, giving a range of oils, acids, water, solid char and uncondensed gases,
depending on the feedstock and operating conditions.
The product, bio-oil, usually has about half the energy content of crude oil, and contains acid
contaminations that must be removed, but it can be used as an oil substitute for heating or power
generation, or could be refined to produce a range of chemicals and fuels.
Variations on the basic process include solvolysis, the use of organic solvents at 200-300oC to dissolve
the solids into an oil like product, and fast pyrolysis, requiring temperatures of 500-1300oC and high
pressures (between 50 and 150 atmospheres). Fast pyrolysis, with capture of the volatiles, is used in
the production of commercial charcoal, but currently these methods for liquid fuels are the pilot or
demonstration stage.
Pyrolysis is an option for obtaining energy from waste materials, and pilot studies with MSW and
plastics wastes have suggested relatively high energy efficiencies, but both pyrolysis and gasification
seem likely to be considerably more expensive than incineration. Economics of scale, and perhaps
greater acceptability than incineration, may mean better future prospects in more densely populated
areas.
Synthesizing liquid fuels One route from solid biomass to liquid bio-fuel starts with gasification. A
gasifier using oxygen rather than air can produce a gas consisting mainly of H2, CO and CO2. Removal of
the CO2 and impurities such as tars, methanes, and traces of sulphur, leaves the highly active mixture
of hydrogen and carbon monoxide called synthesis gas or syngas, from which almost any hydrocarbon
compound may be synthesized.
The first stage in the synthesis is a shift reaction, to adjust the proportions of H 2 and CO to the ratio
required in the desired product. Methanol, for example, is CH3OH and therefore needs an H2 to CO ratio
of 2:1. In the Fisher-Typsch process, the two components are passed over a suitable catalyst at high
temperature and pressure, and the product, initially formed as gas, is condensed.
The result, depending on the syngas composition and plant conditions, is a mixture of liquid and
gaseous hydrocarbons. The gases can be recycled or used for heating, and the liquids can be up graded
and refined to produce vehicle fuels.
Fermentation to produce ethanol Fermentation is an anaerobic biological process in which sugars are
converted to alcohol by the action of micro-organisms, usually yeast. The required product, ethanol
(C2H3OH), is separated from other components by distillation. Unlike methanol, ethanol cannot simply
substitute for petrol, but it can be used as a gasoline extender in gasohol: petrol containing up to 26%
ethanol or possibly more in future. With suitable engine modifications it can also be used directly.
Fermentation requires sugars, so the obvious source is sugar cane, and this is the basis of Brazils
gasohol program. Plants whose main carbohydrate is starch (potatoes, maize, and wheat) require initial
processing to convert the starch to sugar, and this route is followed in the US, where the main source
is maize. Even wood, with suitable pre-treatment, can be used as feedstock, but the processes are
expensive, and the gasification/methanol route described above might be a better option.
The liquid resulting from fermentation contains about 10% ethanol, which is distilled off. The complete
process requires a considerable heat input, usually supplied by crop residues.
Table 9.4 shows ethanol yields.
Table 9.4. Ethanol yields.

Raw material Litres per tonne Litres per hectare per year
Sugar cane (harvested stalks) 70 400-12000
Maize (grain) 360 250-200
Cassava (roots) 180 500-4000
Sweet potatoes (roots) 120 1000-4500
Wood 160 1600-4000 (theoretical max)
Vegetable oils to bio-diesel Vegetable oils exist naturally in the seeds of many plants and are extracted
by crushing. Their energy content of 37-39 GJt-1 is only a little less than that of diesel (about 42 GJt -1).
They can be burned directly in diesel engines, either pure or blended with diesel fuel, but incomplete
combustion is a problem, leading to carbon build up in the cylinders, and conversion of the vegetable
oils to bio-diesel is preferred.
The conversion process, called transesterification, involves adding methanol or ethanol, together with
free glycerol. The glycerol, a valuable by product, is removed, and the excess alcohol extracted for
recycling, leaving the bio-diesel. No engine modification other than tuning is required to use it, although
its lower energy content means that fuel consumption is about 10% higher.
9.3 ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS AND IMPACTS
9.3.1 ATMOSPHERIC EMISSIONS
Carbon dioxide There is little doubt that the halting of deforestation and replanting of large areas of
trees would bring many environmental benefits, but absorption of carbon dioxide by a new forest
plantation is a once and for all measure, buying time by fixing atmospheric CO2 while the trees mature,
say for 40-60 years. A wider bio-energy strategy, concentrating on the substitution of bio-fuels for fossil
fuels may be a more effective lasting solution.
Different types of biomass have different CO2 emission.
We take the combustion of methane (CH4) as an example. The masses of the carbon and oxygen atoms
are 12 and 16 times the mass of a hydrogen atom so we can associate masses with the items in the
combustion equation:
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O
12+(41) + 2(216) 12 + (2 16) + 2(21+16)
We see therefore that burning 16 tonnes of CH 4 releases 44 tonnes of CO2.
The energy content of natural gas is 55 GJ/t. So burning one tonne of natural gas releases 2.75 tonnes
(2750 kg) of CO2 in producing 55 GJ of heat.
The other fossil fuels are more complex than methane, but their combustion is a similar process. The
energy produced per tonne is rather less; whoever, and they also produce more CO2 per tonne because
they have a higher ration of carbon to hydrogen atoms, so the CO 2 per unit of heat output is greater
(see table 9.5). Note that the composition of coal, wood and oil can vary significantly.

Table 9.5. Heat and CO2 release
Fuel Heat content [GJ/t] CO2 released [kg/GJ]
Coal 30 80
Oil 42 70
Natural gas 55 50
Air-dry wood 15 80
Table 9.6gives the net life cycle emissions from electricity generation, UK.
Table 9.6. Net life cycle emissions
Emissions [g/kWh or t/GWh] CO2 SO2 NOx
Poultry litter 10 2.42 3.90
Combustion, steam Straw 13 0.88 1.55

turbine Forestry residues 29 0.11 1.95
NSW (EfW) 364 2.54 3.30
Sewage gas 4 1.13 2.01

Anaerobic digestion,
Animal slurry 31 1.12 2.38
gas engine
Landfill gas 49 0.34 2.60
Energy crops 14 0.06 0.43

Gasification, BIGCC
Forestry residues 24 0.06 0.57
Natural gas: CCGT 446 0.0 0.5
Fossil fuels Coal: best practice 955 11.8 4.3
Coal: FGD and low NOx 987 1.5 2.9
9.3.2 LAND USE
Biomass is one of the most land greedy energy sources, and it has been suggested that using land for
other forms of renewable energy may do more to mitigate the impact of CO 2.
Consider the land needed for an annual electricity output of ten million kWh the equivalent of 1.5
MW power station. An array of PV modules might need an area of some 40 ha to provide this, and a
windfarm slightly more: perhaps 100 ha. With reasonable yields and conversion efficiencies, the land
area of energy crops required to fuel this power plant would be in the range 300-1ooo ha (3-10 km2).
9.3.3 ECONOMICS

We can cost landfill gas. Let us take an example site large enough to support 2 MW of generating
capacity over an operating life of 15 years with an average load factor of 88 %. The following calculation
assumes a discount rate of 8 %.
Financial data: Plant and cost $1500 per kW; Operation and management 2 c per kWh; discount 8 %.
There are 8760 hours in a year so with 88 % load factor the 2 MW plant with generate 2000 8760
0.88 = 15.42 million kWh per year.
Annual repayment on $2000 at 8 % over 15 years is $ 234.
The total plant cost is $3 million so the total annual repayment is 1500 $234 = $ 351000 = 35.1 million
c per year.
Expressed as a cost per kWh output, this is 35.1/15.42 = 2.28 c/kWh.
Adding the O&M costs gives a final electricity unit cost of 4.28 c/kWh
Source: ETSU, UK, 1999. Conversion $2 = 1.
The average UK fuel prices, 2002, are shown in Table 9.7. Assume approximately two Australian dollars
to the pound. Note that 1p per kWh = 2.78 per GJ. (Source, DTI, UK 2003).
Table 9.7. Average UK fuel prices, 2002
Large industrial users (excluding tax) Domestic consumers (including VAT)
[/GJ] [p/kWh] [/GJ] [p/kWh]
Coal 1.3 0.47 5.4 1.95
Oil 3.0 1.1 4.0 1.4
Natural gas 2.1 0.74 5.0 1.8
Petrol, diesel (3/4 of this is tax) 20 6
Electricity 7.4 2.7 19.4 7.0
9.4 CONCLUSIONS
Bio-energy has in general two sources: energy crops and wastes.
The technologies to convert bio-energy to other useful forms are direct combustion, conversion into
gaseous fuels, and liquid fuels.
Bio-diesel and ethanol may have great significance in replacing petrol in vehicle applications.
Biomass is not a clean energy source, but planting energy crops, e.g. trees, and use of bio-fuels in more
energy efficient forms may contribute to CO2 mitigation.
Bio-energy is land demanding since large area is required to plant energy crops.

Bio-energy can be economically viable.
REFERENCES
Press, 2007.

10. GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
EXAMPLE TITLE
Contents of Section
Introduction
o Brief history
o Current state
Geothermal energy
o Source of heat
o Physics
o Resources
Technologies and systems
o Dry steam, single flash steam, binary cycle, and double flash power plants
o Ground source heat pumps
o Hot dry rock technology
Conclusions
10.1 INTRODUCTION
10.1.1 BRIEF HISTORY
The exploitation of geothermal resources dates back to Greek and Roman times, with early efforts to
harness hot water for medicinal, domestic and leisure applications. About 1000 years ago, the early
Polynesian settlers in New Zealand used geothermal steam for cooking and warmth, and hot water for
bathing, washing and healing.
By the 19th century, with the progress of engineering techniques, people were able to observe the
thermal properties of underground rocks and fluids, and to exploit these with drills.

The generation of electricity from geothermal source started in 1904, and in 1913, a 250 kW power
plant was installed at Larderello, Italy. Today, the Larderello power station has a capacity exceeding 700
MW, and is being rebuilt to increase the capacity to 1200 MW.
The Wirakei field in New Zealand was the second to be developed for commercial power generation in
early 1950s.
In 1960, the Geysers field in northern California was developed, and in early 1990s, the peak capacity
reaches 2800 MW. Geysers field is now the most extensively developed in the world.
There has also been developments in direct use in the past few years, especially in Europe and USA,
with the wide spread adoption of ground source heat pumps (GSHP).
GSHP can extract heat at only 12-15oC from depth of 100-150 m and do not depend on the presence of
water bearing rocks at that depth, and therefore can be exploited almost anywhere.
Fig. 10.1 shows the Larderello field. Left: prior to geothermal production. Right: Larderello 3 which
produces 120 MW from 6 turbines. The geothermal pipline netowork consists of an inner steel pipe
lagged with asbestos fibre covered with aluminium plate.
Figure 10.1. The Larderello field
10.1.2 CURRENT STATE
By 2000, world electricity generation capacity from geothermal resources reached about 8 GW, and 16
GW for non-electrical direct use applications, principally for space heating, agriculture, aquaculture and
a variety of industrial processes.
In 2000, these installations supplied a total of 45,000 GWh (see table which gives geothermal power
generation at the end of the 20th century).
Geothermal is the only form of energy that is independent of the sun, having its ultimate source within
the earth.
Heat flows out of the earth because of the huge temperature difference between the surface and
interior (around 7000oC at the centre). The amount of heat flowing through the earth surface is 10 21 J
pa, which is tiny compared with the solar heating of the earth (5.4x10 24 J pa).
Table 10.1 gives a list of country geothermal capacity. Source: Huttrer, 2000.

Table 10.1. Installed geothermal in 2000 and predicted installed 2005
Nation 1995 [MWe] 2000 [MWe] 2005 [est MWe]
Argentina 0.67 0 n/a
Australia 0.17 0.17 n/a
China 28.8 29.2 n/a
Costa Rica 55.0 142.5 161.5
El Salvadore 105.0 161 200
Ethiopia 0 8.52 8.52
France 4.2 4.2 20
Guatemala 0 33.4 33.4
Iceland 50.0 170 186
Indonesia 309.8 589.5 1987.5
Italy 631.7 785 946
Japan 413.7 546.9 566.9
Kenya 45.0 45 173
Mexico 753.0 755 1080
New Zealand 286.0 437 437
Nicaragua 70.0 70 145
Philippines 1227.0 1909 2673
Portugal 5.0 16 45
Russia 11.0 23 125
Thailand 0.3 0.3 0.3
Turkey 20.4 20.4 250
USA 2816.7 2228 2376
Totals 6833 7974 11414
10.2 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
10.2.1 THE SOURCE OF HEAT
There are two sources of geothermal energy: (1) When the earth was formed around 4600 million years
ago the interior was heated rapidly as the kinetic and gravitational energy of accreting material was
converted into heat. (2) The earth contains tiny quantities of long lived radioactive isotopes, principally
thorium 232, uranium 238, and potassium 40, concentrated in upper crustal rocks, all of which releases
heat when they decay.

Heat is transferred through the molten core (the main body) mainly by convection, and the solid shell
(about 100 km from the surface) by conduction. This rigid shell is broken into a number of fragments,
known as lithospheric plates, which move around the surface at speeds of a few cm pa.
It is at the boundaries between plates, mainly where they are in relative extension or compression, that
heat flow reaches a maximum. The heat flow through the surface averages around 300 mW/m 2 as
compared with a global average of 60 mW/m2.
Along the plate margins heat flow is even more concentrated locally because the rock material reaches
the surface in a molten form, resulting in volcanic activity. Storage of molten or partially molten rock at
about 1000oC just a few km beneath the surface strongly augments the heat flow around even dormant
volcanoes. Over geological periods of time, this high heat flow has resulted in large quantities of heat
being stored in the rocks at shallow depth, andit is these resources that are mined by geothermal
exploitation and commercially used for electricity generation.
In areas of lower heat flow, where convection of molten rock or water is reduced or absent,
temperatures in the shallow rocks remain much lower, and the heat resources will be suitable for direct
use applications.
Figure 10.2. Earths lithospheric plates indicating the relative speeds

High enthalpy resources, including those currently been exploited for geothermal electric power, are
confined to volcanically active plate margins or localized hot spots like the Hawaiian Islands. Boiling
mud pools, geysers and volcanic vents with hot steam are characteristic features of such geothermal
areas.
The map in Fig. 10.2 is of the Earths lithospheric plates indicating the relative speeds of motions by the
lengths of the arrows (generally 1 10 cm per annum). Large dots indicate major high-enthalpy
geothermal energy-producing areas.
Enthalpy is defines as the heat content of a substance per unit mass and is a function of pressure and
volume as well as temperature.
Geothermal recourses are usually classified as high enthalpy (water and steam at temperatures above
about 180 200 C), medium enthalpy (about 100 - 180 C) and low enthalpy (<100 C). The term
enthalpy is used because temperature alone is not sufficient to define the useful energy content of a
steam/water mixture. A mass of steam at a given temperature and pressure can provide much more
energy than the same mass of water under the same conditions. The distinction is important to
geothermal practitioners so the term has entered into general use.
For the purposes of this description, however, it is usually sufficient to think of temperature and
enthalpy as going hand-in-hand.
The following simple calculations show the order of magnitude discrepancy between commercial
geothermal extraction rates and thermal recharge by the earths natural heat flow. They demonstrate
that it is not the heat flow but the heat store that is being exploited, even in high-enthalpy areas.
The currently exploited area of Tuscany, northern Italy, totals 2500 km2. This is a generous estimate
which ignores the fact that the active fields are only a small sub-set of this. The average heat flow is
about 200 mW/m2 so the total heat flow through this surface is {2500 106 (m2) 200 20-3 (W/m2)}
= 500 MWt. The region currently supports generating capacity of >400 MW e; at a mean generating
efficiency of 13 %, this requires 3000 MWt. Steam supplies have been proved to support an electricity
generating capacity of 1500 MWe, which would require an input of approximately 12000 MW t. So the
ratio of forecast commercial production rate to thermal recharge is at least 12000 MW t/500 MWt or
24:1.
In the Imperial Valley, California, a commercial lease of 4 km2 is expected to support generating
capacity of 40 MWe, (which will require at least 250 MWt). Assuming an average heat flow 200 mW/m2,
the thermal recharge is less than 1 MWt, giving a ratio of 250 MWt/1 MWt or 250:1.
The well field in Krafla, Iceland, covers an area of some 50 km 2. It currently generates some 60 MWe,
implying heat extraction or some 400 MWt. To recharge the field on a sustainable basis, the heat flow
would have to be 8 W/m2. Again, this is much higher than could be expected even in this very active
area. Of course, there is recharge by the earths natural heat flow but a thermally depleted reservoir
may take many tens or even hundreds of years to regenerate. However, in regions of large geothermal
resources this is generally a minor problem
NOTE: MWt denotes megawatts of thermal energy; MWe denotes megawatts of electrical energy.

10.2.2 PHYSICS
Geothermal resources of most types must have three important characteristics: anaquifer containing
water that can be accessed by drilling, a cap rock to retain the geothermal fluid, and a heat source.
Fig. 10.3 illustrates the different components in a geothermal arrangement.
Figure 10.3. Geothermal system
Natural aquifers are porous rocks that can store water and through which water will flow. Porosity
refers to the cavities present in the rock, where as the ability to transmit water is known as permeability.
A geothermal acquifer must be able to sustain a flow of geothermal fluid, so even highly porous rocks
will only be suitable as geothermal aquifers if the pores are interconnected.
Fig. 10.4 shows the relationship between grain size, shape and porosity in sedimentary rocks, especially
sandstones (a-d); vesicular porosity in crystallized lava flows due to gas bubbles (e); and solution
porosity resulting from rock dissolution, especially where acid groundwater attack limestone (f).
Porosity also develops in rocks along original planes of weakness, especially bedding planes and
fractures (joints and faults)(g).
Table 10.2 gives the porosities and hydraulic conductivities for different materials.

Figure 10.4. Relationship between grain size, shape and porosity in sedimentary rocks
Table 10.2 Porosities and hydraulic conductivities for different materials
Material Porosity [%] Hydraulic conductivity
Clay 45-60 <10-2
Silt 40-50 10-2-1

Unconsolidated sediments
Sand, volcanic ash 30-40 1-500
Gravel 25-35 500-10000
Mudrock 5-15 10-8-10-6

Consolidated sedimentary
Sandstone 5-30 10-4-10
rocks
Limestone 0.1-30 10-5-10
Solidified lava 0.001-1 0.0003-3
Crystalline rocks Granite 0.0001-1 0.003-0.03
Slate 0.001-1 10-8-10-5

10.2.3 RESOURCES
Fig. 10.5 shows volcano related heat sources and fluids.
For heat sources in sedimentary basins, consider the situation where there is a steady upward flow of
heat through the top few kilometres of the earths crust. We can use the equation
T
q KT
z
to relate this flow to the temperature at any depth if we know the thermal conductivity of the rock. In
this equation, q is the one-dimensional vertical heat flow in W/m2, KT the thermal conductivity, DT the
temperature difference across a vertical height z, and DT/z is thus the thermal gradient.
If, for instance, the temperature is found to be 58C at a depth of 2 km (2000 m) and the surface
temperature is 10C, the temperature gradient is (58-10)/2000 = 0.024C/m and if the thermal
conductivity of the rock is 2.5 W/m/C, the heat flow is 2.5 0.024 = 0.060 W/m2 or 60 mW/m2.
Figure 10.4. Relationship between grain size, shape and porosity in sedimentary rocks
Suppose, however, that this same 60 mW flows up through several layers with different thermal
conductivities. The equation tells us that the thermal gradient must be different in each layer, with the
temperature changing most rapidly through the layer with the lowest conductivity as shown in the Fig.
10.5.
We can check that the diagram shows the correct temperatures using the equation to calculate the
temperature gradient for each layer and comparing with the gradient read from the graph:
o Layer 1: The calculated gradient is 0,060/2.5 = 0.024C/m. The measured gradient is (34.5
10.0)/1000 = 0.0245C/m.

o Layer 2: The calculated gradient is 0.060/1.5 = 0.040C/m. The measured gradient is (54.5
24.5)/500 = 0.040C/m.
o Layer 3: The calculated gradient is 0.060/3.0 = 0.020C/m. The measured gradient is (64.5
54.5)/500 = 0.020C/m.
Within the precision of the date therefore, the temperatures shown are consistent with a heat flow
rate of 60 mW/m2 through each layer.
Comparing this case with the uniform rock case ut is obvious that the presence of the thin layer with
low thermal conductivity has appreciably enhanced the temperature at a depth of 2 km.
Figure 10.5. Temperature gradient for each layer
10.3 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES
10.3.1 FOR HIGH ENTHALPY STEAM FIELDS
The city of Southampton is located in one of several areas in the UK known to be underlain by rock
strata containing hot water. The Southampton scheme (Fig. 10.6) demonstrates how it is possible to
make direct use of the hot water beneath the city. This scheme was not designed to produce electricity
for the grid it simply serves the city by providing a supply of hot water. Though very small in
comparison with developments around Paris. It provides a useful case study within the UK of a small-
scale geothermal scheme that actually works.
The single geothermal well, a kind of borehole, was drilled in 1981 to a depth of just over 1800 m
beneath the city centre. It was an exploration borehole drilled as part of a former Dept. or Energys
research programme with an agreement that the City Council would develop a district heating scheme
if the well was successful
Near the bottom of the hole, a 200 million year old geological formation known as the Sherwood
Sandstone containing water at 70C was encountered. This particular formation is both porous and
permeable, meaning that it holds water and can transmit considerable volumes.

This means it behaves like a giant rigid sponge and is a good geothermal aquifer. The fluid itself contains
dissolved salts and, as in most geothermal area, is more accurately described as brine. Within the
aquifer the brine is pressurized and so rises unaided to within 100 m of the surface. However, a turbine
pump, located at 650 m depth in the well, brings the hot brine to the surface where its heat energy is
exploited.
The brine passes through coils in a heat exchanger where much of its heat energy is transferred to clean
water in a separate district heating circuit. The heated clean water is then pumped around a network
of underground pipes to provide central heating to radiators, together with hot water services, in the
Civic Centre, Central Baths and several other buildings within a 2 km radius of the well. The cooled
geothermal working fluid (brine) is discharged via drains into the Southampton marine estuary.
Today, it is almost universal practice to reinject the spent fluid into the reservoir; however, in this
instance, the it was seen as environmentally acceptable and it is saving the equivalent of over a million
cubic metres of gas (or 1000 tonnes of oil) per year.
More recently, the geothermal heat supply, originally 1 MW t, was increased to 2 MWt using heat
pumps, and this is capable of satisfying the base load demand. However, during periods of higher
demand, fossil fuel boilers augment the plants heat output to a maximum of 12 MW t. A further
technical aspect is the inclusion of a diesel generator which supplies electrical power to the various
circulation pumps and the monitoring equipment. Heat from the generator is fed directly into the
district heating scheme and any surplus power is sold to the local electricity company.
Figure 10.6. Southampton thermal heating system
10.3.2 DRY STEAM, SINGLE FLASH, BINARY CYCLE, AND DOUBLE FLASH POWER PLANTS

Dry steam power plant: Superheated steam, typically at 180-225 oC and 4-8 MPa.
Single flash power plant: 155-165 oC and 0.5-0.6 MPa
Binary cycle and double flash power plants: Hot water and using working fluid with a lower boiling
temperature than water to extract heat.
Fig. 10.7 shows simplified diagrams showing the four main types of geothermal electrical energy
production.
Figure 10.7. The four main types of geothermal electrical energy production
10.3.2 GROUND SOURCE HEAT PUMP
The Creil district heating scheme (north of Paris) was installed in 1976.
The map shows the location of two production and two reinjection wells, and various apartment blocks
served by the system is shown in Fig. 10.8.

Figure 10.8. Creil system
The Creil system block diagram is shown in Fig. 10.9. This shows how the geothermal heat is exchanged
to a secondary freshwater circuit. The circuit is used first to heat 2000 apartments by under floor
heating; the residual energy is then boosted using heat pumps to provide radiator heating in a further
2000 apartments. Note that the main function of the heat pumps is to lower the reinjection
temperature and so extract more heat from the geothermal fluid rather than to raise the production
temperature.
The geothermal heat pump (GHP) concept can be used to extract heat from warm shallow ground water
to supply a single domestic dwelling (Fig. 1010, left). In winter heat is removed from the earth and
delivered in a concentrated form via a heat pump. Because electricity is used to increase the
temperature of the heat, not produce it, the GHP can deliver three to four times more energy as heat.
Measured data from a Swiss GSHP installation is shown Fig. 10.10, right. After an initial drop, the ground
temperature below the solar-dominated surface zone recovers to the same value year after year. This
appears to be a truly renewable operation.

Figure 10.9. Creil system block diagram
Figure 10.10. Swiss GSHP installation
10.3.3 HOT DRY ROCK TECHNOLOGY
The planned 5-year HFR Pilot at Soultz is shown in Fig. 10.11. Note: the term HFR refers to Hot Fractured
Rock a specific type of hot dry rock.

Figure 10.11. HFR Pilot at Soultz
10.4 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS
Significant environmental concerns associated with geothermal energy include those to do with site
preparation, such as noise during the drilling of wells, and the disposal of drilling fluids, which requires
large sediment-settling lagoons.
Longer term effects of geothermal production include ground subsidence, induced seismicity and, most
important, gaseous pollution.
Geothermal pollutions are chiefly confined to the non-condensable gases: carbon dioxide (CO2), with
lesser amount of hydrogen sulphide (H2S) or sulphur dioxide (SO2), hydrogen (H2), methane (CH4) and
nitrogen (N2).
In the produced water there is also dissolved silica, heavy metals, sodium and potassium chlorides and
sometimes carbonates, depending on the nature of the water-rock interaction at reservoir depth.
Today these are almost always re-injected and this also removes the problem of dealing with waste
water.
The Mammoth plant in California (Fig. 10.12) was commissioned in the late 1980. This project illustrates
contemporary reactions to environmental concerns at eh planning stage. The plant lies just outside a
popular ski resort and exploits a shallow reservoir with abundant but relatively impure geothermal fluid.
A fluid volume of about 900 kg/s is used to produce 40 MWe in a binary cycle operation. The geothermal
fluid is kept under pressure, requiring expensive pumping so that it does not flash and the pollutants

stay in solution. Because the producing reservoir has high sustainable flow rates, reinjection is directed
considerably beneath the reservoir and is done solely to avoid pollution. The Mammoth plant also
incorporates an air cooling system for the post-turbine isobutane gas, so avoiding all forms of visible
gas emission from the plant. This is a costly form of condensation system and environmental restrictions
on the height of the cooling towers mean that on warm days condensation is inefficient so that the
electrical output is reduced. The plant is coloured green to blend with the landscape and a screening
embankment with trees reduces the visible impact from the Mammoth Lakes ski resort.
Despite all these environment restrictions, this low-level, totally self-contained and emission-free
geothermal plant makes a profit through fixed price contracts with the Southern California electric
utility company.
Figure 10.12. Mammoth plant in California
10.5 ECONOMICS
Table 10.4shows the performance of typical geothermal power plants (from IGA 2001).
Table 10.5 shows the Geysers field improvements for cost-effectiveness.
Table 10.3. Performance of typical geothermal power plants

Italian 60 MW Italian 20 MW Japanese 50 MW
Year 1999 1999 1/4/97-31/3/98
Installed capacity [MWe] 60 20 50
Maximum load [MWe] 55 17 48.3
Annual produced electricity [MWh] 462845 142248 361651
Hours of operation of plant 8748 8483 8112
Load factor [%] 96.1 95.5 85.5
Availability factor [%] 99.9 96.8 92.6
Table 10.4. Field improvements for cost-effectiveness
Capitol cost per Operational/maintenance costs Overall energy production cost

kW of capacity (US/kWh) (US/kWh)
1981 $3000 4.0 8.5
1991 $2600 2.2 5.7
10.6 CONCLUSIONS
Geothermal energy is independent of sun.
Around the world, there are many spots suitable for exploitation of geothermal energy in the form of
either electricity generation or direct use of heat.
The major impacts of geothermal energy on the environment are the noise and pollution caused by
drilling of wells, and releasing of gases originally trapped underground.
Compared with the conventional electricity generation technologies, the cost of electricity generated
from the geothermal energy is slightly higher. However, it is within the acceptable range.
REFERENCES
Press, 2007.

11. ENERGY STORAGE
EXAMPLE TITLE
Contents of Section
Introduction
Batteries
Supercapacitor
Flywheel
Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES)
Conclusion
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Energy storage is an essential component in energy systems. In a stand-alone renewable energy system,
the energy storage is required to match the electricity generation and utilization, while in a grid
connected system, it is required to stabilize the electricity output to the grid and improve the quality of
electricity.
Common energy storage devices are:
o Batteries,
o Supercapacitors,
o Flywheels,
o Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES)
o Compressed air.
Fig. 11.1 gives a specific energy against specific power chart.
11.2 BATTERIES
11.2.1 INTRODUCTION
Batteries store energy in the form of chemical energy. The one way conversion efficiency is about 85 to
90%.
There are two basic types of electrochemical batteries:

o The primary battery, which converts chemical energy into electric energy. The electrochemical
reaction in a primary battery is non-reversible, and the battery is discarded after a full
discharge. For this reason, it finds applications where a high energy density for one time use if
required.
o The secondary battery, which is also known as the rechargeable battery. The electrochemical
reaction in a secondary battery is reversible. After a discharge, it can be recharged by injecting
a direct current from an external source. This type of battery converts chemical energy into
electric energy in the discharge mode. In the charge mode, it converts the electric energy into
chemical energy. In both modes, a small fraction of energy is converted into heat, which is
dissipated to the surrounding medium. The round trip conversion efficiency is between 70 and
80%.
Figure 11.1. Specific energy against specific power chart.
Fig. 11.2 shows the internal construction of a typical electro-chemical cell, which has positive and
negative electrode plates with insulating separators and a chemical electrolyte in between. The two
groups of electrode plates are connected to two external terminals mounted on the casing.
The cell stores electrochemical energy at a low electrical potential, typically a few volts. The cell
capacity, denoted by C, is measured in Ah, meaning it can deliver C A for one hour or C/n A for n hours.
The battery is made of numerous electrochemical cells connected in a series and/or parallel
combination to obtain the desired battery voltage and current.
The battery rating is stated in terms of the average voltage during discharge and Ah capacity it can
deliver before the voltage drops below the specified limit. The product of the voltage and Ah gives the
energy rating in Wh the battery can deliver to a load from the fully charged condition.

The state of charge (SOC) of the battery at any time is defined as:
Ah capacity remaining in the battery

SOC
Rated Ah capacity
Figure 11.2. Typical electro-chemical cell
11.2.2 TYPES
There are many types of rechargeable batteries. The commonly used ones are:
o Lead-acid (Pb-acid)
o Nickel-cadmium (NiCd)
o Nickel-metal hydride (NiMH)
o Lithium-ion (Li-ion)
o Lithium-polymer (Li-poly)
o Zinc-air
Table 11.1 gives the average cell voltage during discharge in various rechargeable batteries.

Table 11.1. Cell voltage during discharge
Electrochemistry Cell volts Remark
Lead-acid 2.0 Least cost technology
Nickel-cadmium 1.2 Exhibits memory effect
Nickel-metal hydride 1.2 Temperature sensitive
Lithium-ion 3.6 Safe, contains no metallic lithium
Lithium-polymer 3.0 Contains metallic lithium
Zinc-air 1.2 Requires good air management to limit

self-discharge rate
Lead-acid battery is the most common type of rechargeable battery used today because of its maturity
and high performance over cost ratio, though it has the least energy density by weight and volume.
In a Pb-acid battery under discharge, lead dioxide (positive plate) and lead (negative plate) react with
sulfuric acid to create lead sulfate, water and energy. The water dilutes the sulfuric acid electrolyte, and
the specific gravity of the electrolyte decreases with the decreasing SOC. Recharging reverses the
reaction, in which the lead and lead dioxide are formed at the negative and positive plates, respectively,
restoring the battery into its originally charged state.
The Pb-acid battery comes in various versions. The shallow cycle version is used in automobiles, in
which a short burst of energy is drawn from the battery to start the engine. The deep-cycle version, on
the other hand, is suitable for repeated full charge and discharge cycles. Most applications require
deep-cycle batteries.
Nickel-cadmium battery is a matured electrochemistry, in which the positive electrode is made of

cadmium and the negative electrode of nickel hydroxide. The two electrodes are separated by NylonTM
separators and placed in potassium hydroxide electrolyte in a stainless steel casing.
With a sealed cell and half the weight of the conventional Pb-acid, the NiCd battery has been used to
power most rechargeable consumer applications. It has a longer deep-cycle life and is more
temperature tolerant than the Pb-acid battery.
However, this electrochemistry has a memory effect, which degrades the capacity if not used for a long
time. Moreover, cadmium has recently come under environmental regulatory scrutiny. For these
reasons, NiCd is being replace by NiMH and Li-ion batteries in laptop computers and other similar high
priced consumer electronics.
Nickel-metal hydride battery is an extension of the NiCd technology and offers an improvement in
energy density over that in NiCd. The major construction difference is that the anode is made of a metal
hydride. This eliminates the environmental concerns of cadmium. Another performance improvement
is that it has a negligible memory effect.
NiMH however is less capable of delivering high peak power, has a high self-discharge rate, and is
susceptible to damage due to overcharging.

Compared to NiCd, NiMH is expensive at present although the price is expected to drop significantly in
the future.
Lithium-ion battery is a new development, which offers three times the energy density over that of Pb-
acid. Such a large improvement in energy density comes from lithiums low atomic weight of 6.9 vs. 207
for lead. Moreover, Li-ion has a higher cell voltage, 3.5 V vs. 2 V for Pb-acid and 1.2 V for other
electrochemistries. This requires fewer cells in series for a given battery voltage, thus reducing the
manufacturing cost.
On the negative side, the lithium electrodes reacts with any liquid electrolyte, creating a sort of
passivation film. Every time the cell is discharged and then charged, the lithium is tripped away, a free
metal surface is exposed to the electrolyte, and a new film is formed. This is compensated for by using
thick electrodes or else the battery life would be shortened. Therefore, Li-ion is more expensive than
NiCd.
In operation, the Li-ion electrochemistry is vulnerable to damage from over charging or other
shortcomings in battery management. Therefore it requires more elaborate charging circuitry with
adequate protection against overcharging.
Lithium-polymer battery is a lithium battery with solid polymer electrolytes. It is constructed with a
film of metalic lithium bonded to a thin layer of solid polymer electrolyte. The solid polymer enhances
the cells specific energy by acting as both the electrolyte and the separator. Moreover, the metal in
solid electrolyte reacts less than it does with a liquid electrolyte.
Zinc-air battery has a zinc negative electrode, a potassium hydroxide electrolyte, and a carbon positive
electrode, which is exposed to the air. During discharge, oxygen from the air is reduced at the carbon
electrode (the so-called air cathode), and the zinc electrode is oxidized. During discharge, it absorbs
oxygen from the air and converts it into oxidized ions for transport to the zinc anode. During charge, it
evolves oxygen. Good air management is essential for the performance of the zinc-air battery.
Specific energy and energy density of various electrochemistries are shown in Fig. 11.3.
Figure 11.3. Specific energy and energy density of various electrochemistries

11.2.3 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERS
The basic performance characteristics, which influence the design of battery bank for a specific
application, are:
o Charge/discharge (C/D) voltages
o C/D ratio
o Round trip energy efficiency
o Internal impedance
o Temperature rise, and
o Life in number of C/D cycles.
Fig. 11.3 shows a typical C/D cycle for a cell with nominal voltage of 1.2V, such as NiMH and NiCd.
The C/D characteristic also depends on how fast the battery is charged and discharged.
Figure 11.4. Typical C/D cycle for a cell with nominal voltage of 1.2V
C/D ratio After discharging a certain Ah to load, the battery requires more Ah of charge to restore the
full SOC. The C/D ratio is defined as the Ah input over the Ah output with no net change in the SOC.
This ratio depends on the charge and discharge rates and temperature.
Energy efficiency over a round trip of a full charge and discharge cycle is defined as the ratio of the
energy output over the energy input at the electrical terminals of the battery.
Example: For a typical battery of capacity C with an average discharge voltage of 1.2 V, average charge
voltage of 1.45V and C/D ratio of 1.1, the efficiency is calculated as

1.2 C
energy 0.75 or 75%
1.45 1.1 C
The recharge C/D cycle is a function of temperature as illustrated in Fig. 11.5.
Figure 11.5. Recharge C/D cycle as a function of temperature
Internal resistance The energy loss in in a battery can be regarded as the effect of an internal
resistance Ri. The value of this resistance is a function of the battery capacity, operating temperature,
and the SOC.
Charge efficiency is defined as the ratio of the Ah being deposited internally between the plates over
that delivered to the external terminals during the charging process. It is different from energy
efficiency. It depends on the SOC and charge rate as shown in Fig. 11.6.
Self-discharge and trickle-charge The battery slowly self-discharges even with no load on its terminals.
To maintain full SOC, it is continuously trickle-charged to counter the self-discharge rate. This is usually
less than 1% per day for most electrochemistries in normal working conditions. Trickle charging
produces a controlled amount of internal gassing. It causes mixing action of the battery electrolyte,
keeping it ready to deliver the full charge.
o Effect of temperature:
o The capacity and charge efficiency decrease with increasing temperature;
o The capacity drops at temperatures above or below a certain range, and drops sharply at
temperatures below freezing;
o The self-discharge rate increases with temperature;
o The internal resistance increases with decreasing temperature.
Internal loss and temperature rise The battery temperature varies over the C/D cycle. The
temperature rise during the cycle depends on the cooling method used to dissipate the heat by
conduction, convection, and radiation.

Figure 11.6. SOC and charge rate
Table 11.2 shows battery characteristics affecting thermal design.
Fig. 11.7 depicts the adiabatic temperature rise for various electrochemistries after full discharge in
short bursts.
Battery life is measured by the number of C/D cycles it can deliver before a wear out failure. The life
depends strongly on the depth of discharge and temperature as shown in Fig. 11.8, which is for a high
quality NiCd battery. The performance characteristics are tabulated in Table 11.3.
Table 11.2. Cell voltage during discharge
Operating Overcharge Heat capacity Mass density Entropic heating on

Electro-chemistry
temperature [C] tolerance [Wh/kgK] [kg/l] discharge [W/A]
Lead-acid -10 to 50 High 0.35 2.1 -0.06
Nickel-cadmium -20 to 50 Medium 0.35 1.7 0.12
Nickel-metal
-10 to 50 Low 0.35 2.3 0.07
hydride
Lithium-ion 10 to 45 Very low 0.38 1.35 0
Lithium-polymer 50 to 70 Very low 0.40 1.3 0

Figure 11.7. Adiabatic temperature rise for various electrochemistries
Figure 11.8. Number of C/D cycles it can deliver before a wear out failure
Table 11.3. Battery performance characteristics
Electro- Cycle life in full discharge Calendar life in Self discharge Relative cost
chemistry cycles years [% month at 25C] [US$/kWh]
Lead-acid 500-1000 5-8 3-5 200-300
Nickel-cadmium 1000-2000 10-15 20-30 1500
Nickel-metal hydride 1000-2000 8-10 20-30 400-600

Lithium-ion 1500-2000 --- 5-10 500-800
Lithium-polymer 1000-1500 --- 1-2 >2000
Zinc-air 200-500 --- 4-6 ---
11.2.4 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

For discharging a commonly used circuit is a voltage source in series with a resistor, while the emf and
resistance are functions of the state of charge.
Fig. 11.9 gives the simple equivalent circuit and load lines.
The voltage equation and efficiency is given by:
RL
E1 E0 K1Q d ; Ri R0 K 2Qd and
RL Ri
where K1 and K2 are constants found by curve-fitting the test date and Qd is the Ah discharged.
A Simulink model is shown in Fig. 11.10.

Example: A DC motor driven by NiMH battery is shown in Fig. 11.11; the Simulink results are shown in
Fig, 11.12
Figure 11.9. Simple equivalent circuit and load lines
Figure 11.10. Simulink model of battery

Figure 11.11. Simulation of battery system
Figure 11.12. Results from simulation of battery system
11.2.5 BATTERY CHARGING
Normal charging has three phases:
o Bulk (fast) charge, which deposits 80 to 90% of the drained capacity
o Taper charge, in which the charge rates is gradually cut back to top off the remaining capacity
o Trickle (float) charge after the battery is fully charged to counter the self-discharge rate.
For safety reasons, it is extremely important that excessive charging of the battery be avoided at all
time. Overcharging causes internal gassing, which causes loss of water in the Pb-acid battery and
premature aging? The charge regulator allows maximum rate of charging until the gassing starts, and

then the charge current is tapered off to the trickle charge rate so that the full charge is approached
gently.
There are three charging methods:
o Multiple charge rates, in which battery is charged gently in multiple steps.
o Single charge rate, which uses a simple low cost on/off regulator.
o Unregulated charging This method can be used in PV power systems with a maximum PV
voltage kept below 15 V, making it impossible to over charge the battery.
A constant current/constant voltage charge circuit is shown in Fig. 11.13 while the characteristics are
given in Fig. 11.14.
Figure 11.13. Constant current/constant voltage charge circuit
Figure 11.14. Constant current/constant voltage charge circuit characteristic

11.3 SUPER CAPACITORS
11.3.1 INTRODUCTION
Supercapacitor and Ultracapacitor are the commercial names of the devices made by Nippon Electric
Company (NEC), Japan, and Pinnacle Research Institute (PRI), USA, respectively.
In technical terms, it is named as electrochemical double-layer capacitor (EDLC).
Electricity is stored in a supercapacitor in the forms of electrical charges to produce a voltage difference
between the two terminals, i.e. electrical potential energy, and
1
W CV 2
2
where W is energy in J or kWh, C the capacitance in F, and V the terminal voltage difference in V.
Supercapacitors or ultracapacitors are being widely used for energy storage in many applications where
fast electrical response is required, such as UPS, and electrical vehicles, etc.
11.3.2 BRIEF HISTORY
The storage of electrical charge in the interface between a metal and an electrolytic solution has been
studied by chemists since the nineteenth century, but the practical use of double-layer capacitors only
began in 1957, when a patent was placed by General Electric for an electrolytic capacitor using porous
carbon electrodes. It was noted that the capacitor exhibited an exceptionally high capacitance.
In 1966, The Standard Oil Company, Ohio (SOHIO) patented a device that stored energy in a double-
layer interface. At the time SOHIO acknowledged that the double-layer at the interface behaves like a
capacitor of relatively high specific capacity. SOHIO went on to patent a disc-shaped capacitor in 1970
utilising a carbon paste soaked in an electrolyte, see Fig. 11.15.
Figure 11.15. Early supercapacitor
By 1971, however, a subsequent lack of sales led SOHIO to abandon further development and license
the technology to NEC. NEC went on the produce the first commercially successful double-layer
capacitors under the name supercapacitor. These low voltage devices had a high internal resistance
and were thus primarily designed for memory backup applications, finding their way into various
consumer appliances.

Since then, a number of companies started producing electrochemical capacitors. Panasonic developed
the Gold capacitor in 1978. Like those produced by NEC, these devices were also intended for use in
memory backup applications. By 1987, ELNA had begun producing their own double-layer capacitor
under the name Dynacap. The first high-power double-layer capacitors were developed by PRI. The
PRI Ultracapacitor, developed from 1982, incorporated metal-oxide electrodes and was designed for
military applications such as laser weaponry and missile guidance systems. News of these devices
triggered a study by the US Department of Energy in the context of hybrid electric vehicles, and by 1992
its Ultracapacitor Development Program was underway at Maxwell Laboratories.
A number of companies around the world currently manufacture EDLCs in a commercial capacity. NEC
and Panasonic in Japan have been producing EDLC components since the 1980s. In the U.S.A, Epcos,
ELNA, AVX, and Cooper produce components, while Evans and Maxwell produce integrated modules
that include voltage balancing circuitry. Kold Ban International markets a supercapacitor module
designed specifically for starting internal combustion engines in cold weather. Cap-XX in Australia offers
a range of components, as does Ness Capacitor Co. in Korea. In Canada, Tavrima manufactures a range
of modules. ESMA in Russia sells a wide variety of EDLC modules for applications in power quality,
electric vehicles, and for starting internal combustion engines.
Figure 11.16. Commercial supercapacitor
11.3.3 PRINCIPLES
EDLCs store electrical charge in a similar manner to the conventional capacitors, but the charges do not
accumulate on two conductors (Fig. 11.17. Instead the charges accumulate at the interface between
the surface of a conductor and an electrolytic solution. The accumulated charges hence form an electric
double-layer, the separation of each layer being of the order of a few Angstroms.
An estimate of the capacitance can be obtained from the double-layer model proposed by Helmholtz
in 1853, in which the double-layer consisted of two charge monolayers. One layer forms on the charged
electrode, and the other layer is comprised of ions in the electrolyte. The specific capacitance of such a
double-layer given by
C

A 4

C is the capacitance, A is the surface area, e is the relative dielectric constant of the medium between
the two layers (the electrolyte), and d is the distance between the two layers (the distance from the
electrode surface to the centre of the ion layer). This approximation is roughly correct for concentrated
electrolytic solutions.
Figure 11.17. Supercapacitor charge.
Figure 11.18. Supercapacitor
Supercapacitor devices consist of two electrodes to allow a potential to be applied across the cell, and
there are two double-layers present, one at each electrode/electrolyte interface. An ion-permeable
separator is placed between the electrodes in order to prevent electrical contact, but still allows ions
from the electrolyte to pass through; see Fig. 11.18. The electrodes are made of high effective surface-
area materials such as porous carbon or carbon aerogels in order to maximise the surface-area of the
double-layer. High energy densities are therefore achievable in EDLCs due to their high specific
capacitance, attained because of a high electrode/electrolyte interface surface-area and a small charge
layer separation of atomic dimensions.

In addition to the capacitance due the separation of charge in the double-layer, a contribution is made
from reactions that occur on the surface of the electrode. The charge required to facilitate these
depends on the potential, resulting in a Faradaic pseudocapacitance. Differences between double-
layer capacitance and pseudocapacitance, means two topics are discussed separately.
The understanding of the electrical processes that occur at the boundary between a solid conductor
and an electrolyte was developed gradually. Various models have been developed over the years to
explain the phenomena observed by chemical scientists.
The widely accepted explanation that was proposed by Bockris, Devanathan and Muller in 1963. They
suggested that a layer of water was present within the inner Helmholtz plane at the surface of the
electrode. The dipoles of these molecules would have a fixed alignment because of the charge in the
electrode. Some of the water molecules would be displaced by specifically adsorbed ions. Other layers
of water would follow the first, but the dipoles in these layers would not be as fixed as those in the first
layer; Fig, 11.19 shows a diagram.
Figure 11.19. Supercapacitor electrical process
Pseudocapacitance arises from reversible Faradaic reactions occurring at the electrode, and is denoted
as pseudo-capacitance in order to differentiate it from electrostatic capacitance. The charge transfer
that takes places in these reactions is voltage dependent, so a capacitive phenomenon occurs. There
are two types of reactions that can involve a charge transfer that is voltage dependent. They are Redox
reactions and ion sorption reactions.
In summary, the high values of specific capacitance attainable through EDLC technology are a result of
double-layer capacitance, and often pseudocapacitance. Double-layer capacitance offers good charge
storage capabilities thanks to possessing high surface-area materials as electrodes, and the fact that
charge separation occurs at atomic dimensions. Pseudocapacitance that arises from redox or ion
sorption reactions further improves the achievable capacitance.

11.3.4 MODELLING
Because of the difference in the mechanisms of storing charges between the double-layer capacitor
and the conventional capacitors, traditional capacitor models are inadequate for electrochemical
capacitors. A number of models currently exist that apply to the operation of double-layer capacitors.
A simple model for a double-layer capacitor can be represented by a capacitance (C) with an equivalent
series resistance (ESR) and an equivalent parallel resistance (EPR) (Fig. 11.20). The ESR models power
losses that may result from internal heating, which will be of importance during charging and
discharging. The EPR models current leakage, and influences long-term energy storage. By determining
these three parameters, one is able to develop a first order approximation of EDLC behaviour.
Figure 11.20. Supercapacitor electrical circuit
While the simple model provides a first approximation of a double-layer capacitors behaviour, it is
observed that there is a large error when compared with experimental results. Therefore, a model
consisting of three RC branches was proposed (Fig. 11.21).
Each branch of the equivalent circuit possessed a significantly different time constant. The branch
containing Ri, denoted the immediate branch, dominates behaviour in the order of a few seconds. The
delayed branch, containing Rd, most influences behaviour in the range of minutes. The third, long-term
branch governs the long-term response of the circuit after more than ten minutes. The immediate
branch contains a voltage dependent capacitor Ci1 that reflects the voltage dependency of the double-
layers capacitance. The resistance Rlea is included to model current leakage.
Figure 11.21. Supercapacitor electrical circuit more developed circuit

A treatment of the capacitance in porous electrodes resulted in each pore being modelled as a
transmission line. The transmission line models a distributed double-layer capacitance and a distributed
electrolyte resistance that extends into the depth of the pore. To achieve an estimation of the double-
layer capacitive effects, straight, cylindrical pores of uniform diameter and a perfectly conducting
electrode are assumed.
Fig. 11.22 shows the distributed circuit used to simulate the capacitor.
Figure 11.22. Supercapacitor electrical circuit distributed circuit (transmission line)
11.3.5 APPLICATIONS
Electrochemical supercapacitors are still relatively new devices that have yet to experience widespread
use. This has originally been due to their limited power and energy capabilities, and they therefore only
saw use in low-power, low-energy applications such as for memory backup. Recently, however,
significant advances have been made in improving both energy and power density, and new
applications for EDLCs are being developed at an increasing rate. The following are a number of possible
applications for the EDLC as an energy storage element.
Memory Backup
Figure 11.23. Memory backup

Electric vehicles: A combination of a high-energy density device such as a fuel cell to provide the
average load requirements and a high-power device such as a supercapacitor bank to meet the peak
load requirements that result from accelerating or climbing up hills. The utilisation of supercaps also
makes regenerative braking possible. Because the supercap bank can be recharged, it is possible to
store some of the energy of an already moving vehicle, and therefore increase the fuel efficiency of the
EV.
Fig. 11.24 shows power flow in an EV test drive for fuel cell, supercap, and inverter.
Fig. 11.25 illustrates a block diagram of an HEV using supercapacitors and an induction motor.
Energy storage options for different adjustable speed drive power ratings is shown in Fig. 11.26.
Supercapacitors can also be used in power systems to help power quality (Fig. 11.27).
Figure 11.24. Vehicle application

Figure 11.25. Block diagram of an HEV using supercapacitors
Figure 11.26. Adjustable speed drive (ASD) ride-through capabilities (SMES -superconducting magnetic energy storage)

Figure 11.27. Power system application of supercapacitor in DC storage
The supercapacitor is still a young technology that has yet to experience widespread implementation.
It does, however, enjoy a great amount of attention with regards to its potential application in a number
of areas.
A traditionally high ESR has previously limited EDLCs to memory backup applications, and they have
been used in such settings for many years. Recent reductions in ESR have improved the power
capabilities of supercapacitors, however, and they are now well suited to pulsed-current applications
such as mobile phones and electrical actuators. They can also perform a load-levelling function when
used in combination with batteries, providing peak power in devices such as laptops, reducing power
demands on the battery and therefore extending battery lifetime. EDLCs can be used in a similar
manner in EVs, providing power for acceleration and allowing a primary power source such as a fuel
cell to supply the average power. When used in EVs supercapacitors also allow for energy to be
recuperated during braking, improving the efficiency of the vehicle.
Supercapacitors can also be used on their own to provide the energy needed by power quality systems
that ensure reliable and disturbance-free power distribution. EDLCs then supply the energy needed to
inject power into the distribution line and thus compensate for any voltage fluctuations. They can also
be used to design systems that grant adjustable-speed drives the ability to ride-through temporary
power supply disturbances. Such applications are vital in industrial settings, and can prevent material
and financial losses that could occur due to machine downtime.

11.4 FLYWHEELS
11.4.1 INTRODUCTION
The flywheel stores kinetic energy in a rotating inertia. It has been used as a mechanical device for
equalizing the speed of rotation.
Flywheel energy storage (FES) works by accelerating a rotor (flywheel) to a very high speed and
maintaining the energy in the system as rotational energy. When energy is extracted from the system,
the flywheel's rotational speed is reduced as a consequence of the principle of energy conservation;
adding energy to the system results in an increase in the speed of the flywheel.
Most FES systems use electricity to accelerate and decelerate the flywheel, but devices that directly use
mechanical energy are being developed.
Advanced FES systems have rotors made of high strength carbon-composite filaments, suspended by
magnetic bearings, and spinning at speeds from 20,000 to over 50,000 rpm in a vacuum enclosure. Such
flywheels can come up to speed in a matter of minutes much quicker than some other forms of
energy storage.
The round trip conversion efficiency of a large FES can approach 90%, much higher than that of a
battery.
The energy stored in a flywheel is limited by the mechanical stresses due to the centrifugal forces at
high speeds. Modern FES can achieve five times the energy density of the currently available batteries.
Fig. 11.28 illustrates some applications, both old and modern.
Figure 11.28. Flywheel applications
11.4.2 PHYSICS
The energy stored in a flywheel having the moment of inertia J and rotating at an angular speed w is
given by the following:
1
E J 2
2
The centrifugal force in the rotor material of density at radius r is given by (rw)2, which is supported
by the hoop stress in the rotor rim. Because the linear velocity v = 2prw, the maximum centrifugal
stress in the rotor is proportional to the square of the outer tip velocity. The allowable stress in the
material places an upper limit on the rotor tip speed. Therefore, a smaller rotor can run at a higher

speed. The thin rim type rotor has a high inertia to weight ratio and stores more energy per kilogram
weight. For such a rotor with inner radius R1 and outer radius R2, the maximum energy that can be
stored for a allowable rotor tip velocity is
R 2
Emax K1v 1 1
2
R2
where K1 is the proportionality constant.
The thin rim flywheel with R1/R2 ratio approaching unity results in a high specific energy for a given
allowable stress limit. The higher the ultimate strength of the material, the high the specific energy.
The lower the material density, the lower the centrifugal stress produced, which leads to a higher
allowable speed and specific energy. The maximum energy stored can therefore be expressed as
max
Emax K 2

where K2 is a proportionality constant, max the maximum allowable hoop stress, and r the density of
the rotor material.
A good flywheel design therefore has a high max/ ratio for high specific energy, and a high YME/,
where YME is the Youngs modulus of elasticity. Fig. 11.29 shoes a wheel.
Table 11.4 shows the maximum specific energy storage in a thin-rim flywheel with various rim
materials. Fig. 11.30 gives the energy storage per weight for a flywheel and also, standardizing on a 10
kWh flywheel, the weight as the strength of the material increases (allowing the speed to increase).
Table 11.4. Flywheel characteristics
Rotor wheel material Maximum specific energy storage [Wh/kg]
Aluminium alloy 25
Maraging steel 50
E-glass composite 200
Carbon fibre composite 220
S-glass composite 250
Polymer fibre composite 350
Fused silica fibre composite 1000
Lead-acid battery 30-40
Lithium-ion battery 90-120

Figure 11.29. Flywheel
Figure 11.30. Flywheel physical capacity
11.4.3 SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
Fig. 11.31 shows a block diagram for the control of a flywheel while Fig, 11.32 gives diagram for the
typical physical structure.
There is a lot of stored energy in a high-speed flywheel so the structural integrity is very important.
Figure 11.31. Flywheel control block diagram

Figure 11.32. Flywheel physical representation
11.4.4 SUPERCONDUCTING MAGNETIC ENERGY STORAGE (SMES) AND HTS
Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) stores the energy in magnetic fields:
1 2
E Li
2
High temperature superconductors (HTS) SMES is becoming practical.
Round trip efficiency 95% and maximum system now is 5000 MWh.
Life time up to 30 years.
An arrangement is shown in Fig. 11.33.
HTS (high temperature superconductors):
o Current/voltage relationship is highly non-linear
E = Eo(I/Ic)n
where n is in the range 10-35.
o Define Ic (critical current) as the current that will develop a potential drop of 1mV/cm in HTS
tape.
A HTS coil is shown in Fig. 1.34. They allow energy to be sotred in a magnet field with no ohmic losses.

Figure 11.33. Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES)
Figure 11.35. High temperature superconductors
11.4.5 COMPRESSES AIR STORAGE
It is possible to store energy in a compresses air system.

Fig. 11.34 shows a 2700 MW power system to be installed for utility load leveling using compressed
air energy storage at an Ohio mine (IEEE Spectrum 2001).

Figure 11.35. Compressed air energy storage system
11.5 CONCLUSIONS
Batteries are most commonly used energy storage with acceptable energy density and specific power
for most applications.
Super capacitor features in high specific power and hence is suitable for applications which needs fast
charging and discharging, e.g. electrical vehicles.
Flywheel can have higher energy density and efficiency than batteries and are suitable for middle or
large systems.
SMES has high efficiency and long life time, and is most suitable for power grid applications, e.g. power
quality compensation.
Compressed air does not need any high technology and are suitable for large scale applications.
REFERENCES
Press, 2007.

12. SYSTEM INTEGRATION
EXAMPLE TITLE
Contents of Section
Stand alone systems
Grid connected systems
12.1 STAND ALONE SYSTEMS
12.1.1 PV SYSTEM
These can be very versatile, expectiall in the developing world. This is illustrated in Fig. 12.1.
Figure 12.1. Versatile POV systems

Solar is also being looked at for transport
Figure 12.2 shows The University of Michigan solar car that raced 1100 miles in the USA and 1900
miles in Australia.
Table 12.1 gives the design characteristics range for solar Race cars built by US students for the
biennial 1100 mile Sunrayce.
Table 12.1. Sunrayce parameters
Design parameters Parameter range
Solar array power capacity (silicon Crystalline, gallium 750-1500 W

arsenide)
Battery (leas-acid, silver-zinc) 3.5-7 kWh
Electric motor (DC PM brushless) 4-8 hp
Car weight 500-1000 lb
Car dimensions 20 ft long 7 ft wide 3.5 ft high
Figure 12.2. Sunrayce solar car
12.1.2 SOLAR POWERED SUBMERSIBLE WATER PUMP, CAR AND FERRY
CSIRO-UTS project (this has already been discussed) shown in Fig. 12.3.
The system has a brushless DC, NdFeB, 4 pole, surface magnet motor in the ranges 300, 600, 1200 W
at 3000 rev/min. It has high efficiency (>90%) and water filled (why not use the water for cooling?),
current impulse starting and optimised design. 120 m depth, MPPT, in commercial produced.
Solar car: CSIRO-UTS / Aurora - 5.5 kW, 50 Nm peak for 72 s (Fig. 12.4). Direct-drive, axial flux, maximum
efficiency 98.5 %.

Solar ferry: Solar Sailor/UTS - 2x40 kW, 400 Nm, 3 phase, 16 pole, 950 rev/min, 100 V, 250 A, direct-
drive, high efficiency, PM brushless DC motor (Fig, 12.5).
Fig. 12.3. Solar power water pump
Fig. 12.4. UTS solar powered car
Fig. 12.5. UTS solar powered ferry

12.1.3 WIND AND HYBRID SYSTEMS
Many systems have been reviewed. Fig. 12.6 shows a simple 2-blade rural wind turbine.
Wind power needs to be integrated with other systems to achieve power even when there is now wind.
Renewable energy resources are often not stable.
In order to provide stable stream of electricity, hybrid systems are developed.
In order for hybrid systems to function well, smart system management strategy and control algorithm
are required.
Fig. 12.7 shows the layout (repeated from earlier) for a remote area power supply system (RAPS) (top)
and the control required for a stand-alone mixed-source system which incorporates solar, wind, diesel
and battery storage.
For bigger hybrid systems, Fig. 12.8 shows a 300 kW PV-diesel hybrid system is Superior Valley,
California.
Control is necessary for hybrid and integrated systems Fig. 12.9 shows an Integrated power connection
and control unit for PV-wind-battery.
Fig. 12.6. Simple rural wind turbine

Fig. 12.7. Remote area power supply system and the control

Figure 12.8. 300 kW PV-diesel hybrid system is Superior Valley, California
Figure 12.9. Integrated power connection and control unit for PV-wind-battery.
12.1.4 MODE CONTROLS
Mode controller deadbands eliminate system chatter.
This is illustrated in Fig. 12.10.

Figure 12.10. Mode controller deadbands
12.1.5 LOAD SHARING
This is important even in larger power systems. When there are more than tow generators the load
should be shared equally as much as possible, and not have one generator being overworked.
A Thevenins equivalent model of two sources in a hybrid power system is shown in Fig. 12.11, left.
A graphical determination of load shared by two sources in a hybrid power system is shown in Fig.
12.11, right.
Figure 12.11. Equivalent circuit and load sharing chart for two generators.
12.1.6 POWER AND ENERGY ESTIMATE
The duty ratio and peak power of intermittent loads are required for the system specification.
Energy in Wh consumed in one repetition period

D ( DutyRatio)
Peak power in W Repetition period in hours
Fig. 12.12 shows a simplified representation of an intermittent load (top), although in reality the bottom
shows a more realistic representation but the duty cycle gives a good indication to the effectiveness of
the system.
Table 12.2 shows the power and energy for energy balance analysis (note: total battery discharge
required = Eb Whours
Table 12.3 shows the Demand Factor (or Diversity Factor). The demand factors are shown in Table 12.2
as specified by NEC. The demand factor increases with decreasing number of dwellings.

Figure 12.12. Intermittent load and duty cycle representation
Table 12.2. Power balance
8 am to 6 pm (Interval A) 6 pm to 8 am (Interval B)
(Battery on Charge) (Battery on Discharge)
Load
Energy per Energy per period
Peak Watts Duty cycle Peak Watts Duty cycle
period [Wh] [Wh]
Load1 P1A D1A E1A P1B D1B E1B
Load2 P2A D2A E2A P2B D2B E2B
Loadn PnA DnA EnA PnB DnB EnB
Total PA EA PB EB
Table 12.3. Demand factors
Number of dwellings Demand factor
3 0.45
10 0.43
15 0.40
20 0.38
25 0.35
30 0.33
40 0.28
50 0.26
>62 0.23

12.2 GRID CONNECTED SYSTEMS
12.2.1 PV SYSTEMS
Fig. 12.13 shows the electrical schematic for a grid-connected PV system (top), while a 18 kW system
is shown (bottom) on the Northeastern University Student Center in Boston (Source: ASA Americas).
Fig. 12.14 illustrates a project for the University of Newcastle, UK completed in October 1995. Table
12.4 gives the specification, this is a grid connected system.
Table 12.4. University of Newcastel, UK system specifiction
Area of solar facade 390 m2
Electricity generated 33000 kWh/year
Cell material Monocrystalline
Efficiency 14.5 %
Number of panels 465
Orientation 16 east of south
Angle of orientation 25
Figure 12.13. Electrical schematic for a grid-connected PV system

Figure 12.14. University of Newcastle system
12.2.2 WIND SYSTEMS
Fig. 12.15 shows a schematic of a grid connected wind system.
These are now a mature technology and the size of installations can vary from a single turbine to many
hundred turbines in on large farm. They can be on-shore or off-shore
Figure 12.13. Grid connected wind system

These wind systems can be simulated. Fig. 12.14. shows a Simulink model of an induction generator.
Figs. 12.15 to 12.17 gives the results for the simulation in terms of simulations.
Figure 12.13. Simulink model of a wind turbine induction generator
Figure 12.14. Voltage, power, reactive power and sequence voltage and currents

Figure 12.15. Voltage, power, reactive power and sequence voltage and currents
Figure 12.16. Vm and generated reactive power
12.3 CONCLUSIONS
In stand-alone systems, mode control, load sharing and energy management are important
Grid connected systems should take care of synchronization with grid, safety, voltage regulation and
stability.

REFERENCES
Press, 2007.

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RENEWABLE ENERGY

PRESENTER: A/PROF DAVID DORRELL

PROF. JIAN GUO ZHU

ASSOCIATE PROF. DAVID DORRELL

School of Electrical, Mechanical and Mechatronic Systems

2015 RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS 48550 1

System Integration Stand alone systems, and grid connected systems.

It is assumed that you will have basic knowledge in the following:

Understanding of power flow and energy.

Basic electric power circuits.

Mechanics, especially rotational mechanics.

Newtons Laws of Motion.

On completion of this module you should be able to:

2015 RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS 48550 2

This subject is taught through a combination of:

Introduction lecture and description of activities

Lecture 2: Wind Energy

Lecture 3: Solar Energy Photovoltaic Systems

Lecture 4: Solar Energy Solar Thermal Systems

Lecture 5: Fuel Cells

Lecture 6: Hydroelectric Power Systems

Lecture 7: Tidal Power Systems

Lecture 8: Wave Energy Systems

Lecture 9: Bio-energy Systems

Lecture 10: Geothermal Systems

Lecture 11: Energy Storage

Lecture 12: System Integration

2015 RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS 48550 3

Activity 1 (30 minutes per group presentation and a group report)

Activity 2 (30 minutes per group presentation and a group report)

Activity 3 (30 minutes per group presentation and a group report)

Activity 5 Final exam 40 %

Tutorial 1: Wind Energy

Tutorial 2: Solar Energy PV systems Title

Tutorial 3: Solar Energy Solar thermal systems

Tutorial 4: Hydroelectric Energy

Tutorial 5: Tidal and Wave Energy

Tutorial 6: Bio-Energy and Geothermal Energy Systems

Tutorial 7: Energy Storage Systems

AUTHOR/S AND CONTACT DETAILS

Associate Professor David Dorrell

School of Electrical, Mechanical and Mechatronic Systems

University of Technology Sydney

2015 RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS 48550 4

Energy crisis and environment issues

Energy resources and electrical power generation

1.1 ENERGY CRISIS AND ENVIRONMANTAL ISSUES

1.1.1 ENERGY CRISIS

2015 RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS 48550 5

The temperature increases of up to 10C by 2100 (Fig. 1.2)

Rise in average sea levels of up too

More extreme weather effects

Figure 1.1. Illustration of recent temperature rises of the Earths surface.

2015 RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS 48550 6

Decline in average rainfall

Figure 1.3. Extreme weather patterns

2015 RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS 48550 7

Figure 1.5. Climate change effects

2015 RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS 48550 8

Figure 1.6. Melting Arctic icecap

Figure 1.7. Illustration of the correlation of temperature rise on CO2 rise

2015 RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS 48550 9

How to Reduce CO2 Emissions?

o Reduce power loss in power transmission lines