IGCSE BIOLOGY 2.

1 Cellular organization
State that living organisms are made of cells

All animals, plants, fungi, protists, & bacteria are made of one or more cells.

Cells are the smallest unit of life.

Most human cells, like most other animal cells, have the following parts:

nucleus
cytoplasm
cell membrane
mitochondria
ribosomes

Plant cells also have:

cell wall
chloroplasts
permanent vacuole

Identify and describe the structure of a plant cell (palisade cell) and an animal cell (liver cell), as
seen under a light microscope.

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 palisade cell liver cell

Photos produced when looking through microscopes are called micrographs.

Light micrographs are produced with a light microscope.

Scanning electron micrographs ( SEM ) are produced with a scanning electron microscope.
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 Light micrograph Scanning electron micrograph

Tea leaf. Light micrograph of a section through the midrib

of a tea (Camellia sinensis) leaf.
The upper and lower epidermis on the surfaces of the
leaf are blue. Under the upper epidermis are palisade
cells (brown), which contain chloroplasts, the site of
photosynthesis.
Scanning electron microscope image of a leaf from a Black
Walnut tree.
Image shows a cross-section of a cut leaf, its upper
epidermal layer, mesophyll layer with palisade cells and
vascular bundles, and lower epidermal layer.

Within the midrib is a vascular bundle, composed of The protrusion at center is just over 50 microns tall.
xylem (red) and phloem (blue) cells, which transport
water and carbohydrates around the plant respectively.

Light micrographs Light micrograph of a transverse section through a holly leaf, Ilex sp. .
Below the epidermis (top layer of cells), are two layers of column-like
cells known as palisade cells. These contain large numbers of
chloroplasts and are the principal sites of photosynthesis. Magnification:
x240 at 35mm size.
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 Tea leaf. Light micrograph of a cross-section
through a tea (Camellia sinensis) leaf. The
upper and lower epidermis on the surfaces of
the leaf are blue. Under the upper epidermis
Color enhanced freeze-fracture
are palisade cells (brown), which contain
Scanning Electron Micrograph
(SEM) of leaf of Lupinchloroplasts,
plant the site of photosynthesis.
Beneath
(Lupinus), showing vascular this a spongy mesophyll layer with
large spaces between the cells. At bottom
bundle, epidermis, palisade
left, a stoma (pore) is seen. Stomata allow
cells and spongy mesophyll.
Transverse section of upper part of leaf of a Magnification x540 gases and water to enter and leave the
Helleborus sp. showing epidermis and palisade plant. Magnification: x230 when printed 10
cells. centimeters wide.

Scanning Electron
Micrographs
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 Scanning electron micrograph of cross
fracture of the leaf Zinnia elegans,
showing the upper epidermis and palisade
cells within which are stored the
chloroplast (photosynthesis). X 2100.

Leaf section. Colored scanning

electron micrograph (SEM) of a
section through a fractured leaf.

At right is a single layer of cells

that forms the epidermis of the
leaf.

The top layer (seen here at left) of

the leaf interior is made up of
palisade mesophyll tissue.

One of the tightly packed palisade

cells (light green) has been
fractured open to reveal its
Describe the differences in structure between typical animal and plant
chloroplasts cells.
(orange/green), the
sites of photosynthesis.
Generalized animal and plant cell

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*Make sure you can label diagrams of animal and plant cells.

Describe the differences in structure between typical animal and plant cells.

PLANT CELLS ANIMAL CELLS

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Have a rigid cell wall that helps them keep
their shape.
Plants manufacture their own food and use
chloroplasts to do that.
Usually have a large central vacuole.
Relate the structures seen under the light microscope in the plant cell and in the animal cell to
their functions.
Do not have a cell wall and therefore require either
external or internal support from some kind of skeleton.
Have a shape related to their function.
Animals must eat their food because they cannot
photosynthesize.
Animal cells may have several small vacuoles, or none at all.
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Animal cells and plant cells have some organelles in common.

organelle function
nucleus contains genetic material, which controls the activities of the cell
cytoplasm most chemical processes take place here, controlled by enzymes
cell membrane controls the movement of substances into and out of the cell
mitochondria most energy is released by respiration here
ribosomes protein synthesis happens here

Plant cells also have a cell wall, and often have chloroplasts and a permanent vacuole.

organelle function
cell wall strengthens the cell
chloroplasts contain chlorophyll, which absorbs light energy for photosynthesis
permanent vacuole filled with cell sap to help keep the cell turgid
Relate the structure of the following to their functions

red blood cells transport

root hair cells absorption

Specialized cells:
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Cells may be specialized for a particular function. Their structure allows them to carry out this function .

Examples of specialized cells

Cell Function Adaption

Absorbs light energy for Packed with chloroplasts. Regular shaped,
photosynthesis closely packed cells form a continuous layer
for efficient absorption of sunlight.

Leaf cell
Absorbs water and mineral Long 'finger-like' process with very thin wall,
ions from the soil which gives a large surface area.

Root hair cell

Fertilizes an egg cell - The head contains genetic information and an
female gamete enzyme to help penetrate the egg cell
membrane. The middle section is packed with
mitochondria for energy. The tail moves the
Sperm cell sperm to the egg.

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Cell Function Adaption
Contain hemoglobin to carry Thin outer membrane to let oxygen diffuse
oxygen to the cells. through easily. Shape increases the surface
area to allow more oxygen to be absorbed
efficiently. No nucleus, so the whole cell is
Red blood cells full of hemoglobin.

Nerve cells To carry nerve impulses to Long

different parts of the body
Connections at each end

Can carry electrical signals

Female reproductive cell To join with male cell, and Large

(egg cell) then to provide food for
the new cell that's been Contains lots of cytoplasm
formed

Calculate magnification and size of biological specimens using millimeters as units.

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Practice:
1. using the images of the cells on pages 4 and 5 of these notes, calculate the actual size size of some
of the structures seen.
2. Search the internet for light and electron microscope images of various cells. If they have a scale
bar, print them and calculate the real size of the sample.

Know that cells are arranged in groups to form tissues.

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tissue a structure made from large numbers of one type of cell

Examples of tissues found in the human body

Examples of tissues found in a leaf

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