The Shakuhachi and the Kinko Ry# Notation

Donald Paul Berger

Asian Music, Vol. 1, No. 2. (Autumn, 1969), pp. 32-72.

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 Donald Paul Berger

This article is basically instructional, and i t s primary purpose is t o acquaint the

reader with the shakuhachi notation of the Kinko Rfl. The first four sections:
HISTORY O F THE INSTRUMENT; HISTORY OF NOTATION; CATEGORIES O F MUSIC;
and CONSTRUCTION a r e of an introductory nature and have been included t o provide
a general background of the instrument. The remainder of the article deals specif-
ically with playing the shakuhachi and rendering i t s notation into Western staff notation.
This includes: FINGERING CHART; OTHER NOTATION SYMBOLS; METHOD O F
PLAYING; NOTATION O F TIME VALUES; and TRANSCRIPTION O F OM1 HAKKEI.
The transcription is given in i t s entirety t o fully illustrate the preceding explanation
and also t o indicate phrasing and change of tempi. The phrase and tempo indications
throughout the transcription a r e those of Mr. Goro Yamaguchi one of Japan's foremost
shakuhachi virtuosi.

HISTORY OF THE INSTRUMENT

The shakuhachi has had a long and fascinating history. As with other Japanese
traditional instruments, the shakuhachi claims a foreign origin. Hisao Tanabe (1936)
suggests that i t s background can be traced t o Egypt i n the vertical flute he t e r m s sebi.
Curt Sachs in his HISTORY O F MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, makes no mention of this
possible connection, but does describe the Egyptian vertical flute which he calls m a ' t
o r mH't which, from its description, seems t o bear some relationship to the shakuhachi
(1940:90). However, the immediate predecessor of the shakuhachi is of Chinese origin.

In the Nara Period (710-794) t h e r e was an instrument called shakuhachi which had
i t s origin in a vertical Chinese flute (six finger holes) and was used primarily in the
music of the Court. This instrument dropped out of the musical scene i n t h e Heian
Period which followed (794-1185) and no s i m i l a r instrument appeared until the Muro-
machi Period (1336-1568). At that time another vertical flute from China called ttung-
hsiao o r hsiao found i t s way t o Japan, and this instrument eventually evolved into the
present-day shakuhachi. An intermediate stage i n i t s development was found i n the
Japanese modification called hitoyogiri, which literally means 'one joint bamboo.
This instrument, measuring 33. 3 cm in length, was s h o r t e r than the shakuhachi.of
today which measures 54. 5 cm. The hitoyogiri was f i r s t used by wandering p r i e s t s
of the Muromachi Period and l a t e r was taken up by the lower class of samurai and
merchants.

The shakuhachi reached i t s present length in the Edo Period (1600-1868) and was
played by Buddhist priests of the Fuke Sect called komusb who were in the employ of
the w a r r i o r class. This instrument was termed Fuke shakuhachi.
 The repertoire of the shakuhachi received a significant transformation through the
efforts of Kurosawa Kinko (1710-1771) who composed new pieces for the instrument
based upon the older tradition of the Fuke shakuhachi. He was also successful in
establishing a new style of playing which came t o be known a s the Kinko Ry8 ( r y 8
could be translated a s school) with headquarters in the present-day Tokyo. The
players of Fuke shakuhachi remaining in Kyoto came t o be known a s the Meian Ry8.

Toward the end of the Edo Period, the shakuhachi joined the ensemble of koto and
shamisen taking the place of the bowed lute, koky8. Since that time the shakuhachi
has had a fairly wide following and has been performed from the Meiji Period (1868-
1912) t o the present day by all classes of society. In 1896 Nakao Tozan founded another
school of playing, the Tozan RYE. These two, Kinko and Tozan, a r e the p r i m a r y
schools of today's shakuhachi.

THE HISTORY O F NOTATION

The traditional music of Japan did not develop a uniform system of notation. Rather,
each type o r genre of music devised its own notation and each instrument i t s own
system. Even f o r the same instruments of different schools t h e r e is variation, a s
f o r example between the Kinko Ryii of shakuhachi and the Tozan Ry8. Reasons for
these differences can,of course, be found.

One important reason was economic. Notation provided an additional source of

income for the iemoto (literally head house, o r i n other words, head of the school)
and therefore resisted change. Another reason is that f o r some t h r e e hundred y e a r s
Japanese music has been largely a solo type music with very little emphasis upon
either l a r g e vocal o r instrumental ensembles and hence, little need for a p r e c i s e
notation t o illustrate relationships between parts. It may be added that t h e r e has
been a feeling of contempt for notation in general amongst performers who feel that
notation can never indicate such items a s t h e delicacy of timbre, the nuance of
ornamentation and the sophistication of rhythm. Therefore the use of notation has
been relegated t o practice and instruction. Narrative music too, such a s heikyoku
(music of the Heike story) whose composition is based upon melodic patterns had a
responsibility for this lack of unity in notation since by using melodic patterns it is
not necessary t o accurately indicate the pitch of individual notes. Also, the teacher-
pupil relationship of Buddhism, that is t o say the transmission of learning from person
t o person with a s t r e s s upon secrecy, helped t o p r e s e r v e the numerous notation systems.
All these factors, together xith a rote system of instruction has led to the disparity
which remains in traditional music notation. The thread of relationship between the
various systems in most instances i s extremely thin, and lack of source materials makes
comparative r e s e a r c h difficult.

Japanese traditional music notation dates from the Nara Period. At this time
instruments were imported from China and Korea and with the instruments came
their specific notation. This notation was at first used in i t s original state, but was
l a t e r modified. The first noted modification was f o r the zither named wagon.
 Singing and instrumental notation were, in the beginning, the s a m e but during the
Heian Period a special singing notation developed for shomyo (Buddhist chanting)i
This l a t e r was to exert influence upon heikyoku and (singing of the Noh). The
more common types of music taught by rote, a s mentioned before, failed t o develop
a notation and only the hitoyogiri (forerunner of the shakuhachi) and the shakuhachi
developed a system of notation; however, an elementary one which served a s a memory
guide.

In the l a t t e r half of the Edo Period a precise system of notation came into existence
f o r the koto, but there was still no indication within the notation for singing o r ensemble
playing. During the Meiji Period the introduction of Western music stimulated great
interest in Japan and at the same time we find traditional notation developing rapidly
and eventually branching off in two directions: (1) a special tablature f o r each instrument
based upon that of the past; ( 2 ) the use of Western notation.

T h e r e is no knowledge of the type of notation used f o r the Gagaku shakuhachi of

ancient times, but in 1699 a book entitled, SHICHIKU SHOSHINSHU was published,part
of which gave a system for hitoyogiri notation by use of thirteen syllables ~ e p r e s e n t i n g
different pitches. They were: fu 7 ; i 4 ; ya ; chi 3 ; ho$, ;u 7 ;e 2 ;
ri 1) ; hi k ;kantf ;ta r u J L; and sho L
; .
The singing was indicated t o the
right of the column o syllables. The Fuke shakuhachi of the Meian Ryil altered the
hitoyogiri notation by using the following syllables: fu 7 ; r o U ; u ;e 9 ; ;

4 ; and
the Kinko R f l made a further modification by by using: r o ; tsu\l/ ;
i
re ; chi +,
; ri I ) ; and hi . The Kinko Ryii further indicated raising o r
lowering the pitch in the m e r i - k a r i system t o be explained.

In the middle of the Meiji Period, Uehara Rokushiro brought forth an idea for
shakuhachi notation which was further elaborated upon by Kawase Junsuke who made
indications f o r rhythm. This is basically what is in use today in the Kinko Ryii.

The characters used i n determining pitch f o r the shakuhachi in the actual notation
a r e variations of katakana, one of the Japanese syllabaries. ( F o r a complete listing
of these characters and the musical tones they represent s e e the FINGERING CHART. )
The characters a r e written in the customary Japanese fashion: in vertical columns
from right t o left. In addition t o characters representing pitch, the shakuhachi notation
also contains rhythmic indications. ( F o r a coverage of these s e e the section, NOTATION
O F TIME VALUES. )

Although changes i n tempi a r e numerous and important they a r e seldom indicated

in the notation and the s a m e is t r u e f o r ornamentation. Both of these aspects must be
learned at the lesson. The only other items included i n the notation a r e tuning indi-
cations for the koto and shamisen, words t o the song sung by the koto o r shamisen
player and indications of the register (high o r low) in which the shakuhachi passage is
t o be played. Even though the notation is not a s precise a s it might be on this point,
the student soon learns the correct register by repetitious melodic fragments that a r e
always played either in one register o r the other.
 CATEGORIES O F MUSIC

The shakuhachi is used either a s a solo instrument o r in combination with other

instruments. The most common combination i s koto, shamisen ( o r sangen a s it i s
usually called in the ensemble), and shakuhachi. The music of this ensemble is called
'
sankyoku although the t e r m literally means 'three instruments. The shakuhachi can
also b e heard with only koto o r shamisen, o r in the performance of folk music. It i s
the only solo wind instrument i n present-day, traditional music of Japan.

Shakuhachi music is divided into two main categories: honkyoku and gaikyoku. It
should be kept in mind that these t e r m s a r e used only by shakuhachi players and not
by the koto o r sangen performers. Honkyoku, meaning "original music, " is music
f o r solo shakuhachi. This music can be traced f r o m the Muromachi P e r i o d (1336-
1568) and possibly back further in time. It has no fixed form and u s e s a very f r e e
rhythm. There a r e thirty-six honkyoku, all found only i n the Kinko and Meian schools.
It should be mentioned, however, that the Tozan Ryii plays music of a relatively late
composition date in honkyoku style. The compositions of koto music when played in
ensemble (koto, sangen and shakuhachi) is called paikyoku by shakuhachi players.
Gaikyoku means literally "outside music, " a t e r m used to make the distinction between
solo shakuhachi music and borrowings of koto music. Two outgrowths of Gaikyoku
a r e shinkyoku signifying "new music, " incorporating pieces written after the establish-
ment of the Tozan school, and the type of music being composed today, gendai mono
(present-day music).

CONSTRUCTION

The bamboo selected for shakuhachi construction is termed 5 dake (male bamboo).
This type of bamboo is typified by l a r g e joints, relatively longer distances between the
joints than in other types of bamboo. The section of bamboo used i n making the instru-
ment incorporates part of the root, although much of this is cut away f o r the sake of
appearance. In the finished instrument the bore is slightly conical, l a r g e r i n diameter
at the top (about 1.7 cm) than at the base (1.4 cm) while the outer diameter v a r i e s be-
tween approximately 3. 5 cm and 5 cm. The mouthpiece is fashioned at the f i r s t joint
(see Fig. 1).

The best bamboo available f o r instrument construction comes from Kyoto. In

selecting the bamboo one looks for certain features. A r a t h e r heavy piece is considered
better than a light one. A well-rounded quality is appreciated, and a piece that has a
straight line with a slight natural upturn at the root swell is most desirable. The
bamboo's general condition, including appearance, is also taken into account. The
bamboo pieces a r e sold in lengths of about one meter, and the p r i c e s for these lengths
vary from about 2.25 t o $15.00 depending upon the previously mentioned characteristics.

Following is a description f o r making a shakuhachi in two sections. The instrument

can also be made from one piece which is the older method. The procedure is exactly
the same except, of course, the bamboo is not cut. It will be obvious from the following
that in a one-piece shakuhachi the bamboo must be a very perfect natural length in
o r d e r to have the finger holes in the right places in relationship t o the joints and the
base of the pipe.

As it is almost impossible t o find a piece of bamboo perfectly shaped for making

a shakuhachi, the first step is t o give a straight line t o the bamboo and a slight upward
curve near the base if one does not exist (see Fig. 3). This is accomplished by first
heating the bamboo and then by placing it in a type of home-made vise and applying
p r e s s u r e by hand to make the necessary corrections. After this step has been taken,
the bamboo must be left f o r at least six months before any other operation can be begun.
This period of time is needed t o permit the water and oil in the bamboo t o evaporate.
If this is not done, the water and oil would evaporate in the completed instrument and
when this occurs there would be a change in size. This naturally would spoil the
instrument and affect the tone.

Next the bamboo is cut to near its proper length and is hollowed out with a file
until the bore i s cylindrical. Here it should be mentioned that there a r e twelve
instruments of varying lengths and slightly different bores all with the s a m e mode of
construction. The smallest is called isshaku s a n zun, measuring 39. 4 c m i n length.
The name, shakuhachi comes from the Japanese measurement of one shaku
and eight
---
sun (isshaku-hassun) which is 5 4 . 5 cm (other instruments a r e also named f o r Japanese
measurements) and while this t e r m actually applies t o only one instrument i n t h e s e r i e s
it i s used a s a general name f o r all of the instruments. The instruments a r e approxi-
mately one semitone away from each other, a measured distance of 3 cm s o that each
of the twelve tones of the chromatic s e r i e s is represented. The most popular instru-
ment, however is the shakuhachi of 54. 5 cm.

After the approximate size has been reached, the location of the fourth finger hole
is determined. This is done by measuring up f r o m the root end of the bamboo a distance
of kyu sun yon bun o r 30. 27 cm. The distance between finger holes a r e equal, namely,
---
issun san bun o r 5. 4 cm. Since the second and third finger holes must be an equal
distance away from the third joint and at the s a m e time 5. 4 cm from each other, this
means that a possible correction might be needed t o give the instrument i t s t r u e length
and t o properly position the finger holes. If the instrument is too long, a band of
varying width, depending of course upon how much alteration is necessary, is cut from
the center of the instrument. If on the other hand the instrument is too short, a band
of bamboo of appropriate size is added. The bamboo now in two sections is sanded at
the the cut ends s o that when eventually put back together they will have a perfect fit
( s e e Fig. 1).

The inner diameter of both sections is enlarged at the cut ends by fluted chisels
in o r d e r t o fit a joining tube which will then be used in joining the lower and upper
sections. This joining tube is made from a s m a l l e r piece of bamboo, but the bore is
almost the same a s the original pipe. Corrections a r e made by filing and the joining
tube is then made to fit snugly into the bottom and top sections. It i s glued t o the lower
section. This insert varies in length, but is approximately 4 cm with only about 1. 8 cm
extending from the lower section.

The next operation is t o drill the finger holes. Before this is done, however, a
number of crosswise grooves a r e cut i n the top section at its lower end. String is
then wrapped over the grooves t o prevent splitting when the fourth finger hole is drilled
out.
Fig. 1

The shakuhachi, front view. +- - .-

1. Top.

2. Mouthpiece. 1-
4
3. Horn inlay.

4. F i r s t joint.

5. Second joint.

6. Third joint.

7. Fourth joint.

8. Fifth joint.

9. Sixth joint.

10. Seventh joint.

11. Base.

12. First finger hole.

13. Second finger hole.

14. Third finger hole.

15. Fourth finier hole.

16. Decorative band of rattan

where the two sections
a r e joined.
Fig. 2

The shakuhaehi, rear view, showing the fifth finger hole which is covered
with the thumb.
Fig. 3.

The shakuhachi, side view, showing the curved line of the instrument.
Fig. 4.

The shakuhachi, view of two sections, showing the middle joint. This joint is
inserted and glued to the bottom section of the instrument. Traditionally the joint
i s lacquered, a s i s the inside of the shakuhachi; however, the photographed instrument
(the author's) has a band of cork around it which is the usual mode of construction.
As previously mentioned the holes a r e an equal distance from each other and the
fourth finger hole i s 30. 27 cm from the bell. In the Kinko Ryii the thumb hole on the
backside of the instrument ( s e e Fig. 2) is also 5. 4 cm away from the fourth finger
hole. However, in the Tozan Ryil the distance between the fourth finger hole and the
thumb hole is only 3 cm measuring from center t o center. The holes drilled with a
bit and brace all measure 1 c m in both the Tozan and Kinko Ryii with one exception.
The third finger hole in the Kinko RyC being that exception measures .9 cm. It
appears,, f r o m discussing this with several makers, that the difference in measure-
ment between the fourth finger hole and the thumb hole in the two schools, and the
fact that the third finger hole is s m a l l e r in the Kinko Ryii is due primarily t o a con-
sideration of timbre. The author, having played instruments of both schools noted
very little variance in timbre. The difference s e e m s t o be more in the individual
playing style, and the music itself r a t h e r than the instruments.

After drilling, the holes a r e further enlarged on the inside with a knife angling a
bit toward the top of the instrument and then they a r e sanded. The next step is the
making of the mouthpiece (Fig. 5). (1) Using a fine-toothed saw the bamboo is sawed
toward the inside at an angle of about 30 degrees. ( 2 ) Then a cut i s made toward the
outside of the bamboo which makes an adequate opening for the performer's lower
lip. (3) The back edge i s rounded downward for comfort and appearance.

FT
werueor. IWO&#rq/re,+
Q/.~<.LI>*+,Re,+, C y /

I_ _ _*_--

\ PLWE El. lUSEIr

FRONT VIEW

Next the mouthpiece i s notched with a file s o that a piece of horn may be inserted.
In the Kinko Ryii the shape is a s shown in Figure 5; however, i n the Tozan and Meian
Ryii the insert i s crescent shaped, and in the Meian Ryii it is sometimes omitted. This
insert is most commonly made from the horn of a water buffalo (although ivory i s
sometimes used and even plastic i n very cheap instruments), an animal not native t o
Japan, the horns being imported from Taiwan. A l a r g ? r piece of horn than i s needed
is inserted into the notches which have been cut and it i s trimmed and filed t o fit the
notches. After this has been achieved, the horn i s glued and the excess i s sawed away
to complete the mouthpiece.
 The only remaining matter, and a difficult one, is t o lacquer the bore. This
varies according t o the school. In the Tozan Ryii a layer of plaster of P a r i s is f i r s t
applied, and this is then lacquered. In the Meian Ryii only a light coat of paint is
applied, and in many instruments the bore has a rough appearance. But in the Kinko
Ryii lacquer is used exclusively and a s many a s five coats may be laid on. The pro-
cedure is t o apply a coat of lacquer with a long brush and then to sand. T h i s is r e -
peated until a coat of high gloss appears in the bore. The problem of lacquering is
doing s o in the proper amount, too much o r too little lacquer will affect the desired
tone.

On the shakuhachi (54. 5 cm) the pitch of d is produced if all the holes a r e covered.
Then by taking the fingers from the holes in ascending order, the thumb being last,
the tones f , g, a, and c a r e sounded. As the instrument is made by hand, quite often
the timbre and pitches must be corrected. This is an extremely difficult task i n the
finished shakuhachi. F i r s t timbre is corrected by adding o r removing lacquer t o o r
from the bore. Once the desired timbre is achieved pitches a r e corrected by changing
the size of the finger holes on the inside with a knife. There is no standard procedure
f o r pitch correction, and it should be pointed out that the specific type of mouthpiece
allows the p e r f o r m e r t o influence the pitch considerably.

The shakuhachi i s completed by placing a decorative band around the cut ends of
the instrument. In the Kinko Ryii this band is made from strands of rattan, and i n
Tozan Ryii it is of metal.

The differences between shakuhachi construction of the various schools have already
been stated. In summary, (1) the shape of horn insert varies according t o the school;
( 2 ) the distance between the thumb hole and fourth finger hole varies; ( 3 ) the diameter
of the third finger hole varies bwtween the Kinko and Tozan schools; (4) the method of
lacquering varies with the school; and (5) the decorative band around the cut ends
differs in material.

THE FINGERING CHART (Fig. 6 )

Finger holes to be completely covered a r e indicated by a blackened circle. Open

holes a r e represented by a circle. When holes a r e only partially covered the darkened
part of the c i r c l e shows the a r e a t o be covered.

The f i r s t octave on the shakuhachi is indicated by the c h a r a c t e r s ( E ) , which

signifies the lower register. The second octave and a fifth is overblown and in t e r m s
of notation indicated by the character? (@),

When the fingering of several notes i s the same, a s in the first t h r e e notes of the
chart, the difference in pitch is accomplished by changing the angle of the head.
Lowering the head, which in reality changes the length of pipe the a i r column must
t r a v e r s e , brings about a lower pitch. Raising the head r e v e r s e s the effect.

The sign)((*) lowers the pitch, and i n the present style of performance this
lowering is approximately either one half-step o r one full-step depending upon the note.
A 'middle sized* &, (chu m e r i ) , is about one half-step and a 'large sized' -,+
 % ( O meri), one full-step ( s e e FINGERING CHART, Fig. 6). Although the sign
,jff (_kari), a symbol f o r rasing the pitch, can still be found i n the notation,it has
been h s r e g a r d e d for about the l a s t twenty years. It i s , however, still used when
playing the older music, honkyoku. T h e r e a r e traditionally two types of kari. They
a r e : ;b (g) and -- (0 k a r i ) which a r e produced by raising the head-

Each t i m e a note is repeated it i s articulated by a grace note r a t h e r than by the

tongue. . This grace note, which is not written into the notatioz, is executed by rapidly
opening and closing a certain specified finger hole (Musical example 1). The device
is t e r m e d setsuzoku 5n.

Example 1. Fingering the grace note with all holes covered.

Example 2. Fingering of other grace notes.

a. b.
 OTHER NOTATION SYMBOLS

Rather than rewriting a character each time it reappears the symbol is gener-
ally used, e. g. ,

i s written ",:
a curved line is sometimes used t o repeat a s e r i e s of characters, e. g.,

is used in place of

This figure, is played at first with the notes becoming gradually

s h o r t e r and closer together. This leads directly t o
a shake (@). The head is moved rapidly from sidetoside
with a new column of a i r for each head movement
(yoko yuri), and this leads t o an up and clown movement
of the instrument against the lips becoming more and more rapid a s the figure moves
along (tatte yuri). The entire figure is played with rhythmic freedom.

Section endings a r e sometimes written with the symbol -0-

When the character IL (E)appears in the notation this indicates a rapid opening and
closing of the first finger hole.

One other character which frequently appears in the notation is csr (naiyashi). This
indicates a repetition of the note that precedes it. However, it i s distinguished from
a simple repeat ? by beginning approximately one half-step lower than the previous
note and by use of a slur, produced by changing the angle of the head, returning to
the desired note.

@+= 1
s d
(Po do 0 NEPI) ( ~ R
o SLI) \(Lo) 1 ~ s ~(TCU anu ( ~ C P ~ )
 METHOD O F PLAYING

The shakuhachi, while simple in design, is an extremely difficult instrument t o

play well. There a r e many students of the shakuhachi in Japan, but t h e r e a r e rela-
tively few persons who play what the instrument is capable of producing. In the hands
of such virtuosi a s Goro Yamaguchi and Shizuo Aoki the shakuhachi has no p e e r among
any of the world's woodwind instruments for mellowness of tone and expressive qual-
ities. (.For a fine example of their solo playing and others, listen t o the Toshiba
Electric Co. recording, Kinko RYE Shakuhachi Honkyoku Kindai Shakuhachi
-
Gaku, TH 7018.

The instrument is held t o the lips at about a 45 degree angle. The shakuhachi i s
held with either the left o r right hand at the top of the instrument and the left o r right
hand at the base. F o r those who have been trained on Western woodwind instruments,
the preference would undoubtedly be to position the left hand at the top of the instrument
and the right at the base. T h e r e a r e , however, quite a few p e r f o r m e r s in Japan,
including professionals who favor the right hand at the top of the instrument and the left
at i t s lower end.
The four finger holes on the front side of the instrument a r e covered with t h e index
and ring fingers of each hand, while the middle fingers a r e used only f o r holding the
instrument which also receives support f r o m the thumbs, one of which covers the hole
at the back of the instrument. The finger holes a r e covered with the pads of the fingers,
and the fingers a r e placed upon the instrument at a slight angle r a t h e r than straight
a c r o s s in o r d e r t o gain rapid freedom of movement and e a s e in partial holing.

While fingering on the shakuhachi is a relatively simple matter when compared t o

fingering on Western woodwind instruments, t h e correct embouchure presents problems
that do not exist with Western instruments. In o r d e r t o produce a good tone the em-
bouchure must be relaxed at all t i m e s , even when playing in the high r e g i s t e r where
there is a natural tendency t o tighten the embouchure. With this relaxed embouchure,
there must be considerable control which is difficult t o maintain with this relaxation.

The a i r s t r e a m impinges upon the horn inlay i n the mouthpiece and enters t h e pipe
between the inlay and the lower lip which almost completely covers the opening of the
flute. This has been aptly compared in function t o an organ flue pipe.

Changes of pitch, a s much a s a major second, can be obtained by changing the

angle of the head which in t u r n regulates the a i r s t r e a m entering the instrument. The
other method of controlling pitch, used i n combination with the head position, is the
matter of partial holing previously mentioned. The portion of the hole t o be covered
depends upon which pitch is desired. (See Fig. 6 ) . This method of pitch control;
changing the head angle and partial holing is a difficult one t o master. The instrument
naturally speaks much m o r e softly and indistinctly when the finger holes a r e only p a r -
tially covered than in t h e completely covered o r open state. It is difficult t o match the
resulting tones and bring about an even melodic line.

By forcing more a i r into the instrument than i s actually necessary the characteristic
sound of air is produced which is a highly appreciated extra-musical effect and one
which the Japanese have consciously cultivated. This "tloise" is a unique feature of
Japanese traditional music and i s a part of the performance practice associated with
the koto, shamisen, nohkan and other instruments.

The tonal quality of the shakuhachi ranges from mellow t o almost nasal depending
upon the force of the air s t r e a m entering the instrument. However, when to use the
various tonal colors depends upon the music and varies with the individual performer.
Distinctive tonal qualities and t h e i r use appear t o be personal t r a d e m a r k s among the
Japanese masters.

It is worthy t o mention that there a r e no indications in the notation concerning

degrees of softness o r loudness. The shakuhachi, while capable of a perfect pianis-
simo, cannot obtain an ear-splitting fortissimo. It i s not an instrument possessing
an extremely wide dynamic range.

Vibrato occurs on sustained notes and i t s use is reminiscent of jazz vibrato. That
is to say, the sustained tone begins 'straight1 and then develops into a tone with a
r a t h e r wide vibrato. Vibrato i s produced by shaking the head from side to side rapidly
s o that the air s t r e a m entering the instrument i s interrupted. To a l e s s e r extent
vibrato is also produced by the diaphragm.

NOTATION OF TIME VALUES

Beats a r e shown i n the shakuhachi notation by a s e r i e s of dashes o r dots placed

t o the left o r right of the katakana characters. Traditionally only those dashes and
dots which appear t o the right of the character indicate full beats while those appearing
t o the left of the character designate the half beat. In actual practice, however, it is
generally e a s i e r t o consider the dots and dashes t o the left a s also representing a full
beat. This i s the method used here for transcribing. Musical example 3 illustrates
the traditional way of interpreting the dashes, and Example 4 shows the method used
by the author. The dashes symbolizing the beats i n the following examples have been
encircled f o r easy reference.

The dashes a r e followed from right t o left in a zigzag fashion down the column of
characters. When beat indications appear on only the right side (as in Example 4 at
the fourth beat of the second measure) the player's eye still moves t o the left. This
would also be the case with Example 5.
 The vertical line o r lines going through the column of characters a r e indications of
note duration. These lines never exceed t h r e e and a r e , in the case of notes exceeding
one beat, absent.
 Syncopation is represented by small triangles o r c i r c l e s a s shown in Example 10.
These symbols a r e used interchangeably.

Noteworthy is the fact that although slight pauses exist between sections, there a r e
no r e s t s in the music, hence no symbol for a r e s t . Also, tempo i s not shown in the
notation. This important feature together with when t o r i t a r d and accelerate must be
learned at the lesson. While ritardandi a r e sometimes written with the word nobiru,
such indications a r e generally lacking.

In o r d e r that the r e a d e r may have a more complete picture of the rhythmic situations
involved in the reading of actual notation, Examples 9-18 should be helpful. These
together with the transcription of Omi Hakkei at the end of the article cover most of
the patterns which would be encountered.
m e smaller notes i n the bracket indicate the p a r t t o be

played by e i t h e r E o o r w p . The l a r g e r notes which

follow a r e f o r t h e shahhachi. ?his type of antiphonal

response is q u i t e conlmon i n the m s i c of gankvoh.

n Or
11 n
There is /;z b e r f o r m a n ~ e ~ t e a d etno~ play the sixteenth note

i n the second measure as a thirty-second note.

 The use of the c i r c l e s t o the right of the characters i s

somewhat inconsistent, and they a u l d be omitted.

1.
ax. 1s

:I ~ * -11..
P P
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4
 THE TRANSCRIPTION (Fig. 7)

The choice of 214 m e t e r in the transcription is simply the author's preference. The
transcription could be written a s 414.

As previously mentioned the tongue is not used for articulation on the shakuhachi.
When notes a r e repeated articulation is achieved by the use of grace notes. Unlike
grace notes played on an instrument such a s the piano, those of the shakuhachi a r e
difficult t o assign to a given pitch, rather they a r e heard m o r e a s blips of sound. In
o r d e r t o portray this graphically the transcription uses g r a c e notes without heads. In
most instances this sound is higher than the main note s o the g r a c e notes have been
placed above the main notes. Occasionally g r a c e notes of easily distinguished pitch a r e
heard at the beginning of a phrase o r section. In this case the assigned pitches have
been properly indicated.

At times the music calls f o r an upward portamento. To convey this effect a diagonal
line showing the starting note and leading t o the final is used. The use of encircled
numbers indicates the line of the original Japanese notation. This explains why the
numbers sometimes fall in the middle of a measure. With the exception of the introduction
sections a r e indicated by squared capital letters.

The phrase indications a r e not, for the most part, given in the actual notation, But
a s mentioned at the beginning of this paper the p h r a s e s of t h e transcription a r e those
used by Mr. Goro Yamaguchi. As many of t h e phrases a r e quite lengthy, breath must
be taken during the phrase. If this is done at logical t i m e s and with care, the continuing
phrase will not be spoiled. This reminds one of the long instrumental and vocal phrases
found in the music of J. S. Bach among others, which may also be interruptedfor breathing
without destroying t h e phrase. Breath indications a r e shown by commas.

The metronomical markings a r e also those used by Mr. Yamaguchi. H e r e it should

be added that these a r e only approximate guides. In actual performance t h e r e is con-
siderable margin of difference. This s a m e condition can be found in much of Japan's
traditional music such a s the music of the Noh theater. Generally speaking, the music
goes from slow t o fast and ends slowly. During this t i m e t h e r e a r e minor i n c r e a s e s and
decreases of speed within the body of the piece.

As with all transcriptions of non-Western music this one is also imperfect. Pitch
assignment on the staff proves difficult in portamento, at the ends of phrases and with
grace notes. However, sankyoku of today tends t o be more tonal in a Western sense
than some other types of traditional Japanese music (such a s Noh for example) s o that
the transcription is a close approximation. It goes without saying that the tone of the
shakuhachi must be kept in mind when reading the notation. An idea of the tone may be
obtained through the many fine shakuhachi recordings available.

The American School i n Japan

Tokyo, Japan
 REFERENCES CITED

Kishibe, Shigeo
1966 The traditional music of Japan. Tokyo: Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai.

Malm, William P.
1959 Japanese music and musical instruments. Tokyo and Rutland, Vt..
Charles E. Tuttle.

Piggott, F. T.
1909 The music and musical instruments of Japan. Second Edition.
Yokohama: Kelly and Walsh.

Sachs, Curt
1940 The history of musical instruments. New York: W. W. Norton.

Tanabe, Hisao
1936 Japanese music. Tokyo: Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai.

Tanaka, Inzan
1963 Atarashii shakuhachi kyohitsu. Tokyo: Kyo Gaku Sha.

Thanks must b e expressed t o Goro Yamaguchi, professional shakuhachi player

of the Kinko school and P r o f e s s o r Shigeo Kishibe of Tokyo University f o r t h e i r help
in preparing this paper, t o Chikamitsu Yoneda, m a s t e r craftsman of the shakuhachi
for h i s assistance with the section on shakuhachi construction, and t o Shigeru Yoshioka
for the photographs shown in Figures 1 through 4.
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