Rural Road Design A Guide to the Geometric Design of Rural Roads

Rural Road Design

A Guide to the Geometric
Design of Rural Roads

ISBN: 0 85588 655 2

AP-G1/03 AUSTROADS
ROAD DESIGN SERIES
AUSTROADS
Rural Road Design
Rural Road Design: A Guide to the Geometric Design of Rural Roads

Austroads Inc 2003

NAASRA Guides: Austroads Guides

First published 1955 Seventh Edition 1989
Second Edition 1961 Reprinted 1991
Third Edition 1967 Reprinted 1993
Reprinted 1967 Reprinted 1997
Reprinted 1968 Reprinted 1999
Fourth Edition 1970 Eighth Edition 2003
Fifth Edition 1973
Sixth Edition 1980

This work is copyright. Apart from any use permitted under the Copyright Act 1968,
no part may be reproduced by any process without the written permission of Austroads.

National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-publication data:

Rural Road Design: A Guide to the Geometric Design of Rural Roads

ISBN 0 85588 606 4
Austroads Project No. T&E.D.C.019
Austroads Publication No. AP-G1/03
Standards Australia and Standards New Zealand Handbook No. HB152:2002
Project Manager
John Cunningham, VicRoads

Prepared by
Arup Group

Published by Austroads Incorporated

Level 9, Robell House
287 Elizabeth Street
Sydney NSW 2000 Australia
Phone: +61 2 9264 7088
Fax: +61 2 9264 1657
E-Mail: austroads@austroads.com.au
Website www.austroads.com.au

Austroads believes this publication to be correct at the time of printing and does not accept responsibility
for any consequences arising from the use of the information herein. Readers should rely on their own
skill and judgement to apply information to particular issues.

Design Kirk Palmer Design, Sydney

ii RURAL ROAD DESIGN

 Rural Road Design
A Guide to the Geometric Design of Rural Roads

SYDNEY 2002

RURAL ROAD DESIGN iii

 A U S T R O A D S I N C O R P O R AT E D
Austroads is the association of Australian and New Zealand
road transport and traffic authorities whose purpose is to
contribute to the achievement of improved Australian and
New Zealand transport related outcomes by:
developing and promoting best practice for the safe and
effective management and use of the road system
providing professional support and advice to member
organisations and national and international bodies
acting as a common vehicle for national and international
action
fulfilling the role of the Australian Transport Councils Road
Modal Group
AUSTROADS MEMBERSHIP
Austroads membership comprises the six State and two Territory
road transport and traffic authorities and the Commonwealth
Department of Transport and Regional Services in Australia,
the Australian Local Government Association and Transit New
Zealand. It is governed by a council consisting of the chief
executive officer (or an alternative senior executive officer) of
each of its eleven member organisations:
Roads and Traffic Authority New South Wales
Roads Corporation Victoria
Department of Main Roads Queensland
Main Roads Western Australia
Transport South Australia
HANDBOOK ENDORSEMENT
In December 1993 Austroads and Standards Australia signed a
Memorandum of Understanding regarding the development
of Standards and related documents primarily for the
development and management of the Australian road system.
Standards Australia's support for this handbook reflects the
cooperative arrangement between the two organisations to
ensure there is a coordinated approach in this area.
HB 152:2002
iv RURAL ROAD DESIGN
undertaking performance assessment and development of
Australian and New Zealand standards
developing and managing the National Strategic Research
Program for roads and their use.
Within this ambit, Austroads aims to provide strategic
direction for the integrated development, management and
operation of the Australian and New Zealand road system
through the promotion of national uniformity and harmony,
elimination of unnecessary duplication, and the identification
and application of world best practice.
Department of Infrastructure, Energy and Resources
Tasmania
Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Environment
Northern Territory
Department of Urban Services Australian Capital Territory
Commonwealth Department of Transport and
Regional Services
Australian Local Government Association
Transit New Zealand
The success of Austroads is derived from the synergies of
interest and participation of member organisations and others
in the road industry.
In August 1995 Austroads, Transit New Zealand and Standards
New Zealand signed an agreement regarding the development
of Standards and related documents for endorsement of the
appropriate Austroads publications as SNZ handbooks. Standards
New Zealand and Transit New Zealand's support for this
handbook reflects the cooperative arrangement with Austroads
to ensure that there is a coordinated approach in this area.
FO R E W O R D

This guide represents the combined experience and international best practices of Austroads member
agencies and industry experts in the area of geometric design of rural roads. The Guide has been prepared
as the common design tool for Australia and New Zealand. For a more detailed explanation of specific
matters, which may vary from place to place, designers should check with the relevant road authority.

It has been the aim of the Consultant and the Reference group to validate all tables, figures and graphs
included in the Guide. The validation took the form of developed formulae, laboratory test results, field
observations or references.

In some cases the designer has been provided with a range of desirable and absolute values. A design can
be produced which may take into account the design topography, the safety of the occupants and the
design parameters. Care should be taken to ensure the combined use of absolute values does not create an
inappropriate design. Each circumstance should be individually evaluated based on local conditions by
experienced personnel.

This document does not cover the geometric design of unsealed roads. The designer is directed to the ARRB
document Unsealed Roads Manual Guidelines to Good Practice, 1993. The document referred to will
provide the practical and basic aspects for the maintenance design and construction of unsealed roads.

AUSTROADS REFERENCE GROUP

The Austroads Reference group for the guide:

Members

Project Manager John Cunningham, Manager VicRoads Design, Victoria

Technical Editor Dennis Maxwell, VicRoads, Victoria

Michael Brauer/Peter Ellis Roads and Traffic Authority, New South Wales
John Byrden VicRoads, Victoria
Dennis Davis Transit New Zealand
Geoff Clarke Commonwealth Department of Transport and Regional Services
Tony Gill Department of Urban Services, Australian Capital Territory
Geoff Glynn Municipal Association of Victoria
Rob Grove Main Roads, Western Australia
Arthur Hall Department of Main Roads, Queensland
Fritz Nabholtz Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Environment, Northern Territory
Graeme Nichols Department of Infrastructure, Energy and Resources, Tasmania
Richard Saunders Department of Transport South Australia

Project Research and Writer ARUP Group

RURAL ROAD DESIGN v

vi RURAL ROAD DESIGN
 P R E FA C E

This is the eighth edition of the Geometric Design of Rural Roads. The guide was last revised in 1989.

This revision of Rural Road Design: Guide to the Geometric Design of Rural Roads follows the 2002 release of Urban
Road Design: Guide to the Geometric Design of Major Urban Roads.

(Text to be added/revised)

RURAL ROAD DESIGN vii

 CONTENTS

TOPIC PAGE NO. PART 3 DESIGN INPUTS 13

FOREWORD v 7. SPEED, USED FOR GEOMETRIC DESIGN 13

PREFACE vii 7.1 Introduction 13
GLOSSARY OF TERMS xii 7.2 Explanation of Terminology 13
7.2.1 Vehicle Speed on Roads 13
PART 1 INTRODUCTION 1 7.2.2 Operating Speed 14
7.2.3 Operating Speed of Trucks 14
1. A BALANCED APPROACH 1 7.2.4 Section Operating Speed 14
1.1 General 1 7.2.5 Design Value 14
1.2 Design Standards 1 7.3 Estimating Operating Speeds on Rural Roads 14
1.3 Speed Concept 1 7.3.1 General 14
1.3.1 General 1 7.3.1.1 Driver Behaviour 14
1.3.2 High Speed Roads 2 7.3.1.2 Road Characteristics 14
1.3.3 Intermediate Speed Roads 2 7.3.1.3 Vehicle Characteristics 14
1.3.4 Low Speed Roads 3 7.3.2 Operating Speed Estimation Model 14
1.3.5 85th Percentile Speed 3 7.3.3 Acceleration On Straights Graph 17
2. ROAD FUNCTIONAL CLASSES 3 7.3.4 Deceleration On Curves Graph 17
3. DESIGN APPROACH 4 7.3.5 Section Operating Speeds 17
3.1 General 4 7.3.5.1 Length Of Road to be included in
3.2 The Drivers View 4 The Study 17
3.3 Co-ordination of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment 4 7.3.5.2 Identification of Sections 19
3.3.1 General 4 7.3.6 Estimating Speed on a Section of Road 21
3.3.2 Curvilinear Design 5 7.3.6.2 Step 2 Estimate Speed at Point C 21
3.3.3 Combined Horizontal and 7.3.6.3 Step 3 Estimate Speed at Point D 21
Vertical Alignment 5 7.3.6.4 Step 4 Estimate Speed at Point E 21
7.3.6.5 Step 5 Estimate of Speed at Point F 21
PART 2 FUNDAMENTAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 8 7.3.6.6 Step 6 Estimate of Speed at Point G 21
7.3.6.7 Step 7 Estimate of Speed at
4. TRAFFIC VOLUME & TRAFFIC COMPOSITION 8 Point H and I 21
5. DESIGN VEHICLE 8 7.3.7 Effects Of Grades 21
6. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 9 7.3.8 Effect of Cross-Section 23
6.1 Traffic Related Intrusion 9 7.3.9 Effect of Pavement Condition 23
6.1.1 Visuals 9 7.3.10 Use of Operating Speed in the Design
of Rural Roads 23
6.1.2 Noise 9
7.4 Operating Speed of Trucks 24
6.1.3 Vibration 11
7.5 Use Of Truck Operating Speeds 24
6.1.4 Air Pollution 11
8. SIGHT DISTANCES 24
6.1.5 Erosion 11
8.1 General 24
6.1.6 Environmentally Sensitive Areas 11
8.2 Sight Distance Parameters 25
6.1.7 Clearing 12
8.2.1 Object Height 25
6.2 Environmental Related Intrusion 12
8.2.2 Driver Eye Height 25
6.2.1 Snow and Ice 12
8.2.3 Driver Reaction Time 26
6.2.2 Floods 12
8.2.4 Ageing of Drivers 26
6.2.3 High Winds 12
8.3 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) 26
6.2.4 Animals and Birds 12
8.3.1 Derivation 26
6.3 References 12
8.3.2 Longitudinal Friction Factor 27

viii RURAL ROAD DESIGN

 8.3.3 Car to Road Object Stopping 9.11 Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves 51
Sight Distance 27 9.11.1 Benching for Visibility on
8.3.4 Truck to Road Object Stopping Horizontal Curves 51
Sight Distance 27 9.11.2 Other Restrictions to Visibility 51
8.4 Overtaking Sight Distance 30 9.12 Curvilinear Alignment Design in Flat Terrain 52
8.4.1 General 30 9.12.1 Introduction 52
8.4.2 Overtaking Model 30 9.12.2 Theoretical Considerations 52
8.4.3 Determination of Overtaking Provision 30 9.12.3 Advantages of Curvilinear Alignment 52
8.4.4 Determination of Percentage of 9.13 Bridge Considerations 53
Road Providing Overtaking 31
10. VERTICAL ALIGNMENT 54
8.5 Manoeuvre Sight Distance 33
10.1 Introduction 54
8.5.1 Derivation 33
10.2 Grades 54
8.6 Headlight Sight Distance 33
10.2.1 General 54
8.7 Horizontal Curve Perception Distance 34
10.2.2 Vehicle Operation on Grades 54
10.2.3 Maximum Grades 55
PART 4 GEOMETRIC DESIGN GUIDELINES 35
10.2.4 Length of Steep Grades 55
10.2.5 Steep Grade Considerations 55
9. HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT 35
10.2.6 Minimum Grades 56
9.1 General 35
10.3 Vertical Curves 56
9.2 Movement on a Circular Path 35
10.3.1 General 56
9.3 Horizontal Curves 35
10.3.2 Forms and Types of Curve 56
9.3.1 Types of Horizontal Curves 35
10.3.3 Crest Vertical Curves 56
9.3.1.1 Reverse Curves 35
10.3.3.1 Appearance 56
9.3.1.2 Compound Curves 35
10.3.3.2 Sight Distance Criteria (Crest) 57
9.3.1.3 Broken Back Curves 35
10.3.4 Sag Vertical Curves 57
9.3.1.4 Transition Curves 35
10.3.4.1 Appearance and Comfort 57
9.4 Side Friction Factor 36
10.3.4.2 Sight Distance Criteria (Sag) 58
9.5 Minimum Radii Values For Horizontal Curves 37
10.3.5 Reverse/Compound/Broken Back
9.5.1 Minimum Radius Values 37 Vertical Curves 58
9.5.2 On Steep Down Grades 38 11. CROSS SECTION 60
9.6 Horizontal Alignment Design Procedure 38 11.1 General 60
9.7 Superelevation 39 11.2 Traffic Lane Width 60
9.7.1 Maximum Values of Superelevation 42 11.3 Traveled Way 61
9.7.2 Minimum Values of Superelevation 42 11.3.1 Single Carriageways 61
9.7.3 Application of Superelevation 42 11.3.2 Divided Carriageways 62
9.7.4 Length of Superelevation Development 42 11.3.2.1 Independent Design of Carriageways 63
9.7.4.1 Rate of Rotation 43 11.3.2.2 Superelevation Issues 63
9.7.4.2 Relative Grade 43 11.3.2.3 Transitions Between Divided and
9.7.4.3 Design Superelevation Undivided Carriageways 63
Development Lengths 44 11.4 Pavement Crossfall and its Considerations 63
9.7.5 Positioning Of Superelevation Runoff 44 11.5 Shoulder 65
9.7.5.1 Without Transitions 44 11.5.1 Function 65
9.7.5.2 With Transitions 46 11.5.2 Width 65
9.7.6 Superelevation on Bridges 48 11.5.3 Shoulder Sealing 66
9.8 Curves With Adverse Crossfall 48 11.5.4 Crossfalls 67
9.9 Minimum Horizontal Curve Length 48 11.6 Verge 67
9.10 Pavement Widening on Horizontal Curves 48 11.7 Batters 67

RURAL ROAD DESIGN ix

 11.7.1 Benches 69 13.7.4.2 Escape Exits 89
11.7.2 Batter Rounding 69 13.7.4.3 Spacing 89
11.8 Medians 69 13.7.4.4 Summary of Design Considerations 90
11.9 Roadside Drains 72 13.7.5 Brake Check and Brake Rest Areas 90
11.9.1 Table Drains 72 13.8 Geometry of Auxiliary Lanes 90
11.9.2 Catch Drains 72 13.8.1 Starting and Termination Points 90
11.9.3 Median Drains 72 13.8.2 Tapers 91
11.10 Noise Barriers 72 13.8.3 Cross Section 91
11.11 Right of Way 72 13.8.3.1 Pavement Width 91
11.12 Widths of Bridges 72 13.8.3.2 Shoulder Width 91
13.8.3.3 Crossfall 91
PART 5 OTHER DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 75 13.8.3.4 Lane Configurations 91
13.8.4 Line marking and Signing 92
12. PRINCIPAL FACTORS 75 13.8.4.1 Signs 92
12.1 Financial Level 75 13.8.4.2 Linemarking 92
12.2 Safety 75 14. VEHICLE STOPPING AREAS 92
12.3 Energy 75 14.1 General 92
12.4 Stage Construction 75 14.2 Service Facilities 92
13. AUXILIARY LANES 75 14.2.1 Rest Areas 92
13.1 General 75 14.2.1.1 Major Rest Areas 93
13.2 Types of Auxiliary Lanes 75 14.2.1.2 Basic Rest Areas 93
13.3 Speed Change Lanes 76 14.2.1.3 Other Areas 94
13.3.1 Acceleration Lanes 76 14.2.2 Location of Vehicle Stopping Areas 95
13.3.2 Deceleration Lanes 76 14.2.3 Heavy Vehicle Considerations 95
13.4 Overtaking Lanes/Climbing Lanes 76 15. COMMUNITY CONSULTATION 96
13.4.1 Overtaking Lanes 76 16. DRAINAGE 96
13.4.1.1 Overtaking Demand 76 16.1 General 96
13.4.1.2 Overtaking Opportunities 76 16.2 Flood Estimation 96
13.4.1.3 Warrants 79 16.3 Rational Method 97
13.4.1.4 Length 79 16.4 Design Considerations 98
13.4.1.5 Location 80 16.5 Water Quality 99
13.4.1.6 Spacing 80 17. ROADSIDE SAFETY 100
13.4.1.7 Improvement Strategy For 17.1 Safety Objectives 100
Overtaking Lanes 81 17.2 On-Road Safety 100
13.4.2 Climbing Lanes 81 17.2.1 Intersections 100
13.4.2.1 General 81 17.2.2 Mid Block 101
13.4.2.2 Warrants 81 17.3 Recovery Area 101
13.4.2.3 Length 83 17.3.1 Clear Zone 101
13.5 Slow Vehicle Turnouts 83 17.3.2 Existing Hazards Within a Clear Zone 102
13.5.1 Partial Climbing Lanes 83 17.4 Safety Barriers 105
13.5.2 Passing Bays 83 17.5 Landscaping 108
13.6 Descending Lanes 85 17.6 Lighting 108
13.7 Runaway Vehicle Facilities 85 17.7 Pedestrians and Cyclists 108
13.7.1 General 85 17.8 Temporary Works During Construction 108
13.7.2 Types of Escape Ramps 86 17.9 Road Safety Auditing 108
13.7.2.1 Sand Pile 86 18. RAILWAY LEVEL CROSSINGS 109
13.7.2.2 Descending Grade 86 18.1 Horizontal Alignment 109
13.7.2.3 Horizontal Grade 86 18.2 Vertical Alignment 109
13.7.2.4 Ascending Grade 86 18.2.1 Road Grading 109
13.7.3 Location of Runaway Vehicle Facilities 86 18.2.2 Cross Section 112
13.7.4 Arrester Beds and Escape Exits 86 19. COMPUTER SOFTWARE FOR ROAD DESIGN 112
13.7.4.1 Arrester Beds 87

x RURAL ROAD DESIGN

REFERENCES 113

APPENDICES 117
Appendix A Characteristics of the Euler Spiral
(Clothoid) 117
Appendix B Vertical Curve Formulae 119
Appendix C Derivation of Sight Distance
Requirements at Railway Level Crossings 121
1. General 121
2. Case 1: Sight Distance Required for
Give Way Control 121
3. Case 1(i): Decelerate and Safely Stop
at the Stop or Holding Line 122
4. Case 1(ii): Proceed and Clear the
Crossingwith an Adequate
Safety Margin 122
5. Case 2: Sight Distance Required
for Stop Sign Control 123

RURAL ROAD DESIGN xi

 G LO S S A R Y O F T E R M S

A AADT Annual Average Daily Traffic is calculated by counting the number of vehicles
passing a roadside observation point in a year and dividing this number by 365.
Abutment An end support of a bridge or similar structure.
Acceleration Lane An auxiliary lane used to allow vehicles to increase speed without interfering
with the main traffic stream. They are often used on the departure side of
intersections.
Access The driveway by which vehicles and/or pedestrians enter and/or leave property
adjacent to a road.
Adverse Crossfall A slope on a curved pavement that generates forces detracting from the ability
of a vehicle to maintain a circular path.
Alignment The geometric form of the centreline (or other reference line) of a carriageway
in both the horizontal and vertical directions.
Alignment Co-ordination A road design technique in which various rules are applied to ensure that
(coordinated alignment) the combination of horizontal and vertical alignment is both safe and
aesthetically pleasing.
Aquaplaning Full dynamic aquaplaning occurs when a tyre is completely separated from the
road surface by a film of water.
Arrester Bed An arrester bed is a safe and efficient facility used to deliberately decelerate and
stop vehicles by transferring their kinetic energy through the displacement of
aggregate in a gravel bed.
Arterial Road A road that predominantly carries through traffic from one region to another,
forming the principal avenue of communication for traffic movements.
Auxiliary Lane The portion of the carriageway adjoining the through traffic lanes for speed
change, or for other purposes supplementary to the through traffic movement.
Average Recurrence Interval (ARI) The Average Recurrence interval (ARI) is the average interval of time during
which an event will be equalled or exceeded once. It should be based on a
lengthy period of records of the event. Statistically it is the inverse of the
Average Exceedence Probability. The term replaces recurrence interval.
B Batter The uniform side slope of walls, banks, cuttings or embankments, expressed as
a ratio of 1 vertical on x horizontal as distinct from grade.
Batter rounding Curvature that is applied to improve the stability and appearance of the road
at the intersection of the extension of the road crossfall and/or existing surface
(hinge point), with the batter slope of an embankment or cutting.
Barrier An obstruction placed to prevent vehicle access to a particular area.
Barrier Kerb A kerb with a profile and height sufficient to prevent or discourage vehicles
moving off the carriageway.
Bench A ledge constructed in a batter or natural slope for the purpose of providing
adequate horizontal sight distance, greater security against batter slippage or
to assist with batter drainage.
Border The area between the carriageway and the property line. It allows provision for
services, footpaths, cycle path, shared paths, street trees and street furniture.
Additional width will be required for bus bays or where major transmission
services are to be provided in the verge. It includes the shoulder if provided.
Braking Distance The distance required for the braking system of a vehicle to bring the vehicle
to a stop from the operating speed.
Broken Back Curve Two horizontal curves in the same direction separated by a short straight (a
special case of the compound curve).

xii RURAL ROAD DESIGN

 Bunching Grouping of vehicles travelling in the same direction with restricted speed caused
by the slow moving head of the bunch and limited overtaking opportunities.
Bus Bay An auxiliary lane of limited length at a bus stop or terminus usually indented into
the shoulder or verge.
C Carriageway That portion of a road or bridge devoted particularly to the use of vehicles,
inclusive of the shoulders and auxiliary lanes.
Catch drain A surface channel constructed along the high side of a road or embankment,
outside the batter to intercept surface water.
Catchment Area The area that will contribute to the discharge of a stream after rainfall at the point
under consideration.
Channelised Intersection An intersection provided with channelised islands.
Centreline The basic line that defines the axis or alignment of the centre of a road or other
works.
Clear Zone An area adjacent to the traffic lane that should be kept free from features
potentially hazardous to errant vehicles.
Clearance The space between a stationary and/or moving object.
Climbing Lane A special case of an overtaking lane located on a rising grade.
Coefficient of Run-off The ratio of the amount of water that runs off a catchment area to the amount
that falls on the catchment.
Compound Curve A curve consisting of two of more arcs of different radii curving in the same
direction and having a common tangent point or being joined by a transition
curve.
Crossfall The slope, measured at right angles to the alignment, of the surface of any part
of a carriageway.
Cross Section The transverse elements of the longitudinal elements.
Crown The highest point on the cross section of a carriageway with two-way crossfall.
Curvilinear Alignment The alignment is a continuous curve with constant, gradual and smooth changes
of direction.
Cycle Lane A paved area adjacent to and flush with the traffic lane pavement, for the
movement of cyclists. A lane designated for the exclusive use of cyclists.
D Deceleration Lane An auxiliary lane provided to allow vehicles to decrease speed.
Deck The bridge floor directly carrying traffic loads.
Design Life The period during which the quality of a structure (eg riding quality of a
pavement) is expected to remain acceptable.
Design Speed A speed fixed for the design and correlation of those geometric features of a
carriageway that influence vehicle operation. Design speed should not be less
than the operating speed.
Design Traffic The predicted cumulative traffic at the design year, expressed in terms of vehicles.
Design Vehicle A hypothetical road vehicle whose mass, dimensions and operating
characteristics are used to determine geometric requirements.
Design Year The predicted year in which the design traffic would be reached.
Discharge The volumetric rate of water flow.
Divided Road (divided carriageway) A road with a separate carriageway for each direction of travel created by placing
some physical obstruction, such as a median or barrier, between the opposing
traffic directions.

RURAL ROAD DESIGN xiii

 G LO S S A R Y O F T E R M S ( co n t d )
Drainage
E Ease
F Footpath
Footway
Formation
Frangible
Freeway
G Grade
Grade Separation
H Hinge Point
Horizontal Alignment
Horizontal Curve
I Intensity of Rainfall
Interchange
Intermediate Sight Distance
Intersection
Intersection Angle
Intersection (at-grade)
Intersection Leg
J, K K Value
Kerb
Kerb and Channel
Kerb Clearances
L Lane (Traffic)
Lane Separator
Lateral Friction
Level of Service (LOS)
xiv RURAL ROAD DESIGN
The natural or artificial means for the interception and removal of surface or
subsurface water.
Section of rounding.
A public way reserved for the movement of pedestrians and manually propelled
vehicles. A separate facility for pedestrians remote from the road carriageway.
It may also be the paved part of the footpath used by pedestrians.
Pedestrian facility on a bridge.
The surface of the finished earthworks, excluding cut or fill batters.
Term is used to describe roadside furniture designed to collapse on impact. The
severity of potential injuries to the occupants of an impacting vehicle is
reduced, compared to those that could occur if the furniture was unyielding.
A divided highway for through traffic with no access for traffic between
interchanges and with grade separation at some interchanges.
The rate of longitudinal rise (or fall) of a carriageway with respect to the
horizontal, expressed as a percentage.
The separation of road, rail or other traffic so that crossing movements, which
would otherwise conflict, are at different elevations.
The point in the cross-section of a road at which the extended batter line would
intersect the extended verge line.
The bringing together of the straights and curves in the plan view of a
carriageway.
A curve in the plan view of a carriageway.
The rainfall in a unit of time.
A grade separation of two or more roads with one or more interconnecting
carriageways.
The ISD is equal to 2 x stopping distance for the operating speed.
A place at which two or more roads meet.
1. The angle between two intersecting roads.
2. The angles between the centrelines of two intersecting carriageways.
An intersection where carriageways cross at a common level.
Any one of the carriageways radiating from and forming part of an
intersection.
The length required for a 1% change of grade on a parabolic vertical curve.
A raised border of rigid material formed at the edge of a carriageway.
The kerb and channel combine to form an open drain to capture and discharge
run off.
A distance by which the kerb should be set back in order to maintain the
maximum capacity of the traffic lane.
A portion of the carriageway allocated for the use of a single line of vehicles.
A separator provided between lanes carrying traffic in the same direction to
discourage or prevent lane changing, or to separate a portion of a speed
change lane from through lanes.
The force which, when generated between the tyre and the road surface,
assists a vehicle to maintain a circular path.
A qualitative measure describing operational conditions within a traffic stream
and their perception by motorists and passengers.
 Limiting Curve Speed Standard The curve speed at which f just equals f max, Vs.
Line of Sight The direct line of uninterrupted view between a driver and an object of specified
height above the carriageway in the lane of travel.
Longitudinal Friction Factor The friction between vehicle tyres and the road pavement under locked wheel
braking conditions, measured in the longitudinal direction.
Longitudinal Section A vertical section, usually with an exaggerated vertical scale, showing the existing
and design levels along a road design line, or another specified line.
M Median A strip of road, not normally intended for use by traffic, which separates
carriageways for traffic in opposite directions.
Median Island A short length of median serving a localised purpose in an otherwise undivided
road.
Median Lane The traffic lane nearest the median.
Median Opening A gap in a median provided for crossing and turning traffic.
Minimum Turning Path The path of a designated point on a vehicle making its sharpest turn.
Minimum Turning Radius The radius of the minimum turning path of the outside of the outer front tyre of
a vehicle.
Motorway A divided highway for through traffic with no access for traffic between
interchanges and with grade separation at some interchanges.
Multiple Combination Vehicles The full range of truck, prime mover and semi trailers and road trains.
N Normal Cross Section The cross section of the carriageway where it is not affected by superelevation or
widening.
O Off-tracking The radial offset between the path traced by the centre of the front axle and the
centre of the effective rear axle.
One-way Road A road or street on which all vehicular traffic travels in the same direction.
Operating Speed The 85th percentile speed of cars at a time when traffic volumes are low and will
allow a free choice of speed within the road alignment.
Overtaking The manoeuvre in which a vehicle moves from a position behind to a position in
front of another vehicle travelling in the same direction.
Overtaking Distance The distance required for one vehicle to overtake another vehicle.
Overtaking Lane An auxiliary lane provided to allow for slower vehicles to be overtaken. It is line-
marked so that all traffic is initially directed into the left-hand lane, with the inner
lane being used to overtake.
Overtaking Zone A section of road on which at least 70 per cent of drivers will be prepared to carry
out overtaking manoeuvres subject to availability of adequate gaps in the
opposing direction.
P Passing The manoeuvre by which a vehicle moves from a position behind to in front of
another vehicle, which is stationary or travelling at crawl speeds.
Passing Bay A very short auxiliary lane (of the order of 100 m) that allows a slow vehicle to
pull aside to allow a following vehicle to pass.
Pavement That portion of a road designed for the support of, and to form the running
surface for, vehicular traffic.
Perception Distance The sight distance required accessing the curvature of horizontal curves on
approach.
Property Line The boundary between a road reserve and the adjacent land.
Q, R Rainfall Intensity The rate of rainfall (mm/hr).
Rate of Rotation The rate of rotation required achieving a suitable distance to uniformly rotate the

RURAL ROAD DESIGN xv

 G LO S S A R Y O F T E R M S ( co n t d )
crossfall from normal to full superelevation. The usual value adopted is 0.025
rad/sec; 0.035 rad/sec is the maximum value.
Reaction Distance The distance travelled during the reaction time.
Reaction Time The time between the drivers reception of stimulus and taking appropriate
action.
Re-alignment An alteration to the control line of a road that may affect only its vertical
alignment but, more usually, alters its horizontal alignment.
A method of widening a road reservation.
Reverse Curve A section of road alignment consisting of two curves turning in opposite
directions and having a common tangent point or being joined by a short
length of tangent.
Residual Median The remnant area of the median adjacent to right turn lanes.
Road Furniture A general term covering all signs, streetlights and protective devices for the
control, guidance and safety of traffic, and the convenience of road users.
Roadside Safety Barrier A device erected parallel to the road to retain vehicles that are out of control.
Road (way) A route trafficable by motor vehicles; in law, the public right-of-way between
boundaries of adjoining property.
Roundabout An intersection where all traffic travels in one direction around a central island.
Run-off That part of the rainfall on a catchment which flows as surface discharge past
a specified point.
S Sag Curve A concave vertical curve in the longitudinal profile of a road.
Section Operating Speed The 85th percentile speed of cars traversing a section of road alignment.
Semi-Mountable Kerb A kerb designed so that it can be driven across in emergency or on special
occasions without damage to the vehicle.
Shared Path A paved area particularly designed (with appropriate dimensions, alignment
and signing) for the movement of cyclists and pedestrians.
Shoulder The portion of formed carriageway that is adjacent to the traffic lane and flush
with the surface of the pavement.
Sideways Friction Coefficient The ratio of the resistance to side ways motion of the tyre of a vehicle (on a
specified pavement) and the normal force on that wheel due to the vehicle
mass.
Sight Distance Approach Sight Distance (ASD)
The distance required for a driver to perceive marking or hazards on the road
surface approaching an intersection and to stop.
Car Stopping Distance (SSD)
The distance required for a car driver to perceive a hazard, react and brake to
a stop. For design purposes, wet weather conditions and locked wheel braking
are assumed.
Entering Sight Distance (ESD)
The sight distance required for minor road drivers to enter a major road via a
left or right turn, such that traffic on the road is unimpeded
Manoeuvre Sight Distance
The distance required for an alert car driver to perceive an object on the road
and to take evasive action.
Minimum Gap Sight Distance (MGSD)
The minimum sight distance based on the gap necessary to perform a
particular movement.
Overtaking Sight Distance
The sight distance required for a driver to initiate and safely complete an
overtaking manoeuvre.
Railway Crossing Sight Triangle

xvi RURAL ROAD DESIGN

 The clear area required for a truck driver to perceive a train approaching an
uncontrolled railway crossing and to stop the truck
Safe Intersection Sight Distance (SISD)
The distance required for a driver in a major road to observe a vehicle entering
from a side road, and to stop before colliding with it.
Sight Distance Through Underpass
The distance required for a truck driver to see beneath a bridge located across the
main road, to perceive any hazard on the road ahead, and to stop.
Stopping Sight Distance
The sight distance required by an average driver (car or truck depending on
design requirements), travelling at a given speed, to react and stop before striking
an object on the road.
Truck Stopping Sight Distance
The distance required for a truck driver to perceive a hazard, react and brake to
a stop.
For design purposes, the braking of an unladen vehicle in wet weather conditions
without locking the wheels is assumed.
Sight Triangle The area of land between two intersecting roadways over which vehicles on both
roadways are visible to each driver.
Skid Resistance The frictional relationship between a pavement surface and vehicle tyres during
braking or cornering manoeuvres. Normally measured on wet surfaces, it varies
with the speed and the value of slip adopted.
Slope 1. The inclination of a surface with respect to the horizontal, expressed as rise or
fall in a certain longitudinal distance.
2. An inclined surface.
Speed 85th Percentile Speed
The speed at which 85 percent of car drivers will travel slower and 15 percent will
travel faster.
Operating Speed of Trucks
The 85th percentile speed of trucks measured at a time when traffic volumes
are low.
Section Operating Speed
The value at which vehicle speeds on a series of curves tend to stabilise, are
related to the range of radii on the curves.

Speed-change Lane A subdivision of auxiliary lanes, which cover those lanes used primarily for the
acceleration or deceleration of vehicles. It is usual to refer to the lane by its actual
purpose (eg. deceleration lane).
Sub-arterial Road Road connecting arterial roads to areas of development, and carrying traffic
directly from one part of a region to another.
Superelevation A slope on a curved pavement selected so as to enhance forces assisting a vehicle
to maintain a circular path.
Superelevation Development The length over which the crossfalls on a carriageway are gradually changed from
normal crossfall to full superelevation crossfall.
Superelevation Runoff That part of superelevation development that goes from flat crossfall to full
superelevation crossfall (on the outside of the curve, when there are segments
rotating either side of the axis of rotation).
Swept Path The area bounded by lines traced by the extremities of the bodywork of a vehicle
while turning.
Swept Width The radial distance between the innermost and outermost turning paths of a
vehicle.
T Table drain The side drain of a road adjacent to the shoulder, having its invert lower than the
pavement base and being part of the formation.
Tangent Runout The length of roadway required to accomplish the change in crossfall from a

RURAL ROAD DESIGN xvii

 normal crown section to a flat crossfall at the same rate as the superelevation
runoff.
Terrain Topography of the land.
Level Terrain
Is that condition where road sight distance, as governed by both horizontal and
vertical restrictions, are generally long or could be made to be so without
construction difficulty or major expense.
Undulating Terrain
Is that condition where road sight distance is occasionally governed by both
horizontal and vertical restrictions with some construction difficulty and major
expense but with only minor speed reduction.
Rolling Terrain
Is that condition where the natural slopes consistently rise above and fall below
the road grade and where occasional steep slopes offer some restriction to
normal horizontal and vertical roadway alignment.
The steeper grades cause trucks to reduce speed below those of passenger
cars.
Mountainous Terrain
Is that condition where longitudinal and transverse changes in the elevation of
the ground with respect to the road are abrupt and where benching and side
hill excavation are frequently required to obtain acceptable horizontal and
vertical alignment. Mountainous terrain causes some trucks to operate at crawl
speeds.
Time of Concentration The shortest time necessary for all points on a catchment area to contribute
simultaneously to run-off at a specified point.
Traffic A generic term covering all vehicles, people, and animals using a road.
Traffic Control Signal A device that, by means of changing coloured lights, regulates the movement
of traffic.
Traffic Island A defined area, usually at an intersection, from which vehicular traffic is
excluded. It is used to control vehicular movements and as a pedestrian refuge.
Transition Transition length for increasing or decreasing the number of lanes.
Traffic Lane A portion of the carriageway allocated for the use of a single line of vehicles.
Traffic Sign A sign to regulate traffic and warn or guide drivers.
Transition Curve A curve of varying radius to model the path of a vehicle entering or leaving a
horizontal circular curve.
Transition Length for alignment The distance within which the alignment is changed in approach from straight
to a horizontal curve of constant radius.
Transition Length for crossfall The distance required rotating the pavement crossfall from normal to that
appropriate to the curve. Also called superelevation development length.
Transition Length for widening The distance over which the pavement width is changed from normal to that
appropriate to the curve.
Travelled way That portion of a carriageway ordinarily assigned to moving traffic, and
exclusive of shoulders and parking lanes.
Turning Lane An auxiliary lane reserved for turning traffic.
Typical Cross Section A cross section of a carriageway showing typical dimensional details, furniture
locations and features of the pavement construction.
U, V Verge That portion of the formation not covered by the carriageway or footpath.
Vertical Alignment The longitudinal profile along the design line of a road.
Vertical Curve A curve (generally parabolic) in the longitudinal profile of a carriageway to
provide for a change of grade at a specified vertical acceleration.

xviii RURAL ROAD DESIGN

RURAL ROAD DESIGN xix
 1
PA R T
I N T R O D U CT I O N
1. A BALANCED APPROACH
1.1 General
Roads will continue to be an important part of our transport
system for the foreseeable future by providing for the safe and
operationally efficient movement of people and goods. A
balanced approach towards road planning and design can
improve road safety and public amenity, and reduce the effect
of noise, vibration, pollution and visual intrusion on the areas
through which a road passes. The objectives of new and
existing road networks should be carefully considered to
achieve the desired balance and must take into account the
available resources to achieve them.
In every situation designers will be faced with competing
demands from different sections of the community as they
endeavour to design safe, operationally efficient roads.
The various chapters in this publication provide a guide to
practitioners on the standards that can be achieved within
social, environmental, economic and other constraints using
best local and overseas practice.
1.2 Design Standards
Geometric road design standards are used as an aid to
achieving consistent and operationally effective road designs.
Rapid expansion and improvement to road networks
precipitated the need for standards to:
maintain a degree of uniformity, particularly across
administrative boundaries;
enable satisfactory designs to be produced, even where
there was not a high degree of expertise; and
ensure that road funds were not miss-spent, through
inappropriate designs, or through inadequate provision for
future traffic growth or for current operations.
Prior to the 6th edition of this guide, many of the standards
adopted in Australia were based heavily on those used in the
USA and other developed countries. However, with the 6th
edition, standards that were more appropriate for Australia
were promoted. There were two aspects to these new
standards:
Technical relating to safety and efficiency of traffic
operations and particularly to alignment design.
Experience has shown that rigid adherence to the earlier
standards did not always ensure a safe, operationally
efficient road; and
Costs of desirable road construction projects almost always
exceed the total of funds that can be made available. In
this situation, each upward increment in design standards
to which a road project is built, results (due to the slightly
increased cost) in the deferment of other projects to enable
the higher cost project to be funded. Improved provision
for future traffic results in greater deficiencies on the
balance of the road system with respect to present traffic.
The more constrained the financial situation, the more
these tradeoffs become evident.
There are three distinct stages in the development of a
countrys road system. The importance of geometric standards
depends very much on the stage reached.
Stage 1 Basic Network. The establishment of a basic
network so that transport links exist where they are
required. The roads must be trafficable. Geometric
standards are relatively unimportant except as they affect
matters like drainage and gradient;
Stage 2 Increasing Capacity. Improving the roads ability
to carry increasing volumes of traffic. This includes
structural strength, but geometric standards assume
greater importance; and
Stage 3 Quality of Service. Building operational safety,
efficiency and convenience into the network, as embodied
in a concept of quality of service. Alignment standards
become important, and cross section standards need to be
more generous to accommodate significant volumes of
high-speed traffic.
The development of the Australian and New Zealand road
network is a mixture of increasing the network capacity and
providing for an improved quality of service. Parts of the more
remote areas still have road development problems associated
with the establishment of a basic network. Many of the
imported geometric standards that were used prior to the 6th
edition related to the quality of service that a road provides.
Problems arose through their inappropriate application in
areas where a basic network was still being developed.
The main problem now for geometric standards is that there
are many areas where the road system exhibits all three stages
of development. In these areas motorists are more likely to be
influenced by the geometry of the Stage 2 roads. Hence,
they are likely to be more demanding of the standard of
geometry on Stage 1 roads.
1.3 Speed Concept
1.3.1 General
When assessing the major roles that a road should fulfil and
the standard of this provision, engineering judgement will be
required. Identified problems or concerns need to be carefully
considered and a range of alternative solutions examined
before deciding upon a particular course of action. Judgement
of what is considered acceptable for the road in question
will involve a balance between such issues as traffic capacity,
the environment, speed, safety and road user comfort. It is
RURAL ROAD DESIGN 1
important to determine which of the various demands should
be given priority, taking into account function and operating
conditions of the road and its relationship with other roads in
the adjacent network.
Use of the traditional design speed concept as a criterion for
alignment consistency on rural roads was introduced in the
USA in the 1930s in response to increasing numbers of
accidents at horizontal curves. This concept was developed as
a mechanism for designing rural road alignments permitting
the majority of drivers to operate uniformly at their desired
speed. However, as identified by researchers in various
countries, the concept has not always produced safe and
consistent alignments.
Various speed studies in Australia, New Zealand and overseas
have shown that on roads designed for speeds less than 100
km/h the 85th percentile driver exceeds the design speed by up
to 20 km/h. The revised design procedure in Guide to the
Geometric Design of Rural Roads (NAASRA, 1989) incorporated
considerations of operating speeds to improve alignment
consistency. The guide had four basic speed parameters:
1.3.2 High Speed Roads
These are roads with design speeds in excess of 100 km/h. On
these high-speed roads operating speeds are not constrained
by the geometry of the road but by a number of other factors,
which include:
The degree of risk the drivers are prepared to accept;
Speed limits and the level of policing of these limits; and
Vehicle performance.
Roads with design speeds of 110 km/h and 130 km/h are likely
to have similar operating speeds.
McLean (Ref. 71) noted that drivers generally wish to travel at
around 100 km/h to 110 km/h. On roads designed for lower
speeds, drivers tend to overdrive the road. Conversely on
roads designed for higher speeds, drivers adopt an operating
speed of 100 km/h to 110 km/h.
1.3.2 High Speed Roads

desired speed;
speed environment;
design speed; and
limiting curve speed standard.

There was some uncertainty in the application of the NAASRA

(1989) design parameters because:

different interpretations were given to the term speed

environment;
designers were reluctant accept the predicted speeds on
some low radii;
no clear instructions were available on the use of the
design curves;
results obtained by different designers were not consistent;
and
very long lengths of relatively straight road were required
for vehicles to reach the speed environment.

In spite of these problems, the basic procedure provided

appropriate outcomes. However, in order to make the
procedures more transparent, there is a need for a more
specific method for determining speeds on straight and
horizontal curves.

From observations of driver behavior in hilly terrain, it was

noted that drivers initially reduce speed over the first few
curves until they reach a speed that is the highest at which the
driver feels comfortable. The driver then tends to maintain this
speed unless confronted with a curve with a radius
significantly below the general range of radii on the section of
road. Conversely, the driver will not increase speed unless a
straight (or near straight) is available and is >200 meters. On
shorter straights drivers tend to maintain the speed attained
on the preceding section of curves. This speed is called 1.3.3 Intermediate Speed Roads
section operating speed.
These are roads designed with minimum operating speeds of
The research findings and accumulated design experience 80 km/h to 100 km/h. Operating speeds on these roads are
suggest that there are effectively three ranges of speed standard generally constrained by the geometry. Drivers will, however,
for roads, and that different design philosophies should be accelerate whenever the opportunity arises, such as on any
employed for each range. All have the fundamental objective of straight or large radius curve. Curve radii on these roads are
providing a road which accords with driver expectations. generally in excess of 160 m.

2 RURAL ROAD DESIGN

1.3.3 Intermediate Speed Roads 1.3.4 Low Speed Road

On roads with speed limits less than 100 km/h, the operating
speed of vehicles will be determined by the geometric
constraints of the road on the imposed speed limits and
the corresponding operating speeds refer Section 7.2 and
Figure 7.1.

1.3.5 85th Percentile Speed

The term eighty fifth percentile speed indicates that 85

percent of car drivers will travel at or below this speed and 15
percent will travel faster. In effect, this means that designs
based on the 85th percentile speed will cater for the majority
of drivers. For design purposes, the 15% of drivers who
exceed this speed are considered to be aware of the increased
risk they are taking and are expected to maintain a higher level
of alertness, effectively reducing their reaction times.

2. R O A D F U N CT I O N A L C L A S S E S

Roads fall into a hierarchy of functional classes ranging from

major arterial to local access. Austroads has defined a system
of functional classification for rural roads (see Table 2.1).

Functional classes are not always clear-cut since almost all

roads have some degree of local importance.

Rural roads of higher functional class generally cater for a

higher (though normally still modest) proportion of longer
length journeys, and it may be appropriate to select higher
design standards for such roads so that the quality of service
1.3.4 Low Speed Roads is more appropriate to the longer trips duration. However
designers must be aware of placing too much importance
These are roads having many curves with radii less than 150 on functional class alone where traffic volumes are low.
m. Operating speeds on the curves vary from 50 km/h to 70 Further discussion on functional classification of roads is
km/h. These roads are only used when difficult terrain and given in Ref. 22.
costs preclude the adoption of higher speeds. The
alignments provided in these circumstances could be
expected to produce a high degree of driver alertness, so
those lower standards are both expected and acceptable. The
most pragmatic approach to the design of individual
elements in such constrained situations is to provide the best
that appears practicable, and to check that it is within the
absolute minimum standards for the predicted 85th
percentile speed. Innovative, non-standard treatments will
often be required when these standards cannot be met.

RURAL ROAD DESIGN 3

Table 2.1 Austroads Functional Rural Road Classification
ARTERIAL ROADS
Class 1
Those roads, which form the principal avenue for
communications between major regions, including direct
connections between capital cities.
Class 2
Those roads, not being Class 1, whose main function is to
form the principal avenue of communication for
movements between:
A capital city and adjoining states and their capital
cities; or
A capital city and key towns; or
Key towns.
Class 3
Those roads, not being Class 1 or 2, whose main function
is to form an avenue of communication for movements:
Between important centres and the Class 1 and Class
2 roads and/or key towns; or
Between important centres; or
Of an arterial nature within a town in a rural area.
LOCAL ROADS
Class 4
Those roads, not being Class 1, 2 or 3, whose main
function is to provide access to abutting property
(including property within a town in a rural area).
Class 5
Those roads, which provide almost exclusively for one activity
or function, which cannot be assigned to Classes 1 to 4.
3. DESIGN APPROACH
3.1 General
The subsequent sections are concentrated primarily on the
physical attributes of good road design to satisfy the
requirements of safety and performance. Whilst these needs
are of prime importance, some compromise may be necessary
in the need for convenience of access, amenity and economy.
Considerations of amenity are those which concern the effect
that a road and its traffic has upon the environmental and
aesthetic senses of users and of those others who are affected
by its construction and operation. The pleasing coordination of
alignment and grading, the fitting of the road to the natural
contours of the land surface, and the preservation or
enhancement of the natural vegetation is all involved.
4 RURAL ROAD DESIGN
The road, therefore, must be considered at all stages of design
as a three-dimensional structure that should be safe,
functional and economical but also aesthetically pleasing.
3.2 The Drivers View
The driver sees a foreshortened and, thus, distorted view of
the road, and unfavourable combinations of horizontal and
vertical curves can result in apparent discontinuities in the
alignment, even though the horizontal and vertical designs
each comply separately with the provisions of their
individual design requirements. Such combinations can
mask from the driver a change in horizontal alignment or
even a sag curve deep enough to conceal a significant
hazard (the hidden dip problem). Only the consideration of
the road as a three dimensional entity can reveal such
deficiencies, and good design practice requires the
elimination of all avoidable hazards even though some
additional expense may be incurred. The removal of hazards
is not, however, the only benefit, as the improved safety and
performance potential is invariably accompanied by
significantly enhanced amenity.
Not only is the drivers view constantly changing, but the
duration of his view of successive elements of the road is also
varying. Features situated in long, low sag curves remain in
view for a considerable length of time whereas other features
at or near an abrupt crest or on a tight curve are in view only
fleetingly. It follows then that important features such as
intersections are most favourably located on long sag curves.
Visual cues to the driver from peripheral areas must be given
adequate attention. While the designer views the whole road
layout at once, and is aware of all changes in alignment, the
driver sees much less at any one time. The drivers inherently
restricted view can be further limited at night, or in other times
of poor visibility. The designer must, therefore, provide the
driver with as many clues as possible as to what lies ahead, but
must make sure that the roadside conditions do not convey
messages which are ambiguous or misleading.
3.3 Co-ordination of Horizontal and
Vertical Alignment
3.3.1 General
It has been shown that the operation of a road is influenced
partly by the nature of the terrain and partly by the
horizontal alignment. It follows, therefore, that if the
indications of these two factors are similar, the road will
provide the best level of consistency in driver expectancy and
thus safety. Further, a road having both horizontal and
vertical curvature carefully designed to conform to the terrain
will result in the desirable aesthetic quality of being in
harmony with the landform.
Perfect harmony of course is not always possible, and the
designer must consider what matters are beyond his control
and make full allowance for their influence on driver
behaviour. From Section 7 it will be clear that, while it is
possible to build a road with a high operating speed in
adverse terrain, it is unlikely that there will ever be sufficient
curvature in flat or gently rolling terrain to produce a low-
speed environment. Operating speeds will be high in the
latter cases because of the terrain. The grading needs to
ensure adequate sight distances to potential hazards on the
road and, where such sections merge into more constrained
alignment sections, such transition must be accomplished
gradually rather than suddenly.
In flat open terrain, long straight road sections are common,
but generally there is advantage in avoiding excessive lengths
of straight road. A gentle curvilinear design, as discussed in
Section 9, always helps to keep the operating conditions
under control and at the same time, affords scope for far
more sympathetic fitting of the road to terrain. The increased
flexibility of this approach enables more pleasing designs to
be produced at no extra cost; economies in earthworks can
often be achieved by fitting the road more closely to the
terrain. In addition, safety is enhanced by making the driver
more aware of his speed, by allowing him to make better
assessments of the distances and speeds of other vehicles, by
reducing headlight or sun glare in appropriate circumstances
and by reducing boredom and fatigue. Even in flat country
curvilinear designs can be used. Radii must be very large, so
that all of the benefits of a curving alignment are achieved.
Estimation of speed of oncoming vehicles is not significantly
improved over a straight alignment when radius exceeds
about 5,000m to 10,000m. It is the opinion of experienced
designers, however, that sufficient benefits do still remain to
make the exercise worthwhile.
3.3.2 Curvilinear Design
Curvilinear design is most readily applicable to divided
roads with their less stringent sight distance
requirements but the principles are just as relevant to
single carriageway roads provided care is taken to ensure
adequate overtaking opportunities are available.
Very large radius curves can provide overtaking opportunities
and, as mentioned above, retain at least some of the benefits
of curvilinear alignment. If the topography is such that
natural curvature precludes the provision of overtaking sight
distance, then the provision of overtaking zones may produce
an economical as well as an aesthetic solution.
visualising the schemes in these dimensions using whatever
aids are available.
3.3.3 Combined Horizontal and
Vertical Alignment
The most pleasing three-dimensional result is achieved if
the horizontal and vertical curvature is kept in phase, as
this relates most closely to naturally occurring forms. Where
possible, the vertical curves should be contained within the
horizontal curves. This enhances the appearance in sag curves
by reducing the three-dimensional rate of change of direction,
and improves the safety of crest curves by indicating the
direction of curvature before the road disappears over the
crest. Thus, the best appearance requires the scale of the
vertical and horizontal movements to be comparable: a small
movement in one direction should not be combined with
a large movement in the other.
Drainage structures in sag curves that are combined with
horizontal curves require careful design if a disjointed or
kinked appearance is to be avoided. Culverts should introduce
little aesthetic difficulty if they are contained within
embankments and are made sufficiently long to accommodate
full road formation widths.
Bridges built on combined horizontal and vertical curvature
can present considerable aesthetic problems, especially if
reduced formation widths are used. Particular care should be
devoted to the design of the bridge kerbs and railings, as well
as to the location and transitioning of approach guard fences.
In general, the more generous the curvature, the more
pleasing and safer will be the result.
Horizontal curves combined with crests have less influence on
the appearance of a road than those combined with sags.
Nevertheless, the effect on safety can be much greater, as the
crest can obscure the direction and severity of the horizontal
curve. Minimum radius horizontal curves, therefore, should
not be combined with crest vertical curves.

Figure 3.1 illustrates basic examples of the method and 3.3.3 Combined Horizontal and Vertical Alignment
benefits of proper fitting of the road to the terrain and of
proper coordination of horizontal and vertical elements. In
addition, there are some examples of poor design form, with
indications of appropriate remedial measures. These latter
examples are typical of the results likely if the designer does
not consider the vertical and horizontal views simultaneously;
particularly if a minimum vertical standard is superimposed
on a relatively unrestricted horizontal regime.

The diagrams are not intended to be comprehensive, but serve

merely to demonstrate the general concepts that should (or
should not) be followed. In all cases, recognition of the
deficiency is sufficient to indicate the appropriate remedy, and
the recognition of the deficiency is dependent only on the
designer taking a three-dimensional, rather than a two-
dimensional view of the problem.

Specific rules are not appropriate to good design, as each

particular project has its own peculiar problems and
constraints. However, some benefit can be obtained from a
consideration of what combinations of horizontal and vertical
elements are most likely to produce satisfactory results, and

RURAL ROAD DESIGN 5

Figure 3.1(a): Coordination of Vertical and Horizontal Alignments

6 RURAL ROAD DESIGN

Figure 3.1(b): Coordination of Vertical and Horizontal Alignments

RURAL ROAD DESIGN 7

 2
PA R T
F U N D A M E N TA L D E S I G N
C O N S I D E R AT I O N S
4. TRAFFIC VOLUME & TRAFFIC
COMPOSITION
Guide to Traffic Engineering Practice Part 2 (ref 15) provides
details of highway capacity analysis. The Highway Capacity
Manual Transportation Research Board, HCM 2000, provides a
collection of state-of-the-art techniques for estimating the
capacity and determining the level of service for transportation
facilities, including intersections and roadways as well as
facilities for transit, bicycles and pedestrians (Ref 93). Whilst a
summary of key principles and issues is provided here, these
references should be consulted for more detailed
consideration of capacity issues.
Level of Service (LOS) is defined as a qualitative measure
describing operational conditions within a traffic stream as
perceived by drivers and/or passengers. A level of service
definition generally describes these conditions in terms of
factors such as speed and travel time, freedom to manoeuvre,
traffic interruptions, comfort and convenience and safety.
Level of Service A provides the best traffic conditions with no
restrictions on desired travel speed or overtaking. Level of
Service B to D describes progressively worse traffic conditions.
Level of Service E occurs when traffic conditions are at or close
to capacity, and there is virtually no freedom to select desired
speeds or to manoeuvre within the traffic stream. Flow is
unstable and minor disturbances within the traffic stream will
cause breakdown of flow.
The service flow rate is defined as the maximum hourly rate at
which vehicles can reasonably be expected to traverse a
uniform section of a lane or roadway during a given time
period under the prevailing traffic and control conditions while
maintaining a designated level of service. The service flow rate
for LOS E therefore is taken as the capacity of a lane or
roadway.
Capacity of rural road sections is influenced by the following
key characteristics:
Traffic volume;
Road configuration such as two lane two way, multi-lane
divided or undivided;
Operating speed;
Terrain;
Lane and shoulder width;
Heavy vehicle (trucks and buses) proportions; and
Grades.
In the case of two lane two way roads the following additional
factors are important:
Directional distribution of traffic flow; and
Overtaking opportunities - sight distance, overtaking lanes,
climbing lanes or slow vehicle turnout lanes.
8 RURAL ROAD DESIGN
Designers need to consider future traffic demands for a road
section to determine the required cross sectional configuration.
A design period of 20 years is to be considered in determining
capacity requirements. Consideration should be given to the
staged construction or widening of roads over this period.
Design requirements for rural roads are typically assessed by
reference to forecasts of AADT. Design hour volumes may be
derived by consideration of the flow pattern across hours of
the year. A 30th highest hourly volume is often adopted as a
design volume. In areas of high peak demands, such as
recreational routes, special consideration may be required.
Research (Ref. 57) has suggested an alternative specification of
the design volume according to the percentage of traffic for
which a selected level of service is to be exceeded (eg. provide
LOS D or better for 85% of all traffic).
In addition to capacity considerations traffic volume and
composition is a key input to the structural design of pavement,
culverts and bridges. Truck volumes are a critical input.
5. DESIGN VEHICLE
The physical and operating characteristics of vehicles using
major rural roads are controls in geometric design. The design
vehicle is a hypothetical vehicle whose dimensions and
operating characteristics are used to establish lane width,
intersection layout and road geometry. This chapter discusses
the design vehicle for mid-block sections.
Historically, three general classes of vehicles have been
selected for design purposes, namely:
Design prime mover and semi-trailer (19.0 m);
Design single unit truck/bus (12.5 m); and
Design car (5.0 m).
These three vehicle types are the basic design vehicles for most
road and traffic design situations.
The 19.0m prime mover and semi-trailer is to be used as
the design vehicle for cross section elements and the car
as the design vehicle for horizontal and vertical
geometry.
The geometric design should be checked for the largest design
vehicle expected to use the road, as outlined below. The
dimensions of the design vehicles are provided in Design
Vehicles and Turning Path Templates (Ref. 36).
Additional considerations for motorcycles are outlined in
Guide to Traffic Engineering Practice, Part 15Motorcycle
Safety (Ref. 28).
A functional layout based on the characteristics of a design
vehicle should represent an economical level of design that
caters safely and comfortably for at least 85% of vehicles
operating in accordance with normal traffic regulations. Larger
vehicles (33 metre B-triple and 30 metre super B-double) and
those operating under restricted access conditions may also be
catered for, but this will usually involve encroachment into
other traffic lanes. This may cause some inconvenience to
other road users, but may be acceptable where there is a low
frequency of occurrence together with the effect of special
conditions associated with the permit.
Where the route is designated for the use of special vehicles
that fall outside the three general classes (other freight
efficient vehicles, over-length buses, type 1 or 2 road trains), or
where regular use of the route by these vehicles could
reasonably be expected (access to industrial areas, bus routes),
the design should satisfy the needs of such vehicles. The
operation of these vehicles should not be compromised by
having to encroach into other traffic lanes.
The geometric design should be checked for B-doubles and
special vehicles where the need is demonstrated and at the areas
where problems are most likely to occur. Most arterial rural roads
are likely to have some B-double operation even if they are not
specific B-double routes. Table 5.1 describes the provisions that
need to be made for trucks. These can also be used for special
vehicles. Design guidelines for the various geometric issues in the
table are discussed in subsequent sections.
Guide to Traffic Engineering Practice, Part 5 Intersections at
Grade (Ref. 18) provides detailed guidance on intersection design.
6. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
6.1 Traffic Related Intrusion
The various impacts of roads in the rural environment are of
growing concern to individuals and communities. It is
important to fully consider the impact of these issues in any
road design. Reduction of adverse environmental impact
should be one of the main objectives of any road project.
New rural roads should not only be constructed to link major
rural centres, but also to bypass areas sensitive to traffic
impacts. Good design should aim to ensure that sensitive
environments are not disturbed.
The careful design of rural roads can incorporate the means to
ameliorate the environmental intrusion of road infrastructure
and associated traffic. In particular, consideration should be
given to visual amenity through the use of landscaping and
creativity with structures and noise barriers. At the design
stage, measures to address safety and access issues for all road
users will reduce the impact of road projects. Traffic related
intrusions perceived by people include:
Visual;
Noise;
Vibration;
Air pollution;
Erosion;
Risk of accidents and intimidation (Chapter 17);
Deterioration of water quality (Chapter 16);
Adverse effect on environmentally sensitive areas; and
Clearing.
6.1.1 Visual
The visual intrusion of a road project can have a dramatic
effect on abutting individual residents and communities. The
visual amenity of a project can be greatly enhanced by the
design of creative and functional landscaping. The expense of
visual landscaping can be shared by the other functions that
the landscaping will aid, such as soil erosion control,
replacement vegetation and amenity.
6.1.2 Noise
The potential for noise disturbance to individuals and
communities resulting from traffic use of road networks is
high. Concern regarding the adverse effects of noise in the
environment has resulted in strict noise regulations being
developed and enforced by relevant authorities.
Factors affecting noise levels that should be considered by
designers include:
Number, speed, type and condition of vehicles;
Road surface type, condition and gradient;
Distance of the noise sensitive land use from the road
(particularly intersections);
Shielding (natural/built) between the road and noise
sensitive area;
Type of terrain (reflective/absorptive) between the road and
noise sensitive area; and
Meteorological conditions (prevailing winds).
Methods available to the road designer to reduce the impact
of noise from traffic include:
Where possible, locating the route away from noise
sensitive areas;
Using pavement surfaces that have been developed for
reduced tyre/surface noise (eg. open graded friction course
asphalt);
Using geometric design features that encourage the
smoother flow of traffic, such as flatter grades and the
elimination of at-grade intersections;
Locating the road in a cutting or a tunnel where the effects
of noise are constrained except at the ends. Cuttings,
tunnels and retaining walls could be fitted with noise
absorptive cladding; and
Providing shielding with landscape features such as earth
mounds with appropriate plantings, or with noise
attenuation barriers. These barriers may be an architectural
feature or designed to blend into the surroundings.
Transparent barriers can be used to maintain views.
The required height, location and material type of barriers
should be based on acoustic modelling. Cross-sectional detail
to provide for noise barriers is shown on Figure 11.7.
RURAL ROAD DESIGN 9
Table 5.1: Provision for Trucks

LOCATION PROVISION FOR TRUCKS

Intersections Provide for the swept paths of trucks. Refer to Design

Vehicles and Turning Path Templates. (Ref. 36). Roadside
obstructions shall be located 600 mm clear of the swept path
that is travelled when the vehicles wheels are in the tray of
the kerb and channel.

Provide truck stopping sight distance shown on Table 8.3(b)

(lateral sight distance restrictions are often critical, particularly
at intersections in hilly terrain or near bridge piers).

Provide truck stopping sight distance (refer to Table 8.3(b))

for intersections on or near crest vertical curves.

Provide truck stopping sight distance (refer to Table 8.3(b)) to

allow large/special vehicles to turn safely into each road.

Vehicle stability should be considered for turning movements

by providing radii appropriate for the turning speeds and
providing a uniform rate of change for crossfall.

Provide stopping sight distance to railway crossings, speed

change areas and merge areas such as lane drops.

Horizontal curves As far as possible, avoid locating features that are likely to
require large/special vehicles to break on curves, such as
intersections where the major road is on a low radius curve.
Note that the extra braking distances required on horizontal
curves are not compensated by higher driver eye height.

Reverse curves Provide a straight 0.6V metre long or transition curves

between reverse curves to allow for the spiral tracking of
trucks. Where deceleration is required on the approaches to
a lower radius curve, sufficient distance must be provided to
enable drivers to react and decelerate.

Compound curves If deceleration is likely to be required, allow sufficient

distance for drivers to react and decelerate. However, the use
of compound curves is not desirable.

Transition curves Provide transition curves wherever possible. However, any

transition should involve a shift of >0.25m.

Grades Provide sufficient signs to warn drivers of steep downhill

grades.

Provide adequate sight distance on approaches to curves on

steep downhill grades.

Sag vertical curves Provide stopping sight distance and adequate clearance
beneath overpasses.

Superelevation Avoid adverse superelevation where practicable.

The length of superelevation development should be

adequate to ensure safe vehicle rotation. Check that
superelevation has been increased on downgrades.

10 RURAL ROAD DESIGN

6.1.3 Vibration 6.1.5 Controlling Erosion

Vibration from traffic on rural roads is very unlikely to be

significant and action to ameliorate the intrusion will not
usually be necessary.

However, where vibration is an issue, the airborne sound

pressure issue can be mitigated through noise attenuation or
window design.

6.1.4 Air Pollution

Motor vehicles have an adverse effect on air quality. This

results from the discharge into the air of reactive and non-
reactive pollutants. The amount of vehicle emissions is
dependent on traffic volume, composition of traffic, traffic
flow characteristics and road geometry. The impact of the
adverse effect of the emissions is dependent on topography,
meteorological and atmospheric conditions and the distance
of the receptor from the road. On rural roads this intrusion has
minimal effect and need not be considered further.

6.1.5 Erosion

The construction of rural roads can rapidly disturb the

environment, leaving extensive scars on the landscape. The
cooperation of road engineers, soil conservationists and all
personnel involved is essential to reduce the impact of road
construction on the environment. The large areas cleared by
earthmoving equipment during road construction are a
potential soil erosion hazard. Areas, that do not have a cover
of grass to slow and reduce water runoff, are subject to Using earth banks to divert water from disturbed areas;
excessive water flows and can result in severe loss of soil.
Erosion on construction sites can affect adjacent properties Lining drains to prevent scouring and gollying;
and cause the sedimentation of private and public lands,
streams, water storage dams, rivers, harbours and lakes. Establishing vegetation using suitable plant species; and
Sediment can destroy vegetation and the natural habitat of
native fauna. Soil erosion and sediment can pose a serious Implementing an appropriate post-construction
threat to the safety, stability and durability of the road itself. maintenance program.

These problems can be greatly reduced if adequate planning is
undertaken during design and control measures are
implemented for each stage of construction. An erosion
management plan, which has been developed by all responsible
agencies and authorities, shall be the corner stone of rural road
projects. The best results will be achieved when an erosion
management plan, developed by agreement between the
responsible agencies, is in place and a suitably qualified person
is engaged to manage and control its implementation.
Specific control measures may include:
Training construction personnel to understand and
implement the control measures;
Developing culvert and drainage works prior to major
construction;
Minimising disturbance of natural vegetation cover,
particularly adjacent to drainage lines;
Stockpiling topsoil for later respreading to assist the
revegetation of areas disturbed during construction;
Building sedimentation traps;
The advantages of a properly managed erosion management
plan are:
Greatly reduced erosion repair costs;
Marked decrease in down-time following wet weather,
resulting in substantial financial benefits;
Significant improvements in catchment protection and a
more acceptable environment adjacent to the site;
Increased safety.
The cost of erosion and sediment control is likely to be a
fraction of the total project costs, but the aesthetic and general
benefits of implementing control measures are far greater.
6.1.6 Environmentally Sensitive Areas
A proposed rural road may highlight other environmental
issues either within or close to the road reserve, such as:
Native flora and fauna;
Cultural heritage (indigenous and non-indigenous); and
Water quality.

RURAL ROAD DESIGN 11

The construction, use and maintenance of the road must be 6.2.3 High Wind
sensitive to these issues. For example, it is important to retain
significant areas of remnant native vegetation, including
grasses, in and adjacent to the road reserve. Road design,
construction works and maintenance activity should all aim to
reduce impact on native flora and fauna habitat.

Identifying and managing any potential impact on sites of

historical or archaeological interest should involve a qualified
archaeologist and representatives of relevant local Aboriginal
Land Councils and heritage bodies. If required, a program for
archaeological monitoring should be developed in
consultation with the road authority to determine the most
appropriate construction methods to avoid or reduce
disturbance to the site.

Designers should also consider the influence of social issues

when planning and designing rural roads (see Section 15
Community Consultation).
Runoff from the road surface contains pollutants, which can
be detrimental to the receiving waters. When AADT is greater
than 30,000, the amount of resultant pollutants is very high
and the runoff from rural roads should be considered for
treatment over the full length of the project. When AADT is
less than 30,000, lengths of a project traversing sensitive
receiving environments should be considered for treatment to
improve the runoff water quality (Ref Section 16.5).
6.1.7 Clearing
The clearing of all forms of vegetation should be kept to a
minimum within the works area. Cleared areas rob soil of the
natural protection from erosion, which vegetation provides.
Close attention is to be given to determining the extent of
clearing when preparing the erosion protection strategy plan
for a project.
6.2 Environmental Related Intrusion
special crossings or fences to limit intrusion. Cattle
underpasses or overpasses can be installed to allow for the
safe movement of stock. In the case of natural animals the
special crossings and fences may be installed to provide a safe
crossing for migratory reasons.
6.3 References
Guidelines prepared by Austroads (Ref. 31) establish a range of
procedures to evaluate environmental impacts and summarise
the legislation and operation of Australian Federal and State
procedures for use when assessing major road projects.
The impacts that need to be addressed to meet the objectives
of ecologically sustainable development strategy are described
in another Austroads publication (Ref. 35). This strategy is a
key document to assist road planners and designers. Further
consideration of these issues is set out in Ref. 32 and 39 and
various environmental protection policies or guidelines
prepared by local environmental authorities.

6.2.1 Snow and Ice

Snow and ice can pose a traffic hazard that may require
maintenance action and signage to accommodate the safe
passage of vehicles.

6.2.2 Floods

Many areas are inundated with flood waters that over-top the
rural road formation. Special signage and possible route
relocations may result from these incidents.

6.2.3 High Winds

High winds that blow adjacent to the road alignment in

exposed locations need to be considered in the design stage.
The winds can cause concern to all vehicles and special
signage and wind socks are used to bring the attention of the
driver to the intrusion.

6.2.4 Animals and Birds

Animal and bird intrusion can be in the form of farm (fenced)

or station (unfenced) animals or natural animals and birds. All
these require signage and in some cases road cattle grids or

12 RURAL ROAD DESIGN

 3
PA R T
DESIGN INPUTS

actual vehicle operation in the field enables the designers to

7. S P E E D , U S E D FO R G E O M E T R I C visualise themselves in the position of a driver negotiating the
DESIGN road. Use of this procedure can help designers to identify
features, which could influence the operating speed; it is also
a useful technique for identifying other problems associated
7.1 Introduction with the design.

Among the principal parameters used in road design are
stopping distance, sight distance, curve radius, lane
width and superelevation. As these parameters are related
directly to the speed of traffic on the road, one of the first
requirements in design is to establish the appropriate speed or
speeds to use for design.
Historically, a single design speed was used as the basic
parameter for each road. Although roads designed in this way
had consistent minimum design standards, problems arose
because vehicle operating speeds differed from the design
speed and, in some cases, and the speed difference was
sufficient to create a hazard. The most common location
where problems occur is at the end of straights where vehicle
operating speeds often exceed the design speed of the curve.
In addition to simulating vehicle behaviour on curves, the
estimation model has the following built-in safety factors:
The model identifies the use of lateral friction factors
which exceed specified values; and
The model identifies the development of excessive speed
inconsistencies along the alignment. The model restricts
speed differences between design elements to less than
10km/h and in most cases the difference is significantly less
than this.
7.2 Explanation of Terminology
7.2.1 Vehicle Speed on Roads

To overcome these problems, designers are now required to Vehicle speed range is as follows:
obtain more rigorous estimates of 85th percentile vehicle
operating speeds on each element of the road and then to High speed: 100km/h or greater
ensure that the design speed of every element is either equal
to, or greater than, the 85th percentile operating speed on Intermediate: 80km/h to 99km/h
that element.
Low speed: 79km/h or less
The decision to use the 85th percentile operating speed was
based on: Driver operating speeds are not constrained by the geometry
of the road but by a number of other factors, which include:
The need to overcome the problems associated with the
use of a single design speed as mentioned above; The degree of risk the drivers are prepared to accept;

Recent design practice in Europe and the USA; Speed limits and the level of policing of these limits; and

The premise that drivers of the fastest vehicles, generally Vehicle performance.
travel in a more alert state than the average driver and
therefore a reduction in reaction time can be assumed Figure 7.1: Comparison between Observed 85th
which will compensate, to some extent, for the difference Percentile Speeds and pre 1980 Curve Speed Standard
between the operating speed of these vehicles and the
design speed of the road; and

Practical constraints. It is not possible for practical reasons

(mainly economic) to design for the 100th percentile
vehicle.

Operating speeds can either be measured or estimated.

Wherever possible, operating speeds should be measured both
for cars and for trucks. As this is not possible with new road
proposals, operating speeds have to be obtained by other
means including measurements of speed on similar roads, and
estimates using the method described in Sections 7.3 and 7.4.

The estimation procedure in Sections 7.3 to 7.4 was developed

to simulate or model the actual behaviour of vehicles on the
road. This correlation between the mathematical model and

RURAL ROAD DESIGN 13

Figure 7.1 indicates that on roads designed for lower speeds,
drivers tend to overdrive the road. Conversely on roads
designed for higher speeds, drivers adopt an operating speed
of 100 km/h to 110 km/h. In some cases, where a speed limit
is 110km/h, operating speeds may be higher such as on long
downhill grades.
7.2.2 Operating Speed
The term Operating Speed in this guide is the 85th
percentile speed of cars at a time when traffic volumes are low,
that is when drivers are free to choose the speed at which they
travel. In effect, this means that designs based on the 85th
percentile speed will cater for the majority of drivers. For
design purposes, the 15% of drivers who exceed this speed
are considered to be aware of the increased risk they are
taking and are expected to maintain a higher level of alertness,
effectively reducing their reaction times.
On straight flat rural roads with low traffic volumes, the 85th
percentile Operating Speed of cars is generally close to
110km/h. On higher standard roads with a posted speed of
110km/h, the Operating Speed may be marginally higher.
A procedure for estimating vehicle speeds of cars in rural areas
is provided in Section 7.3.
7.2.3 Operating Speed of Trucks
The term Operating Speed of Trucks is the 85th percentile
speed of trucks at a time when traffic volumes are low.
Operating speeds of trucks are required for checking design
details such as stopping distances for trucks at intersections.
7.2.4 Section Operating Speed
Vehicle speeds on a series of curves and short straights tend to
stabilise at a value related to the range of curve radii. This
speed is called the Section Operating Speed.
7.2.5 Design Value
Operating Speed is the value adopted for the design of each
element of the road.
On roads designed for high-speed travel, speeds remain
relatively constant permitting the use of a single design value
for the road. Note that although operating speeds are
relatively constant, they can differ significantly from the design
value as indicated on Figure 7.1.
On roads with operating speeds less than 100 km/h, operating
speeds vary along the length of the road depending on the
road geometry and, to some extent on other factors such as
speed limits and policing. For the design of rural roads, most
weight is given to the effects of the geometry of the road as
speed limits and the level of policing can change. On these
roads operating speed needs to be determined for each
element of the road. For design purposes on two-way
carriageways, operating speeds are either measured or
estimated for each element of the road and for each direction
of travel. In many cases the higher of the two values will be
adopted as the design value of the curve. There will be some
circumstances where each direction has to be considered
14 RURAL ROAD DESIGN
separately, such as on the approaches to intersections. At
intersections, the stopping distance on each approach should
be based on the operating speed for that approach. Operating
speeds can be affected by the frequency of intersections.
7.3 Estimating Operating Speeds on
Rural Roads
7.3.1 General
The following procedure will enable designers to consider the
behaviour of a typical 85th percentile driver. There are three
basic elements: the driver, the road and the vehicle.
7.3.1.1 Driver Behaviour
Consider first a typical driver approaching a straight section of
road, which is followed by a series of curves at the end of the
straight.
The driver's initial response will depend on the speed at this time
and the length of straight. If the straight is too short, the driver
is likely to continue at the same speed. On longer straights, the
driver will accelerate until terminal speed is reached, which is
related to the length of straight and the initial speed. They will
then continue at this speed to within approximately 75m of the
curve. The driver then decelerates to a speed, which is
considered safe for the curve ahead. Truck drivers will generally
decelerate to the appropriate speed for the curve because of the
dangers associated with braking trucks on curves. Car drivers are
likely to enter at a speed that is high for the curve as indicated
by some further deceleration, which commonly occurs within
the first 80m of the curve. Speeds remain at this level until the
driver has a clear view of the curve or straight ahead. If it is a
straight, the driver will accelerate out of the curve; if another
relatively low radius curve follows, the driver is likely to reduce
speed further. This loss of speed continues until the vehicle
reaches a speed at which he feels comfortable. This is the
section operating speed for the series of curves. This speed is
then maintained until the end of the section.
7.3.1.2 Road Characteristics
The effect of grading, cross section and surface conditions all
impact on the operating speed. There is insufficient
investigation to accurately understand their impact but it is
important to be aware of their characteristics. This is explained
further in Sections 7.3.7 to 7.3.9.
7.3.1.3 Vehicle Characteristics
Two design vehicles are considered: cars and the truck (design
semi trailer 19.0m). Speeds are determined first for cars. Truck
speeds are then obtained using Table 7.2.
7.3.2 Operating Speed Estimation Model
The model used to estimate Operating Speeds is based on a large
number of observations of the behaviour of traffic. The
Operating Speed of vehicles is estimated by establishing the
approach speed of the vehicle for the direction of traffic flow
being considered. The approach speed is then applied to the first
curve and an operating speed is read. This speed then becomes
the approach speed for the subsequent curves and separating
straights. The Operating Speed estimating graphs are:
Figure 7.2: Acceleration on Straights (Hilly to Mountainous Terrain)

RURAL ROAD DESIGN 15

Figure 7.3: Deceleration on Curves

16 RURAL ROAD DESIGN

Operating Speed (in sequence) Acceleration on Straights (Figure 7-2),
Deceleration on Curves (Figure 7-3).

7.3.3 Car Acceleration On Straights Graph

The car Acceleration on Straights graph Figure 7.2 allows the

designer to estimate the speed at which a vehicle can
accelerate over a given length. Large radius curves may be
considered as straights, as depicted on Figure 7.3, where the
Operating Speed from 50 to 120km/h is no longer influenced
by a further increase in the radius. The change in speed, read
from Figure 7.2 assumes that the terrain is constant and the
maximum visible length of straight is 1000 metres.

7.3.4 Car Deceleration On Curves Graph

The car Deceleration on Curves graph Figure 7.3, allows the

designer to estimate the speed to which a vehicle decelerates
to, when entering a given curve radius line, or matches the
Section Operating Speed. The intersect with the higher speed
value is the element Departure Speed. Figure 7.3 allows the
designer to then consider the given curve radius against the
Desirable Minimum Radius and check that it does not
approach the Absolute Minimum Radius for the Approach
Speed. The example on Figure 7.3 shows an Approach Speed
of 100km/h intersecting with a given radius of 320m, resulting
in a Departure Speed of 93km/h. The curve radius intersection
is about the Desirable Minimum Radius limit. The Departure
Speed is more than the Section Operating Speed in this case. It
is necessary to redesign the alignment in those circumstances
where the intersection of the Approach Speed and the Section
Operating Speed (or radius) encroaches more than half way
toward the Absolute Minimum Radius line. An acceptable
solution would be for the intersect to be midway or better
between the Desirable and Absolute Minimum radius lines. In
the case of existing roads, adequate signage needs to be
provided to inform drivers of the restricted alignment.

Information required to use this graph includes:

The approach speed to the curve. This is likely to be either:

- The speed on the preceding curve; or
- The speed at the end of the preceding straight;

The length of the curve or straight;

The section operating speed being considered;

Radii.

7.3.5 Section Operating Speeds

As previously stated, when drivers travel along a series of

curves of similar radii, their speed will stabilise at a level at
which the driver feels comfortable. This is the Section
Operating Speed. The effects of grade, cross-section and
pavement conditions, as explained further in Sections 7.3.7,
7.3.8 and 7.3.9 may influence Section Operating Speed.

7.3.5.1 Length Of Road to be included in

The Study

Section Operating Speeds can be obtained directly from Table

7.1. However, as a first step, it is necessary to segment the
alignment into sections commencing approximately 1km to

RURAL ROAD DESIGN 17

Figure 7.4: Road Study Length

Figure 7.5: Single Curve Disparity

Figure 7.6: Road Length Sections

18 RURAL ROAD DESIGN

1.5km before the start of the section for which speed only includes radii up to 600m, radii beyond that range should be
estimates are required. considered as a straight. Also refer Section 7.3.3 and Figure 7.3.

If, for example, speed estimates were required for the curves
between C and I in Figure 7.4, the speed study would extend
from A to I (Assuming a one way road in the direction from A
to I). If the diagram represented a two-way road, the study
would include the section from A to J.
Further research is required to establish a minimum length of
straight that may be considered as a section. In the meantime,
it is suggested that 200m should be adopted as the minimum
length of straight that may be considered as a section. Straights,
shorter than 200m have no effect on vehicle operating speed.

The extensions are necessary because the first speed estimate
at the start of the extensions, at points A and J, are not
particularly accurate. Accuracy then increases with distance
depending on the alignment. The choice of 1.5km is
considered conservative.
7.3.5.2 Identification of Sections
It is also considered that:
Individual curves separated by straights longer than 200m
are treated as individual elements.
Curves inconsistent in radius to the preceding curves where
acceleration is likely are treated as individual elements.

In some circumstances, the radius of a single curve cannot be
grouped with curves to create a section because of the
disparity between the radii. In this instance, the single curve
has to be treated as a section as shown on Figure 7.5.
A series of similarly sized curves, separated by small straights,
or spirals that can be grouped together function as a single
element and drivers will travel along this portion of road at the
Section Operating Speed.
Acceleration occurs whenever speed has been reduced below
the Section Operating Speed or the section speed. For
example, the stable speeds on sections 1 and 2 of Figure 7.6
could be 70km/h and 80km/h respectively. Speed can thus be
expected to increase on the first few curves of section 2 until
stability is reached at 80km/h. The rate of increase can be 1
km/h for every 30m with limited sight distance (Figure 7.2) to
1km/h for every 5m with unlimited sight distance (flat to
undulating terrain).

Spiral lengths should be divided in two, with the length of the Section Operating Speeds for single curve sections and curve
two halves being included in the adjoining elements. Table 7.1 groups are listed in Table 7.1.

Table 7.1: Section Operating Speeds

Range of Radii In Single Curve Section Range of Radii In Single Curve Section
Section Section Radius Operating Speed Section Section Radius Operating Speed
(m) (m) (km/h) (m) (m) (km/h)

45-65 55 50 180-285 235 84

50-70 60 52 200-310 260 86

55-75 65 54 225-335 280 89

60-85 70 56 245-360 305 91

70-90 80 58 270-390 330 93

75-100 85 60 295-415 355 96

80-105 95 62 320-445 385 98

85-115 100 64 350-475 410 100

90-125 110 66 370-500 440 103

100-140 120 68 400-530 465 105

105-150 130 71 425-560 490 106

110-170 140 73 450-585 520 107

120-190 160 75 480-610 545 108

130-215 175 77 500-640 570 109

145-240 190 79 530+ 600 110

160-260 210 82

RURAL ROAD DESIGN 19

In the following example the series of curves are joined by
short straights and transition curves unless otherwise stated.
Example Calculations
Identify individual sections for the alignment shown in Figure 7.7.
Between A and B the curve radii range is from 230m to 320m.
This range fits within the Range of Radii in Section column
in Table 7.1, suggesting that 89km/h should be adopted as the
Section Operating Speed.
The next section is the straight between points B and C.
Consideration must then be given to the curves between
points C and I where radii range between 165m and 320m.
As this range will not fit within any listed in Table 7.1, the
curves must be grouped into two or more sections. The
problem curve is clearly the one with a radius of 165m. As
this curve cannot be grouped with any of the adjacent curves
Figure 7.7: Road Length Detail
Figure 7.8: Section Identification
Figure 7.9: Section Operating Speed
20 RURAL ROAD DESIGN
to form a section, it must be treated as a Single Curve
Section Radius in Table 7.1.
The curves between C and F range in radii between 270m and
320m. This range fits within the section in Table 7.1, which has
a Section Operating Speed of 93km/h.
Section FG is an isolated 165m radius curve section. Interpolated
from column 2 in Table 7.1, this curve has a Section Operating
Speed of 76km/h.
The two curves between G and I both have radii of 300m.
From Table 7.1, the section operating speed of this section is
91km/h. In this case the Section Operating Speed can be
obtained from the single curve column or alternatively by
picking a range of radii which is spread evenly on each side of
the 300m radius. Both methods give the same result.
The sections identified above are shown diagrammatically on
Fig. 7.8.
Section operating speeds within these sections are shown in
Fig. 7.9.
7.3.6 Estimating Speed on a Section of Road
An estimate of Section Operating Speed is required between C
and I in the direction from C to I on Figure 7.7. For the purpose
of this exercise the pavement condition and cross section
remain constant. The undulating terrain is also constant. There
has been no allowance for steep grades. See Section 7.3.7 to
7.3.9 for further clarification.
As vehicle speed at every site depends on the road geometry
on the approaches, it is necessary in all investigations to
consider the alignment for 1km and 1.5km on each approach.
As this is a one-way road it is only necessary to consider the
approach between points A and C.
7.3.6.1 Step 1 Estimate Speed on
Section A B.
From Table 7.1 for radii 230m to 320m the section operating
speed is 89km/h and the speed at point B may be taken as
89km/h.
7.3.6.2 Step 2 Estimate Speed at Point C
that is near the end of the straight.
From Figure 7.2, the speed at the end of the straight is
100km/h (assuming an initial speed of 89km/h on straight
600m long).
7.3.6.3 Step 3 Estimate Speed at Point D
(departure speed on first curve)
On Figure 7.10, follow the 100km/h curve approach speed line
down until in intercepts either with the radius of 320m or with
the section operating speed determined earlier as 93km/h
(whichever comes first). In this case the departure speed for
this curve is 93km/h.
Note the location of the intercept with the radius line. The fact
that this is close to the Desirable Minimum indicates that the
curve radius is using desirable lateral friction. The curve is
acceptable.
7.3.6.4 Step 4 Estimate Speed at Point E
(departure speed on second curve)
On Figure 7.11, follow the approach speed line (which is now
93km/h) to the intercept with the radius or the Section
Operating Speed (whichever comes first). In this case the
Section Operating Speed is 93km/h. The departure speed at
Point E is equal to the Section Operating Speed (93km/h).
Note also the location of the intercept between the radius
(270 m) and the curve speed. In this case it is close to the
desirable minimum radius line. This indicates that the radius
used is desirable.
7.3.6.5 Step 5 Estimate of Speed at
Point F
As for Step 4, Figure 7.11 can be used again to demonstrate
that the Section Operating Speed (93km/h) again prevails.
7.3.6.6 Step 6 Estimate of Speed at
Point G
On Figure 7.12, follow the approach speed line (93km/h)
down to the intercept with the radius (165m) or the Section
Operating Speed (76km/h) whichever comes first. The radius
intersect is first and the departure speed is 81 km/h.
The intersection of the approach speed 93km/h and the
radius 165 m is at the Absolute Minimum Radius line. This
is an unacceptable solution. The radius needs to be
increased to relocate the intercept of the Approach Speed
(93km/h) and the radius to at least midway between the
Desirable and Absolute Minimum Radii for the Approach
Speed (93km/h). If this cannot be achieved, warning curve
signs need to be provided to inform drivers of the restricted
alignment.
A radius of 220m intersects midway and results in a Departure
Speed of 85km/h.
In absolute situations where it is unavoidable to increase such
a radius careful attention needs to be given to clearing runoff
areas, sight distance lines, lighting and sufficient advanced
warning signs, in an attempt to minimise the potential for
accidents.
It is desirable to redesign the alignment in those circumstances
where the intersection of the approach speed and the Section
Operating Speed (or radius) is to the left of the absolute
minimum radius line.
7.3.6.7 Step 7 Estimate of Speed at
Point H and I
The 85th percentile vehicle, having significantly reduced speed
on curve F G Figure 7.9 will accelerate on subsequent
elements. Most drivers will attempt to achieve the section
operating speed again, provided the driver can see some
benefit. The driver will not accelerate over a short length only
to decelerate around another tight curve. Acceleration will
apply on both straights and curves provided the driver doesnt
exceed the element operating speed. The acceleration on
straights graph can be used to estimate the increase in speed.
If the distance between points G and I was 310m with
approach speed 81km/h, from Figure 7.2, the approximate
speed of a car at point I would be 88km/h.
7.3.7 Effects Of Grades
Insufficient information is available to provide firm guidelines
on the effect of grades. However, designers are expected to
consider the grading and make adjustments to speed
estimates, refer Table 10.1. The following assumptions can
be made.
These corrections for grade must be made for each element of
the road as the speed estimate is made.
The operating speed of cars may be reduced on up hill
grades longer than 200m.
The operating speed of laden trucks will be significantly
reduced on long up hill grades.
RURAL ROAD DESIGN 21
Figure 7.10: Speed at Point D (see Figure 7.3)

Figure 7.11: Speed at Point E & Point F (see Figure 7.3)

22 RURAL ROAD DESIGN

Figure 7.12: Speed at Point G (see Figure 7.3)
Cars will generally travel at the operating speed on steep
down hill grades, however, some increase could be
expected toward the end of the down hill grade.
Trucks may be required to significantly reduce their speed
prior to steep down hill grades.
Corrections for grade should be considered for each element
of the road. This is particularly necessary when there is a
significant change in topography.
7.3.8 Effect of Cross-Section
Speed estimates in preceding sections are appropriate for
typical road cross-sections, such as those with traffic lanes
wider than 3m. On roads with lanes narrower than 3m, the
speed estimates can be reduced by up to 3km/h.
7.3.9 Effect of Pavement Condition
Average pavement conditions were assumed for the speed
estimates in the preceding sections. On roads with poor or
broken surfaces, speeds can be reduced by 5km/h to 10km/h.
7.3.10 Use of Operating Speed in the
Design of Rural Roads
The normal design procedure is to prepare a preliminary
alignment and grading with standards that are as high as
possible within realistic constraints. The minimum standards
used must be appropriate for the terrain, consistent with the
hierarchy of the road and either equal to or greater than the
predicted 85th percentile operating speed for the road with
consideration given to both cars and trucks.
If the road being designed is a high-speed road with operating
speeds of 110km/h, then a single operating speed can be
adopted and the road designed using this speed to select the
design standards used.
On other roads the operating speeds will vary along the length
of the road. The basic steps to be followed in the design of this
type of road are listed below:
Prepare a draft alignment and grading in the normal
manner taking into account desirable minimum curve radii,
road hierarchy and terrain. A design feature is the use of
relatively large radii at the end of straights where high
speeds can be expected;
Using the draft alignment, estimate the operating speeds
in each direction of travel using the procedure outlined in
Sections 7.3 to 7.5. The location of intersection points on
the deceleration on curves graph will indicate whether the
design is appropriate or not. If any of the intersection
points between the curve radius and operating speed lie
on the left of the desirable minimum radius line, then some
adjustments will be required, either to the design to reduce
the approach speed to the curve, or to increase the radius
of the curve usually the latter;
Modify the alignment;
RURAL ROAD DESIGN 23
 Check the operating speeds on the modified alignment.
(Repeat if necessary until all intercept points on the speed
on curve graph are either on, or to the right of the
desirable minimum radius line).
If a very short length smaller radius curve exists, the driver
usually transitions the vehicle path to a larger radius than
the curve centre line. A short length curve can therefore be
defined as a curve where the radius of the transitioned
driver path is considerably greater than the radius of the
centre line of the roadway. Any short length curves can
usually be found by visual inspection of the alignment. The
radius of the transitioned driver path can be obtained by
assuming a 2m wide vehicle approaching and departing
the curve in the centre of the lane and transitioning to just
touch the centre line of the roadway or the edge line
midway around the curve. By using this method larger
radius curves can be used in the analysis of short absolute
minimum radius curves.
Check that the maximum difference in speeds between
design elements does not exceed 10km/h.
Compare the operating speeds for each direction of traffic
on each element of the roadway (other than those at
intersections) and adopt the higher of the two speeds as the
design speed for each element. Where intersections are
involved, both operating speeds have to be used as speeds
on each approach can differ and the appropriate speed has
to be used for sight distance checks on each approach;
Check sight distances on all curves noting where benching
is likely to be required. It is often impractical in steep
country to meet the sight distance requirements. In these
circumstances consideration should be given to alternative
treatments such as the use of sealed shoulders of sufficient
width to enable one vehicle to manoeuvre around a
stationary vehicle in the lane ahead.
Using the checklist in Table 5.1, check the alignment for
potential problem sites for trucks. If any problem areas are
identified, then it is necessary to estimate the 85th
percentile truck operating speeds for each site. Truck sight
distances can then be checked. If the site proves to be a
problem for trucks, the design should be reviewed and, if
necessary, amended;
Prepare superelevation diagrams based on the critical
speeds obtained for each element; and
Prepare detail design plans for the project.
7.4 Operating Speed of Trucks
As with cars, truck speeds should be measured wherever
possible. Where it is not practical to measure the speed of
trucks, speed has to be estimated. The following rules should
be used as a guide:
On high-speed roads, truck speeds can be taken to be the
same as that of cars.
Provided sufficient length of acceleration is available, truck
speeds will closely match car speeds on flat terrain.
24 RURAL ROAD DESIGN
Otherwise, truck speeds in Table 7.2 may be used.
Additional factors that support the truck speeds in table 7.2
are:
The lower operating speed for trucks is an average
condition with truck speeds varying more than car speeds
due to grades, poorer acceleration etc.
When checking braking and stopping sight distance
provision for trucks, it is acceptable to use the lower truck
operating speed for a corresponding car operating speed.
This is because an acceptable level of safety is provided
through the assumptions of:
- Wet conditions
- Unladen state
- No antilock braking system
No further reduction in operating speed due to wet conditions.
Table 7.2 Truck/Car Speed Relationships
Car Speed
110 100 90 80 70 60 50
(km/h)
Truck Speed
110* 100* 80 70 60 52 43
(km/h)
Note: *On high-speed rural roads truck speeds equal car
operating speeds.
7.5 Use Of Truck Operating Speeds
Although the basic design vehicle for road alignments is still
the car, designers are now required to check all designs to
ensure that they are safe for trucks. Specific locations where
providing for trucks is likely to be required are listed in Table
5.1.
Further research is required to determine the speed of trucks
on individual geometric elements and the maximum allowable
decrease in speeds between successive geometric elements.
8. S I G H T D I S TA N C E S
8.1 General
The principal aim in road design is to ensure that the driver is
able to see any possible road hazards in sufficient time to take
action to avoid mishap. To provide a calculable parameter that
can be related to the geometry of the road, the concept of
Sight Distance is used. This concept is based on a number of
somewhat stylised assumptions of particular hazards and
corresponding driver behaviour. The hazard is assumed to be
an object of sufficient size to cause a driver to take evasive
action, intruding into the drivers field of view. Specific values
are assumed for the drivers reaction time (though in practice
there would be a distribution of values) and the dimensions
determining the geometry of the sight line.
Normally, selection of extreme values for every parameter is
not appropriate, as the probability of all factors occurring
together is extremely low, and the resultant designs would
become impractical. The assumed parameter values lead to
sight distances that produce a satisfactory design. Greater
distances allow for less probable hazard situations and thus
produce greater margins of safety. Subject to their effect on
overtaking and economics they may be an advantage. Where
possible the sight distance provided should be greater than the
values used in these guidelines.
Adequate sight distance is essential for safe and efficient
traffic operation. The designer should consider the length of
vertical curves, the radius of horizontal curves and the terrain
on the inside of horizontal curves in providing adequate sight
distance.
head lights or taillights would be necessary. Larger objects
would be visible sooner and provide longer stopping distances.
To perceive a very small hazard, such as a surface defect, a zero
object height would be necessary. However, at the required
stopping sight distances for high speeds, small pavement
variations and small objects (especially at night) may not be
visible to most drivers. Thus, most drivers travelling at high
speeds would have difficulty in stopping before such a small
obstruction.
The length of vertical curve required at crests increases
significantly as the object height approaches zero. The general
figure adopted which produces satisfactory design is 200mm.

This section does not consider sight distance at intersections. Lower object heights, even zero, can be used at intersections,
For required sight distances at intersections, including where it is necessary to see road markings, and at locations
roundabouts, refer to Guide to Traffic Engineering Practice, such as causeways, floodways and cuttings, kerb and channel
Part 5 and 6 (Ref. 18 and 19). noses, where there is a high probability of water, rocks or other
debris being on the road (Ref. 51).
8.2 Sight Distance Parameters
For geometric design of rural roads the object heights shown
When determining sight distance, assumptions must be made in Table 8.1 are to be used.
about the following elements:
Table 8.1: Object Heights
Object height;
Driver eye height; and Object height Situation
Driver reaction time.
0.0m Intersection design
Sight distance is measured between the driver eyes and an (Pavement) Sight to line-marking configuration
object or pavement marking on the road ahead, as shown on
Figure 8.1. 0.2m Mid-block crest curve design
(Object) Horizontal curve line of sight
An object in view may not always be perceived. There is
evidence that when a driver is travelling on sharp curves or 0.6m Impact on vertical clearance
when the vehicle is rapidly accelerating or decelerating and the (Car taillights) Sight to vehicles at end of
driver is subject to unusual forces, his ability to perceive an (Car traffic indicator) intersection queues
object is reduced. Fatigue and drugs add to the time of Sight over roadside safety barrier
perception and may increase an individuals reaction time. installations

8.2.1 Object Height

The object height to be used in the calculation of stopping
sight distance is a compromise between the length of sight
distance and the cost of construction. Stopping is generally in
response to another vehicle or large hazard in the roadway. To
recognise a vehicle as a hazard at night, a line of sight to its
8.2.2 Driver Eye Height
Driver eye height is a combination of the height of driver
stature and driver seat height. A number of studies (eg. Ref. 4,
41, 50 and 64) have investigated car driver eye height trends
and found that they have progressively reduced over time,

Figure 8.1: Sight Distance

RURAL ROAD DESIGN 25

consistent with the changing vehicle fleet. Historically and
internationally, car driver eye heights used range between 1.15
m and 1.00 m. Based upon recent research and consideration
of the characteristics of the vehicle fleet and the ageing of
drivers, a car driver eye height of 1.05 m is to be used for
the geometric design of rural roads.
For general geometric design a truck driver eye height of
2.4m is to be used. The 2.4m value for sag curves is
particularly important for checking the effect of overhead
structures on sight distance.
The reduction of car driver eye height will have implications on
geometric design elements (such as length of vertical curves)
used in other road design publications, which should be
considered by the designer when this guide is used in
conjunction with previously published guides.
8.2.3 Driver Reaction Time
Reaction time is the time for a driver to perceive and react to
a particular stimulus and take appropriate action. This time
depends on the complexity of the decision or task involved.
Research studies have shown that an average reaction time of
2.5 seconds is typical although the variance of the distribution
of reaction times is very high (Ref. 6, 54, 68 and 94). Values of
up to 7 seconds have been recorded at one extreme, and at
the other extreme, 1.0 second has been measured with forced
stops (Ref. 6). One reason for the large variability is that
reaction time depends on a drivers level of alertness at the
time. Similarly, anticipation or pre-signalling of an event, the
absence of uncertainty on multiple choices, and the familiarity
with the task can each lower reaction time.
Given the above, it has been reported that most drivers can
react simply to a clear stimulus in less than 2.5 seconds in an
urgent situation. This represents an upper (possibly the 85th
percentile) value for normal drivers and is close to the mean for
degraded drivers (Ref. 94). Consequently, the reaction time of
2.5 seconds is a commonly adopted value, although a number
of European countries specify a value of 2.0 seconds.
A recent study investigating road safety and design for older
drivers (Ref. 53) recommended a minimum reaction time of
2.5 seconds at intersections. For mid-block sections a desirable
minimum reaction time of 2.5 seconds and an absolute
minimum of 2.0 seconds is to be used. The aging of drivers
(refer to Section 8.2.4) emphasizes the importance of these
values.
A driver reaction time of 2.5 seconds is to be used in this
Guide for the geometric design of rural roads. However,
in mid-block situations where there is an expectation for
increased driver alertness, such as locations with additional
signs or line marking, or where it may not be practicable to
design for a 2.5 second reaction time, such as low speed
alignments in difficult terrain, a minimum reaction time of 2.0
seconds may be considered.
It is noted that the driver reaction time will have implications
on geometric design elements (such as sight distance) used in
other road design publications, which should be considered by
the designer when this Guide is used in conjunction with
previously published guides.
26 RURAL ROAD DESIGN
For truck drivers, the 2.5 second time actually consists of a 2.0
second initial reaction time (which is a reflection of the fact
that truck drivers are professional drivers and in traffic, are
usually able to see over vehicles in front) plus a 0.5 second
inherent delay in the operation of the air brake system that is
used on heavy vehicles (see Ref 55). Braking tests by Mack
Trucks Australia support this time delay, being in the range of
0.47 seconds to 0.6 seconds.
8.2.4 Ageing of Drivers
As people age, they experience decreasing physical and mental
capabilities and become more susceptible to injury and shock.
Human functions subject to deterioration due to ageing include:
Visual ability;
Attention capacity;
Reaction time; and
Contrast sensitivity.
As a group, older drivers do not currently represent a major
road safety problem in most Western societies when compared
with other age groups. However, older drivers are involved in
significantly more serious injury and casualty crashes per
kilometre travelled. Furthermore, as the proportion of older
people in Australia and New Zealand is expected to roughly
double over the next 40 years, older drivers are likely to become
a more significant problem in the years ahead (Ref. 53).
Recent research (Ref. 53) indicates that a number of road
design elements may be associated with older driver crashes in
Australasia. In particular, it was concluded that improvements
to intersection sight distances, provision for separate turn
phases at traffic signals, more conspicuous traffic signal
lanterns and more clearly defined vehicle paths have the
potential to reduce crash and injury risk for older drivers. The
research includes a detailed description of measures that
should be implemented immediately in Australia to increase
the safety of older road users.
8.3 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
Stopping sight distance is the distance to enable a normally
alert driver, travelling at the design speed on wet pavement, to
perceive, react and brake to a stop before reaching a hazard
on the road ahead. This distance is considered to be the
minimum sight distance that should be available to a driver.
8.3.1 Derivation
Stopping sight distance has two components, namely the
distance travelled during the drivers perception-reaction time
and distance travelled during braking.
SSD = d1 + d2
where
(R V)
d1 = reaction distance = T (m)
3.6 2
(V )
d2 = braking distance = (m)
254(F + 0.01g1)
RT = reaction time (2.5 secs)
V = operating speed (km/h)
F = longitudinal friction factor
g1 = longitudinal grade (%, + for upgrades and
for downgrades).
Table 8.2: Longitudinal Friction Factors

Operating Speed (km/h)

50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130

Cars 0.52 0.48 0.45 0.43 0.41 0.39 0.37 0.35 0.35

Trucks 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.28 0.26 0.25 0.24*

*Extrapolated

Values of RT (from Section 8.2.3) and F must be assumed in derived from US research (Ref. 55) and were based on the
order to compute the SSD appropriate to the operating speed, behavior of an empty prime mover-trailer combination on a
Table 8.2. wet pavement.

8.3.2 Longitudinal Friction Factor 8.3.3 Car to Road Object Stopping

The longitudinal friction factor is a measure of the longitudinal
friction between the vehicle tyres and the road surface. It
depends on factors such as the speed of the vehicle, the tyre
condition and pressure, the type of road surface and its
condition, including whether it is wet or dry. Currently design
values of the longitudinal friction factor for bituminous and
concrete surfaces are shown in Table 8.2.
Sight Distance
The concept of car stopping sight distance is illustrated in
Figure 8.2. It is measured between the drivers eye and a small
object on the road.
SSD values for cars are calculated using the adopted
longitudinal friction factor values, are shown in Table 8.3(a).

The review of available literature indicates that the longitudinal
friction factors for cars that are currently in use appear too
high relative to the actual friction that can be confidently
expected on wet surfaces. The friction factors appear to have
been increased relative to those given in NAASRA, 1973
Policy for geometric design of rural roads (Metric Units)
without direct vindication.
McLean (Ref. 71) notes that the limiting values for longitudinal
friction factor were based on producing stopping sight
distance requirements leading to what was considered to be
an appropriate balance between horizontal and crest vertical
curve standards. The balance achieved appears to be generally
consistent with international practice, although, relative to
North America and earlier Australian (1973) practice,
minimum sight distance requirements are a little low.
Concerns have been raised in relation to the high values of
longitudinal friction factor for trucks. However, little mention
of truck longitudinal friction factors is given in current or past
research literature. The adopted figures in Table 8.2 were
8.3.4 Truck to Road Object Stopping
Sight Distance
A comparison of international sight distance design practices
(Ref. 56) noted that SSD only refers to cars. Truck stopping
sight distance is not considered by most of the countries
reviewed. A typical reason for this can be found in AASHTO
(Ref. 1):
The derived minimum stopping sight distances directly reflect
passenger car operation and might be questioned for use in
design for truck operations. Trucks as a whole, especially the
larger and heavier units, require longer stopping distances for
a given speed than passenger vehicles do. However, there is
one factor that tends to balance the additional braking lengths
for trucks for given speeds with those for passenger cars. The
truck operator is able to see the vertical features of the
obstruction substantially farther because of the higher position
of the seat in the vehicle. Separate stopping sight distances for
trucks and passenger cars, therefore, are not used in highway
design standards.

Figure 8.2: Stopping Sight Distance

RURAL ROAD DESIGN 27

However, this is quite contrary to the findings of a review of
references on truck performance characteristics (Ref. 48, 52
and 87), which suggest that the sight distance advantages
provided by the higher driver eye level in trucks do not
compensate for the inferior braking of trucks. Particularly at
locations with lateral sight distance restrictions, the benefits of
the higher eye level could be lost and provision of longer SSD
or other remedial measures such as signing and higher friction
surfaces would be needed.
The reasons for the longer truck braking distances include:
The braking of articulated vehicles must be in the form of
controlled braking without wheel locking in order to avoid
jackknifing if wheels lock at different times. Without the
aid of antilock braking systems, the friction coefficient
used in controlled braking is usually less than that for
locked wheel braking. The friction coefficient for cars in
Table 8.2 involve locked wheel braking.
Truck tyres are designed primarily for wear resistance.
Consequently, they tend to have lower wet friction
coefficients than cars.

Poor braking characteristics of empty trucks.
Empty trucks have poor braking characteristics and this is
reflected in comparatively high crash rates. The problem
relates to the suspension and tyres, which are designed for
maximum efficiency under load.
In situations where driver eye height provides no advantage,
the only parameter that offsets the poorer braking
performance of trucks is the assumed lower operating speed
as per Table 7.2. Therefore, some further justification or basis
of the truck operating speeds should be given. For example:

Uneven load between axles.
When the load is not evenly distributed between axles, one
axle can slip sideways and create instability in others (up to
15% of braking efficiencies can be lost).
Inefficient brakes of articulated trucks.
Fifty percent of trucks tested on the roads in the US could
not meet the required braking standards. Many drivers
immobilise their front brakes to reduce the possibility of
jack-knifing.
Effect of road curvature.
Trucks require longer SSD on curves than on straights
because some of the friction available at the road/tyre
interface is used to hold the vehicle in a circular path.
The lower operating speed for trucks is an average
condition with truck speeds varying more than car speeds
due to grades, poorer acceleration, etc.
When checking braking and stopping sight distance
provision for trucks, it is acceptable to use the lower truck
operating speed for a corresponding car operating speed.
This is because an acceptable level of safety is provided
through the assumptions of:
Wet conditions;
Unlade state;
No antilock braking system; and
There is no additional assumption of a reduction in
operating speed due to wet conditions.

Table 8.3(a): Minimum Car Stopping Sight Distances (1.05m to 0.2m)

Operating Speed (km/h)

50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130

Longitudinal Friction Factor 0.52 0.48 0.45 0.43 0.41 0.39 0.37 0.35 0.35

SSD 2.5 Des. min. 54 71 91 114 140 170 205 245 280

(m, level grade) 2.0 Abs. min. 47 63 82 103 128 157 190 229 262

Correction for Grade (m)

Upgrade 2% - -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -7 -9 -11

4% -1 -2 -4 -5 -7 -9 -13 -17 -21

6% -2 -3 -5 -7 -10 -14 -18 -24 -31

8% -3 -4 -7 -9 -13 -17 -23 -30 -38

Downgrade -2% - 1 2 3 4 6 7 10 14

-4% 2 3 4 6 8 12 16 21 27

-6% 3 4 7 10 13 18 25 34 44

-8% 4 6 9 13 19 26 36 48 62

Note:
Desirable minimum stopping sight distances are calculated for a reaction time of 2.5 seconds and absolute minimum stopping
sight distances are calculated for a reaction time of 2.0 seconds.
Corrected stopping sight distances should be rounded conservatively to the nearest 5 metres.

28 RURAL ROAD DESIGN

Figure 8.3: Truck Stopping Sight Distance

Table 8.3(b): Minimum Truck Stopping Sight Distances (2.4m to 0.2m)

Operating Speed (km/h)

50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130

Longitudinal Friction Factor 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.28 0.26 0.25 0.24*

SSD 2.5 Des. min. 69 91 116 143 173 210 259 310 367

(m, level grade) 2.0 Abs. min. 62 82 106 131 160 197 244 294 349

Correction for Grade (m)

Upgrade 2% -6 -9 -12 -16 -20 -24 -30 -35 -42

4% -11 -16 -22 -28 -36 -44 -53 -64 -78

6% -15 -22 -30 -39 -49 -60 -73 -87 -110

8% -19 -27 -36 -47 -60 -74 -90 -107 -125

Downgrade -2% 8 11 15 20 25 31 37 45 55

-4% 18 26 35 46 58 71 86 103 122

-6% 32 46 62 81 102 126 153 182 212

-8% 52 74 101 132 167 206 249 296 345

Note:
Desirable minimum stopping sight distances are calculated for a reaction time of 2.5 seconds and absolute minimum stopping
sight distances are calculated for a reaction time of 2.0 seconds.
Corrected stopping sight distances should be rounded conservatively to the nearest 5 metres.
* Extrapolated

RURAL ROAD DESIGN 29

To balance between the costs and benefits for making 8.4.2 Overtaking Sight Distance
provision for trucks, rural roads are to be designed to cater for
cars. Truck stopping sight distances should be used for
checking purposes at locations that could be potentially
hazardous for trucks (as summarised in Table 5.1).

At crest and sag points truck stopping sight distance is

measured as shown on Figure 8.3.

The designer should consider measures such as additional

signs and line marking to improve safety if stopping sight
distance is found to be inadequate for trucks and it is not
possible to improve the geometric design. However, it is
emphasised that signage and line marking are not substitutes
for achieving standard design practices.

SSD values for trucks have been calculated using the adopted
longitudinal friction factor values are shown in Table 8.3(b).

8.4 Overtaking Sight Distance

8.4.1 General
8.4.2 Overtaking Model
Overtaking sight distance is the distance required for the driver
of a vehicle to safely overtake a slower moving vehicle without The overtaking manoeuvre has a large number of variables:
interfering with the speed of an oncoming vehicle. It is
measured between the drivers eyes of the overtaking and The judgement of the overtaking driver and the risks he is
oncoming vehicles. prepared to take;

Overtaking sight distance is considered only on two-lane two-
way roads. On these roads, the overtaking of slower moving
vehicles is only possible when there is a suitable gap in the
oncoming traffic accompanied by sufficient sight distance and
appropriate line marking. Sections with adequate overtaking
sight distance should be provided as frequently as possible, as
they are an essential safety measure by reducing driver
frustration and risk taking. The desirable frequency is related to
the operating speed, traffic volume and composition, terrain
and construction cost. Overtaking demand increases rapidly as
traffic volume increases, while overtaking capacity in the
opposing lane decreases as volume increases. As a general rule,
if overtaking sight distance cannot be economically provided at
least once in each 5km of road or V/20 which is 3 to 5 minutes
of driving time apart, (Ref. 95), consideration should be given
to the construction of overtaking lanes (Refer Section 13.4.1).
In practice, overtaking zones will usually be the fortuitous
result of road alignment and cross section. Because of the
large sight distances involved, it is often not practical to
achieve overtaking zones through design alone (costly to
provide). However, good design practice will include a check
on the overtaking zones that are provided and may result in
cases where an overtaking zone can be achieved through a
practical refinement of the design. More commonly though,
the proportion of road that provides overtaking is used in
conjunction with traffic volumes to assess the level of service
provided by a section of road and hence determine whether
overtaking lanes are warranted.
The Austroads parameters for determining the start and finish
of overtaking zones dictate that there are few passing
opportunities on New Zealand roads. The New Zealand
practice to provide a desirable minimum overtaking sight
distance for vertical curve design is to double safe stopping
sight distance.
The speed and size of vehicles to be overtaken;
The speed of the overtaking vehicle;
The speed of a potential on-coming vehicle; and
The evasive action or braking undertaken by the vehicle or
the overtaken vehicle.
Since the 6th edition of this guide, overtaking has been
assessed by means of a model that was derived from research
into overtaking on Australian Rural Roads (Ref 95). There are
two main considerations with the Overtaking Model: Refer
Figure 8.4
Establishment: A minimum sight distance that is adequate
to encourage a given proportion of drivers to commence
an overtaking manoeuvre. This is called the Establishment
Sight Distance (ED) as it establishes a length of road as a
potential overtaking zone.
Continuation: A critical sight distance, which if maintained
for some length of road after the ED has become available,
will enable an overtaking driver to either complete or
abandon a manoeuvre already commenced with safety.
This is called the Overtaking Continuation Sight Distance
(OSD). After the establishment sight distance first becomes
available, an overtaking zone is assumed to extend as long
as this shorter distance remains available, subject to the
constraint in the next paragraph.
8.4.3 Determination of Overtaking
Provision
ARRB has carried out a major research project on overtaking
on Australian rural roads. (Ref. 95). The values in this Guide

30 RURAL ROAD DESIGN

Figure 8.4: Overtaking Manoeuvre
(refer Tables 8.4 (a) & 8.4 (b)) are the distances for the 85th
percentile overtaking manoeuvres, adopted from the research.
These distances indicate the overtaking sight distances to be
used in determining the overtaking zones on MCV (Multiple
Combination Vehicle) routes.
Briefly:
Establishment Sight Distance is derived from the size of the
time gap accepted by a potential overtaking driver and is
derived by the time taken to complete phases 1,2,3 and 4
of the total manoeuvre (see Figure 8.4).
(V + u)
ED = GT85
3.6
where:
GT85 = 85th%ile critical time gap secs.
u = V/1.17 (speed of slow vehicle)
V = operating speed
Continuation Sight Distance is derived from the time
taken to complete phases 2 and 3 of the manoeuvre (see
Figure 8.4).
The oncoming vehicle is assumed to travel at the operating
speed.
The overtaken vehicle is assumed to travel at a lesser
speed, taken as the mean speed for its direction of travel.
The sight distances with the 1.05m driver eye height to
1.05m object height are used in this guide.
The distance travelled by oncoming traffic is represented in
Figure 8.4 by phase 4.
In checking a length of road, the OSD will be found to be the
critical parameter in allocating a percent allowing overtaking
to the road section. The OSD ensures that the road distance
used by the overtaking vehicle would be visible at the point of
no return, and an approaching vehicle would be visible if it is
within the zone where it could affect the manoeuvre.
8.4.4 Determination of Percentage of
Road Providing Overtaking
Sections of road assumed to provide overtaking will:
Commence at a point where ED is available; and
Terminate where OSD ceases to be available, or alternatively
at a distance equal to Operating Speed divided by 20 (km)
from the last location where ED was available if this is less than
the length over which OSD has been maintained. As long
as the OSD remains available, any overtaking manoeuvre
commenced can be successfully completed. However if the
ED does not occur again at intervals, insufficient drivers will be
encouraged to commence overtaking, and capacity (at high
volumes) or quality of service (at low volumes) will suffer. The
distance equal to Operating Speed divided by 20 should be
treated as an approximate rather than a precise figure. It
corresponds to about 3 to 5 minutes travel time.
The Operating Speeds to be used in selection of the overtaking
distances will be the Section Operating Speed over a length of
road in both directions. A section of road must be used rather
than an individual geometric element, as Operating Speed may
vary. Also, since one element in the overtaking provision is the
speed of the oncoming vehicle, and as Operating Speed may vary
by direction of travel, the mean of both directions must be used.
The proportion of road offering overtaking provision is the sum
of such sections, divided by the overall length of the road
section being considered.
O.Ls
O.P. = x 100
TSL
where:
O.P. = Proportion of road offering overtaking provision (%)
O.Ls = Sum of overtaking lengths in road section (m)
T.S.L. = Total road section length (m)
The sight distances to be used in the analysis of overtaking are
presented in Table 8.4. The time gaps from which they were
derived are also shown.
RURAL ROAD DESIGN 31
Table 8.4 (a): Overtaking Sight Distances for Determining Overtaking Zones on MCV Routes when MCV speeds are
10km/h less than the Operating Speed.

Road
Section Overtaken Establishment Continuation
Operating Vehicle speed Sight Distance Sight Distance
Speed (km/h) (m) (m)
(km/h)

Overtaken Semi- Road Prime B-Double Type 1 Type 2 Prime B-Double Type 1 Type
Vehicle trailer Trains mover Road Train Road Train mover Road Train 2
B-Dble Semi- Semi- Road
trailer trailer Train

70 50 50 490 510 540 580 260 280 310 350

80 59 59 610 630 670 730 320 340 380 430

90 67 67 740 770 820 890 370 400 460 530

100 76 76 890 930 990 1,080 450 490 550 650

110 84 84 1,070 1,120 1,200 1,310 540 580 660 770

Given a low eye height of 1.05m, most car drivers cannot adequately distinguish differences in sight distance for values greater
than about 1000m. Therefore, listed sight distance values greater than 1000m can be assumed to be satisfied whenever the
actual sight distance exceeds 1000m.

The listed sight distance values have been derived from the Troutbeck (1981) overtaking model. Sight distance values have been
rounded to the nearest 10m. Given the inherent level of precision in the overtaking model, it would be incorrect to determine
that an overtaking zone does not exist when the actual sight distance falls below a relevant listed value by about 10m.

Table 8.4 (b): Overtaking Sight Distances for Determining Overtaking Zones on MCV Routes when MCV speeds are
equal to the Operating Speed.

Road
Section Overtaken Establishment Continuation
Operatin Vehicle speed Sight Distance Sight Distance
gSpeed (km/h) (m) (m)
(km/h)

Overtaken Semi- Road Prime B-Double Type 1 Type 2 Prime B-Double Type 1 Type 2
Vehicle trailer Trains mover Road Road mover Road Road
B-Dble Semi- Train Train Semi- Train Train
trailer trailer

70 60 60 570 600 640 690 300 320 360 420

80 69 69 710 740 790 860 370 400 450 510

90 77 77 850 890 950 1,040 440 470 530 620

100 86 84 1,020 1,070 1,130 1,240 530 560 630 740

110 94 84 1,230 1,290 1,200 1,310 620 680 660 770

Given a low eye height of 1.05m, most car drivers cannot adequately distinguish differences in sight distance for values greater
than about 1000m. Therefore, listed sight distance values greater than 1000m can be assumed to be satisfied whenever the
actual sight distance exceeds 1000m.

The listed sight distance values have been derived from the Troutbeck (1981) overtaking model. Sight distance values have been
rounded to the nearest 10m. Given the inherent level of precision in the overtaking model, it would be incorrect to determine
that an overtaking zone does not exist when the actual sight distance falls below a relevant listed value by 10m.

32 RURAL ROAD DESIGN

8.5 Manoeuvre Sight Distance Table 8.5: Evasive Action Distance

Designers shall make every effort to provide car stopping sight Operating Evasive Action Speed Range
distance along traffic lanes on all roads. However, in some speed Distance Slowed To
circumstances manoeuvre sight distance (MSD) may be used to (km/h) (m)* (km/h)
avoid costly construction. MSD is generally only 6% less than
SSD. MSD, therefore, is the absolute sight distance that must 50 15.0 30 - 35
be provided. For example, on a two-lane two-way road, it may
60 25.0 35 - 40
be much cheaper to provide full width paved shoulders on an
existing substandard crest curve than to reconstruct with 70 35.0 40 - 50
improved vertical geometry.
80 50.0 40 - 50
Manoeuvre sight distance may be used on isolated vertical
curves on a straight or sufficiently large radius horizontal curve 90 70.0 40 - 60
where lowering of the grade line would mean expensive
100 95.0 35 - 60
excavation into hard rock materials or major geological
problems. Manoeuvre sight distance should not be used on a 110 125.0 35 - 60
horizontal curve with a radius that requires close to the
absolute maximum side friction. The designer must ensure that 120 155.0 25 - 60
the pavement width is sufficient to enable drivers to
manoeuvre around stationary or slow moving vehicles or an 130 190.0 25 - 60
object on the road. Sealed shoulders with a desirable minimum
width of 2.5m (or absolute minimum width of 1.5m) can Note: * Derived from Queensland Road Planning and Design
provide a reasonable space for evasive action provided the Guide.
combined seal width of lane plus sealed shoulder exceeds 5m.
However if the area adjacent to the shoulder is clear of hazards Table 8.6: Manoeuvre Sight Distance
and traffic volumes are low, an unsealed shoulder may be
accepted. Operating Reaction Manoeuvre Manoeuvre
Speed Time Time Sight
8.5.1 Derivation (km/h) (sec) (sec) Distance (m)
50 2.0 3.2 45
Manoeuvre sight distance, for a single vehicle to manoeuvre
around on obstruction is the sum of two components: 60 2.0 3.6 60
MSD = d1 + d3
70 2.0 3.9 75
where: 80 2.0 4.3 95
(R V)
d1 = the distance travelled during the reaction time = T 90 2.0 4.8 120
3.6
(see section 8.3.1) (m)
100 2.0 5.6 155
d3 = the distance travelled during the evasive action (m) 110 2.5 6.3 195

Evasive action distance is the distance a driver requires to 120 2.5 7.0 235
undertake an evasive manoeuvre. The evasive manoeuvre
130 2.5 8.0 275
consists of braking to comfortable speed followed by a
swerving manoeuvre to avoid the object. The values given in
Table 8.5 are based on empirical evidence gained in Australia.
Significant improvement is unlikely, as a fivefold light
The manoeuvre sight distance for a range of operating speeds increase is necessary for a 15 km/h increase in speed, and
is shown in Table 8.6. a tenfold increase for a 50% reduction in object size;

8.6 Headlight Sight Distance
The most common obstruction on a normal rural road is
another vehicle that may or may not be stopped. Even if its
lights are not operating, it will have retro-reflective material at
strategic locations, situated higher than the object cut off
height used in the stopping sight distance calculations.
As far as small, unilluminated objects are concerned, research
has shown that:
Only larger, light-coloured objects can be perceived at
speeds above 80 km/h at the stopping sight distances set
out herein;
In any case, the joint requirements of driving vision and
minimising glare for oncoming traffic set limits to beam
intensity.
A general limit of 120m to 150m sight distance is all that can
be safely assumed for visibility of an object on a bitumen
roadway. This corresponds to a satisfactory stopping distance
for 80 km/h to 90 km/h, and a manoeuvre time of about 5
seconds at 100 km/h. Beyond this, it is only large or light-
coloured objects that will be perceived in time for reasonable
evasive action to be taken on unlit roads. The relatively small
number of accidents involving objects on the roadway at night
is probably due to the factor of safety implicit in the various
assumptions in sight distance calculations.

RURAL ROAD DESIGN 33

In addition to the problem of beam illumination, the question
of the angle of the beam is relevant in sags. It is inappropriate
for the beam to be aimed above the horizontal position
because of glare to opposing drivers and a figure of 0.5o
depression is an appropriate assumption. A headlight aiming
angle of 0.5 degrees depressed will allow on effective 1 degree
elevation of the beam to be used in design due to vertical
spread.
The length of sag curves to give stopping sight distance
measured from a headlight height of 750 mm to zero is
considerably more than that required to achieve reasonable
riding comfort. In addition, increasing the length of sag curve
to produce a theoretical sight distance may not give the
desired result. If there is a horizontal curve in addition to the
sag, the headlights shine tangentially to the horizontal curve
and off the pavement (refer Figure 10.1).
The only method of achieving full compatibility between
theoretical sight distances by day and night is by roadway
lighting. However, two matters act to redress the imbalance,
one outside the control of designers and one at least partly in
their domain. Firstly, the majority of hazards encountered
comprise other vehicles, which are either illuminated or visible
because of the requirement for retro-reflective fittings.
Secondly, because retro-reflective materials respond too much
lower light levels than the non-reflective objects, they are
perceived well outside the direct headlight beam. Thus, the
provision of retro-reflective road furniture (including items like
flood gauge markers, which frequently occur in sags) is an
important offset to the difficulties of night time driving.
A driver needs to see sufficient length of the curve in order
to judge its curvature. The driver must be able to see the
minimum of :
5 degrees of arc
About 80 metres of arc
The whole curve.
However, if the curve is transitioned, at least 80% of the
transition length needs to be seen and desirably all of the
transition.
The length of arch that needs to be perceived must be seen
from a point that allows the driver to react then decelerate.
See section 8.2.3 for the reaction time. The deceleration
should only require comfortable braking. Therefore a
maximum deceleration rate of 2.5m/s/s should be used.
Typically, this means a distance of 25 m will accommodate
a 10 km/h speed reduction from 90 km/h and 40 m will
accommodate a 15 km/h speed reduction. Deceleration
distances should be adjusted for the effect of grade.
The sight distance is the sum of the reaction distance, arc
length for perception and deceleration distance. If the
curve is transitioned, it is possible for the deceleration
distance to coincide with up to the first half of the
transition. If the curve is untransitioned, deceleration up to
the curve tangent point can be assumed.
Provision of horizontal curve perception distance may require a
larger crest than is required for stopping sight distance.

8.7 Horizontal Curve Perception 8.7 Horizontal Curve Perception Distance (sequential)
Distance
A major characteristic of low speed roads and intermediate
speed roads is the way drivers will speed up on longer straights
and through larger radius horizontal curves then slow down
where necessary for smaller radius curves. Since the 6th edition
of this guide, such roads have been designed so that the
geometric elements matched the operating speeds along the
road. This means that when vehicles have to slow down for a
horizontal curve, drivers must see a sufficient amount of the
curve in order to perceive its curvature, react and slow down
appropriately for the curve.

As a result of not perceiving the curvature, drivers may not

slow down appropriately for them. Therefore, these curves
should only be used when the perceived curve operating speed
is no more than 5 km/h less than the operating speed on the
approach to the curve.

Normally, sufficient sight distance for a horizontal curve is

provided through the practice of not having a horizontal
curve start over a crest. However, there are times where this
cannot be avoided and the following criteria should be
applied in order to check that sufficient visibility is provided
for the curve.

A driver eye height of 1.05 m.

A zero object height because the driver needs to see the

road surface in order to perceive the curvature. Road edge
guide posts and cut batters can only be considered as
supplementary aids.

34 RURAL ROAD DESIGN

 4
PA R T
GEOMETRIC DESIGN GUIDELINES

speed of successive geometric elements; and

9. H O R I Z O N TA L A L I G N M E N T
9.1 General
The horizontal alignment of a road is usually a series of
straights (tangents) and circular curves that may or may not be
connected by transition curves. The following section outlines
various design criteria that are to be considered when
adopting a horizontal alignment.
9.2 Movement on a Circular Path
As a vehicle traverses a circular curve, it is subject to a
centripetal force that must be sufficient to balance the inertial
forces associated with the circular path. For a given radius and
speed a set force is required to maintain the vehicle in this
path. In road design, this is provided by side friction developed
between tyre and pavement and by superelevation.
For the design vehicle types and side friction coefficient and
normal values of superelevation, side friction coefficient and
curve radius the following formula is accepted:
V2
e+f = ...... (9.1)
127R
where
e = pavement superelevation (m/m or tangent of angle).
This is taken as positive if the pavement falls toward
the centre of the curve
f = side frictional factor (see Section 9.4)
V = speed of vehicle (km/h)
R = curve radius (m).
Diminishing radii should be avoided on steep downgrades;
and
Motorcyclists may experience instability of the motorcycle
as a result of the abrupt changes in centripetal force
required due to the change in radius.
Although inconclusive, some literature suggests that a small
radius curve immediately following a large radius curve (both
turning in the same direction) gives drivers inadequate
perception of the small radius. This is reported to lead to a
higher single vehicle accident rate. Generally, this geometry
should be avoided.
9.3.1.3 Broken Back Curves
Broken back curves have a straight less than 0.60V long or a
large radius curve between two relatively low radius
unidirectional curves. Generally the following guidelines apply
to broken back curves:
These curves are unsightly and should be avoided where
possible; and
Where unavoidable, the length of straight should be no
less than the design speed in metres.
9.3.1.4 Transition Curves
Transition curves are normally used to join straights and
circular curves, although they may be omitted when large-
radius curves are used. Transition curves:

9.3 Horizontal Curves Provide a natural path for vehicles moving from a straight
to a circular curve and enable centripetal acceleration to
9.3.1 Types of Horizontal Curves increase gradually from zero at the start of the transition to
their maximum value at the start of the circular curve. If a
9.3.1.1 Reverse Curves transition curve is not provided some drivers will occupy
adjoining lanes when entering and leaving the curve;
A reverse curve is a section of road alignment consisting of two
curves turning in opposite directions and having a common 9.3.1.1 Reverse Curves
tangent point at the end and start of transition curves or being
joined by a short length of tangent. This tangent length is desirably
0.6V metres long. However, where deceleration is required on the
approaches to a lower radius curve, sufficient distance must be
provided to enable drivers to react and decelerate.

9.3.1.2 Compound Curves

Curves comprising two or more contiguous curves of different

radii in the same direction are known as compound curves.
Generally the following guidelines apply to compound curves:

Radii less than 1,000 m are undesirable;

Where radii less than 1,000 m are unavoidable, there

should be no more than 10 km/h difference in the design

RURAL ROAD DESIGN 35

 Allow for superelevation development and pavement
widening; and
Improve the appearance of the curve ahead.
The need for transition curves was learned from the early days of
railway building when problems were encountered with
passenger comfort and track wear due to the sudden application
of curvature with untransitioned curves. However, the fact that
road vehicles are not rigidly confined to a specific path together
with the characteristics of road vehicle steering mean that shorter
transition lengths are more appropriate than those used for
railways. This is why it is current road design practice to base
transition lengths on superelevation runoff length (see Section
9.7.4) instead of a comfort criterion that was once used.
The use of longer transitions than those based on
superelevation runoff length should be avoided when curve
operating speeds are such that drivers have to reduce speed
for the curve. Drivers regulate their speed from the apparent
curvature of the road ahead and in practice, there is some
variation in curve entry speeds. In these circumstances, longer
transitions may cause drivers to perceive a higher standard of
curvature than there is, with consequent increased speed and
friction demand on the circular section of the curve. Overseas
studies have found that there have been higher accident rates
on some curves with a combination of long transition (typically
with more than twice the length based on superelevation
development) and small to medium radius.
For most curves the average driver can achieve a suitable
transition path within the limits of normal lane width. However,
with particular combinations of high speed, heavy vehicles and
a large difference in curvature between successive geometric
elements, the resultant vehicle transition path can result in a
sideways movement within the lane and sometimes actual
occupation of adjoining lanes. Trucks have more problems
because of their wider wheelbase and heavier, less responsive
steering. Trucks also require more width on curves because:
Rear axles of semi trailers track outwards when travelling
around curves at speed;
At low speeds the trailers track inwards;
Truck trailers swing from side to side at speed; and
The effective width of trucks increases on curves (vehicle
swept path considerations).
In the abovementioned circumstances, transition curves have
been applied to obtain the following advantages:
A properly designed transition curve allows the vehicles
centripetal acceleration to increase or decrease gradually as
the vehicle enters or leaves a circular curve. This transition
curve minimises encroachment on adjoining traffic lanes.
The transition curve length provides a convenient desirable
arrangement for superelevation runoff. The transition
between the flat cross slope and the fully superelevated
section on the curve can be effected along the length of
the transition curve in a manner closely fitting the speed-
radius relation for the vehicle traversing it.
36 RURAL ROAD DESIGN
Where superelevation runoff is affected without a
transition curve, it has been common practice to match the
superelevation runoff with the likely transition path the
vehicles take when entering or leaving the circular curve.
A transition facilitates the change in width where the
pavement section is to be widened around a circular curve.
Use of transitions provides flexibility in the widening on
sharp curves.
The appearance of rural roads is enhanced by the
application of transitions.
Despite the advantages of using transition curves, there are
also possible adverse effects associated with transitions. Some
research studies undertaken indicate the following:
Transitions at the start of horizontal curves give the
impression of magnifying the radius of the curve ahead.
This encourages drivers to approach the curve too quickly;
Transitions hide the tangent-to-curve point making it
difficult to identify the start of the curve. This results in
drivers reducing speed on the approach to curves so that
they can judge when to commence braking;
Transition curves at the start of circular curves are reported
to lead to a higher single vehicle accident rate than circular
curves without transitions, for the above reasons.
However, other studies indicate that single vehicle accident
rates on circular curves without transitions are similar to
those for circular curves with transitions (Ref. 66); and
When drivers brake on curves, a combination of forces
applies on the tyres, effectively reducing the maximum
force that can be developed for braking or cornering.
Articulated trucks also have problems with braking on
curves because of the tendency of these vehicles to jack-
knife. On curves with transition approaches, braking
occurs on the spiral. This could create a problem if the
driver does not commence braking sufficiently early.
Sections of road where the operating speed is less than 60
km/h do not require transition curves.
The most frequently used form of transition is the clothoid (or
Euler) spiral where the curvature changes at a uniform rate
along the curve. The clothoid is easier to set out in the field
compared with other forms of transition curves (the
Lemniscate and the cubic parabola). Basic properties of the
clothoid transition are shown in Appendix A
A transition may be omitted when the associated shift (see
Appendix A) is less than 0.25m.
9.4 Side Friction Factor
A vehicle travelling round a circular horizontal curve requires a
radial force that tends to effect the change in direction and
consequent centripetal acceleration. This force is provided by
side friction between the tyres and the road surface. If there
is insufficient force provided by side friction, the vehicle will
tend to slide tangentially to the road alignment.
Side friction factor f is the friction force divided by the weight
perpendicular to the pavement and is expressed as the
following formula:
V2
f = e ...... (9.2)
127R
where
V = operating speed, km/h
R = radius of horizontal curve, m
e = superelevation, m/m.
The upper limit of this factor is that at which the tyre is
skidding or at the point of impending skid (Ref 1). The side
friction factor at which side skidding is imminent depends on:
Vehicle operating speed;
The type and condition of the roadway surface; and
The type and condition of the tyres.
If the vehicle speed were less than the permissible operating
speed V, the side friction factor being called upon would be
less than the design maximum side friction factor fmax , and as
the travel speed approaches V, then f will approach fmax . The
speed at which f just equals fmax can be considered as a
limiting (safe) speed Vs and if a vehicle is travelling in excess of
Vs, then the side friction factor being called upon will exceed
fmax . Vs, is called the Limiting Curve Speed Standard.
The amount by which Vs exceeds V can be considered to
indicate a lower bound for the margin of safety against the
friction being demanded exceeding the friction that is
available. That is, the quantity Vs V can be considered a
design margin of safety.
The available friction can vary both spatially (from one curve to
another, at the same time) and temporally (from one time to
another time at the same curve). Temporal variations in the
available side friction factor are often due to changes in
weather and are inevitable, and the most practicable way to
minimise the total variation is to minimise the spatial variations
by providing a spatially uniform road surface.
Variation in the margin of safety arises from both variations in
the available friction (friction supply) and the friction
demanded (friction demand) by drivers. The geometric design
will have little (if any) effect on the available friction, but it can
influence the behaviour of drivers (and particularly their choice
of speed) (Ref 82).
The values of side friction factor f for use in geometric design
are shown in Table 9.1.
It is important to note that the absolute maximum values for f
given in Table 9.1 assume construction and maintenance
techniques that will ensure an adequate factor of safety
against skidding. The susceptibility of the wearing surface to
polishing, the macro-texture of the surface and the amount of
bitumen used, evident at wearing surface, are all important
matters in the initial construction of a pavement contributing
to skid resistance. Freedom from contamination by oil spillage
or loose aggregate and resealing when surface texture
becomes too smooth are important aspects in maintenance of
skid resistance. Normally, a pavement, which is properly
maintained, will retain adequate resistance to skidding under
all but extreme conditions of driver behaviour or weather.
The desirable maximum values should be used on intermediate
and high-speed roads with uniform traffic flow, on which
drivers are not tolerant of discomfort. These values should be
adopted, if possible, to allow vehicles to maintain their lateral
positions within a traffic lane and be able to comfortably
change lanes if necessary.
On low speed roads with non-uniform traffic flow, drivers are
more tolerant of discomfort, thus permitting employment of
absolute maximum amount of side friction for use in design of
horizontal curves (Ref. 1)
The f values given in Table 9.1, which apply only to sealed
pavements, have been derived from observations of driver
speed behaviour on rural road curves and revised by ARRB (Ref
42). A reduction of 0.04 is applied to all values when applied
to unsealed pavements (Ref. 66).

Table 9.1: Side Friction Factors 9.5 Minimum Radii Values For
Horizontal Curves
Operating Speed f
(km/h) Des max. Abs max. 9.5.1 Minimum Radius Values

50 0.30 0.35 The minimum radius of a horizontal curve for a given

operating speed can be determined from the formula (9.1). It
60 0.24 0.33 can be rearranged as follows:

70 0.19 0.31 Rmin = V2

127(emax + fmax )
80 0.16 0.26 where
Rmin = minimum radius (m)
90 0.13 0.20 V = operating speed (km/h)
emax = maximum superelevation (m/m)
100 0.12 0.16 fmax = maximum coefficient of side frictional force developed
between vehicle tyres and road pavements.
110 0.12 0.12
Using the values for fmax from Table 9.1, the approximate
120 0.11 0.11 minimum radii for various vehicle speeds for typical maximum
superelevations are as shown in Table 9.2.
130 0.11 0.11

RURAL ROAD DESIGN 37

Table 9.2 Minimum Radii of Horizontal Curves
Based on Superelevation and Side Friction at Maximum Values

Operating Km/h Minimum Radius m (rounded up)

Speed Flat Terrain Undulating Terrain Rolling Terrain Mountainous Terrain

e = 3% e = 6% e = 7% e = 10%
(km/h)

Des min Abs min Des min Abs min Des min Abs min Des min Abs min

50 60 52 56 40 53 47 49 44

60 105 79 95 73 91 71 83 66

70 175 113 154 104 148 102 133 94

80 265 173 229 157 219 153 194 140

90 315 219 335 245 319 236 277 213

100 525 415 437 358 414 342 - -

110 635 635 529 529 501 501 - -

120 810 810 667 667 - - - -

130 950 950 782 782 - - - -

9.5.2 On Steep Down Grades end of straights because of the high speeds that can be
developed at these locations.
On steep down grades, the minimum curve radius from
Section 9.5.1 should be increased by 10% for each 1% Step 4
increase in grade over 3%.
Prepare a trial grade line, taking into account vertical controls
RMIN on Grade = RMIN from Table 9.2 [1 + (G 3)/10] and drainage aspects. Co-ordinate horizontal and vertical
alignments as in Section 11.
where
G = grade (%) On down grades, minimum curve radii should be increased
R = radius (m) by 10% for each 1% increase in grade over 3%. Refer
Section 9.5.2.
9.6 Horizontal Alignment Design
Procedure Step 5

Step 1 Check that all radii are compatible with estimated vehicle
operating speeds using the procedure described in Section 7.
Identify all major controls on the alignment and categorise
them as mandatory or discretionary. Step 6

Step 2 Adjust the alignment so that:

Decide upon an operating speed that is appropriate both for
the class of road and for the terrain. Minimum radii for these
operating speeds are then obtained from Table 9.2. Radii
used are chosen to fit the terrain and desirably should exceed
the minimum.
Step 3
Prepare a trial alignment using a series of straights and
curves, using the radii determined in Step 2. On low and
intermediate speed alignments, curves used should generally
be consistent. Special care must be taken with curves at the
All mandatory controls are met;
Discretionary controls are met as far as possible;
Curve radii are consistent with operating speeds at all
locations;
Other controlling criteria are satisfied with special
consideration given to the location of intersections and
points of access to ensure that minimum sight distances
and critical crossfall controls are met; and

38 RURAL ROAD DESIGN

 Earthworks are minimised.
Where minimum standards cannot be achieved and
compromises have to be made, the designer requires a broad
understanding of basic theory and the assumptions made in
the development of the guidelines.
9.7 Superelevation
The superelevation to be adopted is chosen primarily on the
basis of safety, but other factors are comfort and appearance.
The superelevation applied to a road should take into account:
Operating Design Speed of the curve, which is taken as the
speed at which the 85th percentile driver is expected to
negotiate it;
Tendency of very slow moving vehicles to track towards the
centre;
Stability of high laden commercial vehicles;
Difference between inner and outer formation levels,
especially in flat country; and
Length available to introduce the necessary superelevation.
However, it is noted although the dynamics of vehicle
movement show that the selection of superelevation is
important for traffic safety, research findings suggest that it
does not make much of a difference for drivers, who are
primarily affected by the radius of curvature in choosing their
speed (Ref. 61).
The proportion of centripetal acceleration as a result of the
combination of superelevation and sideways friction needs to
be controlled to provide a constant driving experience.
There are a number of methods to determine the
superelevation (and hence resultant side friction) for curves
with a radius larger than the minimum radius for a given
design speed. It must also be reiterated that the length of such
curves should be checked to ensure that the length does not
cause the operating speed to increase beyond the curve design
speed when the design speed is less than 110 km/h.
The linear method distribution to be used in this Guide is for
the superelevation and side friction to be varied linearly from
0 for R = infinity to emax for Rmin. This then results in the
proportions of the required centripetal acceleration due to
superelevation and side friction being the same for larger radii
as they are at Rmin, considering the following practical
considerations:
For construction expediency, superelevation values are
normally rounded (upwards) to a multiple of 1% so that
there is a corresponding adjustment of side friction.
The perceived benefits of uniformity are only possible on
high-speed rural roads (where the design or operating
speed exceeds 100 km/h), because section operating
speeds vary on intermediate and low speed rural roads.
Other methods have been used in the past so that there
are likely to be many cases where the reuse of existing
pavement will dictate a different superelevation. This is
acceptable if the resultant side friction is suitable for the
curve design speed and consistent with that for any
adjacent curves.
With the linear distribution method, the superelevation (e1)
for a curve of radius R, which is greater than Rmin is given by:
V2emax
e1 =
127R(emax + fmax )
Note that fmax may be either the absolute maximum value or
the desirable maximum value for the design speed V.
The value of e1 is usually rounded upwards (eg. 4.0% but
4.1% becomes 5%) and the corresponding coefficient of side
friction is calculated from:
V2
f1 = e1 rounded
127R
However, if specific controls cannot be met then actual e
values may be used. With different possibilities for emax and
fmax (absolute maximum vs. desirable maximum) different
values of superelevation may be attributed to a given
combination of radius and design speed. However, the
subjective basis of the linear distribution method (and
indeed most other methods) and the practice of rounding the
superelevation value, allows a practical rationalisation to be
made, refer Figures 9.1(a) & (b) and Figures 9.2(a) & (b).
For rural roads, rationalisation of the parameters has
been achieved by distributing the parameters.
High speed rural roads use 6% as the maximum e that
should be applied.
Intermediate speed rural roads of 80 to 100km/h, use a
maximum e of up to 7%.
Low speed rural roads may use up to a maximum e of
10%. Superelevation of 10% should not be used where
there are vehicles with high centres of gravity.
In addition, the rationalisation of both desirable and
absolute maximum f values has been used for
superelevations of 6% to zero. For superelevations of
7%, 8% 9% and 10%, the maximum values of f as per
Table 9.1 have been used.
This rationalisation will provide high-speed rural roads with the
best practice control, over the variation of centripetal
acceleration. This gives the best overall consistency in the
margin of safety, which is defined as the difference between
the speed at which the maximum permissible design side
friction would be called upon and the design speed (Ref. 82).
In New Zealand the practice has traditionally been to reduce
the side friction demand at radii less than the minimum for
e
any design speed using the factor e + f as a constant. This
method is described in Transit New Zealands State Highway
Geometric Design Manual and is the only method to be used
in New Zealand.
RURAL ROAD DESIGN 39
Figure 9.1(a): Relationship between Speed, Radius and Superelevation
Based on Desirable Maximum f for e > 6% and a Linear Distribution of f for e 6%

Figure 9.1(b): Relationship between Speed, Radius and Superelevation

Based on Desirable Maximum f for e > 6% and a Linear Distribution of f for e 6%

40 RURAL ROAD DESIGN

Figure 9.2(a): Relationship between Speed, Radius and Superelevation
Based on Absolute Maximum f for e > 6% and a Linear Distribution of f for e 6%

Figure 9.2(b): Relationship between Speed, Radius and Superelevation

Based on Absolute Maximum f for e > 6% and a Linear Distribution of f for e 6%

RURAL ROAD DESIGN 41

9.7.1 Maximum Values of Superelevation
Use of maximum superelevation will need to be applied in
steep terrain or where there are constraints on increasing the
radius of an individual curve in a group. The current design
practice shows that superelevation exceeding 7% is rarely
used. In mountainous terrain there is normally insufficient
distance to fully develop steep (more than 7%) superelevation
and in less rugged terrain the use of steep superelevations is
questionable considering the potential adverse effect on high
centre of gravity vehicles. Therefore, the absolute maximum
superelevation should be 7% with 6% being the normal
maximum superelevation for high-speed rural roads. The
maximum superelevation (low speed <90 km/h) in
mountainous terrain should be 10%. Other factors that must
be considered for 10% maximum super are:
Driver expectation;
Driver comfort;
Slide off road;
Stability;
Should not be used where there are vehicles with very high
center of gravity;
Erosion; and
Icing.
9.7.1 Maximum Values of Superelevation
9.7.2 Minimum Values of Superelevation
At low and intermediate ranges of operating speeds (below
about 100 km/h), it will usually be found desirable to
superelevate all curves at least to a value equal to the normal
crossfall on straights. On very large curves, adverse crossfall
may be considered, refer Table 9.7
9.7.2 Minimum Values of Superelevation
42 RURAL ROAD DESIGN
9.7.3 Application of Superelevation
On straights, the pavement has normal crossfall to shed water.
This crossfall is provided both ways from the centre on
undivided rural roads. On a divided rural road each
carriageway usually has one-way crossfall away from the
median on straight alignments.
A change from normal crossfall to full superelevation occurs as
the road changes fall from a straight to a curved alignment
(except where adverse crossfall is adopted), or from a very
large curve with adverse crossfall to a lower radius curve.
The adopted position of the axis of rotation, the point about
which the crossfall is rotated to develop superelevation,
depends upon the type of road facility, total road cross section
adopted, terrain and the location of the road. On a two-lane
two-way road, the superelevation is developed by rotating
each half of the cross section (including shoulders) about the
carriageway centreline (axis of rotation).
On divided rural roads where the median is relatively narrow,
less than 5 m, the two carriageways may be rotated about the
centreline of the median. Where the median is wide, the axis
of rotation is usually along each median edge of carriageway
(particularly in flat each country).
9.7.4 Length of Superelevation
Development
The length required to develop superelevation should be
adequate to ensure a good appearance and give
satisfactory riding qualities. The higher the speed or wider
the carriageway, the longer the superelevation
development will need to be to meet the requirements of
appearance and comfort.
The length of superelevation development is the transition of
crossfall from a normal roadway on straight alignment to that
of a fully superelevated crossfall on a circular curve. The total
length required to develop superelevation is called the overall
length of superelevation development (Le). It consists of two
main elements:
Superelevation Runoff (Sro) the length of roadway needed
to accomplish a change in crossfall from flat crossfall to a
fully superelevated crossfall; and
Tangent Runout (Tro) is the length of roadway required to
accomplish the change in crossfall from a normal crown
section to a flat crossfall.
Lengths of superelevation development are determined from
the two design criteria of:
Rate of Rotation of the pavement crossfall; and
Relative Grade of the axis of rotation to the edges of
carriageway grades being rotated.
Superelevation runoff and tangent runout lengths are
calculated by proportioning the normal crossfall to full
superelevation using design values for superelevation
development shown in Table 9.6.
Table 9.3: Rate of Rotation Criterion Length of Superelevation Development (L r r )

Operating Length (m) of superelevation development

Speed from normal crossfall to required superelevation
(km/h)
-ve 3% to -ve 3% to -ve 3% to -ve 3% to
+ve 3% +ve 5% +ve 7% +ve 10%

50* 24 32 40 52

60* 29 38 48 62

70* 33 44 56 72

80# 53 71 89 116

90# 60 80 100 130

100# 67 89 111 -

110# 73 98 122 -

120# 80 107 - -

130# 87 116 - -

Notes:
* = Rate of Rotation 3.5 % per second
# = Rate of Rotation 2.5 % per second
Assumed normal crossfall - 3.0%

S ro = Le Le e1 The rate of rotation of 3.5% (0.035 radians/sec) per second is

e1 + e 2 appropriate for operating speeds < 80 km/h:
Tro = Le S ro
The rate of rotation of 2.5% (0.025 radians/sec) per second is
where: appropriate for operating speeds 80 km/h:

Le = superelevation development length (m) Lrr = 0.278(e1 e 2 )V

Sro = superelevation runoff (m) r
Tro = tangent runout (m) where:
e1 = normal crossfall (%) Lrr = superelevation development length (m) based on the
e2 = full superelevation crossfall (%) rate of rotation criterion
e1 = normal crossfall (%)
A vertical curve may be used to ease the grade changes from e2 = full superelevation crossfall (%)
crossfall to superelevation at the edges of the pavement and V = operating speed (km/h)
formation. r = rate of rotation (% per second).

9.7.4.1 Rate of Rotation
The rate of rotation of the pavement desirably should not
exceed 2.5% per second of travel time at the operating
speed, but should have an absolute maximum rate of 3.5%
per second.
The minimum superelevation development length to satisfy
the appropriate rate of rotation criterion can be derived from
the following expression (Ref. 90).
Table 9.3 shows values of superelevation development length
satisfying the rate of rotation criterion.
9.7.4.2 Relative Grade
The relative grade is the percentage difference between
the grade at the edge of the carriageway and the grade of
the axis of rotation. This difference should be kept below
the values shown in Table 9.4 to achieve a reasonably
smooth appearance.

RURAL ROAD DESIGN 43

Table 9.4: Maximum Relative Grade Between Edge of Lrg = length of superelevation development (m) based on
Carriageway and Axis of Rotation in Superelevation the relative grade criterion
Development e1 = normal crossfall (%)
e2 = full superelevation (%)
Relative Grade % GR = relative grade (%), from Table 9.4. Use calculated
Operating values for GR if they are < Table 9.4 values.
Speed More than WR = width from axis of rotation to outside edge of
(km/h) One Lane (1) Two Lanes (2) Two Lanes (3) running lanes (m).
(WR=3.5) (WR=7.0) (WR=10.5)
Table 9.5 shows values of superelevation development lengths
40 or under 0.9 1.3 1.7 satisfying the relative grade criterion. These lengths have
been calculated using GR values from Table 9.4. The
60 0.6 1.0 1.3 designer may consider using the calculated values of GR where
they are less than the tabulated values.
80 0.5 0.8 1.0
9.7.4.3 Design Superelevation
100 0.4 0.7 0.9 Development Lengths
120 0.4 0.6 0.8 The superelevation development lengths (Le) that are to be
adopted satisfy both criteria: Rate of Rotation and Relative
130 0.4 0.6 0.8 Grade. These values are shown in Table 9.6 and combine the
previous tables, Table 9.3 and Table 9.5.
Note:
(1) Applies to normal two lane two way road with the axis at 9.7.5 Positioning Of Superelevation
rotation on the centerline. Runoff
(2) Applies to two lane two way road with control along one
edge; four lane roadway with control on centreline and 9.7.5.1 Without Transitions
two lane two way road with climbing lane and control on
centre line of the two lane two way road. Normal practice of positioning the superelevation runoff for
(3) Applies to multilane roadway with more than two lanes circular radius curves without transitions is as follows:
between the axis of rotation and the edge of running lanes.
Tangent to Circular Curve to Tangent

The expressions relating to the relative grade criterion are as The development of superelevation runoff for tangent to
follows (Ref. 90): circular curves is located with the larger proportion of the
runoff length on the approach tangent, rather than on the
For a rate of rotation of 3.5% per second, which is appropriate circular curve.
for operating speeds < 80km/h:
The proportion of runoff located prior to the circular curve is
12.6WR
GR = detailed in Table 9.7 and shown on Figure 9.3.
V
For a rate of rotation of 2.5% per second, which is appropriate In general, theoretical considerations favour the practice of
for operating speeds 80km/h: placing a large amount of the superelevation runoff on the
approach tangent. The driver may have to steer in a direction
9.0WR
GR = opposite to the direction to the curve ahead to stay in line.
V
However, the maximum side friction developed on the tangent
where: is equal to the rate of applied superelevation and is at all times
less than the rate of side friction considered comfortable. A
GR = relative grade (%) vehicle travelling at the design speed on the minimum radius
WR = width from axis of rotation to outside edge of curve (with maximum rate of superelevation) develops the
running lanes (m)
V = Operating Speed (km/h). Table 9.7: Portion of Superelevation Runoff Located
Prior to the Circular Curve
The relative grade calculated for the relevant rate of rotation is
satisfactory when it is less than relevant maximum relative Portion of Superelevation Runoff
grade given in Table 9.4. Operating Located Prior to the Circular Curve
Speed
The length of superelevation development to satisfy the (km/h) No. of Lanes Rotated
relative grade criterion is derived from the following formula
(Ref. 90): 1 2 3
WR (e1 e 2 ) 20-70 0.80 0.90 0.90
Lrg = GR
80-130 0.70 0.80 0.85
where:

44 RURAL ROAD DESIGN

Table 9.5: Relative Grade Criterion Length of Superelevation Development (L rg )

Operating Speed Length (m) of superelevation development from normal crossfall to required superelevation

(km/h) -ve 3% to +ve 3% -ve 3% to +ve 5% -ve 3% to +ve 7% -ve 3% to +ve 10%

No. Lanes: 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3

40 23 32 37 31 43 49 39 54 62 51 70 80

50 28 37 42 37 49 56 47 61 70 61 79 91

60 35 42 48 47 56 65 58 70 81 76 91 105

70 38 47 55 51 62 73 64 78 91 83 101 119

80 42 53 63 56 70 84 70 88 105 91 114 137

90 47 56 66 62 75 88 78 93 111 101 121 144

100 53 60 70 70 80 93 88 100 117 - - -

110 53 65 74 70 86 99 88 108 124 - - -

120 53 70 79 70 93 105 - - - - - -

130 53 70 79 70 93 105 - - - - - -

Note: (1) Assumed normal crossfall = 3.0 % and assumed lane width = 3.5 m
(2) Lengths based on GR fromTable 9.4.

Table 9.6: Design Superelevation Development Lengths (L e )

Satisfying both Rate of Rotation and Relative Grade Criteria

Operating speed Length (m) of superelevation development from normal crossfall to required superelevation

(km/h) -ve 3% to +ve 3% -ve 3% to +ve 5% -ve 3% to +ve 7% -ve 3% to +ve 10%

No. Lanes: 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3

40 23 32 37 31 43 49 39 54 62 51 70 80

50 28 37 42 37 49 56 47 61 70 61 79 91

60 35 42 48 47 56 65 58 70 81 76 91 105

70 38 47 55 51 62 73 64 78 91 83 101 119

80 53 53 63 71 71 84 89 89 105 116 116 137

90 60 60 66 80 80 88 100 100 111 130 130 144

100 67 67 70 89 89 93 111 111 117 - - -

110 73 73 74 98 98 99 122 122 124 - - -

120 80 80 80 107 107 107 - - - - - -

130 87 87 87 116 116 116 - - - - - -

Note: Final figures should be rounded up to the nearest 5 m.

RURAL ROAD DESIGN 45

Figure 9.3: Tangent to Circular Curve
maximum side friction considered safe and comfortable. To
apply rates of superelevation less than maximum at any point
on the circular curve means that vehicles travelling at the
design speed develop side friction factors in excess of the
desirable minimum. While the side friction developed on the
approach tangent is undesirable, the development on the
circular curve of friction factors greatly in excess of the design
basis, results in a worse condition.
However, some form of transition path of travel can be
expected on the approach tangent and onto the early part of
the circular curve. What can be considered lack of
superelevation at the beginning of the circular curve is
compensated to some extent by the vehicle travelling a
curvilinear path that is flatter than the roadway circular arc.
Reverse Curves
Reverse curves are horizontal curves turning in opposite
directions. Desirably, reverse curves should have sufficient
distance between the curves to introduce the full superelevation
development for each of the curves without exceeding the
standard rate of change of superelevation for the particular
operating speed. When this length cannot be achieved,
superelevation development length may extend up to 20 to 30%
or a maximum of 25m into the circular curves. The Operating
Speed will have to be managed to suit the curve geometry.
Compound Curves
Compound curves are horizontal curves of different radii
turning in the same direction with a common tangent point.
46 RURAL ROAD DESIGN
Where compound curves are provided, the full superelevation
on the smaller curve should be developed on the larger radius
curve prior to the common tangent point.
9.7.5.2 With Transitions
Normal practice of positioning the superelevation runoff for
circular curves with transition is as follows:
Tangent to Transition Curve to Circular Curve to Transition
Curve to Tangent
For circular curves with transition curves, it is normal
practice to make the lengths of superelevation runoff equal
to the length of the transition curve. The superelevation
runoff is then contained solely within the transition curve
length.
A typical example of the development of superelevation on
horizontally transitioned curves on two-lane roads is shown in
Figure 9.4. The superelevation runoff commences at the
tangent to spiral point (flat cross fall) along the straight and
ends at the spiral to circular curve point.
Reverse Transitional Curves
On reverse transitioned curves, the reversal of superelevation is
implemented uniformly and linearly.
The only occasion that superelevation runoff might encroach
into the circular curve is when the road alignment is in a
constricted location. In this case, the shorter than normal
Figure 9.4: Typical Superelevation Runoff Profile on Two Lane Two Way Roads (Tangent to Transition Curve to Circular
Curve to Transition Curve to Tangent)

RURAL ROAD DESIGN 47

transition curves with large superelevations, may be used to
produce an acceptable alignment. The proportion of runoff
located within the circular curve is detailed in Table 9.7.
However, in the case of long transition curves and small
superelevations, it is necessary to increase the rotation rate in
the vicinity of the point of zero superelevation to promote
improved pavement drainage.
It is undesirable to use long transition curves in other than
high-speed curvilinear alignments because of the potential to
mislead drivers as to the radius of the following circular curve.
9.7.6 Superelevation on Bridges
Special conditions that apply to bridges include:
The maximum superelevation shall not exceed 6%;
The absolute minimum crossfall on structures shall be 2%
(drainage requirement);
The maximum grade on structure, taking the vectorial sum
of longitudinal grade and crossfall into account, shall not
exceed 8 per cent;
Changes in crossfall on structure create difficulties both for
design and construction of bridges and increase costs.
Where varying crossfall or superelevation on the bridge is
unavoidable, the changes should occur uniformly from one
end of the bridge to the other. This also applies with
changes from two-way to one-way crossfall; and
Where parallel bridges are in close proximity,
superelevation changes on the structures need to allow for
any future widening and the possibility that the space
between structures may be bridged in the future.
9.8 Curves With Adverse Crossfall
Adverse crossfall on curves should normally be avoided except
on curves of large radius that can be regarded as straights.
Table 9.8 gives minimum radius curves for various operating
speeds for which adverse crossfall may be considered.
9.9 Minimum Horizontal
Curve Length
Minimum curve length guidelines are required to avoid kinks
in the road alignment and maintain a satisfactory
appearance. Table 9.9 shows the maximum deflection angles
for which a curve is not required and the corresponding
minimum curve length.
9.10 Pavement Widening on
Horizontal Curves
Pavements may be widened on curves to maintain the lateral
clearance between vehicles equal to the clearance available on
straight sections of road. Widening is required for two reasons:
A vehicle travelling on a curve occupies a greater width of
pavement than it does on a straight as the rear wheels at low
speeds track inside the front, and the front overhang reduces
the clearance between passing and overtaking vehicles. (At
high speeds the rear wheels track outside the front.); and

Vehicles deviate more from the centreline of a lane on a

Table 9.8: Minimum Radii with Adverse Crossfall curve than on a straight.

The amount of widening required depends on:

Speed Minimum Radii (m)
(km/h) 3.0% adverse crossfall The radius of the curve;
Width of lane on a straight road;
Vehicle length and width; and
50 400 Vehicle clearance.

Other factors such as overhang of the front of the vehicle,

60 600
wheelbase and track width play a part. However, there is a
lower practical limit to widening due to construction feasibility
70 900 and for a two-lane road curve widening should be omitted
when the total widening is less than 0.5m.
80 1250
There may be a requirement to widen the pavement on
90 1700 horizontal curves for vehicles that occupy a greater width of
pavement than the design vehicle (19.0m semi trailer).
100 2250
There is no additional steering allowance component for
110 3000 difficulty of driving on curves. This has been the Austroads
practice since 1979 and has been based on the following
120 4000 assumptions:

130 5000 There is less steering variation with the design vehicle
since it is a large commercial vehicle that is driven by a
professional driver;
Note: Does not apply to intersections where higher
demand may be required.

48 RURAL ROAD DESIGN

Table 9.9: Minimum Horizontal Curve Lengths

Operating Max. Deflection angle where Min curve length

Speed (km/h) curve not required (Ref. 98) (TS to ST) (1) (Ref. 90)

2 lane pavement 4 lane pavement

50 1.5 N/A 70

60 1 0.5 100

70 1 0.5 140

80 1 0.5 180

90 1 0.5 230

100 1 0.5 280

110 0.5 0.25 340

120 0.5 0.25 400

Note: (1) Minimum length of circular arc where transition curves not required

Table 9.10: Lane Widths on Curves in Mid-Block Sections

Vehicle Type 19m Semi Trailer

Vehicle Width, u (m) 2.5

No. of rigid units, n 2

Wheelbase lengths (m) 5.4 & 9.5

Ave. vehicle wheelbase, L (m) 7.45

Front overhang, A (m) 1.6

2 lane-2 way Multi-Lane

Operating speed, V (km/h) 60 > 70 60 > 70

Radius, R (m)

75 4.3 4.0

100 4.1 3.8

100 200 3.8 3.8

> 200

Notes:

All lane widths have been calculated using 0.6m for the lateral clearance, C, and have
been rounded up to the nearest 0.1 m

Radii below absolute minimum radii for operating speed not to be used. Refer Table 9.2

Lane widening is not required. A standard lane width of 3.5m is adequate.

Where the operating speed is substantially < 60 km/h, lane widening should be calculated
using the formula for Wc.

RURAL ROAD DESIGN 49

Figure 9.5: Horizontal Stopping Sight Distance

50 RURAL ROAD DESIGN

 The swept path width of the design vehicle accommodates
the swept path width of smaller vehicles plus provides
room for steering variation (and driver skill variation) with
the smaller vehicles; and
The now common use of full width or part width paved
and sealed shoulders compensates for not having a
steering allowance component for the design vehicle.
Table 9.10 shows the width of traffic lane, including widening
for a range of circular curves and design vehicles.
For lane widening with transitioned curves, it is normal
practice to apply half of the curve widening to each side of the
road. However, this means that the shift associated with the
transition (shift = LP2/24R, where LP is the length of transition
curve, and R is the radius of the circular arc) must be greater
than the curve widening that is applied to the outer side of the
curve so that the design vehicle will make use of the widening
and for appearance. This will usually only be a problem when
the curve widening has to suit a road train and a greater
proportion of the total widening will have to be applied on the
inside of the curve. The painted centreline will then be offset
from the control line in order to provide equal lane widths.
For untransitioned curves, it is normal practice to apply all the
curve widening to the inside of the curve with the painted
centreline then being offset from the control line in order to
provide equal lane widths. This practice aids drivers in making
their own transition.
For more information refer to Section 11.2 Traffic Lane Width
and to Guide to the Geometric Design of Major Urban Roads
(Ref. 40). Refer Section 12.2, Traffic Lane Width.
9.11 Sight Distance on Horizontal
Curves
Horizontal curves with minimum radii shown in Table 9.2 do
not necessarily meet the sight distance requirements described
in Section 8. Where a lateral obstruction off the pavement
such as a bridge pier, cut slope or natural growth restricts sight
distance, the stopping sight distance appropriate to the design
speed of the curve determines the minimum desirable radius
of curvature.
9.11.1 Benching for Visibility on Horizontal Curve
Figure 9.5 shows the relationship between horizontal sight
distance, curve radius and lateral clearance to the obstruction
and is valid when the sight distance at the appropriate design
speed is not greater than the length of curve. This relationship
assumes that the drivers eye and the sighted object are above
the centre of the inside lane, 1.75m in from the outer edge of
lane based on a standard 3.5 m lane width. When the design
sight distance is greater than the length of curve, a graphical
solution is appropriate.
For alignments on lower speed roads, particularly in difficult
terrain, it may not be feasible to achieve the 2.5 seconds
reaction time stopping sight distances shown in Section 8.
Increasing curve radius to improve the sight distance may
increase the operating speed so that longer, and still
unavailable, design stopping sight distances are required. In
these situations, the designer should provide the maximum
sight distance practicable, and ensure that it is not less than
the stopping sight distance corresponding to a 2.0 second
reaction time.
Where sight benches in side cuttings are required on
horizontal curves or a combination of horizontal and vertical
curves, the horizontal and vertical limits of the benching are
determined graphically or by modeling.
9.11.1 Benching for Visibility on
Horizontal Curves
Benching is the widening of the inside of a cutting on a curve
to obtain the specified sight distance. It usually takes the form
of a flat table or bench over which a driver can see an
approaching vehicle or an object on the road. In plan view, the
envelope formed by the lines of sight fixes the benching. The
driver and the object he is approaching are assumed to be in
the centre of the inner lane and the sight distance is measured
around the centre line of the lane, the path the vehicle would
follow in braking. Benching adequate for inner lane traffic
more than meets requirements for the outer lane.
Where a horizontal and crest vertical curve overlap, the line of
sight between approaching vehicles may not be over the top
of the crest but to one side and may be partly off the
formation. Cutting down the crest on the pavement will not
increase visibility if the line of sight is clear of the pavement,
and the bottom of the bench may be lower than the shoulder
level. In these cases, as well as in the case of sharp horizontal
curves, a better solution may be to use a larger radius curve so
that the line of sight remains within the formation. However,
this will tend to increase the operating speed, which in turn
will increase the sight distance required.
9.11.2 Other Restrictions to Visibility
There are other minor constraints on sight distance that must
be kept in mind by the designer:
In avenues of trees, visibility can be reduced at a sag owing
to the line of sight being interrupted by the foliage. The
same may happen where a bridge crosses a sag and the
line of sight is obstructed;
Guard fencing, bridge handrails, median kerbs and similar
obstructions can restrict the visibility available at horizontal
and vertical curves;
RURAL ROAD DESIGN 51
 There is a sizeable difference between the length of sight
distance available to a driver depending on whether the
curve ahead is to the left or the right.
9.12 Curvilinear Alignment Design
in Flat Terrain
9.12.1 Introduction
The traditional approach to the design of road alignment in the
flat terrain has been to use long tangents with relatively short
curves between them. In some cases, the length of straight has
become exceptionally long, resulting in monotonous driving
conditions leading to fatigue and reduced concentration.
The problems of the long tangent/short curve alignment have
been recognised for some time. A general conclusion has been
that the ideal alignment is a continuous curve with constant,
gradual, and smooth changes of direction. This has led to the
concept of curvilinear alignment which has been defined as
consisting of long, flat circular curves, simple and compound,
connected by fairly long spiral transitions, about two thirds of
the alignment being on the circular arcs and one third on
spirals. Inherent in this definition is the premise that the
alignment is made up of a range of curves varying in radius
from about 10,000 metres to a maximum of 30,000 metres. If
the whole alignment can be made up of curves of the 10,000
metres to 30,000 meters radii, the need for spiral transitions is
essentially removed.
9.12.2 Theoretical Considerations
The basis for using curvilinear alignment is found in the
consideration of visual requirements and the effect of speed
on perception and vision. As speed increases:
Concentration increases;
The point of concentration recedes;
Peripheral vision diminishes;
Foreground detail begins to fade; and
Space perception becomes impaired.
Thus the higher the speed, the further ahead the driver
focuses his vision and the more concentrated the angle of
vision becomes. This restriction of vision (called tunnel view
by some) may induce fatigue unless the point of concentration
is made to move around laterally by means of a curvilinear
layout of the road.
Space perception is achieved with the help of memory, and by
assessing relative changes in the size and position of objects. It
is therefore necessary to have a lateral component to enable a
driver to discern movement and its direction. This lateral
component is provided on curves, the rate of such movement
depending on the radius of the curve.
The radius that should be adopted depends on several factors
including the type of topography and the expected speed of
travel, the desired radius depending on how far ahead the
driver can see the road. At high speeds, a driver looks from
300 metres to 600 metres ahead and a curve should be at least
this long to be visually significant when the driver is on it.
It is desirable to design on the basis of at least 30 degrees of
deflection angle as a minimum, which will result in the
52 RURAL ROAD DESIGN
adoption of curve radii of from 3,000 to 30,000 metres
depending on how far ahead the road can be seen. A further
consideration is the requirement of overtaking sight distance.
It is desirable that overtaking sight distance be provided if
possible and in flat country this can easily be achieved. A
15,000 m radius curve allows overtaking sight distance for
120 km/hour to be achieved. The optimum radius range is
about 16,000 to 18,000 metres.
The larger the radius, however, the closer the alignment
comes to a straight line and the less the advantages become
and in this respect further consideration may need to be
given to the desirable maximum length of curve in one
direction. There is no point in using radii larger than 30,000
metres for this reason.
9.12.3 Advantages of Curvilinear
Alignment
A road with curvilinear alignment is much more pleasant to
drive on than one with long straight tangents since it unfolds
itself smoothly with no unexpected checks. The driver is more
able to judge the distance to an approaching vehicle, and to
assess its rate of approach since the driver sees it to one side,
the lateral component of its movement providing the
necessary information for the driver assessment. Judgements
on the safety of overtaking manoeuvres are easier to make
under these circumstances.
Because of the continuously curving alignment, the view
ahead is constantly changing and it is also possible to direct
the road towards interesting features of the countryside for
short periods. This removes much of the monotony of the long
straight alignment and can create a sense of anticipation in the
driver for what is beyond.
At night, curvilinear alignment removes much of the
approaching headlight glare problem common to long straight
roads in flat country. On long straights, headlights become
visible from a very long distance away and can be annoying
and distracting from a distance of over 3 kilometres. Where
vehicles approach each other on curvilinear alignment, the
glow of the approaching vehicle headlamps can be seen well
before the lamps become visible, and the rate of approach of
the vehicle can be assessed.
In the daytime when driving in the direction of the sun
curvilinear alignment removes much of the approaching
glare problem caused by the suns rays common to long
straight roads running in a westerly/easterly direction in flat
country.
Conditions for both day and night driving are therefore much
more comfortable on a road with curvilinear alignment.
On treeless plains, some of the effect of the curvilinear
alignment is lost. It may be that in such circumstances, the
smaller (optimum) radii would be more effective in that it will
increase the drivers perception of relative change.
The principles of curvilinear alignment can be applied in a wide
range of conditions using a wide range of curve radii together
with spirals. Considerable improvements in the quality of our
road system can be achieved at no extra cost by the
application of these principles.
9.13 Bridge Consideration
9.13 Bridge Considerations
Bridge carriageway width and width of road on the
approaches to the bridge are based on providing a consistent
level of service along a section of road. The following factors
should be considered:
Road geometry;
Traffic volumes and composition;
Terrain;
Climatic conditions; and
Bridge location.
The traffic lane widths provided on the bridge should not be
less than the widths provided on the approach roadway. On
short bridges (20m long or less for most rural roads), it is
normal practice to carry the full width of shoulders and
pavement, including auxiliary lanes, across the bridge.
Where necessary, additional bridge width should be provided:
To carry a kerbed footway on the bridge and on the
approaches; and
To achieve satisfactory sight distance and curve widening.
Auxiliary lane lengths and, in particular, tapers should not be
reduced in order to avoid widening on bridges. If possible, it
may be preferable to relocate the auxiliary lane.
The following principles are to be adopted for the alignment
of elevated structures on major rural roads:
Avoid multiple and varying geometrics on the structure,
including superelevation transitions, where possible;
Skew angle should not exceed 35 o;
Avoid curve radii below 500 m;
Avoid short end spans on bridges;
Provide a constant crossfall on bridges;
If curvature is unavoidable, the bridge should lie fully
within the circular arc and the radius should be as large as
possible with maximum 6% superelevation; and
The designer should seek advice from bridge engineers in
relation to construction economies, provision for future
duplication and the location of tangent points.
Further consideration of geometric requirements for bridges is
set out in the Austroads Bridge Design Code (Ref. 29).
RURAL ROAD DESIGN 53
 10.2 Grades
10. VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
10.2.1 General

10.1 Introduction Generally, grades should be as flat as possible, consistent with

Vertical alignment is the longitudinal profile along the
centreline of a road. It is made up of a series of grades and
vertical curves.
The profile is determined by a consideration of the planning,
access, topographic, geological, design controls earthworks
and other economic aspects.
The grades are generally expressed as a percentage of one
vertical divided by the horizontal component.
The vertical curves are parabolic in shape and are expressed
as a K Value. The K Value is the vertical curve constant, used
to define the size of a parabola. It is the length (m) required
for a 1% change of grade.
economy and longitudinal drainage requirements (where
kerbing is to be incorporated). Flat grades permit all vehicles to
operate at the same speed. Steeper grades produce variation
in speeds between vehicles with varying power to weight
ratios both in the uphill and down hill direction. This speed
variation:
Leads to higher relative speeds between vehicles producing
the potential for higher rear end vehicle accident rates; and
Results in increased queuing and overtaking requirements
which gives rise to further safety problems, particularly at
higher traffic volumes.
In addition, freight costs are increased due to the slower speed
of heavy vehicles.

For design purposes the K value concept also has the
advantage of easily determining the radius at the apex of a
parabolic vertical curve: R = 100K. Within the range of
grades used for road design there is little variation between
the parabola and the extended arc of the apex radius.
Therefore, the apex radius value yields a suitable
equivalent radius and an alternative vertical curve constant
that can be used to define the size of a parabolic
vertical curve.
Table 10.1 shows the effect of grade on vehicle performance
and lists road types that would be suitable for these grades.
Vehicles can tolerate relatively short lengths of steeper grades
better than longer lengths of less steep grades.
10.2.2 Vehicle Operation on Grades
There are three aspects to the design of grades that can be
adopted in difficult terrain:

Table 10.1: Effect of Grade on Vehicle Type

Grade Reduction in Vehicle Speed as compared to Flat Grade % Road Type Suitability

Uphill Downhill

Light Vehicle Heavy Vehicle Light Vehicle Heavy Vehicle

0-3 Minimal Minimal Minimal Minimal For use on all roads

3-6 Minimal Some Minimal Minimal For use on low-moderate speed roads
reduction on (incl. High traffic volumes roads)
high speed
roads

6-9 Largely Significantly Minimal Minimal for For use on roads in mountainous terrain
unaffected slower straight alignment. Usually need to provide auxiliary lanes if
Substantial for high traffic volumes
winding alignment

9-12 Slower Much slower Slower Significantly slower Need to provide auxiliary lanes for
for straight alignment. moderate high traffic volumes. Need to
Much slower for consider run-away vehicle facilities if
winding alignment proportion of commercial vehicles is high

12-15 10-15 km/h 15% max. 10-15 km/h Extremely Satisfactory on low volume roads (very
slower Negotiable Slower slow few or no commercial vehicles)

15-33 Very slow Not Very slow Not Only to be used in extreme cases and be
negotiable negotiable of short lengths (no commercial vehicles)

Source: Ref. 66

54 RURAL ROAD DESIGN

 The poorer performing vehicles using the road (generally
trucks in the lower power ranges) must be able to climb
the grade. This limits the maximum grade that can be
considered for roads open to the public. It only becomes
an acceptable limit in low volume situations, or for special
purpose roads, eg to a specific tourist vantage point.
Grades cause the need for speed variations, gear
changes and braking for all vehicles. This is a quality of
service consideration. Flatter grades, which enable a
more consistent travel speed, make fewer demands on
both vehicle and driver and generally reduce vehicle
operating costs.
Grades cause speed disparities between vehicle types,
leading to increased queuing and overtaking requirements.
This is a level of service problem. The increased overtaking
requirements and reduced service volumes can give rise to
operational and safety problems at higher traffic flows. The
problem can arise from cars towing caravans and trailers as
well as from heavy commercial vehicles.
10.2.3 Maximum Grades
Grades used in design are, therefore, only controlled at the
upper end by vehicle performance. In most designs, the
general maximum grade to be sought will be based on level of
service and quality of service considerations, modified as
appropriate by the severity of the terrain and the relative
importance of the road. Table 10.2 shows maximum grades
over long lengths of road in various terrain types.
The adoption of grades steeper than the general maximum
may be justified in the following situations:
Comparatively short sections of steeper grade which can
lead to significant cost savings;
Difficult terrain in which general maximum grades are not
practical;
Where absolute numbers of heavy vehicles are generally
low; and
Table 10.2: General Maximum Grades (%)
Operating Speed Terrain
(km/h) Flat Rolling Mountainous
60 6-8 7-9 9-10
80 4-6 5-7 7-9
100 3-5 4-6 6-8
120 3-5 4-6 - Where possible, it is preferable to introduce a flatter grade
130 3-5 4-6 - roads, but this must not be achieved by steepening the
Note: Values closer to the lower figures should be aimed for
on primary highways. Higher values may be warranted
to suit local conditions
For unsealed surfaces the above value should be
reduced by 1%.
Less important local roads where the costs or impact of
achieving higher standards are difficult to justify.
In any case, design options for the road include, on one hand,
flattening the grade, and on the other, the provision of
auxiliary lanes and/or special facilities for safely controlling
runaway vehicles on downgrades (refer Section 13.7).
When adopting maximum grades, side drains need to be
considered in respect to the maximum velocity of flow for
scour protection. Special lining of the drains may be required
to limit damage to the drain and the environment.
10.2.4 Length of Steep Grades
To achieve a quality-balanced design, it is necessary to consider
the length of the grade. Most standards do not explicitly limit
the length of grades, but suggest that it is desirable to limit the
length of sections with maximum grades. AASHTO (1994)
proposes limiting the maximum length to that which will not
exceed the critical length of grade. The critical length is that
which will cause a typical loaded truck (300
pound/horsepower) [5.5 kW/tonne] to operate without an
unreasonable reduction in speed. A reduction of 10 mph [16
km/h] is recommended, the reason being the significant
increase in accident involvement rate at higher speed
reductions.
The length of steep grades is considered in the design of
auxiliary lanes with the help of Figure 13.3.
However it must be remembered that length of grade can
affect safety and capacity. On both the upgrade and down
grade, the lower operating speed of trucks may cause
inconvenience to cars. Long gradients, for example 5km at
4%, could result in a high risk of serious accidents involving
descending vehicles as a result of brake failure. Such gradients
could also cause climbing vehicles to slow down to well below
the 85th percentile speed.
All short sections of grade should be checked for appearance.
10.2.5 Steep Grade Considerations
Although speeds of cars may be reduced slightly on steep
upgrades, large differences between speeds of light and heavy
vehicles will occur and speeds of the latter will be quite slow.
It is important, therefore, to provide adequate sight distance to
enable faster vehicle operators to recognise when they are
catching up to a slow vehicle and to adjust their speed
accordingly. Key considerations are as follows:
On any generally rising or falling section of the road, steep
grades should be avoided as much as practicable, as these
grades reduce vehicle operating efficiency.
at the top of a long ascent, particularly on low speed
lower portion of the grade.
On steep downgrades, it is desirable to increase the 85th
percentile speed of the individual geometric elements
progressively towards the foot of the steep grade. Where
this cannot be achieved and where percentages of heavy
RURAL ROAD DESIGN 55
 vehicles are high, consideration should be given to L = KA
construction of runaway vehicles facilities. Refer to
Figure 13.5, 13.6 and Section 13.7 for runaway K = S2 when S < L
vehicle facilities. 200 (h1 + h2 )2

2S 200 (h1 + h2 )2
10.2.6 Minimum Grades and K = when S > L
A A2
The minimum grade may be zero except in the following where:
situations: L = length of vertical curve (m)
K = is the length of vertical curve in meters for 1% change
In cut: in grade
In cut, the minimum grade shall normally be 0.5% A = algebraic grade change (%)
(absolute minimum 0.33%) for unlined drains. This S = sight distance (m)
minimum grade in cut is required to provide adequate fall h1 = driver eye height, as used to establish sight distance (m)
in table drains. In exceptional cases, where for any reason h2 = object height, as used to establish sight distance (m)
it is necessary to have a grade flatter than 0.5% this would
be acceptable provided that a minimum grade of 0.5% is For design purposes the K value may be used to determine the
retained in the table drains. This is done by uniformly equivalent radius of a vertical curve using R (radius m) = 100K.
widening the drains at their standard slope, thereby
deepening them progressively or, alternatively, lining the 10.3.3 Crest Vertical Curves
table drains to permit a flatter grading to be adopted.
Curvature of crest vertical curves is usually governed by sight
In medians: distance requirements. However, the appearance of the road
On divided roads the type of median drainage proposed may dictate larger values to provide satisfactory appearance of
may control the minimum grade of the carriageways. the curve. These criteria are discussed below.

10.3 Vertical Curves 10.3.3.1 Appearance

10.3.1 General
The vertical alignment of a road consists of a series of straight
grades joined by vertical curves. In the final design, the vertical
alignment should fit into the natural terrain, considering
earthworks balance, appearance and the maximum and
minimum vertical curvature allowed expressed as the K value.
Large K value curves should be used provided they are
reasonably economical. Minimum K value vertical curves
should be selected on the basis of three controlling factors:
At very small changes of grade, a vertical curve has little
influence other than appearance of the profile and may be
omitted. At any significant change of grade, minimum vertical
curves detract from the appearance. This is particularly evident
on high standard roads.
10.3.3(a) Crest Vertical Curve

Sight distance:
Is a requirement in all situations for driver safety.

Appearance:
Is generally required in low embankment and flat
topography situations.

Riding comfort:
Is a general requirement with specific need on approaches
to floodway where the length of depression needs to be
minimised.
10.3.3(b) Crest Vertical Curve
10.3.2 Forms and Types of Curve

There are various curve forms suitable for use as vertical

curves. The parabola has been traditionally used because of
the ease of manual calculation and is adopted throughout this
Guide. Other forms are equally satisfactory.

There are two types of vertical curves. Convex vertical curves

are known as summit or crest curves, and concave vertical
curves as sag curves.

Vertical curve theory and formulae are presented in Appendix

B. However, in summary, most vertical curves can be designed
using the following equations:

56 RURAL ROAD DESIGN

Table 10.3: Length of Crest Vertical Curves Appearance Criterion when S < L

Operating Minimum grade change Minimum length Minimum K

Speed requiring a crest of crest vertical Value (4)
(km/h) vertical curve, % (1, 2) curve, m (3) S<L
50 0.9 30 40 33 44
60 0.8 40 50 50 62
70 0.7 50 60 71 86
80 0.6 60 80 100 133
90 0.5 80 100 160 200
100 0.4 80 100 200 250
110 0.3 100 150 333 500

Note:
(1) In practice, crest vertical curves are frequently provided at all changes of grade.
(2) Ref. 98
(3) Ref. 90
(4) Round resultant L values up to nearest 5 m.

Table 10.3 gives minimum K values for satisfactory
appearance. Larger K value curves may be preferred where
they can be used without conflict with other design
requirements, eg overtaking, drainage and where they give a
better fit to the topography.
The designer should avoid large crest curves for longitudinal
drainage reasons (to prevent water ponding near the apex).
Large crest curves increase the length of road subject to
restricted sight distance.
10.3.4(a) Sag Vertical Curve
The values in Table 10.3 are subjective approximations and
therefore the lack of precision is intentional.
10.3.3.2 Sight Distance Criteria (Crest)
The minimum crest vertical curve and K value are calculated
using expressions from Appendix B and values of car stopping
distance from Table 8.3(a) and Formulas from Section 8.3.1
and 10.3.2.
Minimum crest vertical curve K values are shown in Table 10.4
for various operating speeds, reaction times, and vertical
height constraints.

10.3.4 Sag Vertical Curves

10.3.4.1 Appearance and Comfort

Appearance is important when considering small and larger

changes in grade (the same as for crest curves).

Sag vertical curves are generally designed to achieve the

comfort criterion as a minimum.

A person subjected to rapid changes in vertical acceleration

feels discomfort. To minimise such discomfort when passing
from one grade to another, it is usual to limit the vertical
10.3.4(b) Sag Vertical Curve acceleration generated on the vertical curve to a value less
than 0.05g where g is the acceleration due to gravity. On low
standard roads and at intersections, a limit of 0.10g may be
used.

The minimum sag vertical curve K value for comfort criteria

can be calculated by the following equation.
V2
K =
1296a
Note:
(i) Length of sag curve L = KA
(ii) Equivalent Radius R = 100K

where

RURAL ROAD DESIGN 57

Table 10.4: Minimum Crest Vertical Curve K Values, S < L. Refer Table 8.3(a) and 8.4

h1 = 1.05m h2 = 0.20m h1 = 2.4m h2 = 0.20m h1 = 1.05m h2 = 1.05m Car to Car

Operating
Speed K value based on Stopping K value based on Stopping K value based on Overtaking
(km/h) Sight Distance for Cars Sight Distance for Trucks Sight Distance for Cars
RT = 2.5sec RT = 2.0sec RT = 2.5sec RT = 2.0sec RT = 2.5sec
50 7 5 6 5 120
60 12 10 10 8 210
70 20 16 17 14 321
80 31 25 25 22 488
90 46 38 37 32 706
100 67 57 55 48 1008
110 98 84 85 75 1440
120 139 - - - 2010
130 197 - - - 2680

Note:
(1) Correction of Stopping Sight Distance for Grade Refer Table 8.3(a)
(2) Overtaking zones rarely occur on a single vertical curve, so the corresponding K value are rarely relevant

K = length of vertical curve in metres for 1% change h = mounting height of headlights (m)
in grade S = stopping sight distance (m), Table 8.3(a)
a = vertical acceleration (m/sec2) q = elevation angle of beam 10 (+ upwards)
V = speed of the vehicle (km/h) (tan 10 = 0.01746)
R = sag curve radius (m)
A = algebraic grade change (%) The minimum sag curve K values for a headlight mounting
L = length of curve (m) height of 0.60 m and one degree of light beam elevation are
g = gravitation force m/sec2 = 9.81 m/sec2 presented in Table 10.6.

Values of minimum K for sag curves are shown in the Table 10.5. Overhead Obstructions

10.3.4.2 Sight Distance Criteria (Sag) Overhead obstructions such as road or rail overpasses, sign
gantries or even overhanging trees may limit the sight distance
(a) Headlight available on sag vertical curves. With the minimum overhead
clearances normally specified for roads, these obstructions
Sight distance on sag curves is not restricted by the vertical would not interfere with minimum stopping sight distance.
geometry in daylight conditions or at night with full roadway They may, however, need to be considered with the upper limit
lighting, unless overhead obstructions are present. Under of stopping distance (including sight distance to intersections)
night conditions on unlit roads, limitations of vehicle and overtaking provision. Refer Figure 8.3.
headlights restrict sight distance to between 120 m and 150 m
on crest curves. On high-speed roads not likely to be provided For overhead obstruction sight distance:
with roadway lighting, consideration may be given to
providing headlight sight distance. Nevertheless, horizontal K = S2 when S > L
curvature would cause the light beam to shine off the 200 (H h1 + H h2 )2
pavement (assuming 3o lateral spread each way), and little is where:
gained by increasing the K value of the sag curve.
H = height of overhead obstruction (m)
For headlight sight distance see Figure 10.1 h1 = truck driver eye height (2.4) (m),
h2 = object height (0.60) (m),
K = S2 when S < L S = stopping sight distance (m), Table 8.3(a).
200 (h+S tan q)
and
10.3.5 Reverse/Compound/Broken Back
2S 200 (h + S tan q)
K = when S > L Vertical Curves
A A2
where: Upright vertical curves with common tangent points are
considered quite satisfactory. It is necessary to check that the

58 RURAL ROAD DESIGN

Figure 10.1: Car Headlight Sight Distance on Curves

Table 10.5: Minimum K Values for Sag Vertical Curves sum of the radial accelerations at the common tangent point
does not exceed the tolerable allowance for riding comfort, a
Operating K value <0.05m/sec2. There are situations where reverse vertical curves
Speed can produce pleasing, flowing grade lines which are more
(km/h) a = 0.05g a = 0.1g likely to be in harmony with the natural landform:

50 4 2 where:
60 6 3 V2
a =
70 8 4 1256K
and
80 11 6
0.005 > V2 1 1
90 14 7 +
1256 K1 K2
100 17 9
110 20 10 It would be desirable to provide a short length of grade
between the reverse vertical curves. The desirable length is
120 24 12 equal to 0.2V in metres. Where less than the desirable buffer
length is available the minimum vertical curves are to conform
130 28 14
to the following empirical formula:
K1 + K2
Table 10.6: Minimum Sag Vertical Curve K Value for K = (1+b)
10,000K1K2
Headlight Criteria when S < L
where:
h = 0.60 m, q = 1o
Stopping Sight Distance K1 & K2 = K values of the two curves being tested
Operating
Speed K value K = minimum K values listed in Table 10.5
(km/h) (comfort criteria)
Des. Min. Abs. Min
R T = 2.5 sec R T = 2.0 sec
b = fraction, being the ratio of the actual length
50 10 8 between TPs of the adopted curves to the
normally required buffer length, 0.1Vm
60 14 12 (absolute) or 0.2Vm (desirable), as the case may be.
70 19 17
Broken Back vertical curves consist of two curves, both sag or
80 25 22 both crest curves, usually of different K value, joined by a short
90 32 29 length of straight grade. Their use should be avoided when the
length of straight grade between curves is less than 0.4Vm (V
100 41 37 = operating speed in km/h). Where the length of straight
110 50 46 grade exceeds 0.4V m the curves are not then deemed to be
broken-backed.
120 62 57
Compound curves are made up to two curves in the same
130 72 66
direction with the length of straight grade equal to zero.

RURAL ROAD DESIGN 59


11. C R O S S S E CT I O N
11.1 General
The selection of cross-section elements for rural roads is an
iterative process that considers various criteria: safety,
environmental impact, economy and aesthetics. The major
elements of a cross section are illustrated in Figure 11.1 and
discussed below.
11.2 Traffic Lane Width
A traffic lane is that part of the roadway set aside for one-way
movement of a single stream of vehicles. Refer Table 11.1.
Traffic lane width is based on consideration of:
Traffic:
Annual average daily traffic (AADT) of the road, and peak
hour traffic figures where relevant. Traffic is usually
predicted for a future design year. Heavier traffic volumes
on a road means frequent passing and overtaking
manoeuvres and the path of vehicles as a result is further
from the centre line. In these circumstances, wider traffic
lanes are preferred. When the AADT increases above 500
(two lane two way), lane width increases from 3.1 to 3.5m.
Figure 11.1: Typical Cross Sections
60 RURAL ROAD DESIGN
Vehicle Dimensions:
Commercial vehicles are commonly the full legal width of
2.5m. Normal steering deviations as well as tracking errors
and pavement imperfections reduce the clearance
between vehicles in adjacent lanes. The wider the vehicles
and the narrower the lanes, the more significant these
reduced clearances become. There is a consensus that
3.5m lanes are appropriate for cars and the 19m prime
mover and semi trailer, however, a lane width of 3.6 to
3.75m may be required for significant volumes of larger
trucks. The use of 3.5m lanes plus shoulder seals is a more
effective use of a given total seal width with regard to both
the pavement structure and roadside design.
Combinations of Speed and Traffic Volume:
When both the operating speed and the traffic volume are
high, narrower lane widths should be avoided. When only
one of these factors is high, an economic design may
frequently dictate narrower lanes. This can be justified on
lower volume roads because passing by opposing vehicles
occurs less frequently. If the operating speed is high on a
low volume road, it would normally be associated with
longer sight distances and drivers would have time to
adjust speed and position slightly or to increase the level of
concentration when passing other vehicles. Such events
are relatively infrequent and do not overtax the driver. Even
here, however, wider pavements do improve the quality of
service of the road.
Table 11.1: Single Carriageway Road Widths

Element Design AADT

1-150 150-500 500-1,000 1,000-3,000 >3,000

Traffic Lanes 3.5 6.2 6.2-7.0 7.0 7.0

(1 x 3.5) (2 x 3.1) (2 x 3.1/3.5) (2 x 3.5) (2 x 3.5)

Total Shoulder 2.0 1.5 1.5 2.0 2.5

Shoulder Seal 0.5 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5

Note:
Traffic lane widths include centre-lines but are exclusive of edge-lines.
Shoulder beyond the seal can be lightly constructed, gravel surface suitable for supporting occasional heavy wheel load.
Short lengths of wider shoulder seal or lay-bys to be provided at suitable locations to provide for discretionary stops.
Wider shoulder seals may be appropriate depending on requirements for cyclists, maintenance costs, soil and climatic conditions
or to accommodate the tracked width requirements for Large Combination Vehicles.
Full width shoulder seals may be appropriate beside guard barrier and on the high side of superelevation.

The desirable lane width on rural roads is 3.5m. This
width allows large vehicles to pass or overtake without either
vehicle having to move sideways towards the outer edge of
the lane.
The lane width and the road surface condition have a
substantial influence on the safety and comfort for users of the
roadway. In rural applications the additional costs that will be
incurred in providing wider lanes will be partially offset by the
reduction in long-term shoulder maintenance costs. Narrow
lanes result in a greater number of wheel concentrations in the
vicinity of the pavement edge and will also force vehicles to
travel laterally closer to one another than would normally
happen at the design speed.
Drivers tend to reduce their travel speed, or shift closer to the
lane/road centre (or both) when there is a perception that a
fixed hazardous object is too close to the nearside or offside of
the vehicle. When there is a perceived fixed hazard, there is a
movement by the vehicle towards the opposite lane line.
Alternative lane widths may be considered in some
circumstances. Wider traffic lanes should be considered where
any of the following apply:
There is little or no truck traffic;
Finance for road construction is limited; or
The alignment and safety records are satisfactory in the
case of a reconstructed arterial.
This lane width framework should be supplemented by the
consideration of local practice and experience.
For prime mover and semi-trailer operation, radii above 300m
should be used to avoid lane widening. The use of lanes wider
than 4.6 metres as a result of lane widening is not favoured
because of the possibility of two cars travelling side-by-side
within the lane. If greater width is required for truck tracking, an
edge line should be placed at 3.5 m and full pavement depth
widening should be provided for the remainder of the width.
11.3 Traveled Way
Traveled way is that portion of a carriageway ordinarily
assigned to moving traffic (excludes shoulders and parking
lanes). Its width depends on design traffic volumes (AADT) and
adopted level of service.

There is a higher volume of trucks (greater than 80 per day) Where operating speeds are over 80km/h or where the heavy
for the middle lanes of a carriageway as sealed shoulders vehicle volume in the traffic flow is high, traveled way width
provide enough space for lanes abutting shoulders; should be based on 3.5m wide traffic lanes.

There is a need for widening on horizontal curves; 11.3.1 Single Carriageways

The left lane is to be used by cyclists; or On many roads in Australia, traffic is less than 150 vehicles
per day. Some of these are arterial roads passing through
Operation of Type 2 (triple) road trains (or even larger sparsely settled flat country where the terrain leads to a high
vehicles) is anticipated. operating speed.

Narrower lanes (suggest down to 3.0m Ref. 18) should be
considered where any of the following apply:
The road reserve or existing development form stringent
controls preventing wider lanes;
The road is in a low speed environment;
Where traffic volumes are less than 150 vehicles per day
and, particularly, where terrain is open, single lane
carriageways may be used. The traffic lane width adopted
on such roads should be at least 3.5m. A width of less than
3.5m can result in excessive shoulder wear. A width greater
than 4.5m but less than 6.0m may lead to two vehicles
trying to pass with each remaining on the seal. This

RURAL ROAD DESIGN 61

11.3.1 Single Carriageway 11.3.2 Divided Carriageway

potentially increases head-on accidents. The width of 3.5m
ensures that one or both vehicles must have the outer
wheels on the shoulders while passing.
On two lane sealed roads, total width of seal should desirably
be not less than 7.2m to allow adequate width for passing.
11.3.2 Divided Carriageways
A divided rural road has two carriageways separated by a
median. The median width is defined as exclusive of any road
shoulders where provided.
Each of the two carriageways should have at least two traffic
lanes so that overtaking is possible. With each carriageway, the
shoulder remote from the median should be at least 2 m wide,
but preferably wider to accommodate a broken-down vehicle.
Where the shoulder is less than 2 m, opportunity should be
taken to provide wider standing areas at regular intervals,
by flattening fill slopes on low formations or by widening
shoulders at the transition from cut to fill. The widening
should be sufficient to allow traffic to pass a stopped
vehicle without having to change position in the lane. At
the least, the widening should be sufficient to allow traffic
to pass a stopping vehicle by changing position in the lane
without encroaching into the adjoining lane. Although few
rural roads in Australia carry traffic volumes sufficient to
require more than four lanes, in designing a rural road it is
common to assume that wider carriageways may be
required at some future time and to reserve the land
required. Table11.2 contains the widths of cross section
elements for rural roads.

Table 11.2: Divided Carriageway Road Widths

Element Design AADT

< 20,000 > 20,000

Traffic Lanes (1) 3.5 3.5

Shoulder
Left 2.5 3.0
Median 1.0 1.0

Shoulder Seal
Left 1.5 (2, 3) 3.0
Median 1.0 1.0

Median (4)
Wide, no barrier protection 15m
Narrow, barrier protected (5) 3m rigid barrier, 8m flexible barrier

Verge Refer Table 11.6

Note:
(1) Traffic lane widths include lane lines but are exclusive of edge lines.
(2) Wider shoulder seals may be appropriate depending on requirements for cyclists, maintenance costs, and soil and climatic
conditions.
(3) Full width shoulder seals are appropriate beside guard barrier and on the high side of superelevation.
(4) The median widths are exclusive of median shoulders. Refer Figure 11.5.
(5) A greater median width will be required to accommodate at-grade intersections.

62 RURAL ROAD DESIGN

11.3.2.1 Independent Design of
Carriageways
When land is available, economies can be achieved in earthwork
volumes on divided roads when the two carriageways are far
enough apart for them to be partly or wholly aligned and
graded independently of one another.
As carriageways are moved further apart, the width of
bridging over the road may reduce if bridging of the median
can be omitted.
Close parallel carriageways, both at the same level, can appear
monotonous and have a sleepy effect on the driver. When
parallel carriageways are to be relieved, a change in the
direction of one relative to the other is best arranged to take
place at a curve, either vertical or horizontal, so that any
apparent kink resulting from the change can be hidden.
Although the distance between carriageways should be such
that traffic on one carriageway would not influence driving
behaviour on the other, a regular glimpse of the second
carriageway is desirable to reassure drivers that they are on a
one-way carriageway.
11.3.2.2 Superelevation Issues
On straights, each carriageway may have a single crossfall or the
carriageways may be individually crowned. The carriageways
may have a common grading such that each is at the same
level or they may be individually graded. The two carriageways
may be parallel or individually aligned with median width
varying. On curved sections, the superelevated lengths of the
two carriageways may be in one plane or be in parallel planes
or they may be far enough apart to be independent.
When the numerous combinations are considered, it becomes
impracticable to identify all the issues for the application of
superelevation on divided roads. However, the most common
issues are discussed for independent and related carriageways.
Independent Carriageways
Usually, carriageways, which are independently aligned and
graded, are widely separated with an undisturbed median
area. In such cases, a carriageway may be designed as
though it were a normal two-lane two-way road or as a two-
lane road with an auxiliary lane where three lanes per
carriageway are proposed.
Related Carriageways
Where the median is relatively narrow, it is usual for the
carriageways to be parallel and at the same level, avoiding
difficulties in significant level differential in the narrow median.
Commonly, the median would be depressed.
Transition curves can be developed along the same principles
as for two-lane two way roads, but the superelevation
development length will still vary in relation to a number of
factors. Such factors would relate to each carriageway:
Crowning;
Single crossfall;
Control line location;
Axis of rotation.
Figure 11.2 illustrates typical developments of superelevation
for parallel carriageways with single grading and a narrow
depressed median. Similar forms of treatment could apply for
a raised median.
As the median becomes wider, there is more latitude to absorb
level differential at the edges of the median over the transition
and superelevated lengths, as median slopes can be varied
within reasonable limits to maintain a uniform invert grading.
The selection of the type of crossfall and the choice of a
control line for grading may be influenced by the general road
alignment. A section of roadway containing long lengths of
straights and few curves may be better suited to carriageways
with individual crowns, with the control lines along each of the
crowns. This method is generally not used as it is considered
that each carriageway should fall away from the median to
minimise cross median incidents. A section with a high
percentage of curved alignment might be better suited to
carriageways with single crossfalls with the control lines along
the inner shoulder edges, or even along the centre line of the
formation overall.
11.3.2.3 Transitions Between Divided and
Undivided Carriageways
A number of situations can arise, either temporarily or
permanently, where a transition is made between a divided
and an undivided carriageway. This commonly occurs where
an existing two-lane two-way road is being duplicated in
stages due to varying traffic or level of service conditions along
the route, such as a strategy to provide increased overtaking
opportunity, or due to funding or construction expedience.
A number of short lengths of dual carriageway in close
proximity can cause confusion to drivers and special attention
needs to be given to traffic signing and road marking
provisions. In situations where short lengths of duplication are
being used to provide increased overtaking opportunity, a
duplication length of at least 3 km is desirable.
The transition between divided and undivided roadways
should take place in an area where there is good sight distance
in both directions. For details of the design of the transition
see Ref. 18.
11.4 Pavement Crossfall and its
Considerations
Crossfall is the slope of the surface of a carriageway measured
normal to the centre line. The purpose of crossfall is to drain
the carriageway on straights and curves and to provide
superelevation on horizontal curves.
Crossfalls flatter than 2% do not drain adequately, and even
2% should only be prescribed for concrete pavements where
levels and surface finish are tightly controlled. Unless
compaction and surface shape are well controlled during
construction, pavements with less than 2.5% crossfall will hold
small ponds on the surface, which may cause potholes to
develop and hasten pavement failure. Rutting of the pavement
RURAL ROAD DESIGN 63
Figure 11.2: Changes of Crossfall on Related Carriageways

64 RURAL ROAD DESIGN

Table 11.3: Pavement Crossfall on Straights
Type of Pavement Crossfall (%)
Earth, Loam 5
Gravel, Water bound Macadam 4
Bituminous Sprayed Seal 3
Bituminous Concrete (asphalt) 2.5-3
Portland Cement Concrete 2-3
is also more likely to hold water, increasing the risk of
pavement deterioration and vehicle aquaplaning when the
pavement crossfall is less than 3% (Ref. 67).
The pavement crossfall on straights for various pavement types
is given in Table 11.3.
Generally, on divided roads, two-lane carriageways on
straights have a uniform one-way crossfall with the high point
of the pavement at the edge nearest the median. Two-way
crossfall, with the crown in the middle of the pavement, may
come about through one of the carriageways having been or
being intended for an initial two-way road. Other factors,
which could influence the choice between crowned and one-
way crossfalls, would include median treatment and median
drainage. One-way crossfalls would be more likely when the
median was narrow. A crowned crossfall directs more water
towards the median.
The build up of sheet flow across a wide carriageway can
become a safety problem, and three-lane carriageways on
straights are usually crowned with one lane falling towards
the median.
At intersections, the crown position may have to be varied to
suit drainage and the grading of the intersecting road. The
whole pavement surface area has to drain while retaining
satisfactory riding qualities for all traffic movements, having
regard to vehicle speeds. Usually, it is desirable to prepare
pavement surface contours or profiles to assist design and
subsequent construction.
On straight sections of divided roads where the crossfall of the
pavement is away from the median and the shoulders are not
sealed, it would be usual for the crossfall of the median
shoulder to be towards the median. With this arrangement,
reversed crossfall where pavement meets shoulder, the slope
of the median shoulder may be reduced as necessary to give a
total change of crossfall, pavement to shoulder, of not more
than 7%. Desirably, on curves with superelevated pavements,
shoulder crossfall should match that of the running lanes.
Where design constraints make this difficult, the friction
demand of a vehicle passing onto the shoulder at the design
speed should be checked.
With superelevated curves on divided roads, the two
carriageways may be both in the one plane, or they may be in
parallel planes with the difference in levels taken up with the
median. Where the two carriageways are far enough apart
that they may be graded independently of one another, there
may be a natural or undisturbed median area between them.
Where the two carriageways are closer together, the crossfall
and drainage of the median may begin to be a control on the
relative levels of the two inner carriageway edges.
11.5 Shoulder
11.5.1 Function
Road shoulder carries out two functions:
Traffic; and
Structural.
The traffic functions of the shoulder are:
An initial recovery area for any vehicle which may get out
of control;
A refuge for stopped vehicles on a firm surface at a safe
distance from traffic lanes;
A trafficable are for emergency use;
Space for cyclists;
Clearance to lateral obstructions; and
For road train routes, the shoulder has the additional
function of providing for the additional tracked width
associated with road trains. Refer Section 11.2
The structural function of the shoulder is to provide lateral
support to the road pavement layers.
11.5.2 Width
Shoulder width is measured from the outer edge of the traffic
lane to the edge of usable carriageway and excludes any berm,
verge, rounding or extra width provided to accommodate
guideposts and guard fencing. Wide shoulders have the
following advantages:
Space is available for a stationary vehicle to stand clear of
the traffic lanes; a vehicle standing partly on a shoulder
and partly on a traffic lane may be a hazard.
Space is available on which vehicles may deviate to avoid
colliding with other vehicles and on which a driver may
regain control of his vehicle.
The resulting wider formations increase driver comfort and
the quality of service of the road.
They contribute to improved sight distance across the
inside of horizontal curves.
Table 11.1 lists shoulder width values for two lane rural roads
based on AADT volumes. These widths allow a vehicle to stop,
or a maintenance vehicle to operate, with only partial
obstruction of the traffic lanes. Provided volumes are not high
or sight distances are sufficiently long, this will not present an
undue hazard to traffic.
A width of 2.5m is needed to allow a passenger vehicle to stop
clear of the traffic lanes.
RURAL ROAD DESIGN 65
A width of 3.0m allows a passenger vehicle to stop clear of the 11.5.3 Shoulder Sealing
traffic lanes and provides an additional clearance to passing
traffic. It also allows a commercial vehicle to stop clear of the
traffic lanes.

The cost of maintaining road shoulders does not rise in

proportion to their width. However, the cost of the initial
construction involves additional earthwork and pavement
costs. In reconstruction of older pavements, the provision of
wider shoulders may increase the costs extensively.
Therefore, an economic balance must be achieved in
shoulder width, and in the case of upgrading work this
element can be very significant.

The aim should be to provide shoulders of 1.5 m to 2.0 m

wherever possible, and up to 2.5 to 3 m on higher volume
roads. Because most vehicles standing on road shoulders
exercise some choice as to the stopping place, it is desirable to
take every opportunity to provide areas at intervals where
vehicles can stop completely clear of the traffic lanes, such as
on low fills where flattening the slopes automatically provides
this, or at the transition from cut to fill where minor additional
earthworks involved can be made at low cost.
On a divided road, refer Table 11.2; with two lanes in each
direction, it is desirable to provide shoulders at least 2.5m wide
on the left side of each carriageway and 1.0m wide on the
median side of each carriageway. If the divided road has three
lanes in each direction, it is preferable to have wide shoulders
on both sides of both carriageways. This limits the number of
lanes a vehicle may have to cross in the event of breakdowns
to stop clear of the traffic lanes.
are desirable at the edge of the traffic lanes. Otherwise, in the
case of narrow partial sealing, usage of the additional seal as
part of the traffic lanes merely transfers the problem to the
new edge.
To minimize the effect of wind erosion on shoulder material, a
1.0m seal is often used on roads carrying AADT over 2000 vpd
(with 10% heavy vehicles (Ref. 90)).
The widths required for the various functions are set out in
Table 11.4.
A full width seal should be considered under the following
conditions:

11.5.3 Shoulder Sealing Adjacent to a lined table drain, kerb or dyke;

Shoulders may be wholly or partially sealed. Sealing of
shoulders is frequently done to reduce maintenance costs and
to improve moisture conditions under pavements, especially
under the outer wheel path.
However, from the geometric design point of view, the
shoulder is regarded as being usable by traffic. Partial sealing
ensures this by protecting the lane edge against the
development of the broken edges or drop offs that occur
adjacent to the traffic lanes and results in the whole shoulder
width remaining usable to traffic up to 2.5m wide.
Where a safety barrier is to be provided;
On the outer shoulder of a superelevated curve;
On floodways;
Where rigid pavement is proposed
Where environmental conditions require it;
Where needed to reduce maintenance; and
In high rainfall areas.
A contrast in texture or colour between the sealed shoulders
and the pavement would assist in defining the limits of the
traffic lanes and supplement the edge lines. Where median
shoulders are not sealed, depending on median configuration,

The desirable width of sealed shoulder depends on many Table 11.4: Shoulder Width
factors including:
Function of Shoulder Sealed
Traffic composition; Width
AADT; (m)
Access;
Operating speed; Lateral support of pavement 0.5
Rainfall; and
Shoulder pavement. Control of water flow path on outside curves 1.0

Initial recovery area 0.5

While 0.5m wide seals on the shoulders should be considered
the minimum when the predicted AADT is less than 2000, Discretionary stopping
more sealed width is often warranted. In some instances, - Cars 2.5
partial shoulder sealing is widened to full width adjacent to - Trucks 3.0
concrete gutters and on the topside of superelevated curves.
In wetter areas where moisture control is required, shoulder Bicycle demand 2.0/3.0
width of 0.5 m is desirable and 1.0 m is preferable. In the case
of full or partial sealing of shoulders, longitudinal edge lines Source: Ref. 99

66 RURAL ROAD DESIGN

it may be found that the width of 1 m is not suitable for
maintenance using mechanical equipment. A width of 1.5 m
or 2 m may, therefore, be adopted.
11.5.4 Crossfalls
Shoulders generally should be steeper than the adjacent traffic
lanes to assist surface drainage (marginal increase of 1%).
However, where the shoulder consists of full depth pavement
and is sealed, its slope may be the same as the adjacent
pavement in order to facilitate construction.
On straights the shoulder crossfall is shown in Table 11.5
On superelevated sections of roads, the shoulder on the high
side and low side must have the same crossfall as the traffic
lanes. A cross fall of 5% or more extended across the verge may
lead to more frequent maintenance and should be monitored.
Table 11.5: Shoulder Crossfall
Shoulder Material Crossfall %
Earth, Loam 56
Gravel and crushed rock 45
Full depth pavement with bitumen
seal or asphalt as wearing course Match traffic lane
Concrete Match traffic lane
11.6 Verge
The main functions of the verge are to provide:
Traversable transition between the shoulder and the batter
slope;
A firm surface for stopped vehicles at a safe distance from
traffic lanes;
Support for the boxing edge and shoulder material;
Space for installation of guide posts and road safety
barriers; and
Provide rounding between the formation cross slope and
embankment batter slope to assist controllability of
vehicles, which encroach the formation and to reduce
scouring due to road storm water run off.
Table 11.6: Verge Width
Function
1 Shoulder support and locate guide posts
2 Traversable transition between the shoulder and the batter slope (depending on how
steep the superelevation and/or batters might be and what batter rounding is required)
3 To provide a space for installation of road safety barrier (extra for terminals)
4 To achieve horizontal sight distance, or to balance cut and fill
The minimum widths for these functions are shown in Table 11.6.
It is not intended that verge widths should vary continuously.
Designers should apply long sections of appropriate minimum
verge width with short transitions where greater or lesser
widths are required.
Verge and batter toe rounding are of critical importance in
minimizing rollover accidents. Verge rounding (see Figure
11.3) enables tyre contract to be maintained and decreases
the likelihood of rollover. An errant vehicle may become
temporarily airborne where the verge is only 0.5m wide, and
the change in slope is greater than 7 per cent. Verges and
verge rounding should be provided on unkerbed medians
where the lateral change in grade is greater than 10 per cent.
Also, rounding at the toe of batter reduces the potential to
overturn due to tripping.
11.7 Batters
Batters are surfaces, commonly but not always of uniform
slope, which connect carriageways or other elements of cross
sections to the natural surface. Batters may:
Provide a recovery area for errant vehicles;
Be used as part of the landscaped area; and
Be used for access by maintenance vehicles.
Batter slopes are usually defined as the ratio of one vertical on
x horizontal and are shown as, for example, 1 on 4.
The following factors should be considered when selecting
batter slopes:
The results and recommendations of geotechnical
investigation;
Batter stability;
Batter safety (economics of eliminating safety barriers);
Future costs of maintaining the adopted slope;
Appearance and environmental effects;
Earthworks balance;
Available width of road reserve; and
Landscaping requirements.
Slopes flatter than the desirable maximum (see Table 11.7)
should be used where possible.
In shallow cuttings (up to about 3 meters depth) it is common
practice to flatten cut batters beyond that required for stability
purposes for improved appearance. In areas where the batters
transition from cut to fill, a catchline treatment (a constant
Width (m)
1.0
1.0 to 6.0
1.5
Where required, 3m to 5m.
RURAL ROAD DESIGN 67
Table 11.7: Design Batter Slopes (without safety barriers)

CLASSIFICATION CUT SLOPES FILL SLOPES

Height Desirable Maximum Height Desirable Maximum

ARTERIAL RURAL
DIVIDED
Batter: Earth H < 3m 1 on 3 1 on 2 H < 3m 1 on 6 1 on 4
H > 3m 1 on 2 1 on 1.5 H3 - 12m 1 on 4 1 on 2(2)
H > 12 1 on 2(2) 1 on 2(2)

Batter: Rock 1 on 0.5 1 on 0.25 - - -

Table Drain Batter 1 on 6 1 on 2 - -

Median Batter 1 on 10 1 on 6 1 on 10 1 on 6

RURAL
UNDIVIDED
Batter H < 3m 1 on 3 1 on 2 H < 3m 1 on 6 1 on 3
H > 3m 1 on 2 1 on 1.5 H > 3m 1 on 4 1 on 4

Table Drain Batter 1 on 4 1 on 2 - -

LOCAL

Batter H < 3m 1 on 2 1 on 1/5(1) H < 3m 1 on 4 1 on 2

H > 3m 1 on 2 1 on 1/5(1) H > 3m 1 on 4 -1 on 2(2)

Table Drain Batter 1 on 4 1 on 2 1 on 6 1 on 4

Notes:
(1) May be steeper in rock cut. Source: Ref. 99
(2) Batter with roadside safety barrier installed.
(3) A benched fill slope batter of 1 on 1.5 may be considered in specific cases.
(4) Batter slopes may vary depending on height and geotechnical reports.

Figure 11.3: Verge Rounding

68 RURAL ROAD DESIGN

batter offset) may be used to smooth the transition from
adjoining cut to fill. It also blends the batters into the
surrounding terrain as it follows the natural slope of the surface.
Catchlines, or constant batter widths are also applicable, on the
grounds of aesthetics, in flat and gently undulating terrain.
Where shoulders are near the minimum widths given in Table
11.4, opportunity should be taken to provide pull-off areas at
intervals, on low fills (0.5 m) and at the transition from cut to
fill. Catchline treatment assists this provision.
Where earthwork volumes are significant, maximum batter
slopes are dictated by the angle at which the material will stand
cut, or at which it can be shaped for a stable embankment.
While solid rock cuttings might be stable when vertical, it is
unusual to adopt a slope steeper than 1 on 0.25, as otherwise
the cutting walls can give the impression of leaning inwards.
ends of the bench and discharged on to the natural ground. In
some instances, the invert so formed may require lining.
The minimum width of bench should be 3m (see Figure 11.4)
with a maximum crossfall of 10%. The desirable width of
bench for maintenance and drainage purposes is 5m.
11.7.2 Batter Rounding
Rounding of the tops of all cut slopes is essential in order to
reduce erosion, especially riling. The size of the rounding is in
the range of 1m x 1m minimum up to 6m x 6m maximum,
proportional to the height of the batter.
Rounding of 1m x 1m shall be applied to the base of all fill
batters steeper than 1 on 3, to avoid tripping of errant vehicles.

Accidents can occur where vehicles run off the road and the 11.7.2 Batter Rounding
driver loses control on a steep embankment or the vehicle runs
into a cutting wall or drain. The severity of this type of accident
may be reduced if the batter slopes are sufficiently flat for the
driver to recover control of the vehicle. However, where truck
volumes are high (10% and more), embankment slopes flatter
than 1 on 6 are desirable, refer also Section 17.3.1.

For maintenance purposes (grass mowing) a maximum batter

slope of 1 on 2 for side boom slashers is to be used. However,
this cannot be achieved in some areas due to geotechnical
restraints. A 1 on 4 is the preferred maximum batter slope for
a slasher (the most widely used maintenance machine).
Mowers and slashes are likely to overturn on a 1 on 3 or
steeper batter. Irregularities in the batter face may contribute
to overturning. The steepest slope preferred for planting
purposes is 1 on 3 and will assist revegetation.

11.7.1 Benches

On high batters (generally exceeding 10m vertical height) or 11.8 Medians

where batters are constructed on unstable material,
consideration should be given to the provision of benches.
Benches can have the beneficial effects of:
Eliminating the need to flatten the batter slope in the
interests of stability;
A median may be defined as a strip of road not normally used
by vehicular traffic, which separates opposing traffic lanes. Its
main function is to separate opposing streams of traffic and to
limit conflict areas for turning traffic, thereby significantly
reducing the risk of severe collisions and increasing the safety
of the road. In addition, medians can:

Minimizing the possibilities of rock falling on to the Reduce conflict with vehicular traffic waiting to turn right
pavement; (by provision of protected turning lanes);

Reducing scour on the batter face; Provide space to shelter crossing traffic at unsignalised
intersections;
Reducing the amount of water in cuttings to be carried by
the table drain; Reduce headlight glare;

Providing easier access for maintenance of the batter face; Provide a recovery area for out of control vehicles;

Improving the appearance of the cutting; Provide emergency stopping areas;

Assisting the re-establishment of vegetation; Reduce air turbulence between opposing traffic;

Improving sight distance on horizontal curves. Accommodate level differences between carriageways;

Benches should be sloped away from the roadway and Provide scope for improvement of visual amenity by
longitudinally so that stormwater can be drained towards the landscaping;

RURAL ROAD DESIGN 69

Figure 11.4: Benches

70 RURAL ROAD DESIGN

 Provide areas for the location of road furniture on the right 11.8 Median
hand side of carriageways.

Medians are usually incorporated in all rural roads of four

lanes or more. They may be raised or depressed as shown in
Figure 11.5.

A depressed median should be of sufficient width to place the

invert of the median drain below subgrade level to facilitate
drainage of pavement layers. If this cannot be achieved,
pavement subsurface drains shall be provided. Subsurface
drains may be required as a result of the fill material type, even
if a median drain below subgrade level is provided. The
absolute minimum width of a depressed median is 10 meters
(for drainage reasons), and 15m are a desirable minimum.

Numerous studies have shown that wider medians improve

safety and that 90% of run off the road incidents deviate less
than 15 m from the edge of the carriageway. However, the
marginal effectiveness of increased width drops rapidly (80%
of these incidents deviate less than 10 m) and, where land is
expensive, it is hard to justify widths greater than the
minimum. In most rural areas, the additional cost of a wide
median is small and widths of 15 m (and more) can be
warranted. For Medians less than 15m, roadside safety barriers
need to be used to minimise cross-median incidents.
Raised medians are sometimes used, especially in cuttings, and
have some advantages with headlight glare and a reduction in
earthwork costs; however, the cost advantage is somewhat
mitigated by additional drainage and safety barrier costs.
The width of a median need not be constant and independently
aligned and graded carriageways have much to commend,
provided that the opposing carriageway is not out of sight for
extended periods. Local widening at intersections may be
necessary to accommodate crossing or turning heavy vehicles.
Due to numerous factors, usual practice is to widen on the
median side for extra lanes and the median width adopted
should include provision for future widening.
Further discussion on the function and design of medians is
provided in Road Medians, AASHTO 1996 Roadside Design
Guide, Ref. 2.

Figure 11.5: Typical Median Cross Sections

RURAL ROAD DESIGN 71

11.9 Roadside Drains 11.9 Roadside Drain

Roadside drains remove water from the road and its

surroundings in order to maintain the traffic safety and strength
of the pavement. The basic types of roadside drains are:

Table drains;
Catch drains; and
Median drains.

11.9.1 Table Drains

Table drains are located on the outside of shoulders in cuttings

or alongside shallow raised carriageways in flat country. An
unsealed table drain should have its invert level below the level
of pavement subgrade for effective drainage of the pavement.
This becomes less important where a subsurface drain is
provided at the edge of the pavement.

Where scour is likely because of the nature of the material or

because of the longitudinal grading, some type of protection
of the drain invert would be required. This protection could
take the form of loaming and grassing, rock lining or concrete.
Lining is generally applicable where the material is likely to
scour due to velocity. The terminal treatment at the bottom of
a steep drain is also important.
Consideration may also be given to sealing the outer edges of
the pavement, the shoulder verges and the drain lining where
siltation or scour could be a problem. Typical table drain details
are shown in Figure 11.6.
In flat country, the table drain is sometimes used as a source of
borrow material. Flat bottom inverts may be adopted where
there is a shortage of materials, and this has the additional
benefit of reducing scour of the invert. The use of V drains
should be discouraged due to adverse scouring potential. Table
drains in flat country can hold water and cause damage to the
pavement in some areas.
The side slopes of table drains should be flat enough to
minimize the possibility of errant vehicles overturning. Side
slopes not steeper than 1 on 4 with a desirable slope of 1 on
6 are preferred.
11.9.2 Catch Drains
Catch drains are located on the high side of cuttings clear of
the top of batters to intercept the flow of surface water and
upper soil seepage water (Figure 11.6). Their purpose is to
prevent overloading of the table drain and scour of the
batter face.
They are generally located at least 2.0 m from the edge of
the cuttings in order to minimize possible undercutting of the
top of the batter. Catch banks are sometimes used instead of
drains to reduce effects of seepage on stability of the batter
slopes.
11.9.3 Median Drains
Where depressed medians are adopted, the median will be
required to perform functions similar to those of a table drain.
There are no special considerations required when raised
medians (kerbed) are adopted; normal design practice applies
where the kerb acts as a channel.
11.10 Noise Barriers
Traffic noise and the need to protect the abutting environment
are discussed in Section 6.3.
Cross-sectional detail to provide for noise barriers is shown on
Figure 11.7.
11.11 Right of Way
The clearance to the right of way boundary can be measured
from either the batter line or the edge of traffic lanes. It is
dependent upon several factors including:
Class of road;
Landscape planting;
Drainage requirements;
Access for maintenance vehicles;
Batters;
Batter rounding;
Requirements for services; and
Cost, etc, in obtaining additional right of way.
Generally, a clearance of at least 5m to the batter line and 10m
to the pavement edge is desirable.
Extra clearance may be needed adjacent to high cut batters to
prevent the erosion of batters affecting adjacent property.
11.12 Widths of Bridges
A guide to the width of traffic lanes on bridges and the
clearance between the outer edge of traffic lanes and
structures such as retaining walls, bridge handrails, guard
fencing, and subways are set out in the Austroads Bridge
Design Code (Ref. 29). Refer also to Section 9.13.

72 RURAL ROAD DESIGN

Figure 11.6: Catch Drains and Table Drains

RURAL ROAD DESIGN 73

Figure 11.7: Noise Barrier Cross-Section Detail

74 RURAL ROAD DESIGN

 5 OT H E R D E S I G N C O N S I D E R AT I O N S
12. P R I N C I PA L FA CTO R S
The principal factors influencing the choice of design standard
for a road are as follows.
12.1 Financial Level
The appropriate design standard for a particular road depends
on both the overall availability of finance and the state of
development of the road network. When the overall network
is substantially adequate and finance is available, improvement
projects will be directed at operational safety and efficiency,
and higher geometric standards are appropriate. When the
network is inadequate in terms of traffic demand and funds
are limited, geometric standards may be lowered selectively on
parts of the road system. The state of the network and the
funding position are partly dependent on population, and the
developed area over which the network must spread. In
Australia, these vary between geographical and administrative
regions, and it is reasonable that the appropriate design for
individual roads should differ somewhat between regions.
12.2 Safety
Whatever design standard is adopted, safety is a major goal of
road design. The theme of enabling the driver to perceive
hazards in time to take appropriate action, and of providing
geometric parameters appropriate to the likely speed of
operation, runs throughout the Guide. Further, vehicles can
get out of control, and items like traversable batter slopes,
roadside safety barriers, breakaway light poles and sign
supports are desirable attributes of what has been described as
a forgiving roadside.
12.3 Energy
The total road fleet makes considerable use of liquid fuels and
other products derived from crude oil. Grades exceeding about
5% cause greater consumption of fuel by heavy vehicles in the
uphill direction than they save in the downhill direction.
However, the greatest changes in the energy consumption
related to transport spring from questions of appropriate
modes for long freight haulage, and from land use
distributions in urban areas. At the present stage, flattening of
grades can rarely be justified on the basis of energy saving
alone.
12.4 Stage Construction
In a situation of changing land use and growing traffic, no
road can ever be regarded as final. There will always be
requirements for future augmentation or modification. Where
it is obvious that medium term requirements would alter the
best-staged design for a particular road, it is often possible to
modify the design slightly to provide better options for future
action. While this ties up some funds and prevents their use on
other current projects, the effect can be much less than if the
longer-term design was adopted in the first instance.
One area where this approach is relevant is the high functional
class low volume road. Even here, however, one must be
aware of committing large amounts of current funds for very
long-term options.
13. AUXILIARY LANES
13.1 General
Auxiliary lanes are adjacent to the through traffic lanes. They
are added to maintain the required level of service on the road
and for other purposes supplementary to through traffic
movement. They are used to remove traffic that is causing
disruption to the smooth flow of traffic in the through lane, to
a separate lane. Auxiliary lanes improve the safety, capacity
and level of service on the road in question.
13.2 Types of Auxiliary Lanes
Traffic speed and congestion on rural arterial roads are largely
determined by two factors:
Alignment and standard of a road affects the magnitude
and the spread of operating speeds;
Interactions between faster and slower vehicles determine
the extent of traffic delay and congestion. The effect of
these interactions is greatest when the spread of speeds
(the difference between the operating speeds of the
fastest and slowest vehicles) is largest.
Of these two, traffic interactions have an increasingly
dominant effect on delay and congestion as traffic flows
increase. Overtaking opportunities, therefore, have a large
effect on traffic operations on rural roads. These can be
improved in varying degrees by the following methods:
Speed change lanes;
Improved overtaking sight distance;
Overtaking and climbing lanes;
Wide full depth paved shoulders;
Four lane wide cross sections;
Dual carriageway cross sections;
Slow vehicle turnouts; and
Descending lanes.
The types of auxiliary lanes discussed in this section are as follows.
Speed change lanes (acceleration and deceleration);
Overtaking lanes/climbing lanes;
Slow vehicle turnouts; and
Descending lanes.
RURAL ROAD DESIGN 75
In addition, passing bays and emergency escape ramps
(runaway vehicle facilities) are included in this category. In this
guide, weaving lanes are not treated as auxiliary lanes but as
part of the required cross section of a motorway where
weaving conditions occur.
13.3 Speed Change Lanes
13.3.1 Acceleration Lanes
Acceleration lanes are provided at intersections and
interchanges to allow an entering vehicle to access the traffic
stream at a speed approaching or equal to the 85th percentile
speed of the through traffic. They are usually parallel to and
contiguous with the through lane with appropriate tapers at
the entering point. The warrants for this type of auxiliary lane
and the desirable road layouts are discussed in Austroads
Guide to Traffic Engineering Practice, Part 5 Intersections
at grade (Ref, 18).
13.3.2 Deceleration Lanes
Deceleration lanes are provided at intersections and
interchanges to allow an exiting vehicle to depart from the
through lanes at the 85th percentile speed of the through
lanes and decelerate to a stop or to the 85th percentile speed
of the intersecting road, whichever is appropriate for the
circumstances. These lanes are usually parallel to and
contiguous with the through lanes with appropriate tapers at
the departure point on the through lane.
At intersections, the deceleration lane can be placed on either
the right or the left of the through lanes, depending on the
type of turn being effected. At interchanges, it is preferred
that the exit be from the left side for most ramps and the
deceleration lane will therefore be on the left in most cases.
Details of the requirements for deceleration lanes are given in
Austroads Guide to Traffic Engineering Practice, Part 5
Intersection at grade (Ref, 18)
13.4 Overtaking Lanes/
Climbing Lanes
13.4.1 Overtaking Lanes
On two lane two-way carriageways, overtaking lane
configurations are shown on Figure 13.1. These overtaking
lanes are provided to break up bunches of traffic and improve
traffic flow over a section of road. They provide a positive
overtaking opportunity and are sometimes the only real
chance for overtaking to occur.
The desirable layout is based on the start or end of the lane
merge location being separated by a 3 second distance of
travel time. This distance is to minimise the possibility of
conflict between opposing merging vehicles.
An acceptable layout, when the geometric considerations do
not provide for an alternative is to allow the start of the
merges to be opposite one another.
The undesirable and unacceptable configurations are shown
to highlight the possible conflict areas of late merging vehicles
if these two were to be considered. These are not to be used.
76 RURAL ROAD DESIGN
13.4.1 Overtaking lane
13.4.1.1 Overtaking Demand
The demand for overtaking occurs each time a vehicle catches
up with another and the driver wishes to maintain the speed of
travel. Provided there is no approaching traffic, this manoeuvre
can occur at where there is adequate sight distance.
As traffic volume increases the approaching traffic will restrict
the available places where overtaking can occur and these will
be further limited by the road geometry.
If demand is not met the results are: enforced following, the
growth of traffic bunches, and driver delay and frustration. In
extreme no-overtaking situations very long queues can
develop behind the slowest vehicles in the traffic stream. The
delay and frustration experienced on grades may be greater
due to the slow speed of travel. The proportion of the journey
time spent following in bunches is a useful measure of quality
of service as seen by the driver.
The type of slow vehicle influences the nature of overtaking
demand. Some vehicles can be overtaken easily anywhere
along a route, while for others an upgrade overtaking
opportunity is desirable. In evaluating the need for auxiliary
lanes, attention should be given to the type of slow vehicles
involved and whether the overtaking demand is continuous
along a route or confined to specific problem locations.
Types of slow vehicles are:
Vehicles with fairly high speeds, that slow down markedly
on grades;
Vehicles with low speeds, not affected by grades; and
Vehicles with average speeds, that are seen as slow by
those wishing to travel faster.
13.4.1.2 Overtaking Opportunities
On two-lane roads, the availability of overtaking opportunities
depends on sight distance and gaps in the opposing traffic
stream. As opposing traffic volume increases, overtaking
opportunities become restricted even if sight distance is
adequate. Sight distance that appears adequate may also be
unusable on occasions due to the size of the vehicle in front,
particularly on left-hand curves.
On an existing road, overtaking opportunities can be increased
either by improved alignment or the provision of overtaking
Figure 13.1: Overtaking Lane Configurations

RURAL ROAD DESIGN 77

Figure 13.2: Development of Overtaking Lane

78 RURAL ROAD DESIGN

lanes. Of the two options, overtaking lanes will generally prove
to be the most cost-effective in reducing the level of traffic
bunching. This is because realignment to provide overtaking
opportunities is likely to be a much more expensive option,
and even then the opportunities are only available when
opposing traffic permits. This has been demonstrated by ARRB
simulation studies, which showed that the provision of
overtaking lanes at regular spacings often led to greater
improvements in overall traffic operations than even major
alignment improvements (Ref. 58).
A two-lane two way road with overtaking lanes at regular
intervals provides an intermediate level of service between two
lane two way roads and four lane roads, undivided and
divided. The overtaking lanes may delay the need for the
provision of dual carriageways. Where a four-lane road has
already been provided, and traffic volumes are consistently
high, the need for auxiliary lanes on grades may still arise
when there are a high proportion of heavy vehicles.
13.4.1.3 Warrants
In deciding whether an overtaking lane is warranted, the
evaluation needs to be carried out over a significant route
length and not be isolated to the particular length over which
the additional lane may be constructed.
Overtaking opportunities outside the particular length can
affect the result considerably. On multi lane roads, this may not
apply since the reason for the extra lane will usually be
confined to a specific location.
The following guidelines are based on initial ARRB research
using traffic simulation and benefit-cost analysis (Ref. 59).
Alternatively, the need for an additional lane can be evaluated
in terms of level of service. In special circumstances, a more
detailed evaluation may be undertaken using traffic simulation
or the results of prior ARRB research (Ref. 58).
The basis for adopting an overtaking lane is the traffic volume,
the percentage of slow vehicles including light trucks and cars
towing, and the availability of overtaking opportunities on
adjoining sections. The percentage of road allowing
overtaking is described in section 8.4 of this Guide.
Table 13.1 gives the current-year design volumes (AADT) at
which overtaking lanes would normally be justified. These
guidelines apply for short low-cost overtaking lanes at
spacings of 3 to 10 km or more along a road in a given
direction. If spacing is less than this a specific cost benefit
analysis will be needed to justify the construction at the
shorter spacing.
Development of an overtaking lane is shown in Figure 13.2.
13.4.1.4 Length
Table 13.2 (a) presents the adopted lengths of overtaking lane
lengths that are appropriate for both grades and level terrain.
On long grades, the values for a lower operating speed should
be used. The minimum lengths provide for the majority of
movements as single over takings, but may not allow many
multiple over takings, or over takings between vehicles with
only a small difference in speed. Minimum lengths are
generally only appropriate for lower operating speeds or
constrained situations.
Overtaking lanes may be extended up to the normal maximum
length to allow start and termination points to fit in with the
terrain. However since bunches generally break up in the first
section of the overtaking lane, the additional length is not as
well utilised.
As a general rule, it is more cost-effective to construct two
short overtaking lanes several kilometres apart rather than to
construct one long one in excess of the normal maximum
length. Even when very long bunches occur at the start of an

Table 13.1 Traffic Volume Guidelines for Providing Overtaking Lanes

Overtaking Opportunities Current-year Design

Over the Preceding 5 km (1) Volume (AADT)

Description Percent Length Percentage of Slow Vehicles (3)

Providing Overtaking (2)

5 10 20

Excellent 70-100 5670 5000 4330

Good 30-70 4330 3670 3330

Moderate 10-30 3130 2800 2470

Occasional 5-10 2270 2000 1730

Restricted 0-5 1530 1330 1130

Very Restricted (4) 0 930 800 670

Note:
(1) Depending on road length being evaluated, this distance could range from 3 to 10 km.
(2) See Section 8.4.4.
(3) Including light trucks and cars towing trailers, caravans and boats.
(4) No overtaking for 3 km in each direction.

RURAL ROAD DESIGN 79

Table 13.2 (a) Overtaking Lane Lengths
Operating Overtaking Lane Lengths (excluding taper lengths) (m)*
Speed
(kmh) Minimum
50 75
60 100
70 125
80 200
90 275
100 350
110 420
Note:
* (1) Derived from Table VI Ref. 59
(2) Refer Table 13.8 for diverge and merge taper lengths
(3) For road train routes, the normal maximum should be the minimum and lengths 1.5 times the normal maximum are desirable.
overtaking lane, it is generally preferable to provide several
overtaking lanes at regular spacings rather than one very long
one. This should break up traffic bunches before they become
very long.
The length of an overtaking lane on a grade is largely
constrained by the choice of appropriate locations for start and
termination points. These should be clearly visible to
approaching drivers, and be located to minimise speed
differences between slow and fast vehicles. These constraints,
however, sometimes lead to quite long and/or expensive
climbing lane proposals.
The sight distance to the termination of the overtaking lane is
based on the distance for the vehicle in the fast lane to
complete or abandon the overtaking manoeuvre. The sight
distances required to overtake the various types of MCVs are
shown in Table 13.2 (b).
Situations may exist however, where an overtaking lane might
end where the sight distance is less than that required to
complete an overtaking. In such cases drivers will have to rely
on adequate signage of the termination.
13.4.1.5 Location
The location of overtaking sites should be determined after
considering the following:
Strategic planning of the road in question and the long
term objectives of that link the spacing and consequently,
expenditure, must be in accord with the strategy to obtain
the best use of funds over the whole network;
Nature of traffic on the section of road if queuing occurs
all along the route, then overtaking lanes at any location
will be useful; if they occur at specific locations where slow
vehicles cause the queue, then specific locations should
be chosen;
80 RURAL ROAD DESIGN
Desirable Minimum Normal Maximum
225 325
250 400
325 475
400 650
475 775
550 950
620 1070
Location of grades may be more effective to take
advantage of the slower moving vehicles;
Costs of construction of the alternative sites may get a
more cost effective solution by locating on the sites where
construction is cheapest;
Geometry of the road when the sites are not on grades,
sections with curved alignment and restricted sight
distances are generally preferable to long straight sections.
These locations will make the location appear appropriate
to the driver. However, sections with curves with reduced
safe speeds are not suitable for overtaking lanes.
If the conclusion is that the overtaking lane should be located
on a grade, the length will be tailored to fit the grade. If the
costs of the lane on the grade outweigh the benefits of being
on the grade, the lane should be located to minimise the costs.
Alternatively, a partial climbing lane could be considered (see
Climbing Lanes Section 13.4.2).
13.4.1.6 Spacing
The factors already discussed must be taken into account in
deciding the spacing of the overtaking lanes on a section. An
analysis of the operating conditions over the whole link in the
network, combined with the strategy for that link will establish
the desired locations and therefore the spacing of the
overtaking lanes. In general, if no auxiliary lanes exist,
establishing the first ones at a larger spacing will provide
better service than placing two lanes in close proximity.
In the first instance, a spacing of up to 20km (Ref 98) may be
appropriate, depending on the available overtaking
opportunities. A more desirable spacing would be from 10 to
15km with the objective of providing overtaking opportunities
every 5km in the long term. The intermediate lanes will be
provided between the initial installations as required as the
traffic grows.
Table 13.2 (b) Merge Sight Distance at End of Overtaking Lane for Cars Overtaking MCVs

Multiple Combination Vehicles

Operating Speed Car & Prime Mover B Double Type 1 Type 2
(kmh) Semi-Trailer Road Train Road Train
50 110 120 130 145

60 135 145 160 180

70 165 180 195 225

80 200 220 245 285

90 250 270 305 355

100 300 330 345 400

110 375 410 410 435

120 430 430 430 435

130 450 450 450 450

There may be cases where the spacing is closer (3km) because
of the proximity of long grade sections requiring treatment. A
further case where the spacing may be close is where two
partial climbing lanes are provided on the same long grade to
reduce the total costs involved. In all these cases, the
availability of overtaking opportunities on adjacent sections
must be taken into account.
Further research is needed into the effect of various
combinations of configurations, length and spacing, on the
traffic operations and level of service of overtaking lanes.
13.4.1.7 Improvement Strategy For
Overtaking Lanes
occur within the economic life of the overtaking lane pavement.
Sections of duplication 2km long and at 5km spacings are
usually warranted. This strategy does not necessarily preclude
the use of some overtaking lanes, particularly at the initial
stages. However, it is highly desirable to use all improvements in
the final road duplication.
Further analysis of a particular section of road will be required
to determine the optimum combination of overtaking lane
length and spacing.
13.4.2 Climbing Lanes
13.4.2.1 General

The goal of any improvement strategy is to identify and plan
for staged development that will keep pace with increases in
traffic demand, ensuring the availability of overtaking
opportunities at regular intervals. A strategy for improving
operational performance of two-lane two-way rural roads
should consider overtaking lane strategy in the context of
potential future road duplication.
With an overtaking lane strategy, overtaking lanes should be
provided to maintain the desired level of service. Full
duplication of the road will not normally be anticipated during
the economic life of these improvements. This period of time,
typically 20 years, will be used to recover the cost of the
improvements. This strategy should be applied when there are
no existing overtaking lanes. The proposed spacing (for each
direction) will typically be 3 to 10 km.
Climbing lanes can be considered as a special form of
overtaking lane but they are only provided on inclines. Where
they are provided, they form part of the network of overtaking
opportunities and will therefore have an effect on decisions on
the location of other overtaking lanes.
On multi lane roads, there is no need to take account of the
overall overtaking situation, as the effect is limited to the
specific location of the grade in question. The decision on
whether to add a climbing lane is based on level of service
considerations only. Climbing lanes on multilane roads are
specifically provided for slow moving vehicles and are
therefore treated differently for signing and line marking.
Refer Section 13.5.
13.4.2.2 Warrants

The upper limit for an overtaking lane strategy is 800 veh./hr,
if the desired level of service is C. If the desired Level of Service
were B, 500 veh/hr would be the upper limit (Ref. 66).
For hourly traffic volumes above the suggested limits, a
strategy that is compatible with future road duplication should
be adopted. In this situation, full duplication will normally
Climbing lanes are warranted where:
Truck speeds fall to 40km/h or less; and
Traffic volumes equal or exceed those in Table 13.3.
In addition, climbing lanes should be considered where:
Long grades over 8% occur;
Accidents attributable to the effects of the slow moving
trucks are significant;

RURAL ROAD DESIGN 81

Table 13.3: Volume Guidelines for Partial Climbing Lanes

Overtaking Opportunities Over Current Year

the Preceding 5km (1) Design Volume (AADT)
Description Percent Length(2) Percentage of Slow Vehicles(3)
Providing Overtaking
50 110 120 130 145
5 10 20
Excellent 70-100 4500 4000 3500
Good 30-70 3500 3000 2600
Moderate 10-30 2500 2200 2000
Occasional 5-10 1800 1600 1400
Restricted 0-5 1200 1000 900
Very Restricted (4) 0 700 600 500

Note:
(1) Depending on road length being considered, this distance can range from 3 to 10km.
(2) See section 8.4.4.
(3) Including light trucks and cars towing trailers, caravans and boats.
(4) No overtaking for 3km in either direction.

Table 13.4 (a) Grade/Distance Warrant (Lengths (m) to Reduce Truck Vehicle Speed to 40 km/h).

Approach Speed (km/hr) +ve Grade%

4 5 6 7 8 9 10

100 - - 1050 800 650 550 450

80 630 460 360 300 270 230 200

60 320 210 160 120 110 90 80

Table 13.4 (b): Merge Sight Distance at end of Climbing Lane for Cars Overtaking MCVs

Multiple Combination Vehicles

Operating
Speed Car & Prime B Type 1 Type 2
(km/h) Mover Semi Trailer Double Road Train Road Train

50 100 100 105 120

60 130 130 135 155
70 150 160 175 205
80 185 200 220 260
90 230 250 280 325
100 285 305 345 400
110 350 350 350 400
120 385 385 385 400
130 400 400 400 400

82 RURAL ROAD DESIGN

 Heavy trucks from an adjacent industry enter the traffic
stream on the up grade; and
The level of service on the grade falls two levels below that
on the approach on the up grade or to level E (Ref 1.).
Development of a climbing lane is shown in Figure 13.2.
it will be satisfactory to use a turnout on part of the up grade.
A turnout may be appropriate if traffic volumes are low or
construction costs are very high.
Turnout lengths of 60 to 160 m for average approach speeds of
30 to 90 km/h respectively and a width of 3.7 m is to be used.

13.4.2.3 Length If a turnout is used, care must be taken to provide adequate

The length of the grade and the start and end points of the
lane dictate the length of the climbing lane. The theoretical
start point is taken as the point at which the speed of the truck
falls to 40km/h and decelerating. The point at which the truck
has reached a speed equal to operating speed minus 15km/h
and is accelerating determines the end of the lane. The
starting and ending points of the lane should be clearly visible
to drivers approaching from that direction.
sight distance. Signing at the start and merge points are
required to better indicate diverge and merge locations. The
minimum sight distance should be stopping distance for the
Operating Speed.
13.5.2 Passing Bays
On two lane two-way roads a passing bay may be provided as
shown on Figure 13.4, for slow vehicle turnouts.

Table 13.4 (a) indicates the lengths on constant individual grades On steep grades where truck speeds can reduce to a crawl
needed to produce a reduction in truck speed to 40km/h. speed less than 20km/h and a full climbing lane can not be
provided, passing bays may provide an improvement to traffic
Truck speeds on grades can be assessed using the curves flow. A passing bay is a very short auxiliary lane (of the order
included in Figure 13.3 and the longitudinal section of the
road. These curves assume an entrance speed to the grade of
100km/h. This is conservative as modern trucks can operate at 13.5.2a Passing bay (sequential)
highway speeds approaching those of cars. If more precise
design is required, the conditions should be analysed using
software designed to simulate truck performance and using
entrance speeds based on the operating speed at the site.

The sight distance to the termination of the climbing lane is

based on the distance for the vehicle in the fast lane to
complete or abandon the overtaking manoeuvre. The sight
distances required to overtake the various types of MCVs are
shown in Table 13.4 (b).

The starting point should be located at a point before the

warrant is met to avoid the formation of queues and possibly
hazardous overtaking manoeuvres at the start of the lane.

If the length of climbing lane exceeds 1200m, the design

should be reconsidered. Options include:

Partial climbing lane;

Passing bay(s) in extreme conditions;
Overtaking lane prior to the grade (where the delays on
the grade are not excessive); and
Retention of the climbing lane where traffic volumes are
sufficiently high.

13.5 Slow Vehicle Turnouts

13.5.1 Partial Climbing Lanes

A turnout is a very short section of paved shoulder or added

lane that is provided to allow slow vehicles to pull aside and be
overtaken. It differs from an overtaking lane in its short length,
different signing, and the fact that the majority of vehicles are
not encouraged to travel in the left lane.

On dual carriageways a partial climbing lane for slow vehicles

can be provided as shown on Figure 13.4.

While climbing lanes should preferably be designed to span

the full length of the grade, there may be circumstances where

RURAL ROAD DESIGN 83

Figure 13.3: Determination of Truck Speeds on Grades.

84 RURAL ROAD DESIGN

of 100m) that allows a slow vehicle to pull aside to allow a
following vehicle to pass. The passing bay provides for the
overtaking of the slowest vehicles and is only appropriate if all
of the following conditions are met:
Long grades over 8%;
High proportion of heavy vehicles;
Low overall traffic volumes; and
Construction costs too high for full climbing lanes.
Passing bays must be properly signed to ensure their
effectiveness. Normally, 300m advance warning of the location
of the bay is required to allow heavy vehicle drivers to prepare
for the overtaking manoeuvre and to alert other drivers to the
approaching facility.
13.6 Descending Lanes
On steep down grades the speed of trucks will be as low as
that on equivalent up grades as shown on Figure 13.3 with a
similar effect on traffic flow if overtaking opportunities are not
available. A descending lane will be appropriate in these
circumstances.
Figure 13.4: Development of Slow Vehicle Turnouts
If overtaking sight distance is available overtaking will be
readily accomplished and a descending lane will not be
needed. Similarly, if a climbing lane is provided in the opposite
direction, and the overtaking sight distance is adequate,
overtaking slower down hill vehicles can be safely achieved and
a descending lane will not be needed. Where the downgrade is
combined with tight horizontal curves, a descending lane will
be appropriate to provide satisfactory traffic operation. Design
details are similar to those of climbing lanes.
13.7 Runaway Vehicle Facilities
13.7.1 General
Where long steep grades occur it is desirable to provide
emergency escape ramps at appropriate locations to slow
and/or stop an out-of-control vehicle away from the main
traffic stream. Out-of-control vehicles result from drivers losing
control because of loss of brakes through overheating or
mechanical failure or because the driver failed to change down
gears at the appropriate time. Experience with the installation
and operation of emergency escape ramps has led to the
guidelines described below.
RURAL ROAD DESIGN 85
13.7.2 Types of Escape Ramps Figure 13.5: Types of Vehicle Escape Ramps

Figure 13.5 illustrates four types of escape ramps.

13.7.2.1 Sand Pile

The sand pile types are composed of loose, dry sand and are
usually no more than 130m in length. The influence of gravity
is dependent on the slope of the surface of the sand pile. The
increase in rolling resistance to reduce overall lengths is
supplied by the loose sand. The deceleration characteristics of
the sand pile are severe and the sand can be affected by
weather. Because of these characteristics, the sand pile is less
desirable than the arrester bed. It may be suitable where space
is limited and the compact dimensions of the sand pile
are appropriate.

13.7.2.2 Descending Grade

Descending grade ramps are constructed parallel and adjacent

to the through lanes of the highway. They require the use of
single sized or uniform graded aggregate to prevent
compaction in an arrester bed to increase rolling resistance
and, therefore, slow the vehicle. The descending-grade ramps
can be rather lengthy because the gravitational effect is not
acting to help reduce the speed of the vehicle.

13.7.2.3 Horizontal Grade

For the horizontal-grade ramp, the effect of the force of

gravity is zero and the increase in rolling resistance has to be
supplied by an arrester bed composed of single sized or
uniform graded aggregate to prevent compaction. This type of
ramp will be longer than those using gravitational force acting
to stop the vehicle.
carriageway with adequate advance warning sings prior to the
13.7.2.4 Ascending Grade safety ramp exit.

The ascending-grade ramp uses both the arresting bed and the
effect of gravity, in general reducing the length of ramp
necessary to stop the vehicle. The loose material in the
arresting bed increases the rolling resistance, as in the other
types of ramps, while force of gravity acts downgrade,
opposite to the vehicle movement. The loose bedding material
also serves to hold the vehicle in place on the ramp grade after
it has come to a safe stop. Ascending grade ramps without an
arresting bed are not encouraged in areas of moderate to high
commercial vehicle usage as heavy vehicles may roll back and
jack-knife upon coming to rest.
Each one of the ramp types is applicable to a particular
situation where an emergency escape ramp is desirable and
must be compatible with the location and topography. The
most effective escape ramp is an ascending ramp with an
arrester bed. On low volume roads of less than approximately
1000 vehicles per day, clear run off areas without arrester beds
are acceptable.
13.7.3 Location of Runaway Vehicle
Facilities
Runaway vehicle facilities should not be constructed where an
out of control vehicle would need to cross oncoming traffic.
On divided roadways where adequate space is available in the
median, safety ramps can be located on either side of the
For safety ramps to be effective their location is critical. They
should be located prior to or at the start of the smaller radius
curves along the alignment. For example, an escape ramp after
the tightest curve will be of little benefit if trucks are unable to
negotiate the curves leading up to it. Vehicle brake
temperature is a function of the length of the grade, therefore
escape ramps are generally located within the bottom half of
the steeper section of the alignment.
Lack of suitable sites for the installation of ascending type
ramps may necessitate the installation of horizontal or
descending arrester beds. Suitable sites for horizontal or
descending arrester beds can also be limited, particularly if the
downward direction is on the outside or fill side of the
roadway formation.
13.7.4 Arrester Beds and Escape Exits
An arrester bed is a safe and efficient facility used to
deliberately decelerate and stop vehicles by transferring their
kinetic energy through the displacement of aggregate in a
gravel bed. An escape exit consists of any surfacing used in the
event of an emergency that will allow a runaway vehicle to exit
the downgrade off the road and decelerate to a lower speed.
For example, escape exits can be side streets, sidetracks or
accesses that are not normally signed as a safety ramp. An
arrester bed is a particular kind of escape exit. The following

86 RURAL ROAD DESIGN

13.7.4 Arrester bed and Escape Exit Note: One-way carriageway (sequential)

section lists broad guidelines for the design of arrester beds

and escape exits.

13.7.4.1 Arrester Beds

From field tests and other research studies, rounded particles

such as uncrushed river gravel with uniform gradation produce
higher deceleration than the more angular crushed aggregate.
This is because the vehicles sink deeper in to the river gravel,
transferring more energy to the stones over a shorter length.
The use of a material with low shear strength is desirable in
order to permit tyre penetration. Sand is not ideal because it
consolidates with time and moisture ingress. Crushed stone
has been used but is not considered effective as it will require
longer beds and will need regular fluffing or de-compaction.

Nominal 10mm river gravel has been used satisfactorily in

testing. The gravel should be predominantly rounded, of
uniform gradation, free from fine fractions and with a mean
particle size ranging between 12mm and 20mm. In general,

RURAL ROAD DESIGN 87

Figure 13.6: Typical Arrester Bed Layout

88 RURAL ROAD DESIGN

gravels with a smaller internal friction angle will perform better maintenance regime to ensure their continued effectiveness.
than those with larger internal friction angles.
13.7.4.2 Escape Exits
An appropriate crush test such as the Los Angeles abrasion
test (or equivalent) should be used to evaluate durability of the Lengths will vary depending on the gradient of the facility and
stone. Stones with a high crush test will not deteriorate and the surface material used (specific to the site). Wambold et al
will therefore not produce fines. (Ref 101) recommend the following formula to determine the
length of a truck escape ramp exit.
A typical arrester bed is shown in Figure 13.6.
L = 0.004V2 / (r + G)
A gradual or staged increase in the depth of the bed should be
provided on the entry ramp. This is to ensure a gradual rate of where
deceleration when entering the ramp. The first 50 metres of
the bed acts as the entry ramp and should increase in depth L = Distance to top, the escape exit (m)
from 50 mm to 350 mm of suitable material. Over the first 50
m of the arrester bed length the depth increases to 450mm V = Entering velocity (km/h)
and remains at that depth for the rest of the bed length. A bed
constructed to this design would accommodate low speed G = Grade (g1) divided by 100 (m/m)
entries within the 350mm deep section of the bed. Vehicles
entering at higher speeds will slow down significantly as they r = Rolling resistance expressed as equivalent grade (%)
reach the deeper section of the bed, thus reducing the chances divided by 100.
of the vehicle being damaged.
Values of r for several materials given in Table 13.5
The average deceleration achieved in sand or gravel bed is:

Sand 350mm deep 2.8m/sec2; Table 13.5: Rolling Resistance Values

Sand 450mm deep 3.4m/sec2;

Surfacing Rolling
Material Resistance (r)
Gravel 350mm deep 3.0m/sec2; and
Portland Cement Concrete 0.010
Gravel 450mm deep 3.7m/sec2 (Ref 91)
Ashphalt Concrete 0.012
These decelerations may be used in the following formula to
Gravel Compacted 0.015
calculate the length of an arrester bed.
Earth, sandy and loose 0.037
L = V2 / (26a + 2.55g1)
Crushed Aggregate, loose 0.050
where: Gravel, loose 0.100
L = length of full depth arrester bed excluding 50m Sand 0.15
transition at start (m)
Pea Gravel (uniform grading) 0.25
V = entry speed (km/h)

a = deceleration (m/sec2)
g1 = grade (%) (positive for upgrade, negative for
downgrade).
A 50m entry ramp provides a satisfactory and safe means of
entering the full depth of the arrester bed; this entry ramp is
not included in calculations for bed length.
Where insufficient length is available at a particular site for
stopping the vehicle at the anticipated entry speed, the bed
depth should be increased in stages from 350mm up to
450mm. The increasing depth will provide greater deceleration
toward the end of the bed allowing the vehicle to stop within
the available length. However, each case should be designed
on its merits.
The design of arrester beds and escape exits is site dependent,
and careful consideration of all of the factors discussed in
Section 13.7.4.4. For escape exits, careful consideration of the
land use adjacent to the exit is required. Local streets should
only be used at the top of steep exit grades where the truck
has decelerated to a speed equal to the posted speed limit.
Existing roads and streets used for property access should only
be used where the traffic volume is very low and there is a very
low probability of an escaping truck meeting another vehicle.
13.7.4.3 Spacing
For new projects Table 13.6 may be used as a guide when
considering the need for escape exits on grades greater than
6% and with numbers of commercial vehicles exceeding 150
per day.

Sand has problems of drainage, compaction and The distances in Table 13.6 are not absolute and greater
contamination and should not be used unless alternative distances could be acceptable, as site location is dependent on
materials are unavailable. Beds using sand will require a strict factors discussed in Section 13.7.4.4. The need for a facility

RURAL ROAD DESIGN 89

Table 13.6: Approximate Distance from Summit to of the arrester bed must be normal to the direction of entry
Safety Ramp to ensure that the two front wheels of the vehicle enter the
bed simultaneously;
Approximate Distance
Grade (%) from the Summit Comprehensive signing is required to alert the driver to the
to Ramp * (km) presence of the escape ramp;
6-10 3
Vehicles that enter the ramp will have to be retrieved, as it
10-12 2.5 is likely that they will not be able to remove themselves
from the arrester bed. An appropriate service road adjacent
12-15 2.0 to the ramp is required to effect retrieval. An alternative
15-17 1.5 and/or enhancement to the service road is the provision of
anchorage points/blocks for winching vehicles out;
17 1.0
When the location of the ramp is such that the length is
Note: inadequate to fully stop an out-of-control vehicle, a
Actual distances will depend on site topography, horizontal positive attenuation (or last chance) device may be
curvature and costs. required. Care is required to ensure that the device does
not cause more problems than it solves sudden stopping
Table 13.7: Maximum Speed Decrease between of the truck can cause the load to shift with potentially
Successive Geometric Elements harmful consequences to the driver and the vehicle.
Judgement will be required on whether the consequences
of failing to stop are worse than these effects. Crash
Maximum Decrease in Speed
cushions or piles of sand or gravel have been used as last
Grade (%) between Successive
chance devices.
Geometric Elements (km/hr)

<6 10 13.7.5 Brake Check and Brake Rest Areas

6 10 8 A Brake Check Area is an area set aside for commercial
> 10 6
will be increased if the number of commercial vehicles is more
than 250 per day and the maximum decrease in Operating
Speed between successive geometric elements is approaching
the limits set in Table 13.7.
13.7.4.4 Summary of Design
Considerations
The length of the escape ramp must be sufficient to
dissipate the kinetic energy of the vehicle;
The alignment of the ramp should be straight or of very
gentle curvature to relieve the driver of undue vehicle
control problems;
The width should be wide enough to accommodate two
vehicles if it is considered likely that a second vehicle will
need to use the ramp soon after the first one;
The arrester bed material should be clean, not easily
compacted or consolidated and have a high coefficient of
rolling resistance;
The full depth of the arrester bed should be achieved in the
first 50m of the entry to the bed using a tapering depth
from 50mm at the start to the full depth at 50m;
The bed must be properly drained;
The entrance to the ramp must be designed so that a
vehicle travelling at high speed can enter it safely. A 5
angle of departure or less is required, and as much sight
distance as possible should be provided. The leading edge
vehicles at the top of a steep descent. A Brake Rest Area,
however, is an area set aside part way down or at the bottom
of the decent.
These facilities should be provided, at least to an unsealed
gravel condition, on routes that have long steep downgrades
and commercial vehicle numbers of around 100 per day,
especially on National Highways and principal traffic routes.
These areas, when used, will ensure that drivers begin the
descent at zero velocity and in a low gear that may make the
difference between controlled and out-of-control operation on
the downgrade. It also would provide an opportunity to
display information about the grade ahead, escape ramp
locations and maximum safe descent speeds.
These areas may need to be large enough to store several
prime mover and semi-trailer combinations, the actual
numbers depending on volume and predicted arrival rate.
The location will need good visibility with acceleration and
deceleration tapers provided, as discussed in Section 8 and
Section 13.8.2. Adequate signage will be required to advise
drivers in advance of the facilities. Special signs, specific to the
site, will need to be designed for these areas.
13.8 Geometry of Auxiliary Lanes
13.8.1 Starting and Termination Points
The start and termination points of an auxiliary lane should be
clearly visible to approaching drivers from that direction. The
start point should be prior to the point at which the warrant is
met to avoid potentially hazardous overtaking manoeuvres.
Visibility to this point should be sufficient for the driver to
assess the situation and make a decision on the course of
action to take.

90 RURAL ROAD DESIGN

The termination of the auxiliary lane should only be at a point Table 13.8: Tapers for Diverges and Merges
where there is sufficient sight distance for the overtaking
driver to decide whether to complete or abandon the Operating Taper Length (m)
overtaking manoeuvre. The overtaking sight distances given in Speed Diverge Merge
Section 8.4.2 Table 8.4 may be used. These distances were (km/h) (TD) (TM)
adopted from the research (Ref 95) carried out in 1981. 60 60 100
It is desirable for the termination point to be on a straight to give 70 70 115
drivers a better visual appreciation of the approaching merge. 80 80 130
Termination on a left-hand curve should be avoided because
90 90 150
slow vehicles are seriously disadvantaged by reduced rear vision.
It is also desirable that the termination point be on a downgrade 100 100 165
to minimise the speed differential between vehicles. 110 110 180
120 120 200
There are however, some examples in the state of
Queensland where an auxiliary lane must end where the 130 130 210
sight distance is less than that required to complete an
overtaking. In such cases, drivers have to rely upon signing. A run out area should be provided through the merge area
Eye height and object height requirements at least must be to accommodate those vehicles prevented from merging as
achieved. This method should only be used when all other they approach the narrowed section. This can be achieved by
options have been considered. maintaining a total pavement width in the direction of travel
equal to at least the sum of the full lane width plus a shoulder
13.8.2 Tapers width of 2.0m over the full length of the taper plus 30m (see
Figure 13.2).
Diverging Taper
The widening of the pavement at the start of the auxiliary lane 13.8.3 Cross Section
is achieved with a taper. The length of the taper should be
sufficient to permit easy diverging of traffic with the slower 13.8.3.1 Pavement Width
traffic moving to the left and the faster traffic going to the
right lane. This length depends on the speed of the The width of the auxiliary lane should not be less than the
approaching traffic and the width of the through lane. The normal lane width for that section of road.
rate of the lateral movement is assumed to be 1.0m/sec, giving
the following formula for taper length: 13.8.3.2 Shoulder Width

TD = VW/3.6 A shoulder width of 1.0m is often satisfactory because the

where:
TD = Diverge taper length (m)
V = Operating speed (km/h)
W = Amount of pavement widening (m)
If convenient, developing the widening around a horizontal
curve can improve appearance and contribute to an easier
divergence of the traffic into the fast and slow streams
Merging Taper
At the termination of the auxiliary lane, a taper that allows the
two streams to merge into one should reduce the pavement
width. Since this situation is equivalent to the dropping of a
lane, drivers will be less prepared for the merging action than
they would be if merging from an acceleration lane. It is
therefore necessary to adopt a lesser rate of merging than for
the tapers on acceleration lanes and a rate of 0.6m/sec is used.
The minimum length depends on the speed of the
approaching traffic and the width of the lane and is
determined from the following formula:
TM = VW/2.16
pavement has been widened over the section with an auxiliary
lane. This width will have to be increased in areas of restricted
visibility (eg. around curves) and in the merge area at the end
of the lane.
13.8.3.3 Crossfall
The crossfall of the auxiliary lane will usually be the same as
the adjacent lane. Because of the additional width of
pavement, the depth of water flowing on the pavement
should be checked to ensure that aquaplaning does not occur.
It may be necessary to change the crown line to overcome this
type of problem.
13.8.3.4 Lane Configurations
The specific circumstances of each design will dictate the
preferred treatment for individual locations but the following
considerations should be taken into account when deciding on
the layout of the design:
If duplication is a longer term goal, providing a section of
four lane divided road may be a logical first stage;

where: Providing a four lane section of divided road is applicable

TM = Merge taper length (m) when the analysis of the road shows that a spacing less
V = Operating speed (km/h) than 5km is required and the topography is suitable;
W = Amount of pavement widening (m)
(This formula has been derived on the basis of a The merge areas of opposite overtaking lanes should be in
merging rate of 0.6m/sec2 of lateral movement) accordance with Figure 13.1;

RURAL ROAD DESIGN 91

 Diverges may occur opposite each other without any Perceived operational or safety problems on a given road
special requirements. section.
The use of more restrictive line markings should not be too
13.8.4 Line marking and Signing widespread, since the presence of apparently unnecessary
barrier lines can lead to driver frustration and a reduced quality
13.8.4.1 Signs of service on a road.

All forms of auxiliary lane should be signed as Overtaking

Lanes and the sign Keep Left Unless Overtaking should be
used as specified in relevant standards (see Ref 8). This form of
signing encourages maximum use of the auxiliary lane and 14. V E H I C L E S TO P P I N G A R E A S
allows overtaking even between vehicles travelling at similar
speeds.
14.1 General
The alternative signs for Slow Vehicle Lane and Slow Vehicles
Keep Left should only be used in exceptional circumstances Vehicle stopping areas are roadside facilities that are placed
where it is specifically desired to encourage a lesser use of the beyond the edge of shoulder along a roadway, allowing
added lane. Passing bays should be specifically signed to alert travellers to safely stop and rest, well clear of the through traffic.
drivers of their existence.
Provision of vehicle stopping areas is important for maintaining
The provision of advance signs for auxiliary lanes promotes an efficient and safe movement of vehicles along a route.
road safety and improves the quality of service as perceived by
the driver. Having seen such a sign, drivers wishing to overtake Vehicle stopping areas can be divided into:
may relax their search for overtaking opportunities and are less
likely to accept gaps with low safety margins. Advance signs Service Centre
are particularly appropriate when significant bunching occurs Highway Service Centre; and
for 3 minutes of driving time (at the slow vehicle's speed) Highway Service Town.
before the commencement of an auxiliary lane.
Major Rest Area
13.8.4.2 Linemarking Major rest area, catering for light and heavy vehicles
combined;
General practice for marking overtaking barrier lines on rural Major rest area, catering for light and heavy vehicles
roads is described in the relevant standards (see Ref 8). For separated; and
auxiliary lanes constructed as three-lane road sections, three Welcome Centres.
particular aspects are of relevance:
Basic Rest Area
In (direction 1 of the auxiliary lane traffic) it is normal practice Basic rest area catering for light vehicles only;
to provide a continuous barrier line over the full auxiliary Driver Reviver sites;
lane length including tapers to prohibit any use by Truck Parking areas; and
direction 1 vehicles of the third or opposing traffic lane. This Truck Changeover areas.
also serves to define the centreline of the road and indicate
that the centre lane is primarily for direction 1 traffic. Other Areas
Lay-bys;
For direction 2 (opposing traffic) a barrier line is generally Breakdown bays;
provided adjacent to the auxiliary lane diverge and Bus Bays;
merge tapers. Telephone bays; and
Enforcement areas for speed and for overloaded heavy
For direction 2 traffic adjacent to an auxiliary lane in vehicles.
direction 1, AS 1742 (Ref. 8) recommends that the
direction 2 lane separation line marking follow normal Depending on the facility provided, the use will vary for each
practice for two lane roads. This means that, if sight of these facilities, but will generally take the form of:
distance permits, direction 2 vehicles may be permitted to
use the centre lane as an opposing traffic lane provided no Stopping for fuel and food;
vehicles are encountered in that lane. Carry out emergency repairs;
Change drivers;
Some use of auxiliary lane sections by opposing traffic is Rest to alleviate fatigue;
allowed, particularly when traffic volumes are low. However Seek emergency assistance; and
there may be cases where more restrictive line marking is Pick up and/or set down passengers.
appropriate. These will generally arise when there exists a
combination of the following factors: 14.2 Service Facilities
Short auxiliary lane length 14.2.1 Rest Areas
Moderate to heavy traffic volumes
Sight distances only marginally adequate for overtaking, Rest areas are areas clear of the road carriageway, where
and vehicles may park and where basic facilities such as toilets,

92 RURAL ROAD DESIGN

picnic tables, etc. are provided. There are two types of rest 14.2.1.1 Major Rest Area
areas:

Major rest areas; and

Basic rest areas.

14.2.1.1 Major Rest Areas

Major rest areas include combined major rest areas, separated

major rest areas and welcome centres.

a) Combined Major Rest Areas

These are major rest areas that cater for both heavy and
light vehicles. These rest areas should be separated by a
distance of three to four hours driving time.

Preferably these should be placed at the crest of a hill or

in flat areas to allow trucks to enter and leave the site
easily.

Heavy vehicle parking should be separated from the light
vehicle parking areas, and any recreation facilities. Trees
or sound absorbing walls should be used for the
separation.
Major rest areas should include the following facilities:
Parking for cars, cars and caravans and trailers;
Sheltered parking for heavy vehicles;
Covered tables and seats;
Toilets;
Shelter;
Rubbish and recycle bins, if viable;
Water;
Childrens play/exercise areas;
Shade;
Lighting;
Barbecues or fireplaces, if practical;
Emergency telephones;
Access to facilities for disabled people;
Parking area for more than 10 cars;
Parking area for 5 prime movers and semi-trailers;
Information board, including local geographic and
historical information (no advertisements);
Sealed access and parking areas;
Acceleration and deceleration lanes on approach and
exit respectively; and
Turning lanes where site services both carriageway
directions.
b) Separated Major Rest Areas
These rest areas should be spaced at three to four hours
driving distance.

14.2.1.2 Basic Rest Area

RURAL ROAD DESIGN 93

 Where possible a rest area should cater for both directions
of travel.
These sites should provide 10 or more spaces for light
vehicles and 5 or more separate spaces for heavy vehicles.
c) Welcome Centres
These are centres that are designed to attract tourists and
are established at the gateway to a major tourist region,
featuring tourist and accommodation information.
These centres offer services to motorists including toilets,
telephones, food and information.
Sites should provide a minimum of 15 or more parking
spaces for cars (6m x 2.4m) and a minimum of 5 spaces for
car and caravans (14m x 2.4m).
14.2.1.2 Basic Rest Areas
Basic rest areas are provided for light vehicles only.
Basic rest areas should be provided at 50km intervals
where the AADT exceeds 1000 and the distance between
towns having comparable facilities exceeds 50km. They
should be provided at reducing intervals of 30 km where
the AADT exceeds 2500 and the distance between towns
having comparable facilities exceeds 30km (Ref. 78).
These sites can be built so that access is from one
direction only.
Sites should include:
Off road parking for cars, caravans, and trailers;
Covered tables and seats;
Rubbish bins;
Potable water;
Electricity;
Toilets; and
Five or more car parking spaces.
a) Driver Reviver
A formal approach for the placement of these sites must be
instituted with the following measures suggested:
1. Placement of driver reviver sites within rest areas;
2. Spacing driver reviver sites at 45 minutes driving time
separation.
b) Truck Parking Area
A truck parking area can be any large site separated from
the roadway by shrubs or trees to block the headlight glare
from passing vehicles but taking into account driver
security. The only facility needed at truck parking areas is a
regularly emptied covered bin.
Truck parking areas should accommodate two or more
prime mover and semi-trailer parking spaces.
c) Truck Change-over Area
A truck changeover area is a small sealed or unsealed area
where trucks can safely pull over to change drivers. These
are larger than breakdown bays as they must
accommodate the largest vehicle using any route.
94 RURAL ROAD DESIGN
Sign posting is discretionary for these sites.
14.2.1.3 Other Areas
a) Lay-bys and Breakdown Bays
The provision of wide shoulders for discretionary parking
is both expensive and unwarranted. However, there may
be a need to provide lay-bys at regular intervals for
vehicles to stand clear of the carriageway, and provision
should be made accordingly.
Passenger vehicle lay-bys should be a minimum of 4.5m
wide from the edge line and 20m long to accommodate
two vehicles. Where the predicted AADT exceeds 1000
they should be approximately 10km apart, staggered on
alternate sides of the road at 0.5km intervals. Where
volumes are less than 1000 AADT, the spacing may be
extended to a maximum of 15km. Preferably, lay-bys
should be sealed, however a gravelled surface is
acceptable. Desirable locations for lay-bys include sags,
flat areas near cutting/embankment lines, pick-up points
for country school buses, and adjacent to property access
points.
For heavy vehicles, an area of at least 4.5m in width and
50m in length is to be provided on the near side of each
carriageway at intervals of approximately 10km, to allow
trucks to stop. The design of these areas is to include
measures for the capture of all surface drainage runoff
from the lay-by. It is desirable for lay-bys for heavy
vehicles to be located on or near a crest.
b) Bus Bays
A bus bay is an indented storage area that is provided for
buses to pull clear of the through traffic flow in order to
stop and to pick up or set down passengers.
Shoulders should be widened to provide sufficient width
to enable buses to stand clear of the pavement,
particularly where sight distance is restricted or where
speeds are generally high enough that a stopped vehicle
will create a hazard.
When a bus bay is provided, it should be designed in such
a way to allow free flowing, passenger comfortable
movements and ease of manoeuvring for the largest
dimensional bus that is likely to use the facility.
Bus stops and/or bus bays should be provided at regular
intervals along a recognised bus route within rural towns
so that users generally do not have to walk more than
400 metres from their dwelling to the bus stop.
Adequate provision must be made behind the kerb line,
especially at indented bus bays, for sufficient waiting area
to allow passengers to assemble and disperse. This may
necessitate local widening of the formation/footway area
to satisfy pedestrian standing.
At schools, where the safety of children is of paramount
importance, consideration should be given to the
provision of a one-way movement bus zone.
c) Emergency Telephone Bays
Emergency telephones are installed to provide a
 communication facility for the benefit of road users
requiring assistance. Controlled access roads create an
environment where the availability of outside assistance
for a vehicle breakdown, road accidents, etc is restricted.
Therefore, emergency telephones are desirable on
controlled access roads despite other warrants not being
satisfied.
There are advantages associated with the provision of
emergency telephones, provided they are installed and
used correctly.
They will result in early attention to reported road
users problems.
They will reduce the delay in getting medical
attention to injured people, thus reducing the
possibility of loss of life.
They will reduce the time of exposure to danger by
occupants of disabled vehicles.
Location of emergency telephone facilities should be on
the near side of each carriageway, approximately
opposite one another. This alleviates the tendency and/or
necessity for road users to cross multiple lanes of high-
speed traffic to access a facility.
On routes where there are three lanes or more, and there
is an inner shoulder of sufficient width to accommodate
a broken down vehicle, median placed emergency
phones can be installed to provide a facility for use by
both carriageways, reducing the necessity to cross
multiple lanes to use the emergency telephone facility.
As a guide, on rural routes, desirable spacing is 2km with
a maximum spacing of 5km.
Emergency telephone facilities should be easily
identifiable both during the daylight hours and darkness.
If lighting is inadequate, provision must be made to
enable night-time use of the facility by road users.
Emergency telephones should be placed to allow easy
access to the facility from the carriageway. Normally,
emergency telephone facilities are to be provided just
outside the shoulder, and not in a position that is
vulnerable to errant vehicles.
Careful consideration must be given to the requirements
of road users with a disability when determining the
location and the height of the installation.
14.2.2 Location of Vehicle Stopping Areas
The appropriate locations for vehicle stopping areas should be
planned in the design stage so that earthworks, pavement
design, conduits, etc., can be installed during the construction
stage.
When considering suitable spacing for these facilities,
predetermined distances cannot be strictly adhered to.
Consideration of road user safety, isolation of a stranded
vehicle, effect of a disabled vehicle on through traffic, sight
distance to the facility, associated earthworks, etc., will
determine the actual distance between each installation.
Vehicle stopping areas between towns should complement
stopping opportunities provided by towns, aiming to provide
adequate, signposted stopping opportunities at intervals of
80km or less on routes with medium traffic volumes (2000-
5000 AADT), and at intervals of 50km or less on higher volume
routes (>5000 AADT). A signposted rest area or service centre
facility should be available at not more than twice these
intervals.
Factors to be considered in locating new vehicle stopping areas
should include:
Topography (preference to stop on crests in hilly areas);
Width of road reserve;
Scenic or aesthetic value (presence of natural features);
Potential environmental impact;
Volume and type of traffic;
Sight distance (to permit safe access to the facility);
14.2.3 Heavy Vehicle Considerations
Road transport drivers and representative groups should be
consulted on the location and facilities for planned new
roadside rest areas, changes to existing areas to allow heavy
vehicle use or changes affecting heavy vehicle use.
Stopping opportunities suitable for heavy vehicles should be
provided at 10km intervals. Because of the exposure of long
distance heavy vehicle drivers to the dangers of driver
fatigue, and legal obligation for heavy vehicle drivers to rest
from driving, stopping opportunities for these drivers should
be first priority when providing for vehicle stopping. Areas
where greater than minimum provision is required should be
identified in consultation with road transport industry
representatives.
Modifications to vehicle stopping areas must be driven by
user needs but may include provision for heavy vehicle
access, with parking separate from other vehicles to prevent
conflict during manoeuvring, reduce the disturbance of
heavy vehicle drivers rest by holiday travellers and meet the
requirements for parking of dangerous goods carrying
vehicles. Separated vehicle stopping areas may be an
alternative. However, driver security should also be
considered so that a potentially isolated driver with a
valuable cargo does not feel vulnerable.
Sealed, bypassed sections of road can be made useful
parking areas for heavy vehicles, provided that connections
with the through road are designed appropriately.
For more information refer to Guide to the provision and
signposting of service and tourist facilities AS/NZ1742.6 1990.
RURAL ROAD DESIGN 95
 15. C O M M U N I T Y C O N S U LTAT I O N
The planning and design process for rural road projects should
include consultation with local community and other
stakeholders.
The objectives of such consultation should be to:
Collect and analyse information on local conditions and
items of importance to the local community;
Provide information on the proposed project;
Obtain the views and responses from the local community;
and
Identify areas of agreement or disagreement and possible
compromises.
A variety of consultation methods can be used including:
Public meetings;
Discussions with land owners;
Direct discussion with affected owners;
Meetings with stakeholder groups;
Public displays and exhibitions at various stages of the
project with provision for community comments; and
Distribution of project bulletins.
The following basic principles should be employed to ensure
effective community participation:
Clear statements should be made at the beginning of a
project on the:
Purpose, nature and extent of the project;
Project timetable, indicating community participation;
and
General project procedure.
Affected parties should be given the opportunity to
participate and to be heard;
Flexible project procedures should be able to
accommodate the community input, as required;
Alternatives, developed and presented in a simple and
clear fashion, should be used for discussions with the
community;
Alternatives agreed to should be developed further;
Results and conclusions should be presented to the
community;
Adequate time for effective participation should be
allowed;
Quick responses should be provided on community
comments;
Participation at community activities should be adequately
resourced; and
Status of all presented materials should be provided to the
community.
The extent of community participation will depend on social
and environmental factors involved, significance of the road,
and on the possible degree of controversy of any proposals
likely to result from the project.
96 RURAL ROAD DESIGN
16. DRAINAGE
16.1 General
Any road should have an adequate drainage system to:
Maintain the natural flow of water that existed prior to
road construction;
Collect water from the road pavement and convey it to
suitable discharge points;
Protect the road from overland flow from adjacent areas;
and
Provide an appropriate level of service.
Drainage structures can also provide access across road
corridors for both terrestrial and aquatic fauna.
An effective design must balance a number of factors against
the construction cost and the proposed level of protection,
such as:
Flooding effects on adjacent properties as a result of road
construction;
Traffic delays or extra travel distance caused by road
closures during floods greater than the design Average
Recurrence Interval;
Possible structural damage to the road or adjacent
facilities due to floods greater than the design ARI;
Service life of the proposed drainage systems and the
costs of its replacement, improvement, or extension; and
Road maintenance cost.
The prime sources of data and methodology for this section
are:
Australian Rainfall and Runoff (Ref. 60);
Metric version of technical memorandum No. 61, Water
and soil Division, Ministry of Works and Development NZ
(Ref. 74);
Waterway Design, A Guide to the Hydraulic Design of
Bridges, Culverts and Floodways (Ref. 34);
Guide to the Design of Road Surface Drainage (Ref. 80);
and
Road Runoff & Drainage: Environmental Impacts and
Management Options, 2001 (Ref.104).
References more suited to local characteristics and practices
may supplement or substitute the above reference list.
16.2 Flood Estimation
Runoff flowing towards a road should be returned to its
natural course as soon as possible.
Estimates of design floods can be based upon either stream
flow or rainfall records. Stream flow records are usually held
by the regional water authorities and provide the largest flow
rate in each year. In the absence of stream flow records,
flood flows can be estimated by using mathematical
procedures incorporating rainfall data.
Australian Rainfall and Runoff (Ref. 60) is recognised in
Australia and NZ as the primary reference for the estimation
of design flood flows. In addition to the discussion of the
theory of catchment analysis and the estimation of flood
flows, it presents rainfall intensity, storm frequency and
duration data. Most road authorities have manuals and
guides to supplement Ref. 60 for local conditions.
For rural catchments flood estimation procedures available to
the designer can be divided into those used for gauged and
ungauged catchments.
For gauged catchments the following methods are generally
used:
Flood frequency analysis for catchments with long stream
flow records, where the recorded floods are statistically
analysed to estimate design floods of a selected probability
of exceedance.
Unit hydrograph methods for catchment with limited
stream flow records, where the recorded floods and
associated rainfall are used to construct a unit hydrograph.
Design storms, less losses are applied to the unit
hydrograph to obtain the design flood of the same ARI as
the design storms.
Runoff routing method for catchments with limited
stream flow records, where the recorded floods and
associated rainfall are used to derive the catchment model
parameters. Design storms, less losses are applied to the
model to produce design flood hydrographs of the source
ARI as the design storms.
For ungauged catchments, the following methods, commonly
known as regional methods, are generally used:
Rational Method as a probabilistic or statistical method in
which a peak flow of a selected ARI is estimated from an
average rainfall intensity of the source ARI.
Regional Flood Frequency Methods such as the Index
flood method and multiple regression method.
Synthetic Unit Hydrograph Methods - using regional
relationships for the parameters required to construct the
unit hydrograph.
Runoff Routing Methods using regional relationships to
estimate the model parameters.
Ref. 60 gives descriptions of each method and details of
the factors to be considered when choosing a flood estimation
procedure. It also provides guidance on when flood estimation
procedures based on rainfall should be used in preference to
flood frequency analysis.
16.3 Rational Method
The Rational Method is the most commonly used method to
estimate design flood flow in road surface catchments, which
are generally well defined and relatively small. The design flow
estimated using the Rational Method has about 25% accuracy
and is described by the following equation:
Q = CIA
360
where:
Q = peak discharge (m3/s)
C = coefficient of runoff
I = average rainfall intensity over the time of
concentration for the particular catchment and the
selected storm recurrence interval (mm/h)
A = catchment area (ha).
However, this method has a number of deficiencies. They
include:
Assumption of uniform rainfall over a catchment;
Use of a constant value of C, which assumes that runoff is
a fraction of rainfall, rather than the residual after losses
have been accounted for; and
Inability to take storage effects into account.
These deficiencies mainly apply in large rural catchments with
large proportions of pervious areas. Most road surface
drainage catchments are generally:
Small enough for the assumption of uniform rainfall to be
reasonable;
Relatively impervious; and
Surface storage is not a major issue.
As the equation does not take channel storage into account,
this may require consideration.
Earley (Ref 46) examined channel storage. He found that
channel storage lessened peak flow prediction, using the
equation, by about 2 to 7 percent. It is concluded that
refinements to take account of this relatively small difference are
not worthwhile, and the deterministic interpretation of the
Rational method represents the most appropriate method of
estimating peak flows in road surface drainage design (Ref. 80).
The coefficient of runoff is the ratio of the peak rate of runoff
to the average rainfall intensity during the critical rainfall
period for the catchment area under consideration. It is the
measure of the peak rate at which water drains from a
particular area compared to the average rate at which rain falls
on the area.
The coefficient of runoff adopted must account for the
ultimate future development of the catchment as depicted in
the strategic plan of the relevant local authority, but should
not be less than the value determined for the catchment under
existing conditions. The procedure for the determination of C
is in Ref. 60.
In cases where portions of a catchment are significantly
different, the percentage impervious of separate areas will
provide an appropriate C value to be used in the calculation of
runoff.
Intensity is measured in millimetres of rain per hour (mm/h).
Data are provided for storm durations (for which the storm
continues for the given intensity) between 6 minutes and 72
hours with frequencies (recurrence intervals or return period)
between 1 and 100 years. The data are based on 100 rainfall
stations located around Australia.
Intensity data for New Zealand is presented in Ref. 74.
RURAL ROAD DESIGN 97
16.4 Design Considerations
Water must be conveyed away from the road for the following
reasons:
Maintain adequate pavement skid resistance;
Maintain an acceptable level of road lighting performance
(Ref. 25);
Reduce spray; and
Visibility of pavement markings to be maintained.
The designer must consider the following issues:
Grading of the roadway with respect to flood levels,
ground water levels and tidal levels;
Estimated runoff;
Maximum permissible flow width on the carriageway;
Minimum size of cross culverts and outlet conditions;
Subsurface drainage; and
Consequences of a storm of greater ARI than the design
storm.
Average recurrence interval (ARI)
The average recurrence interval is the average interval of time
during which a storm event will be equalled or exceeded once.
When selecting the average recurrence interval for a design,
the following factors should be considered:
Consequence of flooding (potential damage to property,
road and structures);
Additional cost of providing for a larger ARI;
Capacity of underground or outfall drainage systems into
which the road surface drainage components will
discharge;
Level of serviceability to traffic; and
Consistency of flood immunity along other sections of the
road.
Table 16.1 Contains values of ARI, used successfully in
Australia and New Zealand in the past 20 years, and may be
used for preliminary design. The ARI to be used for final design
must be selected after evaluation of the factors listed above,
and consideration of local road authority practice.
Level of Serviceability to Traffic
The level of serviceability will depend upon the ARI of the flood
for which the stream crossing will be passable to traffic, the
Table 16.1: ARI for Road Design
Location ARI, years
Major waterway structures 100
Water bypass around water treatment facilities 100
Cross road drainage 50
Road with landlocked areas (at a sag in cut) 50
Road surface drainage 10
Bridge deck drainage 10
Road surface drainage at wide flat pavement 1 Further consideration of drainage of wide flat pavements is set
Water quality treatment (wetlands, etc) 1
98 RURAL ROAD DESIGN
serviceability requirements of the road in question, and the
duration of road closure during times of flooding.
The selection of the level of serviceability is generally based on
the following criteria:
The level of service expected by the community;
The availability of alternative routes and period of closure;
The importance of the road/access to hospitals, airports,
etc; and
Economic considerations. (Ref 34)
In addition, the requirements of local authorities,
environmental agencies, and those responsible for navigation
and flood control, will also influence type of waterway
structures and hence impact on the level of serviceability
provided.
Typical levels of serviceability are as follows:
Arterial roads generally designed to pass the 50 or 100
years ARI without interruption to traffic. However, for
arterial roads in remote areas, a reduced standard is
commonly adopted where traffic densities are low.
Minor roads are generally designed to pass the 20 (or less)
year ARI. The level of their serviceability depends upon:
The importance of the road;
Interruption to traffic significance; and
Economics of providing a higher level of serviceability.
Trafficability
Trafficability will depend upon the combination of depth and
velocity of flow over a floodway, when the frictional resistance
between a vehicles tyres and the floodway surface is
overcome and the vehicle loses stability.
Road closure is normally assumed when the total head (static
plus velocity) on a carriageway with a two-way crossfall or
across the highest edge of a carriageway with a one-way
crossfall exceeds 300mm (Ref. 34).
Longitudinal drainage
A desirable minimum longitudinal grade of 1.0% and an
absolute minimum grade of 0.3% are to drain water
effectively from the traffic lanes. However, where flat terrain
prevents these grades being achieved, the carriageway itself
can have a zero longitudinal fall, provided that water can drain
away from the road formation.
Pavement drainage
Pavement drainage is achieved by providing minimum crossfall
on the pavement of 3.0%. However, on wide smooth
pavements with flat grades there may be difficulty in
maintaining satisfactory drainage. Special problems
(aquaplaning) may occur at intersections and superelevation
transitions. With flat grades, water is shed directly towards
shoulder but problems can arise on steep grades when water
tends to flow longitudinally down the pavement. The resulting
sheet of water can cause drivers to lose control.
out in the publication Drainage of wide flat pavements (Ref
77). The formula for depth of flow is:
 0.15(TXD)0.11 L0.43 I10.59
d = (TXD) There are various methods of reducing the depth of water and
S0.42
length of flow paths that are available to the designer. These
where: may include use of two-way crossfall on one-way pavements,
d = is depth of flow measured from the top of the use of artificial crown lines, and modification of superelevation
surface texture (mm) development. Special drainage provisions such as slotted
L = is flow path length (m) channels or grated trenches may also be considered.
I1 = is a rainfall intensity for 1 year ARI
S = is the average flow path slope (%) More research and trials are required to determine the
TXD = is the texture depth measured by the sand patch or relationship between speed, rainfall intensity, water depth and
silicon putty method (mm) the occurrence of aquaplaning. In the meantime, water
depths should be limited to 4mm for a rainfall intensity
Indicative values of (TXD) are: of 1 year ARI, Table 16.1.

Burlap drag concrete 0.05mm Roadside drains

Grooved concrete 1.2mm Roadside drains include:
Dense asphalt 0.9mm Table drains;
Size 14 stone seal 3.7mm Catch drains; and
* Open grade asphalt 1.2mm Median depressed drains.

Note: Details of depth, width, gradient, and capacity of the drains

* There is some doubt about the drainage properties of open
graded asphalt in the long term. However, it may be used to
improve safety at critical locations in the short term.
Aquaplaning
Aquaplaning is the complete loss of traction and directional
control of the vehicle as a result of a fluid film between the
tyres and the road surface. The texture of the road surface and
the tread on vehicle tyres provide drainage channels for water
to escape from beneath a vehicle tyre. If these channels are
inadequate and water does not escape there is a risk of partial
or full aquaplaning.
Partial aquaplaning occurs at quite low speeds as a result of
some intrusion of a water film between the tyre and road
surface. As the vehicle speed increases the water will have less
time to escape through the tyre and road surface drainage
channels. As a result of this, a tyres contact area and skid
resistance will be reduced.
Full dynamic aquaplaning occurs when a tyre is completely
separated from the road surface by a film of water. Fluid
pressures can build up within the contact zone between the tyre
and the pavement to the point where the hydrodynamic uplift
equals the downward force exerted on the tyre. At this point,
the tyre is aquaplaning or completely supported by the water
layer. As a result, there is almost complete loss of traction and
directional control since the fluid film cannot develop the
necessary shear forces for braking or steering manoeuvres.
can be obtained by reference to Guide to the design of road
surface drainage (Ref 80) and Section 11.9.
16.5 Water Quality
Rural storm water management plans associated with rural
road projects should consider the treatment of runoff to meet
the water quality requirements as per legislation and of the
local environment protection agency or catchment
management authority.
Water quality treatment facilities should be provided to meet
the requirements of the catchment management authority.
Details of methods to manage erosion and treat storm water
can be obtained by reference to: Urban Storm Water: Best
Practice Environmental Management Guidelines (Ref. 43)
Austroads document, Road Runoff and Drainage:
Environmental Impacts and Management Options, 2001 (Ref.
104) and Water Sensitive Road Design-Design Options for
Improving Storm Water Quality of Road Runoff (Ref. 103).
Refer table 16.1 for ARI for design purposes.
16.5 Water Quality

Various research projects have been undertaken aimed at

predicting water depth as a function of rainfall intensity and
physical conditions. Guide to the Design of Road Surface
Drainage (Ref. 80) describes some of these relationships. Oliver
(Ref. 84) has concluded that currently available skid resistance
specifications or recommendations are not suitable in their
present form for use in calculating a maximum water film
depth consistent with safety for different classes of road.

Oliver (Ref. 84) also concludes that full aquaplaning will be a

rare event. It was found that a progressive reduction in tyre
friction occurs as water depth increases from just wet
condition to a film thickness of 4 mm. It was also noted that if
pavement rutting occurs, deep films of water could be present
in the wheelpath area under conditions of light rain.

RURAL ROAD DESIGN 99

 17. ROADSIDE SAFETY
17.1 Safety Objectives
Road environment factors are one of the three elements that
contribute to road crashes, the others being driver behaviour
and vehicle characteristics. It is estimated that some 30% of
crashes relate to roadside environment. While road
environment factors are often not the single cause of a crash
they can contribute to their severity.
This section is based on AASHTO Roadside Safety Barriers
and work done by Troutbeck to adjust AASHTO detail to
Australian conditions. Austroads are currently reviewing the
1987 NAASRA Safety Barriers Considerations for the
Provision of Safety Barriers on Rural Roads.
Further reading may be obtained by reference to the AASHTO
Roadside Safety Barriers 1996.
Austroads Guide to Traffic Engineering Practice, Part 4 Road
Crashes (Ref. 17) outlines various issues to be considered in the
design process that can reduce the potential for crashes. In
particular it describes the fundamentals of good design. These
include:
Designing for all road users;
Pavement surface;
Intersection design;
Intersection control;
Pavement markings and delineation;
Pedestrian crossing facilities;
Street lighting; and
Signing including guide posts.
Therefore, the following safety objectives are to be adopted
when designing a road:
Channelisation;
Intersection control;
Friction or pavement skid resistance;
Turning radii;
Traffic lane and shoulder widths;
Property access;
Signposting;
Approach speed; and
Lighting.
In general, an intersection should be obvious and
unambiguous and allow good visibility of traffic control
devices and other road users (Ref. 83).
It is appropriate to increase intersection control with an
increasing ratio between minor and major flow. Capacity
considerations will also govern the type of intersection control
required. The various types of intersection control in order of
increasing standard (and safety) are provided in Figure 17.1.
The following actions should be taken in designing for on-road
safety:
Intersections
Define and minimise the number of conflict points;
Separate conflicts;
Give priority to major movements through alignment,
delineation and traffic control;
Provide a clear indication of priority;
Control the angle of conflict crossing streams of traffic
should intersect at right angles while merging traffic
should intersect at small angles;
Define vehicle paths;
Provide adequate sight distance;
Control approach speeds to major intersections through
alignment and geometry; and
Provide suitable lighting.

Separate potential conflict points and reduce potential Figure 17.1: Scale of increasing safety of intersection
conflict areas; controls

Control the relative speeds of conflicting vehicles; Uncontrolled Intersection

Rely on priority rules
Clearly identify the path to be followed;

Ensure that the needs of all road users are considered; Assigned Priority
Giveway signs
Provide a roadside recovery area that forgives a drivers
errant or inappropriate behaviour; and
Assigned Priority
Ensure that roadside furniture is located safely. Stop signs

17.2 On-Road Safety

17.2.1 Intersections
Roundabout Signals
Intersection design and control is a major factor in improving Filter turns
road safety. The main factors in intersection safety include:

Number of legs; Signals*

Angle of intersection; Fully controlled turns
Sight distance;
Alignment; Note:
Auxiliary lanes; *Rural intersections are unlikely to be controlled by traffic signals.

100 RURAL ROAD DESIGN

17.2.2 Mid Block 17.3.1 Clear Zone

Mid block on-road safety should also be considered during It is not feasible to provide width adjacent to the carriageway
the design phase. The factors that influence mid block safety that will allow all errant vehicles to recover. Therefore it is
include: necessary to reach a compromise or level of risk management.
The most widely accepted form of risk management for
Pavement surface; roadside hazards is the clear zone concept. The clear zone is
Delineation; the horizontal width measured from the edge of the traffic lane
Shoulder width; that is kept free from hazards to allow an errant vehicle to
Verge rounding; recover. The clear zone is a compromise between the recovery
Horizontal and vertical geometry; area for every errant vehicle, the cost of providing that area and
Degree of access control; the probability of an errant vehicle encountering a hazard. The
Overtaking opportunities; clear zone should be kept free of non-frangible hazards where
Sight distance; economically possible; alternatively, hazards within the clear
Speed differential between vehicles; and zone should be shielded. The clear zone width is dependent on:
Vehicle speeds.
Speed;
The following actions should be taken in designing for on-road Traffic volumes;
safety: Batter slopes; and
Horizontal geometry.
Mid block
Define vehicle paths, especially where there are changes in It should be noted that the clear zone width is not a magical
geometry; number and where possible hazards beyond the desirable clear
Minimise headlight glare; zone should be minimised.
Provide appropriate access control for the function of the
road; Clear zone widths vary throughout the world depending on land
Provide overtaking opportunities including passing lanes or availability and design policy. The concept originated in the
bays; United States in the early 60s and has progressively been refined
Provide truck escape bays on roads with steep grades; and updated. For a typical high-speed road the clear zone width
Minimise major changes in road geometry; varies between 4.0m (France, South Africa) to 10.0m (Canada,
Minimise adverse or severe crossfall; and USA). More recent studies have found that the first 4.0-5.0m
Provide a smooth road surface with an appropriate level of provides most of the potential benefit from clear zones.
skid resistance.
Figure 17.2 provides an indication of appropriate clear zone
17.3 Recovery Area widths for a straight section of road with trafficable batters
The clear zone width increases where there is sub-standard
Roadside safety typically relates to the area adjacent to the horizontal geometry, especially on the outside of a curve or
traffic lane where an errant vehicle can recover. Providing a where non-trafficable batter slopes are present.
safe roadside involves removing or treating likely hazards that
may contribute to the severity of a crash. Non-trafficable batter slopes refers to batter slopes of steeper
than 1 on 4.

Figure 17.2: Clear Zone Widths on Straights

RURAL ROAD DESIGN 101

17.3.1 Clear Zone The clear zone width on the outside of curves increases by a
factor Fc , which depends on the operating speed and the
radius of the curve. Fc ranges between 1.0 to 1.9. Figure 17.3
provides guidance on adjustment factors for clear zones on the
outside of curves.

Where batter slopes are steeper than 1 on 4 (that is non

trafficable) designers should give consideration to the
provision of a road barrier (refer to Section 17.4).

A guide for the installation of roadside safety barriers on

embankment is shown on Figure 17.4.

Figure 17.5 indicates the variation of clear zone widths on

batters steeper than 1 on 6 to give an effective clear zone
width to be used in design.
17.3.2 1(a) Existing Hazards Within a Clear Zone
17.3.2 Existing Hazards Within a Clear Zone

Common existing roadside hazards in a rural environment

include:

Poles power poles or sign posts;

Trees;
Batters;
Dams and water courses;
Drainage and associated infrastructure like culverts and
endwalls;
Fences; and
Bridge piers.

The most desirable action is to remove or relocate hazards

17.3.2 1(b) Existing Hazards Within a Clear Zone although this is not always possible due to road reservation or
economic and environmental constraints. Where hazards
cannot be relocated then they should either be shielded or
made more forgiving.

It is becoming increasingly common for light poles and

signposts to be provided with frangible bases. This is an
attempt to provide a forgiving roadside while still providing the
necessary roadside infrastructure. Common types of frangible
poles include:

Slip base poles;

Impact absorbent poles;
Steel frangible posts;
Aluminium frangible assemblies; and
Wooden frangible posts.

The support connection of a slip base pole shears on impact

with the pole landing close to the point of impact. Impact
absorbent poles crumple and bend around the vehicle. Slip
base poles can usually be re-used after an impact and for this
reason tend to be more common. However, they can only be
used where there will not be a conflict with overhead services
in the event of an impact, and where the risk to other road
users, particularly pedestrians, is minimised.

Steel frangible posts fail on impact as a result of shear failure

planes. Aluminium assemblies collapse due to shear pin action.
Frangible wooden signposts have holes drilled at the base
creating a plane of weakness that permits the posts to collapse
on impact.

Other measures to make roadside hazards more forgiving include:

102 RURAL ROAD DESIGN

Figure 17.3: Adjustment Factors for Clear Zones on Curves

Figure 17.4: Warrants for Guard Fence on Embankment

RURAL ROAD DESIGN 103

Figure 17.5: Effective Clear Zone Widths on Batters

104 RURAL ROAD DESIGN

Table 17.1: Test levels for longtitudinal barriers (TL- 0 TO TL- 6) and test levels for terminals and crash cushions (TL- 0
TO TL- 3)

Test Vehicle mass (kg) Speed Angle Height of Centre

Level and type (km/h) degrees of gravity (mm)

0 820 C 50 20 550

1 600 C 50 25 550

1 820 C 50 20 550

2 000 P 50 25 700

2 820 C 70 20 550

2 000 P 70 25 700

3 820 C 100 20 550

2 000 P 100 25 700

4 820 C 100 20 550

8 000 S 80 15 1 250

5 820 C 100 20 550

36 000 V 80 15 1 850

6 820 C 100 20 550

36 000 T 80 15 2 050

Legend: Note:
C = small car (1). Refer NCHRP350 for Test Level Procedure
P = four wheel drive or utility truck (2) TL- 3: High-speed arterial roads
S = single-unit van truck TL- 2: Local and collector roads
T = tanker type semi-trailer TL- 0 and 1: Work zones and low speed roads
V = van type semi-trailer TL- 4 to 6: Truck and other heavy vehicles

Considering the mature trunk size of trees prior to
planting;
Installing driveable culvert end walls; and
Extending culvert walls to beyond the clear zone width.
17.4 Safety Barriers
Safety barriers are used to shield hazards that cannot be
relocated or made more forgiving. The barrier itself is a hazard
and accordingly should only be used when it is less of a safety
concern than the hazard the designer is trying to shield.
Roadside safety barrier systems may be considered for use only
after they have been satisfactorily crash tested, computer
simulated or designed by other professionally acceptable
methods that demonstrate acceptability to meet AS/NZS
3845:1999.
The crash test procedures to be adopted are based on the
AASHTO, National Cooperative Highway Research Program
Report Number 350. The European Committee for
Normalisation (CEN) has established performance criteria for
safety barriers and crash cushions as set out in CENprEN 1317-
1 & 2 procedures. The tests by CEN do provide an equivalent
set of tests to compare systems with NCHRP350.
Acceptance of the roadside safety barrier systems is based on
an evaluation of its performance in an idealised crash test
(vehicle in tracking mode; approach surface flat, paved and
free from obstructions such as kerbs) for a specific weight and
type of vehicle at designated speeds and impact angles.
In accordance with NCHRP350 procedures, there are six test
levels, refer Test Levels in Table 17.1, so as to provide for a
range of restraint requirements (vehicle size) and impact
severity conditions (speed and angle). The evaluation criteria,
refer Table 17.2, on impact of the vehicle with the barrier
system is based on the:
Structural adequacy of the barrier system;
Occupancy risk and the impact velocity and ride down
acceleration limits; and
Vehicle trajectory after impact.
The designer should be aware that the site of installation will
often be different from the test condition, the errant vehicle

RURAL ROAD DESIGN 105

Table 17.2: Safety Evaluation Guidelines

EVALUATION FACTORS EVALUATION CRITERIA

A. Test article should contain and redirect the vehicle; the vehicle should not
penetrate, under ride or override the installation although controlled
lateral deflection of the test article is acceptable.

Structural Adequacy B. The test article should readily activate in a predictable manner by breaking
away, fracturing or yielding.

C. Acceptable test article performance may be by redirection, controlled

penetration or controlled stopping of the vehicle.

D. Detached elements, fragment or other debris from the test article should
not penetrate or show potential for penetrating the occupant
compartment or present an undue hazard to other traffic, pedestrians or
personnel in a work zone. Deformations of, or intrusion into, the
occupant compartment that could cause serious injuries should not be
permitted.

E. Detached elements, fragments or other debris from the test article or

vehicular damage should not block the drivers vision or otherwise cause
the driver to lose control of the vehicle.

F. The vehicle should remain upright during and after collision although
moderate roll, pitching and yawing are acceptable.

Occupant Risk G. It is preferable, although not essential, that the vehicle remain upright
during and after collision.

H. Occupant impact velocities should satisfy the following:

Occupant Impact Velocity Limits (m/s)

Component Preferred Maximum
Longitudinal and lateral 9 12
Longitudinal 3 5

I. Occupant ride down accelerations should satisfy the following:

Occupant Ride down Acceleration Limits (Gs)

Component Preferred Maximum
Longitudinal and Lateral 15 20

J. (Optional Hybrid III dummy. Response should conform to evaluation

criteria of Part 571.208, Title 49 of Code of Federal Regulations, Chapter
V (10-1-88 Edition)

K. After collision it is preferable that the vehicles trajectory not intrude into
adjacent traffic lanes.

L. The occupant impact velocity in the longitudinal direction should not

exceed 12 m/s and the occupant ride down acceleration in the
longitudinal direction should not exceed 20 Gs.
Vehicle Trajectory
M. The exit angle from the test article preferably should be less than 60% of
test impact angle, measured at time of vehicle loss of contact with test
device.

N. Vehicle trajectory behind the test article is acceptable.

106 RURAL ROAD DESIGN

17.4 Safety Barriers Consideration of these issues and the discussion of various
barrier systems below provide general guidance on the most
appropriate system for a particular situation. Further
information should be obtained from system suppliers or the
relevant road authority.

Concrete safety barriers are best suited to situations where there

is little room between the barrier and the hazard. Typically this
occurs in narrow medians or in areas of restricted road cross-
section. The greatest concern with concrete safety barriers is the
method of termination. Available options include:

Steel guardrail terminal assembly to shield the end of the

will not be in tracking mode and ground conditions for the
support of posts will be different from the test site. Judgement
must, therefore, be exercised in the application of test results
and the performance of safety devices monitored in the field
to ensure they operate as intended.
concrete barrier in association with a bridge approach
assembly;
Burying the end of the barrier in an adjacent embankment;
and
Shielding the barrier system with an impact attenuator/
crash cushion system.
Site characteristics will determine the most appropriate type of
termination/ attenuation to use.

Test level 3 is considered to be the rating by which roadside Concrete safety barriers may be considered on high volume roads
safety barriers systems are designed. They will perform for the as they retain full functionality after impact, provide excellent
car and pick-up truck at 100 km/h at a nominal angle of 20 whole of life costs and minimise the risk to maintenance workers,
degrees. The work zone systems can be designed for test levels as maintenance is minimal after an impact.
0, 1, 2 & 3 at nominal speeds of 50, 70 & 100 km/h
respectively and 20 degrees nominal angle. Roadside safety Steel W-beam barriers are perhaps the most common barrier
barrier systems and the equivalent test level category of each and are used extensively in urban and rural areas. The
are listed. The test level rating of a barrier system can be effectiveness of W-beam is dependent on its length and offset
increased by raising the height of the top of the system and from the main carriageway. W-beam termination is also of
proven by acceptable methods: concern and standards are continually developing to improve
end terminals. Most road traffic authorities have detailed
Rigid System Test Level guidelines on the installation of W-beam and end terminals.
F-Shape concrete barrier 3 to 4 Care should be taken in meeting these requirements. The
(adopted by AS/NZS 2845/1999) impact behaviour of the W-beam and terminals should also be
New Jersey concrete barrier 3 to 4 considered to ensure that the selected system is appropriate
Sloping face concrete barrier 3 to 5 for the intended location.
Vertical face concrete barrier 3 to 5
High containment concrete barrier 5 to 6 Wire rope safety barrier works through high-tension cables. An
errant vehicle bends the supporting posts and the rope deflects
Semi-Rigid System Test Level with the vehicle before directing it back towards the direction
W-beam steel barrier 3 to 4 of travel. Wire rope safety barriers are the most forgiving on the
Thrie-beam steel barrier 3 to 4 errant vehicle of the three methods. The deflection width must
Hollow box steel barriers 3 be a design consideration for the offset of features behind the
Wire rope safety barriers - four wire rope 3 barrier. AS/NZS 3845 and relevant road traffic authority
guidelines should be referenced to establish installation
Work Zone System Test Level requirements and the acceptability of these systems.
F-shape concrete precast barriers 3 to 4
Water filled barriers 0 to 4 The location of safety barrier in the vicinity of kerb and channel
Truck mounted attenuators 3 is to be considered very carefully. If kerb and channel is essential
in high-speed locations, the line of kerb shall be located:
All these systems have specialised terminals, which will provide
control led deceleration. Terminals provide deceleration below At least 3m from the face of concrete safety barrier types;
recommended limits and ensure that the vehicle is not speared At least 3m from W-beam barrier or wire rope safety
and is not vaulted, snagged or rolled on impact. barrier for barrier kerbs;
Between 0.0 and 1.0m or at least 3m from W-beam barrier
Crash cushion systems are also used to shield hazards in or wire rope safety barrier for semi-mountable kerbs; and
confined locations, such as the junction of concrete barriers, at In areas where the Operating Speed is less than 70km/h an
ramp noses and other rigid hazards. offset of 200-300mm can be used to minimise nuisance
damage to vehicles.
A discussion of issues to be addressed in the specification of
safety barrier and crash cushion systems is included in AS/NZS Note: Semi-mountable kerb should be 100mm maximum
3845:1999 Road Safety Barrier Systems (Ref. 13). height to minimise dynamic jump.

RURAL ROAD DESIGN 107

Work zone barriers come in various forms and can be precast
concrete with impact attenuator/crush cushion terminals or
water filled plastic systems. These systems must be considered
during the design phase. Truck mounted attenuators can be
used for short term or mobile work areas.
17.5 Landscaping
In relation to safety, landscaping on road verges or within the
clear zone should:
Not obstruct sight distance;
Be frangible; and
Not obstruct sight lines to signs, delineation and traffic
control devices.
It is common for medians to be landscaped to reduce
headlight glare from opposing traffic.
Generally, trees with a mature trunk diameter less than 100
mm (subject to tree species) are considered to be frangible.
Trees with small trunk diameters (< 100 mm diameter mature)
may be used for medians and borders, while for traffic islands,
low level vegetation or trees with high canopies are
appropriate (subject to the trunks being frangible or outside
the clear zone). Provision for adequate sight distance for all
road users must be considered.
The designer must consider the balance between landscape
and road safety objectives.
17.6 Lighting
The benefits of a high level of street lighting, especially at
intersections, are well documented with a strong correlation to
night-time accident reduction.
At complex intersections an appropriate level of street lighting
should be considered. The lighting should be substantial
enough to provide the driver with a clear view of the road
alignment.
AS/NZS 1158.1.1, Road Lighting Vehicular Traffic (categories
V1, V2 and V3) Lighting Performance and Installation Design
Requirements (Ref. 12) has recently undergone a review of
acceptable lighting levels. This should be the main reference
for street lighting. The Austroads Guide to Traffic Engineering
Practice, Part 12 Roadway Lighting (Ref. 25) is a useful
background document.
17.7 Pedestrians and Cyclists
In designing a safe road environment consideration must also
be given to non-vehicular road users. The needs of pedestrians
(including those with disabilities) and cyclists are discussed in
the relevant Austroads guides (Ref. 26 and 27).
The safety issues to be addressed for on-road cyclists are very
similar to those relating to motor vehicles. It is important for
the road surface to be smooth, to minimise conflicts and to
provide appropriate delineation. Consideration should be
given to the provision of sealed shoulders on major rural roads.
Pedestrian safety relates to the number of controlled crossing
points and the provision of footpaths close to the traffic lanes.
It is desirable for footpaths to be set back from the kerb to
108 RURAL ROAD DESIGN
provide protection for pedestrians from errant vehicles. Local
specific guidelines should be referenced to determine the
provision of crossing facilities.
17.8 Temporary Works During
Construction
Appropriate traffic management requirements for construction
sites are described in the Field Guide for Traffic Control at
Works on Roads, SAA HB 81.1 816 (Ref. 92).
Construction and maintenance operations should not inhibit
traffic and, where possible, separation should be achieved
through diversion routes. Studies conducted in the United
Kingdom have identified high accident rates through work
zones where proper warning and delineation has not been
achieved.
In reality, there will always be a requirement for some traffic
movement through work zones on existing roads. Where this
is necessary, clear and positive guidance approaching and
through the work zone is a crucial element in the overall safety
of the site.
Work zone barriers can be used to shield vehicles from hazards
and provide a safer work zone. Work zone barriers need to be
approved by each road authority against the appropriate work
speed zone and NCHRP 350 Test Level before they can be used
on site, refer Section 17.4.
Careful consideration of the following factors is required for
traffic through work zones, particularly in relation to heavy
vehicles:
Alignments should desirably be designed in accordance
with the geometric guidance in this publication. They
should be designed to operate safely for the chosen
reduced speed limit (i.e. no surprises for the driver such as
adverse crossfall, abrupt changes in direction, etc);
Reduced lane widths;
Median crossovers;
Reduced number of lanes;
Clearances to hazards (trucks travel closer to hazards
because of their overhang);
Short merge zones;
Height of flashing lights (often these affect visibility for
the driver);
Provision for surface drainage, especially where pavement
works are staged; and
Provision of work zone safety barriers and truck mounted
attenuators for short term or mobile work areas.
17.9 Road Safety Auditing
Road safety auditing, especially during the design stage, serves
to identify opportunities to reduce the incidence and severity
of crashes. As defined by Road Safety Audit (Ref. 33), a road
safety audit is:
"A formal examination of a traffic project, or any project that
interacts with road users, in which an independent, qualified
examiner reports on the projects accident potential and safety
performance.
A road safety audit should be conducted:
 At the feasibility stage;
At the draft design stage;
At the detailed design stage;
Pre-opening; and
On existing roads.
The earlier a road is audited within the design and
developments process the better. The need is as important for
new works as it is for retrofit projects.
1 8 . R A I LWAY L E V E L C R O S S I N G S
This section outlines geometric guidelines for at-grade
railway/road level crossings and provides guidance for a safety
review of existing level crossings. The guidelines have been
developed for typical situations. They are intended to aid but
not replace sound engineering judgment based on particular
local conditions and requirements of the rail authority (Ref. 66).
At-grade railway level crossings present a potential for severe
accidents. Designers should aim to eliminate, improve, or
grade separate existing crossings and to avoid the introduction
of any new at-grade railway level crossings where possible.
The derivation of sight distance requirements at railway level
crossings is discussed in Appendix C.
These requirements do not apply where other factors such as
the level of train and vehicle exposure may require that
flashing lights be installed at the crossing. For crossings
controlled by lights, the sight distance requirements relate to
the ability of a driver to see the signals, not the train. AS 1742
Part 7, 1993 specifies the use of railway crossing warning signs
which prompt drivers to Look for Trains when approaching a
crossing. Refer to the standard for detail warning signage and
visibility requirements and details indicated in this section.
18.1 Horizontal Alignment
Approach and crossing visibility are the primary features
affecting safety of the at-grade railway level crossings. The
approach visibility is deemed to be adequate when an area of
unrestricted visibility exists for each approach as shown on
Figure 18.1.
Approach visibility is adequate when the following conditions
are met:
The driver of an approaching vehicle, travelling at the 85th
percentile speed (VV) can see a train travelling at maximum
operating speed (VT), when the vehicle and the train are at
distances S1 and S2 respectively from the crossing, such that
the vehicle can either safely stop short of the crossing, or
clear the crossing before the train reaches it. Appropriate
values of VT should be obtained from the rail authority.
Distance S1 shall not be less than truck stopping sight distance.
For a given vehicle, the approach visibility must be adequate
for trains approaching from either direction.
For a given vehicle the approach visibility must be adequate for
trains approaching from either direction.
The approach visibility angle must not exceed 95 to the left of
the crossing and 110 to the right of the crossing as shown in
Figure 18.1. Occasional obstructions such as posts, small
trees and sparse vegetation can be considered acceptable if
their size and spacing would not obscure the drivers vision of
a train. (Also refer to Figure C2)
Crossing visibility is deemed to be adequate when an area of
unrestricted visibility exists for each approach and the
following conditions are met:
The driver of a stationary vehicle, positioned at a stop
line, has a clear view of approaching trains to a distance
along the tracks such that a train appearing in the drivers
field of view at the point where the vehicle begins to
move would reach the crossing after the vehicle has
cleared the crossing.
For the purpose of calculating the visibility triangle, the
following figures should be used:
Distance from the drivers eye to the rail, whilst at a
standstill, is 5.0m;
Height of the drivers eye above the road is 1.05m; and
Height of train above the rails is 2.3m.
For a given vehicle, the crossing visibility must be adequate
for trains approaching from either direction. The crossing
visibility angle must not exceed 110 to the left of the
crossing (see Figure 18.2) and 140 to the right of the
crossing (see Figure 18.3). If there is a choice of crossing
angle, 90 are preferred. (Also refer to Figure C3)
Many railways run parallel to adjacent roads and motorists
on such roads may be unaware of a train travelling just
behind the vehicle in the same direction. In these cases
where the road then crosses the rail or a side road crosses the
rail, distances S1 and S2 must be checked (unless there is stop
control on the crossing with advance warning signs) at the
design speed of the main road. It is essential that the visibility
angles for S1 and S2 fall within the prescribed limits (see
Figure 18.4).
18.2 Vertical Alignment
18.2.1 Road Grading
The railway grading is usually a control on the road. As a
general guide, for rural roads the road surface shall not be
more than 75mm above, nor more than 150mm below, the
projection of the top of the rail pair at a distance of 10m from
the nearest rail.
The maximum level difference between road and rail when the
track is below the road level is 10mm. On rural roads, the rail
level should not protrude above the surface, although this may
not always be achievable. The maximum permissible
protrusion above the road surface is 10mm.
The protrusion of the rail level above the road level is more of
a problem when the angle between the road and the rail is
acute, particularly for cyclists and motorcyclists.
Where a road crosses multiple railway lines at a level crossing,
a smoother crossing can be achieved by adjusting the relative
RURAL ROAD DESIGN 109
Figure 18.1: Approach Visibility Angles

Figures 18.2/3: Crossing Visibility Angle for Driver Looking Left and right

110 RURAL ROAD DESIGN

Figure 18.4: Road Parallel to Roadway

RURAL ROAD DESIGN 111

grade of the railway lines to more closely match the
longitudinal grade of the road.
18.2.2 Cross Section
Width
The minimum clear width provided through level crossings
should be equal to the traffic lanes plus 1.5m each side; that
is, the carriageway width plus 3 m.
On duplicated roads, the 1.5m are added to the outer edge of
each carriageway.
Crossfall
At the level crossing, the pavement slope should match the
grade line of the railway. This could present a potential hazard
where the road is on a curved alignment. The road curvature
and superelevation should be selected with superelevation
matching the rail grading, so that crossfall does not reduce in
the direction of travel along the curve.
112 RURAL ROAD DESIGN
1 9 . C O M P U T E R S O F T WA R E FO R
ROAD DESIGN
The geometric design of rural roads involves many calculations
that can be performed by computers. They can quickly and
accurately handle large quantities of data, saving considerable
design time and cost. Importantly, they enable many more
alternatives to be examined and evaluated and as a result they
can assist in producing optimum solutions in a reasonable time
and at reasonable cost (Ref. 97).
Various computer software packages are available and are
widely used for designing roads, bridges and multilevel
overpasses. They help designers to work faster or reach proof
of concept sooner in the design process. Each software
package has its own advantages and disadvantages and those
interested in pursuing this topic further should contact their
relevant road authority. The commercial suppliers of the
software packages will provide specific information.
The primary functions of road design software include:
Horizontal and vertical alignment design;
Coordination of horizontal and vertical alignments;
Creation and viewing of digital terrain model (DTM);
Automated calculation of quantities; and
Production of plans and profiles.
Software should have a smooth user interface that gives
designers full access to all geometric design data, non-graphic
information, and criteria at any point in the project cycle. This
supports rapid decision-making and design changes. Three-
dimensional model-viewing capabilities further assist the
decision process, as well as enhancing the designers ability to
present the work.
Various computer design aids can:
Stratify and organise project documentation;
Record project histories;
Work in 2D and generate 3D;
Edit digital terrain models with real-time movement of
points (rubber banding), allowing contours to move
dynamically;
Generate cross sections automatically from any data
source, for any situation;
Link cross section elements to plan view elements; and
Alter cross sections and automatically update earthworks
quantities.
The use of three-dimensional models can enhance a project to
the community especially those non-technical persons.
In summary, modern technology opens the door for efficiency,
cost savings and better-informed judgement.
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Internal report, AIR 323-2.
66 Main Roads, QLD Main Roads Design Manual, version 1,
August 1999.
67 Main Roads, WA Road Design, Technical Standards,
(1997) Volume 1 Part 1, Geometric Road
Design Standards and Practice
Guidelines, Main Roads, WA.
68 McCormick E J and Human Factors in Engineering and
Sanders M S (1982) Design (Fifth Edition), McGraw Hill,
New York, USA.
69 McLean J R (1978) Review of the Design Speed Concept,
Australian Road Research, Volume 8,
No. 1, March 1978, Australia.
70 McLean J R (1983) Speeds on Curves: Side Friction
Factor Considerations, Research
Report No. 126, ARRB Transport
Research Ltd, Australia.
71 McLean J R (1988) Speed, Friction Factors and Alignment
Design Standards, Research Report
ARR No. 154, Australian Road
Research Board, Australia.
72 McLean J R (1995) Speed, Curve Speed Prediction Relations,
Research Report, Vol. 4, No. 3, ARRB
Transport Research Ltd, Australia.
73 Ministry of Works Highway surface drainage. Design
and Development guide for highways with a positive
collection system, Roadway Division,
Ministry of Works and Development
(NZ), November 1977.
74 Ministry of Works Metric version of technical
and Development memorandum No. 61, Water and
(NZ) Soil Division, Ministry of Works and
Development (NZ), October 1975.
75 NAASRA (1972) National Association of Australian
State Road Authorities, Guide Policy
for Geometric Design of Major Urban
Roads, NAASRA, Sydney, Australia.
76 NAASRA (1973) National Association of Australian
State Road Authorities, Policy for
installations by public utility authorities
within the road reserve (metric units),
NAASRA, Sydney, Australia.
77 NAASRA (1974) National Association of Australian
State Road Authorities, Drainage of
Wide Flat Pavements, NAASRA,
Sydney, Australia.
78 NAASRA (1979) National Association of Australian
State Road Authorities, Guide to the
provision and signposting of service
and tourist facilities, NAASRA,
Sydney, Australia.
79 NAASRA (1984) National Association of Australian
State Road Authorities, Road
Medians, NAASRA, Sydney, Australia.
80 NAASRA (1986) National Association of Australian
State Road Authorities, Guide to the
Design of Road Surface Drainage,
NAASRA, Sydney, Australia.
81 NZS 4404 (1981) New Zealand Standard, Code of
Practice for Urban Land Subdivision,
Standards Association of New
Zealand, New Zealand.
82 Nicholson A (1998) Superelevation, side friction and
roadway consistency, Journal of
Transportation Engineering, Vol 124,
No 5 American Society of Civil
Engineers.
83 Ogden K W (1997) Safer Roads, A Guide to Road Safety
Engineering, Avebury Technical,
England.
RURAL ROAD DESIGN 115
84 Oliver V W (1979) Skid resistance reduction in wet
weather due to hydroplaning of
vehicle tyres, Australian Road
Research Board, Australia.
85 Olson et al (1984) Olsen P.L., Cleveland D.E., Fancher
P.S., Kostyniuk L.P., Schneider L.W.,
Parameters Affecting Stopping Sight
Distance, NCHRP Report No. 270.
86 Pape M (1990) Rural Road Alignment Design
Procedure, Technical Note TN/1,
VicRoads, Melbourne, Australia.
87 PIARC (1995) XXth World Road Congress,
Interurban Roads, C4, Report of
Committee, Montreal.
88 PIARC (1995) XXth World Road Congress,
Interurban Roads, C10, Report of
Committee, Montreal.
89 Prem H et al (1999) Prem H, Ramsay E, Fletcher C,
George R, Gleeson B, Estimation of
Lane Width Requirements for Heavy
Vehicles on Straight Paths, Research
Report ARR 342, ARRB Transport
Research Ltd, Australia.
99 VicRoads (1997) VicRoads, Road Design Guidelines
Part 3 Cross Section Elements,
VicRoads, Victoria.
100 VicRoads (1997) Traffic Engineering Manual, Volume
1, Chapter 6, Edition 2, Melbourne,
Victoria.
101 Wambold et al Wambold JC, Rivera-Ortiz LA, Wang
(1988) MC . A field and Laboratory Study to
establish truck escape ramp design
methodology. Commonwealth of
Pennsylvania. Department of
Transportation, Report No FHWA-PA-
86-032+83-26
102 WITS (1997) Water Industry Technical Standards,
Volumes 1 and 2, Melbourne Water,
Victoria.
103 Cooperative Water Sensitive Road Design
Research Centre Design Options for Improving Storm
for Catchment Water Quality of Road Runoff.
Hydrology (2000)
104 Austroads (2001) Road Runoff and Drainage:
Environmental Impacts and
Management Options.

90 RTA (1989) Road Traffic Authority NSW, Road
Design Guide, RTA, NSW, Australia,
9 Sections 1989 to 2000.
91 QLD DoT (1992) Development of Design Standards for
Steep Downgrades (DSB02),
Queensland, Australia.
92 SAA HB 81.1 Field Guide for Traffic Control at
81.6 (1996) Works on Roads
93 TRB (1994) Transportation Research Board,
Highway Capacity Manual, HCM
2000, National Research Council,
Washington, D.C., USA, 2000.
105 AASHTO (1993) American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials,
Recommended Procedures for the
Safety Performance Evaluation of
Highway Features.
106 Cox R.L. (1995) Analysis in Traffic and its Effect of
Service for the Justification of
Overtaking Lanes and Future Road
Duplication. Queensland Department
of Main Roads.

94 Triggs T J and Reaction Time of Drivers to Road

Harris W G (1982) Stimuli, Human Factors Report HFR-
12, Monash University, Melbourne.

95 Troutbeck (1981) Overtaking Behaviour on Australian

two-lane rural highways, ARRB,
Special Report 20.

96 Underwood R T Traffic Management An introduction,

(1990) Hargreen Publishing Co., Melbourne.

97 Underwood R T The Geometric Design of Roads,

(1991) Melbourne.

98 VicRoads (1997) VicRoads, Road Design Guidelines

Part 2 Horizontal and Vertical
Geometry, VicRoads, Victoria.

116 RURAL ROAD DESIGN

 A
APPENDIX
CHARASTERISTICS OF THE EULER SPIRAL
( C LOT H O I D )

1. BASIC PROPERTIES OF THE

C LOT H O I D T R A N S I T I O N C U R V E

Transition curves connecting a circular curve to two straights

are shown in Figure A1. Typical standard notation for transition
curves is as follows (See Figure A1):

Figure A1: Transition Curve Details

RURAL ROAD DESIGN 117

 Lp
R = radius of the circular curve in metres; t =
IP = intersection point, or the point at which the two V
straights join; Thus, the rate of change of lateral acceleration, A m/s3
TS = start transition, or the point at which a straight and a
transition curve join; = v 2 / Lp
SC = start circular curve, or the point at which a transition R V
= v m/s3
3
and a circular curve join;
PC = the point on the circular curve (extended) at which the RLp
radius if extended would be perpendicular to the If v m/s is converted to V km/h, this equation becomes:
straight;
A m /s3 = 0.0214V where V is in km/h
3
I = intersection angle, or the angle between the two
straights in degrees; RLp
s = spiral angle in degrees;
T = tangent distance in metres;
S = secant distance in metres;
LP = length of transition curve from TS to SC in metres.
Lc = length of circular curve from SC to SC in metres;
l = distance in metres along the transition to any point B
and TS;
x = abscissa of any point B on transition with reference to
the straight and TS in metres;
y = ordinate of any point B on transition corresponding to
the abscissa x in metres;
p = the shift, which equals the offset from the PC to the
straight in metres;

2. BASIC RELATIONSHIPS FOR

CLOTHOID TRANSITION CURVES

I
T = (R + p) tan +K
2
I
S = (R + p) sec R
2

Lc = (I 2s ) R
180
The expressions for x, y, p and k are approximations only and
normally are satisfactory for practical use. More precise
expressions may be seen in any standard books on surveying.
l5
x = l 40(RLp)2

y = l3 l7
6(RLp) 336(RLp)3
Lp2 Lp4
p =
24R 2688R3
180 Lp
s =
2R
Lp L3p
K =
2 240R2

As the clothoid has a constant rate of change of curvature it

gives a constant rate of change of lateral acceleration at
constant speed. For a vehicle travelling at a constant speed of
v m/s, the lateral acceleration increases from zero at the start
of the transition to
v2
R
at the start of the circular curve. This increase in acceleration
takes place over a length LP metres or over a time t (seconds)
where:

118 RURAL ROAD DESIGN

 B
APPENDIX V E R T I C A L C U R V E FO R M U L A E

where:
1. GENERAL
A = g2 g1 = Algebraic grade change (%)
a = Vertical acceleration of vehicles on
The parabola has traditionally been used in road design for parabolas (m/sec2)
crest and sag vertical curves because: g1, g2 = Grade (%)
the vehicle undergoes a constant vertical acceleration; e = Middle ordinate (m)
the length of curve is directly proportional to the grade h1 = Eye height for use with sight distance (m)
change; h2 = Object height for use with sight distance (m)
a parabola retains its basic shape when the scale is K = Length of vertical curve for a 1%
changed whereas a circle takes the form of an ellipse when change in grade (m)
a change is made to one of the scales. L = Length of vertical curve (m)
The calculation of vertical and horizontal ordinates in L1 = Length over which the grade is less
relation to any point on a parabola is a simple matter. than a specified slope SL (m)
Gravity makes the use of vertical ordinates more SL = Slope of the tangent to the curve at
convenient in construction. any point (%)
Low or high points occur where SL = 0
Other curves such as circular curves may be used if required for S = Sight distance (m)
a specific reason. The K value equivalent radius R = 100 K. V = Speed (km/h)
x = Distance from tangent point to any
point on curve (m)
xhp = Distance from tangent point to high point (m)
2. V E R T I C A L C U R V E FO R M U L A E xlp = Distance from tangent point to low point (m)
y = Vertical offset from tangent to curve (m)

Parameters used in formulae for parabolas are shown on NOTE: A rising grade with increasing chainage carries a
Figure B1. plus sign and a falling grade carries a minus sign.

Figure B1: Vertical Curve Nomenclature

RURAL ROAD DESIGN 119

Figure B2: Eye Height and Object Height

The general formula for the parabola used in road design is:

y =
x2 (g2 g1)
= x2 ... K=
x2
200L 200K 200y
In road design most parabola can be designed using the
following three equations:

L = KA

L = K(g2 g1)
S2
K =
200 (h1 + h2)2
An explanation of the use of K is included in Section 10.3.

Other equations that may be used include:

AV2
a =
1300L
e = L (g2 - g1)
800
ElevTP1 + ElevTP2
e = 0.5 ElevIP -
2
L
L1 = 2SL
g2 g1
(SL g1)
x = L
g2 g1
Lg1
xhp =
g2 g1
ex2
y =
(0.5L)2
ex2
y = 4
(L)2

120 RURAL ROAD DESIGN

 C
APPENDIX
D E R I VAT I O N O F S I G H T D I S TA N C E
R E Q U I R E M E N T S AT R A I LWAY L E V E L C R O S S I N G S

Figure C1: Influence of Slope on Stopping Distance

1. GENERAL

Before detailing the procedures used in the derivation of the

formulae used in this Guide, it is important that users note that
sight distance requirements at railway level crossings have
historically varied from State to State.

It is necessary to consider two scenarios in the evaluation of

sight distance requirements at railway level crossings. Case 1
address the sight distances required for an approaching vehicle
considering two critical situations (necessary to establish
whether the Give Way Control is adequate); and case 2
addresses the sight distance along the railway for a vehicle
stopped at a STOP sign (necessary to establish the adequacy of
STOP sign control). The geometry and associated notation for
cases 1 and 2 are depicted on Figures C2 and C3 respectively.

Thus, to stop on level ground, we require:

2. CASE 1:
Sight Distance Required for S1
RTVv + Vv2 + Ld + Cv (1)
Give Way Control 3.6 254F
The influence of slope on the stopping distance component of
this equation can be derived using simple physics as shown on
Case 1 allows a motorist approaching the crossing at distance Figure C1.
S1 to sight a train at distance S2 from the crossing and either:
The influence of grade on vehicle deceleration can be derived
Case 1(i) Decelerate and safely stop at the stop or holding as follows:
line; or
Braking distance
Case 1(ii) Proceed and clear the crossing with an adequate Vv2 (Vv / 3.6)2 Vv 2
safety margin. 2a = 2gF = 254F metres

When motorists reach a crossing and see a train approaching,
they must decide whether to decelerate and stop, or proceed
and clear the crossing. There is a finite distance required
between the vehicle and the rail in order to reach a decision
and act in safety. This distance, assuming a level grade crossing
site, comprises four components:
Component of vehicle mass acting down the slope
= mgsin0
(g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81m/sec2);
For small angles sinq = tanq = x/y = G (m/m)
(grade is expressed as ratio, negative for downhill);

The distance travelled during the perception/reaction time Force acting down the slope . mgsinq . mgtanq = mgG;
Effective deceleration = gF + gG = g(F + G); and
RTVv
RTVv = metres Therefore effective deceleration = g(F + G)
3.6
Braking distance In order to stop on sloped ground, equation 1 subsequently
2 2 2 becomes:
Vv (Vv / 3.6) Vv
= = metres
2a 2gF 254F RTVv Vv2
S1 + + Ld + Cv (2)
where: 3.6 254 (F+G)
where:
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81m/sec2;
S1 = minimum distance of an approaching road vehicle
Distance of the driver from the front of the vehicle (Ld from the nearest rail when the driver of the vehicle
metres); and can see an approaching train (m);
Clearance from the vehicle stop or holding line to the
nearest rail (Cv metres). RT = perception/reaction time (general case assumption
= 2.5 sec);

RURAL ROAD DESIGN 121

Vv = the 85th percentile road vehicle speed in the
vicinity of the crossing. The road speed limit plus
10% is a reasonable approximation where the 85th
percentile speed is not known (km/h);
F = coefficient of longitudinal friction (refer to Table
8.2);
Ld = distance from the driver to the front of the vehicle
(general case assumption = 1.5 m);
Cv = clearance from the vehicle stop or holding line to
the nearest rail (general case assumption = 3.5 m);
and
G = grade, negative for downhill, positive for uphill
(m/m).
3. CASE 1(i):
Decelerate and Safely Stop
at the Stop or Holding Line
The time required for a motorist (at a distance S1 from the
nearest rail) to stop at the stop or holding line, comprises:
Perception/reaction time (RT); and
Braking time
Vv Vv / 3.6 Vv 2
a gF 35.3
= = metres
(g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/sec2).
Therefore, for the motorist to safely stop, the train would have
to be sighted at a minimum distance, S2 from the crossing:
VT Vv
3.6 35.3F
S2 RT + (3)
where:
S2 = minimum distance of an approaching train from
the point of impact with a road vehicle, when the
driver of the road vehicle first sees a train
approaching in order to safely stop at the stop or
holding line (m);
VT = the speed of the train approaching the crossing
(the allowed operating speed of trains, as advised
by the rail authority) (km/h);
RT = perception/reaction time (general case assumption
= 2.5 sec);
Vv = the 85th percentile road vehicle speed in the
vicinity of the crossing. The road speed limit plus
10% is a reasonable approximation where the 85th
percentile speed is not known; and
F = coefficient of longitudinal friction (refer to Table
8.2).
Note that the distance S2 is measured from alternate datum
points which are contingent upon whether a train approaches
from the left or right. For a train approaching from the left, the
point of impact is at the road edge line, whilst, for a train
approaching from the right, it is at the road centre line. For a
field survey, distances S2L and S2R are required to be calculated
separately as a common datum point is referenced.
122 RURAL ROAD DESIGN
Sight Distance S 2L Adjustment
For the case of a train approaching the crossing from the left,
the sight distance S2 is calculated from the left edge line of the
road (or the road pavement if there is no edge line). In order
to measure distance S2L from the referenced datum point, an
adjustment needs to be incorporated in the S2 equation.
The datum point referenced in the field survey is the
intersection of the centre line of the road and the mid point of
the rail tracks at the crossing.
0.5WR
Adjustment for S2L equation =
sinZ
In the case of a train approaching the crossing from the right,
the sight distance S2R is equal to that adopted for S2, as the
potential point of impact is at the datum point.
The minimum distances, S2L and S2R, where an approaching
train is first sighted in order for a driver of an approaching
vehicle to safely stop at the stop or holding line, are calculated
from equations 4 and 5 respectively.
The minimum distance for a train approaching from the left of
the crossing, to enable the driver of a road vehicle to
decelerate and safely stop at the stop or holding line is:
0.5WR V Vv
S2L(l) + T RT + (4)
sinZ 3.6 35.3F
The minimum distance for a train approaching from the right
of the crossing, to enable the driver of a road vehicle to
decelerate and safely stop at the stop or holding line is:
VT Vv
S2R(1) R + (5)
3.6 T 35.3F
The calculated distances S2L and S2R are then compared to the
distances obtained in the case of a driver of a road vehicle
safely proceeding and clearing the crossing ( Case 1 (ii): The
larger value is adopted as the critical case.
4. CASE 1(ii):
Proceed and Clear the Crossing
with an Adequate Safety Margin
It is also important to consider the case in which a motorist at
distance S1 from the crossing decides to proceed (even though
he/she could safely stop) and attempt to clear the crossing
prior to the arrival of the train.
Referring to Figure C2, the distance a motorist has to travel to
clear the crossing is:
WR WT
S1 + + + Cv + CT + L Ld
tanZ sinZ
Substituting S1 from equation 2, this becomes:
RTVV VV2 WR WT
+ + + + 2Cv + CT + L
3.6 254 (F+G) tanZ sinZ
Therefore, the distance travelled by the train for the motorist The minimum distance (S2R) of an approaching train from the
to precede and clear the crossing: intersection of the centre line of the road and the mid point of
the rail tracks, when the driver of the road vehicle first sees a
VT RTVT VV2 WR WT
S2 = + + + + 2Cv + CT + L (6) train approaching from the right, in order to proceed and clear
Vv 3.6 254(F+G) tanZ sinZ
the crossing is:
where:
VT RTVT VV2 W W
S2R = + + R + T +2Cv + CT + L (8)
Vv 3.6 254(F+G) tanZ sinZ
S2 = minimum distance of an approaching train from the
point of impact with a road vehicle, when the driver of
the road vehicle can first see the train approaching the In order to obtain the critical sight distances, S2L and S2R, the
crossing in order to proceed and safely clear the larger distances from Cases 1(i) and (ii) should be adopted.
crossing (m);
VT = the speed of the train approaching the crossing (the Source: Ref 66
allowed operating speed of trains, as advised by the rail
authority) (km/h);
Vv = the 85th percentile road vehicle speed in the vicinity of
the crossing. The road speed limit plus 10% is a 5. CASE 2:
reasonable approximation where the 85th percentile S i g h t D i s t a n ce R e q u i re d fo r
speed is not known; S TO P S i g n C o n t ro l
RT = perception/reaction time (general case assumption
= 2.5 sec);
Cv = clearance from the vehicle stop or holding line to the When motorists are stationary at a crossing controlled by a
nearest rail (general case assumption = 3.5 m); STOP sign, they require adequate sight distance to determine
CT = clearance or safety margin from stop or holding line on whether or not it is safe to cross the tracks before the train
departure side of the crossing (general case assumption arrives. Referring to Figure C3, it presents a method by which
= 5 m); the time taken to complete this manoeuvre can be
F = coefficient of longitudinal friction (refer to Table 8.2); ascertained. The time comprises:
L = length of road vehicle, refer to Table C1;
WR= width of the travelled way (portion of the roadway Perception time and time required to depress clutch (J);
allocated for the movement of the vehicles) at the and
crossing (m); Time to clear the crossing by a safe distance
WT = width, outer rail to outer rail, of the rail tracks at the
crossing (1.1 m for single track, 5.1 m for double WR + WT + 2C + C + L 1/ 2
V T
track); and 2 tan Z sin Z
Z = angle between the road and the railway at the crossing a
(degrees). The distance travelled by the train during this time:

Table C1: Vehicle Lengths

WR + WT + 2C + C + L
VT V T 1/ 2
Vehicle Route Vehicle Type and Length S3 = J +GS 2 tan Z sin Z (9)
3.6 a
Roads not on nominated route Medium car 5m
Prime mover and
semi-trailer 19 m
Field testing has confirmed that the influence of grade on
B-double route B-double 25 m
vehicles accelerating from a stationary position is not
Road train route Type 1 Type 1 road train 33 m accurately modelled by the application of simple physics
Road train route Type 2 Type 2 road train 50 m principles (Lay 1990:571). American literature (AASHTO Policy
on Geometric Design of Highways quoted in MRD (WA)
1991:16) provides the grade correction factors in Table C2.
As discussed in Case 1(i), distance S2 is measured from
alternate datum points to correspond with the potential point Equation (9) subsequently becomes:
of impact for the left and right train approaches. In order to
carry out a detailed survey of a crossing, distances S2L and S2R
are required to be calculated separately, as a common datum WR + WT + 2C + C + L
VT V T 1/ 2
point is utilised. S3 = J + GS 2 tan Z sin Z (10)
3.6 a
The minimum distance (S2L) of an approaching train from the
intersection of the centre line and the mid point of the rail
tracks, when the driver of the road vehicle first sees a train where:-
approaching from the left, in order to safely proceed and clear
the crossing (considering the sight distance S2L adjustment S3 = minimum distance of an approaching train from the
indicated in Case 1(i)) is: point of impact with a road vehicle, when the driver of
the road vehicle must first see an approaching train in
0.5WR VT RTVT VV2 W W
S2L = + + + R + T +2Cv + CT + L (7) order to safely cross the tracks (m);
sinZ Vv 3.6 254(F+G) tanZ sinZ

RURAL ROAD DESIGN 123

VT = the speed of the train approaching the crossing (the
allowed operating speed of trains, as advised by the rail WR + WT + 2C + C + L 1/ 2
VT V T
authority (km/h); S3 R = J +GS 2 tan Z sin Z (12)
3.6 a
J= sum of the perception time and time required to
depress clutch (general case assumption = 2 sec);
GS = grade correction factor, refer to Table C2;
L= length of road vehicle, refer to Table C1 (m); Table C3: Heavy Vehicle Speed/Acceleration Performance
CV = clearance from the vehicle stop or holding line to the (RTA, 1990 and QT, 1993)
nearest rail (general case assumption = 3.5m);
CT = clearance or safety margin from stop or holding line on Type of Distance Time Average Average
departure side of the crossing (general case assumption Vehicle Travelled (sec) Speed Acceleration
= 5m); (m) (m/sec) (m/sec)
WR = width of the travelled way (portion of the roadway
allocated for the movement of the vehicles) at the Laden Rigid Truck 22.4 9.3 2.4 0.50
crossing (m); (RTA 1990)
WT = width, outer rail to outer rail, of the rail tracks at the Laden Semi Trailer 28.9 12.6 2.3 0.36
crossing (1.1m for single track, 5.1m for double track); (RTA 1990)
Z= angle between the road and the railway at the crossing Laden B-double 34.4 13.6 2.5 0.37
(degrees); and (RTA 1990)
a= average acceleration of vehicle in starting gear (general
Laden Road Train 46.4 21.3 2.2 0.29
case assumption = 0.5 m/sec2, refer to Table C3).
(RTA 1990)
Laden 19m 27.5 11.3 2.4 0.43
Table C2: Grade Correction Factors (AASHTO Policy on Semi-Trailer
Geometric Design of Highways) (QT Mt Cotton 8.7 3.2 0.73
Facility 1993)
Percentage Grade Grade Correction Factor GS Laden 19m 34.5 13.8 2.5 0.36
Semi-Trailer
4 0.8
(QT Mt Cotton 10.8 3.2 0.59
2 0.9 Facility 1993)
+2 1.2
+4 1.7
NOTE: In addition to the data provided in Table C3, limited
data collected by ARRB (Barton 1990:6) suggests the average
Sight Distance S 3L Adjustment speed of a heavy vehicle commencing from a stopped position
equals 3.3 m/sec over a typical crossing distance. The Main
A sight distance adjustment is necessary to calculate S3L for Roads Department (Western Australia) (1991:13) quotes
the common datum point used in the field survey. The datum values of acceleration obtained from American literature
point referenced in the field survey is the intersection of the ranging from 45 m/sec2 for the acceleration of trucks in first
centre line of the road and the mid point of the railway tracks gear, to 0.54 m/sec2 over a distance of around 12m, then
at the crossing. gradually back down to a value of 0.5 m/sec2 for a distance of
around 50. For the required crossing visibility at the critical
0.5WR
Adjustment for S3 L equation = case, they subsequently recommend the adoption of a heavy
sin Z
vehicle acceleration value of 0.5 m/sec2 to be on the
conservative side, and indicate that this value has been
Therefore, the minimum distance of an approaching train from shown to be acceptable by measuring the acceleration rates
the intersection of the road centre line and the mid point of of a number of fully laden trucks, which resulted in values
the rail tracks, when the driver of a road vehicle must first see between 0.55 m/sec2 and 0.90 m/sec2.
a train approaching from the left in order to safely cross the
track from a stopped position is:

WR + WT + 2C + C + L 1/ 2
0.5WR VT V T
S3 L = + J +GS 2 tan Z sin Z
sin Z 3.6 a
(11)

The minimum distance of an approaching train from the

intersection of the road centre line and the mid point of the
rail tracks, when the driver of a road vehicle must first see a
train approaching from the left in order to safely cross the
track from a stopped position is:

124 RURAL ROAD DESIGN

Figure C2: Approach Visibility: At Grade Railway/Road Crossings
Case 1(i)
Motorist approaching crossing sights train, decelerates
and stops at the holding line.
Case 1(ii)
Motorist approaching crossing sights train, proceeds and
safely clears the crossing.
Notation (units and/or general case assumptions are shown in
brackets):
S1 Minimum distance of an approaching road vehicle
from the nearest rail when the driver of the vehicle can
see an approaching train (m);
S2 Minimum distance of an approaching train from the
point of impact with a road vehicle, when the driver of
the road vehicle first sees a train approaching (m);
S2L Minimum distance of an approaching train from the
intersection of the road centre line and the mid point
of the rail tracks, when the driver of the road vehicle
first sees a train approaching from the left (m).
S2R Minimum distance of an approaching train from the
intersection of the road centre line and the mid point
of the rail tracks, when the driver of the road vehicle
first sees a train approaching from the right (m).
VT The speed of the train approaching the crossing (the
allowed operating speed of trains, as advised by the rail
authority (km/h).
VV The 85th percentile road vehicle speed in the vicinity of
the crossing. The road speed limit plus 10% is a
reasonable approximation where the 85th percentile
speed is not known.
CV Clearance from the vehicle stop or holding line to the
nearest rail (general case assumption = 3.5 m).
CT Clearance or safety margin from the vehicle stop or
holding line on the departure side of the crossing
(general case assumption = 5 m).
L Length of road vehicle (m).
Ld Distance from the driver to the front of the vehicle
(general case assumption = 1.5 m).
WR Width of the travelled way (portion of the roadway
allocated for the movement of the vehicles) at the
crossing (m).
WT Width, outer rail to outer rail, of the rail tracks at the
crossing (1.1 m for single track, 5.1 m for double
track).
X1L Vehicle driver viewing angle measured from distance S1
on the road centre line, where a driver must first see a
train approaching from the left at distance S2 from the
crossing.
X1R Vehicle driver viewing angle measured from distance S1
on the road centre line, where a driver must first see a
train approaching from the right at distance S2 from
the crossing.
Z= Angle between the road and the railway at the crossing
(degrees).
RURAL ROAD DESIGN 125
Figure C3: Crossing Visibility: At Grade Railway/Road Crossings
Case 2 Motorist stopped at crossing requires adequate
time to accelerate and safely clears the crossing.
Notation (units and/or general case assumptions are shown in
brackets):
S3 Minimum distance of an approaching train from the
point of impact with a road vehicle, when the driver of
the road vehicle must first see an approaching train in
order to safely cross the tracks.
S3L Minimum distance of an approaching train from the
intersection of the road centre line and the mid point
of the rail tracks, when the driver of a road vehicle
must first see a train approaching from the left in order
to safely cross the track from a stopped position at the
stop or holding line (m).
S3R Minimum distance of an approaching train from the
intersection of the road centre line and the mid point
of the rail tracks, when the driver of a road vehicle
must first see a train approaching from the right in
order to safely cross the track from a stopped position
at the stop or holding line (m).
VT The speed of the train approaching the crossing (the
allowed operating speed of trains, as advised by the rail
authority) (km/h).
L Length of road vehicle (m).
126 RURAL ROAD DESIGN
Ld Distance from the driver to the front of the vehicle
(general case assumption = 1.5m).
CV Clearance from the vehicle stop or holding line to the
nearest rail (general case assumption = 3.5m).
CT Clearance or safety margin from the vehicle stop or
holding line on departure side of the crossing (general
case assumption = 5m).
WR Width of the travelled way (portion of the roadway
allocated for the movement of the vehicles) at the
crossing (m).
WT Width, outer rail to outer rail, of the rail tracks at the
crossing (1.1m for single track, 5.1m for double track).
X2L Vehicle driver viewing angle measured from at the
STOP line to a train approaching from the left at
distance, S3 from the crossing.
X2R Vehicle driver viewing angle measured from at the
STOP line at the road centre line to a train approaching
from the right at distance, S3 from the crossing.
Z= Angle between the road and the railway at the crossing
(degrees).
RURAL ROAD DESIGN 127
128 RURAL ROAD DESIGN
 Rural Road Design A Guide to the Geometric Design of Rural Roads
Rural Road Design
A Guide to the Geometric
Design of Rural Roads

ISBN: 0 85588 655 2

AP-G1/03 AUSTROADS
ROAD DESIGN SERIES
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