AUDIO VIDEO SYSTEMS

2151101
SEMESTER 5

Name:___________________________________________

Division:_________________________________________

Enrollment No. : _________________________________

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION

L. D. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,
AHMEDABAD.
 EXPERIMENT : 1
AIM:
To measure frequency response of Horn type loud speaker.

Objective:
To measure signal strength of horn type loud speaker at various frequency and plot
it.

Apparatus:
Horn type loud speaker
Audio frequency generator
Sound level meter.

Set up:

Theory:
A horn loudspeaker is a loudspeaker or loudspeaker element which uses a horn to
increase the overall efficiency of the driving element, typically a diaphragm driven
by an electromagnet. The horn itself is a passive component and does not amplify
the sound from the driving element as such, but rather improves the coupling
efficiency between the speaker driver and the air. The horn can be thought of as an
"acoustic transformer" that provides impedance matching between the relatively
dense diaphragm material and the air of low density. The result is greater acoustic
output from a given driver.

The narrow part of the horn next to the speaker driver is called the "throat" and the
large part farthest away from the speaker driver is called the "mouth".

Horns have been used to extend the low frequency limit of a speaker driverwhen
mated to a horn, a speaker driver is able to reproduce lower tones more strongly.
The flare rate and the mouth size determine the low frequency limit. The throat size
is more of a design choice. Horns have been known to extend the frequency range of
a driver beyond five octaves.

Acoustic horns convert large pressure variations with a small displacement area into
a low pressure variation with a large displacement area and vice versa. It does this
through the gradual, often exponential increase of the cross sectional area of the
horn. The small cross-sectional area of the throat restricts the passage of air thus
presenting high impedance to the driver. This allows the driver to develop a high
pressure for a given displacement. Therefore the sound waves at the throat are of
high pressure and low displacement. The tapered shape of the horn allows the
sound waves to gradually decompress and increase in displacement until they reach
the mouth where they are of a low pressure but large displacement.

Procedure:
Connect circuit as shown in figure
Switch on Audio frequency generator and adjust it for 10 Hz and optimum
amplitude (Say 15 V)
At a certain distance to Loudspeaker (say 100cm), right in front of it, take the
readings of sound in dB using the dB meter.
Vary the frequency from 10 Hz to 1MHz and take different readings.
Plot the graph of dB v/s freq. on the semi-log paper.
Observation Table:
Frequency Amplitude (dB)

Conclusion:
 EXPERIMENT : 2
AIM:
To measure frequency response of Column type loud speaker.

Objective:
To measure signal strength of column type loud speaker at various frequency and
plot it.

Apparatus:
Column type loud speaker
Audio frequency generator
Sound level meter.
Set up:

Theory:
Where space for the speaker is at a minimum, the 8-inch size does a reasonably
good job; where space is ample the larger speakers give considerably better low
frequency performance. It should be realized that, even though the small speaker
may actually reproduce the same low tones as the larger ones, it does so with much
less efficiency. The response of any speaker is, of course, greatly dependent upon
the enclosure with which it works. Therefore, compensations may be introduced into
the speaker-enclosure combination to extend the low end of the smaller systems.
Because the general purpose loudspeaker must reproduce both low and highs, it
must be designed so that the diaphragm is stable enough to be moved as a single
whole piston, for good low frequencies depend on the amount of active diaphragm
area available to push air into vibration. The frequency response of this speaker is
restricted to mid frequencies only. Frequency response of a typical speaker is 200Hz
to 5000Hz. It drops for low and high audio frequency.

Procedure:
Connect circuit as shown in figure
Switch on Audio frequency generator and adjust it for 10 Hz and optimum
amplitude (Say 15 V)
At a certain distance to Loudspeaker (say 100cm), right in front of it, take the
readings of sound in dB using the dB meter.
Vary the frequency from 10 Hz to 1MHz and take different readings.
Plot the graph of dB v/s freq. on the semi-log paper.

Observation Table:
Frequency Amplitude Frequency Amplitude
(dB) (dB)

Conclusion:
 EXPERIMENT : 3
AIM:
To measure frequency response of Colum type professional speaker.

Objective:
To measure signal strength of Colum type professional speaker at various frequency
and plot it.

Apparatus:
Colum type professional loud speaker
Audio frequency generator
Sound level meter.

Set up:
Theory:
Where space for the speaker is at a minimum, the 8-inch size does a reasonably
good job; where space is ample the larger speakers give considerably better low
frequency performance. It should be realized that, even though the small speaker
may actually reproduce the same low tones as the larger ones, it does so with much
less efficiency. The response of any speaker is, of course, greatly dependent upon
the enclosure with which it works. Therefore, compensations may be introduced into
the speaker-enclosure combination to extend the low end of the smaller systems.
Because the general purpose loudspeaker must reproduce both low and highs, it
must be designed so that the diaphragm is stable enough to be moved as a single
whole piston, for good low frequencies depend on the amount of active diaphragm
area available to push air into vibration. The frequency response of this speaker is
restricted to mid frequencies only. Frequency response of a typical speaker is 200Hz
to 5000Hz. It drops for low and high audio frequency.

Procedure:
Connect circuit as shown in figure
Switch on Audio frequency generator and adjust it for 10 Hz and optimum
amplitude (Say 15 V)
At a certain distance to Loudspeaker (say 100cm), right in front of it, take the
readings of sound in dB using the dB meter.
Vary the frequency from 10 Hz to 1MHz and take different readings.
Plot the graph of dB v/s freq. on the semi-log paper.
Observation Table:
Frequency Amplitude (dB)

Conclusion:
 EXPERIMENT : 4
AIM:
To measure Directional pattern of Horn type loud speaker.

Objective:
To measure signal strength of horn type loud speaker at various angle and plot it.
Apparatus:
Horn type loud speaker
Audio frequency generator
Sound level meter.
Set up:

Theory:
Directional Pattern means that the response of the Loudspeaker in a particular
direction. For the horn type the directivity for half powers is about 90 for low
frequencies. High frequencies concentrate in a narrow cone in the front. The
attachment of a properly shaped horn to a small piston like sound source is
observed to result in a marked increase in its acoustic output at low frequencies.
Such a horn is essentially an acoustic transformer, which enables the loading
impedance of the low-density air to be more effectively matched to that of the
relatively massive vibrating piston. In particular, the low- frequency acoustic
resistance at the throat of the horn is greater than that which would act on the piston
of equal area, vibrating in an infinite baffle, and the output of the horn loaded source
is consequently higher. At high frequencies the effect of the Horn is almost
negligible, for these frequencies are radiated by a piston source as a narrow beam,
and hence the confining effect of the walls of the horn is of limited significance.
The most important characteristics of the horn is the manner in which its throat
impedance varies with frequency. This throat impedance is also a function of throat
area, of the mouth area, and of the flare, i.e., of the rate of increase of the horns
cross sectional area. When the area at the mouth is very large, its effect on the throat
impedance is negligible, and the variation of this impedance with frequency is then
primarily determined by the shape of the horn.
Procedure:
Connect circuit as shown in figure
Switch on Audio frequency generator and adjust it for 10 Hz and optimum
amplitude (Say 15 V)
At a certain distance to Loudspeaker (say 100cm), right in front of it, take the
axis as a reference and note the reading for every 30 phase angle in dB using
the dB meter.
Plot the graph of dB v/s angle on the polar paper.
Observation Table:
Angle in degree Amplitude (dB)
0
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
240
270
300
330
360

Horn Type loud speaker.

Conclusion:
 EXPERIMENT : 5
AIM:
To measure Directional pattern of Column type loud speaker.

Objective:
To measure signal strength of column type loud speaker at various angle and plot it.

Apparatus:
Column type loud speaker
Audio frequency generator
Sound level meter.

Set up:

Theory:
The Column type Loudspeaker is basically a direct radiating or dynamic
Loudspeaker. A loudspeaker is an electro-mechanical device for converting a
varying audio voltage into corresponding sound. Some loudspeakers are enclosed
in an enclosers or baffles to improve its performance.
Some cone are circular and some are elliptical. The elliptical cone produces larger
directivity patterns. Dust caps are attached to the cone at the center. It has basically
the same directional characteristics as the simple Cone type loudspeaker.
Procedure:
Connect circuit as shown in figure
Switch on Audio frequency generator and adjust it for 10 Hz and optimum
amplitude (Say 15 V)
At a certain distance to Loudspeaker (say 100cm), right in front of it, take the
axis as a reference and note the reading for every 30 phase angle in dB using
the dB meter.
Plot the graph of dB v/s angle on the polar paper.

Observation Table:
Angle in degree Amplitude (dB)
0
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
240
270
300
330
360

Column Type loud speaker.

Conclusion:
 EXPERIMENT : 6
AIM:
To measure Directional pattern of Column type professional loud speaker.

Objective:
To measure signal strength of column type loud speaker at various angle and plot it.

Apparatus:
Column type professional loud speaker
Audio frequency generator
Sound level meter.

Set up:

Theory:
The Column type professional Loudspeaker is basically a direct radiating or
dynamic Loudspeaker. A loudspeaker is an electro-mechanical device for
converting a varying audio voltage into corresponding sound. Some loudspeakers
are enclosed in an enclosures or baffles to improve its performance.
Some cone are circular and some are elliptical. The elliptical cone produces larger
directivity patterns. Dust caps are attached to the cone at the center. It has basically
the same directional characteristics as the simple Cone type loudspeaker.
Procedure:
Connect circuit as shown in figure
Switch on Audio frequency generator and adjust it for 10 Hz and optimum
amplitude (Say 15 V)
At a certain distance to Loudspeaker (say 100cm), right in front of it, take the
axis as a reference and note the reading for every 30 phase angle in dB using
the dB meter.
Plot the graph of dB v/s angle on the polar paper.

Observation Table:
Angle in degree Amplitude (dB)
0
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
240
270
300
330
360

Column Type professional loud speaker.

Conclusion:
 EXPERIMENT : 7
AIM:
To study the Public Address System installed at Arybhatt Hall of L D
College of Engineering.
 EXPERIMENT : 8
AIM:
To design and perform the Cross Over Network for the given specifications using
multisim.

Apparatus:
Capacitor
Inductor
CRO or Digital Oscilloscope

Circuit Diagram:

Note : Attach circuit diagrams of multisim.

Theory:
Although the general-purpose loudspeaker may be build to produce acceptable
musical reproduction, it may be varied greatly to provide specialized designs for
improved reproduction. One of the first variations that may be made upon the
general-purpose speaker is to convert it into a two-way speaker. The purpose
behind this conversion is to provide more effective high frequency response from
the speaker from the speaker than is possible by the simple decoupling means. A
cross-over network is a device, electrical, acoustic, or mechanical, for slicing a
frequency spectrum into separate parts or bands for purposes of providing better
performance characteristics within the individual bands by separate components
than is possible with a single component covering the entire band. In multispeaker
systems in which specialized speakers are used for different frequency bands it is
necessary and desirable to segregate these different bands of frequencies into the
respective speakers designated to handle them. Networks are composed of
elements, which allow to pass, or prevent from passing, certain band of frequencies.
A capacitor will pass high frequencies and block low frequencies. Therefore, it is to
be found in high-pass filter sections. A choke or inductor will block high frequencies
and pass low frequencies. It is therefore found in low pass filter sections. If both a
low pass element and a high pass element are in series in a single branch of the
circuit, a band of frequencies is passed. The band has its low frequencies restricted
by the high pass element and its high frequencies restricted by its slow pass
element. Those frequencies in between these two restricted ends become the pass
band. From these simple concepts we may derive almost all the popular networks.
Certain considerations must be kept in mind while designing the Crossover
network. For the Crossover network the values of Inductors and Capacitors are
given by,
Where RL is the impedance of loudspeaker in ohms and fc is the cross-over
frequency in Hz, L is the inductance and C, the capacitance of LC circuits.

Procedure:
1. For Woofer connect the circuit as shown in the figure.

2. Give the input from the function generator to the woofer circuit (keep the
amplitude to a optimum value).

3. Vary the frequency form a low value to a high value and note down the variation in
output amplitude on the C.R.O.

4. Plot the response of the woofer on a semi-log paper as amplitude v/s frequency.

5. For Tweeter connect the circuit as shown in the figure.

6. Give the input from the function generator to the Tweeter circuit.

7. Vary the frequency form a low value to a high value and note down the variation in
output amplitude on the C.R.O.

8. Plot the response of the tweeter on a semi-log paper as amplitude v/s frequency.

9. Draw the conclusions.

Observation Table:
Frequency Amplitude Output of Output of
Woofer Tweeter

Note : Attach graph : frequency v/s amplitude for both

Conclusion:
 EXPERIMENT : 9
AIM:
To study working principle, construction and characteristics of various microphones.

(1) Moving Coil Microphone

The moving coil microphone (also called dynamic microphone) uses the
principle of electromagnetic induction. When a sound pressure variations move a
coil placed in a magnetic field, there is a change of magnetic flux passing through
the coil. An e.m.f. is, therefore, induced in the coil this e.m.f. forms output of the
microphone.

Construction
The main components of a moving coil microphone are magnet, diaphragm and coil.
These are shown in Fig.

Fig. Moving Coil Microphone

The magnet is a permanent magnet of POT type with a central pole piece (South
pole) and the peripheral pole piece (North pole). This type of a magnet gives
uniform magnetic field in the gap between the pole pieces.

Diaphragm is a circular sheet of nonmagnetic material and is of light weight, is

slightly domed for extra rigidity and is fixed to the body of magnet with the help of
springs. The springs provide compliance to the motion of diaphragm.
Coil is wound on a cardboard cylinder which is attached to the diaphragm. The coil
is single layered thin enameled wire.

A protective cover (a metal grill) is used to save the delicate diaphragm and the coil
assembly from being mishandled. A silk cloth partition is used to separate the upper
chamber from the lower chamber. A small tube is used in lower chamber to give
access to the free atmosphere.

The mass of the diaphragm restricts the high audio frequency output and the
stiffness caused by the springs compliance, restricts the low frequency output.
Electrical equivalent circuit for a microphone is shown in fig.

Fig. Electrical Equivalent of moving coil microphone

 Functioning

When sound waves strike the diaphragm, it moves and hence, coil moves in and out
in the magnetic field. This motion changes the flux through the coil which results in
e.m.f. being induced in the coil due to electromagnetic induction. The value of the
e.m.f depends on the rate of change of flux and hence the motion of the coil. The
displacement of the coil depends on the pressure of the sound waves on the
diaphragm. Thus it is a pressure microphone.

Characteristics of the moving coil microphone (typical values)

(1) Sensitivity: 30 micro volts (or 90 dB below 1 volt) for sound pressure level of 0.1
Pa. A step up transformer is used to match the cable impedance of about 200 ohm.
The output across the secondary is about 90 Micro volt.

(2) Signal to noise ratio: 30 dB.

Frequency response: 60 Hz to 8000 Hz for 1 dB. Low frequency response is

improved up to 40 Hz by using a small tube in the lower chamber of the microphone
to give access to the free atmosphere). It has natural resonance between 3 to 4 KHz.
Therefore it is more prone to noise and feedback.

(3) Distortion: Less than 5%.

(4) Directivity: The moving coil microphone is basically Omnidirectional as it is a

pressure microphone. By using ribbon microphone in series with it, the heart
shaped cardioid pattern is obtained. This pattern gives half power points directivity
angle of 900 in the front.

(5) Output impedance: Its output impedance is quite low and is about 25 ohm.
Hence to match a line of 200 ohm, a step up transformer of about 3:1 turns ratio is
built in the microphone case. This increases output voltage to about 90V.

Applications

Moving coil microphone is widely used. It is suitable for use in public address
systems and broadcast studios. When it is coupled with ribbon microphone in
series, its cardioid pattern makes it useful for dramas and concerts.
(2) Ribbon Microphone

In moving coil microphone, high frequency response is poor because of the mass of
diaphragm (including coil assembly). Mechanical mass is equivalent to electrical
inductance, and this attenuates the higher frequencies. Hence to increase the
frequency response for high audio frequencies, very light aluminum ribbon in place
of diaphragm and coil assembly. The ribbon acts as conductor as well as diaphragm.

Construction

The main parts of ribbon microphone as shown in fig. are 1.permanent magnet and
2.ribbon conductor.

Fig. Ribbon Microphone

The permanent magnet is specially designed horse-shoe magnet with extended pole
pieces. It provides strong magnetic field.

The ribbon is light aluminum foil. It corrugated right angles to its length to provide
greater surface area. The main feature is lightness of ribbon, which is only about 0.2
mg in weight, a few microns thick and about 3 mm wide.

The whole unit is enclosed in a circular or rectangular baffle. The shape of baffle is
not purely circular or rectangular, but rather irregular and depends on the structure
of magnet.

Working principle

When the ribbon, placed in magnetic field, is made to move at right angles to
the magnetic field by the force of sound pressure, there is a change of magnetic flux
through the ribbon conductor. Due to change of magnetic flux, an e.m.f. is induced
across the ribbon. This e.m.f. is proportional to change of flux.

It is also called Pressure Gradient microphone or Velocity microphone

because the driving mechanical force is proportional to the difference of pressure
acting on two sides of ribbon.

Characteristics of ribbon microphone

Frequency response: In a microphone, high frequency signal is attenuated due to

inductive effect of mass of moving system, and low frequency signal is attenuated to
low compliance or high stiffness. The mass of the moving system is very small (0.2
mg) and hence mechanical inductance (M) is low resulting in good response for high
frequencies up to 12000 Hz. The overall frequency response is 20 to 12000 Hz for 1
dB.

(1) Directivity: As force of sound can be applied to the ribbon from the front as well
as from rear side, this type of microphone is bi-directional and its polar pattern is
figure of eight as shown in fig. Patterns inside the circle are of ribbon microphone,
and outside circles represent omni-direction of pressure type microphone.
(2) Impedance: Impedance is only fraction of an ohm (about 0.23 ohm). It has built-
in step up transformer with secondary to primary turns ratio about 30:1 to match
cable impedance of 200 ohm.

(3) Sensitivity: Sensitivity is less than that of moving coil because length of ribbon is
less than length of coil wire of moving coil microphone. It is about 3V or 110 dB
below 1V for a sound pressure of 0.1 Pa. Although low, this output is across very low
impedance.

(4) Signal to noise ratio: Due to directional properties, the ribbon microphone has
much less background noise than the moving coil type. Hence signal to noise ratio is
higher than the moving coil microphone.

(5) Distortion: Low (about 1%).

Applications

It is very suitable for dramas. Its figure of eight polar diagram allows actors to talk
face to face which is more natural than standing side by side. Further the two dead
sides in a ribbon microphone give an impression of large space because voice of a
person standing in the dead area, even quite close to the microphone, will not be
picked up directly, but will reach the microphone through reflections from the side
walls and hence will sound distant.

(3) Cardioids Microphones

When a ribbon microphone and a moving coil microphone both are mounted
in the same housing, connecting them in series, a cardioid (or heart shaped) pattern
results. This is shown in fig. Such microphones are suitable for orchestras and court
scenes in dramas where a large number of persons are present. Due to practically
weightless ribbon, it gives the best result with ensembles and orchestras because
the light ribbon can respond instantaneously to the minute changes in the
complicated waveform of such music.

(4) Crystal microphone

A crystal microphone is based on the principle of Piezo Electric Effect, which is

defined as:

Difference of potential between the opposite faces of some crystal is

produced when these are subjected to mechanical pressure.

The crystals which show this effect are quartz, tourmaline, Rochelle salt and ceramic.
Rochelle salt has high piezo electric effect but is susceptible to moisture. Also, it can
not withstand high temperature of 500C met in outdoor use. Quartz and tourmaline
have low piezo electric effect. Ceramic is most suitable for crystal microphone as it
is not susceptible to moisture and can also withstand high temperature up to 1000C.
 Construction

A typical Crystal microphone is shown in fig.

Fig. Crystal Microphone

The crystal is cut along certain planes to form a slice. Metallic coil electrodes are
attached to the two surfaces to carry the potential difference to the output terminals.

Two thin crystal slices suitably cut are placed in insulating holder with an air
space between them. A large number of such elements are combined to increase the
e.m.f. A diaphragm, made of aluminum is attached to the crystal surface through a
push rod. The whole unit is encased in a protective case. There is a protective cover
(mesh) over the diaphragm.
 Functioning

When there is a sound wave of compression, it compresses the crystal. In case of

refraction, converse takes place and crystal is extended and is under tension. Due to
this compression and extension, a varying potential difference is generated which is
proportional to the mechanical pressure applied to the crystal by the sound waves.
(It is therefore, pressure microphone).

Characteristics of a crystal microphone

(1) Sensitivity: Crystal microphone has good sensitivity, about 50 mV (or 26 dB

below 1 volt) for 0.1 Pa.

(2) Signal to noise ratio: It is not prone to pick up background noise. Generation of
white noise inside the microphone is also low. Hence Signal to noise ratio is high,
about 40 dB.

(3) Frequency response: 100 to 8000 Hz for 1 dB

(4) Distortion: low about 1%.

(5) Directivity: Omnidirectional

(6) Output impedance: High about 1 Mohm.

Applications
It is used for the following purposes

1. Home recording systems

2. Amateur communication
3. Mobile communication

However due to variation of the acoustic characteristic, this type of microphone is

not used in broadcasting and recording studios.

(5) CAPACITOR (OR CONDENSER) MICROPHONE:-

Principle :-

When capacitance of a capacitor changes, the charge on the capacitor tends to

remain the same, and hence the voltage changes in accordance.

Diaphragm of the microphone acts as one plate of the capacitor, the other plate
called back plate, is fixed. When the sound pressure moves the diaphragm in, the
capacitance increases and vice-versa. The change in capacitance results in change
in the voltage. The capacitor microphone is the pressure microphone, as sound
waves coming from all sides strike the diaphragm on the front side only.

Construction:-
A capacitor microphone consists of a lightweight metal diaphragm (generally
aluminium) which is suspended above a fixed metal back plate.

Fig. Capacitor Microphone

The fixed DC voltage of about 50 to 100 volt is applied between the back plate and
the movable plate. The two plates are insulated from each other. The capacitance of
the microphone is about 30 pF.

FUNCTIONING:-

When the sound waves strike the diaphragm, it moves. Compression increases
capacitance, and refraction decreases it. Variation in output voltage depends on the
change in the distance between the plates, which, in turn, depends on the pressure
variations due to sound waves.

CHARACTERISTICS:-

(1) Sensitivity: The output is very low and an amplifier is built-in inside the
microphone case. The amplifier output is about 3 mV (about 50 dB below 1V) at
spend pressure of 0.1 Pa or 1 bar.
(2) SNR: High, about 40 dB.

(3) Frequency Response: Excellent, 40 Hz to 15 KHz for 1dB. Its natural

resonant frequency is about 6000 Hz.
(1) Distortion: Low, about 1%.

(2) Directivity: Omnidirectional.

(3) Output Impedance: High, about 100 Ohms.

APPLICATIONS:-

i. Used as standard microphone for calibrating other microphones.

ii. Used in sound level meters.
iii. Used in professional high fidelity recording.

(4) Electret Microphone:

External DC bias in capacitor microphone makes it costly and unsuitable for

fieldwork. In electrets microphone, external DC bias is dispensed with.

Fig. Electret Microphone

The electrets microphone is also a capacitor microphone, but it has built-in charge.
Insulating material used is Teflon. The thin Teflon layer is charged negatively at the
time of manufacturing, which remains for the long period. The negative charge
induces positive charge on the diaphragm. The positive charge on the diaphragm
and negative charge on the Teflon establish an electric field across the gap of the
capacitor plates, which results in the terminal voltage, the sound pressure changes
the terminal voltage.

It has the same characteristic as capacitor microphone except that it does not need
external bias supply and is less costly. It is also sensitive to temperature and
humidity, which causes leakage of charge.

As this microphone is cheap, has good frequency response, is rugged and does not
need bias supply, it is also used in small PAS for clubs and small halls to keep the
cost low. It is being very light, is also used as tie clip microphone for lecturers and as
radio (wireless) microphone in sports meets.

(5) Carbon Microphone:

Principle:-

When fine carbon enclosed in a case are subjected to variations of pressure, the
resistance of granules changes. When such devices of carbon granules are
connected in series with a load through a DC supply, the current through the load
will vary in accordance with pressure variations on the carbon granules.

Construction:-

The construction of a carbon microphone is shown in the following figure.

 Fig. Carbon Microphone

Fine carbon granules are enclosed between two metal plates. The upper plate is
attached to a movable metal diaphragm through a metal piston of plunger. The lower
metal plate is fixed and is insulated from the diaphragm. A protective cover with
holes is used to protect the unit.

A battery is connected between two metal plates. When load is connected, current
flows through the carbon granules and the load. Final output is obtained through s
transformer to eliminate DC content of the microphone.
Functioning:-

When sound waves strike the diaphragm, it moves to and fro. During the
compression condition, it presses the carbon granules and during rarefaction, it
loosens them. When carbon granules are pressed, the resistance decreases and
hence the current through the circuit increases. When carbon granules loosen,
resistance increases. In the absence of sound, a steady current flows. The sound
waves superimpose a varying current, or audio current on the steady state DC
current.

The change in the current and hence change in the voltage across the load is
proportional to the change in resistance of carbon granules.

Characteristics:

(1) Sensitivity: Very high, the output of the microphone is about 20 dB below 1V
(i.e. about 100 mV).

(2) SNR: Poor, random variations of resistance of carbon granules generate a

continuous hiss.

(3) Frequency Response: Carbon microphones have a frequency response of

200 to 5000 Hz, thus unsuitable for Hi-fi work. The resonant peak is at 2000 Hz
and overall frequency bandwidth is usually upto 5 KHz

(4) Directivity: It is substantially Omnidirectional. However, high frequency

response over 300 Hz falls beyond an angle of 40 from the front of the
microphone.

(5) Distortion: High, the content is rich in harmonics unless variation in

resistance made is very small percentage of steady resistance. Distortion is of
the order 10%. In addition, carbon granules have a tendency to stick to each
other, which further increases the distortion.

(6) Output Impedance: It is about 100.

 Application:

Due to limited frequency range, it is useful in telephones. It is also sometimes used

in portable radio communication sets.

Conclusion: