Resistance to fluid flow

Fluids in motion are subjected to various resistances, which are due to friction.
Friction may occur between the fluid & the pipe work, but friction also occurs within the
fluid as sliding between adjacent layers of fluid takes place.
The friction within the fluid is due to the fluids viscosity.

When fluids have a high viscosity, the speed of flow tends to be low, and resistance to flow
becomes almost totally dependant on the viscosity of the fluid, this condition is known as
Laminar flow.

How do you establishing the pipework resistance losses?

Before the pipework losses can be established the friction factor must be calculated.
The friction factor will be dependant on the pipe size, inner roughness of the pipe, flow
velocity and fluid viscosity.
The flow condition, whether Turbulent or not, will determine the method used to
calculate the friction factor.
The starting point must be to find the fluids viscosity.

This will be the factor that has most effect on the pipework losses.

Understanding viscosity Units (Dynamic viscosity)

Many terms can be used to describe a fluids viscosity. (Its resistance to flow)
Centipoise, Poise, Saybolt Universal (SSU), Saybolt Furol, Ford Cup No. 3, Ford Cup
No.4, Redwood No.1, Degrees Engler, Zahn No.1, Zahn No.2 and Zahn No. 3, are some of
the scales that have been used in the immediate past.

All of these scales have differing upper and lower values and are usually not directly
related to each other.

Some references may be found in text books which attempt to list equivalent values for
these different methods of measuring viscosity.
Pipe Flow 3D provides a means of calculating the equivalent centistokes viscosity from
some other known viscosity scales.

Kinematic viscosity and Reynolds numbers

Dynamic viscosity must be converted to its Kinematic viscosity equivalent before the
viscosity value can be used to calculate Reynolds numbers and hence friction factors.

It is very common today to express dynamic viscosity in centipoise.

The units of centipoise are: force per unit area

Length x Time
one Centipoise = 1 mPa.s or 0.001 kg/(m.s)

It is very common today to express kinematic viscosity in centistokes.

The units of centistokes: Length

Time

one Centistoke = 1 mm/s or 0.000001 m/s

Kinematic viscosity is simply Dynamic viscosity

Mass density

Reynolds numbers

Reynold numbers (Re) describe the relationship between a fluids velocity, the pipe size
and the fluids kinematic viscosity

Reynolds number = Fluid velocity x Internal pipe diameter

Kinematic viscosity

Effect of the inner roughness of the pipe

The inner roughness of the pipe can create eddy currents this increases the friction between
the pipe wall and the fluid.

The relative roughness of the inside of the pipe is used in determining the friction factor to
be used.

Relative roughness = Inside pipe roughness

Inside pipe diameter

The average inner roughness of commercial pipes

Steel tube 0.0460 mm

Copper tubing 0.0015 mm
Glass tubing 0.0001 mm
Polythene 0.0010 mm
Flexible P.V.C. 0.2000 mm
Rigid P.V.C. 0.0050 mm
Cast iron tube 0.2600 mm

Concrete tube 2.0000 mm

Friction factor chart

The chart above shows the relationship between Reynolds number and pipe friction.
For Re numbers < 2300 the fluid flow is Laminar, when the Re number is >2300 the flow
is considered to be Turbulent.

Calculation of friction factors is dependant on the type of flow that will be encountered.

Laminar flow (Re < 2300) f = 64/Re

Turbulent flow (Re > 2300) 1/sqrt(f) = -1.8 log [ (6.9/Re) + ((k/3.7)^1.11 ] (where k
= inner pipe roughness / inner pipe diameter)

Most commercial applications involve Turbulent flow, in these cases the inner roughness
of the pipework can have a significant effect on the Friction factor.

The Relative roughness is the inner roughness divided by the internal diameter of the pipe
work.

The Friction factor is found by plotting the intersection of Re and Relative roughness, and
reading the friction factor on the left hand axis of the chart.

The Fluid head loss can be calculated once the friction factor is known.

The Pressure drop in pipe work can be calculated from fluid head loss, the density of fluid
and the acceleration due to gravity.

Calculating the fluid head resistance

Fluid head resistance can be calculated from h = f (L/d) x (v /2g)

Where h = head loss (m)

F = friction factor
L = length of pipe work (m)
d = inner dia of pipe work (m)
v = velocity of fluid (m/s)
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s )

Calculating the losses through pipe work fittings

The fluid head resistance through various pipe work fittings can be calculated when the 'K'
factor of the fitting is known.

Manufacturers of pipe work fittings & valves publish 'K' factors for their products.

Usually a particular type of fitting from various manufacturer have similar 'K' factors,
therefore this computer program tend uses average 'K' factor values.

Fluid head loss of these fitting can be calculated from h = total 'K' x v / 2g

Where h = head loss (m)

 total 'K' = total of 'K' factors for each fitting
v = velocity of fluid (m/s)
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s )

Note: If the pipework involves different pipe sizes, this calculation must be carried out
separately for each pipe size, using the appropriate velocity within that pipe section.

The 'K' value of entry & exit points can be taken as 0.8 and 1.0 respectively to calculate the
head loss attributable to these features.

Calculating the total pressure drop

The total fluid head resistance may be used to calculate the pressure required to overcome
the resistance to fluid flow.

Pd = h x p x g / 100000

where Pd = pressure drop (bar)

h = head loss (m)
p = fluid density (kg/m3)
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s )

Finally the fluid is most likely to exit into atmospheric pressure, the difference between the
pressure on the fluid surface during storage & the atmospheric pressure must be taken into
account in determining the pressure drop to be overcome by the pump.

This difference in pressure may be positive (assisting fluid flow) or negative (resisting
fluid flow).

Summarising the steps to be considered

Factors that affect fluid flow

Fluid flow in pipes is affected by many different factors

The viscosity, density, and velocity of the fluid.

Changes in the fluid temperature will change the viscosity & density of the fluid.

The length, inner diameter, and the in the case of turbulent flow, the internal roughness of
the pipe.

The position of the supply and discharge containers relative to the pump position.

The addition of rises & falls within the pipe layout.

The number & types of bends in the pipe layout.

The number & types of valves, & other fittings, in the pipe layout.

Entrance & exit conditions of the pipe work.

Calculating the fluid head

When all of the above information is known, the following steps must be carried out to
determine the fluid head necessary to overcome the flow of the fluid through the pipe work
layout.

Calculate the Reynolds number

Determine if the flow is Laminar or Turbulent

Calculate the friction factor for either Laminar flow or Turbulent flow

Calculate the fluid head resistance to overcome the flow through the pipe work

Determine the K factors for the fittings within the pipe work layout

Calculate the fluid head resistance to overcome the flow through the fittings

Determine which lengths & components within the pipe work layout, are significant in
establishing the maximum fluid head to be considered. (branch lines may be important)

The effect of fluid density & gravity must be applied to the maximum fluid head to
calculate the pressure required to overcome the resistance to fluid flow.

Can you pump the fluid?

Will the pressure on the fluid surface & the effect of any positive or negative fluid head, be
sufficient to ensure that the full flow rate required will reach the pump inlet

Will the lowest fluid pressure, which occurs in the pump inlet, fall below the fluid vapour
pressure, and hence cause cavitation to occur.

Establish the inlet condition to the pump

Establish the discharge pressure that the pump must overcome

Use Pipe Flow 3D to carry out your calculations

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