Waste Management 34 (2014) 16831692

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Waste Management
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/wasman

Quantifying construction and demolition waste: An analytical review

Zezhou Wu a, Ann T.W. Yu a,, Liyin Shen b, Guiwen Liu b
a
Department of Building and Real Estate, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
b
Faculty of Construction Management and Real Estate, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400045, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Quantifying construction and demolition (C&D) waste generation is regarded as a prerequisite for the
Received 27 November 2013 implementation of successful waste management. In literature, various methods have been employed
Accepted 6 May 2014 to quantify the C&D waste generation at both regional and project levels. However, an integrated review
Available online 23 June 2014
that systemically describes and analyses all the existing methods has yet to be conducted. To bridge this
research gap, an analytical review is conducted. Fifty-seven papers are retrieved based on a set of rigorous
Keywords: procedures. The characteristics of the selected papers are classied according to the following criteria -
Construction and demolition waste
waste generation activity, estimation level and quantication methodology. Six categories of existing
Quantication methodology
Review
C&D waste quantication methodologies are identied, including site visit method, waste generation rate
method, lifetime analysis method, classication system accumulation method, variables modelling
method and other particular methods. A critical comparison of the identied methods is given according
to their characteristics and implementation constraints. Moreover, a decision tree is proposed for aiding
the selection of the most appropriate quantication method in different scenarios. Based on the analytical
review, limitations of previous studies and recommendations of potential future research directions are
further suggested.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The stream of construction and demolition (C&D) waste gener-
ally results from the construction, renovation and demolition of
buildings, roads, bridges and other structures (Peng et al., 1997;
Yuan and Shen, 2011). According to its generation phase, C&D
waste can be divided into three categories: construction waste
(CW), renovation waste (RW) and demolition waste (DW). Typical
components in C&D waste are inert materials (e.g., concrete, bricks,
etc.), which are generally believed have little damage to the envi-
ronment (EPD, 2012). Therefore, C&D waste is considered having
a priority to be recycled according to the EU Waste Strategy
(Banias et al., 2011). However, there are also some hazardous com-
ponents (e.g., asbestos, particulate matters, etc.) in this particular
stream. If these components are not disposed of properly, negative
impacts will be made on the environment. Consequently, how to
establish an effective C&D waste management system, which is
environmentally sound and economically feasible, is a global hot
topic requiring comprehensive exploration and discussion.
It has been acknowledged that proper quantication of C&D
waste is of great importance for establishing an effective manage-
ment system at both project level and regional level (Bergsdal
Corresponding author. Tel.: +852 27665795; fax: +852 27645131.
E-mail address: bsannyu@polyu.edu.hk (A.T.W. Yu).
et al., 2007; Li and Zhang, 2013; Yost and Halstead, 1996). Quanti-
cation at project level refers to forecast the C&D waste production
in a particular project. It can help the project managers to adjust
the material purchase schedule, to arrange the stockpiling on-site
and to determine the potential waste recycling benet and dis-
posal cost. Quantication at regional level refers to estimate the
total C&D generation of all projects in a specied region. The infor-
mation of regional waste generation can assist decision-makers in
making more realistic policies, determining the establishment of
new waste facilities, and arranging labour and truck resources.
In literature, numerous quantication methodologies have been
proposed to quantify the C&D waste generation. However, a sys-
tematic review that analyses these methodologies and discusses
their application scopes does not yet exist. It is essential for
decision-makers to have a clear idea of the characteristics and
implementation constraints of the alternative quantication meth-
odologies before choosing an appropriate one. Therefore, a system-
atic review is of signicance to bridge the gap. The objectives of
this research are as follows:
 To summarize the existing C&D waste quantication meth-
odologies according to the designated criteria.
 To give a critical comparison and to propose a relevance
tree for guiding the stakeholders to select the most appro-
priate C&D waste quantication method.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2014.05.010
0956-053X/ 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1684
 To explore limitations of current research and provide rec-
ommendations for potential research directions.
This paper starts with the background of C&D waste quantica-
tion, followed by a description of adopted research methodology
and an overview of previous research. Then, C&D waste quantica-
tion methodologies are summarized and discussed according to
three designated criteria. A critical comparison of the identied
methods and a proposed decision tree are given for selecting an
appropriate C&D quantication method. Finally, limitations of pre-
vious studies and recommendations of potential future research
directions are suggested.
2. Research methodology
To make a comprehensive understanding of the current C&D
waste quantication methodologies, a strict literature retrieval
process was conducted based on the two most world-famous
indexed databases: the SCI database (http://www.webofknowl-
edge.com/) and the EI database (http://www.engineeringvil-
lage.com). The worldwide publications indexed by these two
databases have been peer reviewed and regarded of high quality.
The procedure for retrieving relevant paper was as follows.
 Comprehensive search of potential related papers. The
potential related papers were searched in the designated
databases with a time span of 01/01/199031/10/2013. In
addition, ve international journals were selected for
further paper retrieval, including Waste Management,
Waste Management and Research, Resources, Conserva-
tion and Recycling, Construction Management & Eco-
nomics and Journal of Construction Engineering and
Management. These ve journals were selected because
they publish the largest number of papers concerning
C&D waste management (Lu and Yuan, 2011; Yuan and
Shen, 2011). After the scanning of contents issue by issue,
more than 200 papers were collected.
 Detailed relevance identication of the collected papers.
After the collection of potential related papers, a ltering
process was then implemented to identify how the col-
lected papers match the research scope by scanning titles
and abstracts. As the scope of this study is reviewing quan-
tication methodologies only on C&D waste, involving total
waste stream and individual components, papers on quan-
tifying other wastes streams (e.g., municipal solid waste)
have been excluded. After this ltering process, 49 papers
were left for further investigation.
 Cross-referencing examination of retrieved papers. A cross-
referencing examination was further conducted to ensure
the comprehensiveness of the research. All references cited
Number Linear (Number)
10
9 Demolition of old buildings. The demolition activities can
8 produce a large amount of waste. Appropriate processing
7 should be adopted to reduce the environmental impact
6 because of the existence of hazardous substances
5 4
4 3
3 2 2 2
2 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 0 0
0 waste (Kourmpanis et al., 2008a). However, in developing
1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006
Fig. 1. Trend of research interest on C&D waste quantication.
Z. Wu et al. / Waste Management 34 (2014) 16831692
by the selected 49 papers were browsed manually, then the
titles of potential related articles were aggregated into an
Excel table to avoid duplication. After reviewing their
abstracts, additional 8 papers were found, and a total of
57 papers was then subjucted to an in-depth analysis.
A brief analysis has been made to reveal the research interest
trend of C&D waste quantication, a graph of publishing year
versus number of papers was plotted, as shown in Fig. 1. It can
be concluded that this topic has been receiving continuous interest
in the recent six years.
3. Classication of the selected studies
After a systematic review of the retrieved 57 papers, three char-
acteristic classication criteria of the current literature were
revealed: waste generation activity, estimation level and quanti-
cation methodology. Corresponding descriptions are given in the
following sections and the selected papers are classied in Table 1
based on the identied criteria.
3.1. Waste generation activity
The C&D waste stream is produced throughout the lifecycle of a
project, involving construction, usage/maintenance and demoli-
tion. During the usage/maintenance stage, waste is rarely gener-
ated unless renovation activities are implemented (Su et al.,
2012). As a result, according to the waste generation amount, three
primary waste generation activities can be classied: (i) construc-
tion of new buildings, (ii) demolition of old buildings, and (iii) civil
and infrastructural works.
Construction of new buildings. The generation of waste
during construction phase is considered unavoidable
(Tam and Tam, 2006). Typical causes of waste production
in this phase include timber formwork, wet trade of nish-
ing, concrete work, masonry work and material handling,
accounting for 30%, 20%, 13%, 13% and 10% respectively
(Poon et al., 2004a). Mokhtar et al. (2011) found that
construction method, project size, building type, material
storage method, human error and technical problem are
the main factors that affect the waste generation of newly
constructed buildings. Furthermore, studies have revealed
that the attitude and behaviour of on-site workers can play
an important role in producing waste as well (Al-Sari et al.,
2012; Teo and Loosemore, 2001). In practice, the contrac-
tors usually assume that the wastage rate is equivalent to
110% of the purchased construction materials (Shen
et al., 2005). The specic percentage is determined by their
previous experiences derived from direct measurement on
site. However, such information is not robust for making an
effective waste management plan, classication systems
have been introduced to tackle this problem (Llatas,
10 2011; Solis-Guzman et al., 2009).
8
7
6
4 4
(Trankler et al., 1996). Nearly 100% of the demolished
structures were ended as waste except some materials that
have mature secondary market (e.g. wood, metal, etc.)
(Poon et al., 2004b). Selective demolition is regarded as
an effective solution to reduce and recycle demolition
2008 2010 2012 2014
countries, blasting demolition is often employed because
this method requires less time and labour. Therefore, the
 Z. Wu et al. / Waste Management 34 (2014) 16831692 1685

Table 1
Classication of the reviewed papers.

Reviewed paper Region Waste generation activity Estimation level Methodology

CNB DOB CIW PL RL
p p p
1 McBean and Fortin (1993) Canada GRC
p p
2 Gavilan and Bernold (1994) US SV
p p
3 Bossink and Brouwers (1996) Netherlands SV
p p
4 Yost and Halstead (1996) US SV+GRC
p p
5 Poon (1997) Hong Kong GRC+LA
p p
6 McDonald and Smithers (1998) Australia SV
p p
7 Formoso et al. (2002) Brazil SV
p p p
8 Hsiao et al. (2002) Taiwan GRC+LA
p p p
9 Fatta et al. (2003) Greece GRC
p p p
10 Kartam et al. (2004) Kuwait SV+GRC
p p
11 Poon et al. (2004a) Hong Kong SV
p p
12 Poon et al. (2004b) Hong Kong SV
p p p
13 Wang et al. (2004) US GRC+CSA
p p
14 Begum et al. (2006) Malaysia SV
p p p
15 Shi and Xu (2006) China GRC+LA
p p p
16 Bergsdal et al. (2007) Norway GRC+LA
p p p
17 Cochran et al. (2007) US SV+GRC
p p p
18 Hashimoto et al. (2007) Japan GRC+LA
p p
19 Hao et al. (2008) Hong Kong Other
p p
20 Kelly and Hanahoe (2008) Ireland SV
p p
21 Kourmpanis et al. (2008a) Cyprus GRC
p p p
22 Kourmpanis et al. (2008b) Greece GRC
p p
23 Lau et al. (2008) Malaysia SV
p p
24 Tam (2008) Hong Kong SV
p p p p
25 Hashimoto et al. (2009) Japan GRC+LA
p p
26 Jaillon et al. (2009) Hong Kong SV
p p
27 Kofoworola and Gheewala (2009) Thailand GRC
p p p
28 Solis-Guzman et al. (2009) Spain SV+GRC+CSA
p p p p
29 Cochran and Townsend (2010) US LA+Other
p p
30 Hettiaratchi et al. (2010) Canada SV+GRC+VM
p p p
31 Hu et al. (2010) China SV+GRC+LA
p p p p
32 Lage et al. (2010) Spain GRC
p p
33 Wimalasena et al. (2010) Canada VM
p p p
34 Ye et al. (2010) China VM
p p p
35 Zhao et al. (2010) China SV+GRC
p p p
36 Banias et al. (2011) Greece GRC
p p p
37 Coelho and de Brito (2011a) Portugal SV+GRC+CSA
p p p
38 Coelho and de Brito (2011b) Portugal GRC
p p p
39 De Melo et al. (2011) Portugal GRC
p p
40 Katz and Baum (2011) Israel SV+VM
p p
41 Llatas (2011) Spain SV+GRC+CSA
p p
42 Lu et al. (2011) China SV
p p
43 Masudi et al. (2011) Malaysia SV+GRC+CSA
p p
44 Mokhtar et al. (2011) Malaysia SV
p p p
45 Zhao et al. (2011) China SV+GRC
p p
46 Al-Sari et al. (2012) Palestine VM
p p
47 de Guzmn Bez et al. (2012) Spain SV+GRC+CSA
p p
48 Saez et al. (2012) Spain GRC+CSA
p p
49 Tamraz et al. (2012) Lebanon SV+GRC
p p
50 Che Hasan et al. (2013) Malaysia VM
p p
51 Cheng and Ma (2013) Hong Kong GRC+CSA
p p
52 Hoglmeier et al. (2013) Germany GRC
p p
53 Li et al. (2013) China SV+GRC
p p
54 Li and Zhang (2013) Hong Kong GRC+CSA
p p p
55 Mlia et al. (2013) Portugal SV+GRC
p p
56 Mercader-Moyano and Ramrez-de-Arellano-Agudo (2013) Spain GRC+CSA
p p
57 Nagapan et al. (2013) Malaysia SV

CNB construction of new buildings; DOB demolition of old buildings; CIW civil and infrastructural works; PL project level; RL regional level.
SV site visit; GRC generation rate calculation; LA lifetime analysis; CSA classication system accumulation; VM variables modelling.

available generation information of demolition waste is
less than the one of construction waste.
Civil and infrastructural works. Civil and infrastructural
works involve the projects that support a society, such as
roads, highways, bridges, airports, dams, etc. This kind of
projects are usually with large volume and long duration,
thus produce massive waste. However, they are often omit-
ted or intentionally excluded from the quantication in the
existing literature (Fatta et al., 2003; Hsiao et al., 2002;
Kofoworola and Gheewala, 2009). de Guzmn Bez et al.
(2012) claimed that more studies should be launched to
quantify the waste generation in civil engineering sector.
3.2. Estimation level
The estimation level is determined by the targeted quantica-
tion object. The waste management planners are more concen-
trated on the waste production forecast in the medium and long
period, while the professionals, who have to estimate the produc-
tion of waste of a construction or demolition activity, are more
1686 Z. Wu et al. / Waste Management 34 (2014) 16831692
focused on less sophisticated methodologies that have to give
information on a short period. In some papers, to achieve the pur-
pose of estimating C&D waste quantity at a regional level, several
practical site visits might be conducted to collect the waste gener-
ation coefcients. In this circumstance, the estimation level is
regarded as regional level because the targeted quantication
object is C&D waste generation of a region.
Project level. The waste quantication on a project is very
essential. It has been suggested that a sound waste
management plan should be implemented to guide the
reduction of waste generation on sites (McDonald and
Smithers, 1998; Tam, 2008). The practitioners can arrange
the spaces of their sites and estimate the cost of material
ows based on such information. In addition, the waste
generation rates derived from different projects can assist
in providing information for benchmarking the effective-
ness of different management practices. The optimal
technologies and work procedure can be selected by com-
paring the waste generation rates.
Regional level. Effective policies play an important role in
C&D waste reduction in a region (Lu and Tam, 2013). Take
Hong Kong for an example, the annual C&D waste amount
got a signicant decrease after the implementation of Con-
struction Waste Disposal Charging Scheme (EPD, 2014).
Besides disposal charging scheme, other policies, such as
tax policies, waste disposal regulations, can also be adopted
for waste reduction. The knowledge of regional waste gener-
ation trend can help the policy-makers to formulate practi-
cal regulations and make effective decisions. In addition, the
number and volume of waste treatment sites to be estab-
lished can be determined according to this information.
3.3. Quantication methodology
According to the methodological principle, the adopted quanti-
cation methods in selected papers were summarized into six
major categories, which consist of site visit (SV) method, genera-
tion rate calculation (GRC) method, lifetime analysis (LA) method,
classication system accumulation (CSA) method, variables model-
ling (VM) method and other particular methods, as shown in
Table 1. It should be underlined that more than one quantication
methodologies might be involved for a particular case. For exam-
ple, before conducting GRC quantication, a SV method might be
introduced and used to explore the waste generation rates. In this
circumstance, both methodologies will be presented in the aggre-
gated table.
3.3.1. Site visit (SV) method
This methodology requires investigators to visit the construc-
tion or demolition sites for a realistic survey. Direct or indirect
approaches can be utilized to collect C&D waste generation data.
3.3.1.1. Direct measurement. Direct measurement requires to weigh
the waste produced or to measure its volume on site. Before
implementing direct measurement, some assumptions have to be
made. For instance, in the research conducted by Lau et al.
(2008), four assumptions were made depending on how C&D waste
was stockpiled, gathered, scattered or stacked. For stockpiled
waste, a rectangular based pyramid was assumed, and the volume
was calculated by Eq. (1).
Vs 1=3  L  B  H 1
where Vs is the volume of the stockpiled C&D waste, L is the base
length of the assumed rectangular based pyramid, B is the base
breadth, and H represents the height.
For gathered waste, the layout shape was assumed cuboid, and
the volume (Vg) was derived from Eq. (2).
Vg L  B  H 2
After obtaining the volumes of the stockpiled and gathered C&D
waste, the mass was derived by using waste volume times corre-
sponding density.
For scattered and stacked waste with similar size (e.g., bricks,
roof tiles), three samples were randomly chosen from the total.
The average weight of the selected samples was calculated and
assumed to be uniform. Thus, the total weight could be estimated
by using the average weight multiplied by the number of samples.
For the wastes that were largely different in size, they were sorted
into several groups before estimation. The size of each sample in
the same group was similar, and then above-described estimation
method was implemented.
3.3.1.2. Indirect measurement. As direct measurement requires a
substantial amount of time and labour, indirect measurement is
more frequently used for practical estimation. For example, Poon
et al. (2004b) employed truck load records to estimate the volume
of C&D waste generated on site. The investigators recorded the
number of trucks for waste collecting, together with the con-
tainers volume of each. Based on this information, the total waste
volume at a project level was derived. For the purpose of indirect
quantication at a regional level, Kartam et al. (2004) obtained
truck load records from landlls.
Besides the above-mentioned measurements, interviews with
contractors could be further conducted for a verication purpose.
This is because on-site professionals often possess relevant back-
ground and can give some insights for adjusting the waste genera-
tion information.
3.3.2. Generation rate calculation (GRC) method
The literature review revealed that GRC is the most popular
methodology for estimating C&D waste amounts. It can be imple-
mented for construction, renovation and demolition activities at
both regional and project levels. The principle of this methodology
is to obtain the waste generation rate for a particular activity unit
(such as kg/m2, and m3/m2). In this principle, several methods
were introduced by using alternative parameters in previous stud-
ies, such as per capita multiplier, nancial value extrapolation and
area-based calculation.
3.3.2.1. Per-capita multiplier. Per-capita multiplier is the earliest
C&D waste quantication methodology in literature, which is
developed from the methodologies that quantify municipal solid
waste (MSW). To estimate C&D waste generation in Waterloo,
McBean and Fortin (1993) collected the regional C&D waste quan-
tity from 1983 to 1990. Then, the average C&D waste generation
per person was calculated as 1.09 tonnes/person/year. On this
basis, future regional C&D waste generation amounts were extrap-
olated using waste weight per person multiplied by number of
population.
Per-capita multiplier is an easy way to quantify C&D waste in a
region. However, Yost and Halstead (1996) argued it suffers from
the fact that construction and demolition activities may uctuate
widely due to the economy status while the population remains
almost constant.
3.3.2.2. Financial value extrapolation. In order to reect actual con-
struction activities more accurately, Yost and Halstead (1996)
developed a methodology based on the nancial value of buildings
permits issued by the US Census Bureau. A case study estimating
the quantication of gypsum wallboard waste in a region was
described. The estimation processes were as follows:
 Z. Wu et al. / Waste Management 34 (2014) 16831692
(1) The generation rate of wasted gypsum was assumed based
on eld observations. In this study, several new construction
projects were selected for empirical investigation. The
wasted gypsum on sites was weighed and the total area of
the buildings was collected, then the generation rate
(kg/m2) could be determined using total mass divided by
the area.
(2) Through reviewing the building permits data of 72 new con-
struction projects, the nancial value per square metre was
obtained ($/m2). Based on the empirical data, the relation-
ship between wasted gypsum quantity and building nan-
cial value could be established using wasted gypsum per
nancial value (kg/$).
(3) Given the total nancial values ($) of new construction pro-
jects in a designated region, the wasted gypsum generation
(kg) could be derived by timing generation rate per nancial
value (kg/$).
Financial value extrapolation utilizes nancial value presented
in construction and demolition permits. Through this method,
the uctuation of construction and demolition activities can be
reected using building nancial value, making the estimation
more construction related and more accurate than per-capita mul-
tiplier method.
3.3.2.3. Area-based calculation. In recent years, many studies
employed GRC methodology based on the generation rate per con-
struction/renovation/demolition area. Unlike the above two GRC
methods, this method can be used both at the regional and project
levels. Generation rate values can be derived from several
approaches, such as site visits, project consultancy, construction
guides and literature review (Coelho and de Brito, 2011a; Lage
et al., 2010; Zhao et al., 2011). The total construction or demolition
area can be easily collected from the project schedule or govern-
ment statistical department. Then, the total C&D waste generation
amount can be estimated by multiplying the generation rate by
total area.
Area-based calculation is the most frequently used method in
literature. Compared with nancial value extrapolation, this
method omits the intermediate variable nancial value. Potential
errors caused by the intermediate variable can be eliminated
through the area-based estimation.
3.3.3. Lifetime analysis (LA) method
Lifetime analysis is mainly implemented when quantifying
demolition waste. The primary principle involved in this method
is material mass balance. It is assumed that constructed buildings
will eventually be demolished and become demolition waste. Con-
sequently, the amount of demolition waste must equal the mass of
the constructed structure, and can be projected by assuming rea-
sonable lifetimes of buildings/materials. Building lifetime analysis
and material lifetime analysis are the two branches of this method.
3.3.3.1. Building lifetime analysis. For the rst time, building lifetime
analysis was introduced by Poon (1997). The objective was to
supply essential information for conducting more effective and
efcient demolition waste management. In Poons research, the
buildings were categorized into four groups according to their
ages, namely pre-war to 1945, 19461955, 19561960 and
19611965. The buildings completed after 1965 were assumed
not to be demolished in the next ten years. Nineteen scenarios
were then proposed by dening the demolition percentage of each
group. The most realistic scenario was selected based on a practical
investigation and the areas of demolished buildings were identi-
ed. The quantity of demolition waste could be derived by GRC
1687
after knowing the generated volume per unit of building area
and the material mass per unit of volume.
3.3.3.2. Material lifetime analysis. To attain more detailed informa-
tion about each kind of material, Cochran and Townsend (2010)
presented an alternative approach named material ow analysis
to estimate C&D waste generation and composition for the US. In
their research, the consumption of construction materials in the
whole country and typical waste factors used for construction
materials purchasing were used to estimate the mass of solid
waste generated as a result of construction activities. For demoli-
tion activities, the C&D waste volume was predicted from various
historical construction materials consumption data and estimates
of average service lives of the materials.
Since not all materials purchased will end up in the structures,
the C&D waste produced in construction activities could be esti-
mated by using Eq. (3).
Cw M  W c 3
where Cw is the quantity of waste produced in construction activi-
ties; M refers to all materials purchased in the whole country; Wc
stands for the average proportion discarded during construction
which can be found from construction guides.
The quantity of materials ending up as demolition waste (Dw)
was supposed to be equivalent to the amount of material still in
the structure after installation, minus the amount discarded during
installation, as shown in Eq. (4).
Dw M  C w 4
For instance, supposing that the lifetime for a particular mate-
rial is 50 years, and was originally produced in 1952, the demol-
ished quantity in 2002 could be calculated using Eq. (5).
Dw2002 M 1952  C w1952 5
3.3.4. Classication system accumulation (CSA) method
In recent years, classication system accumulation (CSA)
method has got wide implementation (Coelho and de Brito,
2011a; Llatas, 2011; Solis-Guzman et al., 2009). This methodology
is developed based on GRC method. The primary improvement is
that CSA involves a classication system, which provides a plat-
form for quantifying different specied material.
A classication system can be established according to existing
systems, such as a regional project budget system or the European
Waste List (EWL). Solis-Guzman et al. (2009) built a classication
system based on a Spanish project budget system. This system
was hierarchically organized in chapters and sub-chapters. For
example, 02TX corresponded to chapter 02 (stands for earth
works) and sub-chapter TX (represents earth transportation). The
waste amount of this item was calculated by applying SV and
GRC. Once the quantities of all items have been determined, the
total amount of waste could be derived by accumulating those
all items. Other researchers implemented similar estimation sys-
tems using the EWL (Coelho and de Brito, 2011a; Llatas, 2011).
It is obvious that the outcomes derived from this methodology
can offer more effective information for determining waste man-
agement strategies, because each kind of waste material has differ-
ent properties and requires a different handling. Similar to GRC,
this method can also be used for quantifying both CW and DW.
To facilitate the application of CSA, computer software (such as
Microsoft Excel) or databases were suggested to be used (Solis-
Guzman et al., 2009).
3.3.5. Variables modelling (VM) method
C&D waste generation depends on numerous variables, such as
economic indicators, construction areas, on-site working condition,
1688 Z. Wu et al. / Waste Management 34 (2014) 16831692
etc. Therefore, there is a possibility to simulate the C&D waste gen-
eration using variables modelling. Predicting C&D waste amounts
by modelling helps to understand the interrelationship among
the variables, and provides more systematic information for deci-
sion making.
At the project level, Wimalasena et al. (2010) established a
quantication framework based on the principle of Activity Based
Waste Generation, which assumes that the total quantity of con-
struction waste generated at a particular time on a construction
site is the accumulation of waste quantities from each construction
activity. Five categories of factors were identied to estimate the
waste generation in a construction activity:
(1) activity specic factors;
(2) labour and equipment related factors;
(3) material and storage related factors;
(4) site condition and weather related factors;
(5) company policies.
To make the prediction model more sophisticated, it was sug-
gested that detailed site observations should be implemented to
quantify the variables and to establish the correlations.
For estimation at a regional level, Ye et al. (2010) proposed a
conceptual model based on system dynamics theory. The model
was established according to the identied interrelationships
between each variable. The interrelationships were represented
using casual loops, which is used to diminish the complexity of
the system and reect the changes of variables. Thus, the C&D
waste production could be modelled dynamically.
3.3.6. Others
Besides the estimation methodologies above, some other meth-
ods have also been used. For example, Hao et al. (2008) estimated
construction waste production as a xed percentage of the pur-
chased materials. In their research, they assumed the waste gener-
ation rate to be 10%. As a result, the total amount of construction
waste could be easily calculated as 10% of the purchased quantities.
In addition, wastage amounts for some particular materials could
be calculated based on their chemical characteristics. For instance,
Shi and Xu (2006) estimated concrete debris in China from the
annual cement production. Cement is used because it is an essential
material for producing concrete and its industrial output is
recorded by the national statistics department. It is possible, there-
fore, to estimate the amount of concrete debris having data on the
proportion of cement in concrete and concrete wastage rates.
4. Discussions
The selection of appropriate quantication methodology is
essential and indispensable for making an effective waste manage-
ment plan (Beigl et al., 2008). In order to obtain valuable insights
from previous studies, the existing methodologies are compared
and discussed based on the identied classication criteria, current
limitations and potential research directions are proposed as well.
4.1. Integrated comparison of the current methodologies
There is an increasing emphasis on C&D waste quantication in
the eld of C&D waste management. Many quantication method-
ologies have been introduced for estimating C&D waste amounts.
In this study, six quantication methodologies were identied,
namely SV, GRC, LA, CSA, VM and other particular methods.
According to different quantication objectives, corresponding
methods can be selected. The applicability of each method is
described as follows.
 SV. This method is not appropriate for estimating the C&D
waste generation at a regional level because of the high
requirement of time, labour and money. However, it is of
great essence to be implemented at a project level to collect
the most realistic data for employing other methodologies.
In addition, this method is applicable to measure waste
produced from all of the waste generation activities. The
measurement can be conducted through weighing C&D
waste directly on site (Lu et al., 2011), as well as estimating
the shape of the piled wasted materials (Lau et al., 2008).
On-site interviews to professionals are also suggested in
order to tune the calculated production rate.
 GRC. This methodology has got a wide utilization in previ-
ous studies because it can be implied to estimate waste
from all activities at both regional and project levels. The
fundamental of this methodology is to determine the waste
generation rate per unit and the amount of total units. In
the earlier implementation of this methodology, the C&D
waste generation was estimated based on municipal
population, which is a popular indicator in the MSW
quantication eld. However, in the most recent C&D
waste quantication studies, the variable of area is used.
For estimation at a project level, the value of area (m2)
can be collected from the basic project schedule. For esti-
mation at a regional level, the area value can be derived
from the related governmental statistic reports.
 LA. The method of LA is developed based on the GRC
quantication, aiming to estimate waste generate from
renovation and demolition activities based on proper
lifetime assumption. According to the estimation level,
two divisions of this method can be categorized, namely
material lifetime analysis and building lifetime analysis.
The former one is used for estimation at a project level,
while the latter one focuses on quantication at a regional
level. The advantage of this method is that it can be used in
the regions where no demolition area data exists.
 CSA. This method is developed for the classied materials
of C&D waste. As different construction materials have dif-
ferent chemical characteristics and storage requirements,
the corresponding recycling benets and disposal choices
are different. For example, recycling wasted rebar can earn
more prots than recycling wasted concrete or stones.
Therefore, a more detailed understanding of waste genera-
tion is essential for better management of C&D waste. CSA
is a feasible method for supplying such information, and
can be implemented to estimate waste from all activities
at project level. Generally, the classication system can
be established based on a project budget system or govern-
mental waste list (e.g., European Waste List).
 VM. This method is focused on the interrelationships
among the systematic variables to model waste genera-
tion. When conducting estimation of C&D waste genera-
tion, the variables are collectively considered and their
interrelationships are detected. This method has been
developed to forecast MSW production extensively. How-
ever, as the data on C&D waste are quite less than data on
MSW, the method remains at the conceptual level and
does not provide reliable future scenarios at current stage.
More practical investigations are needed to develop this
kind of methodology and to increase its feasibility and
accuracy.
 Others. In practice, it is not possible to make an accurate
estimation of C&D waste because of some specic limita-
tions, such as the construction period is very short. In this
circumstance, a wastage rate for purchased materials
can be assumed based on the literature or practical
 Z. Wu et al. / Waste Management 34 (2014) 16831692 1689

experiences to give a rough estimation. However, accurate 4.2.1. Current limitations

estimation is quite essential to some valuable materials
(e.g., rebar) with the aim of cutting down the wastage
and saving money.
Based on the above analysis, it cannot be concluded that one
specic quantication method is more effective than others. A
proper methodology should be selected based on the particular
quantication objectives and practical conditions. In order to pro-
vide more insights, a detailed integrated comparison is tabulated
for the branches of each methodology, see Table 2. To serve as
guidance, a relevance tree is further proposed for selecting an
appropriate C&D waste quantication methodology, as shown in
Fig. 2. Because variables modelling method remains at conceptual
level, and other particular methods have specic implementation
limitations, they are not included in the relevance tree; only
mature and commonly used methods are considered.
4.2.1.1. Lack of quantication on infrastructure. From the literature
review, it can be concluded that quantication activities are
focused much more on residential or commercial buildings than
on civil engineering works or infrastructures. Some possible rea-
sons are the following:
 residential and commercial buildings are often smaller
than public construction works and thus are easier and
cheaper to study;
 the construction durations and the lifetimes of these build-
ings are much shorter than those of public civil engineering
works, which makes it applicable for demolition waste
estimation;
 as residential and commercial buildings are generally of
similar construction, the waste generation information col-
lected from different projects are comparable and can be
generalized.

4.2. Current limitations and future research directions

Through a thorough analysis of what have been done in the pre-
vious studies, the current limitations of C&D waste quantication
research are identied. Based on the limitations, potential future
research directions are further suggested, as described in the fol-
lowing sections.
4.2.1.2. Lack of actual data. Actual data are very important for an
accurate quantication. However, nowadays, reliable data for
C&D waste estimation are missing, with only few exceptions in
some developed countries. To achieve relatively accurate estima-
tion, researchers must draw support from assumptions. For exam-
ple, as the annual total area of construction (m2) in Florida is not

Table 2
Comparison of the current C&D waste quantication methodologies.

Methodology Typical paper Waste Estimation Comments

generation level
activity
SV Direct Lau et al. (2008), Lu CNB, DOB, PL Direct measurement of C&D waste can provide the most practical waste generation
measurement et al. (2011) CIW rates, which is the most basic information for C&D waste quantication. Besides, the
waste generation rates enable the comparison and benchmark of C&D waste
management in different economies. However, the direct measurement should rst
successfully seek the support from the contractors, and the consumption of time,
money and labor is immense
Indirect Poon et al. (2004b) CNB, DOB, PL Indirect measurement can quickly supply general information of waste generation
measurement CIW situation. However, the waste generation amounts derived from this method can only
approximately reect the fact
GRC Per-capita McBean and Fortin CNB, DOB, RL Per-capita multiplier is a method developed from MSW quantication. The population
multiplier (1993) CIW statistics, which is very basic information for a region, is utilized. However, as C&D
waste generation is more construction related, this method is not suggested if
construction related statistics can be derived
Financial Yost and Halstead CNB, DOB, RL Financial value extrapolation utilizes nancial value presented in construction/
value (1996) CIW demolition permits as a converting factor to estimate the area of construction/
extrapolation demolition activities, making the estimation construction activities related. However,
this method is not suggested when the area of construction/demolition activities can
be directly derived
Area-based Fatta et al. (2003), CNB, DOB, PL, RL Area-based calculation is the most popular method in literature. It can be employed to
calculation Lage et al. (2010) CIW estimate all kinds of C&D waste at both project and regional levels. However, the
demolition areas statistic may not available at regional level
LA Building Poon (1997) DOB RL Building lifetime analysis is a method that estimates demolition areas, making it
lifetime possible for quantifying DW without governmental demolition statistics. However,
analysis appropriate assumptions of building lifetime are required when conducting this
method and the detailed wasted amount at material level cannot be derived
Material Cochran and DOB RL Material lifetime analysis is a method that can estimate DW generation at material
lifetime Townsend (2010) level. The lifetime of the material is considered. However, similar with building
analysis lifetime analysis, appropriate assumptions of material lifetime are required
CSA Solis-Guzman et al. CNB, DOB, PL, RL CSA is a methodology developed based on GCC. This methodology can give more
(2009), Llatas (2011) CIW detailed information at material level, which makes the project managers and regional
policy-makers more feasible to formulate effective and efcient waste management
plans. However, a classication system is suggested to be established in advance
VM Wimalasena et al. CNB, DOB, PL, RL VM is a methodology that can simulate the potential inter-relationships between
(2010) CIW waste generation affecting variables. This method has a great perspective in modeling
future C&D waste generation. However, as the realistic data for C&D waste estimation
is rare at this stage, this method has not got a wide application
Others Shi and Xu (2006) CNB, DOB, PL, RL Other methodologies are essential supplement for C&D waste quantication. However,
CIW due to various limitations, they cannot be generalized

CNB construction of new buildings; DOB demolition of old buildings; CIW civil and infrastructural works; PL project level; RL regional level.
SV site visit; GRC generation rate calculation; LA lifetime analysis; CSA classication system accumulation; VM variables modelling.
1690 Z. Wu et al. / Waste Management 34 (2014) 16831692

Site visit

Direct
No measurement

Indirect
measurement

RL Category of
Known reachable
data? Generation rate
CW waste calculation
generation
rate? Demographic data
Per-capita multiplier

Yes Estimation Financial data Financial value

level? extrapolation

No Area data
Area-based
Waste calculation
stream No
PL Classified
information?
Yes Classification system
accumulation

DW Consider Yes Classified

lifetime? information? Lifetime analysis

No Building lifetime
analysis

Yes Material lifetime

analysis

Fig. 2. Relevance tree for methodology selection.

directly available, Cochran et al. (2007) estimated it through
dividing the total value of construction activity ($/year) by the
average cost per area of construction activity ($/m2). Poon (1997)
assumed a constant waste generation rate (m3/m2), a general
demolition waste density (kg/m3), and the most possible scenario
for demolition area (m2) to investigate the demolition waste.
Though the assumptions are reasonable, it is suggested that more
efforts should be paid on recording actual data for more accurate
estimation.
4.2.1.3. Lack of verication. Though many quantication methodol-
ogies have been proposed and case studies have been implemented
in literature, little verication has been conducted to prove
whether a methodology is appropriate or how far its estimation
is from the truth. The only evidence that the investigators conduct
verication in literature is when employing a SV quantication
method. After the waste generation rate was collected, the investi-
gators adjusted their estimation with experienced on-site
professionals through interviews. This verication can make their
estimation more practical. However, at a regional level, there is
little chance for the researchers to conduct verication because
the local government has no record of C&D generation.
4.2.2. Future research directions
4.2.2.1. Pay attention to civil engineering works. Previous research
has focused mostly on residential and commercial buildings, but
civil engineering works also make a great contribution to C&D
waste generation. In most cases, a single civil engineering project
produces much more waste than a single residential or commercial
project. As a result, more attention should be paid to quantifying
C&D waste generated by civil engineering works. de Guzmn
Bez et al. (2012) have proposed a methodology for quantifying
waste generation in Spanish railway construction works. It is
expected that further efforts will focus on other civil engineering
works, such as highway construction, bridge construction, etc.
4.2.2.2. Focus on classied information. Information on C&D waste
generation could help project managers and policy makers to for-
mulate a more effective waste management plan. At a project level,
it is very common to encounter some constraints (i.e. lack of site
space, lack of labour, etc.) during the project implementation stage.
These constraints can make it is not realistic to conduct a complete
recycling plan for all the waste streams. In this circumstance, it is
important for a project manager to know the classied information
to make an optimal waste management plan, which indicates what
materials to be recycled on site and what materials to be disposed
at landlls. The on-site recycling should be arranged to the most
cost-effective materials which are bearing higher recycling values.
At a regional level, waste disposal facilities can accept different
type of waste depending on their chemical characteristics. For
example, in Hong Kong, inert wastes can be disposed in public ll
reception facilities (with a disposal fee of HK$25), while the non-
inert materials are supposed to be disposed of in landlls (with a
disposal fee of HK$100) (EPD, 2011). Thus, it is essential for the
policy makers to know the annual inert and non-inert waste
amount to determine a more realistic disposal facility arrangement
and waste charging fees. In addition, incentive policies can be
issued for waste recycling based on the classied information.
4.2.2.3. Computer-aided estimation. Nowadays, computers are used
more and more widely, and can facilitate the estimation of C&D
waste amounts. The two recent developed quantication method-
ologies are based on computer techniques. Wang et al. (2004) rst
developed CSA method based on an Excel spreadsheet le to track
C&D waste streams in various waste management stages. An
economic analysis was further provided by incorporating the
 Z. Wu et al. / Waste Management 34 (2014) 16831692
cost/revenue data for different C&D waste management scenarios.
Instead of an Excel spreadsheet, Banias et al. (2011) conducted a
web-based quantication to estimate 21 different waste streams
for four types of buildings. This web-based estimation idea was
further developed by Li and Zhang (2013), suggesting that a web-
based system can not only supply accurate C&D waste generation
information, but also facilitate accessibility, interfacing, connectiv-
ity and information sharing when a wide range of construction
waste management is required. In addition, Cheng and Ma
(2013) introduced the BIM technology, which is able to simulate
the planning, design, construction and operation of a building, to
ll the gap that tools for C&D waste quantication are lacking. As
requirements for C&D waste quantication become more and more
accurate, concise and detailed, it is believed that computer-aided
estimation has good development prospects.
4.2.2.4. Forecasting future waste generation. Accurate forecast of
future C&D waste generation can help the project manager to con-
duct better on-site resource arrangement and assist the regional
decision-makers in establishing efcient waste reception facilities.
However, unlike MSW quantication, little research has been
conducted on forecasting future C&D waste generation. Current
studies mainly focus on estimating C&D waste production of a
completed project or regional waste generation in previous years.
This is mainly because the supporting information for forecasting
is not adequate, as discussed in Section 4.2.1.2. At present, studies
have been emerged to investigate the waste generation rate at
project level. It is believed that waste forecasting at regional level
is becoming more and more applicable. However, at a regional
level, there is still a long way to go. The local government should
increase their environmental awareness concerning C&D waste
management, it is hoped that sufcient realistic data can be
recorded in chronological, hence time series forecasting regression
modelling can be conducted.
5. Conclusions
Reliable waste generation information is a basic requirement
for formulating successful waste management strategies. Through
the comprehensive literature review of 57 papers, existing quanti-
cation methods were described and compared. The comparison
revealed that no independent quantication methodology can ful-
ll all of the potential scenarios; appropriate methodology should
be selected according to actual quantication objectives and realis-
tic conditions. A relevance tree was proposed for methodology
selection, as shown in Fig. 2. Limitations of previous studies and
future research directions were identied and suggested for fur-
ther exploring the eld of C&D waste quantication. It is suggested
that more attentions should be paid to civil and infrastructural
works. The classied information of C&D waste can be recorded
with the aid of computer technologies for benchmarking and better
waste management.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to the
four anonymous reviewers for their constructive and considerate
comments. Thanks are also due to Prof. Michael Anson and Dr. Paul
Fox for their kind help in proofreading of this paper.
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