Whales Exam Study Notes

Chapter 22: Descent with Modification

- Evolution: descent with modification
o The change in the genetic composition of a population from
generation to generation
- Process of evolution consists of mechanisms that produce the observed
pattern of changes in a species
- Aristotle believed in the fixity of species
o Species were all made at the beginning of time and have never
changed since they were created
o Organized life forms based off of increasing complexity
Scala Naturae Great Chain of Being
- Darwin drew a lot of research based off of his studies with fossils
o Many of the fossils found in sedimentary rock
o Marine environments
- Observed that from one layer to the next, some new species appeared
while others disappeared from the rock/layers
o Advocated the idea of catastrophism to explain these
observations
Series of past events that occurred suddenly and were
caused by mechanisms different from those operating in
the present
- Some other scientists thing that change could take place through
cumulative effect of slow but continuous changes
o James Hutton was all like, Earths geological features could be
explained by gradual mechanisms still operating today
- Charles Lyell then took Huttons idea and formed a new hypothesis
called uniformitarianism mechanisms of change are constant over
time
- Lyell and Huttons ideas greatly influence Darwin
- Lamarck came along and made his own hypothesis revolving around
the idea of use and disuse
o Characteristics that are used often become stronger and bigger
while others that are not used as much deteriorate away
Lamarckian giraffe
- Used another principle called the inheritance of acquired
characteristics
o Organism could pass these modifications to its offspring
- Darwin embarked on a voyage on the Beagle all around the world and
did a lot of research especially on the Galapagos Islands
- Earthquake and volcanic activity showed new fossils which got Darwin
thinking
 - He noticed how some animals on the islands look a lot like other
animals in other parts of the world but other animals were only native
to the islands itself
- He took notice in many different adaptions inherited characteristics
of organisms that enhance their survival and reproduction in specific
environments
- Most famous of examples of adaptions come from Darwins Finches
- He explained how these adaptions arise centered from the concept of
natural selection
- Alfred Wallace sent a letter to Darwin being all like I made a
hypothesis very similar to yours
- In the Origin of Species, Darwin stated that over long periods of time,
descent with modification eventually led to the rich diversity of life we
see today
- Artificial selection: humans modifying other species over many
generation by selecting and breeding individuals that possess desired
traits
- Darwin argued that a similar process occurs in nature with 2
observations
o Members of a population often vary in their inherited traits
Individuals that has inherited traits that are better suited
for the environment have a higher reproductive
rate/chance
o All species can produce more offspring than their environment
can support and many of these offspring will fail to survive or
reproduce
This unequal ability of individuals to survive and reproduce
will lead to the accumulation of favourable traits in the
population over generations
- Homologous structures: represent variations on a structural theme that
was present in their common ancestor
- Vestigial Feature: remnants of features that served a function in the
organisms ancestors but serve no purpose today
- Analogous Features: species that share similar structures but do not
have a common ancestry

Chapter 26: Phylogeny

- Biologists can categorize species based off of their morphological traits
- A lot of classification now a days is based off of molecular
characteristics in species DNA
- All of the characteristics can be used to make a phylogeny
evolutionary tree
- Systematics is used to make phylogenies
 o A discipline focused on classifying organisms and determining
their evolutionary relationships with one another
- Animal classifications taxonomy
- Hierarchical classification
o Domain>kingdom>phyla>classes>orders>family>genus>specie
s
- Evolutionary history of a group of organisms can be represented using
a phylogenetic tree
- Organisms that share very similar morphologies or DNA sequences
tend to be closely related to each other
- It is important to not just base organisms off of their superficial
characteristics as it can lead to classification problems
o Bats superficially may look more closely related to bird than they
are to cats but their bone structure for their wings is more similar
to the forelimb of a cat rather than a bird
This is how analogy can screw things up with classification
and organization
- Phylogeny soon changed into molecular systematics uses data from
DNA and other molecules to determine evolutionary relationships
- Cladistics is kind of like phylogeny but instead, biologists attempt to
place species into groups called clades, each of which includes an
ancestral species and all of its descendants
- Monophyletic: consists of an ancestral species and all of its
descendants
- Paraphyletic: consists of an ancestral species and some, but not all, of
its descendants
- Polyphyletic: includes taxa with different ancestors
- Shared Ancestral Character: a character that originated in an ancestor
of the taxon
- Shared Derives Character: character that is unique to a clade
- Example: hair is a character shared by all mammals but not found in
their ancestors
o This means that it is a shared derived character and not a shared
ancestral character
- An outgroup is a species or group of species from an evolutionary
lineage that is known to have diverged before the lineage that includes
the species we are studying
- Phylograms are like cladograms except that the length of the branches
in phylograms depict evolutionary change

Chapter 27: Bacteria and Archaea

- Key feature of nearly all prokaryotic cells is the cell wall which
maintains the cell shape
 o Also protects the cell and prevents it from bursting hypotonic
environments
o It differs in its structure from eukaryotic cell walls
It is made from peptidoglycan rather than chitin or
cellulose
- Gram staining can show the cell wall in cells
o Gram Positive large amounts of peptidoglycan
o Gram Negative small amounts of peptidoglycan, more
complex cell wall
- Polysaccharide layer (capsule) surrounds the cell wall
- Fimbriae are hair-like appendages that help the cell attach to certain
surfaces
- Prokaryotic cells are much simpler in their DNAs physical arrangement
inside the cell
- Prokaryotes lack a membrane-bounded nucleus
o Their chromosome is located in the nucleoid which is a region of
cytoplasm that appears lighter than the surrounding cytoplasm
- Typical prokaryotic cell has smaller rings of DNA that can replicate
which is called a plasmid only carries a few genes, a lot smaller than
eukaryotic cells
- They can reproduce very quickly in favourable environments
o Reproduce with binary fission
- Some bacteria can develop resistant cells known as endospores
- Diverse adaptions exhibited by prokaryotes suggest that their
populations must have considerable amounts of genetic variation
- Genetic variation also is reflected based off of their nutritional
adaptions as well
- Obligate aerobes must use oxygen gas for cellular respiration and cant
grow without it
- Obligate anaerobes are actually poisoned by oxygen gas
o Sometimes only every lived off of fermentation
o Others contract energy using anaerobic respiration
- Facultative anaerobes use oxygen gas if it is present but can also carry
out fermentation or anaerobic respiration in an anaerobic environment
- Nitrogen fixation: converting atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia
o Once the nitrogen fixation is completed, the cells can then use
the fixed nitrogen to be incorporated into amino acids and other
organic compounds
- Using systematics, biologists have been able to better get an
understanding of the phylogeny of prokaryotes
o Learned than the actual genetic diversity of prokaryotes is
immense
- Archaea bacteria share traits with eukaryotes
- The first Archaea and current live in some of the more extreme
environments
o Gives rise to the term extremophiles
- Extreme halophiles are the same as before except their prefer to be in
very salty environmental conditions
o Live in the Great Salt Lake and the Dead Sea
- Extreme thermophiles thrive in very hot environments
o There is actually one strain that can reproduce at 121 degrees
Celsius which is just insane if you really think about it
- Methanogens are archaea that release methane
- Bacteria is a large part of prokaryotic diversity
o Some are good and some are bad diseases vs holes in your
cheese
- Major Groups of Bacteria
o Proteobacteria includes 5 subgroups
Alpha live in roots in legumes
Beta soil bacteria that uses nitrogen fixation
Gamma autotrophic members that include sulfur
bacteria
Delta slide secreting myxobacteria
Epsilon mostly pathogenic to humans
o Chlamydias can only survive within animal cells
o Spirochetes spiral through the air, one infamous species (Lyme
Disease)
o Cyanobacteria photoautotrophs are the only plantlike
prokaryotes
o Gram Positive Bacteria free living and help decompose organic
matter to soil
- Symbiosis: ecological relationship where 2 species live in close contact
with each other
- Host: larger organisms in the symbiotic relationship
- Symbiont: the smaller organisms in the symbiotic relationship
- There are many cases in which prokaryotic organisms and a host
participate in mutualism ecological interaction between two species
in which both parties will benefit from each other
- Commensalism: where only one species in the relationship is benefited
but the other is not harmed or takes any significant benefits
- Parasitism: where the symbiont is considered a parasite and it is
favored greatly in the relationship and uses the host for its needsthe
host can possibly die out from this
- Parasites that cause diseases are known as pathogens

Chapter 28: Protists (not whales)

- Protistan Diversity
o Excavata
Parabasalids
Diplomonads
Euglenozoans
o Chromaloveolata
Diatoms
o Rhizaria
Many species of amoebas
o Archaeplastida
Red algae and green algae
Land plants
o Unikonta
Eukaryotes includes amoebas that have lobe/tube like
pseudopodia
- Diplomonads
o Have modified mitochondria called mitosomes
Function of these suckers is unknown
They lack the capability of synthesizing ATP
o They get the energy that they need from anaerobic repiration
o Have two equal-sized nuclei and multiple flagella
o Many are parasites
- Parabasalids
o Also have reduced mitochondria called hydrogenosomes
o Parasites that can infect the insides of a vagina and urinary tract
o Kind of like an STD scary stuff
- Euglenozoans
o Predatory heterotrophs, photosynthetic autotrophs and parasites
o Significant structure is the presence of a rod with either a spiral
or a crystalline structure inside each of their flagella
- Chromalveolata are an immensely diverse clade of protists
o Alveolates consist of 3 subgroups
Dinoflagellates
Characterized by cells that are reinforced by
cellulose plates and the two flagellates that get
stored in the grooves that the armor makes in the
cell
Apicomplexans
Nearly all are parasites of all animals
Common parasite is plasmodium which causes
malaria
Ciliates
Known for their use of cilia on the cell body
 Common ciliate is a paramecium
Gets its genetic variation from conjugation
Generally reproduce using binary fission
o Stramenopiles has four major subgroups
Diatoms
Unique one celled type of algae that have unique
glass-like wall made of hydrated silica embedded in
an organic matrix
Golden Algae
The colour of the algae comes mainly from yellow
and brown carotenoids
Golden algae are typically with 2 flagella
Brown Algae
Largest and most complex algae
Multicellular and mainly marine
Many species are commonly called seaweed
DNA evidence shows that some morphologies are
analogous
Oomycetes (Water Moulds and Relatives and Whales)
Previously classified as fungi
Systematics show that they are nor related to fungi
at all really
- Rhizaria has been made its one clade due to its vast molecular
systematic information
- Rhizarians include three groups
o Radiolarians
Delicate and intricately symmetrical skeleton structure
Thread like pseudopodia that radiate from the center of the
body
Reinforced by microtubules
o Forams
Named for their porous shells called tests
The pseudopodia that radiate from the pours assist in
swimming, test formation and feeding
Found in both oceans and fresh water
Most species live on sand or attach themselves to rocks or
algae
o Cercozoans
Consist mostly of amoeboid and flagellated protists that
feed with threadlike pseudopodia
Common in marine, freshwater and soil ecosystems
- Unikonta are suuuuuuper diverse
- Unikonta has a clade known as Amoebozoans which has 3 subbgroups
 o Slime Moulds
Mycetozoans were thought to be fungi because they were
slimey and mouldy and produce fruitin bodies that aid in
spore dispersal
Actually turned out to be analogous, convergent
evolution
o Gymnamoebas
Large varied group of amoebas
Ubiquitous in soil as well as freshwater and marine
environments
Most are heterotrophs that actively seek and consume
bacteria and other protists
o Entameobas
These are the parasitic amoebas
Infect all classes of vertebrate animals

Key Major Groups Morphological Specific

Concept/Eukar Characteristics Examples
yote
Supergroup
28.2 Excavates Diplomonads and Modified Giardia,
Parabasalids mitochondria Trichomonas
Euglenozoans
Kinetoplastics Spiral or
Euglenids crystalline rod Trypanosoma,
inside flagella Euglena
28.3 Alveolates Membrane Pfiesteria,
Chromalveolat bound sacs Plasmodium,
es Dinoflagellates beneath plasma Paramecium
membrane
Apicomplexans Phytophthora,
Ciliates Hair and smooth Laminaria
Stramenopiles flagella
Diatoms
Golden Algae
Brown Algae
Oomycetes
28.4 Rhizarians Radioarians Threadlike Hexacontium
pseudopodia
from central
body
Forams Globigerina
Thread like
 pseudopodia
from pours in
Cercozoans body Paulinella

Amoebas and
flagellated
protists with
threadlike
pseudopodia
28.5 Algae Red Algae Phycoerythrin Porphyra

Green Algae Plant-type Chlamydomonas,

chloroplasts Ulva

Land Plants Mosses, ferns

Chapter 29: Plant Diversity Part I Seedless

Plants
- Evidence of how and why land plants evolved from green algae
o Rings of cellulose-synthesizing proteins
Rings of both landplants and charophytes have distinctive
circular rings of proteins in the plasma membrane
o Peroxisome enzymes
Helps to minimize the loss of organic products
o Structure of flagellated sperm
Land plant sperm is flagellated which is similar to the
charophytes
o Formation of phragmoplast
- Sporopollenin prevents exposed zygotes from drying out
o Similar chemical adaption is found in the touch sporopollenin
walls that encase the spores of plants
o The accumulation of this kind of trait for one population of
charophyte ancestors may have helped their decedents to make
the transitions from water to land
- The cuticle that some land plants have is most likely a derived trait
- One way to distinguish groups of plants is whether or not they have an
extensive system of vascular tissue cells joined into tubes that
transport water and nutrients throughout the plant body
o Most present day plants have a complex vascular system and
therefore called vascular plant not whales
- Plants that dont have an extensive vascular system are known as non-
vasuclar plants wowshocker
 o They are also sometimes called bryophytes
- Vascular plants can be split into two different clades (both of them are
seedless and vascular groups of plants)
o Lycophytes
o Pterophytes
- A seed is an embryo packages with a supply of nutrients inside of a
protective coat
- Seed plants can be divided into two groups
o Gymnosperms conifers
o Angiosperms flowering
- Non vascular plants are represented by three main phyla
o Hepatophyta liverworts herbaceous
o Bryophyta mosses
o Anthocerophyta hornworts
- Bryophyte gametophytes have dominantly haploid gametophytes
o Last longer and longer living that sporophytes
o Germinating moss spores produce a mass of green, branched,
one cell thick filaments known as protonema
o Bud-like growth has an apical meristem that generates a gamete
producing structure known as a gametophore
o Gametophytes are anchored by delicate structures known as
rhizoids
- Bryophyte sporophytes
o Usually green and photosynthetic
o Cannot live independently
o Among living vascular plants, the sporophyte (diploid) generation
is the larger and more complex plant in the alternation of
generations
- Vascular plans have two types of vascular tissues
o Xylem conducts more of the water and nutrient and minerals
o Phloem cells arranged in a tube to distribute sugars, amino
acids and other organic products
o Water conducting cells in the vascular tissue are lignified
meaning that they are strengthened by the polymer lignin
o Lignified plants allowed them to grow big and tall
- Roots: organs that absorb water and nutrients from the soil
o Also anchor the plant into the ground
- Leaves increase the amount of surface area for the photosynthetic
organs to maximize the amount of photosynthesis taking place in the
plant
- All lycophytes have (most primitive ancestor to all vascular plants
today) have microphylls
o Microphylls are small, spiney shaped leaves supported by a
single strand of vascular tissue
 - Almost all the rest of the vascular plants have megaphylly leaves
meaning that there are a lot more systematic vascular tissue bundles
holding up the leaf
o These leaves also have a lot more photosynthetic activity which
is assisted by having a network of veins to distribute the
nutrients and products
- Milestone in the evolution of plants was the emergence of sporophylls
modified leaves that bear sporangia
- Most seedless vascular plant species are homosporous produce one
type of sporangium and one type of spore, typically develops into a
bisexual gametophyte
- The other time of sporous plants are heterosporous produce two
types of sporangia and type types of spores
o Megasporangia + megasporophylls = megaspores
o Microsporangia _ microspotophylls = microspores
- Classification and diversity of seedless vascular plants
o Phylum Lycophyta
o Pterophytes
Ferms
Horesetails
Whisk Ferns and Relatives

Chapter 30: Plant Diversity Part II Seed Plants

- Earliest fossils of gymnosperms are about 305 million years old
o Lived in carboniferous ecosystems
- Competition between plants as some decreased in population and
others increased
- Vast regions in the Earths northern latitude are covered by cone-
bearing gymnosperms called conifers
o Douglas Fur, spruce, pine and redwoods
- Gymnosperm classification and diversity
o Phylum Cycadophyta
Next largest group of gymnosperms next to the conifers
Only around 130 species today and they did thrive in the
Mesozoic era
o Phylum Gnetophyta
Consists of three genera
Welwitschia lives in deserts In Southwestern Africa
Ephedra inhabits regions world wide
Gnetum tropical trees, shrubs and vines
o Phylum Ginkgophyta
Native to China and only surviving species is biloba
Popular in cities as it tolerated pollution well apparently
 o Phylum Coniferophyta
Largest phylum of gymnospersm
Has lots of species of conifers
Spruce, redwood (largest), Douglas Fur
- Life cycle of a pine tree on page 671
- Characteristics of angiosperms all classified under a single phylum
(Anthophyta)
- Flowers
o Angiosperm structure that is specialized for sexual reproduction
o Insects and other animals help with pollination
o Base of the flower there are things called sepals which are
brightly coloured
o Interior of the sepals are the petals and those are really pretty
o Stamens produce the microspores that develop into pollen grains
which contain male gametophytes
o Consists of a stalk known as the filament and an anther which is
a terminal sac
o Carpels make the megaspores and their other products female
gametophytes
Tip of the carpel is a sticky stigma that receives the pollen
Style leads from the stigma to the ovary at the base of the
carpel
- Life cycle of an angiosperm on page 674
- Angiosperm diversity and classification
o Basal Angiosperms
Currently only consist in 3 lineages Nymphaea, Illicium
and Amborella trichopoda
o Magnoliids
Laurels and black pepper plants
Characteristic Monocot Eudicot
Embyro One cotyledon Two cotyledons
Leaf venation Usually parallel Netlike
Stems Vascular tissue VT arranged in a ring
scattered
Roots Usually fibrous, no Taproot, one main root
main
Pollen One opening Three openings
Flowers Floral Organs multiple Floral organs multiple
of 3 of 4/5

Chapter 31: Fun-guy

- The most common fungal body structures are multicellular filaments
and single cells (yeasts)
- Not many species actually grow as yeasts, only some, most of them
are filaments
- The bodies of multicellular fungus typically form a network of tiny
filaments known as hypae (singular) or hypha (plural)
- Fungal cell walls are reinforced with chitin
- Hyphae form an interwoven mass called a mycelium
- Having a large network of hyphae increases surface area for maximum
absorption
- Hyphae are divided by crosswalls septa
- Mutually beneficial relationships between such fungi and plant roots
are called mycorrhizae
o Fungi that have this can improve delivery of phosphate ions and
other minerals to plants because of the act mycelial networks of
the fungi are more efficient that plants roots
- Plasmogamy: the union of the cytoplasms of two parent mycelia
- Heterokaryon: having two different nuclei from plasmogamy
- Karyogamy: the two nuclei fuse together from the plasmogamy
- Many fungi actually reproduce asexually moulds
- Phylogenetic evidence shows that fungi most likely evolved from a
flagellated ancestor
- There was evidence of mycorrhizal relationships 420 million years ago
blaze it up!
- Fungal diversity and classification
o Chytrids
1000 species
Chytrids such as Chytridium, the globular fruiting body
forms multicellular, branched hyphae
Other species are single celled
Flagellated spores and are thought to include some of the
earliest fungal groups
o Zygomycetes
1000 species
Hyphae of some of these things including this mould in the
genus Mucor, grow rapidly into foods such as breads and
fruits
May act as decomposers or parasites, depending if the
food is alive or not
Other species live as neutral symbionts
o Glomeromycetes
160 species
Great ecological importance
Shows glomeromycete hyphae within a plant root
Many plants form mycorrhizal associations with these fungi
o Ascomycetes
 65000 species
Also called sac fungi
Common to many marine, freshwater and terrestrial
habitats
Cup shaped ascocarp (fruiting body) of the ascomycete
shown
Orange Peel fungus
o Basidiomycetes
Other important decomposers
Also called club fungi
Unusual in having a long-lived dikaryotic mycelium
The fruiting bodies are commonly mushrooms
Amanita muscaria are a familiar sight near coniferous
forests in North America
- Life cycle of the zygomycete Rhizopus stolonifera on page 691
o Black bread mould
- Life cycle of a mushroom (basidiomycete) on page 695
- Fungi act as decomposers/saprotrophs acquire their nutrition from
non-living organic material
- They are also mutualists where the fungus and another organism
benefit from a symbiosis
- Some fungi are pathogens where fungal growth harms an organism
its feeding on
- Leaf cutter ants take advantage of some fungi being decomposers as
they feed the fungus back in their nest with the leafs that they cut
o As the fungus grows from the leaves, the hyphae tips swell which
are rich in proteins and in carbohydrates
- Lichen: symbiotic association between a photosynthetic microorganism
and a fungus in which millions of photosynthetic cells are held in a
mass of fungal hyphae
o Each partner provides the other with something that they cannot
get on their own

Chapter 32: Animal Diversity (not including whales)

- Animals differ from plants and fun-guy in their mode of nutrition
o Need to feed on other things in order to get sustainable energy
amounts in their body in order to function
- Animal body cells do not have any cell wall
- Organization of specialized cells into tissues
o Specialized cells include muscle and nerve
- Animal reproduction is many sexually and dominantly diploid zygote
- Early embryonic development on page 704
- Larva: sexually immature form of an animal that is morphologically
distinct from the adult. Animal larva undergo metamorphosis
developmental transformation that turn the animal into a juvenile that
resembles an adult but is still not sexually mature
- Most early animal life was all underwater then we migrated from there
- Animals can be characterized by their body plans particular set of
morphological and developmental traits integrated into a functional
whole
- Some aniamsl exhibit radial symmetry while others exhibit bilateral
symmetry
o Radial no left or right side, any imaginary slice through the
specimen will result in mirror images, anemone is a good
example
o Bilateral slice down the middle, ride and left side will be mirror
images, lobster is a good example
- Dorsal: top side/view
- Ventral bottom side/view
- Anterior: front side/view
- Posterior: back side/view
- The way the tissues are organize can also classify the animal
o Ectoderm: germ layer covering the surface of the embryo
o Endoderm: germ layer that is the innermost of the embryo
- Animals that have two distinct germ layers are called diploblastic
- All bilaterally symmetrical animals have a third germ later called the
mesoderm which is in the middle of the other two germ layers
o Animals with the mesoderm are known as triploblastic
- Body cavity: a fluid or air-filled space located between the digestive
tract and the outer body wall also known as a coelom
- Animals with true coeloms are known as coelomates
- A body cavity formed with the mesoderm and the endoderm are known
as pseudocoelemates
- Animals that do not have a body cavity at all are known as
acoelomates
- Protostome and deuterostome development comparison on page 710
- Points of agreement
o All animals share a common ancestor except whales
o Sponges are basal animals not whales
o Eumetazoa is a clade of animals with true tissues
o Most animal phyla belong to the clade Bilateria
o Chordates and some other phyla belong to the clade
Deuterostomia
Chapter 33: Introduction to Invertebrates (no
whales allowed)
- Sponges are suspension feeders they capture food particles
suspended in the water that passes through their body
- Sponges also lack true tissues
- Sponges consists of two layers of cells separated by a gelatinous
region called the mesophyll
- Most sponges are hermaphrodites each individual functions as both
male and female sexual reproduction by producing sperm and eggs
- Invertebrate diversity on page 718-720
- One of the oldest lineages to the clade Eumetazoa (true tissues) is the
phylum Cnidaria
o This phylum include jelly fish, corals and hydras
- Cndarians have a simple body plan sac with a central digestive
compartment known as the gastrovascular cavity
- Polyp has the mouth/anus facing up with the tentacles while medusas
have the mouth/anus with tentacles facing down basically inverses
of each other
- Life cycle of a hydrozoan on page 723
- Hydrozoa consists of hydra species
- Scyphozoa consists of jellyfish species
- Cubozoa like a jellyfish but has a cube shaped body
- Anthozoa consists of sea anemones
- Lophotrochozoans is a clade that was identified mainly by molecular
evidence
o Also has the widest range of animal body forms
- This clade has about 18 different phyla but only six are covered in the
textbook
o Flatworms
Live in marine, freshwater and damp terrestrial
environments
There are also parasitic species including flukes and
tapeworms
They have thin bodies hence the name flat worm
Even though flatworms go through triploblastic
development, they are acoelomates
o Rotifers
Tiny animals that inhabit freshwater, marine and damp soil
habitats
They have specialized organ systems
Alimentary Canal: digestive tube with two openings, a
mouth and an anus
They hate us cause they anus
 The internal organs of a rotifer are inside the
pseudocoelom
Fluid in the pseudocoelom is responsible for the
hydrostatic skeleton
The movement of the rotifers body distributed the fluid
throughout the body which circulate the nutrients thats
freaking smart
There are some species that only consist of females
those females produce more females through unfertilized
eggs
Asexual reproduction known as parthenogenesis
o Lophophorates ectoprocts and brachiopods
These animals have lophophores which is a crown of
ciliated tentacles around their mouth movember?
The tentacles trap food particles for the species to
eat om nom
They also have true coeloms that is completely lined with
the mesoderm
Ectoprocts: colonial animals that superficially resembles
clumps of moss
In mot species, the colony is encased in a hard
exoskeleton studded with pores through which the
lophophores extend
Some species are really important as they build reefs
in the ocean
Brachiopods: superficially resemble clams and other hinge-
shell molluscs, but the two halves of the brachiopod shell
are dorsa and ventral rather than lateral which are found in
clams
All species of these kind are marine
o Molluscs
Snails, slugs, oysters, octopuses and squids are all part of
this phylum
Lot of species are found in this phylum
All of these guys are coelomates and their body consists of
three parts
Muscular foot for movement
Visceral mass for containing most of the organs
Mantle which is a fold of tissue that drapes over the
visceral mass
o Annelids
The name of this phylum indicates the little rings, referring
to the annelid body
 Body sort of looks like a shit ton of the rings fused
together lol
Annelids are segmented worms that live in the sea, in most
freshwater habitats and in damp soil
This phylum can be divided into two main categories
Polychaetes
o Each segment of the body has a pair of paddle-
like or ridge-like structures called parapodia
(beside feet)
o The function of parapodia is for movement and
each of one of them has numerous chaetae
bristles made from chitin
Oligochaetes
o Named for their relatively spared out chaetae
far fewer per segment in the body
o Earthworms and leeches are included in this
category
- Ecdysozoans are the most species rich animal group
o The name of these group is derived from the word ecdysis
moulting
- Ecydozoans consists of eight phyla in total but only two mentioned in
detail
o Nematodes
Also known as roundworms
Found in most aquatic habitats, in the soil, in the moist
tissues of plants and in the body fluids and tissues of
animals
THINK OF WET STUFF
These guys do not have segmented bodies
Reproduce sexually
Some of the parasitic nematodes have a very good
molecular toolkit which helps them bypass the immune
system of their hosts and infect them with great ease
shits scary man
o Arthropods
1018 different species of arthropods thats not a lot, is it?
More than one million arthropod species have been
described but there are still a long way to go
Can be found in any habitats all over the world
Virtually limitless in a way
Success of these guys is due to their body plan
Segmented body
Hard exoskeleton
 Jointed appendages arthropod means joined feet
Look at invertebrate lab print outs for classification and
taxonomy
Insect diversity on page 741
- Echinoderms are basically sea star PATRICK!?
o A unique feature about these guys is the fact that they have
water vascular systems in their bodies network of hydraulic
canals branching into extensions called tube feet
- Very good summary chart on page 746

Chapter 34: The Origin and Evolution of Whales

(some vertebrates)
- Fuck this shit, its about 40 pages long with whales, look at the damn
chart instead -.-
- Refer to the textbook for key concepts

Key Concepts Clade Description

Cephalochordata Basal chordates;
(lancelets) marine suspension
34.1 chordates have feeders that exhibit
a notochord and a four key derived
dorsal, hollow nerve characters of chordates
cord Urochordata (tunicates) Marine suspension
feeders; larvae display
the derived traits of
chordates
34.2 craniates are Myxini (hagfish and Lawless marine
chordates that have a relatives) organisms; have head
head that includes a skill and
brain, eyes and other
sensory organs
34.3 vertebrates are Petromyzontida Jawless vertebrates;
craniates that have a (lampreys) typically feed by
backbone attaching to a live fish
and ingesting its blood
Chondrichthyes Aquatic gnathostomes;
34.4 Gnathostomes (sharks, rays, skates, have cartilaginous
are vertebrates that ratfishes) skeleton, a derived trait
have jaws formed by the
reduction of an
ancestral mineralized
skeleton
 Actinopterygii (ray- Aquatic gnathostomes;
finned fishes) have bony skeleton and
manoeuvrable fins
supported by rays
Actinistia Ancient lineage of
(coelancanths) aquatic lobe-fins still
surviving in the Indian
ocean
Dipnoi Freshwater lobe-fins
with both lungs and
gills; sister group of
tetrapods
34.5 tertapods are Amphibia Have four limbs
gnathostomes that (salamanders, frogs descended from
have limbs and caecilians) modified fins; most
have moist skin that
function in gas
exchange; many live
both in water (as
larvae) and on land (as
adults)
34.6 amniotes are Reptilia (tuataras, One of two groups of
tetrapods that have a lizards and snakes, living amniotes; have
terrestrially adapted turtles, crocodilians, amniotic eggs and rib
eggs birds) cage ventilation, key
adaptions for life on
land
34.7 Mammals are Mammalia Evolved from synapsid
amniotes that have hair (monotremes, ancestor; include egg-
and produce milk marsupials, eutherians) laying monotremes
(echidnas, playpus);
pouched marsupials
(kangaroos, opossums);
and eutherians
(placental mammals
such as rodents and
primates)

- This chart is basically the entire chapter, look through the textbook for
more in depth descriptions and characteristics of each

Chapter 54.4: Animal Behaviour

 - Inclusive fitness can account for the evolution of behaviour, including
altruism
Genetic Basis of Behaviour
- Begin with the courtship of the male fly
- Genetic studies have shown that a single gene known as fru control
the entire ritual that the male fly does to attract the female
- It also controls other behaviours that male fly does such as courting
multiple females at once PLAYAH
- Experiments have shown that the gene fru is a master regulatory gene
- Other experiments have shown that different courtship songs of
different species must be genetically controlled
- Sometimes a variation in a single loci can make major changes to
behaviour
o Male meadow voles do not form lost lasting relationships with
their mates and do not look after their pups that much bad
daddies
o Male prairie voles however look after their young by hovering
over them and protecting them and acting aggressively to
intruder good dad
Genetic Variation and the Evolution of Behaviour
- Some experiments show that when a new type of prey is introduced to
a population, some snaked (living on the coast) will openly eat the new
prey whilst other snakes that live on the inland of the habitat refuse
the eat them WHYYYY?
o Seems like the taste for banana slugs is a genetically acquired
trait
Altruism
- Describing a behaviour that reduces the animals individual fitness but
increases the fitness of other individuals in the population
o Good example is when a squirrel is being attacked, another
squirrel can send out a call to other squirrels to retreat back to
their burrows for safety
However, when making the call, it brings attention to that
one squirrel which can make the predatory attach him/her
instead
Think of it as, taking one for the team
Inclusive Fitness
- William Hamilton proposed that an animal could increase its genetic
representation in the next generation by altruistically helping close
relatives other than its own offspring
o Therefore, selection might also favour helping siblings or helping
ones parents produce more siblings
- This idea led to Hamiltons idea of inclusive fitness
 - rB > C = Hamiltons Rule
o Where r = coefficient of relatedness
o Where B = benefit
o Where C = the cost

Chapter 53.1: Population Ecology

- Population ecology the study of populations in relation to their
environment
- Density the number of individuals per unit area of volume
- Dispersion patter of spacing among individuals within the boundaries
of the population, there are three dispersion patterns
o Clumped grouping where food is present
o Uniform evenly spread out in their population
o Random shit just going everywhere, dandelions
- Survivorship curve: plot of the proportion of numbers in a cohort still
alive at each age

Chapter 56: Conservation Biology and Global

Change
- Im done, Ive been looking at whales for ages now and I cannot stand
this anymore
- Who cares about conservation? Okay I lie, its a really important topic
but Im sick of this, its a big chapter so chapter review summary it is!
Concept 56.1
- Biodiversity can be considered at three main levels
o Genetic Diversity
o Species Diversity
o Ecosystem Diversity
- Our biophilia enables us to recognize the value of biodiversity for its
own sake
o Other species also provide humans with good, fibre, medicines
and ecosystem services
- Four major threats to biodiversity
o Habitat loss
o Introduced species
o Overharvesting
o Global change
Concept 56.2
- When a population drops below a minimum viable population (MVP)
size, its loss of genetic variation due to nonrandom mating and genetic
drift can trap it in an extinction vortex mother nature, you da real
MVP
 - Declining population approach focuses on the environmental factors
that cause decline, regardless of absolute population size
o Follows a step by step conservation strategy
- Conserving species often required resolving conflicts between the
habitat needs of endangered species and human demands
Concept 56.3
- The structure or landscape can highly influence biodiversity
- Biodiversity hotspots are hotspots where extinction may be imminent
meaning that conservation should be prioritized
- The zoned reserve model recognizes that conservation efforts often
involve working in landscapes that are greatly affected by human
activity

Concept 56.4
- Release of toxic wastes have polluted the environment with harmful
substances that often persist for long period and become increasingly
concentrated in successively high trophic levels of food webs
o Biological magnifications
- The CO2 levels in the atmosphere have been steadily increasing
because of the amount of car racing that we do which is a bad thing
lol jk, I love racing
- The Ozone layer is going away, oh noes
Concept 56.5
- Whatever