Chapter 2.

0
Introduction to Advanced Materials (8 hours)

2.1 Advanced Composite Materials

2.2 Basic concepts and physical properties

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...

Principles and classification of composite materials

Advantages of composite materials
Examples of advanced composite materials used in
modern engineering application
Basic concepts and physical properties of composite
materials
Prediction of stiffness and strength of various types of
composite

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2.1 Advanced Composite Materials
 Introduction to Composite
Combination of two or more individual
materials

Design goal: obtain a more desirable

combination of properties (principle of
combined action)
e.g., low density and high strength

4
 Terminology/Classification
Composite:
-- Multiphase material that is artificially
made.

Phase types:
-- Matrix - is continuous
-- Dispersed/reinforcement - is discontinuous and
surrounded by matrix

Adapted from Fig. 16.1(a),

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

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 Terminology/Classification
Matrix phase:
-- Purposes are to: woven
- principal load carrying agent fibers
- transfer stress to dispersed phase
- support and protect dispersed
phase from environment
-- Types: MMC, CMC, PMC 0.5 mm
cross
metal ceramic polymer section
view
Dispersed phase:
-- Purpose:
MMC: increase sy, TS, creep resist. 0.5 mm
CMC: increase KIc Reprinted with permission from
D. Hull and T.W. Clyne, An
PMC: increase E, sy, TS, creep resist. Introduction to Composite Materials,
2nd ed., Cambridge University Press,
-- Types: particle, fiber, structural New York, 1996, Fig. 3.6, p. 47.

6
Classification of Composites

Adapted from Fig. 16.2,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

7
 Classification: Particle-Reinforced (i)
Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural
Examples:
- Spheroidite matrix: particles: Adapted from Fig.
cementite 10.19, Callister &
steel ferrite (a) Rethwisch 8e. (Fig.
(ductile) (Fe C) 10.19 is copyright
3 United States Steel
(brittle) Corporation, 1971.)
60 mm
Adapted from Fig.
- WC/Co matrix: particles: 16.4, Callister &
cemented cobalt WC Rethwisch 8e. (Fig.
16.4 is courtesy
(ductile, (brittle,
carbide tough)
: hard)
Carboloy Systems,
Department, General
Electric Company.)
600 mm
Adapted from Fig.
16.5, Callister &
- Automobile matrix: particles: Rethwisch 8e. (Fig.
tire rubber rubber carbon 16.5 is courtesy
Goodyear Tire and
(compliant) black Rubber Company.)
(stiff)
0.75 mm 8
 Classification: Particle-Reinforced (ii)

Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural

Concrete gravel + sand + cement + water

- Why sand and gravel? Sand fills voids between gravel particles
Reinforced concrete Reinforce with steel rebar or remesh
- increases strength - even if cement matrix is cracked

Prestressed concrete
- Rebar/remesh placed under tension during setting of concrete
- Release of tension after setting places concrete in a state of compression
- To fracture concrete, applied tensile stress must exceed this
compressive stress

Posttensioning tighten nuts to place concrete under compression

threaded
rod
nut
9
 Classification: Particle-Reinforced (iii)

Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural

Elastic modulus, Ec, of composites:
-- two rule of mixture extremes:
upper limit: Ec = Vm Em + Vp Ep
E(GPa)
Data: 350 Adapted from Fig. 16.3,
lower limit:
Cu matrix 30 0 Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
w/tungsten 250 1 Vm Vp (Fig. 16.3 is from R.H.
= + Krock, ASTM Proc, Vol.
particles 20 0 Ec Em Ep 63, 1963.)

150

0 20 4 0 6 0 8 0 10 0 vol% tungsten
(Cu) (W)
Application to other properties:
-- Electrical conductivity, se: Replace Es in equations with ses.
-- Thermal conductivity, k: Replace Es in equations with ks.
10
 Classification: Fiber-Reinforced (i)

Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural

Fibers very strong in tension
Provide significant strength improvement to the
composite
Ex: fiber-glass - continuous glass filaments in a
polymer matrix
Glass fibers
strength and stiffness
Polymer matrix
holds fibers in place
protects fiber surfaces
transfers load to fibers

11
 Classification: Fiber-Reinforced (ii)
Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural

Fiber Types
Whiskers - thin single crystals - large length to diameter ratios
graphite, silicon nitride, silicon carbide
high crystal perfection extremely strong, strongest known
very expensive and difficult to disperse
Fibers
polycrystalline or amorphous
generally polymers or ceramics
Ex: alumina, aramid, E-glass, boron, UHMWPE
Wires
metals steel, molybdenum, tungsten

12
 Longitudinal
direction
Fiber Alignment
Adapted from Fig. 16.8,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Transverse
direction

aligned
continuous aligned random
discontinuous 13
 Classification: Fiber-Reinforced (iii)
Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced
Aligned Continuous fibers
Examples:
-- Metal: g'(Ni3Al)-a(Mo)
by eutectic solidification.
matrix: a (Mo) (ductile)
2 mm
fibers: g (Ni3Al) (brittle)
From W. Funk and E. Blank, Creep
deformation of Ni3Al-Mo in-situ composites",
Metall. Trans. A Vol. 19(4), pp. 987-998,
1988. Used with permission.
Structural
-- Ceramic: Glass w/SiC fibers
formed by glass slurry
Eglass = 76 GPa; ESiC = 400 GPa.
(a) fracture
surface
From F.L. Matthews and R.L.
Rawlings, Composite Materials;
Engineering and Science, Reprint
(b)
ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL,
2000. (a) Fig. 4.22, p. 145 (photo by
J. Davies); (b) Fig. 11.20, p. 349
(micrograph by H.S. Kim, P.S.
Rodgers, and R.D. Rawlings). Used
with permission of CRC
Press, Boca Raton, FL.
14
 Classification: Fiber-Reinforced (iv)
Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural
Discontinuous fibers, random in 2 dimensions
Example: Carbon-Carbon C fibers:
-- fabrication process: very stiff
- carbon fibers embedded very strong
in polymer resin matrix, (b)
C matrix:
500 mm
- polymer resin pyrolyzed less stiff
at up to 2500C. view onto plane less strong
-- uses: disk brakes, gas
fibers lie
turbine exhaust flaps,
(a) in plane
missile nose cones.
Other possibilities:
Adapted from F.L. Matthews and R.L. Rawlings,
-- Discontinuous, random 3D Composite Materials; Engineering and Science,
-- Discontinuous, aligned Reprint ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2000.
(a) Fig. 4.24(a), p. 151; (b) Fig. 4.24(b) p. 151.
(Courtesy I.J. Davies) Reproduced with
permission of CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

15
 Classification: Fiber-Reinforced (v)

Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural

Critical fiber length for effective stiffening & strengthening:
fiber ultimate tensile strength fiber diameter
sf d
fiber length shear strength of
2c fiber-matrix interface
Ex: For fiberglass, common fiber length > 15 mm needed
For longer fibers, stress transference from matrix is more efficient
Short, thick fibers: Long, thin fibers:
sd s d
fiber length f fiber length f
2c 2c

Low fiber efficiency High fiber efficiency

16
EXAMPLE OF ADVANCED COMPOSITE MATERIALS
 INTRODUCTION
o Carbon fiber (an extremely lightweight fiber )is defined as a fiber containing at least 92 wt %
carbon

o It is a material consisting of several fibers and composed mostly of carbon atoms that bonded
together to form a long chain

o Each fiber is about 5 10 m thick in diameter. Carbon fiber is made from organic polymers.

o The crystal alignment gives the fiber high strength- to-volume ratio. Carbon fiber is actually 5
times stronger than steel. It is also 2 times more stiff. Carbon fibers are usually combined with
other materials to form a composite (such as carbon fiber reinforced plastic) to provide a high
strength to weight ratio material.

o Thin strands of carbon- even thinner than human hair.

Carbon fiber strand is thinner than a human

hair
Source : www. rubicontrailoflife.blogspot.com
 PROPERTIES OF COMMON CARBON
FIBER VS METALS
Material Grade/Type Application Tensile Tensile Shear Density(g/c
Strength Modulus Modulus m^3)
(ksi) (Msi) (Msi)
Carbon Standard Bending 300 1.5 0.6 1.55
Fiber Modulus
Carbon Intermediate Bending 325 20 0.6 1.55
Fiber Modulus
Carbon High Bending 250 40 0.6 1.59
Fiber Modulus
Steel 4130 100 30 12 7.7
Titanium 6M-4V 120 16 6.2 4.34
Aluminium 6061-T6 35 10 3.8 2.7
Source: www.clearwatercomposites.com
 CHARACTERISTIC/PROPERTIES OF
CARBON FIBERS
Light,
strong and
high RAW PRODUCTS
rigidity (precursor)
High High
fatigue dimensional
strength stability
Polyacrylonit Petroleum
Carbon Fiber rile (PAN) pitch
Excellent Excellent
electricity vibration
and heat damping
conduction
Excellent
heat CARBON FIBER
resistance
 HOW CARBON FIBER IS MADE?
In the thermo set treatment, the fibers are stretched
and heated to not more than 400 oC. This step cross-
links the carbon chains so that the fibers will not melt
in subsequent treatments.

In the carbonize treatment, the fibers are heated to

about 800 oC in an oxygen free environment. This
step removes non-carbon impurities.

The fibers are graphitized; this step stretches the

fibers between 50 to 100% elongation, and heats them
to temperatures ranging from 1100 oC to 3000 oC

The last two treatment steps are surface treatment

and epoxy sizing, are preformed to enhance the
carbon fiber / epoxy bonding strength.
 *Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) is a
synthetic, semicrystalline
organic polymer resin, with
the linear formula (C3H3N)n

*Polyacrylonitrile is used as
the precursor for 90% of
carbon fiber production

SCHEMATIC OF PAN AND PITCH BASED CARBON FIBER

MANUFACTURING PROCEDURE.
SOURCE : WWW.ARRHENIUS.UCSD.EDU
 ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF
CARBON FIBER
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
o Long service life o The cost is slightly high
o Exhibit properties better than any o It is little bit harmful for the human
other metal. body as it cause some form of
o Insensitive to temperature changes cancer of the lungs
o High tensile strength.
o Electrically and thermally conductive.
oLight weight and low density.
o High abrasion and wear resistance.
APPLICATION/USES OF CARBON FIBER
 High pressure tank reinforced with Elliptical wing panels for the LP1(Light
carbon fibers. Pressurized 1) using the carbon fiber
Source : www.periodictable.ru Source : www. airpigz.com

Carbon fiber hood bonnet for Subaru

Impreza WRX Carbon fiber bicycle frame
Source : www.diytrade.com Source : www.supplierlist.com
 COMPARISON TO OTHER MATERIAL

Carbon Fatigue resistance

Carbon fiber Specific Source :
elastic Modulus http://www.formula1-
Source : dictionary.net
http://www.formula1-
dictionary.net

The stiffness of a material is measured by its modulus of elasticity. The modulus of carbon
fiber is typically 20 msi (138 Gpa) and its ultimate tensile strength is typically 500 ksi (3.5
Gpa). High stiffness and strength carbon fiber materials are also available through
specialized heat treatment processes with much higher values.

Carbon fiber reinforced composites are very strong for their weight. They're often stronger
than steel, but a whole lot lighter. Because of this, they can be used to replace metals in many
uses, from parts for airplanes and the space shuttle to tennis rackets and golf clubs.
 FUTURE OF CARBON FIBER
ALTERNATE ENERGY WIND TURBINES, COMPRESSED NATURAL GAS
STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION, FUEL CELLS
FUEL EFFICIENT AUTOMOBILES CURRENTLY USED IN SMALL
PRODUCTION, HIGH PERFORMANCE AUTOMOBILES, BUT MOVING TOWARD
LARGE PRODUCTION SERIES CARS

CONSTRUCTION AND INFRASTRUCTURE LIGHT WEIGHT PRE-CAST

CONCRETE, EARTH QUAKE PROTECTION
OIL EXPLORATION DEEP SEA DRILLING PLATFORMS, BUOYANCY,
UMBILICAL, CHOKE, AND KILL LINES, DRILL PIPES

Carbon fiber
composite QLite
compressed natural
gas (CNG) fuel Carbon fiber drill
storage tanks risers & tubulars
Source : Source :
www.kompozit.org.tr www.zoltek.com
2.2 Basic concepts and
physical properties
Mechanical Properties of the composites is strongly influenced by :
Volume fraction of fibre-matrix
Different micro & macro
Homogeneity of the mix
structure
Fibre alignment

The diagram (a) shows a 'uniaxial fiber-reinforced' composite

material loaded in the fiber direction. For the continuous fibers
shown, the strain is the same in the matrix and the fiber, an
isostrain situation. In (b) is shown how the stress on the
composite is carried by the fibers and the matrix.

Normally, the selected fiber material has a larger Young's

modulus than the matrix and for equal elastic strain the fiber
stress is higher than the matrix stress.

The Young's modulus of the Composite is given by the 'rule of

mixtures' The elastic modulus along the fiber direction can,
therefore, be controlled by selecting the volume fraction of the
fibers.
 Classification: Particle-Reinforced (iii)

Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural

Elastic modulus, Ec, of composites:
-- two rule of mixture extremes:
upper limit: Ec = Vm Em + Vp Ep
E(GPa)
Data: 350 Adapted from Fig. 16.3,
lower limit:
Cu matrix 30 0 Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
w/tungsten 250 1 Vm Vp (Fig. 16.3 is from R.H.
= + Krock, ASTM Proc, Vol.
particles 20 0 Ec Em Ep 63, 1963.)

150

0 20 4 0 6 0 8 0 10 0 vol% tungsten
(Cu) (W)
Application to other properties:
-- Electrical conductivity, se: Replace Es in equations with ses.
-- Thermal conductivity, k: Replace Es in equations with ks.
30
 Composite Stiffness: Longitudinal Loading
Continuous fibers - Estimate fiber-reinforced composite modulus of
elasticity for continuous fibers
Longitudinal deformation
sc = smVm + sfVf and c = m = f

volume fraction isostrain

Ecl = EmVm + Ef Vf Ecl = longitudinal modulus

c = composite
f = fiber
m = matrix
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 Composite Stiffness: Transverse Loading
In transverse loading the fibers carry less of the load

c= mVm + fVf and sc = sm = sf = s

isostress
1 Vm Vf

E ct E m E f

Ect = transverse modulus
Em E f
Ect
VmEf Vf Em

c = composite
f = fiber
m = matrix
32
Longitudinal vs transverse loading

https://www.princeton.edu/~maelabs/hpt/materials/mater_60.htm
 Composite Stiffness
Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural

Estimate of Ecd for discontinuous fibers:

sfd
-- valid when fiber length < 15
c
-- Elastic modulus in fiber direction:
Ecd = EmVm + KEfVf

efficiency factor:
Values from Table 16.3, Callister &
-- aligned: K = 1 (aligned parallel) Rethwisch 8e. (Source for Table
-- aligned: K = 0 (aligned perpendicular) 16.3 is H. Krenchel, Fibre
Reinforcement, Copenhagen:
-- random 2D: K = 3/8 (2D isotropy) Akademisk Forlag, 1964.)
-- random 3D: K = 1/5 (3D isotropy)

34
 Composite Strength
Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural

Estimate of s cd* for discontinuous fibers:

1. When l > lc
l
s cd
*
s f Vf 1 s m (1Vf )
* c

2l
2. When l < lc

s cd l c Vf s m (1Vf )
*

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 Composite Production Methods (i)
Pultrusion
Continuous fibers pulled through resin tank to impregnate fibers with thermosetting
resin
Impregnated fibers pass through steel die that preforms to the desired shape
Preformed stock passes through a curing die that is
precision machined to impart final shape
heated to initiate curing of the resin matrix

Fig. 16.13, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

 Composite Production Methods (ii)
Filament Winding
Continuous reinforcing fibers are accurately positioned in a predetermined pattern
to form a hollow (usually cylindrical) shape
Fibers are fed through a resin bath to impregnate with thermosetting resin
Impregnated fibers are continuously wound (typically automatically) onto a
mandrel
After appropriate number of layers added, curing is carried out either in an oven or
at room temperature
The mandrel is removed to give the final product
Adapted from Fig. 16.15, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
[Fig. 16.15 is from N. L. Hancox, (Editor), Fibre
Composite Hybrid Materials, The Macmillan
Company, New York, 1981.]
 Classification: Structural
Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural
Laminates -
-- stacked and bonded fiber-reinforced sheets
- stacking sequence: e.g., 0/90
Adapted from
- benefit: balanced in-plane stiffness Fig. 16.16,
Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
Sandwich panels
-- honeycomb core between two facing sheets
- benefits: low density, large bending stiffness
face sheet
adhesive layer
honeycomb

Adapted from Fig. 16.18,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
(Fig. 16.18 is from Engineered Materials
Handbook, Vol. 1, Composites, ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1987.) 38
 Composite Benefits
CMCs: Increased toughness PMCs: Increased E/r
Force 3 ceramics
particle-reinf 10
E(GPa) 2 PMCs
10
10 metal/
fiber-reinf
1 metal alloys
un-reinf
0.1 polymers
0.01
Bend displacement 0.1 0.3 1 3 10 30
10 -4 Density, r [mg/m3]
ss (s-1) 6061 Al
MMCs: 10 -6
Adapted from T.G. Nieh, "Creep rupture of a
Increased silicon-carbide reinforced aluminum
composite", Metall. Trans. A Vol. 15(1), pp.
creep 10 -8 6061 Al 139-146, 1984. Used with permission.

resistance w/SiC
whiskers
10 -10
s(MPa)
20 30 50 100 200 39
 Summary
Composites types are designated by:
-- the matrix material (CMC, MMC, PMC)
-- the reinforcement (particles, fibers, structural)
Composite property benefits:
-- MMC: enhanced E, s, creep performance
-- CMC: enhanced KIc
-- PMC: enhanced E/r, sy, TS/r
Particulate-reinforced:
-- Types: large-particle and dispersion-strengthened
-- Properties are isotropic
Fiber-reinforced:
-- Types: continuous (aligned)
discontinuous (aligned or random)
-- Properties can be isotropic or anisotropic
Structural:
-- Laminates and sandwich panels
40