Mini-review

Received: 8 July 2011 Revised: 3 September 2011 Accepted: 4 September 2011 Published online in Wiley Online Library: 21 November 2011

(wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI 10.1002/jctb.2742

Sugarcane bagasse and leaves: foreseeable

biomass of biofuel and bio-products
Anuj K. Chandel,a Silvio S. da Silva,a Walter Carvalhoa and Om. V.
Singhb

Abstract
Sugarcane is among the principal agricultural crops cultivated in tropical countries. The annual world production of sugarcane is
1.6 billion tons, and it generates 279 million metric tons (MMT) of biomass residues (bagasse and leaves). Sugarcane
residues, particularly sugarcane bagasse (SB) and leaves (SL) have been explored for both biotechnological and non-
biotechnological applications. For the last three decades, SB and SL have been explored for use in lignocellulosic
bioconversion, which offers opportunities for the economic utilization of residual substrates in the production of bioethanol
and value-added commercial products such as xylitol, specialty enzymes, organic acids, single-cell protein, etc. However, there
are still major technological and economic challenges to be addressed in the development of bio-based commercial
processes utilizing SB and SL as raw substrates. This article aims to explore SB and SL as cheaper sources of carbohydrates in
the developing world for their industrial implications, their use in commercial products including commercial evaluation, and
their potential to advance sustainable bio-based fuel systems.
c 2011 Society of Chemical
Industry

Keywords: sugarcane residues; ethanol; xylitol; organic acids; industrial enzymes

INTRODUCTION routes. The efficient utilization of sustainable resources will assist

The constant demand for non-food and feed based substrates has
influenced the need to exploit sustainable and cheaper resources
for their bioconversion into value-added products of commercial
interest through basic routes of microbial bio-conversion.1 With
this objective, there have been many products obtained from
renewable resources such as biomass. Due to advancement in the
agricultural industries, millions of tons of wastes and byproducts
are generated every year that have potential as low-cost sources
of energy and material.1 4 One of these byproducts is sugarcane
bagasse, which can be used in the production of industrial
enzymes, ethanol, xylitol, organic acids, etc.4,5 Bagasse is a residue
obtained from sugarcane after it is crushed to obtain the juice
used for sugar and ethanol production. Another important
sugarcane residue is the leaves, which are usually left in
agricultural fields during sugarcane harvesting.6 8 The dried
leaves, called sugarcane trash (ST), are produced in abundance (6
8 tons from one hectare of sugarcane crop).7 Generally, leaves
are burnt in the fields, which produces fly ash, severely damages
soil microbial diversity, and raises environmental concerns.
Sugarcane bagasse (SB) and sugarcane leaves/trash (SL or ST)
contain appreciable amount of cellulose and hemicellulose, which
can be de-polymerized by chemical or enzyme cocktails into
simple sugar monomers (glucose, xylose, arabinose, mannose,
galactose, etc.).7,8 Such sugar streams obtained from SB and SL
can be con- verted into bioethanol and value-added products of
commercial significance, which has joint economic importance.4,7
10
Harness- ing bagasse and leaves for industrial purposes
could provide a sustainable and economic solution for the
production of bio- based, value-added products such as ethanol,
xylitol, organic acids, industrial enzymes, and other products.4,5
The proposed model in Fig. 1 shows the efficient utilization of
SB or SL/ST into products of economic importance via both
biological and non-biological
in improving the socioeconomic status of developing countries,
cre- ating employment opportunities and improving the
environment. Among sugarcane-producing countries, Brazil
is the top producer, with 625 million tons of sugarcane in
2011, followed by India and China (http://www.unica.com.br).
Generally, 280 kg of humid bagasse is generated from 1 ton
of sugarcane.10 A significant quantity of post-harvest SL is also
generated (250 kg dry weight per ton of sugarcane).7 Pandey
et al.4 reported that
50% of SB is used for energy generation within the plant and
the rest remains unused in the environment. Therefore, the
bioconversion of leftover bagasse into value-added products may
have sustainable economic and strategic benefits.4,11 . Figure 2
summarizes the procedural steps involved in the application of SB
for the production of various industrially important products of
commercial significance (bio-products and biorefineries) along
with its application for entrapment of microbial cells as an
immobilized or growth support.
SB has long been considered in bioethanol industries for
ethanol production, referred to as second-generation
ethanol.10,11 De-
Correspondence to: Anuj K. Chandel, Department of Biotechnology, School
of
Engineering of Lorena, University of Sa o Paulo, Lorena- 12.602.810,
Brazil. E-mail: anuj.kumar.chandel@gmail.com; anuj@debiq.eel.usp.br
Om. V. Singh, Division of Biological and Health Sciences 300 Campus
Drive, University of Pittsburgh, Bradford, PA-16701, USA. E-mail:
ovs11@pitt.edu; ovs11@yahoo.com
a Department of Biotechnology, School of Engineering of Lorena, University of 11
Sa o Paulo, Lorena 12.602.810,
Brazil

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 b Division of Biological and Health Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, Bradford,
PA 16701, USA

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Sugarcane bagasse Sugarcane tops and leaves (ST)

Biotechnological Non-
Applications biotechnological
Applications

Pretreatment Fermentation (SSF) Pyrolysis

Enzymatic hydrolysis Chemical catalysis
Microbial fermentation (SmF) Chem-remediation
Ethanol as fuel Biochar
Xylitol Coumaric acid
Industrial enzymes
Methyl cellulose
Organic acids
Furfural and 5-hydroxy
Other value-added products methyl furfural
(antibiotics, Single cell protein,
bio-hydrogen, aroma, pigments Pyrolysis and steam
etc) gasification etc.

Figure 1. Strategic applications of sugarcane plant. The pocessing of sugarcane in fields yield green tops and dried leaves, so-called sugarcane trash
(ST). The bagasse is products from the stem after juice extraction. Both have profound importance in biotechnological and non-biotechnological
applications.

spite major research efforts to promote SB as a bioenergy
material, commercial use of SB on an industrial scale has yet
to be explored.12,13 However, recent advancements in genetic
engineering to improve microbial strains, media formulations, and
product recovery have enabled more efficient conversion of SB
and SL into value-added products of commercial interest.1,3,14
This article discusses the possibilities of exploiting SB and SL/ST
as potential substrates for biofuel and value-added products of
commercial interest. Special emphasis is placed on recent devel-
opments such as genetically modified microbial strains, statistical
software for designing the process parameters and media formula-
tion, including downstream recovery in the process and products
developed including commercial evaluation of bio-products from
SB and SL/ST.
CHEMISTRY OF SUGARCANE BAGASSE
AND SUGARCANE LEAVES
The complex chemical composition of the cell walls in SB limits
its use as fodder for cattle and ruminants, in contrast to wheat
straw, rice straw, sorghum straw, etc., which makes SB a more
attractive substrate for commercialization. Generally, SB is
composed (% w/w

12

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Mild alkali Industrial enzymes

Direct carbon
pretreatment Organic acids,
source for
microbes in pigments, vitamins
SSF or SmF Antibiotics, single
systems cell protein
Immobilization-
carrier

Auto Pentose Detoxification Xylitol

Sugarcane hydrolysis sugar rich Ethanol
(Chemical or
bagasse or dilute hydrolysate biological) Organic
acid + inhibitory
acids
compounds
Industrial
enzymes
Cellulignin or Solvents,
Holocellulose
pigments,
single cell
protein and
Fermentation of others.
Delignification sugars (C5 + C6)
(alkali or Enzymatic metabolizing
biodelignification) hydrolysis by strains)
cellulolytic
enzymes
cocktail

Figure 2. Procedural steps involved in the application of SB for the formation of various industrially important products.

dry basis) of hemicellulose (26.2 35.8), cellulose (35 45),
lignin (11.4 25.2), and others (2.9 14.4).15,16 The unequal
chemical composition of bagasse depends upon multiple factors,
including crop variety, climate conditions, location and mode of
growth, use of fertilizers, and physical and chemical composition
of soil.16 The method of chemical composition analysis may also
play a crucial role in establishing the chemical makeup of
bagasse.17
A detailed chemical analysis (% dry matter) from the cell wall of
SB and SL showed glucan (41.4, 33.3); xylan (22.5, 18.1); arabinan
(1.3, 3.1); galactan (1.3, 1.5); mannan (3.4, 1.5); and lignin
(23.6,
36.1), respectively.18 The higher content of lignin limits the SL or
lignocellulosic biomass (LB) usage for industrial applications. In
order to utilize the LB into value-added products, harnessing of
cel- lulosics fraction into ready-to-fermentable sugars is
inevitable.15
It is evident that the high content of lignin in the plant cell wall
is a major barrier to access the carbohydrate fraction of the cell
wall, which essentially requires pretreatment (higher chemical
loadings in conjunction with increased reaction time and
temperature) and higher cellulase loadings result in an
uneconomic process.14,30
The costs of cellulolytic enzymes are high, and the required
amount of cellulases is also high, which increases processing
costs. The removal of lignin increases accessibility to cellulose and
allows more amenability of cellulase to the carbohydrate skeleton
of plant cell wall.15 The low content of ash (1.4%) in SB was found
to be highly advantageous over other agricultural residues such
as rice straw (17.5% ash) or wheat straw (11.0% ash).4
PRETREATMENT OF SUGARCANE BAGASSE
FOR INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
An effective pretreatment is to expose the cellulosics by re-
moval of lignin or hemicellulose to improve the overall hydrolysis
efficiency.20 In addition to pretreatment, an effective cellulolytic
enzyme cocktail, the amount of enzyme loading, hydrolyzing
conditions and the nature of lignocellulosic material are critical
parameters for maximum hydrolysis of lignocellulosic material.15
Substantial increase in lignin removal and hemicellulose depoly-
merization into simpler sugars has often been reported with
pretreated substrate.19 Among classical methods for
pretreatment of lignocellulosic materials, alkaline hydrolysis
(NaOH, Na2 SO3 , NH4 OH etc.), biological treatment (growth of
white rot fungi or delignifying microorganisms over the
lignocellulosic residues), and acidic pretreatments (HCl, H2 SO4 ,
H3 PO4 , oxalic acid, formic acid, etc.) have been known to either
depolymerise the hemicellulosic fraction of cell wall into simpler
monomeric constituents or re- move the lignin.20 Pretreatment is
required to make the cellulosics more amenable to further
cellulase mediated hydrolytic reactions. Pretreated SB has also
been utilized as an inert support material
for fungal biomass in the solid-state fermentation process7,21 and
as an immobilization carrier.22 The mechanistic application of
pretreated SB impregnated with suitable liquid media provides
homogenous aerobic conditions throughout the bioreactor, which
in turn will yield high product titers with relatively high purity after
the completion of a cultivation cycle.22
The acidic hydrolysis of lignocellulosic substrates degrades
the hemicellulose fraction into a variety of sugar monomers
(xylose, arabinose, mannose, galactose, and glucose) in addition
to fermentation inhibitors (furfurals, phenolics, and weak acids).
These inhibitory substances must be eliminated from the
hydrolysates prior to fermentation to improve the yield of
desirable products.9,23 Alkali-based pretreatments and bio-
delignification methods remove the lignin, leaving cellulose and
hemicellulose. The pretreated material can then be hydrolyzed
into simpler sugars using a cellulolytic enzyme cocktail. The
cellulolytic cocktail should contain sufficient amounts of
exoglucanase, endoglucanase, -glucosidase, and other
ancillary enzymes required for the
13

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Table 1. Hydrolytic efficiency of chemically pretreated sugarcane bagasse followed by enzymatic saccharification

Pretreatment conditions Enzymatic loadings Hydrolysis efficiency References

NaOH treatment (10% NaOH, 90 C, S : L=1 : 3, 1.5 h) + per 15 FPU g1 92.04%

15 acetic acid (10%, 2.5 h, 75 C)
Cellulose dissolution by N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide 5 FPU g1 95% 24
(NMMO) (5%w/w bagasse/NMMO, 130 C, 1 h)
SO2 catalyzed steam pre-treatment (2% SO2 , 190 C, 2.32 g of Celluclast 1.5L and 0.52 g 91.7% 25
5 min) of Novozyme 188
Peroxide-alkaline pre-treatment (2% H2 O2 , 0.5% MgSO4 , 10 FPU g1 63.0% 26
60 C, 16 h, pH 11.6)
Phosphoric acid (10 min, 160 190 C, 1% H3 PO4 , 100 FPU g1 dry weight 81 1 g L1 total sugars
27 enzymatic
Calcium hydroxide 3.5 FPU g1 FPU, 1.0 IU g1 beta 392.8 mg total sugars g1 bagasse 28
glucosidase

Formic acid (60% v/v formic acid, 0.6% H2 SO4 , 121 C, NA 0.791 g sugars g1 bagasse 29
90 min)
Steam explosion 3.5 IU mL1 FPU; 4.0 IU mL1 beta 94.6% 30
glucosidase; 75 IU mL1 CMCase

Based on dry weight of total carbohydrate content available in substrate.

Table 2. Applications of SB in ethanol production using different microorganisms under various cultivation conditions
Ethanol production
Hydrolysate composition (g L1 ) Microorganism Fermentation conditions (g L1 or g g1 ) References

E. coli MM160 37 C, pH: 6.5, 150 rpm, 24 h 29.0 g L1 27
Glucose, 7.3; Xylose, 65.9; Galactose,
2.2; Acetic acid, 5.9
Candida tropicalis JH030 30 C, pH: 6.0, 100 rpm, 24 h 3.2 g L1 31
Glucose, 3.5; Xylose, 25.8; Arabinose
2.4; Acetic Acid 4.6
Pachysolen tannophilus DW06 30 C, pH: 5 150 rpm 0.34 g g1 32
Glucose, 9.1; Xylose, 42.8; Galactose,
2.3; Arabinose, 4.6; Acetic acid, 0.8 1
S. cerevisiae D5A 30 C, pH: 4.8, 200 rpm, 48 h 23 g 100 g biomass 33
Glucan, 41.63%; Xylan, 17.24%;
Arabinan, 0.68% C. shehatae NCIM 3501

30 C, 150 rpm, 24 h 0.48 g g1 , 8.67 g L1 9
Xylose, 21.5; Arabinose, 2.95;
Glucose, 5.84

Glucose, 50.9; Xylose 33.1 S. cerevisiae 424A LNH-ST 30 C, 150 rpm, 120 h 33.7 g L1 8
Simultaneous saccharification and Zymomonas mobilis
Enzymatic hydrolysis at 50 C, 12 h 60 g L1 34
fermentation (SiSF), Glucose, and fermentation at 30 C, pH:
80 g L1 5.5

efficient breakdown of polysaccharides present in the cell
walls of lignocellulosics.15,19 The effects of different enzyme
loadings on the hydrolysis efficiency of SB after pretreatments
at different conditions are being summarized in Table 1. Different
enzyme loadings are required to maximum hydrolysis of SB after
pretreatment under different conditions.
SUGARCANE BAGASSE AND VALUE-ADDED
PRODUCTS OF COMMERCIAL SIGNIFICANCE
Ethanol
SB has long been studied for industrial applications, including
ethanol production. Theoretically, a single ton of SB could yield up
to 300 L of ethanol.11 However, there are several parameters that
directly affect ethanol yield, such as the quality of bagasse and the
process employed for ethanol production.11 It has been predicted
that 12 000 to 15 000 L ethanol ha1 could be produced if
the sugarcane juice and bagasse were processed for ethanol
production.11,12 This amount could be even higher if SL was
employed in the process.12 Both enzymatic and acidic
hydrolysates of SB have been employed for ethanol production
using different
14
ethanologenic strains (Pichia stipitis, Candida shehatae, Pachysolen
tanophillus, native and recombinant Saccharomyces cerevisiae,
recombinant Escherichia coli, and Zymomonas mobilis) under
various cultivation techniques.10 Table 2 summarizes ethanol
production from SB hydrolysates using different microorganisms.
The ethanol production and yield may vary depending upon the
process and the conditions used for fermentation as well as the
microbial strain used in the conversion.4
Separate hydrolysis and fermentation (SHF) and simultaneous
saccharification and fermentation (SSF) have been implemented
using SB for ethanol production.19 Santos et al.34 obtained max-
imum cellulose-to-ethanol conversions (60%) with volumetric
productivity 0.29 0.30 g L1 h1 in pre-saccharification
assisted
SSF from SB.
In this study, SB was first treated with acid using H2 SO4
(1% (v/v), solid/liquid ratio 1 : 2) at 121 C for 30 min followed
by separation of solid biomass (cellulignin) which was again
treated with NaOH (4% (v/v), solid/liquid ratio of 1 : 20) at
121 C for 30 min. Afterwards, the treated solution was used
for SSF. Ferreira et al.35 carried out SSF for ethanol production
using a recombinant S. cerevisiae harboring a -glucosidase gene

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Bio-industrial benefits of sugarcane bagasse and leaves
Table 3. Utilization of SB for production of industrial enzymes under varying cultivation conditions
Bio-products Microorganism
Xylanase Penicillium echinulatum 9A02S1
Laccase A. heteromorphus
Alpha-amylase Bacillus subtilis KCC103
Lipase Rhizopus homothallicus
Tannase B. licheniformis KBR6
Pectate lyase Penicillium viridicatum RFC3
Inulinase Kluyveromyces marxianus NRRL Y-7571
and obtained 60 g L1 ethanol production. However, studies on
consolidated bioprocesses using SB for ethanol production have
yet to be conducted.
Dias et al.12 suggested the importance of process integration
in sugarcane processing mills. Under thermal integration, SB was
hydrolyzed in an organosolv process catalyzed by dilute acid
and then utilized for conventional production of ethanol from
sugarcane juice. These studies revealed the use of SB and lignin as
auxiliary fuels to fulfill the energy demands of the biorefinery. In
addition, Ojeda et al.13 reported a case study where a simulation
of process integration was used to compare biorefinery inputs and
outputs considering the residual biomass produced by the sugar-
alcohol industries, and reported the highest ethanol yield (169.3 L
ton1 of SB) in an integrated process (organosolv + simultaneous
saccharification and co-fermentation (SSCF).
Xylitol
D-xylitol is another value-added product that can be produced
from SB/SL by microbial fermentation to cater for its large
demand in food and pharmaceutical industries.36,37 It is a five
carbon sugar alcohol that is naturally found in various fruits and
vegetables. Due to its anti-carcinogenicity, tooth rehardening and
remineralization properties, D-xylitol has been widely applied in
the pharmaceuti- cal industry, odontological formulations, and in
food industries.37
Being a sugar substitute, xylitol has been used in dietary foods
especially for insulin-deficiency patients.36,37 The fermentative
production of xylitol is possible from hemicellulosic hydrolysates
of SB. The acid hydrolysates of SB primarily contain xylose sugar.
Other sugars like arabinose, mannose, galactose, and glucose are
also present in very low concentrations, along with inhibitors
such as furans, phenolics, and weak acids. It is necessary to elimi-
nate fermentation inhibitors from the hemicellulosic hydrolysates
prior to fermentation. Several physical (evaporation, membrane
separation), chemical (calcium hydroxide overliming, activated
charcoal and/or ion-exchange adsorption), and biological meth-
ods (microbial or enzymatic treatments) have been applied to
eliminate fermentation inhibitors.9,23 Yeast species (mainly Can-
dida sp.) have been known to produce xylitol from pentose-rich
SB hydrolysates as reviewed by Prakasham et al.37 SB has also
been found an excellent carrier for entrapping Candida
guilliermondii cells for the continuous production of xylitol.22
Semi-continuous production of xylitol was also attempted by
Carvalho et al.38 us- ing calcium-alginate-entrapped C.
guilliermondii FTI 20 037 cells growing on SB hydrolysate, which
showed improved xylitol pro- duction (g L1 ) 25.9, 46.8, and
48.7 after three consecutive cycles of fermentation. SB has been
reported on multiple occasions in research and development as
potential substrate for xylitol pro- duction, however, the
industrial output of xylitol from SB is yet to come.
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Mode of cultivation Product titers (g L1 or g g1 ) References
SSF 36.38 5.38 U g1 dry material 39
SSF 2.9 IU mL1 40
SmF 67.4 U mL1 41
SSF 826 U g1 dry material 42
SSF 0.56 0.03 U mL1 43
SSF 300 U g1 substrate 44
SSF 391.9 U g1 dry material 45
Industrial enzymes
SB has been used for the production of industrial enzymes
such as xylanase, cellulase, amylase, and laccase by certain
bacteria and fungi, employing solid-state fermentation (SSF) or
submerged fermentation (SmF) systems. Table 3 shows that SB
has been utilized for production of various enzymes under SSF
or SmF conditions. Among others, cellulase and xylanase have
been studied extensively for production from SB.5,40 Singhania
et al.46 compared cellulase production from SB with production
from other lignocellulosic materials such as wheat bran, cassava
bagasse, and rice straw under SSF by Trichoderma reesei NRRL
11 460. The maximum production of cellulase (154.58 U gds1 )
was reported from SB, followed by wheat bran, cassava bagasse,
and rice straw. The cost of cellulase plays a vital role in the success
of biorefineries. A potential technology has yet to be investigated
that can provide a feasible approach to the cost-effective
production of cellulase with high titers.
SUGARCANE BAGASSE DERIVED MICROBIAL
METABOLIC PRODUCTS OF COMMERCIAL
INTEREST
SB has also been explored for the production of various organic
acids (citric acid, lactic acid, gluconic acid, etc.) using different
cultivation techniques and with a variety of microorganisms.
Borges and Pereira49 employed SB hemicellulosic hydrolysate
for succinic acid production by Actinobacillus succinogenes. Singh
et al.48 used SB as an inert support for the growth of fungi
Aspergillus niger mycelium for gluconic acid production under
SSF and a semi-solid state fermentation (SmSF) system with a
stabilized mutant strain ORS-4.410. A plant hormone, gibberellic
acid (GA), was produced under SSF conditions by Gibberella
fujikuroi, NRRL
2278 using SB. An excellent growth of biomass was observed, but
only a trace amount of GA was noted during the fermentation
reaction.50
Apart from ethanol, xylitol, enzymes, and organic acids, SB has
been employed to make other value-added products of com-
mercial interest such as antibiotics, animal feed, biohydrogen,
alkaloids, and pigments.4 Nampoothiri and Pandey50 used SB to
produce L-glutamic acid and reported a yield of 80 mg L1 glu-
tamic acid g1 dry bagasse under an SSF system. The production
of a single-cell protein with Candida langeronii RLJY-019 using SB
has also been established under SmF cultivation.53 SB has been
employed as an alternative packing material for biofiltration of
benzene-polluted gaseous streams. Maximum elimination of ben-
zene was observed using 3.50 and 3.80 gm3 packing material h1
with raw and ground SB.52 A summary of various other value-
added products of commercial significance is provided in Table 4. 15
SB has
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Table 4. Production of value added products of commercial interest from SB under various cultivation conditions

Organic acids Microorganisms Fermentation conditions Product titers (g L1 or g g1 ) References

1
Lactic acid, acetic acid, Lactococcus lactis IO-1 SmF 10.85 g L , acetic acid, 7.87; formic acid, 47
formic acid, ethanol 6.04 and ethanol, 5.24
Gluconic acid A. niger ORS- 4.410 SSF 106.5 g dm3 (94.7% yield) 48
Succinic acid Actinobacillus succinogenes SmF 22.5 g L1 49
L-glutamic acid Brevibacterium sp. SSF 80 mg glutamic acid g1 dry bagasse 50
Nigerloxin A. niger van Tieghem SSF 2.95 mg g1 dry substrate 51
Penicillin G Penicillium chrysogenum P2-4 SSF 7000 g g1 bagasse 52
Single-cell protein Candida langeronii RLJ Y-019 SmF 48.2, 1.4, 5.8 and 23.4% of total 53
protein, DNA, RNA and carbohydrate
Red pigment Penicillium sp. NIOM-02 SSF Red Pigment scavenged 91% 2, 2 53
di-phenyl-1-pycrylhydrazyl radicals

the potential for strong commercialization. Despite this, no sig-
nificant approach has been developed to harness its commercial
potential as a raw substrate. The molecular elements of microbial
metabolism using SB have not been established, which may assist
in efficient utilization of SB for products of commercial interest.
NON-BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS
OF SUGARCANE BAGASSE
SB has also been used in conventional applications, including as a
cheaper source of energy. Burning it in boilers for steam
generation is the most common application in sugar and alcohol
producing industries.4 Apart from steam generation, SB plays
major roles in the electricity generation and pulp and paper
production industries.55 In one study, SB was fractionated into
cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin by a proprietary steam
explosion process, followed by downstream purification,
revealing that SB can be utilized to produce high-value
plastics.56 In another potential application, Ou et al.57 studied
phenolic acids that were released from SB by alkaline hydrolysis
at 30 C and purified with anion exchange resin. The main
component of the purified bagasse hydrolysate was revealed
to be p-coumaric acid rather than ferulic acid. This purified
product showed the same antioxidant activity, reducing power,
and free radical scavenging capacity as the standard p-
coumaric acid. In another attempt, SB was anaerobically
digested to produce methane,55 and the digested residue and
fresh bagasse were pyrolyzed separately into biochar at 600 C
in a nitrogen environment. This study suggests that efficient
use of SB under anaerobic digestion and pyrolysis to produce
biochar may be an economically and environmentally beneficial
use of agricultural wastes.55
In a different application of SB, Gonzalez et al.58 developed a
novel process for synthesis of diverse nanometric materials (silica
oxide) with specific crystal arrays as precursors to agro-industrial
wastes by employing vermicompost with annelids (Eisenia foetida).
In road transportation, it is a challenge to develop low-emission
vehicles with high specific power dealing with specific energy.
Super capacitors, or electrochemical double-layer capacitors, are
a promising high-power technology that can meet peak power
demands in fuel cell electric vehicles. Rufford et al.59 studied the
characterization and electrochemical performance of activated
carbons prepared by the ZnCl2 activation of sugarcane bagasse.
Their study showed that SB carbons prepared with a ZnCl2 ratio
of 3.5 were the most stable electrochemical performer at fast
charge discharge rates.59
16
SB has been explored in many other applications, including the
removal of heavy metal ions from wastewater, as reviewed by Wan
Ngah and Hanafiah.60 These proven non-biological applications
suggest that SB could play a pivotal role in best economic
utilization, as it is abundantly available in nature as a renewable,
cheap, and widespread residue in tropical countries. Therefore, it
is important to point out that in the developing world, SB is the
raw material for 20% of total paper production. In the entire
world,
10% of all the available bagasse is used for paper production
(www.innovations-report.com).
BIO-INDUSTRIAL SIGNIFICANCE
OF SUGARCANE LEAVES/TRASH
SL has yet to be explored for biological processes. The cell
walls of SL are composed of 57.5% carbohydrate, demonstrating
the potential for the bioconversion of products of commercial
significance, including ethanol as biofuel. However, the
abundance of lignin (36.1%) and silica (6.96%) may limit the
industrial and veterinary acceptability of SL.61 Regardless of the
complex chemical composition of its cell wall, SL was hydrolyzed
by sulfuric acid at varying temperatures, acid loads, hydrolysis
times, and solid : liquid ratios in a fractional factorial and central
composite
design. The optimal conditions at 130 C with 2.9% w/v H2 SO4
,
solid : liquid ratio (1 : 10) for 30 min residence time allowed
formation of xylose (56.5 g L1 ), corresponding to a recovery
of 85.1% from the hemicellulosic fraction of SL (Moutta et al.,
unpublished work). Krishna et al.6 reported ethanol production
(2% w/v) from SL employing SSF with cellulases from Trichoderma
reesei QM 9414 and S. cerevisiae NRRL-Y-132. Ferreira-Leita o et
al.18 evaluated the saccharification of SL into glucose (97.2%
theoretical yield) after pretreatment with steam at 220 C for
62
5 min. Silva et al. reported enzymatic hydrolysis yield of
glucose (77.6%) and xylose (56.8%) based upon the total
structural carbohydrates present in ball milled pretreated
sugarcane leaves straw and this sugar solution when fermented
by S. cerevisiae showed 91.8% ethanol yield under submerged
fermentation conditions.
Another study of enzymatic digestibility (95 98%) by the
co- ordinated action of cellulases and hemicellulases was
conducted using SL.8 The released sugars were converted into
ethanol by S. cerevisiae 424A LNH-ST with appreciable ethanol
concentration (34 36 g L1 ) and yield (92%). Singh et al.7
processed dried SL after microbial pretreatment for the
reduction of C : N ratio in conjunction with cellulase

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production by selective bioagents including fungi and bacteria.
Microbial pretreatment of sugarcane

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Bio-industrial benefits of sugarcane bagasse and leaves www.soci.org

Table 5. Factors and procedural steps governing the commercialization of SB/ST with respect to impact on cost incurred
Mode of Impact on cost
application Procedural steps involved Cultivation type Bio-products incurred

Direct Mild pretreatment, washing Solid state fermentation (SSF) or Industrial enzymes, organic acids, +
submerged fermentation (SmF) pigments, antibiotics etc.
or their modifications
Indirect Auto hydrolysis, Pretreatment with SmF Xylitol, ethanol, 2, 3 butanediol, ++
dilute acid, detoxification single cell protein
Alkaline, biological pretreatment, SHF (Separate hydrolysis and Ethanol ++
enzymatic hydrolysis fermentation),
Simultaneous saccharification and ++
fermentation (SiSF)
Consolidated bio-processing (CBP) ++
Specialized Mild pretreatment, washing Immobilization Microbial cells attached on +
applications pretreated SB
Mild pretreatment Bioremediation Dye decolorization ++

Impact on cost incurred in the process: + moderate, ++ considerable, +++ strong.

trash caused the reduction in C : N ratio from 108 : 1 to a varying
range of approximately 42 : 1 to 60 : 1. The maximum 61% reduc-
tion in C : N ratio was achieved with Aspergillus terreus, followed
by Cellulomonas uda (52%), Trichoderma reesei, and Zymomonas
mobilis (49%). These microorganisms were also able to produce
in situ cellulase by triggering the degradation of sugarcane trash.
Maximum cellulase production came from A. terreus (12-fold),
followed by C. uda (10-fold), Cellulomonas cartae (9-fold), and
Bacillus macerans (8-fold).7 Saad et al.63 reported the impact
of fungal pretreatment of sugarcane leaf straw for organosolv
pulping resulting in 40% reduction in lignin, which ameliorated
2.4-fold cellulose degradation after enzymatic hydrolysis.
Sugarcane trash (SL+Tops) was used for ammonium carboxylate
production under long-term air-lime pretreatment/mixed-culture
fermentation using marine microorganisms.64 The study revealed
over 75% production of ammonium acetate by a mixed culture
of marine microorganisms at 55 C. In another study,65 ST was
amended for the vermistabilization of municipal sewage sludge
by epigeic Eisenia fetida, showing their optimum growth by
reducing organic matter (12.7%) and simultaneously mitigating
the metal toxicity of sludge. Jayasinghe et al.66 attempted to
improve the growth and nutrition of lettuce using ST-based
sewage sludge. These studies promote the utilization of ST-based
growth medium in horticulture as an alternative to the widely
used and expensive peat. Roopashree et al.67 evaluated the
potency of ST as compost under field conditions using chilli as
the test crop. The results revealed that combining trash compost
with chemical fertilizers on a 50% basis was helpful in improving
the growth and yield of green chillies (10.757 to 12.627 ton ha1
) compared with applying ST alone (8.44 to 10.239 tone ha1 ).
Among products of commercial significance, Mane et al.68
exploited ST for oxalic acid production (42.9 51.6% w/w) using
a nitric oxide oxidation process. SL was explored for the
development of a low-density biomass gasification system for
thermal applications,69 and the efficacy of this system was
assessed for more than 700 h ex situ, generating output levels
of 288 1080 MJ h1 . Rossy et al.70 attempted to develop
an essence of SL through a spraying and freeze-drying
procedure, and found that this essence improved the taste of
flavored calcium supplements, food, beverages, chewing gums,
and oral care products. In another promising application, the
Appropriate Rural
J Chem Technol Biotechnol 2012; 87: 11 20 c 2011 Society of Chemical
Industry
Technology Institute (ARTI) developed a technology for producing
briquetted charcoal from ST (http://www.arti-india.org).
COMMERCIAL EVALUATION OF
BIO-PRODUCTS FROM SB/ST
Bio-products derived from SB/ST are considered a breakthrough to
replace chemically synthesized products in industries. In particular,
they offer tremendous opportunities for chemical industries to
develop unique functionality and marketing benefits due to their
sustainability, eco-friendly assessment and their vast availability in
nature.71 Looking at the copious amount of SB and ST in the world
and their practical feasibility for the production of value-added
products, this feedstock can be referred as biological or green
currency. Therefore, the importance of SB/ST as a sustainable
source of energy or other valuable products has become a subject
of intense research and commercial interest.4,10,12,71 However,
the market for white biotechnology based products including SB
and ST appears to be small (3 4%) on a global industry
scale.71
Despite the socio-economic advantages, environmental benefits
and technological developments, entrepreneurs are hesitant to
invest in agro-based biotechnology units. Recently, corporate
business has shown their interest in biofuels promotion with
limited investment in research. Table 5 highlights the cost
decisive factors of various other applications of SB and ST
The bioconversion of SB/ST into value-added products such as
xylitol, organic acids, and industrial enzymes is profitable business
compared to ethanol production.4 In general, the cost of raw
material such as sugarcane and maize single handedly contributes
34% of the total cost of bioethanol production. Tabular data
(Table 6) reveals that the cost of biomass and cellulases has
maximum impact (nearly 70%) on bioethanol production. The
total cost of bioethanol production from SB/ST can be brought
down if combined approaches like cellulase production,
hydrolysis and fermentation of released sugars into ethanol can
be merged in a single unit. Traditional challenges such as
detoxification and recovery of sugars, etc. will remain part of the
process for ethanol production. Dias et al.12 performed a
process simulation study in which bioethanol was produced
from sugarcane juice and SB
after pretreatment with an organosolv process with dilute acid
hydrolysis in a process integration using multi-pressure 17
distillation columns allowing cost reduction of hot utilities
requirements. ST
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 www.soci.org
Table 6. Cost wise impact of main factors on bioethanol production
from sugarcane bagasse (Source: Viikari72 )
Parameter Cost incurred (%)
Biomass 34
Feed handling 5
Pretreatment 17.5
Saccharification and fermentation 8.5
Cellulase 36
Distillation and solid recovery 11
Wastewater treatment 2 5
Boiler/energy 8.5
Utilities 4 Springer, Netherlands (2009).
Storage 1 6
and lignin can be utilized as auxillary fuels to fulfill the energy
requirements of biorefinery with hydrolysis. Despite the ongoing
efforts, a joint venture of research and policy is required to
develop the cost-effective production of industrially important
bio-products.
FUTURE PERSPECTIVES AND CONCLUSION
The byproducts generated during agro-industrial processing of
sugarcane, SB and SL, constitute potential sources of carbo-
hydrates that can be used to generate valuable products of
commercial interest. Bio-industrial applications appear to provide
sustainable, economic, environmental, and strategic advantages,
with breakthroughs in micro-biotechnology offering huge poten-
tial opportunities. SB has already been successfully converted into
many value-added products such as ethanol, xylitol, organic acids,
industrial enzymes, and other important specialty chemicals, as
summarized in Fig. 2. Scaling up to the pilot scale, however, is
still a necessity. Such a step forward in the developing world
would be highly rewarding. For instance, it has already been
foreseen that
16 times more energy could be produced if the entire sugarcane
plant were used by the alcohol industry, including SB in the pro-
cess. The energy generation could be increased even more if SL
were added to the processing cycle.
The increasing price of gasoline may be remedied by SB-
derived biofuel in the near future. In the sugar- and alcohol-
producing industries, integration of process operations like
hydrolysis, detoxification, fermentation, and distillation would be
an effective strategy to maximize the efficient utilization of raw
substrates. Currently, SB is mostly burned in boilers as a
cheaper source of energy. The available technology for
bioethanol production from SB polysaccharides cannot afford
a competitive price for
second-generation ethanol. Therefore, alternative processes to
convert SB and SL/ST into value-added products of commercial
significance such as xylitol, enzymes, organic acids, antibiotics,
and single-cell protein would contribute to economizing the
entire process.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are grateful to FAPESP (THEMATIC PROJECT-BIOEN PROC:
2008/57926-4 and 2010/11258-0) and CNPq for financial support.
The authors also thank Dr Ellen C. Giese for critical reading of the
18 manuscript and valuable suggestions.
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Industry
AK Chandel et al.
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