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Abstract
Using horizontal wells for In-Situ combustion operation brings new advantages. Horizontal wells provide larger contact area
between the formation and combustion front. Mobilized oil does not necessarily should pass through cold oil bank to be
produced and this improve the overall performance of the process. Combustion Assisted Gravity Drainage (CAGD) is an
integrated horizontal well air injection process for in situ recovery and upgrading of heavy oil and tar sands bitumen. Short
distance air injection and direct mobilized oil production are main features of this process that lead to stable sweep and high oil
recovery. These characteristics identify CAGD process as a highly potential oil recovery method.
This paper summarizes recent experimental and numerical studies of CAGD process. In-Situ combustion experiments have
been carried out using a rectangular 3D combustion cell with dimensions of 0.62 m, 0.41 m and 0.15 m. Enriched air (50% O2)
has been injected to create and sustain the combustion front in the model. Experimental results showed that oil displacement
occurs mainly by gravity drainage. Vigorous combustion was observed at the early stages near the heel of injection well,
where peak temperature of about 690 C was recorded. Moreover, a thermal simulator was used for history matching the
laboratory data, while capturing the main mechanisms. Simulation results showed very good agreement between numerical
and experimental data in terms of fluid production rate, combustion temperature and produced gas composition.
Introduction
Canadian heavy oil resources are located in northern Alberta and western Saskatchewan. This vast resource is estimated to
contain more than 170.4 billion barrel of recoverable oil and 315 billion barrels of potentially recoverable oil in place which
future technology advancement and favorable economic condition enable them to be profitably extracted. Athabasca oil sand
production is about 900,000 bbl /day. From this amount, 60% goes to surface mining and rest of 40% is from in-situ recovery
techniques such as thermal (27%) and primary production (13%) (A. Burrowes; R. Marsh 2007).One of important challenges
for production of bitumen and heavy oil reservoir is the viscosity of the crude oil. This value ranges from a few thousands to
millions of centipoise (Gates and Wang 2011) which leaves hydrocarbon immobile at reservoir condition. For recovery of
these resources, production mechanism should overcome this issue. One of efficient method for reducing the crude oil
viscosity is thermal process. In these types of recovery techniques, heat will be introduced to the heavy oil bearing formation.
Heat is generated on the surface (SAGD, CSS) or inside the formation (ISC, THAI). Produced heat increase the temperature of
the hydrocarbon in place and drops the oil viscosity. Viscosity reduction should be sufficient to make the crude oil mobile and
be producible by production mechanisms (Cunha and Cunha 2005).
In-situ combustion has been recognized for many years as a high potential thermal process for recovery of heavy oil and
bitumen deposits. This process has been extensively investigated in both laboratory and field scale. Several pilot projects have
been tested since 1933. Technically, ISC is gas injection processes which lead to heat wave propagation inside porous media,
this heat front and produced gases enhance oil production (Turta et al. 2005; Hascakir et al. 2011). Combustion front sustain
by continuous air injection through the reservoir. ISC operation begins with preheating the injection well perforations using
downhole heater or chemical reactions (Abuhesa 2009; Li et al. 2005). When desired temperature was recorded, air will
injected. In some cases auto ignition was reported specialty when initial reservoir temperature exceeds 180F (Abuhesa 2009).
Despite extensive laboratory investigation and the promises of this technique in challenging environments, there were many
failures in field application of this process. These difficulties are generally associated to unfavorable gas gravity segregation,
low sweep efficiency and poor directional control of combustion front movement (Bhattacharya and Chattopadhyay 2007;
Carcoana 1990; Gates and Sklar 1971).
2 SPE 154333

In conventional ISC process, air is injected through a central vertical well surrounded by a number of production wells. In this
way, combustion initiated near central injector and in ideal case uniformly sweeps the pattern volume toward production wells.
However, due to gravity override of displacing gas, combustion front advance unevenly in vertical direction and total sweep
efficiency reduced by preferential flow of displacing gases to one well of the pattern. Another problem that frequently
encountered is the presence of cold oil bank in front of mobilized oil (See Figure 1). Well configuration of conventional ISC
process requires that the mobilized oil pass ahead of combustion front into the colder immobile oil. This can cause other
problems such as mobility reduction and lower injectivity (Coates et al. 1995).

Figure 1: Schematic of In-Situ Combustion Using Vertical Injection and Production Wells.

Most of laboratory studies of ISC process have been conducted using 1D combustion tube, while this physical setup can be
used for sensitivity analysis and investigating the performance of combustion reactions, it cannot provide information on either
areal or vertical sweep (Akin et al. 2000). Garon et al. (1986a, 1986b) conducted ISC experiments using 3D scaled laboratory
model. Two vertical wells were used as injector and producer. They investigated the sweep efficiency of dry and wet
combustion. Their experiments demonstrated the application of 3D laboratory models for a better understanding the basics of
combustion and the effect of various injection and production parameters. Akin et al. (2000) presented an in-situ combustion
experiment conducted on a 3D semi-scaled physical model and concluded that a vertical injector and horizontal producers
performed better than the other well configurations.

Kisman and Lau (1994) came up with novel well arrangement for ISC. They proposed to use lateral wells to vent flow gases
out of the reservoir. This so-called COSH process (Combustion Override Split Production Horizontal Well) uses a horizontal
well as producer. Gravity drainage stabilizes the combustion front development along the production well. They showed that
using horizontal wells for in-situ combustion operations bring new advantages. Horizontal wells provide larger contact area
between the formation and combustion front. It has higher producibility than vertical wells. Mobilized oil does not necessarily
should pass through cold oil bank to be produced and this promising effect would potentially improve the overall performance
of the process.
Horizontal well air injection can also be used along other thermal process. Oskouei et al. (2011) confirmed the feasibility of
starting combustion process in mature SAGD chamber. Later on, Rahnema et al. (2011) used semi-scaled physical cell to show
the performance of air injecting through SAGD pair wells. Their experimental observations show, while combustion front does
not advance beyond SAGD chamber. It creates continues hard coke shell around SAGD chamber which can minimize steam
leakage from adjacent steam chambers.
Toe-to-Heel Air Injection (THAI) is a new, short-distance displacement process that achieves high recovery efficiency by
stable operation and ability to produce mobilized oil directly into a section of the horizontal producer, just ahead of the
combustion front (Greaves et al. 1993, 1999 and 2000). THAI process uses the advantages of horizontal production and a
vertical injection well. This process is based on gravity drainage and short distance oil production, therefor it avoid some of
conventional ISC problems. THAI field pilot test has been started in McMurray formation of the Athabasca oil sands (Ayasse
et al. 2005).
This paper presented recent laboratory and numerical studies of Combustion Assisted Gravity Drainage (CAGD). This process
is an integrated horizontal well air injection process for in situ recovery and upgrading of heavy oil and tar sands bitumen. The
aim of this paper is to highlight the different aspects of CAGD process. Experimental results indicated that combustion front
advancement is along injection well. Moreover direct oil production and short distance air injected leads to preserving thermal
upgrading and efficient oxygen consumption. Moreover, commercial thermal simulators (CMG STARSTM) have been used for
history matching experimental results. The paper identifies CAGD as a promising thermal recovery method.
SPE 154333 3

3D Combustion Cell
The experimental equipment comprises five main parts; injection pressure panel, CAGD cell, temperature monitoring board,
gas chromatograph and data recording system. Combustion physical model consists of cube-shaped box made of stainless steel
with dimension of 0.62 m length, 0.41 m width and 0.15 m height. Detailed description of experimental setup is presented by
Rahnema et al (2012). Horizontal injection well placed at the top portion of the cell with horizontal producer at the bottom of
porous media. Temperature profile inside the model is carefully monitored and recorded using Lab-view program. Inner
insulation (waterproof ceramic fiber) placed inside the model to minimize heat conduction through stainless steel body.
Schematic of CAGD cell is depicted in figure 2. To determine how much experimental error will be introduced by finite
insulation slab for boundary effects, cumulative heat was calculated and then compared with heat losses from a hypothetical
semi-finite sand formation. It is estimated maximum error of 11% will be introduced by using finite insulation slab
(Stegemeier et al. 1980)

Figure 2: Concept of Combustion Assisted Gravity Drainage (CAGD) Process

A data logger is used to record and monitor the following parameters; time, fluid injection temperature, injection pressure,
production pressure, gas production rate, produced gas composition. These parameters were recorded at every 30 seconds.
Thermal measurements within the sand pack were obtained using an array of thermocouples rods inserted throughout the
porous media. Injection well was preheated by electrical heater. Preheating step takes about 5 hours. Produced fluid from the
cell pass through two stage separator and condenser, where oil samples are taken. Also, after scrubbing and produced gases, it
flows through gas chromatographic. The flue gases are analyzed for carbon dioxide, oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon monoxide.
The 3D laboratory cell is packed with mixture of Athabasca bitumen and 100 US mesh size crushed sandstone. Estimated
permeability using (Berg 1970) correlation is between 40-60 Darcy. High temperature graphite sealant used to seal both caps
of the cell. Outer insulation is wrapped around the cell after packing. Physical model specification is summarized in Table 1.

Table 1: Laboratory Model Specifications

Laboratory Parameters Value

Width (m) 0.41
Height (m) 0.15
Length (m) 0.62
Permeability, K (D) 50
K.h (D-m) 7.5
Porosity (%) 39
Injection Pressure (Psia) 200

Initial Temperature C 30
Oil Viscosity@ 60 C (cp) 27,000
Oil Density@ 25 C (API) 8.24
Enriched Air Composition 50% O2 - 50% N2
Enriched Air Injection Rate (l/min) 10
4 SPE 154333

Experimental Procedure
1. 3D cell was heated using band heaters to about 30 C, which is considered as initial reservoir temperature.
2. Electrical heater is turned on for preheating the injection well. During preheating, N2 is injected by rate of 3.0 L/min
to prevent low temperature oxidation.
3. When maximum temperature of injection well reached to about 200 C. Injection stream switched to air with same
rate (3.0 L/min). Electrical heater is remaining on in this period.
4. Air injection rate accelerate the preheating time, after maximum recorded temperature exceed 275C, Enriched air is
injected by rate of 10 L/min. at this time temperature profile shows a rapid temperature increase inside the model,
usually near heel of the horizontal injector.
5. Produced fluid is collected in pre-weighted glass flask bottles at regular time intervals. Ones the production well
temperature outside of cell goes beyond 200 C, all equipment was turned off.
6. Fluid samples are kept in an oven with temperature of 50 to remove the dissolved gases.

Experimental Results
Figure 3 shows the produced gas composition during the experiment. N 2 mole fraction is excluded from these data. Between
times 4 to 5.3 hours, normal air (21%O2) was is injected. During this period a self-sustaining combustion front was not
observed. As a result it was decided to use enriched air (50%O2, 50%N2) as injection gas. After this switch, vigorous
combustion was observed, and CO2 mole fraction peaks up to 48%. In this stage electrical heater was off and combustion front
showed sustainability for the rest of the experiment. The reason why normal air was not efficient in compare to enriched air
could be due to the relatively low operating pressure of the system (200 psi) in which oxygen partial pressure was not
sufficient enough for oxidation reactions at the combustion front. Almost stable CO2 composition has been observed at outlet,
about 35%. This indicates the stability of the process during experiment.

CO2 O2 CO
50

45
Produced Gas Composition, %

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

0
3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17
Time, hr
Figure 3: Produced Gas Composition During the Experiment.

Cumulative oil production is illustrated in figure 4. Due to change of produced oil density, this value is reported on mass
basis. At the end of the experiment, recorded oil recovery reach to about 72% of OOIP. During experiment, production well
plugging was observed that caused pressure fluctuation about 10 to 20 psi in system. These plugging was mostly due to
condensation of gases inside the production vessels. The ratio of burned area to total area varies along horizontal distance, for
example combustion front is more developed near heel of injection well. At the start of experiment, most of injected oxygen is
consumed in this region and as process progressed; combustion front advances forward along injector. Experimental
observation showed that at the first 3.6 cm, sand pack was completely burned and what left over was the reaming coke layer
and clean sands with zero oil saturation. Coke layer thickness varies along horizontal distance and it was measured between 6
to 1 cm in heel and toe of the injection well correspondingly.
SPE 154333 5

7,000

6,000
Cumulative Oil Production, g

5,000

4,000

3,000

2,000

1,000

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Time, hr

Figure 4: Cumulative Oil Production of CAGD Experiment.

90

80
Unburned Area/ Total Area, %

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Horizental Distance, cm

Figure 5: Ratio of Unburned Area /Total Area vs. Horizontal Distance.

Density measurement of the produced oil samples after removing dissolved gases and separation of the water is showing in
figure 6. At the beginning of the process, produced oil was downgraded to about 7 API due to vaporization of lighter
components of crude oil. However, fully development of high temperature combustion chamber and direct production of
6 SPE 154333

mobilized oil preserved the thermal upgrading of the CAGD process, where oil density was enhanced almost more than 2 API
at the later stages of the experiment.

11

10
Produced Oil Density ,API

6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Time, hr

Figure 6: Thermal Upgrading of Produced Oil during CAGD Experiment.

Figure 7 shows the temperature profile inside the CAGD laboratory model. Iso-surface of 250C is used for better illustration
of hot temperature region inside porous media and also propagation of combustion front. Combustion front initiated near heel
of injection well and develops in lateral and forward directions. As it is shown in this profile, combustion front follows the
path of injection well, where fresh air is injected. This will offer better control and prediction of combustion front movement.
Combustion zone is more developed in upper part of the model. This will prevent flue gas accumulation at the top layer. It
should mention that sustainability of combustion front depends on removing flue gases out of system and keeping oxygen
partial pressure in high level. In CAGD well configuration, flue gases should be produced through bottom production well.
Gravity drainage ensures the stability of the process and in other hand; well configuration offers short distance air injection
and direct mobilize oil production which lead to a robust and self-sustain combustion front development.
 SPE 154333 7

Horizontal Injection Well `

Iso-Surface of 250C
Horizontal Production Well

T, C

a) 0 minute b) 310 minute

c) 560 minute d) 780 minute

Figure 7: Temperature Profile inside CAGD Laboratory Cell.

Simulation Model

Commercial thermal simulator CMG STARSTM has been used for simulation of CAGD process. A three-dimensional (3D)
cartesian grid configuration was used to represent the physical model. it consists of 20 grid blocks in horizontal direction (total
length of 0.41 m), 20 grid blocks in vertical direction (total of 0.15 m) and 20 grid blocks along horizontal wells (total length
of 0.62 m). Simulation model is homogeneous and constructed based on properties of physical model listed in Table 1. Figure
8 shows schematic of numerical model and location of horizontal pair wells.
8 SPE 154333

Figure 8: Schematic of Simulation Model and Horizontal Wells Pattern

Fluid Model
Athabasca bitumen was characterized by three pseudo-components: maltenes, asphaltens, and coke (Belgrave et al.1993a).
gases and other components like water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and nitrogen was added to the simulation
model and their properties was extracted from chemical handbook (Perry et al. 1997) or CMG STARSTM users manual
(CMG. 2008). In total, 8 components were used in the simulation model. Temperature dependent viscosity has also been
accounted by using the Arrhenius model (Eq.1).
B

oi Ae T
(1)
Moreover, it is assumed that initial bitumen consists of maltenes and asphaltens. Bitumen viscosity is calculated by
logarithmic mixing rule (CMG. 2008).

(2)

Figure 9 shows measured viscosity of Athabasca bitumen sample in different temperatures. Viscosity correlation parameters
extracted by curve fitting of laboratory data. (See Table 2)

1.E+06
Viscosity, cp

1.E+04

1.E+02

1.E+00
0 30 60 90 120 150
Temperature, C
Figure 9: Measured Viscosity of Athabasca Bitumen.

Table 2: Viscosity correlation parameters for oil components

Oil Phase Components A B
maltenes 1.94E-05 6.89E+03
asphaltens 1.62E-13 2.98E+04
SPE 154333 9

Kinetic Model
To capture the combustion process, Belgrave et al. (1993) kinetic reaction scheme has been used. Table 2 summarized the
reaction kinetics. In CMG STARSTM, for each reaction three controlling parameters (activation energy, frequency factor and
reaction enthalpy) should be set. These parameters used in the regression. Five set of reaction was used for modeling of the
combustion reactions. In total, fifteen matching parameters were used in the regression. In history matching work flow, it was
tried to match the produced gas composition, cumulative oil and water production. Timing of temperature rise inside the model
was the first matching goal rather than peak temperature. The location of thermocouples is in form of discrete point inside the
model and the maximum recorded temperature is not necessary the peak temperature. Next matching criteria, was the gas
composition such as N2, CO2, O2 and CO. Among these components, CO2 and O2 were assigned higher weight. The reason is
that the amount and ratio of these gases at outlet is main indicator of the oxidation reaction characteristics.

Table 3: Bitumen Reaction Scheme (Belgrave et al. 1993).

Reactions
Thermal Cracking Reaction
Low Temperature Oxidation (LTO)
High Temperature Oxidation (HTO)
Kinetics
maltenes 0.372 asphaltens
asphaltens 83.223 Coke
maltenes + 3.431O2 0.4726 asphaltens
asphaltens + 7.513O2 101.539 Coke
Coke + 1.232 O2 0.8996 CO2+0.1CO + 0.5635 H2O

End point relative permeability data is extracted from Belgrave et al. (1993). These data are not temperature-dependent.
However, in thermal process especially in ISC, due to high temperature region inside the formation, relative permeability
shows temperature-dependent behavior (Kumar et al. 1985; Pratt 1986). Temperature dependency of end points was also used
as regression parameters in history matching.

Matching Results
Figure 10 shows acceptable matching for produced O2 and CO2 gases. Also, simulation model able to match the timing of
combusting initiation, where CO2 mole fraction increase to about 50% of outlet stream. Another point is the gas composition at
the end of experiment, it seems that simulation model shows a decline in CO2 concentration while experimental results shows
reverse trend. It is believe that rise of CO2 concentration at the end of experiment is due to production of accumulated flue
gases inside the combustion chamber not from the reactions itself.

Figure 10: Produced Gas Composition, Experiment vs. Simulation

Comparison of cumulative produced gases is plotted in Figure 11. A fair match obtained between simulation and experimental
data. It was tried to have similar timing for gas breakthrough in both model. However, simulation model shows higher CO 2
production. This difference could be due to the fact that solubility of CO 2 in oil and water was not being taken into account
10 SPE 154333

thoroughly. Cumulative oil and water production match is illustrated in Figure 12. While good matching was obtained. There
is mismatch at early stages, where experimental model shows higher fluid production and also the timing of the oil and water
production is not maintained. This can be due to porous media heterogeneities that were created during packing. However, in
general simulation model is able to follow the trend.

Figure 11: Cumulative Gas Production, Experiment vs. Simulation

Figure 12: Cumulative Oil and Water Production, Experiment vs. Simulation

Figure 13 shows the temperature of injection well at the distance of 7.62 cm. Numerical results show good matching with
experimental data at preheating period (first 5 hours). It shows higher temperature at later stages when combustion front
SPE 154333 11

moved away from this point (7.62 cm). This is directly related to difference between heat loss modeling in numerical and
experimental model. In this numerical model (CMG. 2008), constant values are used for heat capacity and heat conductivity
for the overburden (CMG 2008), while in laboratory cell heat conductivity of the inner insulation vary with temperature. It was
tried to have consistent trend in both cases in terms of preheating, timing of combustion initiation and temperature decline in
later time.

Figure 13: Comparison between Simulation and Experimental Results: Temperature Profile of Injection Well at Distance of 7.62 cm

Conclusion

1. Experimental evidence indicated that Combustion Assisted Gravity Drainage (CAGD) can effectively produce Athabasca
tar sand bitumen by creating stable hot region inside the porous media. Short-distance air injection and direct mobilized oil
production are main features of this process that lead to robust combustion front propagation.
2. CAGD well configuration lead to better control on combustion front moving direction. Combustion zone follows the path
of injection well, this help to provide fresh oxygen for oxidation reactions and preserve high temperature oxidation mode
(HTO)
3. Stable sweep and high oil recovery identified CAGD as high potential recovery method. Ultimate oil recovery of 72%
OOIP has been achieved. Produced gas composition profile shows steady oxygen consumption during experiment; where,
on average 70% of injected oxygen is consumed in combustion reactions.
4. Direct oil production through horizontal producer; preserve thermal upgrading of the crude oil. Athabasca tar sand bitumen
was upgraded from its original value of 8.24 to 10.4 API.
5. A numerical simulation model is constructed based on physical properties for history matching of laboratory results.
Simulation data shows fairly good match with produced gas composition, cumulative CO 2 ,O2 , oil and water production.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank the sponsors of Crisman Petroleum Research Institute at Texas A&M University for
supporting this project. Thanks are also due to Jair A. Martinez (research technician) for assisting in performing experiments.

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