Geomorphology 57 (2004) 293 302

www.elsevier.com/locate/geomorph

Elongation and migration of sand dunes

Haim Tsoar *, Dan G. Blumberg, Yoav Stoler
Department of Geography and Environmental Development, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva 84105, Israel

Received 2 December 2002; received in revised form 10 March 2003; accepted 21 March 2003

Abstract

Two distinct processes are known to act on dynamic dunes, the process of migration by erosion on the windward side and
deposition on the lee side, typical for transverse dunes, and the process of elongation typical for linear dunes. These two
processes are determined by wind direction relative to the dune alignment. This article reviews the assertion that linear dunes
experience lateral displacement in addition to elongation. Fieldwork on vegetated linear dunes (VLDs) and GIS work on seif
dunes indicates no lateral migration for these dunes. Linear dunes can shift laterally only when a slip face, formed on the lee
side, reaches the plinth of the dune. The winds from both sides of the seif dune are never symmetric; usually winds from one
direction are more dominant and effective. The outcome is the formation of peaks and saddles along the dune. The strongest
winds create a slip face on the lee side of the peak segments of the dune, oblique to the dune alignment, which reaches the base
of the dune and displaces the peak downwind along the dune alignment. The internal structure of the seif dune is formed mostly
by this dominant wind direction and gives the impression that the dune has shifted laterally. On the other hand, there are cases in
which the wind directions relative to dune alignment fall between those of transverse and seif dunes. In such cases, both
processes act on the dune, which subsequently experiences migration as well as elongation.
D 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Aeolian processes; Linear dunes; Seif dunes; Vegetated linear dunes; Dune dynamics; Internal structure

1. Introduction (i) Migrating dunes, in which the whole dune body

The profusion of sand dune types in the worlds
deserts and coasts confuses earth scientists. There is
no accepted classification that refers to all known
dune types. Some classifications are based on the
researchers experience from one site (e.g. Goldsmith,
1989; Hunter et al., 1983; Hack, 1941) or on global
views and experience (e.g. Livingstone and Warren,
1996; Pye and Tsoar, 1990). Sand dunes can, gener-
ally speaking, be classified into three distinct groups:
advances with little or no change in shape and
dimension. Transverse and barchan dunes are the
best representing specimens.
(ii) Elongating dunes, in which the dunes become
extended in length with time by processes that
are quite different from those that affect migrat-
ing dunes. Linear dunes are the best representing
specimens.
(iii) Accumulating dunes, in which the dunes have
little or no net advance or elongation. Star dunes
best represent them.

* Corresponding author. Fax: +972-8-6472821. These three types are distinguished according to the
E-mail address: tsoar@mail.bgu.ac.il (H. Tsoar). directional variability of the winds (Aufre`re, 1931;

0169-555X/$ - see front matter D 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0169-555X(03)00161-2
294 H. Tsoar et al. / Geomorphology 57 (2004) 293302

Wasson and Hyde, 1983; Thomas, 1992, 1997; Lan-
caster, 1995), which can be determined quantitatively
by the index of directional variability (RDP/DP), the
ratio between the resultant wind drift potential (RDP)
and the wind drift potential (DP) (Fryberger, 1979).
This index approaches unity when the wind comes
from one direction only and approaches 0 when the
wind is multidirectional with a symmetric distribution
of DP for each direction. The directional characteristics
of the wind drift potentials can be determined by the
mode of the DP roses (Fryberger, 1979). In narrow and
wide unimodal DP roses, which are typical of migrat-
ing dunes, RDP/DP z 0.8. Acute bimodal DP roses fall
in the range of 0.5 0.8 RDP/DP and form both mi-
grating and elongating dunes (Tsoar, 1984). Obtuse
bimodal and complex roses, which are in the range of
0.0 0.4 RDP/DP, form accumulating dunes (Fryber-
ger, 1979; Wasson and Hyde, 1983; Lancaster, 1989).
2. Processes of migration and elongation in sand
dunes with no vegetation cover
Migrating and elongating dunes are under the
influence of two different types of sand movement
and deposition processes. Barchan and transverse
dunes, the two dominant forms of migrating dunes,
have two distinct slopes, moderate on the windward
side and steeper on the leeward. The wind flow
perpendicular to the central crest line becomes sepa-
rated over the lee side and the result is an abrupt
abatement in the wind speed there and subsequent
deposition of sand. Hence, the windward slope is
under almost constant erosion and its sand carried to
the lee slope where it is deposited to form the slip face
(Bagnold, 1941). Seif dunes, the only elongating
dunes devoid of vegetation, have a more complicated
mechanism of sand transport and deposition. When
winds encounter the seif dune crest line at acute
angles the flow at the lee side is deflected to parallel
the crest line (Tsoar, 1983). Accordingly, the leeward
slope is not merely a zone of deposition but also a
zone of erosion by the diverted wind flow (Tsoar et
al., 1985). The occurrence of erosion or deposition
depends upon the angle of incidence between the
wind and the crest line. When this angle is < 40j
the deflected wind has the power to erode sand along
the lee slope. When the angle is close to 90j the
velocity of the diverted wind drops and deposition
mainly occurs. As a result, the linear seif dunes

Fig. 1. Side view picture of a seif dune in the Sinai Desert taken when the shown slope was in the lee side of the wind. Note the peaks and
saddles along the meandering dune and the change in the slip face size according to the angle of incidence of the wind.
 H. Tsoar et al. / Geomorphology 57 (2004) 293302
develop a waveform (Fig. 1) that then changes the
angle of incidence of the wind. The consequence is
erosion of one side of the winding of the dune and
deposition on the other side (Fig. 2A). The elongation
of seif dunes is performed by migration of the wave-
forms along the dune.
The two main wind directions that affect and form
seif dunes and bring about erosion and deposition on
the lee side always differ in their incidence angle and
in their total yearly wind power. This lack of uni-
formity in total wind power consequently brings about
a lack of uniformity in the rates of erosion and
deposition. The response of the dune to this lack of
uniformity is to form peaks and saddles along its
length (Fig. 1). The peaks experience deposition from
the more effective wind direction and erosion from the
less effective one. Conversely, the saddles receive
deposition from the less effective wind direction and
are eroded by the more effective one (Tsoar, 1983).
Examples of meandering seif dune with peaks and
saddles are depicted in Figs. 1 and 2A showing the
areas of erosion and deposition on the lee side and the
peaks and saddles.
Fig. 2. (A) A sketch showing the main areas of erosion and
deposition of a seif dune that is under the affect of bidirectional
wind regime. Note that the dune elongates (in direction and rate
shown by the small arrows) by erosion and deposition of the
waveform shape. The peaks (p) and saddles (s) along the dune are
the outcome of the asymmetrical wind power of the two wind
directions. (B) A sketch of the laminae that develops by
deposition in the form of avalanche sand in the depositional
areas shown in (A).
295
The above type of flow along the lee side of linear
dunes, known as the flow diversion model (Tsoar,
1989), has been observed or induced by researchers
during the last 20 years (Livingstone, 1986; Chakra-
borty, 1993; Zhang et al., 2000) and was thoroughly
reviewed by Nickling and McKenna-Neuman (1999)
and Walker and Nickling (2002). Bagnold, the
founder of the modern field of blown sand and desert
dunes, did not notice this process of wind diversion
on the lee side of seif dunes and only focused on the
effects of cross winds. He identified three different
types of movement for seif dunes: (a) extension of
the dune; (b) displacement of the peaks along the
dune; (c) a transverse shift of the dune due to the
transverse component of the crosswind (Bagnold,
1941 p. 225).
Madigan, an Australian geologist, was the first to
notice, in his 1939 expedition to the Simpson
Desert, the flow diversion on the lee side of a seif
dune where he gave a vivid description of sand
transport along the length of dunes with no apparent
lateral movement: when the wind was about 30
m.p.h. from the southwest and the crests were
smoking, it was noted that on the lee side of the
crest the wind at the surface was blowing along the
ridge and even upward towards the summit and
carrying sand northwards and upwards along the
steep slip-slope. These eddies were preventing sand
from rolling down the lee slope, and in fact bringing
back the grains that tried to escape (Madigan,
1946, p. 61).
3. Vegetated linear dunes
Seifs are known to form and elongate when dunes
lack vegetation. Another type of elongating dune is
the vegetated linear dune (VLD), known from many
semiarid and arid regions such as Australia, the
Kalahari in South Africa, the Southwest US and the
Negev in Israel (Fig. 3). Unlike the seif dune, the
VLD does not meander, is partly or fully vegetated
and has a blunt crest line and round profile (Twidale,
1981). VLDs are known to run parallel for scores of
kilometres with some tendency for two adjacent dunes
to converge into a single dune in the form of Y-
junction (Fig. 3). Most VLDs in the world comply
with the above descriptions, but still there are patterns
296 H. Tsoar et al. / Geomorphology 57 (2004) 293302

Fig. 3. Aerial photograph (taken in 1989) of vegetated linear dunes (VLDs) in the Northwestern Negev Desert that experienced severe grazing
followed by recovery of the natural vegetation. Note the straight linear dunes with Y-junctions. The destruction of the vegetation caused the
formation of small dunelets superimposed on the linear dunes, while where the VLD alignment shifts by 15j 20j from the dominant wind
direction, the dune is under the affect of oblique winds and flow diversion on the lee side. Meandering seifs (S) are formed in this way from
VLDs devoid of vegetation. The two roads on the left side of the picture run along the international borderline between Israel and Egypt. Note
the Egyptian side, which is under the influence of animal grazing and trampling initiated by humans.

of linear dunes that are not parallel to each other but
have the Y-junctions (Bullard et al., 1995; Thomas,
1986).
The elongation process of VLDs is evident (Harri-
son and Yair, 1998), however, the exact mechanism of
elongation is not so clear because most VLDs of the
world are stabilized, though there are some hypoth-
eses (Tseo, 1993; Tsoar, 1989). Small dunelets super-
imposed on the crest of VLDs (Fig. 3) are formed
when vegetation is artificially removed from the dune
by grazing for example (Tsoar and Mller, 1986;
Tsoar, 1989). The VLDs in Fig. 3 align approximately
parallel to the dominant strongest wind (Tsoar and
Mller, 1986). However, there are deviations from this
alignment as it occurs at the Y-junction areas. The area
shown in Fig. 3 was under heavy grazing by Bedouins
from the Sinai region until 1982 when the interna-
tional border between Israel and Egypt was estab-
lished (shown on the left side of Fig. 3). Since then,
vegetation has recovered on the Israeli side while the
Egyptian side continues to be impacted by animal
grazing.
 H. Tsoar et al. / Geomorphology 57 (2004) 293302
The distinction between VLDs and seif dunes is
not widely accepted. Some see similarity between
both types, which brought them to conclude that
VLDs were originally formed as seifs during the late
Pleistocene and have since become stabilized as the
climate became more humid and less windy (Lancas-
ter, 1994, 1995). As was stressed previously, VLDs
are aligned parallel to the direction of the strongest
prevailing winds (Madigan, 1936; Tsoar and Mller,
1986), while seif dunes are formed under bidirectional
wind regimes beating the dune obliquely from the two
sides (Bagnold, 1941; McKee and Tibbitts, 1964;
Wopfner and Twidale, 1967; Tsoar, 1983). However,
seif dunes are known to develop from those parts of
VLDs, such as the Y-junctions, that deviate from the
usual alignment parallel to the strongest wind and
have also experienced grazing and removal of vege-
tation. When such deviation reaches 15j 20j from
the dominant wind direction, the dune is now under
the influence of oblique winds that divert on the lee
side and meandering forms develop (Tsoar, 1989;
Tsoar and Mller, 1986) (Fig. 3). As the grazing
impact ceases, vegetation reappears on the dune, but
not on the meandering sections affected by oblique
winds.
4. Lateral migration of elongated linear dunes
The rarity of aeolian deposits with an internal
structure of linear dunes in the geological record
relative to the high prevalence of linear dunes in the
contemporary world deserts brought Rubin and
Hunter (1985) to conclude that seif dunes move side-
ways and have net deposition on one flank and net
erosion on the other similar to transverse migrating
dunes.
Lateral migration was also inferred from the inter-
nal structure of linear dunes at the William River area
in North Saskatchewan, however, the wind regime as
described by Carson and MacLean (1986) is not of
two opposing oblique directions but includes several
months with winds that are perpendicular or almost
perpendicular to the dune crest line. These Canadian
dunes are under the influence of both migrating and
elongating processes. Part of the time they are affected
by oblique winds and the resultant flow diversion on
the lee side, and at other times by perpendicular winds
297
and sand deposition on the lee slip-face, typical for
transverse dunes. For this reason, Carson and
MacLean (1986) preferred the designation hybrid
dune. Similar conditions are known in the Oregon
coastal dunes (Carson and MacLean, 1985) that are
designated oblique (Cooper, 1958; Hunter et al.,
1983).
By analysis of aerial photographs of active seif
dunes in Northwest China, Hesp et al. (1989) found
lateral migration occurring at rates up to 3 m/year,
which is confirmed by the internal structure of the
dune. Rubin (1990) discovered lateral migration of
several meters during the Holocene for VLDs in the
Strzelecki Desert of Australia. The linear dunes of
the Simpson Desert of Australia do not provide
evidence of lateral shift but maintained their posi-
tion over thousands of years (Nanson et al., 1992,
1995).
By using Ground Penetrating Radar to study the
internal structure of a linear dune in the Namib Desert,
Bristow et al. (2000) have recently concluded that the
linear dune is migrating laterally in addition to length-
ening. This conclusion is contrary to a previous
finding (Livingstone, 1989), based on fieldwork done
on a similar linear dune in the Namib, just 2 km to the
NE, asserting that there is no evidence of lateral
shifting of the dunes.
The aim of this paper is to determine if lateral
migration of linear dunes can be discerned and meas-
ured and to explain why the internal structure of some
linear dunes alludes to lateral movement based on the
different types and dynamic processes of the linear
dunes. The data presented were collected from linear
dunes of the Northern Sinai and Northwestern Negev
Deserts.
5. Change in a seif dune form in Sinai between
1973 and 1999
The Sinai Negev dunefield is covered mostly by
linear dunes of all types (Tsoar, 1989). A study using
GIS techniques was carried out on one typical seif
dune in Western Sinai using three aerial photographs
from 1973, 1982 and 1999. The aerial photographs
were acquired as ortho-rectified photographs with 1 m
resolution, however, the precise geographic location
of the photographs was only known to about a 1 km
298 H. Tsoar et al. / Geomorphology 57 (2004) 293302

accuracy. Therefore, for this study, all photographs

had to be brought into one relative geographic
framework. Because these photographs are of active
dune areas, we used two roads to co-reference the
three images. After locating common ground control
points (GCPs), a tie point method was used (tie
points are sites that have unknown ground coordi-
nates but are visually recognizable in the overlap
area between two photographs). Then, a block trian-
gulation was performed providing a relatively strong
geometric correction. Finally, all the photographs
were co-registered.
The images were geo-referenced using the Univer-
sal Transverse Mercator projection (zone 36) projec-
tion with the WGS1984 ellipsoid description. The
advantage of this projection is that the coordinates
are metric and distortions are minimal. Thus, quanti-
tative calculations of distance and azimuth are rela-
tively straightforward. Overall, the resulting images
had a ground resolution of 1 meter per pixel and the
error of the co-registration was less than 1 pixel as
shown in Table 1 (units refer to the pixel size, which
in this case is 1 m). Fig. 4. Two sketches, one of the dune plinth and the other of the
Once all images were in a single measurable crest line, made from three rectified aerial photographs of a seif
framework, the advancement and shifting of the dune dune in the Sinai Desert during the years 1973 1999. The seif dune
could be analysed. The analysis was done by using elongated by erosion of the meandering waveform and does not
show any lateral shift during these 26 years.
two elements in each dune that were traced carefully
on the screen using ERDAS/Imagine 8.5 vector tools.
The two elements include the crest line of the dunes between 3.82 and 5.82 m/year, while between 1982
and their baseline. and 1999 it was between 6.06 and 7.53 m/year.
Fig. 4 shows changes in the location of the crest
line and the plinth of the seif dune during three
periods (1973, 1982, 1999) spanning 26 years in total. 6. Change in VLD alignment
The results show clearly how the meander waves
advance along the dunes alignment with no lateral The NW Negev Desert is covered by VLDs that
movement of the crest or the plinths during these 26 elongate eastward (Fig. 3). The interdune area is
years. During the study period, the rate of advance of composed of several layers of sand, silt and clay.
the crest meander changed both temporally and spa- Each layer starts with a dominant percentage of sand
tially. Between 1973 and 1982 it was on average with some clay and silt, which gradually becomes
richer in silt and clay up to maximum 80% (Fig. 5).
The white exposures shown in Fig. 3 in the inter-
Table 1 dune areas are of the clay and silt layers. It is
Error analysis of the co-registration of the aerial photographs obvious that each layer indicates deposition in stand-
(meters) ing water according to grain size. The flood events
Year Total RMS error x-longitude y-latitude that caused this fluvial deposition occurred in the
1973 0.3293 0.2543 0.2092 past when the VLDs were active, extended eastward
1982 0.565 0.5226 0.2148 and blocked Wadi Nizzana (shown on the right side
1999 0.0932 0.0703 0.0612
of Fig. 3), which flowed from south to north
 H. Tsoar et al. / Geomorphology 57 (2004) 293302 299

Fig. 5. The grain size distributions that were obtained from two boreholes made in the NW Negev VLDs (shown in Fig. 3). One borehole was
made in the interdune and the other in the VLDs crest. The interdune sediments were deposited when floodwaters covered the area. These
vegetated linear dunes did not shift sideways during the last 9 ky.

perpendicular to the VLDs elongation. The blocking
of the wadi by the VLDs caused flooding of the
interdune areas by overbank floodwater (Harrison
and Yair, 1998).
Fig. 5 shows the grain-size distribution in two
boreholes, one on top of the VLD and the other in
the interdune area. The latter, which was taken from a
depth of 15 m below the interdune surface, shows four
deposition events from flooding. The borehole at the
dune crest was taken to a depth of 18 m below the
crest surface, six m of which are below the interdune
surface. There is only one layer of 30% silt and clay
and none of which are similar to the interdune
deposits. TL analysis of the interdune deposits gives
an approximate age of 9 15 ky for the time that the
dune was active and the grains exposed to the sun
(Rendell et al., 1993). These dates coordinate with
other similar events in the area (Magaritz, 1986;
Goring-Morris and Goldberg, 1990; Magaritz and
Enzel, 1990). It is deduced from this information that
the VLDs of the NW Negev have not shown any
lateral movement for at least 9 ky.
300 H. Tsoar et al. / Geomorphology 57 (2004) 293302
7. Why the internal structure of seif dunes is not
symmetric as predicted by Bagnold (1941)
Bagnolds model for the structure of seif dunes is
inferred from his concept of two opposing winds that
form slip faces which shift alternately from one side to
the other and cover the entire lee slopes (Fig. 6). Since
Bagnolds model of bimodal bipolar cross-bed dip
patterns rarely occurs in aeolian sandstones, Rubin
and Hunter (1985) concluded that linear dunes also
advance laterally.
Seif dunes do not elongate by a simple process of
along-dune sand transport. According to the flow
diversion model, the oblique winds cause some dep-
osition on the upper lee side close to the crest, which
forms short slip faces that are limited only to the upper
crest area. The result is a to-and-fro shift of the crest
area while the plinth is stable with no lateral move-
ment (Lancaster, 1982). The size of the slip face
depends on the angle of incidence of the wind. As
the dune starts to meander, the angle of incidence
increases and the size of the slip faces on the lee side
increases accordingly. A slip face across the whole lee
side is formed where the winds encounter the crest
line perpendicularly (Fig. 1).
The deposition of sand in the meandering area
where the angle of incidence is perpendicular is shown
in Fig. 2A. Hence, the seif dune meanders are advanc-
ing in the two main wind directions, which are oblique
to the dune alignment. However, the dune does not
retain the lateral component of this oblique movement
because of erosion caused by the same wind direction
ahead of the meandering area, which causes advance-
ment of the waveforms (Figs. 2A and 4).
Sand is deposited in two main areas of a seif dune.
Minor deposition occurs close and parallel to the crest
Fig. 6. Bagnolds (1941 p. 242) symmetrical internal structure
model of a seif dune. The dotted layers are of accretion deposits,
while the avalanched layers of the slip face are hatched.
line by oblique winds that cause a constant process of
erosion and deposition on the crest. This deposition
forms cross laminae whose strike is parallel to the
crest, similar to the Bagnolds model (Fig. 6). How-
ever, this deposition does not cause any lateral move-
ment of the dune itself because it forms slip faces that
are limited only to the upper crest area (Fig. 1). The
major depositional area on seif dunes is formed on the
lee side of the peak area by the strongest dominant
winds that encounter the crest of the peak in a
perpendicular or almost perpendicular direction
(Tsoar, 1982). This slip face covers the entire lee
slope, which brings about advancement in the oblique
wind direction. The laminae formed by this process
comprise the entire dune body except for the crest
area.
Fig. 2B shows the traces of the two main laminae
sets that were formed by opposing winds. The dip of
these laminae is neither perpendicular to the dune
alignment nor does it face the elongation direction. It
is obvious that there are sections along the dune where
only one set of laminae exists or dominates and that is
the set formed by the slip face of peaks (Fig. 2B).
When such laminae are exposed in sandstone it would
give the impression that the dune has moved side-
ways.
The internal structure of VLDs as well as their
processes of elongation are not very well understood.
Two studies done in Australia show that these linear
dunes are asymmetric and most of the laminae are
foresets that dip toward one side. The prevalence of
vegetation causes trough-shaped sets of laminae (Twi-
dale, 1981; Rubin, 1990).
8. Synopsis and conclusions
Seif dunes that are formed under a bidirectional
wind regime where the two main directions are about
90j apart will only elongate with no lateral advance.
Lateral advance is only possible when a slip face is
formed across the entire lee side, which is perpendic-
ular to the elongation direction. Such an occurrence
will happen when the angles of incidence of the two
main wind directions are oblique and perpendicular,
respectively. The linear dunes of Namibia are under
the influence of such a wind regime (Livingstone,
1988; Bristow et al., 2000). Dunes that are affected by
 H. Tsoar et al. / Geomorphology 57 (2004) 293302
a wind regime that falls between that of migrating
dunes and that of elongating dunes can perform
elongation and migration as well. Such dunes were
reported from several sites in the world (Cooper,
1958; Carson and MacLean, 1986) and are classified
as oblique (Hunter et al., 1983) or hybrid (Carson and
MacLean, 1985).
The dispute over whether linear dunes also shift
laterally may have arisen from misinterpretation of the
internal structure of seif dunes. Most seifs are under
the influence of two wind directions that are asym-
metrical in power. The result is the formation of peaks
and saddles along the dune with predominant laminae
dipping in the prevailing wind direction as a result of
deposition in the lee side of the peak. These laminae
are dominant in the internal structure of the seif dune
and create the impression that the dune has moved
sideways.
The VLDs of the Negev do not show any lateral
shift. Since VLDs align themselves parallel to the
dominant strong wind direction, as reported from
many areas in the world (Clarke and Priestley, 1970;
Enquist, 1932; Folk, 1971; Hyde and Wasson, 1983;
Lancaster, 1981, 1982; Madigan, 1936; Melton, 1940;
Smith, 1963; Tsoar and Mller, 1986), it is not
surprising that the VLDs in the NW Negev elongated
without any lateral shift.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to Eilon Adar and Leonid
Kutsishin for the drilling data.
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