AVOIDING 101

SERIOUS HVAC SYSTEM

DESIGN MISTAKES
A voiding 101 Serious HVA C

System Design Mistakes

Written By:

Hal Finkelstein
Other Books Written By The Author:
Published By The National Resource Center

Variable Air Volume System Operation: A Guide to Engineering, Design & Operations, Pub #37
Contamination Control Ventilation: For Healthcare, Industrial, And Commercial Facilities, PUB #31
Ventilation For Ethylene Oxide Sterilization Systems, PUB #96
Steam Distribution And Flow, PUB #88
Avoiding 101 Serious Electrical System Design And Installation Mistakes, PUB #79
HVAC Systems For Bioterrorism Protection, PUB #33B

Published By John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Hazardous Substances In Buildings

Published By:
The National Resource Center, Inc
Publications Department
Suite 167
1440 Coral Ridge Drive
Coral Springs, Florida, 33071

Email: info@nrctraining.com

Pub #84 February, 2009

Copyright 2009, The National Resource Center.,lnc

All rights reserved. No part of the contents of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means. The National
Resource Center accepts no advertising, and its publications may not in part, in whole, or in any manner be used or referenced to advertise any
product. The information contained herein is for education and information purposes . You are advised to seek out proper legal and engineering
consult before utilizing the information herein for any specific use. The National Resource Center, its divisions, employees and officers are not
responsible for quality or validity of information herein or for any adverse consequences of acting on such information.

II
Table Of Contents

Chapter 1: Air Distribution

1.1. Max and Min VAV air quantities not shown on drawings. 1
1.2. Linear diffusers create drifts and comfort problems. 3
1.3. Flexible duct installation problems 3
1.4. Un-balanced duct branches. 4
1.5. Interconnecting duct loop arrangements. 4
1 .6. Ceiling Return problems. 5
1.7. Diffusers dumping air at low flow. 5
1.8. Light troffers causing drafts and comfort problems. 8
1.9. Pressure dependent VAV system problems. 8
1.10. VAV terminal box operates with reduced capacity. 8
1.11 . VAV terminal box operates with reduced capacity. 9
1.12. Flex duct installation problems. 9
1.13. Flex duct installation problems. 10
1.14. Diffusers create drafts and comfort problems. 12
1.14. Diffusers create drafts and comfort problems. 12
1.16. Excessive duct leakage causes problems. 14
1 . 17. Insufficient air flow from a VAV terminal box. 14
1.18. Terminal boxes do not open. 15
1.19. Terminal boxes do not close . 15
1.20. Steam Humidifiers soak ducts. 15
1.21 . Duct Humidifiers cause water to collect in ducts. 16
1.22. Smudging occurs around ceiling diffusers. 21
1.23. Terminal boxes and diffusers generate noise. 22
1.24. High humidity occurs in courthouse occupancy. 23
1.25. Improperly sized diffusers. 24
1.26. Insufficient smoke control in VAV systems. 24

Chapter 2: Air Movement

2.1. Return fan usage. 26
2.2 . Forward curved fans usage. 27
2.3. Parallel fan arrangement problems. 27
2.4 Airfoil blade type fans . 28
2.5. Centrifugal fan usage problems. 28
2.6 Variable pitch controls and vane-axial fans. 29
2.7. Fan vibration , pulsating and noise. 29
2.8. Multi-branch system and VAV fan surging. 30
2.9. VAV supply fan surges and hunts. 30
2.10. Filter bank diffuser plate installation problems. 30
2.11 . Vane-axial fan installation causes noise and vibration . 31
2.12. Noisy fan operation and low air flow. 32

III
 2.13 Outdoor air mixing box stratification. 33
2.14. Fan in plenum has reduced flow output. 35
2 .15. New fan installation using excessive energy. 36
2.16. A reduction of airflow is observed in a ducted system. 37
2 .17. Fan bearings constantly fail and have a short life span. 38
2.18. Fan motor drives constantly fail. 39
2.19. Overall system noise. 40
2.20 . Large amounts of fan noise. 40
2.21. Fan system can not put out design airflow. 41
2.22. System effects cause deterioration in fan operation. 42

Chapter 3: Controls

3.1. Improperly installed airflow stations. 46

3.2. Proportional integral control use. 46
3.3. Velocity sensors improperly read. 46
3.4. VAV box furthest from fan short of air. 47
3.5. Duct static pressure controller can not adjust properly. 48
3.6. Fan over pressurizes duct system causing damage. 48
3.7. Supply-return fan tracking system malfunctions. 48
3.8. Building pressure constantly varies. 49
3.9. Return fan feedback problems create building pressure problems. 50
3.10. Improper building pressure sensor location. 52
3.11 . VAV terminal sensor has insufficient velocity and airflow. 52
3.12. VAV box malfunctions on minimum airflow. 53
3.13. Pneumatic controllers have chaotic operation. 55
3.14. Fan adjustment control in a VAV system constantly hunts. 56

l
3.15. Terminal boxes continuously hunt. 56
3.16. Control configurations affect VAV system operations. 58
3.17. Velocity pressure signal control creates fan operation problems. 59

Chapter 4: Equipment (Boilers, Chillers, Cooling Towers, etc.)

4.1 . Steam absorption machine continuously hunts. 61

4.2. Steam turbine chiller utilizes excessive amounts of steam. 62
4.3. Rooftop unit causes excessive vibration noise. 63
4.4. Hot water and condensate pumps produce noise and vibration. 65
4.5. Boiler shows signs of freezing damage. 66
4.6. Boiler cast iron sections are cracking. 67
4.7. Unstable water level in boilers. 69
4.8. Low pressure heating boiler shows signs of pitting corrosion. 70
4.9. Centrifugal refrigeration compressor has operating problems. 71

IV
Chapter 5: Hydronics

5.1. Continuous check valve slam occurs. 73

5.2. Severe pitting occurring to chillers. 74
5.3. Corrosion occurring throughout entire hydronic system. 75
5.4. Corrosion occurring to cooling tower piping. 77
5.5. Steam traps blow by steam. 79
5.6. Malfunctioning steam pressure reducing stations. 83
5. 7. Balancing valves do not facilitate system balancing. 83

Chapter 6: Interior Air Quality And Air Borne Contamination

Control.

6.1. Insufficient outdoor air creates IAQ problem. 85

6.2. System has insufficient total air supply. 86
6.3. VAV box minimum settings create IAQ problems. 86
6.4. Humidity levels climb above 60%. 86
6.5. Perimeter zones have IAQ problems. 87
6 .6. Partitioned offices have air distribution problems. 87
6 .7. Interior open office ventilation creates IAQ problems. 87
6 .8. Half height partitions with closed bottoms create problems. 88
6.9. Wet air handler final filters cause serious problems. 89
6 .10. Problems with dirty reheat coils. 91
6 .11. Exhaust discharge works its way back into the building . 91
6.12. Nitrous Oxide buildup in Hospital Operating rooms 93
6.13. Bag In/Bag Out filtering system. 93

Chapter 7: Laboratories

7 .1 . Pressure dependent systems. 97

7.2. Fume hoods can not get sufficient makeup air. 97
7.3. Contaminated air escapes from Lab to surrounding areas. 98
7.4. Negative room can not get makeup air via normal crackage. 100
7.5. Conventional VAV fume hoods can create room imbalances. 101
7.6 . Fume hoods don't remove particulate matter in hood. 102
7.7 Fumes hoods don't exhaust all fumes within the hood. 103

v
About The Author:
Hal Finkelstein has more than 40 years experience in the HVAC field. He is
one of the founders of the Empire Consulting Group, a twenty year old
company specializing in consulting to Design Firms, Healthcare, Commercial
and Industrial Facilities. Their specialties included contamination control and
HVAC system problem mitigation. Mr. Finkelstein is the author of more than
ten books and publications and many more papers on ventilation, HVAC
systems and contamination control. He is an educator in the field of Heating,
Ventilation and Air Conditioning and presents Seminars throughout the
United States.

VI
 Chapter 1

Air Distribution

1.1. Maximum and minimum supply air quantities for each VAV terminal unit

were never listed on the design drawings.

Wherever the max and min values are not listed on the

construction drawings, it is expected that the contractor would

know that the maximum value had to be equal to the total of

the cfm values listed for the diffusers connected to the

applicable VAV terminal box. Though this may work for the

maximum value, many different procedures are utilized to

determine what the applicable minimum value should be. One

method is to set the minimum values at 30 to 33% of the

maximum value. Though this method may be close to the

required value, it may fall short in providing the amount of air

required for good Interior Air Quality and/or good humidity

control and low load. For this reason, the maximum and

minimum terminal box values should always be selected by

the design engineer and shown on the design drawings. In

several situations reported to the NRC by SMACNA

contractors, where the minimum terminal box was not shown

on the drawings, the contractors elected to set the terminal

boxes in many areas at 30% of the maximum value. Only after

comfort problems developed did the contractors find out that

the actual design was based on minimums in many of the

rooms to be set at 50% of the maximum value. Had this value

been shown on the drawings at the design stage, much

fighting and money could have been saved rather than having

to make the corrections after the fact. In one major high rise

building reported to the NRC, close to 500 perimeter boxes

were set up by the contractor at 30% of the maximum value

since the minimum value was not shown on the drawings and

the contractor was in the middle of commissioning the HVAC

systems to meet a move-in dead line. After the units were set

up, the engineers came forth to notify all involved that the

terminal boxes should have been set with a zero minimum

flow value. After the terminal boxes were then set up at the

zero flow minimum, interior air problems were reported by the

majority of occupants. Many dollars later, and in the middle of

a litigation, the contractor was paid to go back and set the

terminal boxes back to 30% of the maximum value. To

accommodate the increase in minimum flow, the supply

temperature in these areas had to be reset to a higher value

which in turn created humidifies exceeding 60%. This

presented both additional comfort and health problems.

2
1.2. Linear diffusers utilized in a VAV system create drifts and are causing

major comfort problems.

Linear strip diffusers must be utilized with deflection blades

and the defection blades must be adjusted during the

balancing process. And we stress that they must be adjusted.

Additionally, it is advisable to require multiple duct

connections for every linear diffuser exceeding 4 feet in

length. One connection for each four foot section appears to

work well. On long lengths of linear diffusers, providing these

multiple duct connections assures even distribution of air into

the linear diffuser pfennums.

1.3. SMACNA-recommended straight duct lengths for flexible duct between

fittings when not adhered to, cause reduced air flow from terminal boxes

and diffusers.

To many times when flexible duct is utilized there is a

complete disregard for guidelines and standards that specify

that the flexible duct sag should not exceed 112", and that the

maximum length should not be over 10 feet. To many times

flexible duct is utilized strictly to snake through and around

obstacles in the ceiling space. In doing this usually excessive

lengths of flex duct are normally utilized with excessive sag

creating large resistance to air flow. This in turn can severely

effect the out put from the terminal boxes.

3
1.4. Duct layouts to avoid large pressure differentials between branches were

not utilized, thereby generating an out of balance system with large

differences in branch pressure drops and air flows, especially in VAV

systems under partial load modes.

Ducts should be designed and installed to create a total

system with as near as possible symmetrical branches or at

least with equal pressure drops. This type of system is easy

to balance and keep balanced as loads within the system vary

along with associated air flows. Duct systems with branches

that have a very wide difference in pressure differentials will

not stay balanced and will create large variations in cfm flows

from branch to branch.

1.5 Interconnecting (or loop) arrangements when helpful to reduce large

pressure differences between branches, were ignored, creating the same

type of situation as discussed in# 1.4.

Where it is not practical to design and install a duct system

with branches containing equal or near equal pressure drops

the ends of the branches are normally looped so as to equalize

the pressure differentials, if this is not done you end up with

the same condition as described in # 1.4 above.

4
1.6. Systems utilizing large ceiling return plenums demonstrate uneven air

return characteristics with resulting Interior Air Quality problems and

comfort problems.

When using ceiling space as a return plenum, return air

collecting inlets above ceilings must be evenly distributed and

not more then 4,000 CFM should be collected at any one

location.

1.7. Diffusers dumping air at low flow create drafts and other comfort

problems.

Diffusers having high entrainment characteristics at low air

flow should be used. Many low entrainment type diffusers

have a tendency to dump air directly downwards when VAV

systems operate at low air flow. Figure 1. 1 shows what

happens to each of the two most popular types of diffusers

utilized in HVAC systems as the air flow is reduced from

maximum flow. When a diffuser is sized based on the

maximum air flow rate it will have a sharp drop in discharge

velocity as the air flow is reduced as it is in a VAV system.

The reduction in discharge velocity also causes a decrease in

the throw of the diffuser. In this discussion we are taking the

throw at the distance in which the terminal velocity will be 50

fpm.

5
 Discharge Velocity vs Capacity

1,400

1,200 -

1,000
c
"(3
_Q
Q) 800
>
Q)
ei
ro
..c
(_)
600
(J)

Ci
400

200

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Percent Of Full Capacity

Fig, 1.1

This distance is very important to proper comfort levels.

Figure 1.2 shows how the throw is reduced as the air flow is

reduced for the same types of diffusers. The reason the throw

drops off rapidly is because the throw is dependent on the

velocity of the air stream and the overall momentum which is

dependent on the mass of the air at any given time. The mass

is decreased because the VAV terminal is decreasing the flow.

6
 As the throw drops off it will reach a point where in effect the

air is falling down through the occupants comfort zone, the

effect known as "dumping".

Throw vs Capacity

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Percent Of Full Capacity

End Of Throw Indicates A Velocity Of 50 fpm.

Fig. 1.2

7
1.8. System utilizing light trotters experiences areas with drafts and comfort

problems.

Supply Light troffers must be installed with horizontal air

deflecting blades. It is import when light trotters are installed

in ceilings below 12 feet that they be provided with horizontal

deflecting blades and that these blades be adjusted as part of

the balancing procedure to assure that they will not create

drafts. The air discharge from the light troffer slots is in the

form of slip streams and rely on the deflecting blades to create

a directional air pattern that will prevent high terminal

velocities in the comfort zone, which in turn creates drafts.

1.9. Utilizing a pressure dependent VAV system in a large facility, causes

large variations in the air flow provided to spaces.

Where duct pressure variations are greater than 1" H10. and

especially where the supply system will exceed 10,000 CFM

peak capacity, a pressure-independent system must be

utilized to assure proper control and operation.

1.10. In an attempt to reduce installation costs the contractor makes the

diameter of the inlet duct to the terminal box smaller than the VAV

terminal box inlet,. This then creates turbulence at the terminal's

entrance.

8
 This type of turbulence reduces the capacity of the terminal

box, and creates control problems for the velocity sensor.

Make the inlet duct the same size as the terminal box's inlet.

1.11. Neglecting to install a straight run of 1% times the inlet duct diameter as

rigid duct preceding the terminals inlet, creates uneven entrance flow

conditions.

#1.10 and #1.11 are connected in that they affect the inlet

conditions to the terminal box. The terminal box operates a

great deal like an orifice. In this sense, the inlet condition to

the box greatly affects the output from the box at the selected

pressure differentials. If you expect the box to operate as

indicated in the manufacturers literature and in accordance

with the performance curve then you must pay attention to

these types of requirements. Utilizing 1 112 duct diameters of

straight duct at the terminal box entrance assures that the

immediate entrance is perfectly straight, reducing the chance

of creating inlet turbulence caused by any fitting.

1.12. Installing flexible duct runs exceeding 5 feet, or worse, greater than 10

feet.

When flex duct is utilized from terminal boxes to supply

diffusers, or from main branches to the inlet of terminal boxes,

the degree of sag which occurs in the run, is critical to the

9
 proper operation of the terminal box. The greater the amount

of sag, the greater the pressure drop in the flexible duct

connection. Follow SMACNA installation requirements for

flexible ducts.

1.13. Neglecting to Install flexible duct, straight and properly supported (see

SMACNA design and installation standards).

SMACNA has some excellent installation and design manuals

and we highly recommend them. One of SMA CNA 's basic

installation recommendations, which reduces the chance of

operating problems is to use flex duct in lengths not longer

than ten feet, with a maximum sag of 112" in any 10 foot run.

Sag amounts greater than this will cause a significant increase

in branch pressure drop, with an equal significant decrease in

cfm flow, creating a serious air flow problem.

For example. A 10 foot length with a 4" sag can have a friction
loss of .08" H20. If the sag is increased to 8" as it might very

well be for snaking around obstacles, the pressure drop

increases to .43"H20, with a resultant significant decrease in

air flow from the related branch. (see fig. 1.3 )

10
 Flex Duct Pressure Loss vs. Velocity

10 r- - ------r--- -- - - --- - -,. - - - -- -1

t
I
I I

8
r+- -- - - ---;--- -- - ---j - ---- --- --+ -
I
2

i
~
6 t- -- - -i - -- -- --~ ---~~ -- --- I
I

t
j

!
IPD Due To Sag

I
I

I I
t
ii'.
41-- - ---- - -1 - . - - ~ -- -- - I

!/
Qj

~ + 2 - - - -
I
___ j ___ --- - -
I
- - - -- - - + - - . -i
i
I

0 600 1200 1750 2800

Velocity - FPM

Fig.1.3

II
1.14. If the minimum air flow rate is below 50% of maximum, neglecting to

check the ADPI (Air Diffusion Performance Index) for cooling at both the

maximum and minimum points will cause significant comfort problems.

1.15. In a VAV system, as the flow is decreased to below 50%, the air does not

diffuse into the room. Instead, it simply drops to the floor, creating drafts

and many comfort problems.

#1.14 and #1.15 are related problems and stem from neglecting

a diffuser's ADP/. The ADP/ for cooling should not be below

80% at 100 fpm terminal velocity for ceiling slot diffusers and

at a 50 fpm terminal velocity for other diffusers (see Chapter

31, 1989 Fundamentals) to prevent comfort problems due to air

diffusion characteristics. The ADP/ is known as the Air

Diffusion Performance Index. Studies show that ADP/ is a

function of the type of diffuser, the load, the cfm flow rate and

the room's aspect ratio. The higher the ADP/, the greater the

diffuser's diffusion rate.

Note from figure 1.4, that with the two most popular types of

diffusers, as you go to 75% of maximum capacity, the ADP/

falls off very rapidly. Of course once the ADP/ falls below 80%

you can expect comfort problems to develop. At ADP/ levels

far below 80%, as you may experience when a VAV terminal

starts to approach 50% of maximum flow and lower, with most

types of diffusers you are guaranteed of generating a situation

12
 where you will get very poor diffusion and mixing, which will

result in drafts and discomfort.

ADPI vs Capacity
------- --- - --- - --

,--
-

100

80

60 - + - - - +
a:0
<(

0 10 20 30 40 so 60 70 80 90 100

Percent Of Full Capacity

Fig. 1.4

13
1.16. Excessive system duct leakage is causing operating problems, even

though the ducts were leak tested at installation.

All to often /ow pressure ducts are not leak tested, and

medium and high pressure ducts are leak tested in sections,

prior to any installation of registers and diffusers. Then, after

the total installation is completed and the system is in

operation, it turns out that the return side or exhaust ducts are
experiencing large leak rates. Leak rates of up to 40% have

been reported, even in systems which may have had the duct

system leak tested. The problem in these cases is not with the

ducts themselves, but with the installation of the registers to

the duct system. The connections that have to be checked

and tested when this occurs, is the duct collar connections

made above the ceilings. These connections are never tested

as part of the original duct testing performed during the initial

duct testing procedure. Seal these duct collar connections

tightly and as required by SMACNA. It is recommended that

the SMACNA detail and sealing requirements be included as

part of the contract specifications.

1.17. Continued insufficient air flow from a Variable air volume terminal.

Check the damper shaft arrows. If all the dampers are wide

open, it is not the terminal's problem. Check to see that the

HVAC system is developing a sufficient amount of static

pressure at the terminal box.

14
1.18. Terminal boxes consistently do not open.

If the controller has scale divisions, mark the settings and turn

both the MAX and MIN to the max setting. If the air terminal

still fails to open and has sufficient power (24 volts for electric

boxes and 18 psig for pneumatic boxes) then the controller is

defective.

1.19. Terminal boxes do not close properly.

If the controller has scale divisions, mark the settings and turn

both the max and min settings to zero. If the controller has

sufficient power (24 volts for electric, 18 psig for pneumatic

controllers) the terminal should close. If it doesn't, the

controller is defective.

1.20. Steam humidifiers constantly soak duct work and other items downstream.

When humidifiers must be utilized in central HVAC systems

they are usually placed downstream of coils and final filters.

However, in most commercial, institutional and industrial

applications the supply air entering the humidifier grid is often

in the 50 to 60 degree range. In order for the moisture from the

humidifier to be properly absorbed and stay in the supply air

you must have the proper amount of absorption distance.

This distance must be calculated. It normally runs about 10 to

15
 15 feet. In order to be certain that it will not become soaked

with water droplets, nothing can be placed in the air stream

within the absorption distance.

1.21. Moisture from duct humidifiers constantly accumulate on downstream duct

work in some cases actually causing large pools of water to form within

the duct system.

Humidification in many HVAC systems is of prime importance.

It is well recognized that most facilities should be at relative

humidity of between 35 to 60% RH and never above 60%.

Fungi and bacteria develop very well at a humidity above 60%.

One of the more common methods of providing humidification

in duct HVAC systems is through the use of clean steam

humidifiers, usually classified as the dry type humidifier.

The duct type of humidifier is usually comprised of horizontal

delivery manifolds. The humidifier's manifolds are usually

placed in a horizontal position in the duct. It is important that

when the manifolds are placed in the horizontal position, they

are in a perfectly level position and the discharge holes are

facing into the direction of the air flow. In this way, the steam

is injected into the air stream against the air flow.

16
It is also important that when utilizing duct humidification, the

system is designed to eliminate the chance of water

(condensate) from collecting in the duct and causing breeding

grounds for bacteria and other microorganisms. For this

reason, the vapor dissipation stage is important to define and

evaluate.

When steam is discharged from the humidifier against the air

flow in the air duct, it will change from the invisible gas which

it is when it first discharges, into a moist vapor with large

droplets. ... sometimes 8 microns or greater in size. After

being carried along with the air, it will re-evaporate into an

invisible steam gas once again.

When the steam first condenses out, it gives up its latent heat

of 1000 btu/pound of vapor to the duct air. This in turn causes

the air to warm up slightly. As the air vapor mixes, the heat

previously given off, re-vaporizes the condensate particles

back into an invisible vapor. It is important for this to occur

within a distance that has no obstructions or other devices

that will cause the condensate particles to drop out of the air

and cause duct wetness and possible areas of microorganism

growth.

It is important to have the humidifier controllers out of the area

where the visible vapor zone occurs. This is because the

combination of the locally warmer air in this zone coupled with

17
the moist vapor particles will create a false indication for the

humidification controllers.

As a rule of thumb, the controller should be at least 15 feet

downstream of the humidifier manifold. Other system

characteristics will also have to be considered.

The ratio of the duct height to its width is an important factor

and is known as the duct's aspect ratio. If all other parameters

are equal, if we compare two ducts with the same cross

sectional area, the duct with the higher height (larger aspect

ratio) will have a shorter manifold and therefore its vapor

output comes in contact with a much smaller percentage of

duct air, causing a longer visible vapor slip stream.

This must be considered in selecting the manifolds and in

selecting the distance you need for the visible vapor stream to

re-evaporate.

Duct temperature is another important consideration in

selecting a humidifier. A duct with an air temperature of 750F

can have a visible vapor zone of approximately 12 inches. If

the duct air temperature is 55F the visible moisture zone can

increase to as much as 15 feet.

18
Duct air velocity also affects the length of the visible moisture

zone. The higher the air velocity the longer the length of the

visible vapor zone.

Other then improper capacity, one of the major causes of

actual operating problems is the improper calculation of the

position of the visible vapor zone.

Placing controls, insulation and other important system items

within the zone causes these items to become saturated with

water and to fail.

In one case brought to our attention, final filters became so

saturated that they facilitated the growth of aspergillus and

other fungi causing a serious air quality problem and many

illnesses in a specific area of an office building.

In many installations the practical method for reducing the

length of the visible moisture zone is to utilize multiple

manifolds.

With multiple manifolds you can provide the full steam

capacity you require but at a reduced visible moisture zone

length. This is very important when you have space

constraints, airflow temperature is below 100 F, duct air

velocities are greater then 500 fpm, filters are utilized

downstream of the humidifier, height of the duct exceeds 3

19
feet and the visible vapor length may impinge upon coils, fans,

dampers, filters, insulation (any internal duct insulation that is

within the visible vapor zone will have to be removed), duct

work, turning vanes, etc. located downstream of the

humidifier.

Sample Load Calculation

Total Air Flow= 23,300 cfm@55o F

Min. Outdoor Air= 3,725 cfm, Design= 100 F @ 60% RH.
Return Air= 19,575 cfm, Design = 70 F @45% RH.
Max. Outdoor air= 23,300 cfm at 100F

From standard humidity tables:

100 F@60% RH. 0.40 lbs H20per100 cfm per

Hr.
Net difference to be supplied 2.70 lbs H20per100 cfm
per Hr.

Under Min. 3,725 Outdoor cfm/100 x 2.70 = 100.6 lbs. H20 per
Hr. required.

For 550 F supply air@ 90% RH. (maximum upper limit) the air
will hold 3.76 lbs. H20per100 cfm per Hr. We therefore
cannot attempt to have the air hold more then this amount. To
do so will cause moisture to fall out of the air stream.

19,575 cfm (return air) x 3.1 lbs. H20/Hr/100 cfm =

606.8 lbs.
H20/Hr
3,725 cfm (outside air) x 0.40 lbs. H20/Hr/100 cfm = 0.40 lbs.
H20/Hr
Moisture added by the Humidifier (load) =
100.6 lbs
H20/Hr

Total moisture which will be contained by the air = 722.4 lbs.

H20/Hr which for the 23,300 cfm (total supply air) at 550 F =
722.4123,3001100 = 3.1 lbs H20/100 cfm; a value below the

20
 maximum which the air could hold which as indicated above is
3.76 lbs. H20per100 cfm.

1.22. Smudging constantly occurs messing up the facilities ceilings.

It is a mistake to think that smudging occurs strictly because

of dirty filters. This is not always the case. When air is

discharged from a diffuser, it sets up a secondary air flow

which entrains air within the primary air discharged from the

diffuser. This secondary air flow is turbulent and causes dirt

particles, suspended in this secondary air flow, to be affected

by the ceiling's surface effect. The surface effect causes the

suspended particles to be attracted to the ceiling and attach

themselves to the surface. The effect is worse in areas with a

lot of foot traffic. Heavy foot traffic causes a great number of

particles to be put into suspension within the immediate air.

Using low returns in areas with very heavy foot traffic and

designing the returns with high face and entrainment

velocities reduces the occurrence of smudging.

In facilities or areas of facilities which have normal foot traffic

the smudging could be a result of particles that work their way

into the building due to the building being under neutral or

negative pressure as related to the building's ambient. The

dirt particles after entering the building then become entrained

in the diffusers air patterns and become deposited on the

21
 surface of the ceiling. Keeping the building pressurized, as

discussed elsewhere in this publication, greatly reduces the

effect of smudging.

1.23. Terminal boxes and/or diffusers generate large amounts of noise even

though they appear to be designed and installed in accordance with all air

system guidelines.

The main cause of noise in such a case is normally poor

approach conditions. In this type of situation, an elbow placed

too close to a terminal box or diffuser can increase the noise

characteristics of such an installation by as much as 20 dB.

Investigate making corrections to the diffuser or terminal box

inlet conditions. If the terminal box or the diffuser is

oversized and dampers have to be throttled very tightly, then

that in itself will add a considerable about of noise to the

system.(see fig. 1.5)

22
 Damper Throttling vs Noise Generation
- - - - - - - - - -- -

20 ~ - --- - --------
1
I
'
I
15 [ _ -- -

CD
I
-0
c:
I
~ 10 l-
ei i
~ I
5~
I
I
I
O L_ _ _ _ _ __
_J

Full Open 75% Open 50% Open 25% Open

Percent of Opening

Fig. 1.5

1.24. Courtroom facilities present a special problem and discomfort. The

feeling of high humidity has been reportedly occurring in many of these

types of facilities.

Every court should have its own dedicated air handling

system. This is one type of facility that, when utilizing a VAV

system, should not have its minimum air supply less then 50%

of the maximum. Of course, load determination takes

precedence, except that the air flow should not be reduced to

23
 below the 50% value. If the load is expected to be less then

50% at times, provide reheat in conjunction with the VAV

system for proper humidity control.

1.25. Many comfort problems are associated with improperly specified diffusers

when all other items are operating properly.

Construction documents must include sufficient information

for proper selection of the diffusers. Indicate the face and

neck sizes, ADP/ performance for both maximum and

minimum airflow rates if the minimum is less then 50% of the

maximum airflow, ADP/ performance for the maximum

airflow, only if the minimum airflow is more than 50% of the

maximum.

1.26. Variable Air Volume Systems have been identified as the causes of

insufficient smoke control in several high rise building fires.

Though it is possible to obtain adequate smoke control with a

VA V system in the minimum air mode, it is not the best way to

approach this situation. It is too easy to disrupt the pressure

relationships between spaces with the system putting out

minimum amounts of air. VAV systems work best in smoke

control mode when the by-pass, on by-pass VAV terminal

boxes, is shut down. When the VAV is switched into maximum

supply mode any fan-powered terminals serving the smoke

24
zone should have their terminal fans shut down. Terminal

units with fans that are not in the smoke zone but are adjacent

to the smoke zone can have their fans operate as they

normally would. If the perimeter of the building is utilizing

induction units those within the smoke zone should be shut

down or if this is not practical then they should at least have

their primary air supply shut down.

25
 Chapter 2

Air Movement

2.1. A return or relief fan was not called for in a system where the friction along
the return duct was over 0.20" H20.

If duct friction exceeds .20"H20 (from the furthest return

register to the return connection to the air handling unit)), use

of a return air fan should be evaluated. For a system where

there is no effective return duct or the duct runs are vety short

no return fan is normally required. In a large HVAC system

where there are many return duct branches going back to the

air handling unit then you want to be sure to check the

pressure drop of the longest effective run. A system having

long return duct runs or return duct runs with high amounts of
duct friction (exceeding .20 "H20J may exert too much negative

pressure on the suction side of the supply fan and create

difficulty in balancing the outside air - return air proportion.

Creating excessive negative pressure at the supply fan inlet

will also create a large system effect causing the supply fan to

have insufficient air flow.

26
2.2 . Because forward curved fans are smaller then the other types of fans for

similar service they are often utilized in smaller packaged units but where

forward-curved fans with wheel sizes over 20 inches are utilized in

packaged units they could generate noise and vibration .

Forward curved fans are not as efficient as backward curved

fans. Forward curved fans however, are smaller than

backward curved fans and can be used on smaller jobs where

space is an over-riding problem. Do not use these fans in

larger, built-up units, and where fan wheels will exceed 20"

diameter, their static efficiency falls off sharply at and above

these wheel sizes.

2.3. A system using parallel fan arrangements with individual drives, results in

continuous fan surging and fan pulsating.

For proper synchronization parallel fans should be such that

they operate via the same sha'ft. This reduces the chances of

fan pulsating due to the fan rotation being even slightly out of

sync. When parallel fans on separate shafts powered by

separate motors in the same casing get out of synchronization

pulsation's and pressure waves can cause the casing and

connected ducts to bulge and actually explode, under certain

conditions.

27
2.4. Airfoil blade fans were never utilized where possible, causing less efficient

fans to be utilized for each service.

Airfoil blades are more efficient and quieter than the single

thickness blades that are utilized in other fan types. However

to get maximum benefit from these fans they must be selected

very carefully in order to achieve the low noise characteristic,

they are noted for.

2.5. Centrifugal fans utilized in installations where improper capacity controls

are installed, vibrate and pulsate when they are called on to operate

appreciably below maximum CFM.

Use inlet vanes or variable frequency drives for systems

having 10,000 CFM or less; use variable frequency drives for

systems larger than 10,000 CFM capacity. The most efficient

way to vary fan air flow is to vary the speed of the fan. This in

all respects shifts the operating point of the fan amongst the

fan's characteristic curves. Advances in electronics over

recent years has made variable frequency drives very reliable

and competitive in cost. The adjustable frequency alternating

current drive, changes voltage and frequency to give lower

speeds, so the motor always operates at the maximum

efficiency at partial load. Similar to the alternating current

drive is the direct current drive, which also varies the speed of

the motor. This type of drive however requires a special direct

current motor making the entire system more complex that the

28
 typical alternating current fan motor. Because of utilizing the

special direct current motor the direct current system is

usually greater in initial cost then the alternating current

system and requires higher maintenance. Additionally, this

system has to be taken out of service for maintenance and

repair since the direct current motor is part of the special

maintenance that has to be performed. With the alternating

current system the system can be by-passed which sti/I allows

the fan to be operated via manual controls. If an invertor type

variable frequency drive is utilized the invertor should

simulate a sine wave using pulse width modulation.

2.6. Variable-pitch controls were not used for vane-axial fans , causing chaotic

fan operation.

Vane-axial fans can usually be fitted with adjustable pitch

controls. Variable-pitch controls allow for a smooth efficient

way to reduce flow with minimum vibration and maximum

amount of energy savings.

2.7. Installed fans do not operate as designed, pulsating , vibration and noise is

generated.

Contractors should submit fan curves to prove stable fan

operation. The system curve should be plotted on the fan

curves as part of the contractors fan submission to show that

the fan being submitted can follow the system curve, if it can

29
 not, then changes may be required, or the fan should be

disapproved.

2.8. Where a multi-branch system has substantial changes in duct pressure, a

variable volume fan could surge and hunt in an attempt to find an

equalizing operating point.

Normally in the above situation you will find that only one

static pressure controller has been utilized. In this type of a

system multiple static pressure sensors to control the supply

fan should be utilized. The signals from the different

controllers are fed into an averager and that signal is used to

control the fan to assure a smooth point of operation.

2.9. VAV supply fan surges and hunts .

Installers did not locate supply fan static pressure sensor(s)

approximately two-thirds to three-quarters distant from the

supply fan along the most critical run.

2.10. Improperly placing a filter-bank diffuser plate on the discharge side of a

blow -through air handling unit can cause large pressure variations with a

resultant flow decrease.

It is not always common knowledge that filter-bank diffuser

plates are required on blow-through units or that there

placement is critical. Many diffuser plates are never installed

30
 as called for by the designer because of space restrictions

which are encountered during installation.

The diffuser plate is normally installed two feet upstream from

the final filter, measured along the centerline. This allows the

air to expand which causes the velocity to decrease to the

required approach velocity which is normally 500 FPM. If

instead of two feet the distance is much less, say 6" between

the plate and the filter, this will cause the approach velocity to

be significantly higher, far above the manufacturer's

recommended velocity. This in turn will cause excessive

pressure drop; especially as the filter begins to load up and

the flow becomes far more turbulent. The CFM in turn will

begin to decrease, and the overall operation of the system will

begin to suffer. If the approach velocity is not allowed to

decrease to the 500 fpm value, an increase in initial filter bank

pressure drop will occur. This will necessitate the increasing

of the fan's rpm in order to get the design cfm, which in turn

will cause an increase in motor operating amperage, with a

resultant increase in the cost of operating the fan motor.

2.11 . Vane-axial fans generally require less space than other centrifugals so

they are often selected where space is a concern. However, they operate

at high rpms and can create serious noise, vibration and other operating

problems.

31
 This Configuration Produces Air Stratification

Return Air Dampers

Filter Outdoor
Bank Air
Dampers

Mixing Plenum

Fig. 2.1

34
 Configuration With A Diverting Baffle

Return Air Dampers

Filter Outdoor
Bank Air
Dampers

Mixing Plenum
r
Diverting Baffle

Fig 2.2

2.14. Fan operating within a plenum or cabinet has its capacity significantly

reduced.

In this case, fan performance can be reduced sometimes to the

point where the fan may operate significantly off of its normal

curve. Whenever a fan is placed within a plenum or a cabinet

of some type, there must be a reasonable distance left

between the enclosure wall and the fan inlet. Experience has

shown that at least 112 impeller diameter must be left between

the wall of the enclosure and the fan inlet. If multiple double

width centrifugal fans are located in a common enclosure then

35
 the distance should be increased to one full impeller diameter

between the fan inlets and the wall of the enclosure.

2.15. Fan systems installed in a hospital are utilizing excessive energy after a

new installation and litigation has been filed against the design and

construction team.

Part of this problem is also covered in another section of this

publication. This item deals exclusively with the excessive

energy usage of the fans in question. The increase in

operating costs derived from the fact that their fan systems, as

are many today, were installed with a multitude of factors that

caused large system effects. The following table indicates

how important it is not to overlook the many system effect

items discussed in other sections of this publication. The

actual litigation was to recover the present value of the

overages of the operating costs, based upon a compounded

cost factor over the life of the individual systems. We are not

herein judging the legitimacy of the litigation except to say

that this is not the first one reported to us or appearing in the

literature. The table is as follows in figure 2.3.

36
 Projected Additional Total Compounded
Fan System Cost Over Design ($/Yr) Additional Cost

Unit 1 $35,224 $1,200.000

Unit 2 $23,400 $780,000

Unit3 $44,000 $1,400,000

Unit4 $5,400 $180,000

Fig. 2.3

As can be seen from the above table the overage in operating

costs can be extensive and cannot be ignored.

2.16. A reduction in air flow capacity is observed in a ducted fan system.

Although there are several causes of reduced air flow to a

ducted fan, one of the more common causes has to do with

obstructions in the form of duct elbows preceding the fan

inlet. An elbow located at the fan inlet does not allow the air to

enter the inlet uniformly and results in turbulent and uneven

flow distribution into the fan impeller. This causes a specific

system effect which, if unaccounted for, produces a reduction

in fan air flow.

37
2.17. Fan bearings constantly fail and have a life span far below the

manufacturer's estimated bearing life.

Check the fan's rpm and compare it to the manufacturer's

maximum allowable rpm. The fan should not operate at or

above this rpm. It is commonly believed that it is permissible

for the fan to operate 10% above this maximum number. This

is true if your concern is strictly safety, and are concerned

only about the fan or bearing, breaking apart. It is not true if

you are concerned about getting the most usage out of the

fans bearings. As you exceed the maximum operating rpm

number you increase the torque, heat and vibration which the

bearings are exposed to. This shortens their life. The fan is

often adjusted to a high rpm by the contractor because the fan

can't put out the required air flow (CFM) at the design rpm

because of higher system static pressure. The high static

pressure may come about from a high system effect, which in

turn could be caused by improper fan and duct connections.

Check all of these items since the only way to cure the

premature bearing failure will be to reduce the fan's rpm to

below the maximum allowable rpm.

38
2.18. Fan motor drives constantly fail. Either the belts constantly break or the

drives generate a great deal of noise and vibration which eventually

causes other mechanical problems.

1. The belts and associated drives should have a means of

adjusting the center line distance.

2. It is a good guideline to keep the drive centers within 3

times the sum of the two sheave diameters and not less apart

then the diameter of the larger sheave.

3. The amount of contact arc on the smaller sheave should be

at least 1200.

4. Ratios of the smaller to larger sheave should not be larger

then 8:1.

5. Keep the speed of the belts between 1500 and 5000 fpm.

6. Whenever the sheaves are going to be utilized at speeds

greater then 5000 fpm, they must be dynamically balanced

every six months, depending upon the actual number of hours

of annual usage.

39
2.19. Complaints related to overall system noise.

To assure that an installation will not generate overall system

noise, noise calculations should be made on the first seven

octave bands (from center frequency 63 to 4000 HZ) for supply

air systems. The calculations should be based on the overall

peak block load which indicates the maximum airflow rate.

Representative sound data from equipment manufacturers as

found in many design programs may be utilized for this

purpose.

2.20. Uncontrollable and objectionable fan noise.

Fan noise is generally a reflection of fan static efficiency. The

higher the static efficiency the quieter the fan will be. In the

sizes of air handling systems utilized for most commercial and

institutional buildings, noise treatment will usually be needed

between the fan discharge and the ducts leaving the

equipment room. Centrifugal fans generate most of their

sound energy at the low frequency octave bands while

vaneaxial fans spread the noise over all of the octave bands.

Vaneaxial fans normally require more noise treatment than

centrifugal fans. Designers should consider the cost and

space requirements of noise treatment when selecting fan type

and size. For sound attenuation calculations, representative

blade frequency increment (BF/) and sound power levels from

fan manufacturers should be utilized. The maximum BF/ and

40
 sound power level of the critical octave bands should be

specified.

2.21. The overall performance of an installed air handler is considerably less

than the air flow values indicated by the manufacturer's performance

curves .

Designers should also consider that both the fan

characteristics as presented by the fan manufacturer (which

are based on ideal test conditions) and the system curves as

estimated by designers (which are affected by duct

construction, field conditions, cooling coil and air filter

conditions, etc.) may be different from those during operation.

Certain adjustments of the fan operation from the design may

be necessary. SMACNA publishes one of the best guides for

selecting system effect factors for calculating the reduction in

fan performance, due to installation characteristics. The

SMACNA books which are recommended are the HVAC Design

book and the HVAC Testing and Balancing book. Contact your

local SMACNA office to order your copies.

41
2.22. Significant system effects add up to cause deterioration in fan operation.

Many designers don't realize how system effects from a duct

system can add up to be a significant cause of fan

deterioration. The following is an example taken from an actual

installation. This example is typical:

1. A large system designed originally to supply 29,000

cfm with 7.5 inches of total static pressure.

2. The system is installed in a tight mechanical room. It

is the room of the original design.

3. Because of the installation the fan has some fan inlet

obstructions. These will have to be considered in

calculating system effect.

4. The installation could not provide the type of

discharge duct configuration that is figured when such

fans are tested by the AMCA. A system effect factor is

included for this.

5. This particular air handler is a blow through unit so

the final filter is on the discharge side of the fan. Before

the filter bank there is a filter bank diffuser section

(covered in previous sections of this publication). In

most installations this can be one of the most

42
significant additions to system effect. To get the actual

number after installation, the inlet velocity to the

diffuser section most be measured. For design

calculations the inlet velocity to the diffuser section

must be estimated. The higher the velocity entering the

diffuser section, the higher the system effect loss will

be.

6. All calculations are performed in accordance with the

tables presented in the SMACNA and ASHRAE guides.

The final numbers come out as indicated in the

following table.

The specific items evaluated are as follows:

Inlet obstruction: This is related to the inlet cone

diameter, the area of the double inlet and the

bracing of the drive shaft.

Fan discharge duct: The actual length of the duct

is measured and compared to the AMCA required

duct length including the blast area of each fan

and the outlet area of each of the two duct

connections.

Duct transition after the filter bank: The filter bank

area is compared to the velocity at convergence.

43
 Discharge into filter bank diffuser section: The

area of the diffuser plate is evaluated against the

inlet velocity to the diffuser plate.

LOSS TYPE LOSS

CJ:!.2Ql
Inlet Obstruction .15"

Discharge Duct Effect .15"

Discharge Transition After Filter Bank .18"

Loss Due To Filter Bank and Its Diffuser Plate .62"

TOTAL= 1.10"H20

This calculation shows that the system effect, due to the items
indicated above, adds 1.10"H20 of total static to the 7.5"H20

that was originally estimated. The total actual static for the fan
would now be 8.60"H20. This would require a significant

increase in fan rpm to attempt to supply the required CFM.

Depending upon the fan that was originally selected, this

could shorten the life of the fan's bearings, generate additional

noise and vibration and may cause the fan to operate too close

to the fan manufacturer's upper fan rpm limit. If left as it is, the

fan will not be capable of supplying the required amount of

CFM.

For example. In the fan above, increasing the RPM to

compensate for the actual operating total static pressure,

44
caused the fan to be operating over the manufacturer's safe

RPM and also caused the motor to operate at the top of its

service factor.

When testing and balancing reports are submitted, it is

important to carefully check what had to be done to get the fan

to supply the required amount of CFM. If the RPM had to be

significantly increased, the motor amperage and operating

point should be checked, including whether the

manufacturer's safe bearing RPM has been approached or

exceeded. This information is not always clearly evident from

some of the sketchy information provided with some

balancing reports.

45
 Chapter 3

Controls

3.1. Air flow stations using differential pressure principle must have an air

velocity minimum above 600 FPM.

Differential pressure flow stations do not generate a strong

enough signal at velocities below 600 fpm, this is not the same

case for vortex shedding principal air flow stations. If you

have a situation where you must operate at velocities below

600 fpm then you should use the vortex shedding device

despite the fact then in many sizes they are more expensive

then the differential pressure device.

3.2. As a minimum, supply and return fans and coil temperature controls

should be provided with proportional integral controls.

A proportional integral derivative (PIO) controller senses the

rate of change of the error and brings the measured value to

the set point without any appreciable amount of recycling or

hunting after the change in the measured variable occurs.

3.3. Velocity sensors generate false readings in the low end of the CFM scale

and do not match those taken through the use of accurate duct traverses.

46
 If the sensors are differential pressure type make sure the

sensor(s) receive adequate air velocity (600 FPM minimum) at

all building load conditions. This is a prime cause of

improperly operating air sensing controls when the system is

operating at minimum flows. If a minimum velocity of 600 fpm

can not be maintained then utilize vortex shedding velocity

sensors since they are not effected by such low velocities. If

you suspect that the installation is marginal, check the sensor

readings against duct traverses taken at different percentages

of load.

3.4. The VAV supply fan can not provide the required static pressure at the

terminal box furthest from the fan

Pressure setting of the supply fan controller must be specified

to maintain all VAV terminal units in the proper operating

range, adjust the static pressure controller so as to maintain

the required static pressure at the terminal box furthest from

the fan. The fan should not be arbitrarily speeded up to

attempt to develop the required static pressure. Use only the

RPM required to obtain the static pressure with the static

pressure controller installed in the proper position and

adjusted accordingly. Over revving the fan will cause other

problems.

47
3.5. The static pressure controller adjusts the supply fan but the adjustments

have no relationship to the actual required static pressure.

Check to assure that the Static pressure sensors have not

been located close to elbows or other duct fittings which may

cause air turbulence. The static pressure controller must be

installed no closer then 7 duct diameters from any elbow or

other fitting that normally will cause turbulence.

3.6. If and when the supply fan gets out of synchronization with the needs of

the systems terminal boxes it over pressurizes the discharge duct section

causing damage to that portion of duct.

The High-pressure fan limit may not have been located at the

supply fan discharge in order to prevent damage to duct

system.

3.7. Building is utilizing a supply- return fan tracking system to maintain

building pressure but the system constantly malfunctions.

Though this type of control method is very reliable how well

the supply - return tracking method works is dependent on

what parameters the control system is measuring and what is

actually being controlled.

Balancing building pressure by measuring both supply and

return air flows is considered one of the best methods for

48
 maintaining building pressure differentials. This method

measures the supply and return air flows continuously. The

return air fan is controlled in a closed control loop to yield a

constant amount of excess air to the building for

pressurization use. This method is the most positive way of

controlling building pressure and is often the method that is

used. (see fig. 3.1) However, as control methods go, this

method is expensive as compared to other available methods.

The controls also have to be set up and adjusted very carefully

to avoid hunting. There is a variation of this method which

attempts to measure velocity pressures, in lieu of airflow rates,

to reset the return fan. This variation often does not give

accurate results and can create unstable pressure variations

within the building.

3.8. Design is for the return or relief system to maintain proper building

pressure. But the supply and return fans are controlled by a single

controller and the building pressure constantly varies.

Controlling a buildings overall pressure by having both the

supply and return fans controlled by a single controller that

senses supply duct static pressure, is one of the simplest

ways to attempt to control a buildings differential pressure.

The method however fails when large pressure variations are

imposed on the building either by stack effect, reverse stack

effect, a passing storm or the operation of multiple elevators.

The system also works only if when the building load changes,

49
 the airflow rates of both fans are changed according to their

respective characteristic curves. If the fan characteristic

curves of both fans are not matched properly, which very often

happens at partial load conditions, the building pressure will

vary substantially from the pressure for which the conditions

were designed and balanced. Often with this type of control

setup should low load occur during a major stack effect or

reverse stack effect situation the HVA C system will be

completely unable to maintain any kind of established building

pressure. (see fig. 3.2 )

3.9. The return /relief fan is controlled by the feedback of building pressure, but

the system has trouble controlling proper interior building pressure. In its

simplest form this is indicated in difficulty opening and closing exteri or

doors.

In this method the supply fan is controlled by a static pressure

sensor in the supply duct. The return or relief fan is controlled

independently by a static pressure sensor located in the

building to maintain a design pressure level. However, caution

must be exercised in locating the space static pressure

sensor. The sensor can not be located by doors. windows

or any opening to the outside. It is best to set the pressure

controller setting not higher then .15" H20, of course the

actual final setting will depend on the building itself and its

location. Higher pressure settings will cause pressure

50
 problems every time a door is opened and may require forces

greater then 10 pounds to open the door or to hold the door in

order to keep it from slamming. Forces above ten pounds

create the sense of effort in the individual and forces above 20

pounds create a sense of extreme effort and discomfort,

related to door opening. This condition is reduced with

revolving doors except that other types of pressure

instabilities occur.

--+I 1---1- - - -- -- - 1

Controller

I High
I
O.S.A.
L_
Supply Fan . . Limit
___......_____i- ----!:::::!--+
..:. S.P. Sensor

><
Ret.
Damper - - - - - -....._ __.I Controller

~
~--------------
Relief Damper
Return Fan
~ Flow Stations

Control Of Supply And Return Fans By

Measuring Supply And Return Airflows

Fig. 3.1

51
 Branch 1
..--------_.-- I
S.P. Sensors
Supply Fan
O.S.A. Branch 2

> tt:. C0 High

l
Limit
Rel. _ I
Damper

4 > tt:. ~~ '

Controller

Relief Damper
Return Fan

Control Of Supply And Return Fans From A

Single Controller

Fig. 3.2

3.10. Locate the building pressure sensor to represent average building

pressure.

Do not locate sensor close to entrance doors or other

locations where the pressure fluctuates. Atrium above first

floor is generally a good location.

3.11. VAV terminal multi-point sensors must have a velocity of not less than 600

fpm for proper operation of the terminal controller at minimum position.

Even though they may be factory installed, most single or

multipoint pressure sensors utilized in terminal boxes are of

the differential pressure type. Where they are, the minimum

air velocity at the sensor(s) must be 600 fpm to allow for

52
 accurate controllability. A multipoint sensor is more accurate

than a single point sensor but utilizing a multipoint sensor

does not alleviate the 600 fpm minimum velocity requirement.

3.12. VAV terminal box with DDC controllers malfunctions wh enever the system

operates on minimum air flow.

Setting of the DOC controller can be an involved and time

consuming process. Most controllers, which have to be

adjusted in the field at the terminal box, are adjusted utilizing a

portable operator's terminal or laptop computer while verifying

the flow with traverses and verifying pressures with

magnehelic gauges. Then the controller is adjusted to make

up for the difference existing between the readings indicated

on the magnehelic gauges and the DOC transmitter. And, then

the unit is put through all cycles to verify that the settings did

not change while other adjustments were made.

Operating most controllers below .03 LJP, "H20 is risky. And,

in many cases, creates operating problems. Many designs call

for a minimum primary cfm air flow value which develops a

pressure differential at values far below .03 LJP, " H20. Many

controllers set between .01 and .03 "H20 have a tendency to

chase the set point, causing serious variations in flow. Other

controllers set at those values may not control at all. To

enable the controllers to control the terminals they must be set

at a higher minimum cfm value or have major sheet metal

53
modifications made to the terminal inlets. Or, a correction

factor will have to be developed and input into the building

computer to allow the boxes to be adjusted near operable

values.

The problem becomes even worse when terminal boxes

selected are over-sized in order to assure a very low noise

level.

Many times, the only way to increase the operating differential

pressure is to increase the velocity pressure which requires an

increase in the air velocity at minimum cfm flows. In an

attempt to increase the terminal inlet velocity at the terminal's

sensor, some designers try to utilize a circular device known

as a doughnut. This device is installed at the inlet to the

terminal box. However, in order to assure that the device does

not generate turbulence at the box inlet, it must be placed at

least 2 112 duct diameters upstream from the inlet. The

doughnut must also be fabricated with a smooth round

beveled hole and the device must be stiff enough so as to

cause no bending or vibration under maximum cfm flows.

The following table in figure 3.3 shows how extensive the

problems can be under minimum air flows:

54
Terminal Size Design Max Design Min Min CFM Min CFM
CFM CFM L1P Velocity
6" 80 25 .003" 220 fpm
8" 105 35 .002" 180 fpm
12" 420 126 .005" 280 fpm
14" 550 165 .004" 259 fpm

Fig 3.3

3.13. Pneumatic controllers do not operate properly or their operation is chaotic

and unpredictable.

Pneumatic controllers require a minimum of 18 psig to operate

properly. Some systems may have long tubing runs with

undersized tubing. If too many controllers operate off of the

same line, and that line is undersized, then at times of high

load the pressure at various controllers could fall below the

required 18 psig. To make matters worse, it may not be the

same controllers all of the time. Depending upon how the load

is distributed, it could be different controllers at different times

which malfunction. If this appears to be happening, check the

pressure of the air supplied to the controllers at different load

variations, including full branch load. It is not uncommon to

figure a maximum pressure drop of 2 psig for the air line with

the longest effective length. In this case if you require 18 psig

at the control furthest from the compressor, you would have to

provide air at a pressure of at least 20 psig. Additionally, allow

approximately 5 cfm per 100 air consuming instruments as a

ball park guide.

55
3.14. Fan adjusting control in a VAV system is constantly hunting.

Check to see if the static pressure controller is oversized. The

static pressure controller should be specified by size and

sensitivity. If the installed controller is oversized it could

create large fluctuations in the signal which it sends back to

the fan. If this is the case, check the sizing and sensitivity of

the installed static pressure probe against the manufacturer's

recommendations.

3.15. Terminal boxes continuously hunt, attempting to control the required cfm.

Static pressures are above the minimum required.

First check static pressure readings and entrance and exit

duct conditions. If these are proper, the hunting problem may

be a result of a static pressure controller span discrepancy. It

is important to note that the span of the static pressure

transducer must be small enough to reduce the total amount

of random control error. The total random control error for a

transducer with a range of 0 to 1" is shown in figure 3.4. Note

that this error is random and how and when it occurs is

unpredictable. If you have to control at about the .02" range,

note the degree of error at such a range. Now compare that to

the total random error that would occur if we narrowed the

control span to 0-. 1 ". The difference in the total random error

that would occur is very significant. There would be virtually

56
 no control problem from the transducers due to the random

error with the tight control range of 0-.1", as shown in figure

3.5 when you are controlling small pressure differences.

% Control Error vs. Pressure Sensor Reading Pv

For Pressure Sensor Range O - 1 11

100% -.------ - --------------------.,

I
I I I I I I I
"-
0
"-
50% 1- - 1- -1- -1- -1- --1- -i
"-
w
0
I I I I I
!:; I
0% -;.-----------------------------------

! _50%L-1--1--:--: --:-~-~
-100J '":"'.I ":"': "':" ':" _.,. - ,-/
0.005 0.015 0 .025 0.035 0.045 0.055 0.065 0.075
Differential Pressure - H2 0 "

Fig. 3.4

57
% Control Error vs. VAV Box Sensor Pv
For Pressure Transducer Range 0 - .1"

100%

r ! -- : I T---r i :- 1
50% 4- --~ - r- ---1- t- - 1- -+ ---t- -t .
% Total Control Error
~ I I I I I I I I

I I I I I I I
-50% --i - _j_ - -l -- -1- _, _ _J_ - !-- -!
I I I I I I I
-1 00%
0.005
l
~l. ' ' ' I' ' ' '.i r,-,~lT- ' ' I' ' ' ' I' ' ' i ' ~rLl
0.015 0.025 0.035 0.045 0.055 0.065 0.075 0.085

Differential Pressure - HP"

Transducer With Aulozeroing

Fig. 3.5

3.16. Control configurations can adversely affect the operation of VAV terminal

units and fan operations.

The three basic control configurations that have been utilized

in HVAC systems are known as proportional (P), proportional

integral (Pl), and proportional-integral-derivative (PIO). With

proportional controls, an inherent offset is present when the

control is in action. Recycling is often experienced after a

variable change. A proportional-integral (Pl) controller resets

58
 the control responses and eliminates this offset. A

proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller senses the rate

of change of the error and brings the parameter to the set

point without much recycling after a variable change. For

example. In sensing an HVAC system's static pressure and

regulating the fan from same, this offset injects an error into

the level of the duct static pressure. And in the case of a VAV

system, the error tends to cause a higher pressure than the

set point causing a substantial energy waste at off-load

conditions. Utilizing Pl and preferably PID for the control of all

supply fans in VAV systems will prevent the over shoot in

static pressure at reduced loads.

3.17. Utilizing the velocity pressure signal from a duct directly to regulate air

flow creates air flow control problems.

Conversion of velocity pressure into air flow indications is

very important for proper air flow control. This is especially

critical when the return fan and supply fan must track in order

to maintain a proper building pressure, or outdoor air control.

This conversion can be readily performed by software

programs in direct digital control systems. For pneumatically

controlled systems, a square root extracting device is utilized.

This device converts the velocity pressure signal into a

velocity signal, and in turn the signal is changed into airflow

rates. Where a specific process of conversion is not

specified, some control contractors will usually attempt to

59
utilize a less expensive simplified design short cut to

approximate the conversion by utilizing the velocity pressure

signal directly on the control transmitter. This requires very

careful selection and a lot of fine tuning of the control system

after installation.. .. which is rarely performed. Additionally, it

takes a lot of fine tuning and maintenance to assure that this

type of simplistic installation works over the long run.

60
 Chapter4

Equipment

4.1. A steam absorption machine is continuously hunting in an attempt to

produce the design leaving chilled water temperature.

The temperature and pressure conditions within the absorber

are influenced by the temperature of the system's cooling

tower water. Therefore, the cooling tower water temperature

must be closely controlled to maintain stable system operation

in a single stage older type absorption machine. If the

temperature of the cooling tower water should drop, the

absorber temperature will drop accordingly. At this lower

temperature the ability of the solution to absorb refrigerant is

increased. This, in turn, drops the evaporator pressure and

temperature, reducing the temperature of the leaving chilled

water.

Sensing this, the chilled water temperature controller throttles

the steam valve, reducing the rate at which refrigerant vapor is

liberated in the concentrator. This causes a more dilute

solution to be returned to the absorber, raising the absorber

and therefore the evaporator pressure and temperature, in an

effort to re-establish the design leaving chilled water

temperature. In other words, to compensate for a fluctuating

61
 cooling tower water temperature, the absorption machine must

hunt continuously in an attempt to find a state of equilibrium

between solution concentration and the changing cooling

tower water temperature.

4.2. Steam turbine chiller is utilizing excessive amounts of steam.

In general, steam driven centrifugal chillers are extremely

inefficient. They become even more inefficient than most

other types of chillers as load requirement is reduced. Check

the chillers load. Has it changed recently? This type of chiller

has a maximum COP value of approximately .80. When the

steam turbine chiller is fed from a central distribution system,

as in a campus type layout, there is no way to efficiently

reduce steam flow to the turbine, except by throttling the

steam flow via a throttling valve. The throttling valve is an

inefficient way to reduce steam flow requirements since the

throttling process itself is an energy loss process. If you now

find that the steam flow has to be continuously throttled, it

would be best to utilize a let down turbine in place of the

throttling valve as long as you have use for the mechanical

energy generated by the let down turbine. For the steam

turbine chiller to operate more efficiently it must always be run

at close to maximum load in order to utilize the least amount

of steam.

62
4 .3. No matter how many vibration eliminators are utilized on a rooftop HVAC

unit installation, the unit causes considerable vibration throughout the

building.

Fiqure 4.1 shows an improper way to install a roof top unit on

a building. It is not uncommon to find that such an

installation, especially when there is more then one unit

involved, causes considerable transmission of operating

vibration throughout the building. It is found that

concentrating the HVAC unit's weight between the buildings

beams will cause considerable roof slab deflection and the

transmission of noise and vibration, no matter what type of

vibration eliminators the installation utilizes. Where this is

happening, the best way to eliminate the vibration noise

problem is to install the unit as shown in figure 4.2 . This

figure shows the unit installed on a steel frame supported by

column extensions. This type of installation keeps practically

all of the vibration out of the roof slab. A comprise method

would be figure 4.3. This method adds an extra stiffening slab

under the unit. This slab adds extra mass and stiffness and

reduces the chance that significant amounts of vibration will

be transmitted through the building.

63
 HVAC Unit
Roof Slab

Fig. 4.1

HVAC Unit

Roof Slab

Fig. 4.2

64
 HVAC Unit

Roof Slab

Fig. 4.3

4.4. Hot water heating pumps or condenser water pumps produce noise and

cause acute vibration.

Pumps which are called upon to circulate hot water are

affected to a greater degree by improper installations than

pumps which circulate chilled water. Cavitation can quickly

occur in hot water circulating pumps, generating noise,

vibration and severely shortening the life of bearings and

impellers. A great deal of the installation problems occur in

the suction piping directly proceeding the pump. Additionally,

it is important to remember that the greater the velocity of the

water within the suction piping as it enters the inlet of the

pump, the greater can be the problems caused by improper

65
 installations. When suction piping is the same size as the size

of the suction inlet, there should be no elbows or valves

placed any closer to the suction inlet, then five times the pipe

diameter. If the suction piping is larger then the suction

opening to the pump and the pipe utilizes an offset reduction

piece to connect the piping to the suction inlet, then there

should be no elbows or valves placed any closer then five

times the pipe diameter from the reduction piece to the first

elbow or valve. Installing elbows or valves any closer than

these distances will cause an increase in turbulence with

resulting vibration, noise and reduction in capacity and the life

of the bearings and impellers.

4.5. A Boiler ta ken off line and isolated shows signs of freezing damage to its

interi or.

Facility boiler plants that use a standby boiler as a rotating on-

line boiler, to be able to take different boilers off line for

maintenance and repairs, besides having their water lines and

steam lines isolated from the other boilers, must also have its

stack isolated. If this is not done in a winter climate, cold air,

reversing itself down the boilers individual stack, will cause

freezing damage to the boiler's heating surfaces. The design

should include a method for closing a stack isolation damper

remotely, through the computer panel for each boiler that is

66
 taken off line for maintenance and repair work. This of course

is of main concern during winter months in northern climates.

4.6. Cast iron sections are cracking at the section roots above the combustion

chamber in oil fired cast iron modular boilers.

Cast iron modular type boilers normally utilize a flame

retention type oil burner or other type of high efficiency oil

burner. The amount of excess air provided to the burner

creates a high degree of fuel wastage and an elevated and

elongated flame. The flame wil/ have a tendency to hit the cast

iron sections, usually in the vicinity of the back part of the

sections and at the upper part of the section towards the

casting root. The sections will crack at that point due to the

high temperature of the flame impingement on the cast iron

surface. This is known as flame impingement failure. You will

see the discoloration in the vicinity of the cracks that will be

related to the specifics of flame impingement. Flame

impingement is usually caused by providing too much excess

air.

If the boiler uses a burner with turn down, it can vary its load

in proportion to the actual load on the building. It is equally

important that when you use turn down, that the combustion

system be capable of varying the amount of excess air as it

varies the firing rate in proportion to the actual system load. A

typical excess air variation is shown in figure 4.4.

67
 Exc ess Air vs B ur ner L oad(%)

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1 00

Burner L oad(%)

Fig. 4-4

Fuel Wasted ( 0/o) vs Excess Air (o/o)

Number #2 Fuel Oil

50 ....
~
~
....
->-

40
....
-~
-- ~
,-..
cf2. - ~
.......... - ~
~
"O
Q)
30 __......
.......
Cf) ~
cu ~
s 20
Q)
::::l
LL

10

0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Excess Air(%)

Fig. 4.5

68
 Fuel Wasted (o/o) vs Excess Air (o/o)
Natural Gas

60

50
I~
-~40 ~
/
-
~ i

-s
'"O
(l) ,_
,_

--
~

---
~ 30
~

~ 20
LL ~

10
-

0 -
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Excess Air(%)

Fig. 4.6

4 .7. Unstable water level in boiler causes water level controls to malfunction

and also causes water hammer throughout the stream piping system.

One of the most common causes of an unstable water level in

a steam boiler is a buildup of impurities in the water. These

impurities can be in the form of oil, solids and excess

treatment chemicals. A high impurity level causes constant

69
 churning of the water level and in its extreme, actual foaming

within the boiler water. The churning causes the water level to

rise and fall by large amounts. In its worst situation, the

churning on the down side could cause the water makeup

controls to feed excessive water into the boiler. This then

causes an excessively high water level, which in turn can

cause water to carry over into the steam system and generate

damaging water hammer.

4.8. Low Pressure heating boiler shows signs of a pitting type of corrosion.

This type of corrosion in low pressure boilers is generally

caused by large amounts of dissolved gases in the boiler

water. The gases which play the biggest part in pitting type

corrosion are Carbon Dioxide and Oxygen, with Oxygen being

the largest offender. Carbon Dioxide acts as a type of

accelerator, speeding up the corrosion that may be occurring.

Therefore, if we can get rid of the excess amounts of oxygen,

we can reduce or eliminate the pitting a/together. You can

control the amount of dissolved gases by adding alkali to the

boiler water thereby increasing the alkalinity of the water. To

neutralize all of the Carbon Dioxide in the boiler water you

want to produce about 250 ppm hydroxyl alkalinity as CaC03 .

You can accomplish this by adding a sufficient amount of

alkali chemical to maintain a boiler water alkalinity of 400 ppm

expressed as CaC03_ Under these conditions, you should

have a phenolphthalein alkalinity of approximately 70% of the

70
 total alkalinity. You can protect against the Oxygen in

systems that have large amounts of absorbed Oxygen and

Carbon Dioxide through the use of Sodium Chromate

chemicals or other Oxygen reducing chemicals approved for

usage by the EPA. Where Sodium Chromate is utilized as a

corrosion inhibitor, maintain approximately 800 ppm as

sodium chromate in the boiler water at all times with a pH at 8

or slightly higher. For all chemicals follow the manufacturer's

instructions in detail.

4.9. A centrifugal refrigeration compressor without variable speed but utilizing

a simple suction valve to throttle gas flow for capacity control can create

efficiency problems and utilize excessive electricity or steam to create its

refrigeration.

Where variable speed control is not utilized for capacity

control, a form of suction gas control would have to be utilized

to initiate capacity control. Two methods utilized are inlet

guide vane control and suction valve control. Adjusting the

inlet vanes controls the compressors capacity by reducing

suction pressure, and in turn, flow and also reduces the

discharge pressure. The inlet vane control method is very

efficient because it imparts a pre-rotation to the gas. The

simple suction valve does not impart pre-rotation and is

therefore much less efficient. Although the suction valve

method may be less expensive than inlet vane control, it is

less efficient when it comes to operation. You, therefore, end

71
up utilizing additional steam or electricity to operate the

centrifugal refrigeration compressor. Depending upon the size

of the machine, the increase in operating cost will far exceed

the installation savings obtained by utilizing the simple

suction valve control method.

72
 Chapter 5

Hydronics

5.1. Continuous check valve slam occurs in a hydronic system.

Check valve slam is an occurrence that is due to the noise

which is made when the moving portion of the check valve still

has enough momentum to make noise and cause movement of

the valve body when it contacts its seat. When a pump is shut

down, the pump may still have some rotating movement. This

movement causes the pump to still generate head and deliver

flow for a short amount of time. But when the head finally

drops below the system head, flow will reverse, causing the

check valve to close and slam. For example. When the flow

reverses before the check valve is completely closed and the

return flow catches the check valve, it moves the element off

the seat and slams it closed. Where check valve slam is a

problem, the valve which should be used to prevent this

occurrence is a center guided spring loaded check valve. In

this type of check valve the disk is only required to move a

very short distance from open to shut. In this way, the valve

will close before the reverse flow develops, and slam will be

eliminated.

73
5.2. Severe pitting of newly installed chillers in the absorber and condenser

tubes occurred in a system utilizing 4" to 6" steel piping with an open

cooling tower.

It is important to note that badly maintained water circuits in a

chiller system can cause very rapid corrosion of chiller

absorber and condenser tubing. In fact, it is not uncommon

that even in new installations, such corrosion could

completely destroy a chiller in one to three years. One very

common scenario is as follows:

Algae, spores, sand and other debris builds up to cause

fouling of the absorber and condenser tubes. As the fouling

progresses, localized, differential corrosion cells begin to

form. The differential corrosion cells cause pitting corrosion

and attack the internal areas of the absorber and condenser

tubes.

As the pitting corrosion progresses, it causes wastage of

copper material. Copper then plates out on the interior

surfaces of the steel piping material. A combination of low pH

values (6-7) along with the warm condenser water and the

copper plating out on the steel causes corrosion to then

progress to the steel piping. This corrosion process develops

tubercle material which, due to the water velocity, periodically

breaks off and ends up in the cooling tower water circuit.

74
 The iron oxide that then enters the cooling tower water circuit

begins to work its way to the absorber and condenser tubes,

accumulate with the algae, spores, sand, etc. and begins to

cause increased fouling of the tubes. Once fouling rapidly

accelerates, cleaning brushes utilized in the chillers usually

becomes ineffective. Water flows and water velocities begin to

severely decrease and tends to decrease the effectiveness of

cleaning brushes which may be installed. Therefore, don't

depend upon them in this type of situation.

This type of corrosion cycle becomes self feeding. The more

corrosion, the more you get increased fouling which then

creates increased corrosion and so on and so on. To stop the

process, you must start with a complete system cleaning,

keeping the cooling water clean and making sure that the

water pH stays in the 8 to 8.5 range or at the pH level required,

depending on the water treatment chemicals utilized in the

system.

5.3. Corrosion occurred th roughout an entire hydronic heating system. The

system utilizes copper tubing, and operates as a micro-bore system

utilizing supply water temperatures of 220 to 2300 F. This system also

utilizes a 600 delta temperature drop through heat transfer equipment.

The system is experiencing a great deal of corrosion and gas generation.

In systems as above, water cleanliness and the pH of the water

are critical in preventing and if required, correcting the above

75
situation. Operating a hydronic system at temperatures above

1800 F calls for a great deal of attention to housekeeping

applicable to the water within the system. First, it is

imperative to keep the water perfectly clean, mill scale, mud,

sand and other such items must not be allowed to enter the

system. At the time of system startup the interior of the

system must be cleaned with any of the commercially

available cleaning products before the water is allowed to

enter the system. Periodically, during operation, the pH of the

water must be checked and maintained at no less than 8. If

the pH is allowed to go lower, corrosion will occur and

accelerate. Air must also be properly vented from the system.

It is not uncommon that methane gas forms in the system due

to the debris, air and low pH of the water. Proper air venting of

the system must be through commercially available venting

equipment but not through the use of many automatic air

vents. Many automatic air vents can suck more air in to the

system then they vent out. The best way to vent is to utilize

commercially available centrifugal air eliminators in the

mechanical room and manual air vents at the high points in

the system.

76
5.4. Continuous undetected corrosion occurs within the cooling tower piping

systems.

The cooling tower water circuit and any other open piping

system, besides having a good way to monitor the water

treatment, must have corrosion coupon stations in order to

properly monitor the extent of corrosion and the rate of

corrosion. In this way, you can gather the information

required to determine how efficient the water treatment

actually is.

The corrosion coupon's main purpose is to measure corrosion

in the form of pitting so as to allow the operator to apply

factual numbers to the determination of water treatment

efficiency. The coupon is actually a strip of metal that is

placed in a type of holder and placed within the flowing fluid.

In order to obtain a fairly constant result the coupons must be

prepared in a standard way. The American Society for Testing

Materials has a standard which gives details for cutting and

polishing the coupon strips of many different types of metals.

You can also purchase the coupons from a water treatment

supply firm.

After the strip is prepared it is placed in the center of the pipe

in which the water is flowing. At the beginning, the corrosion

on the strips will have a high corrosion rate. . After a short

77
 amount of time the rate will begin to fall off steadily, eventually

stabilizing at some constant rate.

The strip coupon is weighed both before and after the

exposure. The pits are measured with a dial pitch depth gauge

and their number, size, shape and distribution are then

recorded.

The average corrosion rate in mils per year is calculated from

the loss in weight of the coupon. Following is the ASTM

formula:

Average penetration, mpy =(w) (365) 103 I (2.54)3(A) {d) (t)

where: w = weight loss in grams

A =surface area of coupon in square inches

d = density of metal in grams/square centimeter

t =time of exposure in days

mpy = mils per year

(By comparing the mpy over time you can track the efficiency

of the water treatment process)

78
5.5. Steam traps blow by steam even though they appear to be installed and
operating properly.

Besides faulty installation one of the prime reasons for steam

traps blowing by steam is improper sizing.

The following is a shortcut guide to sizing steam traps: You

must know the following:

1. The net final pressure at the steam trap (after all valve

pressure drops, etc.),

2. If there is a rise or lift after the trap, this must be accounted

for. Figure every two feet of rise equals about 1 psi of back-

pressure against the trap.

3. All other possible causes of back pressure (e.g. discharging

into a pressurized line, tank, system, etc.)

4. Pounds per hour of condensate to be discharged. Consider

warm up condensate, etc.

5. Safety factors are usually utilized in selecting the final size

of a steam trap.

The differential pressure which the trap will act against must

be determined. This will usually be the steam pressure at the

79
trap minus all back pressure values and differential caused by

lift.

Example:

If we calculated that the condensate load for the trap is 50

pounds per hour, with a steam supply pressure of 150 psig

with a lift of 30 feet, the calculations for steam trap size will be

as follows:

Supply Pressure = 150 psig

Lift= (30 ft.) = 15 psig

Differential pressure =135 psig

Load =50 lb./hr
Safety factor = 2

Trap Size= 100 lbs/hr with a differential pressure of 135 psig.

In the previous example we assumed the initial trap load. In

selecting the actual trap load, depending upon the type of

equipment on which the trap is installed and the type of trap,

one of the factors you must consider is any warm up that will

add to the trap load.

When calculating the warm up load there are two basic

equations utilized: one pertains to insulated pipe and the other

pertains to uninsulated pipe sections.

80
The basic loss that creates the warm up load has to do with

radiation losses. For insulated pipe sections the formula is as

follows:

#/hr = Ax U x (ts - ta) x E.

HL
#/hr= Trap Steam Load
A = External Pipe Area
U = Insulation U Value.
ts = Steam Temperature
ta = Air Temperature
E = 1 - Insulation Eff.

For sections of pipe without insulation the following formula

applies:

#/hr = W x (t1 - t 2) x 5 h
HL
#/hr = Load on Steam Trap
W =Weight of Total Pipe Length
T1 =Final Pipe Temperature
T2 =Initial Pipe Temperature
Sh = Heat Of Pipe Material
HL = Steam Latent Heat

Some common values utilized for pipe weight, specific heat

and other parameters are as follows.

81
 Pipe Weights Per Foot In Pounds

Pipe Size Sch.40 Sch.80

1 1/4" 2.27 3.00
2" 3.65 5.02
4" 10.79 14.98
6" 18.97 28.57

The specific heat of steel pipe can be taken as . 12. Insulation

efficiency is usually taken as .75 to .85, depending upon the

type of insulation and how the insulation is installed.

There are tables available from Armstrong Steam Trap

Company (616) 273-1415 and other steam trap companies

which solve the equations previously indicated on Page 10.

The equations do have to be utilized for conditions not

covered by manufacturer's catalog information.

Safety Factors

Use General With Temp

Control

Mains 2
Storage Heaters 2
Space Heater Exchangers 2 3
Air Heater 2 4
Submerged Coils (low level drain) 2
Submerged Coils (siphon drain) 2
Tracing Lines 2
Presses 2
*Safety Factor Information From Sarco Steam Hookup Book

82
5.6. Malfunctioning steam pressure reducing stations, result in severe valve

chattering, water hammer and other such mechanical failures.

It must be remembered that a steam pressure reduction valve

is designed to operate on steam, not a combination of water

and steam or water, steam and dirt. If it is suspected that you

are dealing with wet steam you must utilize a steam separator

to separate out the water and dirt, and send only the clean

steam to the pressure reduction valve. Additionally, check the

size of the pressure reduction valve. As a hint, the valve size

will usually be less than the size of the pipe. If in fact the

valve size is the same as the pipe size, you can suspect that

the pressure reduction valve is sized too large.

5. 7. An operator may find that balancing valves have very little effect in aiding

the balance of hot water and chilled water systems.

All too often balancing valves are selected to match the size of

the pipe in which they are being installed. This is not the

proper way to select these type of valves. A valve sized in this

way will have very little effect on flow adjustment until you get

to a position where the valve is almost tightly closed. Using

the valve this way will also cause damage to the valve seat and

reduce the useful life of the valve. In addition, a problem such

as wire drawing occurs. Wire drawing causes a channel to

form in the valve's seat. This in turn, causes the valve to allow

increases in water flow over time. The balancing valve must

83
be selected by calculating the valve's flow coefficient. Where

the pressure drop of the valve and the system will be

determined in feet of the water the flow, coefficient for

selecting such balancing valves comes to :

Cv = 1.5Q(spAh)-5

C v = Flow coefficient at 1 psi drop

Q = Design gpm flow

Ah = Pressure drop, ft of water
Sf = Specific gravity of fluid.

Selecting a balancing or control valve through the "coefficient

of flow" method allows you to select a valve that will give

smooth proportional flow adjustment. Otherwise what you

wind up with, is a valve that does not control until it gets

slightly off of the seat, causing wire drawing and valve failure

along with improper flow control.

84
 Chapter 6

Interior Air Quality And Airborne Contamination Control

6.1 . System not designed for best outdoor air criteria thereby creating IAQ and

infection control problems.

Outside air is critical for proper interior air quality and good

infection control considerations. Do not provide less then

approximately 113 of maximum air supply as the minimum

turndown value and definitely not less than the required

amount of outside air to the occupants at the breathing zone,

per code and industry standards. Engineers and contractors

are being held responsible for Interior Air Quality and Infection

Control problems despite complying with local codes. The

deciding factor is...... did you provide that which would be

considered "Good Engineering Practice" utilizing the "Best

Available Technology". Beware of designs which provide zero

percent minimum air values in VAV systems. These types of

designs have played a significant role in sick building

syndrome litigations.

85
6.2. System not designed for room peak total supply air flow or system

designed for less than .9 CFM per square foot of floor area.

Tests have shown that you should never circulate a total air

supply of less than .9 CFM per square foot in occupied

buildings. This is the minimum total air that should be

circulated in order to allow for proper air mixing and good

interior air quality.

6.3. Facility experiences a large amount of Interior Air Quality complaints when

ever the VAV boxes are operating at minimum settings.

Systems designed for less then a minimum supply air of 30%

of peak supply air. (see # 6.1 above). Experience shows that

VAV box minimums should not be set for less then 30% of

peak flows. A check must always be made to assure that the

minimum expected loads can be handled without reducing the

minimum CFM below 30%.

6.4. System not designed for room loads at minimum air supply, causing

humidity levels to climb above 60%.

The humidity should never be allowed to exceed 60% in

occupied buildings. Humidity levels above this value

86
 accelerate the growth of bacteria, fungi, molds and many other

micro-organisms that affect health.

6.5. Perimeter zones designed for over 1,000 ft2 floor area create control and

comfort problems.

a. Suggested maximum floor area per zone to promote

adequate VA V system operation: 1000-1500 sq. ft.

b. Maximum CFM per zone: 1200-2000 CFM per zone is the

range that should be considered. 1500 CFM has been found

to be a good manageable value for a perimeter zone.

6.6. Offices partitioned should be limited to control areas of 1000 to 1500

square feet in area to reduce the chance of comfort problems due to

control.

Partitioned offices, regardless of partition height, have their

share of stratification and dead spots. Even 4 112 foot high

partitions will create dead spots at occupant breathing levels.

Floor square footage of 1000-1500 sq. ft. per zone, has proven

to be a good workable solution in preventing comfort

problems due to attempting to control air flow from single

control points, in large occupied areas.

87
6.7. Interior open office ventilation zones designed for over 2,500 ft2 of floor

area. (Obviousl y, client needs take precedence.), create comfort and

control problems.

Interior open spaces above 2500 sq. ft in area could require as

much as 2500 to 3000 CFM or greater, depending on the actual

use. This can cause significant comfort and control problems.

Attempting to satisfy the number of people who may be in

such large areas has proven to be vety difficult from single

control points. Though the 2500 sq. ft. maximum is not written

in concrete it should be adhered to as closely as possible.

There is of course a cost penalty in keeping these zones

appreciably below 2500 sq. ft., so a trade off of possible

comfort control problems versus cost has to be evaluated.

6.8. Do not use half-height partitions with closed bottoms.

Coordinate with architects or interior designers to specify

open- bottom panels to assist air circulation. There is a

misconception that if half partitions are utilized then proper

air flow within the partitioned space is guaranteed. This is not

the case. Actual field tests have shown that even within the

so-called half partitions, you must have an open bottom (2" to

4") in order to facilitate proper air mixing.

88
6.9. Final filters on the discharge side of the cooling coil on a blow through unit

constantly get wet and cause the growth of fungi and mold which in turn

creates serious IAQ problems.

If the final filters are less then 10 to 15 duct diameters

downstream of the coils it is possible that condensate blow by

could deposit on the final filters before the droplets have a

chance to re-evaporate. To cure this problem a moisture

eliminator must be installed before the filter bank. In some

cases this moisture eliminator can also be a combination

eliminator and diffusion plate and in this case the

requirements for a diffuser plate installation must also be

complied with.

89
 Following is a moisture eliminator

curve:

Moisture Separator Efficiency

100
n-
' I
-f--T I

I
---
"<f2.
.........
80

t j! I

't-1
>.
(.)
c
Q) 60
0
~

,_Jl
Ll.J

u
~
0
c
0
40
--1- I
(_) j
20
I
_ ___i__

I
! ---i
I

I I
0
I___J_ --- ---
__ j
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Droplet Size - Microns

500 FPM Face Velocity

Fig. 6.1
Note that the size of the moisture droplets coming off of the

cooling coil will average around 10 microns. In this range,

such an eliminator as above will have a fairly good efficiency.

If eliminators are utilized by themselves you must still limit

their approach velocity to 500 fpm, for maximum collection

efficiency.

90
6.10. Dirt build-up on reheat coils within terminal boxes creates serious interior

air quality problems.

Many terminal boxes are installed without provisions for

cleaning the reheat coils. In these cases you must install

access doors, both upstream and down stream of the reheat

coils. The reheat coils should be inspected and cleaned at

least two times a year, depending upon the type of installation

in which they are installed.

6.11 . Contamination from exhaust fan discharges work their way back into the

building in violation of EPA and OSHA requirements .

Of course there are many causes of exhaust streams

recirculating back into a building. OSHA and EPA

requirements stipulate that contaminated air must be

discharged outside of the building's recirculating zone. One of

the main items which must be checked in assuring that a

discharge is outside of the building's recirculation zone is the

discharge air stream's momentum flow and what is called the

effective stack height. There are many software programs

available to measure these items. One of the basic equations

that can be utilized to calculate these values are shown in

Fig. 6.2.

91
 Effective Stack Height
For Vertical Discharges Only

Momentum Flow:

Ta
F
m T

Effective Stack Height:

T = Exit Temperature =R0

T8 =Ambient Temperature =R0
V =Exit Velocity =fps
R = Stack Outlet Radius = ft
he =Effective Height
h8 =Stack Height
hb = Building Height

Fig. 6.2

As a ballpark guide, if the effective stack height is greater then

the height of the recirculating zone then the exhaust air will be

discharged outside of the zone. If it is less then the

92
 recirculating zone, then the discharged air will be within the

zone and in violation of State, CDC and OSHA regulations.

6.12. Excessive buildup of Nitrous Oxide in a Hospital's Operating room results

in serious occupant health problems.

Recent studies have shown that all too often when Nitrous

oxide is used as the anesthetic gas, the ambient concentration

builds up far in excess of allowable limits. The NIOSH

recommended limit at this printing is 25 ppm. For proper

control of anesthetic gases in an operating room, the room

must be provided with a proper scavenging system. If this is a

room utilized mostly for oral surgery, in addition to a

scavenging system, an auxiliary exhaust system must be

provided. (see NRC, PUB #94). The auxiliary exhaust system

is normally set to activate if the maximum concentration of

Nitrous Oxide exceeds 25 ppm. The system can also be

manually activated to reduce concentration levels.

6.13. HVAC systems which exhaust contaminated air often require a Bag In/Bag

Out filtering system. Besides many of these systems fail ing to actually

contain contamination , studies also show that in one survey, 50 % of the

Bag In/Bag Out systems were found to never have had the bag installed.

When operators went to change the original bag, they were shocked,

93
when they opened the containment cover, to find that there was no bag

installed.

1. When a Bag In/Bag Out system is utilized it is important to

specify it properly and to specify the testing of the unit with

proper documentation. And, in some cases, witnessing

should take place.

2. A generic specification for a Bag In/Bag Out unit and

installation at has proven to be reliable is as follows:

Filter Housing: The filter housing shall be a Bag In/Bag Out type
to allow replacement of contaminated filters while minimizing
exposure to maintenance personnel. Housing shall be
manufactured from 11 and 14 gauge T-304, unpainted stainless
steel (or other approved material suitable for the environment in
which the housing will be utilized) and shall be adequately
reinforced to withstand a negative pressure of one and a half ( 1.5)
times the expected operating pressure or IO" water gage if the
exact operating pressure is unobtainable. The housing shall be side
access for filter installation/change-out and shall accommodate
standard gasket filters that do not require special attachments or
devices to function properly in the housing.

All pressure retaining weld joints and seams shall be continuous ly

welded. All welds shall be wire brushed and/or buffed to remove
heat discoloration, burrs, and sharp edges. Welds that are a portion
of gasket sealing surfaces shall be ground smooth and flush with
adjacent base metal. All welding procedures, welders, etc. shall be
ASME certified and qualified.

All hardware on the housing and mechanical components of the

filter clamping mechanism shall be stainless steel except for the
cast aluminum access door knobs and the brass threaded blocks in
the filter clamping mechanism. The crank operated filter clamping
mechanism shall include pressure bars with pre-loaded springs that

94
exert a sealing force of 1400 pounds per 24" x 24" filter which is
applied as even, uniform load, along at least 80% of the top and
bottom of each filter frame.

Bagging: The housing shall have a bagging ring around each filter
access port. The bagging ring shall have two continuous ribs to
secure the plastic change out bag and the ring shall be hemmed on
its outer edge to prevent the bag from tearing. One PVC change
out bag shall be supplied with each filter access port. The bags
shall be PVC and shall be at least 8 mil thick. The bags shall have
a 114" diameter elastic shock cord hemmed into the open end so
when stretched around the bagging ring, it provides a secure fit.
Bags shall include approximately 12" of transparent PVC at the
open end and three glove sleeves built into the body to assist in
filter change out. To prevent bag detachment during the change
out operation, one nylon security strap shall be provided with each
access port. Each filter access port shall be sealed by a removable
access door which is designed to seal on the filter housing face and
not the bagging ring. Access doors shall have a perimeter edge
extruded silicone gasket.

Prefilter: Prefilter size and capacity shall be as shown on the

contract drawings. Average efficiency shall be 80-85% per
ASHRAE 52-76 and approximate initial pressure drop shall be
.12" water gage at rated flow. Prefilter shall be UL class 2.

HEPA Filter: HEP A filter size and capacity shall be as shown on

the contract drawings. HEP A filter shall be individually tested,
labeled and certified to have a minimum efficiency of 99.97% on
.3 micron DOP when tested in accordance with MIL-STD-282.
HEP A filter shall have all glass water proof media, aluminum
separators, polyurethane sealer, and a 16 gage galvanized frame
(all metal materials shall be as required to prevent corrosion in the
internal or external environment the filter will be utilized in) with a
1/4" thick closed cell neoprene gasket on one face. The HEP A
filter shall meet UL 586, UL 900 class 2. HEPA filter shall have
an approximate pressure drop of 1" water gage at rated air flow.

Factory Quality Assurance and Testing: The filter system shall

be designed, manufactured, and tested under a Quality Assurance
Program that complies with the requirements of ANSI/ASME
NQA-1, Prior to leaving the factory, the completed, ready to ship
unit's housing shall be tested as follows:

95
 1. Each filter sealing surface of each housing shall be checked with
a flatness gage to guarantee the flatness tolerance for filter
mounting frames as recommended in ERDA 76-21, "N uclear Air
Cleaning Handbook, Table 4-2".
2. Each housing shall be tested for filter fit using a test fixture that
is the maximum size allowed by the tolerances given in the
standards governing the actual filters that will used in the housing.
With this test fixture installed in the housing , the filter clamping
mechanism shall be checked to ensure that all components are
operating properly.
3. Use an air tight gasket fixture that simulates an actual filter so
the filter sealing surfaces can be tested for leak tightness. With test
fixture in place, the filter sealing surface shall be evacuated to
negative 1O" water gage (i.e. pressure is such that it tries to pull the
fixture away from the sealing surface). The maximum allowable
leak rate shall be .. 0005 CFM per cubic foot of tested volume.
4. The inlet and outlet of each filter housing shall be blanked off
to allow the entire pressure boundary of the housing to be leak
tested. The maximum allowable leak rate shall be ..0005 CFM per
cubic foot of tested volume.
5. All above testing shall be in accordance with ASME N5 l 0.

Field Testing: To verify system integrity, and to meet CDC

Guidelines, an in-place DOP test shall be performed on
the installed system. Test shall be in accordance with ASME
N510. Complete documentation shall be provided to the owner.
The Testing And Balancing Agency shall confirm that the unit is in
proper operating condition and that the bag has been installed in
accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations. The design
engineers shall witness all tests and the entire installation at their
discretion. All required documentation shall be submitted to the
engineer for approval.

96
 Chapter 7
Laboratories

7.1 Utilizing a pressure dependent VAV system in a large facility, causes

large variations in the air flow provided to spaces.

Where duct pressure variations are greater than 1" H20. and

especially where the supply system will exceed 10,000 CFM

peak capacity, a pressure-independent system must be

utilized to assure proper control and operation.

7.2. Fume hoods in a laboratory can not get sufficient makeup air and/or they

can't maintain proper face velocity during actual laboratory use.

It is advisable when designing a laboratory that the number of

fume hoods installed in the room not exceed 2 to 3 hoods for

every 500 square feet. When laboratories are designed with a

much greater hood density than this, it is difficult to maintain

proper air flow in the room without exceeding the 50% terminal

air velocity guide. That is, the terminal air velocity within the

room, in the vicinity of the fume hood face, should not be

greater then 50% of the actual hood face velocity. If the 50%

guide is violated you often find that there are competing air

flows within the room, which cause the hoods to be starved for

97
 make-up air; even though calculations might theoretically

show that there is good balance

7.3. Although the laboratory is under negative pressure as related to its

surroundings, contaminated air leaves the room whenever the door is

opened .

It is a mistake to think that just because a room is deigned for

negative pressure, it will always keep contamination from

leaving the room. To keep contamination from escaping from a

room which is maintained under negative pressure, it is

important to maintain the proper inrush velocity. Under

normal conditions, bi-polar flow is what causes air to escape

from a room which is maintained as negative to its

surroundings. (see Fig. 7.1) At the time of this writing, ANSI

Z9.5 recommends that in order to assure that a room stays

negative, even when doors are opened or when a pass through

sliding window is opened, the inrush velocity through these

openings must be maintained at no less then 50 fpm. It further

goes on to say that 100 fpm would be even better.

98
 Bi-Polar Flow Across A Doorway

t
I 30FPM 9.-- Doorway

Negative
Height Of oorway \ . 25FPM : Side

-, I

~'
I~
Positive
Side
:
I
)
- - - - l 12 FPM
25FPM

Outward Inward

Bi-Polar flow across a doorway separating a negative room

from its surroundings. Numbers shown are for example
purposes only.

Fig. 7.1

99
 of variable frequency drives on the fume hood exhaust fans.

The lower the sash is positioned, the less the air flow. In

some cases when the sash is totally closed, the air flow will be

zero. In most cases, unless the supply air flow is also

adjusted, the building or at least the laboratory, will experience

large air imbalances. When the damper method is utilized to

control the air, it is rare that the timing could be such that the

supply is adjusted in time to prevent the air imbalance. In

cases where the damper timing problem is creating the air

imbalance problem, a more sensitive type of control could be

utilized such as the TS/ or Modus type of control, or the hoods

involved could each be supplied with their own individual fan.

In this way the individual fans can be controlled relative to the

sash position of their respective hood. In extreme cases, the

hoods could be replaced with bypass hoods and separate heat

recovery in the exhaust.

7. 6. Fume hoods cannot remove parti culate matter generated by the process

taking pl ace within the hood .

Fume hoods and the exhaust duct from the fume hood, are

usually not designed to handle particulate matter from certain

types of experiments taking place within a fume hood. Fume

hoods utilize basically low face and entrant velocities (100

fpm., Such velocities cannot remove large quantities of low

particle size particulate matter or even the smallest amount of

102
 large particles, such as 100 micrometer particles. The duct

exhausting the air from a fume hood is rarely designed for

velocities higher then 2000 fpm. Though such a velocity can

entrain small amounts of small size particles, it can not entrain

particles greater then 100 micrometers. Therefore, if it should

turn out that the installed fume hoods do not work as they

should for certain types of processes used in the hoods, the

type of process should be reviewed to see if the process gives

off excess amounts of very small particles or even small

amounts of large particles.

7.7. Fume hoods which appear to be designed and installed properly,

periodically malfunction by not exhausting th e fumes within the hood.

Hoods depend a great deal upon what is happening around

them to assure that they will operate properly. It is very

important that the terminal velocity in the vicinity of the hood

not be greater then 112 of the hood's operating face velocity.

For best operation, the terminal velocity in the vicinity of the

hood should actually be closer to 20% of the hoods operating

face velocity. If the terminal velocity is allowed to be higher

than these values, then even though the hood may be tested at

a face velocity of 100 fpm (for example), it will not provide the
exhaust power due to the turbulence at the face of the hood.

Even air currents from people walking by the hood could

disturb the hood's overall exhaust efficiency. The fume hoods

and the room must be laid out so that the hoods will not be

103
affected by furniture layouts, high supply air terminal

velocities and people traffic. In-place tracer gas testing should

be performed after installation under several different load

modes so as to determine the actual, as installed, exhausting

efficiency of the entire room (or building) not just one

particular hood.

104