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Musical Tempo and Waiting
Perceptions
Steve Oakes
University Of Central Lancashire

ABSTRACT

Digital technology was used to isolate musical tempo from other

musical variables, and experimental results in an undergraduate
registration queue context confirmed the existence of a significant,
positive relationship between background musical tempo variation
and temporal perception (perceived minus actual wait duration).
Findings also revealed how slow-tempo music produced significantly
enhanced affective response (satisfaction, positive disconfirmation of
expectations, and relaxation) compared to fast-tempo music. 2003
Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

In recent years, the study of time has been established as an important

area of research within consumer-behavior literature. More specically,
the study of consumer perception of time has become recognized as one
of several key research streams within the broader temporal literature
(Carmon, 1991). Previous research (Bickel, 1984; Fraisse, 1984; Fran-
kenhauser, 1959; Ornstein, 1969; Piaget, 1969; Zakay, Nitzan, & Glick-
sohn, 1983) reported a signicant, positive relationship between met-
ronomic tempo (including stimuli such as buzzers, ashing lights, and
a metronome) and perceived duration estimates.
The tempo of a musical passage (musical tempo) is a variable allowing
precise, comparative, quantiable measurement by using a metronome
to monitor the number of beats per minute (BPM). This research seeks
to identify the existence of a signicant relationship between musical
tempo and temporal perception (the difference between perceived and
actual wait duration), thus challenging the ndings of studies indicating Base of text
Psychology & Marketing, Vol. 20(8): 685705 (August 2003)
Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com)
2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. DOI: 10.10002/mar.10092
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that no such relationship exists (Bickel, 1984; Caldwell & Hibbert, 2002; Base of text
Chebat, Gelinas-Chebat, & Filiatrault, 1993; North, Hargreaves, &
Heath, 1998). The internal validity of these studies is in doubt, because
none of them used digital musical technology to isolate the manipulation
of tempo, while maintaining the other musical variables as constants.
By simply using different popular, jazz, or classical music compositions
as stimuli, it is likely that their ndings regarding tempo as the inde-
pendent variable have been confounded by variation in any of the com-
positional elements distinguishing one musical composition as unique
from another (e.g., timbre, harmony, phrasing, dynamics, lyrics).
The only studies conrming a signicant relationship between indi-
vidual musical variables and perceived duration used digital technology
to produce the musical stimuli and isolate the independent variable.
Kellaris and Altsech (1992) identied a signicant relationship between
musical volume and perceived duration, and Kellaris and Kent (1992)
revealed a signicant relationship between harmony (modality) and
perceived duration. Because musical tempo has a more obvious kinship
with temporal perception than either volume or harmony, the existence
of a signicant relationship between musical tempo and temporal per-
ception is proposed.
Kellaris and Mantel (1996) analyzed temporal perception using dis-
crete instrumental extracts that differed in terms of their potential to
induce arousal (highly arousing music was categorized as more complex,
louder, and faster in tempo). In contrast, this experiment isolated mu-
sical tempo variation from other variables (e.g., volume and complexity).
Rather than operating through variation in arousal, this study focused
upon the cognitive resource requirements needed to process additional
data when subjects were exposed to identical musical stimuli played at
faster tempi. In this context, increased density of auditory data was
provided by a fast-tempo treatment (compared to a slow-tempo treat-
ment), because subjects were inevitably exposed to more bars of music.
Memory-based models of temporal perception (e.g., Ornstein, 1969)
have used a storage-size metaphor to suggest that allocation of larger
memory space to an increased data-processing load results in larger
perceived duration estimates. In contrast, proponents of attentional
models (e.g., Frankenhauser, 1959; Hicks, Miller, Gaes, & Bierman,
1977) argued that an increased data-processing load diverts attention
from an internal cognitive timer, resulting in shorter perceived duration
estimates. This study seeks to establish the existence of a positive re-
lationship between increased data load (faster tempo) and temporal per-
ception. This argument supports the theoretical underpinning of the
storage-size model on the basis that it is unlikely that tempo variation
in isolation would be substantive enough to induce cognitive timer dis-
traction. More substantive variations in musical stimuli treatments
(e.g., high-arousal versus low-arousal music, or no music versus music) short
would be more likely to activate and distract a cognitive timer. standard

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Managerial Applications of Research in this Area Base of text
This study acknowledges the need for research into the communicative
capacity of background music used in service environments. Increased
understanding of the relationship between marketing intention and
consumer interpretation of music will facilitate more condent predic-
tion of consumer response to the musical stimuli they are exposed to,
thus reducing managerial dependence upon subjective consumer inter-
pretation and response to music heard in service settings. Studies (e.g.,
Davis & Vollman, 1990) have identied potential costs in terms of cus-
tomer dissatisfaction during lengthy waits to receive a service, but ac-
knowledge the higher operational costs of providing a more rapid ser-
vice. Time is viewed as a signicant component of the total cost of a
transaction (Kellaris & Kent, 1992), making consumers acutely aware
that their time is a valuable and nite resource. Anticipated time costs
are actively considered when making buying decisions (Berry, 1979).
When two customers who value their time differently experience the
same wait duration, they are effectively paying different prices for their
service encounter (Haynes, 1990).
Research has shown that as many as one in four retail customers
remain dissatised with checkout waits (Tom & Lucey, 1995), especially
if waits are longer than expected, and it has been suggested (e.g., Hor-
nik, 1984; Taylor, 1994) that longer perceived waits result in less posi-
tive service evaluation. Consequently, the importance of a more pro-
found understanding of the impact of music upon temporal perception
is apparent for managers of service organizations who frequently rely
upon music as one of the elements helping to alleviate the frustration
and boredom of customers waiting to receive their service offering. This
research focuses specically upon the inuence of the musical tempo
variable, seeking to conrm that temporal perception and affective re-
sponse to waiting can be modied through manipulation of musical
tempo within a service environment.

H1: Mean temporal perception (perceived minus actual wait dura-

tion) will be a positive function of faster background musical
tempo setting.
H2: Positive affective response will be a function of background mu-
sical tempo setting.

The Influence of Liked Music Upon Temporal Perception

Kellaris and Kent (1991) suggested that the more consumers enjoy back-
ground music played during a time period, the longer they perceive the
time period to be. If listeners selectively devote greater attention to liked
music, increased cognitive processing could lead to the perception that short
more happened during the time spent listening to liked music, thus aug- standard

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menting perceived duration (Block, 1990). This argument claims that Base of text
positively valenced music stimulates more thoughts and feelings than
negatively valenced music, and that subsequently longer time estimates
are a function of the larger amount of information processed during the
time period. Hui, Dube, and Chebat (1997) found positively valenced mu-
sic to increase perceived wait duration, rather than serving as a distrac-
tion to reduce it (thus supporting the prediction of the storage-size model
of temporal perception). Kellaris and Kent (1992) reiterated this point by
arguing that liked musical modes promote the illusion that more auditory
information has been encountered and processed. They revealed how ma-
jor key (happy) music produced the longest-duration estimates and the
biggest disparity between actual and perceived time compared to minor
key and atonal modes. In concurrence with Kellaris and Mantel (1994),
they found that the most disliked musical stimulus produced the shortest
average duration estimate.
However, conicting results (e.g., Kellaris & Altsech, 1992) found dis-
liked music to produce longer time estimates than liked music, thus
supporting theories (e.g., Wansink, 1992) claiming that listeners un-
derestimate time durations when they hear music they like. Such con-
tradictory ndings indicate that perceived duration responses to musi-
cal stimuli may not be attributed simply to musical dis/liking.

RESEARCH DESIGN

The methodological design of this research acknowledged the need to

observe the effects of manipulating an individual musical variable while
retaining the rest as constants (Kellaris & Rice, 1993). Unlike studies
that ignored interactive effects between musical variables (e.g., Milli-
man, 1982, 1986), this research focused upon the musical tempo vari-
able in isolation from other variables. It exploited advances in electronic
music technology, allowing reproduction of digital musical data at var-
ious tempi without altering other musical variables. A Yamaha SY77
digital keyboard using MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface)
technology produced original timbres and simulated the authentic
sounds of instruments (e.g., bass guitar and drums) notated in the orig-
inal musical score. Stimuli consisted of fast- and slow-tempo versions of
compositions identical in everything other than tempo, which was dig-
itally modied. One composition was totally original, and the others
were original arrangements of relatively obscure jazz/funk compositions
that would be unfamiliar to the majority of subjects. The intention was
to provide a more neutral musical stimulus than studies using well-
known jazz standard songs (e.g., Caldwell & Hibbert, 2002), pop songs,
or classical music compositions in their entirety. Instrumental compo-
sitions were used in order to circumvent potentially confounding effects short
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generated by subjective responses to the verbalized narrative and im- Base of text
agery of lyrics in different songs.
The service sector examined concerns the scenario in which students
queue to register for undergraduate-degree courses at the start of the
university academic year, participating in a waiting process that is fre-
quently tedious due to the number of different queues and variety of
wait durations. Research in this area is valuable due to the increasingly
competitive nature of the higher-education market. In this context, stu-
dents may be viewed as a discrete segment of fee-paying consumers
waiting to receive a partial component of their entire service. Higher-
education provision differs from most other forms of service provision
in terms of the duration of the entire process (e.g., 3 years for under-
graduates). Nevertheless, comparison with waiting-time management
in other services is appropriate. Various professional services typically
consist of a series of discrete encounters and waiting situations occur-
ring throughout the duration of the relationship (e.g., medical and legal
services). Although their service provision is typically compressed into
a portion of a single day, theme park visitors seeking to experience a
specic attraction can also expect a variety of in-process waits. Annual
registration queuing can thus be categorized as one of numerous in-
process waits expected within the context of an extended service deliv-
ery process. The registration scenario is an encounter that should not
be undervalued, as it is the stage of the process at which monetary
transaction effectively takes place. If a single student is deterred from
registering because of the waiting-period duration, valuable revenue
may be lost forever.
The variation in actual waiting time at different times of the day
provided an opportunity to compare background-music effects upon
waits of different lengths. Having observed and noted the different du-
rations of actual student waiting time (ranging from 4 25 min), the cut-
off point in discriminating between short- and long-waits was set ap-
proximately halfway between the shortest and longest actual wait (i.e.,
15 min). Comparison with subjects perceptions of their waiting-period
duration was made using slow-tempo, fast-tempo, and no-music treat-
ments. Unlike a previous study (North, Hargreaves, & Heath, 1998)
that made students remove their watches before participating as sub-
jects in temporal-perception research, subjects in this study were per-
mitted to retain their watches throughout, thus maintaining a more
natural queue scenario setting. This ensured that they were not alerted
to the importance of the temporal-perception question embedded within
the satisfaction survey they would complete. Students were seated dur-
ing the waiting process. New arrivals took their place in the back row
of a bank of structured seating that facilitated gradual progression to
the front row in a fair and orderly fashion. With the use of an amplier
and speakers to broadcast background music throughout a large room, short
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data were collected from queuing university students over a period of 4 Base of text
days. The overall sample consisted of 335 students broken down into
three cells (106 slow-tempo music, 129 fast-tempo music, and 100 con-
trol-condition no-music subjects).
Previous studies (e.g., Kellaris & Kent, 1992) suggested an inuence
of background musical liking upon temporal-duration estimates. Such
musical liking has been shown to be a function of listener age, because
research (e.g., Yalch & Spangenberg, 1993) has indicated that different
age segments frequently respond differently to the same musical stim-
ulus. The student-registration scenario provided the opportunity to
elicit responses from a large and relatively homogeneous sample in
terms of age. The total duration of the ve compositions at fast-tempo
was 26 min and 49 s; whereas the duration at slow-tempo was 33 min
and 42 s. The total listening duration of the compositions at either tempo
exceeded the maximum actual waiting time (25 min), thus ensuring that
subjects were not exposed to repetitions of the same composition. If ac-
tual waiting times had exceeded the duration of the composition cycle,
awareness of musical repetition could have intensied feelings of ir-
ritation and frustration with the wait, with potentially confounding
implications.
Milliman (1982) suggested specic parameters to dene slow-tempo
(less than 72 BPM) and fast-tempo (greater than 94 BPM) music. How-
ever, his suggestions ignore the possibility that factors such as listening
context, musical genre, compositional intention, and listener demo-
graphics are likely to make such parameters highly subjective. Among
other things, perception and categorization (e.g., as slow- or fast-tempo)
of background music is likely to be a function of listener age, because
many of the student subjects who participated in this experiment will
have brought expectations related to the faster tempi associated with
dance-club culture. In acknowledging the subjective nature of deni-
tions of slow- or fast-tempo music, this research has used identical mu-
sical stimuli that are relatively slower/faster than each other, rather
than being categorized as denitively slow or fast.
The compositions used in this experiment were pretested at a variety
of tempi with the assistance of a music major graduate, and selection of
slow- and fast-tempo for each composition endeavored to retain the mu-
sical integrity of each piece. Slow-tempo versions were within a tempo
band of 104 129 BPM (average 114.2 BPM), whilst fast-tempo versions
were within a band of 130 179 BPM (average 145.4 BPM). Subjects
were not exposed to compositions at their original tempo, only to re-
duced or increased BPM versions of these compositions. Both slow- and
fast-tempo versions were set at an approximately equal distance from
the original tempo set by the composer (in terms of BPM reduction or
augmentation), in order to ensure that subjects familiar with a partic-
ular composition would nd either version displaying a similar level of short
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Table 1. Compositional Tempo Settings in Beats per

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Minute.
Composition Slow Fast
Bullet Train (Ritenour/Watts) 109 142
Brazilian Love Affair (Duke) 109 140
Weekend in LA (Benson) 104 130
Birdland (Zawinul) 129 179
Happy Hour (Oakes) 120 136

incongruity. Details of tempo settings for each composition can be found

in Table 1.
A table of numbers (1 60) was used in order to provide subjects with
a full 60-min span of perceived duration options. Pretests with an open-
ended perceived-duration question indicated the tendency to round up
duration estimates to the nearest multiple of 5 min. The visual impact
of the number table was designed to overcome this problem by encour-
aging more precise responses to the nearest minute. Student arrival and
actual waiting time was monitored without their knowledge. At the cul-
mination of their wait, just prior to taking a seat with a registration
administrator, they were asked to complete a questionnaire.
Previous research (Chebat et al., 1993) argued that retrospective du-
ration estimates produce reliance upon data stored in memory, stressing
the need for further studies of a more simultaneous nature. Conse-
quently, in order to minimize potentially confounding effects that may
arise when subjects are asked to mentally reconstruct events, and infer
their duration from memory (Kellaris & Mantel, 1996), it was intended
that a more concurrent (less retrospective) estimate of perceived dura-
tion could be obtained by recording data before the potentially distract-
ing process of service-provider interaction had taken place. The cover
story provided for questionnaire completion was the need to measure
levels of satisfaction with the registration queuing process.
Questions measuring satisfaction levels were modications of those
used in a previous study into satisfaction levels in fast-food restaurant
queues (Davis, 1991). A question was included to address the impact of
tempo congruity, thus allowing comparison of results with a previous
study by North et al. (1998). Because the importance of measuring and
managing customer expectations of waiting time has been frequently
stressed (e.g., Pruyn & Smidts, 1998; Tom & Lucey, 1995), this study
included a comparative measure of the difference between anticipated
and perceived wait duration. Subjects exposed to the background music
treatments were also asked for their response to the music itself. The
two questions relating to background music were deleted in the version
of the questionnaire provided in the control condition treatment. short
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Base of text

With the use of a 2 (fast-/slow-tempo treatment) 2 (short/long actual

wait band) ANOVA, results (Table 2) revealed a signicant main effect
of musical tempo (F[1,231] 5.20; p .05) upon temporal perception,
thus supporting Hypothesis 1 in conrming temporal perception to be
a positive function of musical tempo setting. Because a signicant in-
teractive effect of musical tempo and actual wait band (F[1,231] 5.78;
p .05) was also revealed, results suggested that actual wait band
moderated the inuence of musical tempo upon temporal perception.
When comparing music (slow and fast tempo combined)/no music treat-
ments, results suggested that presence of background music contracted
temporal perception estimates (F[1,331] 6.06; p .05).

Music Treatment Effects Upon Temporal Perception in

Short/Long Wait Bands
For waits of short (4 15 min) duration, the slow-tempo treatment was
the only treatment in which actual waiting time exceeded perceived
waiting time (Figure 1). Temporal perception differed signicantly for
slow-tempo music compared to fast-tempo music (F[1,161] 27.10, p
.001), thus supporting Hypothesis 1 in conrming perceived wait du-
ration as a positive function of musical tempo setting. Short-wait results
also revealed a signicant difference in temporal perception between
music/no-music treatments (F[1,235] 15.30; p .001), suggesting that
background music contracted temporal perception estimates.
However, the capacity of slow-tempo music to keep mean perceived

Table 2. Main and Interactive Effects of Musical Tempo, Actual Wait Band
(Short or Long), and Musical Presence Upon Temporal Perception (Mean
Perceived Minus Mean Actual Duration Estimates).
ANOVA Results
Dependent Variable Interactive Effect F df p
Temporal perception Musical tempo actual wait 5.78 (1,231) .05
band
Dependent Variable Main Effect F df p
Temporal perception Actual wait band 11.75 (1,331) .005
Temporal perception Musical tempo 5.20 (1,231) .05
Temporal perception Musical presence 6.06 (1,331) .05
Dependent Variable Main Effect Actual Wait F df p
Temporal perception Musical tempo Short 27.10 (1,161) .001
Temporal perception Musical presence Short 15.30 (1,235) .001
Temporal perception Musical tempo Long 0.01 (1,70) 1 short
Temporal perception Musical presence Long 0.35 (1,96) 1
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Base of text

SLOW FAST CONTROL

SHORT 2.13 (7.09 9.22) 3.22 (12.218.99) 6.10 (16.5910.49)
LONG 6.97 (30.02 23.05) 7.24 (29.8722.63) 9.00 (28.6919.69)
Figure 1. Mean temporal perception (perceived minus actual wait scores) with the
use of short (4 15 min) and long (1825 min) actual wait bands.

duration estimates shorter than mean actual waits evaporated in the

transition from short- to long-waits. For waits of long (18 25 min) du-
ration, results revealed no signicant difference in temporal perception
between slow-/fast-tempo treatments (F[1,70] 0.01, p 1), thus pro-
viding no evidence to support Hypothesis 1. Results also revealed no
signicant difference in temporal perception between music/no-music
treatments (F[1,96] 0.35, p 1). Mean perceived wait was substan-
tially in excess of mean actual wait in all long-wait treatments. The
difference between perception and reality was shortest in the slow-
tempo treatment (6.97 min), longer in the fast-tempo treatment (7.24
min), and longest in the no-music treatment (9.00 min). For waits of
long duration, ANOVA and Tukey test results revealed no signicant
difference between the three treatment groups (Table 2) in terms of the
extent to which perceived waiting time exceeded actual waiting time
(F[2,95] 0.17, p 1), thus providing no evidence to support Hypoth-
eses 1 or 5. Mean perceived wait was substantially in excess of mean
actual wait in all long-wait treatments. The difference between percep- short
tion and reality was shortest in the slow-tempo treatment (6.97 min- standard

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utes), longer in the fast tempo treatment (7.24 minutes), and longest Base of text
in the no music treatment (9.00 minutes). However, the capacity of
slow-tempo music to keep mean perceived duration estimates shorter
than mean actual waits evaporated in the transition from short- to
long-waits.

Satisfaction With Wait Duration

Overall satisfaction with waiting times was measured on a 5-item scale
ranging from very dissatised (1) to very satised (5). There was no sig-
nicant interactive effect of musical tempo and actual wait band
(F[1,233] 0.38; p 1), but there were signicant main effects of
musical tempo (F[1,233] 7.36; p .01), and actual wait band
(F[1,233] 116.33; p .001) upon satisfaction. Use of the Mann-Whit-
ney independent samples test showed that slow-tempo music displayed
signicantly higher levels of satisfaction than fast-tempo music for
short-waits (z 1.96, p .05) and long-waits (z 2.24, p .05).
Slow-tempo music also produced signicantly higher levels of satisfac-
tion than the no-music treatment for short-waits (z 3.54, p .001),
whereas the no-music treatment revealed signicantly higher satisfac-
tion levels than the fast-tempo treatment for long-waits (z 3.22,
p .005). The no-music treatment produced the least overall satisfac-
tion for short-waits, but the most overall satisfaction for long-waits. Re-
sults suggested that presence of background music may enhance satis-
faction levels for short-waits, but that it may become obtrusively
counterproductive in terms of satisfaction inducement for longer waits.

Disconfirmation of Wait-Duration Expectations

Disconrmation of wait duration expectations was measured on a 5-
item scale ranging from much longer than I expected (1) to much shorter
than I expected (5). There was no signicant interactive effect of musical
tempo and actual wait band (F[1,233] 0.20; p 1), but there was a
signicant main effect of musical tempo (F[1,233] 11.29; p .005)
upon positive disconrmation of wait duration expectations. Mann-
Whitney results revealed how slow-tempo music displayed signicantly
more positive disconrmation of expectation than fast-tempo music for
short-waits (z 3.00, p .005) and long-waits (z 2.81, p .01).
In other words, comparison of the two tempo treatments revealed that
subjects exposed to the slow-tempo music treatment were signicantly
more likely to report that their wait was shorter than expected. Slow-
tempo music also displayed signicantly more positive disconrmation
of expectation than the no-music treatment for short-waits (z 4.08,
p .001), whereas the no-music treatment revealed signicantly higher
positive disconrmation levels than the fast-tempo treatment for long- short
waits (z 3.25, p .005). standard

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Evaluative (Relaxing/Stressful) Response to the Registration Base of text
Process Waiting Scenario
Subjects evaluated their feelings about the registration process on a
ve-item scale ranging from very relaxing (1) to very stressful (5). There
was no signicant interactive effect of musical tempo and actual wait
band (F[1,230] 0.01; p 1), but there was a signicant main effect of
musical tempo (F[1,230] 8.81; p .005) upon relaxation. Mann-Whit-
ney results revealed how slow-tempo music displayed signicantly
higher levels of relaxation than fast-tempo music for short-waits (z
2.51, p .05) and long-waits (z 2.26, p .05). Slow-tempo music
also produced signicantly higher levels of relaxation than the no-music
treatment for short-waits (z 2.56, p .05), whereas the no-music
treatment revealed signicantly higher relaxation levels than the fast-
tempo treatment for long-waits (z 2.36, p .05).

Affective Response (Satisfaction Levels, Disconfirmation of

Expectations, and Evaluative Response)
Results identify a consistent pattern in terms of satisfaction level, dis-
conrmation of expectations of wait duration, and evaluative response.
In categorizing these measures under the heading of affective response,
MANOVA results revealed no signicant interactive effect of musical
tempo and actual wait band (F[1,227] 0.12; p 1), but there was a
signicant main effect of musical tempo (F[1,227] 5.67; p .005) upon
affective response (see Table 3), thus supporting H2.
There was a signicant main effect of musical tempo upon affective
response for short-waits (F[1,163] 3.67; p .05), as well as for long-
waits (F[1,70] 3.50; p .05), thus supporting H2. Slow-tempo music
thus produced consistently higher levels of positive affective response
compared to fast tempo for short- and long-waits. However, when com-
pared to the no-music treatment, it is interesting to note that presence
of music produced signicantly higher levels of positive affective re-
sponse for short-waits (F[1,236] 4.31; p .01), but signicantly higher
levels of negative affective response for long waits (F[1,95] 3.36;
p .05).
Levels of positive affective response to slow and fast tempo music
treatments decreased relatively proportionately as actual wait duration
increased. However, positive affective response levels revealed only a
modest decline in the transition from short- to long-waits in the no-
music treatment. Positive affect with short-waits was highest with slow-
tempo music, lower with fast-tempo music, and lowest with no music,
whereas positive affect with long-waits was highest with no music, lower
with slow-tempo music, and lowest with fast-tempo music. Background
music produced higher levels of positive affect for short-waits, whereas short
no music produced higher levels of positive affect for longer waits. standard

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Table 3. Affective Response to the Waiting Environment.

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MANOVA Results
Dependent Variable Interactive Effect F df p
Affective response Musical presence actual wait 6.15 (1,325) 0.001
band

MANOVA Results
Dependent Variable Main Effect F df p
Affective response Musical tempo 5.67 (1,227) 0.005
Affective response Actual wait band 18.91 (1,325) 0.001
Affective response Musical presence 0.90 (1,325) 1
Dependent Variable Main Effect Actual Wait F df p
Affective response Musical tempo Short 3.67 (1,163) 0.05
Affective response Musical tempo Long 3.50 (1,70) 0.05
Affective response Musical presence Short 4.31 (1,236) 0.01
Affective responsea Musical presence Long 0.36 (1,95) 0.05

ANOVA Results
Dependent Variable Main Effect F df p
Satisfaction Musical tempo 7.36 (1,233) 0.01
Positive disconrmation Musical tempo 11.29 (1,233) 0.005
Relaxation Musical tempo 8.81 (1,230) 0.005
Mean Affective Response Scores
Waiting Time Satisfaction Levels (1 very dissatised, 5 very satised)
Slow Fast Control
Short wait 4.22 3.86 3.45
Long wait 2.48 1.91 2.81
Disconrmation of Expectations of Wait Duration Length
(1 much longer than expected, 5 much shorter than expected)
Slow Fast Control
Short wait 4.15 3.57 3.22
Long wait 2.29 1.75 2.92
Overall Evaluations of the Registration Process (1 very relaxing, 5 very stressful)
Slow Fast Control
Short wait 2.18 2.58 2.65
Long wait 3.05 3.47 2.92
a Indicates a signicantly negative affective response.

Positive affect was relatively high for short-duration waits with slow-
tempo music, suggesting that affective responses to waiting may reect
perceived wait durations more closely than actual wait durations, be-
cause perceived waiting time was uniquely shorter than actual waiting
time for short-waits with slow-tempo music. The exaggerated movement short
along the scale from positive to negative affect for long-waits using the standard

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slow-tempo treatment reected the equivalent expansion of perceived Base of text
duration estimates that took place. This corresponds with the ndings
of previous research (Hui et al., 1997; Hui, Thakor, & Gill, 1998) that
found perceived wait duration to be a signicant negative function of
overall emotional response to the waiting process.

Background Music Dis/Liking

Subjects were asked to indicate their responses to the background music
on a 5-item scale ranging from very enjoyable (1) to very irritating (5).
Results revealed a signicant interactive effect of musical tempo and
actual wait band (F[1,223] 11.80; p 0.005), a signicant main effect
of wait band (F[1,223] 18.72; p .001), but no signicant main effect
of musical tempo (F[1,223] .21; p 1) upon musical liking. Table 4
demonstrates how subjects became more irritated with slow-tempo mu-
sic as the wait length increased. Although slow-tempo music induced
substantially more positive affective response compared to fast-tempo
music in the short-wait treatment, the more exaggerated movement
along the scale from indifference to irritation for long-waits with the
slow-tempo treatment reected the equivalent expansion of temporal
perception that took place.
Comparison of Figure 1 and Table 4 demonstrates how the music was
more liked than disliked (mean 3) only in the solitary treatment in
which actual wait exceeded perceived wait (slow-tempo/short-wait).
This result could supercially support the ndings of Wansink (1992),
which claimed that listeners underestimate time durations when they
hear liked (or comparatively less disliked) music. However, because
there was no signicant main effect of musical tempo upon musical lik-
ing, it appears that musical liking in a waiting context is a function of
temporal perception, rather than vice versa.
Mann-Whitney results revealed that fast-tempo music was signi-

Table 4. Musical Liking and Tempo Appropriateness.

Mann-Whitney Results
Independent
Variable (Tempo)
Wait Dependent
Length Variable Slow Fast z p
Short Liking 2.94 3.62 3.25 0.05
Long Liking 4.31 3.78 2.00 0.05
Short Appropriateness 1.67 1.73 0.37 1
Long Appropriateness 1.31 1.60 1.85 0.1
(Musical liking is a ve-item scale ranging from 1 very enjoyable to 5 very irritating. Appropriateness
short
of tempo is a three-item scale ranging from 1 too slow to 3 too fast.) standard

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cantly more disliked than slow-tempo music for short-waits (z 3.25, Base of text
p .05). However, preferences reversed for long-waits, because slow-
tempo music became signicantly more disliked than fast-tempo music
(z 2.00, p .05). These results are unique in the sense that the wide
discrepancies in dis/liking in the slow-tempo treatment are for identical
musical stimuli. Musical liking for the same pieces at the same tempo
were inversely related to actual wait band in the slow-tempo treatment.
It is possible that slow-tempo music may have formed a negative psy-
chological association with the slow resolution of the registration pro-
cess service encounter. Slow-tempo and slow process may have become
semantically entangled, resulting in disliking for slow-tempo music in
long-waits.

Appropriateness of the Background Music Tempo

Kellaris and Mantel (1996) argued that incongruent music could result
in more inaccurate estimations of perceived duration, so perceived con-
gruity (appropriateness) of the music at slow- and fast-tempo was mea-
sured to establish that neither version was perceived as substantially
more incongruous than the other. Subjects were asked to indicate the
appropriateness of tempo of the background music on a three-item scale
ranging from too slow (1) to too fast (3). Results revealed no signicant
interactive effect of musical tempo and actual wait band (F[1,207]
1.64; p .5), no signicant main effect of musical tempo (F[1,207]
3.78; p .1), but did reveal a signicant main effect of wait band
(F[1,207] 7.47; p .01) upon musical appropriateness. Results dem-
onstrated a compressed range of responses. In accord with previous re-
search ndings (Dube & Morin, 2001), Mann-Whitney results (Table 4)
revealed no signicant difference in tempo appropriateness for short-
waits (z 0.37, p 1) or long-waits (z 1.85, p .1). Overall, the
music was considered to be increasingly too slow as the actual wait
length increased, with a more pronounced trend in the slow-tempo treat-
ment. This suggests the possibility that long-wait subjects were asso-
ciating the term too slow with speed of queue movement rather than
musical tempo appropriateness.

Experimental Limitations
The use of a convenience sample of undergraduates created limitations
regarding generalizability of the ndings. Before making assumptions
regarding external validity, it is desirable to replicate the study in other
contexts (e.g., restaurants and theme parks), and with differing age
groups. The listening duration of the ve musical compositions margin-
ally exceeded the maximum actual waiting time (25 min) in slow- and
fast-tempo treatments. Although this ensured that subjects in the long- short
wait group were not exposed to irritating repetitions of the same com- standard

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position, it also meant that many subjects in the short-wait groups Base of text
would not hear the same compositions as each other. However, pretests
with a music major graduate conrmed the stylistic homogeneity of the
different compositions within the instrumental jazz/funk genre.
Whereas homogeneity reduced the potentially confounding implications
of hearing different extracts from the compositional cycle, it stressed
the need for future research with different musical genres used as
stimuli.

CONCLUSIONS

The ndings from this experiment are unique in reporting the existence
of a signicant, positive relationship between background musical
tempo and temporal perception (H1). Although the signicance of the
relationship eroded when actual waiting time exceeded 15 min, no pre-
vious study has conrmed the existence of such a relationship for any
duration of actual wait. The slow-tempo (short-wait) treatment was dis-
tinctively the only treatment in which the mean perceived duration es-
timate remained shorter than the mean actual wait. In all other treat-
ments, mean perceived duration expanded well beyond mean actual
wait duration. The restraining inuence of slow-tempo music upon per-
ceived duration estimates was negated as the length of wait became
longer, and the signicance of the relationship eroded as irritation levels
rose in the transition from short- to long-waits.
In methodological terms, the use of digitally produced, original in-
strumental compositions and arrangements allowed much tighter con-
trol over musical stimuli, compared to previous studies that borrowed
well-known jazz, popular, or classical compositions (e.g., Chebat et al.,
1993). The results were consistent with studies nding a signicant,
positive relationship between metronomic tempo and perceived dura-
tion (e.g., Piaget, 1969).
Positive affective response was signicantly enhanced by the use of
slow rather than fast-tempo music (H2), and the signicant relationship
embraced short- and long-wait bands. In addition, each of the factors
comprising positive affective response (satisfaction, positive disconr-
mation of expectations, and relaxation) was signicantly enhanced by
slow rather than fast-tempo music.
Results revealed how temporal perception estimates contracted in the
presence of background music. However, in dividing actual waits into
two bands, the signicance of this relationship existed for short, but not
long waits. Presence of music also produced signicantly higher levels
of positive affective response for short waits, whereas long-waits in-
duced signicantly higher levels of negative affective response, sug-
gesting that music may become a negatively intrusive distraction for short
longer waits. standard

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Although tempo variation is the proposed explanation for the signif- Base of text
icant difference in temporal perception between slow- and fast-tempo
short-wait treatments, Table 4 reveals how the latter is much more dis-
liked than the former. This could suggest the possibility that musical
dis/liking is interacting as a moderating variable in the positive rela-
tionship between musical tempo and temporal perception. However, the
likelihood of such an interaction is diminished because preferences were
reversed for long waits (slow-tempo music became signicantly more
disliked than fast-tempo music) without inducing a correspondingly
negative relationship between musical tempo and temporal perception.
The importance of musical dis/liking in waiting situations has been
underlined by research (North & Hargreaves, 1999) revealing how lik-
ing for background music was correlated negatively with wait irritation,
and positively with waiting period enjoyment. However, whereas their
musical stimuli consisted of different pop music compositions, subjects
in this experiment were responding to exactly the same pieces of music
modied only by tempo. The denition of musical dis/liking thus be-
comes more problematic, and its justication less plausible as a critical
variable moderating the signicant relationship between musical tempo
variation and perceived wait duration. In this context, it could be argued
that musical dis/liking is more synonymous with tempo preference,
although the tempo appropriateness results demonstrate a much
more compressed range of responses than the musical dis/liking results
(Table 4).
Memory-based storage-size models (e.g., Ornstein, 1969) suggest that
perceived duration of a temporal event is greater when subjects are
exposed to stimuli containing larger amounts of data to be cognitively
processed. In contrast, cognitive timer models (e.g., Frankenhauser,
1959) argue that increased information processing load reduces per-
ceived duration estimates. In this study, temporal perception estimates
were signicantly shorter with slow-tempo music (less data), compared
to fast-tempo music (more data). Consequently, the storage-size model
of subjective time estimation appears to provide the explanation for dif-
fering temporal perception responses to musical tempo manipulation.
When compared to a no-music condition, studies (Stratton, 1992;
Zakay, 1989; Zakay & Hornik, 1991) have suggested that music dis-
tracts attention from the passage of time, thus resulting in consumer
perception that the length of wait is shorter than without music, thereby
supporting cognitive timer theories. Because this study also conrmed
the contraction of temporal perception estimates in the presence of back-
ground music, the signicant difference between the music (more data)
treatments and the no-music (less data) treatment supercially appears
to support the cognitive timer model. However, discussion of the inu-
ence of musical presence upon temporal perception (and affective re-
sponse) has inevitably been exploratory in nature. Effects of musical short
presence are bound to be dependent upon the character of the music standard

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itself (e.g. quiet/loud, tonal/atonal music). Consequently, results that Base of text
compare responses to music/no-music treatments used in this study can-
not be assumed to have wider generalizability, but are intended as a
stimulus for future research.

MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS

There is an inadequate quantity of academic research highlighting the

opportunities for commercial advantage that musical communication
can provide for managers, perhaps partially due to the conicting nd-
ings observable in many empirical studies. Consequently, it is impor-
tant to highlight the managerial relevance of the signicant ndings
from this study. Reducing actual waiting time through operational tech-
niques is a desirable option in many service contexts. However, various
practical limitations can impede the reduction of customer objective
waiting time. There are obvious cost implications in reducing queues
through increased staff numbers or technological investment (e.g., au-
tomatic teller machines in banks). In addition, the number of available
checkouts at peak periods in retail outlets will be constrained by phys-
ical space. In order to cope with inevitably unpredictable demand levels,
reducing perceptions of waiting time may be a much more realistic op-
tion. If background musical tempo can be harnessed to create the illu-
sion of a faster checkout process, it could be invaluable to managers in
terms of maintaining customer satisfaction, and could be used to restrict
the negative impact of delays.
Therefore, if background musical tempo can be used to make waiting
time seem shorter (e.g., in restaurants), it may result in fewer dissat-
ised customers. If perceived shopping times can be made to appear
shorter than actual or anticipated shopping times in retail outlets, it
could result in more time being spent in the store, and a greater like-
lihood of unplanned purchases (Kellaris & Mantel, 1996). The use of
slow-tempo music to reduce perceived waiting time and enhance posi-
tive affective response would also benet organizations that supply or
use background music to distract on-hold customers on congested cus-
tomer service telephone lines. However, results from this study suggest
that the presence of background music produces positive affective re-
sponses for short-waits, but negative affective responses for long-waits.
Consequently, in contexts where actual waiting time differs substan-
tively at different times of the day, managers need to identify the tran-
sitional point at which background music will become counterproductive
rather than benecial. From a managerial perspective, a desired out-
come from manipulation of consumers subjective time estimations
would involve a decrease in dissatisfaction levels for customers queuing
in service environments. short
These results emphasize the managerial importance of measuring standard

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perceived waiting times as well as actual waiting times within the ser- Base of text
vice-environment context. Effective management of perceived waiting
time serves to inhibit the potential for customer dissatisfaction, defec-
tion, and negative word of mouth resulting from waiting situations. Ta-
ble 3 reveals that the most favorable affective response ratings (in terms
of satisfaction levels, disconrmation of expectations, and overall eval-
uation of the registration process) are found in the slow-tempo/short-
wait treatment (the only treatment in which actual waiting time ex-
ceeded perceived waiting time).

FUTURE RESEARCH

Because the isolated musical variables of volume (Kellaris & Altsech,

1992) and harmony (Kellaris & Kent, 1992) have signicantly inu-
enced perceived duration estimates in previous studies, the importance
of isolating musical variables from each other has been underlined as
an essential prerequisite for the study of interactive effects. Additional
research is required to explore ways in which the synergistic interaction
of these variables (Oakes, 2000) can be manipulated to consistently cre-
ate the illusion of shorter waiting times for customers. There is a need
to analyze interactive effects of manipulating musical tempo in con-
junction with other musical variables (e.g., timbre, harmony) because
established research (e.g., Milliman, 1982, 1986) has drawn commercial
conclusions about musical tempo effects without acknowledging either
the inevitability of such interaction, or its subsequent affective impli-
cations. Because background music operates interactively with other
service-environment stimuli (Baker, Parasuraman, Grewal, & Voss,
2002), research into temporal perception needs to examine the inter-
active effects of manipulating musical tempo in conjunction with other
variables (e.g., lighting, decor).
Managers should also be aware that techniques designed to inuence
cognitive responses to a waiting situation may not be consistently ef-
fective across different bands of wait duration. The results demonstrate
how the signicant inuence of musical tempo upon temporal percep-
tion for short-waits appears to be negated in the transition to long-waits,
perhaps suggesting that frustration and impatience may override tempo
effects beyond a certain length of wait. Research needs to highlight the
parameters of customers acceptable and unacceptable waiting times
within the specic context of their own organization. For unacceptable
(long) waits, background music may be ineffective, because its mere
presence may convey the illusion of organizational complacency. Studies
need to examine the effects of musical tempo variation within service
contexts likely to display contrasting zones of tolerance (Zeithaml,
Berry, & Parasuraman, 1993) in terms of the level of expected, ade- short
quate, and desired waiting time. standard

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Because subjects in this study were seated during their wait, it would Base of text
be intriguing to replicate the study in an environment in which subjects
were required to stand while waiting. Research also needs to identify
contexts in which it may be appropriate to augment customer estimates
of the time taken to consume a service. If faster-tempo restaurant back-
ground music can make customers feel they have spent longer over their
meal than they actually did, it may be used to increase peak-time table
turnover without making customers feel rushed (Kellaris & Mantel,
1994). Findings from this study indicate that a signicant, positive re-
lationship exists between musical tempo and temporal perception
within a student registration queue context. However, future research
is needed to replicate this study with alternative musical genre stimuli
in alternative service settings.

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